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[ "The old-school way was to actually burn it and see how much heat it produced: a calorie is an actual measure of energy. Nowadays, the food would be blended up and analyzed for the amounts of fat, protein, carbohydrate and alcohol (the stuff you can get energy/calories from), and knowing the amount of calories in each of those by weight, they just calculate how many calories it should have. The advantage here is that they can differentiate between calories your body will use, and calories it won't (like that in fiber: it'll burn, but our bodies don't digest it).", "There are also tools available that measure calories. That's not necessarily how \"they\" determine how many calories are in a packaged or menu item, but it's one way they can get a value on how many calories some foods have. URL_0 ", "To add to the comments about methods: A calorie and a Calorie (food) are not the same. 1 calorie is the amount of energy it takes to raise 1 gram of water by 1 degree celsius at 1 atmosphere of pressure (isn't metric great??). 1 Calorie (big C) is the measurement used in food, and is actually 1000 calories, or 1 kilocalorie, or 1 kcal. Not directly relevant to your question, but still useful to know.", "It's easily estimated by measuring the carbohydrate, protein, and fat contents. Each gram of carbohydrates and protein contains approximately 4 Calories (kilocalories). Each gram of fat contains approximately 9 Calories. You can check the math since the nutrition facts should also include the contents of each of these.", "Woah I have the real question here. If they determine calories by setting food on fire and measuring the heat it produces, can you apply that to anything you could set on fire? Like could you find out the calories of a chair?", "In chemistry, you take a certain amount of the material and burn it inside of a cup that is inside of a larger cup of water. Then you measure how much hotter the water became after you burned it. But for humans it is much more complicated. Variables include - how digestible it is and how it effects your desire to eat more in the future", "I don't know if this is what they still do, but originally you would set it on fire and see how much heat was released by the fire. If you had a thermometer in a glass of water, you could estimate how much energy was produced by the fire by calculating how much water there was and how much the water changed temperature.", "I have to know: does hot food have more calories than cold food? I asked this to a dietician and she got triggered AF.", "To add to what was already said, you can measure the fat and protein contents of a food by blending it and measuring it with an infrared spectrometer, because fat and protein molecules have different absorption spectra, so you can get a somewhat rough approximation of caloric value that way. It isn't as accurate as a bomb calorimeter, but it is a hell of a lot faster and easier.", "All the responses seem to point out how you can measure but in reality a lot is done using known values i.e. Adding together the calories for chicken, lettuce and dressing using standard caloric values for each item. This can result in a error but if you calory counted everything it should average out", "Calories are broken down as such: Carbs 4 kCal/gram Protein: 4kCal/gram and fats have 9 kCal per gram. So they just add up how many grams of carbs/fat/protein are in the food.", "Um how did you get that many calories into a salad?" ]

[ [ "energy or energy density figures are often quoted as \"calories per serving\" or \"kilocalories per 100 g\". A nutritional requirement or consumption is often expressed in calories per day. One gram of fat in food contains nine calories, while a gram of either a carbohydrate or a protein contains approximately four calories. Alcohol in a food contains seven calories per gram. Chemistry In other scientific contexts, the term calorie almost always refers to the small calorie. Even though it is not an SI unit, it is still used in chemistry. For example, the energy released in a chemical reaction per mole", "-33.20992903673323" ], [ "a pressure of 1 atm. For thermochemistry a calorie of 4.184 J is used, but other calories have also been defined, such as the International Steam Table calorie of 4.1868 J. Food energy is measured in large calories or kilocalories, often simply written capitalized as \"Calories\" (= 10³ calories). Atom physics and chemistry In physics and chemistry, it is still common to measure energy on the atomic scale in the non-SI, but convenient, units electronvolts (eV). The Hartree (the atomic unit of energy) is commonly used in calculations. Historically Rydberg units have been used. Spectroscopy In spectroscopy and related", "-32.2657481678616" ], [ "\"dietary calorie\", \"food calorie\" or \"Calorie\" with a capital \"C\"). This is equivalent to a thousand calories (abbreviated \"cal\") or one kilocalorie (kcal). Because food energy is commonly measured in Calories, the energy density of food is commonly called \"caloric density\".\nEnergy density measures the energy released when the food is metabolized by a healthy organism when it ingests the food (see food energy for calculation) and the food is metabolized with oxygen, into waste products such as carbon dioxide and water. Besides alcohol the only sources of food energy are carbohydrates, fats and proteins, which make up ninety percent", "-31.92595890994562" ], [ "and the name sievert instead of joules per kilogram for the unit of dose equivalent H.\" Energy density of food Energy density is the amount of energy per mass or volume of food. The energy density of a food can be determined from the label by dividing the energy per serving (usually in kilojoules or food calories) by the serving size (usually in grams, milliliters or fluid ounces). Energy density is thus expressed in cal/g, kcal/g, J/g, kJ/g, cal/mL, kcal/mL, J/mL, or kJ/mL. The \"calorie\" commonly used in nutritional contexts is the kilocalorie (abbreviated \"Cal\" and sometimes called the", "-31.09300258235089" ], [ "Weights and Measures, in 1948. \nThe alternate spelling calory is archaic. Nutrition In a nutritional context, the kilojoule (kJ) is the SI unit of food energy, although the kilocalorie is still in common use. The word calorie is popularly used with the number of kilocalories of nutritional energy measured. To avoid confusion, it is sometimes written Calorie (with a capital \"C\") to make the distinction, although this is not widely understood (in part because capitalization contravenes the SI rule that the initial letter of a unit name or its derivative shall be lower case in English).\nTo facilitate comparison, specific", "-31.06217089369602" ], [ "practice, for his calculations and numerical estimates - thus quoting energy in ergs (one ten millionth of a Joule), also using calories, and sometimes kilocalories as alternative measures of energy.", "-30.837774580635596" ], [ "Facts panel displayed on all foods, to be effective by July 2018. New to the panel is a requirement to list \"Added sugars\" by weight and as a percent of Daily Value (DV). For vitamins and minerals, the intent of DVs is to indicate how much should be consumed. For added sugars, the guidance is that 100% DV should not be exceeded. 100% DV is defined as 50 grams. For a person consuming 2000 calories a day, 50 grams is equal to 200 calories and thus 10% of total calories—the same guidance as the World Health Organization. To put this", "-30.084383351844735" ], [ "Nutritional value Nutritional value or nutritive value as part of food quality is the measure of a well-balanced ratio of the essential nutrients carbohydrates, fat, protein, minerals, and vitamins in items of food or diet in relation to the nutrient requirements of their consumer. Several nutritional rating systems and nutrition facts label have been invented to be able to rank food in terms of its nutritional value, but absolute scales are open for debate and tend to ignore particular consumer needs.\nOn a biological scale, nutritive value of food may vary for different health conditions (leading to dietary recommendations and particular", "-30.06425353238592" ], [ "Kilocalorie per mole The kilocalorie per mole is a unit to measure an amount of energy per number of molecules, atoms, or other similar particles. It is defined as one kilocalorie of energy (1000 thermochemical gram calories) per one mole of substance, that is, per Avogadro’s number of particles. It is abbreviated \"kcal/mol\" or \"kcal mol⁻¹\". As typically measured, one kcal/mol represents a temperature increase of one degree Celsius in one liter of water (with a mass of 1kg) resulting from the reaction of one mole of reagents.\nIn SI units, one kilocalorie per mole is equal to 4.184 kilojoules per", "-29.107044582488015" ], [ "Glycemic index The glycemic index (GI) (/ɡlaɪˈsiːmɪk/;) is a number from 0 to 100 assigned to a food, with pure glucose arbitrarily given the value of 100, which represents the relative rise in the blood glucose level two hours after consuming that food. The GI of a specific food depends primarily on the quantity and type of carbohydrate it contains; but also is affected by the amount of entrapment of the carbohydrate molecules within the food, the fat and protein content of the food, the amount of organic acids (or their salts) in the food, and whether it is cooked", "-29.00449588848278" ], [ "foods while permitting some flexibility where the discretionary calories are concerned. ReViVer Score Developed by ReViVer, a nutritionally-oriented restaurant in New York City, The ReViVer Score expresses the nutrient density of menu items per calories from a variety of fast food and casual restaurants, based on the amount of ten nutrients; Vitamins A, C, and E, folate, calcium, magnesium, potassium, iron, fiber, and omega-3 fats. A score of 100 indicates that the meal provides at least 100% of the recommended daily intake for all ten nutrients, proportionate to the energy (calorie) content of the meal. The score allows consumers", "-28.87746572335891" ], [ "measures the amount (in grams or milligrams) of sodium in the food. Sodium ratio refers to the amount of sodium per amount of food eaten, usually in grams per kilocalorie, or milligrams per kilocalorie.\nDietary potassium can be measured as the total amount of potassium in the diet (usually in milligrams). It can also be measured in relation to sodium intake as the potassium-sodium ratio, in mg K/mg Na, or mg K/g Na. Only this last measurement shows the effect of dietary potassium as part of the equation; the rest measure only sodium intake, which is less important overall than the", "-28.792536877386738" ], [ "(Directive 90/496, amended), the information (usually in panel format) is most often labelled \"Nutrition Information\" (or equivalent in other EU languages). An example is shown on the right. The panel is optional, but if provided, the prescribed content and format must be followed. It will always give values for a set quantity — 100 g (3.5 oz) or 100 ml (3.5 imp fl oz; 3.4 US fl oz) of the product — and often also for a defined \"serving\", as an option. First will come the energy values, in both kilocalories and kilojoules.\nThen will come a breakdown of constituent elements: usually most or all of protein, carbohydrate, starch, sugar, fat, fibre", "-28.618301823880756" ], [ " In most countries, the labels of industrialized food products are required to indicate the nutritional energy value in (large) calories per serving or per weight. History The calorie was first introduced by Nicolas Clément in lectures during the period of 1819–1824 as a unit of heat energy (the \"large\" calorie, viz. modern kcal). \nIt entered French and English dictionaries between 1841 and 1867. The word comes from Latin calor, meaning 'heat'. The \"small\" calorie (modern cal) was introduced by Pierre Antoine Favre (Chemist) and Johann T. Silbermann (Physicist) in 1852. \nIn 1879, Marcellin Berthelot distinguished between g-calorie", "-28.33709267647646" ], [ "Nutrition analysis Nutrition analysis refers to the process of determining the nutritional content of foods and food products. The process can be performed through a variety of certified methods. Laboratory analysis Traditionally, food companies would send food samples to laboratories for physical testing. \nTypical analysis includes:\nMoisture (water) by loss of mass at 102 °C,\nProtein by analysis of total nitrogen, either by Dumas or Kjeldahl methods,\nTotal fat, traditionally by a solvent extraction, but often now by secondary methods such as NMR,\nCrude ash (total inorganic matter) by combustion at 550C,\nEstimated dietary fibre by various AOAC methods such as 985.29,\nSodium (and thereby", "-28.320596142380964" ], [ "over 1,600 calories, and desserts typically contained over 1,000 calories each.", "-28.257228451460833" ], [ "Food composition data Food composition data (FCD) are detailed sets of information on the nutritionally important components of foods and provide values for energy and nutrients including protein, carbohydrates, fat, vitamins and minerals and for other important food components such as fibre. The data are presented in food composition databases (FCDBs).\nIn the UK, FCD is listed in tables known as The Chemical Composition of Foods, McCance and Widdowson (1940) and in the first edition the authors stated that:\n‘A knowledge of the chemical composition of foods is the first essential in the dietary treatment of disease or in any quantitative study", "-28.009839261489105" ], [ "by nutrient density is a statistical method of comparing foods by the proportion of nutrients in foods. Some such comparisons can be the glycemic index and the Overall Nutritional Quality Index.\nWhen the density is defined in proportion to energy contents, nutrient-dense foods such as fruits and vegetables are the opposite of energy-dense food (also called \"empty calorie\" food), such as alcohol and foods high in added sugar or processed cereals.\n Beyond its use to distinguish different types of food from each other, nutrient density allows comparison to be made for different examples or samples of the same kind of", "-27.83381949066097" ], [ "baseline calorie requirements are precisely determined before the trial: in a two-week laboratory test the rate of carbon dioxide production is measured, allowing to compute the number of burned calories. The subjects are then taught a diet of low-energy density foods, such as vegetables, fruits (especially apples), insoluble fiber and soups. Most subjects reported that they felt hungry for the first few weeks, after which they adjusted to the new diet. Complaints focused on the rigid bookkeeping scheme imposed on them.\nResults were posted to the Clinical Trial website in 2018 with a (paywalled) Lancet article published in 2019. MSN", "-27.826123063568957" ], [ "Cooking weights and measures In recipes, quantities of ingredients may be specified by mass (commonly called weight), by volume, or by count.\nFor most of history, most cookbooks did not specify quantities precisely, instead talking of \"a nice leg of spring lamb\", a \"cupful\" of lentils, a piece of butter \"the size of a walnut\", and \"sufficient\" salt. Informal measurements such as a \"pinch\", a \"drop\", or a \"hint\" (soupçon) continue to be used from time to time. In the US, Fannie Farmer introduced the more exact specification of quantities by volume in her 1896 Boston Cooking-School Cook Book.\nToday, most of", "-27.659074179398885" ], [ "based on the work of Pr. Serge Hercberg from University of Paris 13 Nord.\nWhen compared with others Front-of-Package labels, Nutri-Score emerged as the most efficient in conveying information on the nutritional quality of foods. Calculation A Nutri-score for a particular food item is given in one of five classification letters, with 'A' being a preferable score and 'E' being a detrimental score. The calculation of the score involves only seven different parameters of nutrient information per 100g of food which are usually available on food packagings. High content of fruits and vegetables, fibers, and protein promote a preferable score, while", "-27.65140728786355" ], [ "food energy density of each food item.\nThe proponents of this diet divide food into four categories based on caloric density. The \"featherweight\" foods, less than or equal to 0.8 calories per gram (3.3 kJ/g) which one can eat freely without major concern, the \"lightweight\" foods with a caloric density from 0.8 to 1.5 calories per gram which one should eat in moderation, the \"middleweight\" foods with a caloric density from 1.5 to 3.0 calories per gram which one should eat only while carefully monitoring portion size and the \"heavyweight\" foods from 3 to 9 calories per gram which one should eat", "-27.638761622016318" ], [ "to plan their meal size in advance, and that ad libitum eating is relatively rare. Measurement Early approaches relied on rating scales. More recently, techniques have been developed that quantify expectations very precisely by comparing foods directly on a calorie-for-calorie basis. The first of these used a classical psychophysical approach based on a 'method of constant stimuli'. Participants are shown a fixed 'standard' portion of food and this is compared against a different 'comparison' food. Over a series of trials the size of the comparison food is manipulated and participants are asked to pick the food that is expected to", "-27.540663297477295" ], [ "content of foods is listed on the Nutrition Facts panel as “total carbohydrate”. Some food labels will list specific types of carbohydrate, such as “fiber, sugar, or other carbohydrate”. With carbohydrate counting, the “total carbohydrate” is used as the carbohydrate amount. Carbohydrate counting can be done by either adding up grams of total carbohydrate or adding \"carbohydrate units\". A carbohydrate unit is simply 15 g of carbohydrate. How it is used Carbohydrate counting can be used with or without insulin therapy. Without insulin When carbohydrate counting is used without insulin, it can be used as a tool to manage blood", "-27.28668253356591" ], [ "humans.\nThe results from Atwater’s calorimetry study influenced many areas of American life. Most importantly, the calorimeter was a great influence to the growing awareness of the food calorie as a unit of measure both in terms of consumption and metabolism. Atwater reported on the weight of the calorie as a means to measure the efficiency of a diet. He stated different types of food produced different amounts of energy. He stressed the importance of an inexpensive and efficient diet that included more proteins, beans, and vegetables in place of carbohydrates.\n\"His careful studies of nutrition and those that followed", "-27.24161620408995" ], [ "Sugar packet Statistics A typical sugar packet in the United States contains 2 to 4 grams of sugar. Some sugar packets in countries such as Poland contain 5 to 10 grams of sugar. Sugar packet sizes, shapes, and weights differ by brand, region, and other factors. Because a gram of any carbohydrate contains 4 nutritional calories (also referred to as \"food calories\" or kilo-calories), a typical four gram sugar packet has 16 nutritional calories.\nThe amount of sugar substitute in a packet generally differs from the volume and weight of sugar in a packet. Packets of sugar substitutes typically contain an", "-27.214080825608107" ], [ "is that protein from a variety of plant foods eaten during the course of a day supplies enough of all essential amino acids when caloric requirements are met. Protein per calorie Protein content in foods is often measured in protein per serving rather than protein per calorie. For instance, the USDA lists 6 grams of protein per large whole egg (a 50-gram serving) rather than 84 mg of protein per calorie (71 calories total). For comparison, there are 3 grams of protein in a serving of raw broccoli (91 grams) or 96 mg of protein per calorie (31 calories total).", "-27.151221051899483" ], [ "placed on the lower third of the principal display panel.\n4. Guaranteed Analysis:\nThis lists the percentage of each of the nutrients in the food. The minimum percent of crude protein and crude fat, the maximum percent of crude fiber, and moisture are always required. Note that \"crude\" refers to the analysis method, rather than the quality of the nutrient.\n5. Ingredient Statement:\nIngredients must be listed in order of predominance by weight, on an \"as formulated basis\". The ingredient that makes up the highest percentage of the total weight as it goes into the product is listed first.\n6. Nutritional Adequacy Statement:\nThis is a", "-27.134250089875422" ], [ "for the solubility parameter are (calories per cm³)1/2, or cal1/2 cm-3/2. The SI units are J1/2 m-3/2, equivalent to the pascal1/2. 1 calorie is equal to 4.184 J.\n1 cal1/2 cm-3/2 = (4.184 J)1/2 (0.01 m)-3/2 = 2.045 10³ J1/2 m-3/2 = 2.045 MPa1/2.\nGiven the non-exact nature of the use of δ, it is often sufficient to say that the number in MPa1/2 is twice the number in cal1/2 cm-3/2.\nWhere the units are not given, for example, in older books, it is usually safe to assume the non-SI unit.", "-27.13026979996357" ], [ "system, where packages and measures are generally sold in \"round numbers\"; in a hard metric system, butter might come in a 500 g package). Mandatory nutrition facts labelling (the Nutrition Facts Table) uses metric units for several basic nutrients, although serving sizes can be described in any form of unit (can, cup, quantity, etc.).\nIn restaurants, wine is usually served by the litre, 750 mL (26-imperial-fluid-ounce; 25-US-fluid-ounce) or 500 mL (18-imperial-fluid-ounce; 17-US-fluid-ounce) bottle, but a wine glass is measured in ounces. Similarly, fast food restaurants (e.g. McDonald's Quarter Pounder) often advertise measurements of food and drink in US customary units, but converted to metric", "-27.078990505237016" ], [ "the world prefers metric measurement by weight, though the preference for volume measurements continues among home cooks in the United States (\"almost exclusively\"),, India , Pakistan and the rest of North America. Different ingredients are measured in different ways:\nLiquid ingredients are generally measured by volume worldwide.\nDry bulk ingredients, such as sugar and flour, are measured by weight in most of the world (\"250 g flour\"), and by volume in North America (\"1/2 cup flour\"). Small quantities of salt and spices are generally measured by volume worldwide, as few households have sufficiently precise balances to measure by weight.\nMeats are", "-27.037429354386404" ], [ "compound. For example, 100 g of water is about (100 g)/(18.015 g/mol) = 5.551 mol of water.\nThe mass of one mole of a substance depends not only on its molecular formula, but also on the proportions within the sample of the isotopes of each chemical element present in it. For example, the mass of one mole of calcium-40 is 39.96259098±0.00000022 grams, whereas the mass of one mole of calcium-42 is 41.95861801±0.00000027 grams, and of one mole of calcium with the normal isotopic mix is 40.078±0.004 grams. Molar concentration The molar concentration of a solution of some substance is the number of moles per", "-27.034438503302226" ], [ "considered the gold-standard method to measure RMR. Indirect calorimeters are usually found in laboratory and clinical settings, but technological advancements are bringing RMR measurement to free-living conditions. Use of REE in weight management Long-term weight management is directly proportional to calories absorbed from feeding; nevertheless, myriad non-caloric factors also play biologically significant roles (not covered here) in estimating energy intake. In counting energy expenditure, the use of a resting measurement (RMR) is the most accurate method for estimating the major portion of Total daily energy expenditure (TEE), thereby giving the closest approximations when planning & following a Calorie Intake Plan.", "-27.030070337757934" ], [ "food comparisons, the \"insulin index\" may be more useful. Measurement The glycemic index of a food is defined as the incremental area under the two-hour blood glucose response curve (AUC) following a 12-hour fast and ingestion of a food with a certain quantity of available carbohydrate (usually 50 g). The AUC of the test food is divided by the AUC of the standard (either glucose or white bread, giving two different definitions) and multiplied by 100. The average GI value is calculated from data collected in 10 human subjects. Both the standard and test food must contain an equal amount", "-26.872149327478837" ], [ "sugar and high-fructose corn syrup that are added to food and beverages (particularly convenience food and soft drinks), and by the fructose in fruit juice and vegetable juice. His position is that sugars are not simply empty calories; he rejects the idea that \"a calorie is a calorie.\" \nLustig was a co-author in 2009 of the American Heart Association's guideline on sugar intake, which recommended that women consume no more than 100 calories daily from added sugars and men no more than 150. That year, a 90-minute lecture by Lustig, \"Sugar: The Bitter Truth,\" recorded in May 2009 for University", "-26.584210295113735" ], [ "caloric contents (935%), crude protein (26%), calcium (21%), phosphorus (4%), iron (44 %), ash (32%) and moisture (56%).\"", "-26.568215767401853" ], [ "common multiples are the million barrels per day, MMboed (or MMBOED, MMboepd), used to measure daily production and consumption, and the BBOe (also BBOE) or billion barrels of oil equivalent, representing 10⁹ barrels of oil, used to measure petroleum reserves.\nMetric users may talk of the tonne of oil equivalent (TOE), or more often million TOE (MTOE). Since this is a measurement of weight, any conversion to barrels of oil equivalent depends on the density of the oil in question, as well as the energy content. Typically 1 tonne of oil has a volume of 6.8–7.5 barrels. The United States EIA", "-26.48458855439094" ], [ "calories (78 calories per tablespoon) and is a moderate source of vitamin C and several B vitamins (table). It is composed of 76% carbohydrates, 23% water, 0.4% fat, and negligible protein.\nHaving fructose as its primary sugar, blue-agave syrup (56% fructose) is similar in fructose content to high-fructose corn syrup (55% fructose content), the most common sweetener used in US manufactured beverages. In a tablespoon amount (about 25 ml or grams), blue-agave syrup supplies 78 calories, an amount similar to the value per tablespoon for high-fructose corn syrup (70 calories). Glycemic index Blue-agave syrup has a relatively high sweetness factor", "-26.474164813407697" ], [ "amount in a serving is expressed in milligrams and as a percent of Daily Value (%DV). The weight is for the calcium part of the compound - for example, calcium citrate - in the supplement. For calcium labeling purposes 100% of the Daily Value was 1000 mg, but as of May 2016 it has been revised to 1300 mg. A table of the pre-change adult Daily Values and references for the revision are provided at Reference Daily Intake. Food and supplement companies have until July 2018 to comply with the labeling change.", "-26.369601263781078" ], [ "Nutrient profiling Nutrient profiling, also nutritional profiling, is the science of classifying or ranking foods by their nutritional composition in order to promote health and prevent disease. A common use of nutrient profiling is in the creation of nutritional rating systems to help consumers identify nutritious food.\nA variety of nutrient profile models have been developed by academics, health organizations, national governments and the food industry. The development or selection of a model to use in food policy decisions is important, as different models can lead to different classifications of the same foods.", "-26.287962060712744" ], [ "as rates.\nIn chemistry, mass concentration ratios are usually expressed as weight/volume fractions.\nFor example, a concentration of 3% w/v usually means 3 g of substance in every 100 mL of solution. This cannot be converted to a dimensionless ratio, as in weight/weight or volume/volume fractions. Triangular coordinates The locations of points relative to a triangle with vertices A, B, and C and sides AB, BC, and CA are often expressed in extended ratio form as triangular coordinates.\nIn barycentric coordinates, a point with coordinates α, β, γ is the point upon which a weightless sheet of metal in the shape and size", "-26.27779755042866" ], [ "higher than 10%. Based on a 2012 study on the use of caloric and noncaloric sweeteners in some 85,000 food and beverage products, 74% contain added sugar.", "-26.27608277616673" ], [ "area.\nThe dish is high in calories, with a meal-sized portion containing 2000 Calories (kcal) or more.", "-26.19716895755846" ], [ "Total Diet Study The Total Diet Study is the US FDA´s ongoing annual assessment of U.S. consumers' average dietary intake of about 800 contaminants and nutrients since 1961. Description The Total Diet Study is the US FDA´s ongoing annual assessment of U.S. consumers' average dietary intake of about 800 contaminants and nutrients. To this effort its Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition at College Park, Maryland has been buying, preparing, and analyzing about \"280 kinds of foods and beverages from representative areas of the country, four times a year\".\nTo make estimates as realistic as possible, foods are bought from", "-26.158757562283427" ], [ " Nutrients with a lower absorption, such as fiber or sugar alcohols, lower the energy density of foods as well. A moderate energy density would be 1.6 to 3 calories per gram (7–13 kJ/g); salmon, lean meat, and bread would fall in this category. High-energy foods would have more than three calories per gram and include crackers, cheese, dark chocolate, and peanuts. Fuel Energy density is sometimes useful for comparing fuels. For example, liquid hydrogen fuel has a higher specific energy (energy per unit mass) than gasoline does, but a much lower volumetric energy density. Astrodynamics Specific mechanical energy,", "-26.044051625794964" ], [ "(table). In a 100 gram serving, it supplies 281 kilocalories, while in one tablespoon of 19 grams, it supplies 53 calories (table link). Obesity and metabolic disorders In the 1980s and 1990s some publications cautioned consumption of sucrose and of HFCS. In subsequent interviews, two of the study's authors stated the article was distorted to place emphasis solely on HFCS when the actual issue was the overconsumption of any type of sugar. While fructose absorption and modification by the intestines and liver does differ from glucose initially, the majority of the fructose molecules are converted to glucose or metabolized into", "-26.02689237845334" ], [ "US Food and Drug Administration, the US Department of Agriculture, and the World Health Organization. The algorithm was developed by a scientific advisory panel composed of experts in nutrition and health from Dartmouth College, Harvard University, Tufts University, University of North Carolina and other colleges. Nutripoints Nutripoints is a food rating system founded on placing products on a numerical scale based on their overall nutritional value. This method is based on an analysis of 26 positive factors, such as vitamins, minerals, protein, fiber, and negative factors, such as cholesterol, saturated fat, sugar, sodium, in relation to the calories in the", "-25.964060977525605" ], [ "Diet food Terminology In addition to diet other words or phrases are used to identify and describe these foods including light, zero calorie, low calorie, low fat, no fat and sugar free. In some areas use of these terms may be regulated by law. For example, in the U.S. a product labeled as \"low fat\" must not contain more than 3 grams of fat per serving; and to be labeled \"fat free\" it must contain less than 0.5 grams of fat per serving. Process The process of making a diet version of a food usually requires finding an acceptable low-food-energy", "-25.903091087267967" ], [ "of self-selected portion sizes. Specifically, foods that have high expected satiety and high expected satiation tend to be selected in smaller portions (fewer calories). Therefore, they may be especially suited to diets that are designed to reduce energy intake.\nSome researchers also suggest that expected satiety is an important mediator of energy intake. They argue that within-meal events (immediate post-ingestive feedback, e.g., gastric stretch) play a relatively minor role and that meal size is largely determined by decisions about portion size, before a meal begins. Consistent with this proposition, observational studies show that 'plate cleaning' is extremely common, that humans tend", "-25.83227876102319" ], [ "Indirect calorimetry Indirect calorimetry calculates heat that living organisms produce by measuring either their production of carbon dioxide and nitrogen waste (frequently ammonia in aquatic organisms, or urea in terrestrial ones), or from their consumption of oxygen. Indirect calorimetry is the method by which the type and rate of substrate utilization, and energy metabolism are estimated in vivo starting from gas exchange measurements (carbon dioxide production and oxygen consumption during rest and steady-state exercise). This technique provides unique information, is noninvasive, and can be advantageously combined with other experimental methods to investigate numerous aspects of nutrient assimilation, thermogenesis, the", "-25.796422518556938" ], [ "state agricultural experiment station at [Wesleyan].\" He studied respiration and metabolism in animals and in humans. The calorimeter aided studies in food analysis, dietary evolution, work energy consumption, and digestible foods. It measured the human metabolism balance by analyzing the heat produced and metabolic rate by a person performing certain physical activities. With this machine, the dynamics of metabolism could be quantified and the balance between food intake and energy output could be measured. Atwater applied the first law of thermodynamics to his research: Energy can be transformed (i.e., changed from one form to another), but it can neither be", "-25.750485732860398" ], [ "By extension, the amount concentration is also commonly called the molarity of the substance of interest in the solution. However, as of May 2007, these terms and symbols are not condoned by IUPAC.\nThis quantity should not be confused with the mass concentration, which is the mass of the substance of interest divided by the volume of the solution (about 35 g/L for sodium chloride in ocean water). Amount fraction (moles per mole) Confusingly, the amount concentration, or \"molarity\", should also be distinguished from \"molar concentration\", which should be the number of moles (molecules) of the substance of interest divided", "-25.731618195641204" ], [ "dietary intake. An analysis of the validity of the methods used by the USDA to estimate per capita calorie consumption found that these methods lack validity and the authors of this study recommend that these methods not be used to inform public policy. A systematic review found that only a few studies have measured the accuracy or reliability of dietary assessment methods in schoolchildren. The few studies that have been done found that schoolchildren did not accurately report foods consumed but that they did accurately report total calories consumed. The 2015 Guidelines were based on the Scientific Report of the", "-25.72652929186006" ], [ "as enthalpy of formation and the size of activation barriers. However, its use is being superseded by the SI unit, the joule, and multiples thereof such as the kilojoule. Measurement of energy content of food In the past, a bomb calorimeter was used to determine the energy content of food by burning a sample and measuring a temperature change in the surrounding water. Today, this method is not commonly used in the USA and has been succeeded by calculating the energy content indirectly from adding up the energy provided by energy-containing nutrients of food (such as protein, carbohydrates, and fats).", "-25.703747022897005" ], [ "Report. Description Foods allowed during the program include meat, nuts, seeds, seafood, eggs, vegetables, and fruits. During the Whole30, participants are advised not to count calories or to weigh themselves. After the program is complete, participants are counseled to strategically reintroduce foods outside the endorsed Whole30 list, document the health consequences and culinary value of these additions, and determine if the addition is desired. The program's founders believe that sugar, grains, dairy, alcohol, and legumes affect weight, energy, and stress levels. Losing weight is not a focus of Whole30; calorie-counting and weigh-ins are not allowed. History The program was created", "-25.691352165478747" ], [ "goes to the loaf of his best remaining item and starts eating it in the same way, until all loaves are consumed.\nWe record, for each item, what fraction of that item was eaten by each agent. These fractions define a probability distribution; we draw one of the agents at random according to this distribution, and give him the item.\nAn important parameter to PS is the eating speed of each agent. In the simplest case, when all agents have the same entitlements, it makes sense to let all agents eat in the same speed all the time. However, when agents have", "-25.691244950634427" ], [ "Nutri-score The Nutri-score, also known as the 5-Colour Nutrition label or 5-CNL, is a nutrition label that was selected by the French government in March 2017 to be displayed on food products after it was compared against several labels proposed by industry or retailers. It relies on the computation of a nutrient profiling system derived from the United Kingdom Food Standards Agency nutrient profiling system (FSA score). It's been also recommended by Belgian, Spanish and German authorities as well as the European Commission and the World Health Organization. It was created by Santé Publique France, the French public health agency,", "-25.664718875221297" ], [ "a certain assortment of ingredients called a \"formula\", totaling some definite weight. This is processed so that each small unit of the whole, either a mouthful or a day's feeding, is the same proportion as the original formula. The mixing process is done in the vertical tank. It determines the balanced nutritional quality of the feed.\nAfter the feed is ground and mixed, it passes through a system of particulate screens. From there, only suitable granules pass on to the delivery process, and waste is sent to the charging chute.\nMizer grinder is an electronic kitchen appliance that used to mix and", "-25.652878131353646" ], [ "and thus contributes differently towards the overall score: the \"General Average\" (Taken from the French Moyenne Générale). This weight is determined by the credit hours. For instance math (6hours/week) x 20 (the base grade) = 120 (weight)\nExample: Sample grades: (Maths 13.33/20, English 13.4/20, Biology 8.25/20)\nEnglish: 5 credits × 13.4 = 67 out of possible 100\nMath: 6 credits × 13.33 = 79.98 out of possible 120\nBiology: 2 credits × 8.25 = 16.5 out of possible 40\nTotal points earned = 163.48 out of possible 260\nGeneral Average / Moyenne Générale 12.575\n(Considered a good average, a B+ if not A- US Equivalent since", "-25.64952759420703" ], [ "water. Viticulturists and winemakers can use a refractometer which uses a refractive index to indirectly measure the must weight from the juice of a single grape or they can use a hydrometer in the winery with the juice from several dozen or hundreds of grape berries. Different countries around the world use various scales to measure the must weight of grape juice. In the United States, New Zealand, and parts of Australia it is measured in degrees brix (symbol °Bx); in Germany (wine) it is degrees Oechsle (°Oe); in France and most of Europe the Baumé scale was used until", "-25.61468680346661" ], [ "above terminology) of an item in the CPI is derived from the expenditure on that item as estimated by the Consumer Expenditure Survey. This survey provides data on the average expenditure on selected items, such as white bread, gasoline and so on, that were purchased by the index population during the survey period. In a fixed-weight index such as CPI-U, the implicit quantity of any item used in calculating the index remains the same from month to month.\nA related concept is the relative importance of an item. The relative importance shows the share of total expenditure that would occur if", "-25.59096011368092" ], [ "(modern cal) and kg-calorie (modern kcal). Berthelot also introduced the convention of capitalizing the kg-calorie, as Calorie.\nThe use of the kg-calorie (kcal) for nutrition was introduced to the American public by Wilbur Olin Atwater, a professor at Wesleyan University, in 1887.\nThe modern calorie (cal) was first recognized as a unit of the cm-g-s system (cgs), in 1896,\nalongside the existing cgs unit of energy, the erg, first suggested by Clausius in 1864 (under the name ergon), and officially adopted in 1882.\nThe joule was adopted as equivalent to 10⁷ erg in 1889.\nUse of the calorie was officially deprecated by ninth General Conference on", "-25.578608992349473" ], [ "To achieve this, the meter passes a small, harmless, electric current through the body and measures the resistance, then uses information on the person's weight, height, age, and sex to calculate an approximate value for the person's body fat percentage. The calculation measures the total volume of water in the body (lean tissue and muscle contain a higher percentage of water than fat), and estimates the percentage of fat based on this information. The result can fluctuate several percentage points depending on what has been eaten and how much water has been drunk before the analysis. Before bioelectrical impedance analysis", "-25.4558428444725" ], [ "2019, this approach was updated to show a proportional plate. Instead of specific servings, the plate shows 50% of calories coming from vegetables and fruits, 25% of calories from whole grain foods, and 25% of calories from protein foods.", "-25.449674483781564" ], [ "Test weight Test weight refers to the average weight of a cereal as measured in pounds per bushel (1bu. = 8 gallons or 2150.42 cu. inches). Test weight is an important predictor of milling yield for rice and flour extraction rate for wheat. USDA’s official weight per bushel for the highest grade for major cereals and oilseeds include: wheat and soybeans (60 lbs./bu.); corn, sorghum, and rye (56 lbs./bu.); barley (48 lbs./bu.); oats (32 lbs./bu.); and rice (45 lbs./bu.). When producers deliver grain that is significantly below the official weights the prices are discounted. Official U.S. Grain Standards (developed and", "-25.448372227792788" ], [ "citric acid, acesulfame potassium, caffeine, potassium sorbate (preserves freshness), calcium disodium edta (to protect flavor) \nAll Values per 8 fl.oz\nCalories 0 \nTotal Fat (g) 0 \nSodium (mg) 25 \nPotassium (mg) 37 \nTotal Carbohydrates (g) 0 \nSugars (g) 0 \nProtein (g) 0 \nCaffeine (mg) 25", "-25.441316130447376" ], [ "Energy bar Nutrition Energy in food comes from three sources: fat, protein, and carbohydrates. A typical energy bar weighs between 45 and 80 g and is likely to supply about 200–300 Cal (840–1,300 kJ), 3–9 g of fat, 7–15 g of protein, and 20–40 g of carbohydrates.\nIn order to provide energy quickly, most of the carbohydrates are various types of sugars like fructose, glucose, maltodextrin and others in various ratios, combined with complex carbohydrate sources like oats and barley. Proteins come mostly in the form of fast digesting whey protein. Energy bars generally don't contain sugar alcohols, since these", "-25.39622015855275" ], [ "and refers to the amount of energy it takes the body to digest, absorb, and metabolize nutrients in the diet. The amount of energy expended while processing food differs by individual but on average it amounts to about 10% the number of calories consumed during a given time period. Processing proteins and carbohydrates has more of a thermogenic effect than does processing fats. Genetics Genetics play an important role in weight management and contribute to a person's risk of becoming obese. In fact, several genes have been found to be associated with elevated Body Mass Index (BMI) and obesity. That", "-25.352795733255334" ], [ "Serving size A serving size or portion size is the amount of a food or drink that is generally served. \nA distinction is made between a portion size as determined by an external agent, such as a food manufacturer, chef, or restaurant, and a 'self selected portion size' in which an individual has control over the portion in a meal or snack. Self-selected portion size is determined by several factors such as the palatability of a food and the extent to which it is expected to reduce hunger and to generate fullness (see expected satiety). Measurement Bulk products, such as", "-25.26748561921704" ], [ "intake of a chemical for an individual with the average diet for the selected population. A diet can be specified based on selecting core foods then that diet can be matched with residue data and used to estimate exposure. Dietary Exposure Evaluation Model (DEEM) DEEM is a computer based model developed by Novigen Sciences, Inc. that estimates dietary intake of chemical residues and provides output including dietary exposure estimates for different time ranges for populations or for individuals. This model converts food consumed to raw agricultural commodities using the USDA-EPA Food Commodity Intake Database recipes. DEEM utilizes Monte Carlo analysis", "-25.245343602361572" ], [ "is the reciprocal of mole; that is, NA = 6.02214076×10²³ mol⁻¹.\nThe value of the Avogadro constant was chosen so that the mass of one mole of a chemical compound, in grams, is numerically equal (for all practical purposes) to the average mass of one molecule of the compound, in daltons (universal atomic mass units); one dalton being of the mass of one carbon-12 atom, which is approximately the mass of one nucleon (proton or neutron). For example, the average mass of one molecule of water is about 18.0153 daltons, and one mole of water (N molecules) is about 18.0153 grams. Thus,", "-25.23848023755272" ], [ "or the amount of a nutrient contained in a food. It provides a quick and easy way to identify foods with specific nutritional features of interest. Examples of nutrition claims are \"low in sodium\" sodium free\" and \"100 Calories per serving.\"\nHealth claims is any representation in labeling or advertising that states, suggests, or implies that a relationship exists between consumption of a food or an ingredient in the food and a person's health.\nThere are two categories of health claims: General Health Claims and Specific Health Claims.\nGeneral health Claims: These claims are broad general claims that promote health through healthy eating", "-25.152309452998452" ], [ "generally specified by weight or count worldwide: \"a 2 kg chicken\"; \"four lamb chops\".\nEggs are usually specified by count. Vegetables are usually specified by weight or occasionally by count, despite the inherent imprecision of counts given the variability in the size of vegetables. Approximate units There are a variety of approximate units of measures, which are frequently undefined by any official source, or which have had conflicting definitions over time, yet which are commonly used. The measurement units that are most commonly understood to be approximate are the drop, smidgen, pinch, and dash, yet nearly all of the traditional cooking", "-25.118481878889725" ], [ "1.3 Cal/g as opposed to 9.0 Cal/g that produces regular fat. Consuming Simplesse gives the possibility of maintaining the rich texture of the product by avoiding the high calorie intake. Simplesse allows the consumer to feel satiety just as consuming a regular fat.", "-25.089955641538836" ], [ "nutritional quality of carbohydrates. Some simple carbohydrates (e.g. fructose) raise blood glucose slowly, while some complex carbohydrates (starches), especially if processed, raise blood sugar rapidly. The speed of digestion is determined by a variety of factors including which other nutrients are consumed with the carbohydrate, how the food is prepared, individual differences in metabolism, and the chemistry of the carbohydrate.\nThe USDA's Dietary Guidelines for Americans 2010 call for moderate- to high-carbohydrate consumption from a balanced diet that includes six one-ounce servings of grain foods each day, at least half from whole grain sources and the rest from enriched.\nThe glycemic index", "-25.02040895569371" ], [ "instance, students would study different types of sugars and ingredients, consequently creating new and innovative recipes. Topics as specific as measuring \"butter-fat-to-sugar ratio\" content is learned and mastered to ensure perfection. After extensive research and studying on these ingredients, students will head to the lab to produce their gelato and end the day off by testing the outcomes.", "-25.01406607523677" ], [ " An egg contains twice as much protein per serving, but 12 mg less protein per calorie. The ratio of essential amino acids (the quality of protein) is not taken into account. It can be shown that common vegetable sources contain adequate protein, often more protein per calorie than the standard reference, whole raw egg, while other plant sources, particularly fruits contain less. It is recommended that adult humans obtain 10–35% of their calories as protein, or roughly 11–39 mg of protein per cal per day (22–78 g for 2000 cal). A carrot has 23 mg protein per cal or twice", "-25.004444252990652" ], [ "contains no calories, fat, or sugar.\nFruit2o Plus 10 ingredients also include ascorbic acid (vitamin C), niacinamide, vitamin B₆, vitamin B₁₂, calcium pantothenate (vitamin B₅) and biotin (B vitamins), vitamin E acetate, zinc gluconate, magnesium sulfate, sodium selenite, calcium disodium EDTA.", "-24.94020615129557" ], [ "Interval arithmetic Example Take as an example the calculation of body mass index (BMI). The BMI is the body weight in kilograms divided by the square of height in metres. A bathroom scale may have a resolution of one kilogram. We do not know intermediate values – about 79.6 kg or 80.3 kg – but information rounded to the nearest whole number. It is unlikely that when the scale reads 80 kg, someone really weighs exactly 80.0 kg. In normal rounding to the nearest value, the scales showing 80 kg indicates a weight between 79.5 kg and 80.5 kg. The relevant range is that of all", "-24.92152734528645" ], [ "value of a good or service is included in the total output. This avoids an issue often called 'double counting', wherein the total value of a good is included several times in national output, by counting it repeatedly in several stages of production. In the example of meat production, the value of the good from the farm may be $10, then $30 from the butchers, and then $60 from the supermarket. The value that should be included in final national output should be $60, not the sum of all those numbers, $100. The values added at each stage", "-24.898348028073087" ], [ "one to two weeks after planting, when they are 5–13 cm (2–5 in) tall. Nutrition Raw cress is 89% water, 6% carbohydrates (including 1% dietary fiber), 3% protein and less than 1% fat (table). In a 100 gram amount, raw cress supplies 32 calories and numerous nutrients in significant content, including vitamin K (516% of the Daily Value, DV), vitamin C (83% DV) and vitamin A (43% DV). Among dietary minerals, manganese levels are high (26% DV) while several others, including potassium and magnesium, are in moderate content (table). Other uses Garden cress, known as chandrashoor, and the seeds, known as aaliv", "-24.89780651879846" ], [ "depends on which measure of efficiency is considered most important.\nFor example, bubble sort and timsort are both algorithms to sort a list of items from smallest to largest. Bubble sort sorts the list in time proportional to the number of elements squared (, see Big O notation), but only requires a small amount of extra memory which is constant with respect to the length of the list (). Timsort sorts the list in time linearithmic (proportional to a quantity times its logarithm) in the list's length (), but has a space requirement linear in the length of the list ().", "-24.89573076594388" ], [ "contains around 700 kilocalories (2,900 kJ) per 100 grams, or 94 kilocalories (Cal) per tablespoon. This makes mayonnaise a calorically dense food.\nThe nutrient content of mayonnaise (> 50% edible oil, 9–11% salt, 7–10% sugar in the aqueous phase) makes it suitable as a food source for many spoilage organisms. A set of conditions such as pH between 3.6 and 4.0, and low water activity aw of 0.925, restricts the growth of yeasts, a few bacteria and molds. Yeasts of the genus Saccharomyces, Lactobacillus fructivorans, and Zygosaccharomyces bailii are the species responsible for the spoilage of mayonnaise. The characteristics of spoilage caused by", "-24.86516050132923" ], [ "a different value from both the dry and liquid US versions.\nMany of the units are associated with particular goods, so for instance the dry hogshead has been used for sugar and for tobacco, and the peck for apples. There are also special measures for specific goods, such as the cord of wood, the sack, the bale of wool or cotton, the box of fruit, etc.\nBecause it is difficult to measure actual volume and easy to measure mass, many of these units are now also defined as units of mass, specific to each commodity, so a bushel of apples is", "-24.853760725527536" ], [ "atomic weight takes into account the isotopic distribution of the element in a given sample (usually assumed to be \"normal\"). For example, water has a molar mass of 18.0153(3) g/mol, but individual water molecules have molecular masses which range between 18.010 564 6863(15) u (¹H\n₂¹⁶O) and 22.027 7364(9) u (²H\n₂¹⁸O).\nThe distinction between molar mass and molecular mass is important because relative molecular masses can be measured directly by mass spectrometry, often to a precision of a few parts per million. This is accurate enough to directly determine the chemical formula of a molecule. Precision and uncertainties The precision to which a molar mass is known depends", "-24.82958053413313" ], [ "weight can be found, which will always be slightly different from the long-term average. By using standard deviations, a minimum and maximum value can be calculated that the averaged weight will be within some very high percentage of the time (99.9% or more). If it falls outside the range then the production process may need to be corrected. Statistical tests such as these are particularly important when the testing is relatively expensive. For example, if the product needs to be opened and drained and weighed, or if the product was otherwise used up by the test.\nIn experimental science, a theoretical", "-24.814955625864968" ], [ "calculation of total food energy just as though it were a sugar.\nIn the strict sense, \"sugar\" is applied for sweet, soluble carbohydrates, many of which are used in food. Structure Formerly the name \"carbohydrate\" was used in chemistry for any compound with the formula Cₘ (H₂O)ₙ. Following this definition, some chemists considered formaldehyde (CH₂O) to be the simplest carbohydrate, while others claimed that title for glycolaldehyde. Today, the term is generally understood in the biochemistry sense, which excludes compounds with only one or two carbons and includes many biological carbohydrates which deviate from this formula. For example, while the above", "-24.812134002233506" ], [ "to its energy potential. One standard method is the Fischer Assay, which yields a heating value, that is, a measure of caloric output. This is generally considered a good overall measure of usefulness. The Fischer Assay has been modified, standardized, and adapted by the American Petroleum Institute. It does not, however, indicate how much oil could be extracted from the sample. Some processing methods yield considerably more useful product than the Fischer Assay would indicate. The Tosco II method yields over 100% more oil, and the Hytort process yields between 300% to 400% more oil. Size of the resource The", "-24.787630996579537" ], [ "important derived quantity is the amount of substance concentration (also called amount concentration, or substance concentration in clinical chemistry; which is defined as the amount of a specific substance in a sample of a solution (or some other mixture), divided by the volume of the sample. \nThe SI unit of this quantity is the mole (of the substance) per liter (of the solution). Thus, for example, the amount concentration of sodium chloride in ocean water is typically about 0.599 mol/L.\nIt must be noted that the denominator is the volume of the solution, not of the solvent. Thus, for", "-24.7757147140328" ], [ "mass that allows the elemental composition to be determined. For molecules with mass below 200 u, 5 ppm accuracy is often sufficient to uniquely determine the elemental composition. Exact mass The exact mass of an isotopic species (more appropriately, the calculated exact mass) is obtained by summing the masses of the individual isotopes of the molecule. For example, the exact mass of water containing two hydrogen-1 (¹H) and one oxygen-16 (¹⁶O) is 1.0078 + 1.0078 + 15.9949 = 18.0105. The exact mass of heavy water, containing two hydrogen-2 (deuterium or ²H) and one oxygen-16 (¹⁶O) is 2.0141 + 2.0141 +", "-24.760902350302786" ], [ "well as k1,2 and k2,1 for the second step, are also obtained. Obviously, on one hand, obtaining such a wealth of information has a price in terms of the number of experiments that should be performed at different temperatures (at least three, but the exact number depends on the quality of the data and on whether or not ΔCₚ is constant). On the other hand, one is rewarded by a complete knowledge of all parameters, comprising their temperature dependence.", "-24.722299200628186" ], [ "step is to monitor the difference between the expected consumption and the actual measured consumption. One of the tools most commonly used for this is the CUSUM, which is the CUmulative SUM of differences. This consists in first calculating the difference between the expected and actual performances (the best fit line previously identified and the points themselves).\nThe CUSUM can then be plotted against time on a new graph, which then yields more information for the energy efficiency specialist. Variances scattered around zero usually mean that the process is operating normally. Marked variations, increasing or decreasing steadily usually reflect a modification", "-24.68745007942198" ], [ "of the dry weight of food. Therefore, water content is the most important factor in energy density. Carbohydrates provide four calories per gram (17 kJ/g), and proteins offer slightly less at 16kJ/g whereas fat provides nine calories per gram (38 kJ/g), ​2 ¹⁄₄ times as much energy. Fats contain more carbon-carbon and carbon-hydrogen bonds than carbohydrates or proteins and are therefore richer in energy. Foods that derive most of their energy from fat have a much higher energy density than those that derive most of their energy from carbohydrates or proteins, even if the water content is the same.", "-24.684718819858972" ], [ "is the proportion of nutrients in a food relative to its energy content. \nConsidering energy foods as adequate nutrition was first scientifically demonstrated to be false by François Magendie by experiments on dogs and described in his Précis élémentaire de Physiologie. He showed that eating only sugar, olive oil, or butter, each led to the death of his test animals in 30 to 40 days. Impact on other nutrients The 'empty calories' argument is that a diet high in added sugar will reduce consumption of foods that contain essential nutrients. One review reported that for increases in consumption of added", "-24.665724709571805" ], [ "allows users to access online databases and draw from certified ingredients to produce instant nutrition information. Turnkey nutrition analysis services Another emerging trend is the use of nutritional analysis services that do a complete analysis of any recipe by using their proprietary database. Users provide recipes, cooking methods and serving sizes. In turn, the service provides a complete nutritional analysis. Applications In the United States, nutrition information is required on packaged retail foods in the form of nutrition facts panels as a result of food labeling regulations. In recent years, many restaurants have begun posting nutrition information as", "-24.648575214087032" ], [ "Calories (story) Plot summary Set in the Antarctic region of the planet Krishna, \"Calories\" focuses on a long pursuit of two Earthmen, Cuthwin (\"Dinky\") Singer and Earl Okagamut, by a numerous and well-equipped cohort of fanatical soldiers from the Krishnan theocracy of Nichnyamadze. In contrast to their pursuers, Singer and Okagamut are possessed of a minimum of equipment and supplies. The chase tests the endurance of both fugitives and hunters, with the latter slowly but surely overtaking the former.\nIn the end, however, the Krishnans halt and give up the chase, as Okagamut, who is of Inuit heritage, has calculated they", "-24.635457945463713" ], [ "Western diets provide ratios of between 10:1 and 30:1 (i.e., dramatically higher levels of omega−6 than omega−3). The ratios of omega−6 to omega−3 fatty acids in some common vegetable oils are: canola 2:1, hemp 2–3:1, soybean 7:1, olive 3–13:1, sunflower (no omega−3), flax 1:3, cottonseed (almost no omega−3), peanut (no omega−3), grapeseed oil (almost no omega−3) and corn oil 46:1. History Although omega−3 fatty acids have been known as essential to normal growth and health since the 1930s, awareness of their health benefits has dramatically increased since the 1980s.\nOn September 8, 2004, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration gave \"qualified", "-24.631369343274855" ], [ "the abundance measure or the biomass of individuals, these models assume that this quantity is directly proportional to the size of the niche occupied by an organism. One suggestion is that abundance measured as the numbers of individuals, may exhibit lower variances than those using biomass. Thus, some studies using abundance as a proxy for niche allocation may overestimate the evenness of a community. This happens because there is not a clear distinction of the relationship between body size, abundance (ecology), and resource use. Often studies fail to incorporate size structure or biomass estimates into measures of actual", "-24.625305185298203" ], [ "°P value obtained by entry into the appropriate table only represents the amount of dry solids dissolved in the sample if the dry solids are exclusively sucrose. This is seldom the case. Grape juice (must), for example, contains little sucrose but does contain glucose, fructose, acids, and other substances. In such cases, the °Bx value clearly cannot be equated with the sucrose content, but it may represent a good approximation to the total sugar content. For example, an 11.0% by mass D-Glucose (\"grape sugar\") solution measured 10.9 °Bx using a hand held instrument. For these reasons, the sugar content of", "-24.6227859006176" ], [ "and lowfat cottage cheese. Starchy foods, such as potatoes and corn are generally acceptable in controlled amounts, but the quantity of Phe consumed from these foods must be monitored. A food diary is usually kept to record the amount of Phe consumed with each meal, snack, or drink. An \"exchange\" system can be used to calculate the amount of Phe in a food from the protein content identified on a nutritional information label. Lower-protein \"medical food\" substitutes are often used in place of normal bread, pasta, and other grain-based foods, which contain a significant amount of Phe. Many fruits and", "-24.61648629170668" ] ]

[ "Europe is in the center. Since most maps were created in europe (America was not discovered yet, there was an \"europlean cluster\" and an \"asian cluster\" of influence) during history, it became \"common\" in the european (and then american, since it was discovered by europeans) \"tradition\". If you look at japanese or chinese (or russian) maps they are asian-centric for example.", "I'm sure cultural bias has something to do with it, but it's also worth considering what you'd end up with if you did it the other way round: the vast majority of the earth's land mass (and hence population) would be off at the sides of the frame, while the centre would be the mostly empty Pacific Ocean. From an aesthetic standpoint at least this wouldn't be ideal.", "Without being a 3D globe, a 2D map needs to divide a landmass or an vast section of water. We are a land-centric species. We walk on it, we live on it, we spend practically all of our time there. We automatically have more use for a map with congruous land masses. The Pacific Ocean is a vast section of water that can be easily divided from North Pole to South Pole in a fairly straight line. So that is where we cut the globe to make a 2D map.", "It usually depends on where the map was made", "It also makes it easy to show the countries together. By cutting the pacific ocean in half instead of depicting the largest ocean in all its glory, we can focus on what we care about: land.", "In Aus, Australia is roughly in the centre - although what they do is put england on the left so that Greenwich is on the left and the time zones move from left to right.", "0° goes through Europe, making it an ideal central point. Also what other people have mentioned about English cartograprs", "Same reason why maps have North Pole as 'up' and South Pole as 'down'. Maps are given a perspective.", "It's centred on the on a line running through Greenwich called the prime meridian." ]

[ [ "Asia and surrounded by water. A small inset map above the main map explicitly showed for the first time the Americas being east of Asia and separated from Asia by an ocean, as opposed to just placing the Americas on the left end of the map and Asia on the right end. In the accompanying book Cosmographiae Introductio, Waldseemüller noted that the earth is divided into four parts, Europe, Asia, Africa and the fourth part, which he named \"America\" after Amerigo Vespucci's first name. On the map, the word \"America\" was placed on part of South America. The word continent", "-39.60206583805848" ], [ "lines of the projection to add text blocks in those corners. The shape of northern Africa is the same on both maps, that is, it is Ptolemaic with a sharp northwestern corner. The shape of eastern Asia is similar on the two maps, with a huge peninsula jutting southwestward into the Indian Ocean, and Japan is in precisely the same position on the two maps, at the eastern edge. \nMartellus also produced an Insularium Illustratum (\"Illustrated Book of Islands\") of which four manuscripts are extant, plus one draft in Biblioteca Laurentiana. It contains an illustrated description of islands of the", "-39.404689798131585" ], [ "map. The Waldseemüller world map duplicates both eastern Asia and Cipangu, as America and Hispaniola. Waldseemüller in effect devised a map scheme where he could let his reader take his choice between the Columbian and the Ptolemy-Behaim concept: the choice was left open. As George E. Nunn observed, “This was a very plausible way of presenting a problem at the time insoluble”.\nLikewise, on the Jagiellonian Globe, the different scales of longitude running eastward and westward results in a very obvious bilocation of America in the eastern and western hemispheres: in the western hemisphere it lies according to the Ptolemy–Behaim", "-38.641402871813625" ], [ "at the top, since east was the direction of the biblical Garden of Eden. Other well-known world maps of the time such as the Ptolemy map places the north at the top. Fra Mauro was aware of the religious importance of the east, as well as of the Ptolemy map, and felt the need to defend why he changed the orientation in his new world map:\n\"I do not think it derogatory to Ptolemy if I do not follow his Cosmografia, because, to have observed his meridians or parallels or degrees, it would be necessary in respect to the setting", "-38.62672530407144" ], [ "of the word is indeed very ancient, belonging to a period before the world discoveries by the Portuguese. Until then, north was not seen as the magnetic top of the world, East being the normal orientation of a map.\nAlso, in Saami, the cardinal directions were named according to the different parts of the typical tent used by this nomadic people. The door of the tent was traditionally pointed South, in the most sunny direction, and the bottom of the tent would be aligned with the North. Thus the origin of the word pohja in its use as \"north\". Deriving as", "-37.94979325099848" ], [ "visible at all from western North America, southern South America, Hawaii, or New Zealand. The regions from which the transit were visible are shown on the map to the right.", "-37.870757035852876" ], [ "Fairbank and Edwin O. Reischauer, professors of East Asian Studies at Harvard University, wrote (in East Asia: The Great Tradition): \"When Europeans traveled far to the east to reach Cathay, Japan and the Indies, they naturally gave those distant regions the general name 'Far East.' Americans who reached China, Japan and Southeast Asia by sail and steam across the Pacific could, with equal logic, have called that area the 'Far West.' For the people who live in that part of the world, however, it is neither 'East' nor 'West' and certainly not 'Far.' A more generally acceptable term for the", "-37.8428644395899" ], [ "equator. There are extensive notes in Ottoman Turkish around the edges of the map, as well as some interior detail which is mostly inaccurate and fanciful.\nThe Iberian peninsula and the coast of Africa are rendered accurately; as for the Americas, the northern portion of the South American coast is also fairly accurate and positioned correctly with respect to Africa. Much of the Caribbean is also mapped fairly accurately and appears to reflect Columbus's maps of the area. The area representing North America bears almost no resemblance to its real coastline except for one projection which might be Newfoundland; an island", "-37.838045399053954" ], [ "and the direction north by \"left hand.\" In the case of Palestine, these directions correlated with the actual geography of the north-south coast (Sorenson 1985, pp. 38–9). In the language used by the Maya, the word south meant \"on the right hand\" and north meant \"on the left\" (Sorenson 1985, p. 39). One researcher suggested that ancient Maya directions were set 45 degrees different from our own. The Book of Mormon, however, leads us to ask how a colony of ancient Israelites would have coordinated directions outside Palestine. It is important to note that Hebraic scholars disagree with Sorenson's generalized interpretation", "-37.82340584136546" ], [ "Waldseemüller map The Waldseemüller map or Universalis Cosmographia (\"Universal Cosmography\") is a printed wall map of the world by German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller, originally published in April 1507. It is known as the first map to use the name \"America\". The name America is placed on what is now called South America on the main map. As explained in Cosmographiae Introductio, the name was bestowed in honor of the Italian Amerigo Vespucci.\nThe map is drafted on a modification of Ptolemy's second projection, expanded to accommodate the Americas and the high latitudes. A single copy of the map survives, presently housed", "-37.48433432413731" ], [ "at the time insoluble.\"\nAs noted by Nunn, the distance between the meridians on the map is different going eastward and westward from the prime meridian which passes through the Fortunate Isles (Canary Islands). This has the effect of representing the eastern coast of Asia twice: once in accordance with Ptolemy's longitudes to show it as Martin Behaim had done on his 1492 globe; and again in accordance with Columbus' calculation of longitudes to show his and the other Spanish navigators' discoveries across the Western Ocean, which Columbus and his followers considered to be part of India Superior.\nOn his 1516 world", "-37.22302094247425" ], [ "North and South America are generally considered separate continents, and taken together are called America or the Americas in the plural. When conceived as a unitary continent, the form is generally the continent of America in the singular. However, without a clarifying context, singular America in English commonly refers to the United States of America.\nHistorically, in the English-speaking world, the term America used to refer to a single continent until the 1950s (as in Van Loon's Geography of 1937): According to historians Kären Wigen and Martin W. Lewis,\nWhile it might seem surprising to find North and South America still joined", "-37.12327070417814" ], [ "considered them one continent. However, it was still not uncommon for American atlases to treat them as one continent up until World War II. From the 1950s, most U.S. geographers divided the Americas into two continents. With the addition of Antarctica, this made the seven-continent model. However, this division of the Americas never appealed to Latin Americans, who saw their region spanning an América as a single landmass, and there the conception of six continents remains dominant, as it does in scattered other countries.\nSome geographers regard Europe and Asia together as a single continent, dubbed Eurasia. In this model, the", "-36.96779426866124" ], [ "Far West (Taixi) China It was originally used in China as a name denoting parts of Inner Asia and India. The meaning of the term was changed to encompass Europe during the Chinese Ming dynasty. This semantic change is credited to the Italian Jesuit priest Matteo Ricci, who used the Far West as the Asian counterpart to the Eurocentric concept of the Far East. The Jesuits called India the Little West (Chinese: 小西; pinyin: xiǎoxī) and identified their homeland as the Far West or the Great West (Chinese: 大西; pinyin: dàxī).\nIn his essay An Essay on Friendship in Answer to", "-36.909472578364785" ], [ "other nautical charts, the Catalan Atlas is read with the north at the bottom. As a result of this the maps are oriented from left to right, from the Far East to the Atlantic. The first two leaves, forming the oriental portion of the Catalan Atlas, illustrate numerous religious references as well as a synthesis of medieval mappae mundi (Jerusalem located close to the centre) and the travel literature of the time, notably Marco Polo's Book of Marvels and the Travels and Voyage of Sir John Mandeville. Many Indian and Chinese cities can be identified. \"Da Ming Hunyi Tu\" world", "-36.83153371432854" ], [ "Beyond), with a conjectural sea to the west, making these lands apparently a distinct continent. America's (that is, South America's) status as a separate island or a part of Asia, specifically, the peninsula of India Superior upon which Cattigara was situated, is left unresolved. As the question of which of the two alternative concepts was correct had not been resolved at the time, both were represented on the same map. Both extremities of the map represent the eastern extremity of Asia, according to the two alternative theories. As Nunn said, \"This was a very plausible way of presenting a problem", "-36.791673875181004" ], [ "broadly geographic (such as \"West\", \"South\", \"East\", and \"Midwest\"). From 1957 to 1984, the \"Mideast\", roughly corresponding to the Southeastern region of the United States, designation was used. From 1985 to 1997, the Mideast region was known as \"Southeast\" and again changed to \"South\" starting from 1998. The selected names roughly correspond to the location of the four cities hosting the regional finals. From 2004 to 2006, the regions were named after their host cities, e.g. the Phoenix Regional in 2004, the Chicago Regional in 2005, and the Minneapolis Regional in 2006, but reverted to the traditional geographic designations beginning", "-36.60030863864813" ], [ "world followed the North Atlantic Ocean, Equator, South Atlantic Ocean, Southern Ocean, South Atlantic Ocean, Equator, North Atlantic Ocean route in an easterly direction. Wind powered The map on the right shows, in red, a typical, non-competitive, route for a sailing circumnavigation of the world by the trade winds and the Suez and Panama canals; overlaid in yellow are the points antipodal to all points on the route. It can be seen that the route roughly approximates a great circle, and passes through two pairs of antipodal points. This is a route followed by many cruising sailors, going in the", "-36.59050201554783" ], [ "in 1931 as the geographical center of North America. The monument marking the geographic center had to be relocated in 1971 when US 2 was converted from two lanes to four lanes.", "-36.57054016820621" ], [ "South-up map orientation South-up map orientation is the orientation of a map with south up, or at the top of the map, amounting to a 180-degree rotation of the map from the standard convention of north-up. Maps in this orientation are sometimes called upside down maps or reversed maps.\nOther maps with non-standard orientation include T and O maps, polar maps, and Dymaxion maps. Psychological significance Research suggests that north-south positions on maps have psychological consequences. In general, north is associated with richer people, more expensive real estate, and higher altitude, while south is associated with poorer people, cheaper prices,", "-36.51078700850485" ], [ "East Africa. European maps of Asia would become much more accurate during the European Age of Discovery, starting in the 15th century.\n\nModern maps of Asia make use of digitization, photographic surveys, and satellite imagery. Antiquity Babylon in Southwest Asia is at the center of the very earliest world maps, beginning with the Babylonian world map in the 6th century BCE; it is a clay tablet 'localized' world map of Babylon, rivers, encircling ocean, and terrain, surrounded by 'islands' in a 7-star format. In classical Greek geography, \"Asia\" is one of three major landmasses, besides Europe and Libya. Asia is given", "-36.245984125707764" ], [ "as one of the trading centres. Ptolemy's account of India suffers from the confusion due to his mistaken idea of the Indian coast stretching (according to him) east and west instead of north and south. In his division of Ariake, i.e, the Maratha country, he refers to Sadan's Ariake (a word of doubtful meaning) or the north Konkan and Pirate Ariake or the south Konkan. He mentions three places in Kolaba; the cape and mart of Symulla (i.e, Ceul), Hippokura, south of Symulla and Balepatna not far from Hippokura. These three can be identified respectively with the south point of", "-36.234238257980905" ], [ "and the border between Asia and Africa at the isthmus between the Red Sea and the mouth of Lake Bardawil on the Mediterranean Sea.\nThrough the Roman period and the Middle Ages, a few writers took the Isthmus of Suez as the boundary between Asia and Africa, but most writers continued to consider it the Nile or the western border of Egypt (Gibbon). In the Middle Ages, the world was usually portrayed on T and O maps, with the T representing the waters dividing the three continents. By the middle of the 18th century, \"the fashion of dividing Asia and Africa", "-36.2263934451621" ], [ "Americae Sive Quartae Orbis Partis Nova Et Exactissima Descriptio Americae Sive Quartae Orbis Partis Nova Et Exactissima Descriptio (Latin: A New and Most Exact Description of America or The Fourth Part of the World) is an ornate geographical map of the Americas, made in 1562 by Spanish cartographer Diego Gutiérrez and Flemish artist Hieronymus Cock. The map encompasses the eastern coast of North America, the entire Central and South America and parts of the western coasts of Europe and Africa. Americae Sive Quartae Orbis Partis Nova Et Exactissima Descriptio is the earliest scale wall map of the New World and", "-36.119046551059" ], [ "Continental Europe are not signed with directional banners (east, west, north, and south). The motorist accordingly needs to rely on the combination of the control city and the route number as navigation tools. Possibly as a result of this, control cities (however they are called) tend to feature rather prominently on the route signs of European countries when compared to signage in North America. Routes tend to feature more signs that contain information for the route forward and those signs often contain a larger number of focal points.\nIn this context, and bearing in mind that in Europe every country has", "-36.10512441024184" ], [ "is conventional, with its south-east projected, after the manner of Idrisi, so as to face Indian Asia, and with a western Nile traversing the continent to the Atlantic. Chinese and Indian Asia show little trace of the new knowledge which had been imparted by European pioneers from the Polos' time, and which appears so strikingly in the Catalan Atlas of 1375. Sanuto's Palestine map is remarkable for its space-defining network of lines, which roughly answer to a kind of scheme of latitude and longitude, though properly speaking they are not scientific at all. Of the Secreta, twenty-three MSS. exist, of", "-36.05995978816645" ], [ "directions can become complicated, with all geographic north–south lines converging at the poles. The difference between UPS grid north and true north can therefore be anything up to 180°—in some places, grid north is true south, and vice versa. UPS grid north is arbitrarily defined as being along the prime meridian in the Antarctic and the 180th meridian in the Arctic; thus, east and west on the grids when moving directly away from the pole are along the 90°E and 90°W meridians respectively. Projection system As the name indicates, the UPS system uses a stereographic projection. Specifically, the projection used", "-35.95170257013524" ], [ "Cartography of Asia The cartography of Asia can refer to the representation of Asia on a map, or to depictions of the world by cartographers from Asia. Depictions of portions of Asia have existed on maps as early as the 6th century BCE, with maps being drafted to depict the Babylonian, Hellenistic Greek, and Han dynasty empires.\nDuring the Middle Ages, Muslim geographers drew maps with more accurate depictions of Southern, Western, and Central Asia, and European maps began to more frequently represent Asia's landmass. Chinese geography from this period includes more detailed portrayals of the Indian Ocean, Arabian Peninsula, and", "-35.93397104059113" ], [ "simply \"Post Road\", it gradually gains latitude from west to east. Thus U.S. 1 west is officially designated \"South\" and east is \"North\".\nThough contiguous, U.S.1 changes name by locality. In Greenwich it is Putnam Avenue. In Stamford it becomes Main Street or Tresser Boulevard. In Darien it is Boston Post Road or \"the Post Road\". In Norwalk it is Connecticut Avenue in the west, Van Zant St, Cross St, and North Av in the center, and Westport Avenue in the east. In Westport, it is Post Road West from the Norwalk town line until the Saugatuck River and then", "-35.867627802887" ], [ "times there is a clear distinction between First and Third Worlds. When talking about the Global North and the Global South, the majority of the time the two go hand in hand. People refer to the two as \"Third World/South\" and \"First World/North\" because the Global North is more affluent and developed, whereas the Global South is less developed and often poorer. \nTo counter this mode of thought, some scholars began proposing the idea of a change in world dynamics that began in the late 1980s, and termed it the Great Convergence. As Jack A. Goldstone and his colleagues put", "-35.76617334294133" ], [ "by German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller in April 1507, is the first map of the Americas in which the name \"America\" is mentioned. Before this, the Native Americans referred to their land depending on their location, with one of the more commonly used terms being \"Abya Yala\", meaning \"land of vital blood\". These indigenous geographical discourses were largely ignored or appropriated by the European colonialists to make way for European thought.\nThe Eurocentric map was patterned after a modification of Ptolemy's second projection but expanded to include the Americas. The Waldseemuller Map has been called \"America's birth certificate\" Waldseemüller also created printed", "-35.660504396480974" ], [ "the act of the Sun falling behind the horizon. In Hebrew, the word for east is 'מזרח', which derives from the word for rising, and the word for west is 'מערב', which derives from the word for setting. Historical view The 16th-century astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus was the first to present to the world a detailed and eventually widely accepted mathematical model supporting the premise that the Earth is moving and the Sun actually stays still, despite the impression from our point of view of a moving Sun. Planets Sunsets on other planets appear different because of differences in the distance", "-35.65439800696913" ], [ "in favour of standard routes. National Routes and Highways In 1955, the Australian National Route Numbering System was introduced to simplify navigation across Australia. The National Route Numbers are marked by white shields that are present in directional signs, distance signs or trailblazers. The general rule was that odd-numbered highways travel in north-south directions and even-numbered highways in east-west directions, with only a few exceptions. National Route 1 was assigned to a network of highways and roads, which together linked all capital cities and coastal towns circumnavigating the mainland. The National Route system initially linked the centres of towns and", "-35.608455094419696" ], [ "East East is one of the four cardinal directions or points of the compass. It is the opposite direction from west. Etymology The word east comes from Middle English est, from Old English ēast, which itself comes from the Proto-Germanic *aus-to- or *austra- \"east, toward the sunrise\", from Proto-Indo-European *aus- \"to shine,\" or \"dawn\". This is similar to Old High German *ōstar \"to the east\", Latin aurora \"dawn\", and Greek ēōs ἠώς. Ēostre, a Germanic goddess of dawn, might have been a personification of both dawn and the cardinal points. Navigation By convention, the right hand side of a map", "-35.55139495257754" ], [ "the compass rose. This would take a little longer to work itself through. Biblical In the Hebrew Bible, there is frequent reference to four cardinal directions. The names of the directions seem to be associated with physical landmarks for the ancient Israelites living in the region of Judea, e.g. East is referred to as kedem, which may derive from \"edom\" (\"red\"), and may be a reference to the color of the rising dawn, or the red sandstone cliffs of the Land of Edom to the east; North is referred to as saphon, from Mount Zaphon on the northern edge", "-35.47154806996696" ], [ "west (Varuna), northwest (Vayu), north (Kubera/Heaven) and northeast (Ishana/Shiva). North is associated with the Himalayas and heaven while the south is associated with the underworld or land of the fathers (Pitr loka). The directions are named by adding \"disha\" to the names of each god or entity: e.g. Indradisha (direction of Indra) or Pitrdisha (direction of the forefathers i.e. south).\nThe Hopi language and the Tewa dialect spoken by the Arizona Tewa have proper names for the solstitial directions, which are approximately intercardinal, rather than for the cardinal directions. Non-compass directional systems Use of the compass directions is common and deeply", "-35.44424397993134" ], [ "the world, as depicted by red lines on the world map below. At times the paths of his tour would cross, bringing him to various points of interest more than once. The cylindrical map represents the known world, excluding Arctic and Antarctic regions, 50th-90th latitudes South, and 70th-90th latitudes North, using names for countries existing in 1879. Route of tour begins in Philadelphia and proceeds east crossing the Atlantic. Aftermath The world tour demonstrated to much of the world that the United States was an emerging world power. Grant's journalist companion and fellow traveler, John Russell Young, upon their return", "-35.43751268347842" ], [ "15th century. Instead, \"north\" and \"south\" were septentrion and meridion respectively (both virtually obsolete in Modern Spanish), while \"east\" was oriente (or levante), and \"west\" was occidente (or poniente). These older words for \"east\" and \"west\" continue to have some use in Modern Spanish.\nIn 711 Spain was invaded by Moors, who brought the Arabic language to the Peninsula. From then until the fall of the Emirate of Granada (1492), Spanish borrowed words from Arabic, such as alcalde \"mayor\", álgebra \"algebra\", and zanahoria \"carrot\". It is thought that the bilingualism of the Mozarabs facilitated the transfer of vocabulary from Arabic to", "-35.35467766819056" ], [ "general direction towards which the Sun appears to constantly progress and eventually set.\nIn a map with north at the top, west is on the left. (This is not true on the planet Venus, which rotates in the opposite direction from the Earth. Thus in a map of Venus, west is on the right.)\nMoving continuously west is following a circle of latitude. Weather Due to the direction of the Earth's rotation, the prevailing wind in many places is from the west. Cultural The phrase \"the West\" is often spoken in reference to the Western world, which includes the European Union (also", "-35.26898151493515" ], [ "inhabited by more numerous people and animals than our Europe, or Asia or Africa\", the first known explicit identification of part of the Americas as a continent like the other three.\nWithin a few years, the name \"New World\" began appearing as a name for South America on world maps, such as the Oliveriana (Pesaro) map of around 1504–1505. Maps of this time though, still showed North America connected to Asia and showed South America as a separate land.\nIn 1507 Martin Waldseemüller published a world map, Universalis Cosmographia, which was the first to show North and South America as separate from", "-35.255621443968266" ], [ "opposite or eastern sky after the Sun has set during twilight. Depending on weather conditions and the types of clouds present, these colors have a wide spectrum, and can produce unusual results. Names of compass points In some languages, points of the compass bear names etymologically derived from words for sunrise and sunset. The English words \"orient\" and \"occident\", meaning \"east\" and \"west\", respectively, are descended from Latin words meaning \"sunrise\" and \"sunset\". The word \"levant\", related e.g. to French \"(se) lever\" meaning \"lift\" or \"rise\" (and also to English \"elevate\"), is also used to describe the east. In Polish,", "-35.255619325092994" ], [ "the approaches to India.\" After the series ended in 1903, The Times removed quotation marks from subsequent uses of the term.\nUntil World War II, it was customary to refer to areas centered around Turkey and the eastern shore of the Mediterranean as the \"Near East\", while the \"Far East\" centered on China, and the Middle East then meant the area from Mesopotamia to Burma, namely the area between the Near East and the Far East. In the late 1930s, the British established the Middle East Command, which was based in Cairo, for its military forces in the region. After that", "-35.17836194834672" ], [ "although not at the exact center of the map. The three continents are rather clearly represented, and labeled \"Europa\", \"Africa\" and \"Axia\". The Indian Ocean contains many colored islands, in a style reminiscent of Arab maps. Atlantic Ocean The Canaries and the Azores are depicted, showing an influence by Genoese and Catalan nautical maps. Africa Africa contains depictions of the Atlas mountains and the Nile river, with mention of the territory of Prester John (\"Pre. Joanes\") in Ethiopia.\nThe Garden of Eden is depicted at the southernmost tip of Africa with the symbol of two concentric rings, from which emerge the", "-35.17247381449852" ], [ "the north and west, and Africa to the south. The boundaries between the continents were not fixed. Early on, Europe–Asia boundary was taken to run from the Black Sea along the Rioni River (known then as the Phasis) in Georgia. Later it was viewed as running from the Black Sea through Kerch Strait, the Sea of Azov and along the Don River (known then as the Tanais) in Russia. The boundary between Asia and Africa was generally taken to be the Nile River. Herodotus in the 5th century BC, however, objected to the unity of Egypt being split into Asia", "-35.13100853562355" ], [ "south is 180°, and west is 270°. These numbers allow the compass to show magnetic North azimuths or true North azimuths or bearings, which are commonly stated in this notation. If magnetic declination between the magnetic North and true North at latitude angle and longitude angle is known, then direction of magnetic North also gives direction of true North.\nAmong the Four Great Inventions, the magnetic compass was first invented as a device for divination as early as the Chinese Han Dynasty (since c. 206 BC), and later adopted for navigation by the Song Dynasty Chinese during the 11th century.", "-35.04146367055364" ], [ "rather than between North America and South America. Early concepts of the Old World continents The term \"continent\" translates Greek ἤπειρος, properly \"landmass, terra firma\", the proper name of Epirus and later especially used of Asia (i.e. Asia Minor),\nThe first distinction between continents was made by ancient Greek mariners who gave the names Europe and Asia to the lands on either side of the waterways of the Aegean Sea, the Dardanelles strait, the Sea of Marmara, the Bosporus strait and the Black Sea. The names were first applied just to lands near the coast and only later extended", "-35.02958606003085" ], [ "have had second thoughts about the name, probably due to contemporary protests about Vespucci’s role in the discovery and naming of America, or just carefully waiting for the official discovery of the whole northwestern coast of what is now called North America, as separated from East Asia. In his reworking of the Ptolemy atlas, the continent is labelled simply Terra Incognita (unknown land). Despite the revision, 1,000 copies of the world maps had since been distributed, and the original suggestion took hold. While North America was still called Indies in documents for some time, it was eventually called America as", "-34.91982972784899" ], [ "North America at the man-made Panama Canal. Islands generally associated with North America include Greenland, the world's largest island, and archipelagos and islands in the Caribbean. The terminology of the Americas is complex, but \"Anglo-America\" can describe Canada and the U.S., while \"Latin America\" comprises Mexico and the countries of Central America and the Caribbean, as well as the entire continent of South America.\nNatural features of North America include the northern portion of the American Cordillera, represented by the geologically new Rocky Mountains in the west; and the considerably older Appalachian Mountains to the east. The north hosts", "-34.86719456606079" ], [ "a unitary continent, the form is generally the continent of America in the singular. However, without a clarifying context, singular America in English commonly refers to the United States of America.\nHistorically, in the English-speaking world, the term America used to refer to a single continent until the 1950s (as in Van Loon's Geography of 1937): According to historians Kären Wigen and Martin W. Lewis,\nWhile it might seem surprising to find North and South America still joined into a single continent in a book published in the United States in 1937, such a notion remained fairly common until World War II.", "-34.822027928894386" ], [ "higher resolution in Hellenistic geography, in particular on Ptolemy world map. Cartography of India begins with early charts for navigation and constructional plans for buildings. Chinese geography from the 2nd century BC (Han dynasty) becomes aware of Turkestan, where Hellenistic Greek and Han Chinese spheres of influence overlap. Middle Ages In medieval T and O maps, Asia makes for half the world's landmass, with Africa and Europe accounting for a quarter each. With the High Middle Ages, Southwest and Central Asia receive better resolution in Muslim geography, and the 11th century map by Mahmud al-Kashgari is the first world map", "-34.81583837495418" ], [ "a merchant, or a native. Geographers consult them but they do not write geography unless they happen to be both.\nPtolemy was a geographer of the middle Roman Empire, an Egyptian. The idea of the continents preceded the imperial Romans but through them reached to modern time to determine today's geographic views, which are enhancements and refinements of the classical. Stating that \"continents are bounded more properly, when it is possible, by seas than by rivers,\" Ptolemy defines a three-continent system: Europe, Libya, Asia. His Libya is the North Africa of today, containing a province, Africa, whose name replaced Libya. Rejecting", "-34.77463753288612" ], [ "with his army who recorded their observations as they moved east.\nThe ancient Greeks divided the world into three continents, Europe, Asia, and Libya (Africa). The Hellespont formed the border between Europe and Asia. The border between Asia and Libya was generally considered to be the Nile river, but some geographers, such as Herodotus objected to this. Herodotus argued that there was no difference between the people on the east and west sides of the Nile, and that the Red Sea was a better border. The relatively narrow habitable band was considered to run from the Atlantic Ocean in the west", "-34.76135199028067" ], [ "to the 1st century AD, appears to extend geographical knowledge further south, to Southeast Africa. Ptolemy's world map of the 2nd century is well aware that the African continent extents significantly further south than the Horn of Africa, but has no geographic detail south of the equator (it is unclear whether it is aware of the Gulf of Guinea). Arab slave trade In the medieval period, the exploration of the interior of the Sahara and the Sahel as well as along the Swahili coast as far as Mozambique was the project of Muslim conquests and slave trade. It", "-34.69882555279764" ], [ "knew that there was a vast ocean to the west, and the Chinese knew that there was one to the east. Learned Europeans thought that the world was round and that the two oceans were one. In 1492 Columbus sailed west to what he thought was Asia. When Pedro Álvares Cabral, en route to Asia via the Atlantic and the Indian oceans, reached Brazil, in 1500, the true extent of the Americas began to become known. The Martin Waldseemüller map of 1507 was the first to show the Americas separating two distinct oceans. This guess was confirmed in 1513 when", "-34.698301201540744" ], [ "\nConceptually, the boundary between east and west is cultural, rather than geographical, as a result of which Australia is typically grouped in the \nWest, while Islamic nations and much of the former Soviet Union are, regardless of location, grouped in the East. Other than Asia and some parts of Africa, Europe has successfully absorbed almost all of the societies of Oceania, and the Americas into the Western world, Turkey, the Philippines,\nIsrael, and Japan, which are geographically located in the Eastern world, are considered at least partially westernized due to the cultural influence of Europe.\nIn some cases, the definition may be", "-34.684699527104385" ], [ "tradition of Ptolemy. Ptolemy’s information was thereby misinterpreted so that the coast of China, which should have been represented as part of the coast of eastern Asia, was falsely made to represent an eastern shore of the Indian Ocean. As a result, Ptolemy implied more land east of the 180th meridian and an ocean beyond. Marco Polo’s account of his travels in eastern Asia described lands and seaports on an eastern ocean apparently unknown to Ptolemy. Marco Polo’s narrative authorized the extensive additions to the Ptolemaic map shown on the 1492 globe of Martin Behaim. The fact that Ptolemy did", "-34.55894025065936" ], [ "as \"the area lying between and including Libya on the west and Pakistan on the east, Syria and Iraq on the North and the Arabian peninsula to the south, plus the Sudan and Ethiopia.\" In 1958, the State Department explained that the terms \"Near East\" and \"Middle East\" were interchangeable, and defined the region as including only Egypt, Syria, Israel, Lebanon, Jordan, Iraq, Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Bahrain, and Qatar.\nThe Associated Press Stylebook says that Near East formerly referred to the farther west countries while Middle East referred to the eastern ones, but that now they are synonymous. It instructs:\nUse Middle", "-34.5473800401669" ], [ "Far East Popularization Prior to the colonial era, \"Far East\" referred to anything further east than the Middle East. In the 16th century, King John III of Portugal called India a \"rich and interesting country in the Far East (Extremo Oriente).\" The term was popularized during the period of the British Empire as a blanket term for lands to the east of British India.\nIn pre-World War I European geopolitics, the Near East referred to the relatively nearby lands of the Ottoman Empire, the Middle East denoted northwestern South Asia and Central Asia, and the Far East meant countries along the", "-34.54335896810517" ], [ "a secondary intercardinal direction, the eight shortest points in the compass rose that is shown to the right (e.g. NNE, ENE, and ESE). Direction versus bearing To keep to a bearing is not, in general, the same as going in a straight direction along a great circle. Conversely, one can keep to a great circle and the bearing may change. Thus the bearing of a straight path crossing the North Pole changes abruptly at the Pole from North to South. When travelling East or West, it is only on the Equator that one can keep East or West and", "-34.52413430795423" ], [ "\"west coast of North America\" means a contiguous region of that continent bordering the Pacific Ocean: all or parts of the U.S. states of Alaska, Washington, Oregon, and California; all or parts of British Columbia and the Yukon in Canada; all or part of the Mexican states of Baja California, Baja California Sur, Sonora, Sinaloa, Nayarit, Jalisco, Colima, Michoacán, Guerrero, Oaxaca and Chiapas; and the Central American countries of Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, Costa Rica and Panama. The eastern islands of the Pacific Ocean off the west coast, such as the coastal islands of the Californias, are also", "-34.50847824400989" ], [ "we have to know that before him Greek geographers thought that the Indian coast stretched from west to east. Hippalus was probably the first (in the west) to recognize the north-south direction of India's west coast. Only someone who has this insight will think crossing the Indian Ocean might be a faster way to south India than following the coastline.\nThe use of Hippalus' direct route greatly contributed to the prosperity of trade contacts between the Roman province of Aegyptus and India from the 1st century BCE onwards. From Red Sea ports like Berenice large ships crossed the Indian Ocean to", "-34.49054029840045" ], [ "the latitudes that had long been suggested. His charts of the North American northwest coast were so extremely accurate that they served as the key reference for coastal navigation for generations. Robin Fisher, the academic Vice-President of Mount Royal University in Calgary and author of two books on Vancouver, states:\nHe put the northwest coast on the map...He drew up a map of the north-west coast that was accurate to the 9th degree, to the point it was still being used into the modern day as a navigational aid. That's unusual for a map from that early a time.\nHowever, Vancouver failed", "-34.49035926279612" ], [ "map by Paolo Forlani shows Asia and North America joined north of about the latitude of San Diego. The strait probably took its name from Ania, a Chinese province mentioned in a 1559 edition of Marco Polo's book. The name probably first appeared on a map issued by the Italian cartographer Giacomo Gastaldi in 1562. It appeared on maps by Abraham Ortelius (1564), Bolognini Zaltieri (1567) and Gerardus Mercator (1567). The Zaltieri and Gastaldi maps show it narrow and crooked. Gastaldi and Ortelius have an \"Ania\" or \"Anian\" on the east side of the strait. A speculative map of 1578", "-34.44004981324542" ], [ "accurate driving distance, due to reconstruction.\nThe historic mileposts are still used by residents and businesses along the highway to refer to their location, and in some cases are also used as postal addresses.\nResidents and travelers, and the government of the Yukon, do not use \"east\" and \"west\" to refer to direction of travel on the Yukon section, even though this is the predominant bearing of the Yukon portion of the highway; \"north\" and \"south\" are used, referring to the south (Dawson Creek) and north (Delta Junction) termini of the highway. This is an important consideration for travelers who may otherwise", "-34.40812380230636" ], [ "the south of the observer in summer. In these locations, one needs first to determine whether the sun is moving from east to west through north or south by watching its movements—left to right means it is going through south while the right to left means it is going through north; or one can watch the sun's shadows. If they move clockwise, the sun will be in the south at midday, and if they move anticlockwise, then the sun will be in the north at midday.\nBecause of the Earth's axial tilt, no matter what the location of the viewer, there", "-34.263896371703595" ], [ "Northern America Definitions Maps using the term Northern America date back to 1755, when the region was occupied by France, Great Britain, and Spain. The Solemn Act of the Declaration of Independence of Northern America in 1813 applied to Mexico.\nToday, Northern America includes the Canada–US dyad, developed countries that exhibit very high Human Development Indexes and intense economic integration while sharing many socioeconomic characteristics.\nThe World Geographical Scheme for Recording Plant Distributions has \"Northern America\" as the seventh of its nine \"botanical continents\". Its definition differs from the usual political one: Mexico is included, Bermuda is excluded (being placed in the", "-34.21479959413409" ], [ "Waldseemüller's separating the Americas from Asia, depicting the Pacific Ocean, and the use of the first name of Vespucci on his map.\nAn explanatory text, the Cosmographiae Introductio, widely believed to have been written by Waldseemüller's colleague Matthias Ringmann, accompanied the map. It was said in Chapter IX of that text that the earth was now known to be divided into four parts, of which Europe, Asia and Africa, being contiguous with each other, were continents, while the fourth part, America, was \"an island, inasmuch as it is found to be surrounded on all sides by the seas\".\nThe inscription on", "-34.185581787256524" ], [ "Northeast and Inner Mongolia are conceived to belong to northern China according to the framework above. At some times in history, Xinjiang, Tibet and Qinghai were not conceived of as being part of either the north or south. However, internal migration, such as between the Shandong and Liaodong peninsulas during the Chuang Guandong period, have increased the purview of \"north\" China to include previously marginalized areas. Today In modern times, North and South is merely one of the ways that Chinese people identify themselves, and the divide between northern and southern China has been complicated both by a unified", "-34.183889589156024" ], [ "60th parallel north Canada In Canada, the 60th parallel constitutes the mainland boundary between the northern territories of Yukon, Northwest Territories, and Nunavut to the north, and the western provinces of British Columbia, Alberta, Saskatchewan, and Manitoba to the south.\nAccordingly, \"north of 60\" is an expression often used for the territories, although parts of Nunavut (the islands in Hudson Bay and James Bay) are located south of the 60th parallel, and parts of Quebec and Newfoundland and Labrador are located north, to the east of Hudson Bay. A 1990s TV show on CBC about life in the Northwest Territories was", "-34.14043401484378" ], [ "generally refer to the landmasses of North America and South America as the Americas, the Western Hemisphere, or the New World. The adjective American may be used to indicate something pertains to the Americas, but this term is primarily used in English to indicate something pertaining to the United States. Some non-ambiguous alternatives exist, such as the adjective Pan-American, or New Worlder as a demonym for a resident of the closely related New World. Use of America in the hemispherical sense is sometimes retained, or can occur when translated from other languages. For example, the Association of National Olympic Committees", "-34.1173025398748" ], [ "wall map made to date, both created by the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller in Saint-Dié-des-Vosges in France. These were the first maps to show the Americas as a land mass separate from Asia. An accompanying book, Cosmographiae Introductio, anonymous but apparently written by Waldseemüller's collaborator Matthias Ringmann, states, \"I do not see what right any one would have to object to calling this part [that is, the South American mainland], after Americus who discovered it and who is a man of intelligence, Amerigen, that is, the Land of Americus, or America: since both Europa and Asia got their names from", "-34.06419877606095" ], [ "of his two world maps, Nova Universi Orbis Descriptio (1531), the legend marked Asia covers both North America and Asia, which were represented as one landmass. He used the toponym \"America\" for South America, and thus Marco Polo's Mangi, Tangut and Catay appear on the shores of the present-day Gulf of Mexico. On the same map, Finé drew Terra Australis to the south, including the legend \"recently discovered but not yet completely explored\", by which he meant the discovery of Tierra del Fuego by Ferdinand Magellan.\nFiné's cosmography was derived from the German mathematician and cosmographer Johannes Schöner. In his study", "-34.05758918036008" ], [ "northwards, like modern maps, but faces east towards the altar in such a fashion that the position of places on the map coincides with the actual compass directions. Originally, it measured 21 by 7 m and contained over two million tesserae. Its current dimensions are 16 by 5 m. Topographic representation The mosaic map depicts an area from Lebanon in the north to the Nile Delta in the south, and from the Mediterranean Sea in the west to the Eastern Desert. Among other features, it depicts the Dead Sea with two fishing boats, a variety of bridges linking the banks", "-34.05091798608191" ], [ "not represent an eastern coast of Asia made it admissible for Behaim to extend that continent far to the east. Behaim’s globe placed Marco Polo’s Mangi and Cathay east of Ptolemy’s 180th meridian, and the Great Khan’s capital, Cambaluc (Beijing), on the 41st parallel of latitude at approximately 233 degrees East. Behaim allowed 60 degrees beyond Ptolemy’s 180 degrees for the mainland of Asia and 30 degrees more to the east coast of Cipangu (Japan). Cipangu and the mainland of Asia were thus placed only 90 and 120 degrees, respectively, west of the Canary Islands.\nThe Codex Seragliensis was used as", "-34.03098631463945" ], [ "modern-day mariners compass. There was also the addition of the compass-card in Europe, which was later adopted by the Chinese through contact with Japanese pirates in the 16th century.\nThe oldest known map is dated back to 12,000 B.C. and was found in a Spanish cave, and was discovered by Pilar Utrilla. The early maps were oriented with east being at the top. This is believed to have begun in the region of the middle east. Religion played a role in the drawing of maps. Countries that were predominantly Christian during the Middle Ages placed east at the top of the", "-34.02435109645012" ], [ "Geography of South America The geography of South America contains many diverse regions and climates. Geographically, South America is generally considered a continent forming the southern portion of the landmass of the Americas, south and east of the Panama–Colombia border by most authorities, or south and east of the Panama Canal by some. South and North America are sometimes considered a single continent or supercontinent, while constituent regions are infrequently considered subcontinents.\nSouth America became attached to North America only recently (geologically speaking) with the formation of the Isthmus of Panama some 3 million years ago, which resulted in the Great", "-34.02309113112278" ], [ "containing mankind's original home. Hence, some Christian churches have been traditionally oriented towards the east.\nThe Orient is the East, traditionally comprising anything that belongs to the Eastern world, in relation to Europe. In English, it is largely a metonym for, and coterminous with, the continent of Asia, divided into the Far East, Middle East, and Near East. Despite this Eurocentric origin, these regions are still located to the east of the Geographical centre of Earth.\nWithin an individual city, the east end is typically poorer due to prevailing winds blowing pollution to the east.", "-34.00852597830817" ], [ "Aquila in Chinese astronomy The modern constellation Aquila lies across one of the quadrants symbolized by the Black Tortoise of the North (北方玄武, Běi Fāng Xuán Wǔ), and Three Enclosures (三垣, Sān Yuán) that divide the sky in traditional Chinese uranography.\nThe name of the western constellation in modern Chinese is 天鷹座 (tiān yīng zuò), meaning \"the heaven eagle constellation\".", "-33.99622385861585" ], [ "(as the Pacific was then referred to) .\nOther differences included a north American continent which virtually looked like a continuation of Asia, and the presence of a speculative southern continent. \nAs such, the Johannes Schöner Globe is derived from that created by Martin Behaim in 1492, which placed Japan (Cipango) where the Caribbean should have been, and Asia very close to current central America.\nAs further expeditions went by and new geographical information was gathered, more charts were drawn, yet the delay in disseminating this information often resulted in erroneous inferences. French and German cartographers, for instance, tried to reconcile old", "-33.98631036243751" ], [ "the Nile River as the Asian border so as not to split Egypt, Ptolemy designates the Red Sea as the border between Libya and Asia. In the north, the border between Asia and Europe is a meridian through the mouth of the Don River northward \"to the unknown region.\" Asia Minor remains \"Asia properly so called.\"\nPtolemy's Asia extends to the Far East, approximately identical to today's Asia, except that the European border runs through the future location of Moscow, then a wilderness of forest skirted by Sarmatian tribesmen. In a striking foreshadowing of European and Asian Russia, European Sarmatia lies", "-33.93747466383502" ], [ "run north-south and \"avenues\" run east-west, and Victorians are unlikely to use the terms \"north\", \"south\", \"east\", or \"west\" when giving directions.\nThe compact size of the city lends itself readily to smaller, fuel efficient alternatives to full size passenger cars, such as scooters, as areas with significantly steep hills, such as one would find in San Francisco, are very few. Victoria is also in the process of making the use of such methods of transportation more desirable (in a push towards a more \"green\", eco-friendly environment), by offering incentives to use such modes of transport, such as parking spaces in", "-33.88203032009187" ], [ "Korea and other East Asian locales affected the mapmakers perceptions of Asia. Similarly, European mapmakers of the day often treated Korea as an island.\nSome scholars have attributed the development of Korean circular world maps to Western influence, such as the maps of Matteo Ricci (Kunyu Wanguo Quantu) or the maps of Giulio Aleni (Wanguo Quantu). In this case, the central landmass can be viewed as a combination of Asia, Africa, and Europe, and the external \"ring\" continent as North America and South America.\nSuch maps were produced in Korea only, and have not been found in China or Japan.\nThe Cheonhado remained", "-33.87703659979161" ], [ "the map was limited to Southwest Asia and Central Asia. The earliest surviving world maps based on a rectangular coordinate grid are attributed to al-Mustawfi in the 14th or 15th century (who used invervals of ten degrees for the lines), and to Hafiz-i Abru (died 1430).\nIbn Battuta (1304–1368?) wrote \"Rihlah\" (Travels) based on three decades of journeys, covering more than 120,000 km through northern Africa, southern Europe, and much of Asia. Regional cartography Islamic regional cartography is usually categorized into three groups: that produced by the \"Balkhī school\", the type devised by Muhammad al-Idrisi, and the type that are uniquely foundin", "-33.872142733307555" ], [ "(for North) and the direction indicated by the magnetic end of the needle (usually painted red). This allows the user to establish a true bearing for travel or orientation by aligning the embossed red indicator arrow on the base plate with a landmark or heading on a map. A compass thus adjusted can be said to be reading “true north” instead of magnetic north (as long as it remains within an area on the same isogonic line).\nIn the image to the left, the bezel's N has been aligned with the direction indicated by the magnetic end of the compass needle,", "-33.86200411821483" ], [ "area is 'East Asia,' which is geographically more precise and does not imply the outdated notion that Europe is the center of the civilized world.\"\nToday, the term remains in the names of some longstanding institutions, including the Far Eastern Federal University in Vladivostok, Far Eastern University in Manila, and the Far East University in South Korea. Furthermore, the United Kingdom and United States have historically used Far East for several military units and commands in the region; the Royal Navy's Far East Fleet, for instance.", "-33.77179314544446" ], [ "Westerners came to call \"the Far East\". These shifts in time and identification sometimes confuse the scope (historical and geographic) of Oriental Studies. Yet there remain contexts where \"the Orient\" and \"Oriental\" have kept their older meanings (e.g., \"Oriental spices\" typically are from the regions extending from the Middle East to sub-continental India to Indo-China). Travelers may again take the Orient Express train from Paris to its terminus in the European part of Istanbul, a route established in the early 20th century.\nIn European historiography, the meaning of \"the Orient\" changed in scope several times. Originally, the term referred to Egypt,", "-33.7538526437711" ], [ "Naming of the Americas The naming of the Americas, or America, occurred shortly after Christopher Columbus' voyage to the Americas in 1492. It is generally accepted that the name derives from Amerigo Vespucci, the Italian explorer, who explored the new continents in the following years. However, some have suggested other explanations, including being named after a mountain range in Nicaragua, or after Richard Amerike of Bristol. Usage In modern English, North and South America are generally considered separate continents, and taken together are called the Americas in the plural, parallel to similar situations such as the Carolinas. When conceived as", "-33.73354848465533" ], [ "continents of Asia, Europe and Africa, comprising three leaves of a clover shape. The top-right leaf-shape coloured in green represents Asia, the top-left one coloured in red represents Europe, and the bottom one coloured in yellow represents Africa. The three continents include captions of their various countries and illustrations of some of their cities. Asia includes illustrations of nine cities, Europe includes one illustration of the Italian city Rome, and the continent of Africa includes illustrations of three cities with one being the Egyptian city of Alexandria.\nThe clover is surrounded by the ocean, with its surface including illustrations of sea", "-33.70088359893998" ], [ "present in directional signs, distance signs or trailblazers. The general rule was that odd-numbered highways travel in north-south directions and even-numbered highways in east-west directions, with only a few exceptions. National Route 1 was assigned to a network of highways and roads, which together linked all capital cities and coastal towns circumnavigating the mainland. The National Route system initially linked the centres of towns and cities and terminated at the junction of other national routes, however many bypasses have been constructed since then. National Routes often terminated at the metropolitan city limits rather than the individual city centres.\nIn 1974, the", "-33.69531510211527" ], [ "East–West Center The East–West Center (EWC), or the Center for Cultural and Technical Interchange Between East and West, is an education and research organization established by the U.S. Congress in 1960 to strengthen relations and understanding among the peoples and nations of Asia, the Pacific, and the United States. It is headquartered in Honolulu, Hawaii. History The East–West Center originated as a University of Hawaii at Manoa faculty initiative with a February 16, 1959, memo from professor Murray Turnbull, then acting Dean of the College of Arts and Sciences, to political science professor Norman Meller, then chairperson of the faculty", "-33.6931202870328" ], [ "reference to eastern blotting and the geographical concept of the \"Far East\" (which includes Japan).", "-33.67435510244104" ], [ "Eastern Hemisphere The Eastern Hemisphere is a geographical term for the half of Earth which is east of the prime meridian (which crosses Greenwich, London, UK) and west of the antimeridian (which crosses the Pacific Ocean and relatively little land from pole to pole). It is also used to refer to Afro-Eurasia (Africa and Eurasia) and Australia, in contrast with the Western Hemisphere, which includes mainly North and South America. The Eastern Hemisphere may also be called the \"Oriental Hemisphere\". In addition, it may be used in a cultural or geopolitical sense as a synonym for the \"Old World\".", "-33.66818558500381" ], [ "& 23). Curiously, the labels for Africa and Europe are reversed, with Europe scribed in red and gold as \"Africa\", and vice versa.\nThe map is based on traditional accounts and earlier maps such as the one of the Beatus of Liébana codex, and is very similar to the Ebstorf map, the Psalter world map, and the Sawley (erroneously for considerable time called \"Henry of Mainz\") map; it does not correspond to the geographical knowledge of the 14th century. Note, for example, that the Caspian Sea (5) connects to the encircling ocean (upper left). This is in spite of William of", "-33.64349769515684" ], [ "article.\nThe geographic center of the 48 contiguous states is located within the county, near the city of Lebanon. The geographic center of North America is located in neighboring Osborne County.\nThe Solomon River runs through the southern part of the county and provides a flat basin and water for irrigated crops. Major highways There are two major highways serving the county. The main east-west route is U.S. Highway 36, which travels through Athol, Kensington, and Smith Center. The main north-south route is U.S. Highway 281, which intersects US-36 in Smith Center. Kansas state highways K-8, K-9 and K-180 serve other areas", "-33.58471537847072" ], [ "Geography of Asia Geography of Asia reviews geographical concepts of classifying Asia, the central and eastern part of Eurasia, comprising approximately fifty countries. Boundary The land mass of Asia is not the sum of the land masses of each of its regions, which have been defined independently of the whole. For example, the borders of Central Asia and the Middle East depend on who is defining them and for what purpose. These varying definitions are not generally reflected in the map of Asia as a whole; for example, Egypt is typically included in the Middle East, but not in Asia,", "-33.580118240672164" ], [ "left and North Africa on the right. Ibn Hawqals map (10th century) Ibn Hawqal was an Arab scientist of the 10th century who developed a world map, based on his own travel experience and probably the works of Ptolemy. Another such cartographer was Al-Istakhri. Anglo-Saxon Cotton world map (c. 1040) This map appears in a copy of a classical work on geography, the Latin version by Priscian of the Periegesis, that was among the manuscripts in the Cotton library (MS. Tiberius B.V., fol. 56v), now in the British Library. It is not intended purely as an illustration to that work,", "-33.57756945214351" ], [ "to the Indies. After the voyage of 1501–1502, he proposed that the areas that he and, separately, Christopher Columbus had explored were not part of Asia, but rather a New World. America first received its name in the Cosmographiae Introductio, published by cartographer Martin Waldseemüller in 1507. Vespucci's published letters (the authenticity of which is contested) were the inspiration for that work, which was authored by a group of scholars in Saint-Dié, Lorraine, France. They revised Ptolemy's Geography to include the New World and reasoned that, as the three previously known continents, Europe, Asia, and Africa, had feminine names, so", "-33.527124578108214" ], [ "West' (West of India) which gives it a bigger geographical connotation, it is most likely to focus on the middle-east and some of the India's strategic thinkers are calling it as Modi's middle-east policy. The West Asia Approach of India is working successfully and its relations with Middle East are improving since Modi came in power. The \"West Asia Approach\" of India is now its key strategy to win Middle East. Indian foreign policy makers say that India's interests in the GCC countries are intimately linked with its energy security, trade, employment for Indians and remittances while Middle Eastern foreign", "-33.50879859656561" ], [ "the Levant, and adjoining areas. as far west as Morocco. During the 1800s, India, and to a lesser extent China, began to displace the Levant as the primary subject of Orientalist research. By the mid-20th century, Western scholars generally considered \"the Orient\" as just East Asia, Southeast Asia, and eastern Central Asia. As recently as the early 20th century, the term \"Orient\" often continued to be used in ways that included North Africa. Today, the term primarily evokes images of China, Korea, Japan, Vietnam, Mongolia, and peninsular Southeast Asia. Throughout the history of the changing sense of the term, \"the", "-33.49805579287931" ], [ "along the contour of the coast. The coast of the main land mass is shown largely as a continuous irregular line at the top of the map, with deep V-shaped indentations indicating river estuaries. As a result of the nature of the map and its focus on the coastal region, the shape of the Malay Peninsula cannot be distinguished, and India became elongated as its interior is omitted. Pages of the map are arranged from right to left in traditional Chinese book format, starting from Nanjing and finishing in Hormuz. Places in East Africa such as Socotra, Mogadishu", "-33.47688023084629" ] ]

[ " > Disc and disk are two variants of the English word for objects of a generally thin and cylindrical geometry. The differences in spelling correspond both with regional differences and with different senses of the word. For example, in the case of flat, rotational data storage media the convention is that the spelling disk is used for magnetic storage (e.g. hard disks) while disc is used for optical storage (e.g. compact discs, better known as CDs). When there is no clear convention, the spelling disk is more popular in American English, while the spelling disc is more popular in British English.", "‘Disk,’ as in ‘floppy disk’ is short for ‘diskette’ which refers to a magnetic disc cassette. ‘Disc’ is short for ‘discus’, which describes any object that is circular and thin.", "The 'c' spelling comes from Latin and the 'k' one from Greek. I couldn't tell you why the 'k' spelling is more popular in American English (translations of the Odyssey? Numismatics?), but I believe that the reason we use the 'c' spelling for CDs is the influence of Phillips, which is headquartered in the Netherlands, where they sometimes say \"discus\". This is also part of the reason Commonwealth English uses the 'c' spelling more often: they tend to have a Continental European influence to their spelling.", "Loosely related: \"disc\", \"disk\", \"discus\", and \"dish\" all come from the same Latin word, _discus_, itself borrowed from the Greek _diskos_. Due to repeated contacts between English and Latin or Latin-derived languages over the centuries, the word for a flat, round thing kept getting borrowed, but with more and more specificity. The reason dish is spelled and pronounced that way is because Old English pronounced \"sc\" and \"sk\" sounds as \"sh\". Shirt and skirt were both general terms for a short garment, but while \"shirt\" had been around long enough to undergo the Old English sound change, \"skirt\" came with the comparatively more recent Danish invasions of the 8th century. And since we now had double the terms, they could be applied to more specific things.", " > Why are some round, flat things called \"disks\" while other round flat things are \"discs\"? \"Disc\" is the chiefly British spelling while \"disk\" is preferred in the United States. As IBM was the US company that pioneered the development of computer hard drives they chose to use the \"disk\" spelling and the convention stuck to a certain extent. Otherwise they are fully interchangeable.", "Discs are optical media like a CD or DVD. Disks are magnetic media like your computers hard drive, a floppy disk or external hard drive.", " > In most varieties of English, disk is the correct spelling for magnetic media (hence hard disk or disk drive), whereas the variant disc is usually preferred with optical media (hence compact disc or disc film). Thus, if referring to a physical drive or older media (3\" or 5.25\" diskettes) the k is used, but c is used for newer (optical based) media. For all other uses, disc is standard in Commonwealth English and disk in American English.", "There really is no difference. The word comes from French *disque* and Latin *discus.* Up until the later 18th century, there was no standard spelling for English, so people wrote \"disk\" or \"disc\" if they wanted to. There was and is no difference. Starting in the middle 18th century, people started writing down English grammar and making rules about it. At this point, they started establishing standard spellings for English. After that, the idea that words had fixed spellings really started to take hold. Now, we believe so strongly in spelling distinctions that we create them where there are none, so now it seems strange to refer to a \"floppy disc\" or to a \"disk golf disk,\" but that's only because of habit. It feels important because we're used to it, not because it is important.", "Also, some round flat things are called \"dishes,\" and it's the same word. \"Disk\" is the word we get from Old Norse, and \"Dish\" is the word we get from Old English. Similarly, skiff/ship.", "It’s region based mostly but in America we sometimes use disk for hard disk and disc for CDs. It’s like how you can either use grey or gray.", "Disk is short for diskette, usually a soft disc within a protective square plastic cover, like the save icon. A disc is a flat circular object.", "At least, for me, the only time I ever use \"disK\" instead of \"disC\" is when referring to computer storage, like hard drives or floppies." ]

[ [ "Disk (mathematics) In geometry, a disk (also spelled disc) is the region in a plane bounded by a circle. A disk is said to be closed if it contains the circle that constitutes its boundary, and open if it does not. Properties The disk has circular symmetry.\nThe open disk and the closed disk are not topologically equivalent (that is, they are not homeomorphic), as they have different topological properties from each other. For instance, every closed disk is compact whereas every open disk is not compact. However from the viewpoint of algebraic topology they share many properties: both of them", "-32.98609956505243" ], [ "Floppy disk A floppy disk, also known as a floppy, diskette, or simply disk, is a type of disk storage composed of a disk of thin and flexible magnetic storage medium, sealed in a rectangular plastic enclosure lined with fabric that removes dust particles. Floppy disks are read and written by a floppy disk drive (FDD).\nFloppy disks, initially as 8-inch (203 mm) media and later in 5 ¹⁄₄-inch (133 mm) and ​3 ¹⁄₂ inch (90 mm) sizes, were a ubiquitous form of data storage and exchange from the mid-1970s into the first years of the 21st century. By 2006 computers were rarely manufactured with installed", "-30.686823695898056" ], [ "even a novice user can identify a floppy disk. Because of these factors, a picture of a ​3 ¹⁄₂-inch floppy disk has become an interface metaphor for saving data. The floppy disk symbol is still used by software on user-interface elements related to saving files, such as the release of Microsoft Office 2016, even though the physical floppy disks are largely obsolete. 8-inch and ​5 1⁄4-inch disks The 8-inch and ​5 ¹⁄₄-inch floppy disks contain a magnetically coated round plastic medium with a large circular hole in the center for a drive's spindle. The medium is contained in a square plastic cover that", "-29.909390048756904" ], [ "circles, derived from the dot pieces. Irwin wanted them to be circular in order to avoid the corners a square or rectangle would produce. But instead of being flat it needed to be convex to deemphasize the edge. The disc was painted where the disc bulges out (point closest to the viewer) the same color as the wall (point furthest away from the viewer) to give it a floating effect. But the combination of convexity and color made it so the viewer had a difficult time determining whether the disc was convex, concave, or flat. (Originally he painted the discs", "-29.763672629371285" ], [ "PlayStation One consoles, most portable CD players, and some standalone CD recorders feature top-loading drives). These sometimes have the advantage of using spring-loaded ball bearings to hold the disc in place, minimizing damage to the disc if the drive is moved while it is spun up.\nSome early CD-ROM drives used a mechanism where CDs had to be inserted into special cartridges or caddies, somewhat similar in appearance to a 3.5\" floppy diskette. This was intended to protect the disc from accidental damage by enclosing it in a tougher plastic casing, but did not gain wide acceptance due to the additional", "-29.475059216987574" ], [ "Floppy disk format Floppy disk format and density refer to the logical and physical layout of data stored on a floppy disk. Since their introduction, there have been many popular and rare floppy disk types, densities, and formats used in computing, leading to much confusion over their differences. In the early 2000s, most floppy disk types and formats became obsolete, leaving the ​3 ¹⁄₂-inch disk, using an IBM PC compatible format of 1440 KB, as the only remaining popular format.\nDifferent floppy disk types had different recording characteristics, with varying magnetic coercivity (measured in oersteds, or in modern SI units in", "-29.345290786746773" ], [ "format of (usually ​5 ¹⁄₄-inch) floppy disks which could typically hold 35-40 tracks of nine 512-byte (or 18 256-byte) sectors each. Only one side of the disc was used, although some users did discover that punching additional holes into the disc jacket would allow the creation of a \"flippy\" disc which could be manually turned over to store additional data on the reverse side.\nSingle-sided disks began to become obsolete after the introduction of IBM PC DOS 1.1 in 1982, which added support for double-side diskette drives with capacity of 320 KB to the IBM 5150 PC. In 1983 PC DOS 2.0 pushed the formatting capacity to 180 KB", "-28.954377645277418" ], [ "as the compact disc and similar technologies. Medical editing The words disc and disk can appear frequently in medical journals and textbooks, especially those in ophthalmology and orthopedics, and thus style guides often foster consistency by giving rules for which contexts take which spelling. AMA style for this topic is used by many publications. AMA says, \"For ophthalmologic terms, use disc (eg, optic disc); for other anatomical terms, use disk (eg, lumbar disk). In discussions related to computers, use disk (eg, floppy disk, disk drive, diskette) (exceptions: compact disc, videodisc).\" Sports Disc sports, or disc games, are a category of", "-28.89656868725433" ], [ "of flat disks.\nIn the Vedic texts, Dyaus (heaven) and Prithvi (Earth) are compared to wheels on an axle, yielding a flat model. They are also described as bowls or leather bags, yielding a concave model. According to Macdonell: \"the conception of the Earth being a disc surrounded by an ocean does not appear in the Samhitas. But it was naturally regarded as circular, being compared with a wheel (10.89) and expressly called circular (parimandala) in the Shatapatha Brahmana.\"\nBy about the 5th century CE, the siddhanta astronomy texts of South Asia, particularly of Aryabhata, assume a spherical Earth as they develop", "-28.878284132530098" ], [ "Spherical roller bearing A spherical roller bearing is a rolling-element bearing that permits rotation with low friction, and permits angular misalignment. Typically these bearings support a rotating shaft in the bore of the inner ring that may be misaligned in respect to the outer ring. The misalignment is possible due to the spherical internal shape of the outer ring and spherical rollers. Despite what their name may imply, spherical roller bearings are not truly spherical in shape. The rolling elements of spherical roller bearings are mainly cylindrical in shape, but have a profile that makes them appear like cylinders that", "-28.55033689457923" ], [ "back. According to the diagram, the gadget consists of (a) two blue front and back plates, pierced to show the numbers; (b) an inner white soft plastic frame to hold the number discs and to which are attached the two loops to bend back and thread on the needle; (c) the two number discs. So the disks don't spin on an axis; they spin within circular spaces in the inner frame. Rotary barrel type In Britain in the 1950s when the baby boom years following World War II caused an increased requirement for hand-knitting, I.X. Products produced a brightly", "-28.384259765609386" ], [ "circumference ball is generally used in slow pitch, although in rare cases some leagues (especially recreational leagues) do use a 14-inch circumference ball. Some balls have a raised seam, and others do not. The ball is most often covered in white or yellow leather in two pieces roughly the shape of a figure-8 and sewn together with red thread, although other coverings are permitted. The core of the ball may be made of long fiber kapok, or a mixture of cork and rubber, or a polyurethane mixture, or another approved material.\nIn 2004, high-visibility yellow \"optic\" covering, long-used for restricted flight", "-28.13363907043822" ], [ "floppy disk drives; ​3 ¹⁄₂-inch floppy disks can be used with an external USB floppy disk drive, but USB drives for ​5 ¹⁄₄-inch, 8-inch, and non-standard diskettes are rare to non-existent. These formats are usually handled by older equipment.\nThe prevalence of floppy disks in late 20th century culture was such that many electronic and software programs still use the floppy disks as save icons. While floppy disk drives still have some limited uses, especially with legacy industrial computer equipment, they have been superseded by data storage methods with much greater capacity and transfer speeds, such as USB flash drives, flash storage cards,", "-28.12486160505796" ], [ "cut to any shape that does not cut into the grooves. These oddly shaped records were frequently combined with picture discs (see above); a trend that was pushed particularly hard by UK record company branches in the mid-1980s. Curiously, uncut test pressings of shaped discs in their original 12-inch form - with the clear vinyl surrounds still intact - are much more sought-after by collectors than the \"regular\" shapes themselves.\nA well known unusually shaped disc is a picture disc by Toto with the song \"Africa\" on side 1 and \"Rosanna\" on side 2. It was originally pressed in 1983 and", "-28.0365678326707" ], [ "softer, less brittle plastic (polypropylene rather than polystyrene), so it does not break as easily. They usually hold one or two discs, but are capable of holding up to six discs. Slimmer keep cases, so called \"Slim-paks\" or \"Thinpaks\" typically used for DVD box sets consisting of the thin keep cases stored in a paperboard box. The thin cases are half as thick and can generally only hold one disc as a result, but there are newer slim cases that have central disc holding teeth on both sides. The teeth are made in such a way that when the", "-27.986150551587343" ], [ "with double sided formats providing twice the storage capacity. Like TPI, \"double sided\" was mostly a certification indicator, as the magnetic media was usually recordable on both sides. Many (but not all) certified \"double sided\" 8- and ​5 ¹⁄₄-inch floppies had an index hole on both sides of the disk sleeve to make them usable as flippy disks.\nA combination floppy disk and optical disc, known as a Floptical disk exists. The size of a ​3 ¹⁄₂-inch (90 mm) disk, they are capable of holding close to 20.8 MB, but need a special drive. Sectoring The formatted disk capacity is always less", "-27.709595466731116" ], [ "a rectangle (in 2D games) or cuboid (in 3D) that is attached to and follows a point on a visible object (such as a model or a sprite). Circular or spheroidial shapes are also common, though they are still most often called \"boxes\". It is common for animated objects to have hitboxes attached to each moving part to ensure accuracy during motion.\nHitboxes are used to detect \"one-way\" collisions such as a character being hit by a punch or a bullet. They are unsuitable for the detection of collisions with feedback (e.g. bumping into a wall) due the difficulty experienced by", "-27.640877724639722" ], [ "stacked, or when in paper sleeves put in rows on shelves like books—packed together more densely than cylinder recordings.\nMany cylinder phonographs used a belt to turn the mandrel; slight slippage of this belt could make the mandrel turn unevenly, thus resulting in pitch fluctuations. Disc phonographs using a direct system of gears turned more evenly; the heavy metal turntable of disc machines acted as a flywheel, helping to minimize speed wobble.\nVirtually all US disc records were single-sided until 1908, when Columbia Records began mass production of discs with recordings pressed on both sides. Except for premium-priced classical records, that quickly", "-27.617292809300125" ], [ "very flat because it has a single-stack magazine and only a single thumb safety on the left side compared to the two-sided ambidextrous safety on the 3913NL.", "-27.56267770496197" ], [ "a flat surface. On cheaper mounts, the flat surface may be simply the material of the mount. In more expensive mounts, the flat surface (and perhaps the hole and v-groove too) may be made out of a much harder material (often sapphire), set into the frame.\nThe reason for this strange mechanism, is that the first ball (ideally) makes contact with the fixed frame at exactly three points, the second ball at two, and the third ball at just one. These six points of contact exactly constrain the six degrees of freedom for motion of the movable frame. This leads to", "-27.5086098027532" ], [ "and support for single density disks; they were formatted as double density using modified frequency modulation.\nDiscs were shipped in a paper sleeve or a hard plastic case resembling a compact disc \"jewel\" case. The casing is thicker and more rigid than that of 3.5 inch diskettes, and designed to be mailed without any additional packaging. A sliding metal cover to protect the media surface is internal to the casing and latched, unlike the simple external sliding cover of Sony's version. They were significantly more expensive than both 5.25 inch and 3.5 inch alternatives. This, combined with their low nominal capacities and their essentially", "-27.480745543376543" ], [ "the disk represent a single line. (See quotient topology.) So any set of lines through the origin can be pictured, almost perfectly, as a set of points in a disk.\nAlso, every plane through the origin intersects the unit sphere in a great circle, called the trace of the plane. This circle maps to a circle under stereographic projection. So the projection lets us visualize planes as circular arcs in the disk. Prior to the availability of computers, stereographic projections with great circles often involved drawing large-radius arcs that required use of a beam compass. Computers now make this", "-27.460420106712263" ], [ "first an arrangement of identical discs (a model for a hypothetical two-dimensional metal) on a plane; we suppose that the interaction between discs is isotropic and locally tends to arrange the disks in the densest way as possible. The best arrangement for three disks is trivially an equilateral triangle with the disk centers located at the triangle vertices. The study of the long range structure can therefore be reduced to that of plane tilings with equilateral triangles. A well known solution is provided by the triangular tiling with a total compatibility between the local and global rules: the system is", "-27.315623137517832" ], [ "supposed to be spherical as has been suggested. It's more like a flat disk made of a fossil material, that has captured souls.", "-27.30737927643895" ], [ "friction with the turntable surface and enforce consistent rotation. If the turntable's surface is not completely flat, it is recommended that the flexi disc be placed on top of a full sized record.\nIn Japan, starting in the early 1960s, Asahi Sonorama published the monthly Asahi Sonorama magazine which included an inserted flexi disc (\"Sonosheet\").\nEvery year between 1963 and 1969, The Beatles made a special Christmas recording which was made into a flexi disc and sent to members of their fan club. While the earlier discs largely contained 'thank you' messages to their fans, the later Christmas flexis were used", "-27.196497801109217" ], [ "cases stacked on top of each other, and can hold 2 to 6 CDs. Double jewel cases do not fit in some CD racks; however, some racks have a few extra wide slots specifically to accommodate them.\nJewel cases for CDs released early in the format's life featured frosted top and bottom spines as opposed to the ridged ones more commonly used. As a result of their rarity, these types of jewel cases are fairly coveted among collectors.\n\"Super Jewel Box\" is a more advanced design which offers amongst other improvements a greatly strengthened hinge area. The depth of the disc tray", "-27.194500811805483" ], [ "stamping a flat version, then bending them into the proper shape, such as with rollers. This is a relatively inexpensive process.\nOther open surfaces and surfaces closed in one direction, and all surfaces closed in both directions, can't be flattened without deformation. A hemisphere or sphere, for example, can't. Such surfaces are curved in both directions. This is why maps of the Earth are distorted. The larger the area the map represents, the greater the distortion. Sheet metal surfaces which lack a flat pattern must be manufactured by stamping using 3D dies (sometimes requiring multiple dies with different draw", "-27.19265553812147" ], [ "unlocked when opened. The advantage of this design is that only the edges of the disc are handled when removing it from the case, and the disc is never subjected to any bending force while being removed. From the outside, they appear almost identical to a standard jewel case. They have the same dimensions as a standard jewel case, and use standard booklets and back cards. Spindles and other bulk packaging Blank CD and DVD media are often sold in bulk packages called spindles or, less formally, cake boxes. This type of packaging consists of a round, clear plastic cup", "-27.167290536798333" ], [ "these reasons, this design is very popular in digital consumer electronics (CD/DVD players, set-top boxes and the like).", "-27.13011393020861" ], [ "format required \"bare\" discs to be placed into a caddy before use, making them less convenient to use. Drives that worked this way were referred to as caddy drives or caddy load(ing), but from about 1994 most computer manufacturers moved to tray-loading, or slot-loading drives.\nThe same system is still available for more recent formats such as DVD-RAMs but is not common.\nThe PlayStation Portable, UMD disc is a similar concept, using a small proprietary DVD-type disc, in a fixed unopenable caddy as both a copy protection and damage prevention measure.\nThe MiniDisc is a similar concept again, using a small proprietary", "-27.08039643088705" ], [ "Spherical bearing A spherical plain bearing is a bearing that permits angular rotation about a central point in two orthogonal directions (usually within a specified angular limit based on the bearing geometry). Typically these bearings support a rotating shaft in the bore of the inner ring that must move not only rotationally, but also at an angle. \nSelf-aligning spherical bearings were first used by James Nasmyth around 1840 to support line shaft bearings in mills and machine shops. For long shafts it was impossible to accurately align bearings, even if the shaft was perfectly straight. Nasmyth used brass bearing shells", "-27.061675698598265" ], [ "floppy disk drive be recognized by a system as a ​5 ¹⁄₄‑inch 360 KB or 1200 KB drive, and to read and write disks with the same number of tracks and sectors as those disks; this had some application in data exchange with obsolete CP/M systems. Other sizes Other, smaller, floppy sizes were proposed, especially for portable or pocket-sized devices that needed a smaller storage device. 3-inch disks similar in construction to ​3 ¹⁄₂-inch were manufactured and used for a time, particularly by Amstrad computers and word processors. A 2-inch nominal size known as the Video Floppy was introduced by Sony for use with", "-26.970536699169315" ], [ "Bi disks are consistently found with heaven and earth-like imagery, suggesting that the disk's circular shape also bears symbolic significance as this description explains:\nIt is found that these objects testify to early stages of development of cosmological concepts that remained important in Chinese culture during the Warring States and Han periods: the notion of a covering sky (gaitian) that revolves around a central axis, the cycle of the Ten Suns, and the use of an early form of the carpenter's square. These objects were handled by shamans who were the religious leaders of Liangzhu society and the transmitters of cosmological", "-26.95991489716107" ], [ "Flat lens A flat lens is a lens whose flat shape allows it to provide distortion-free imaging, potentially with arbitrarily-large apertures. The term is also used to refer to other lenses that provide a negative index of refraction. Flat lenses require a refractive index close to −1 over a broad angular range. In recent years, flat lenses based on metasurfaces were also demonstrated. History Russian mathematician Victor Veselago predicted that a material with simultaneously negative electric and magnetic polarization responses would yield a negative refractive index (an isotropic refractive index of −1), a \"left-handed\" medium in which light propagates with", "-26.948246984102298" ], [ "better discs and cylinders became minimal.\nCylinder phonographs generally used a worm gear to move the stylus in synchronization with the grooves of the recording, whereas most disc machines relied on the grooves to pull the stylus along. This resulted in cylinder records played a number of times having less degradation than discs, but this added mechanism made cylinder machines more expensive. Advantages of discs Both the disc records, and the machines to play them, were cheaper to mass-produce than the products of the cylinder system. Disc records were also easier and cheaper to store in bulk, as they could be", "-26.930490658225608" ], [ "Computer representation of surfaces Flattening a surface Some open surfaces and surfaces closed in one direction may be flattened into a plane without deformation of the surface. For example, a cylinder can be flattened into a rectangular area without distorting the surface distance between surface features (except for those distances across the split created by opening up the cylinder). A cone may also be so flattened. Such surfaces are linear in one direction and curved in the other (surfaces linear in both directions were flat to begin with). Sheet metal surfaces which have flat patterns can be manufactured by", "-26.82471195985272" ], [ "cost and compatibility concerns—such drives would also inconveniently require \"bare\" discs to be manually inserted into an openable caddy before use. Ultra Density Optical and Universal Media Disc use optical disc cartridges.\nThere were also some early CD-ROM drives for desktop PCs in which its tray-loading mechanism will eject slightly and user has to pull out the tray manually to load CD, similar to the tray ejecting method used in internal optical disc drives of modern laptops and modern external slim portable optical disc drives. Like the top-loading mechanism, they have spring-loaded ball bearings on the spindle. Internal mechanism of", "-26.747992081247503" ], [ "ball is formed which has been pulled smooth on top and has a dimple on the bottom. The ball is then placed on the floured surface – dimple down. The biscuit maker should have one or two of these finished balls ready so that they have a minute or two to rest before they are rolled.\nThe roller is responsible for shaping the round. A biscuit is rolled with a smooth round rolling pin until it is three or four inches (102 mm) in diameter and about 1/2 inch (125 mm) thick. It is then flipped over and rolled again until it is larger and", "-26.70636941956036" ], [ "such as rings, triangles, or straight bars. It has several sizes of gears and shapes, and all edges have teeth to engage any other piece. For instance, smaller gears fit inside the larger rings, but also can engage the outside of the rings in such a fashion that they rotate around the inside or along the outside edge of the rings. Kenner also introduced Spirotot, Magnetic Spirograph, Spiroman, and various refill sets.\nTo use it, a sheet of paper is placed on a heavy cardboard backing, and one of the plastic pieces—known as a stator—is secured via pins or reusable adhesive", "-26.62780077487696" ], [ "Spherical shell In geometry, a spherical shell is a generalization of an annulus to three dimensions. It is the region between two concentric spheres of differing radii. In popular culture A Dyson sphere encloses a fictitious spherical shell around a star, as first described by author Olaf Stapledon.", "-26.62307119358229" ], [ "available, mostly used in CP/M and other professional computers, and also found in some of Commodore's disk drive line.\nBy the early 1980s, falling prices of computer hardware and technological advances led to the near-universal adoption of soft-sector, double density disk formats. In addition, more compact half-height disk drives began to appear, as well as double-sided drives, although the cost of them meant that single-sided remained the standard for most home computers, and 80-track drives known as \"quad density\".\nFor most of the 1970s and 1980s, the floppy drive was the primary storage device for word processors and microcomputers. Since these machines", "-26.62164011655841" ], [ "Ricci-flat manifold In mathematics, Ricci-flat manifolds are Riemannian manifolds whose Ricci curvature vanishes. Ricci-flat manifolds are special cases of Einstein manifolds, where the cosmological constant need not vanish.\nSince Ricci curvature measures the amount by which the volume of a small geodesic ball deviates from the volume of a ball in Euclidean space, small geodesic balls will have no volume deviation, but their \"shape\" may vary from the shape of the standard ball in Euclidean space. For example, in a Ricci-flat manifold, a circle in Euclidean space may be deformed into an ellipse with equal area. This is due to Weyl", "-26.618343496324087" ], [ "earlier part to form a circle. The sound is encoded by fine variations in the edges of the groove that cause a stylus (needle) placed in it to vibrate at acoustic frequencies when the disc is rotated at the correct speed. Generally, the outer and inner parts of the groove bear no intended sound (exceptions include the Beatles' Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band and Split Enz's Mental Notes).\nIncreasingly from the early 20th century, and almost exclusively since the 1920s, both sides of the record have been used to carry the grooves. Occasional records have been issued since then with", "-26.611344750213902" ], [ "Flat module In homological algebra and algebraic geometry, a flat module over a ring R is an R-module M such that taking the tensor product over R with M preserves exact sequences. A module is faithfully flat if taking the tensor product with a sequence produces an exact sequence if and only if the original sequence is exact.\nFlatness was introduced by Serre (1956) in his paper Géometrie Algébrique et Géométrie Analytique. See also flat morphism. Examples and relations to other notions Flatness is related to various other conditions on a module, such as being free, projective, or torsion-free. This is partly", "-26.575543409242528" ], [ "flash) is at exactly the same frequency as the spinning of the disc, then the disc appears to be static (due to the persistence of vision) from the strobing effect. If the note is out of tune then the pattern appears to be moving as the light flashing and the disc rotation are out of sync from each other. The more out of tune the played note is, the faster the pattern seems to be moving, although in reality it always spins at the same speed for a given note. Many good turntables for vinyl disc records have stroboscopic patterns", "-26.559533981140703" ], [ "nominal capacity of a DVD-10 disc to 9.4 GB, but each side is locked to 4.7 GB. Like DVD-5 discs, DVD-10 discs are defined as single-layer (SL) discs.\nDouble-sided discs identify the sides as A and B. The disc structure lacks the dummy layer where identifying labels are printed on single-sided discs, so information such as title and side are printed on one or both sides of the non-data clamping zone at the center of the disc.\nDVD-10 discs fell out of favor because, unlike dual-layer discs, they require users to manually flip them to access the complete content (a relatively egregious", "-26.496442178322468" ], [ "\"flippy\" disks as well. Only one side could be accessed at once, but it did essentially double the capacity of each floppy diskette, an important consideration especially in the early years when media was still quite expensive.\nIn the Disk II, the full-height drive mechanism shipped inside a beige-painted metal case and connected to the controller card via a 20-pin ribbon cable; the controller card was plugged into one of the bus slots on the Apple's mainboard. The connector is very easy to misalign on the controller card, which will short out a certain IC in the drive; if later connected", "-26.461779911711346" ], [ "Disc cutter A disc cutter is a specialised, often hand-held, power tool used for cutting hard materials, ceramic tile, metal, concrete, and stone for example. This tool is very similar to an angle grinder, chop saw, or even a die grinder, with main difference being cutting disc itself, (circular diamond blade, or resin-bonded abraisive cutting wheel for disc cutter vs. abrasive grinding wheel for angle grinder). This tool is highly effecient at cutting very hard materals especialy when compared to hand tools. Discs Often cutting discs or (cut-off wheels), are made from a solid abrasive disc. These discs are often", "-26.4284413036803" ], [ "Discs as a keepsake.", "-26.357244398954208" ], [ "Slipcase A slipcase is a five-sided box, usually made of high-quality cardboard, into which binders, books or book sets are slipped for protection, leaving the spine exposed. Special editions of books are often slipcased. A few publishers, such as the Folio Society, publish all their books in slipcases.\nProtective slipcases may be issued for cassettes, compact discs or DVDs instead of or in addition to the more common jewel cases or DVD keep case, and may be chosen for aesthetic or economic reasons. Larger slipcases that are designed to house one or more jewel cases or DVD keep cases are", "-26.32994220679393" ], [ "94 Diskont Background Oval received both praise and controversy for its styling methods, such as literally deconstructing music and digital audio by using exacto knives, paint, and tape to damage the surfaces of compact discs, only to stitch the sound back together in loops of melody punctuated by the disc's physical skips. On its initial release, Select noted in their review that Oval \"sound unlike any other combo\" on Diskont '94. The review went on to note that group have been described in desperation as techno and critiqued this reference stating \"try dancing to the sort of erratic pulsing and", "-26.319210611167364" ], [ "Flat topology In mathematics, the flat topology is a Grothendieck topology used in algebraic geometry. It is used to define the theory of flat cohomology; it also plays a fundamental role in the theory of descent (faithfully flat descent). The term flat here comes from flat modules.\nThere are several slightly different flat topologies, the most common of which are the fppf topology and the fpqc topology. fppf stands for fidèlement plate de présentation finie, and in this topology, a morphism of affine schemes is a covering morphism if it is faithfully flat and of finite presentation. fpqc stands for fidèlement", "-26.246031399583444" ], [ "tapered (conical) parts, where \"run-out\" (noun) refers to any imperfection of form that causes a rotating part such as a shaft to \"run out\" (verb), that is, to not rotate with perfect smoothness. These conditions include being out-of-round (that is, lacking sufficient roundness); eccentricity (that is, lacking sufficient concentricity); or being bent axially (regardless of whether the surfaces are perfectly round and concentric at every cross-sectional point). The purpose of emphasizing the \"total\" in TIR was to duly maintain the distinction between per-side differences and both-sides-considered differences, which requires perennial conscious attention in lathe work. For example, all depths of", "-26.23559871359612" ], [ "having been around since the invention of the music CD, very few full-price PC games were released in a jewel case only. A thicker variation with space for a thick manual was, however, used for most PlayStation and Dreamcast games.\nAround 2000, PC game packaging in Europe began to converge with that of PS2 (and later, Xbox and Nintendo GameCube) console games, in the keep case format in which to this day the vast majority of games are sold. These boxes are sometimes known as Amaray cases, after a popular manufacturer of them. In the U.S., most PC games continue to", "-26.201308079471346" ], [ "Euclidean space, and a ball, which is a three-dimensional shape that includes the sphere and everything inside the sphere (a closed ball), or, more often, just the points inside, but not on the sphere (an open ball). The distinction between ball and sphere has not always been maintained and especially older mathematical references talk about a sphere as a solid. This is analogous to the situation in the plane, where the terms \"circle\" and \"disk\" can also be confounded. Loxodrome In navigation, a rhumb line or loxodrome is an arc crossing all meridians of longitude at the same angle. A", "-26.181960296817124" ], [ "Baseball doughnut A baseball doughnut is a weighted ring that fits over the end of a baseball bat, used for warming up during a baseball game. A doughnut is thought to help increase bat speed. Doughnuts can weigh as little as 4 oz. and as much as 28 oz. Players feel baseball doughnuts increase bat velocity because after warming up with a baseball doughnut then decreasing the weight after taking the doughnut off, the swing feels faster. The heavier load of the weighted bat stimulates the neural system and increases muscle activation during lighter bat swings. Researchers have found that", "-26.179139964020578" ], [ "all of them are ball shaped, however, and many have chipping marks all over or at least in one place. These stone balls likely would have served as mobile grinding stones.\nStone rings have also been found at Nok Culture sites. They are normally found as fragments, but can be identified as rings because of their flat, oval or triangular cross-sections and their shapes. These stone rings are very rare and their purpose is unknown. Another rare find is stone beads, which are typically found as if strung on strings. Beads tend to be carefully made out of hard siliceous rock", "-26.160264639807792" ], [ "Diskos The diskos is a weapon featuring a razor-sharp spinning disk on a retractable handle. When activated the disk glows and shoots out sparks. This invention may have been inspired by a hand-held children's toy that shoots sparks when a button is pressed to start a small spinning disk. It is also indicated that the diskos develops a special affinity for its owner during training and should not be handled by anyone else. Each diskos is powered from an initial charge taken from the Earth Current. When its owner dies, the Diskos and its charge are returned to the Earth", "-26.14726291547413" ], [ "disc is dropped to it. The holder is closed manually by hand, by motor after pressing a button, or completely automatically. Some CD players combine vertical loading with slot loading due the disc being drawn further into the disc holder as it closes. Top loading In 1983 Philips, at the US and European launch of the CD format, showcased the first top loading CD tray designs with their CD100 CD player. (Philips audio products were sold as Magnavox in the US at the time.) The design had a clamp on the lid which meant the user had to close this", "-26.141716923564672" ], [ "premium-grade 32-panel balls use non-regular polygons to give a closer approximation to sphericality. The inside of the football is made up of a latex or butyl rubber bladder which enables the football to be pressurised. The ball's outside is made of leather, synthetic leather, polyurethane or PVC panels. The surface can be textured, weaved or embossed for greater control and touch. The panel pairs are either machine-stitched, hand-stitched or thermo-bonded (glued and bonded by heat) along the edge. To prevent water absorption balls may be specially coated, or the stitches bonded with glue. The size of a football is roughly", "-26.103674918878824" ], [ "Square nut A square nut is a four-sided nut. Compared to standard hex nuts, square nuts have a greater surface in contact with the part being fastened, and therefore provide greater resistance to loosening (though also greater resistance to tightening). They are also much less likely to become rounded-off after repeated loosening/tightening cycles. Square nuts are typically mated with square-headed bolts. Square nuts are used along with flat washers in order to avoid damage from its sharp edges and helps to increase the strength of the fastener. Square nuts can have standard, fine or coarse threading with platings of zinc", "-26.083759175016894" ], [ "Flat honing Origin of term The term is derived from honing cylinders and holes. A flat workpiece surface is processed, hence the word flat; the word honing is used because the cutting speed is low compared to grinding. A fixed abrasive is used to provide accuracy and optical appearance of the surface finish. Sometimes it is also called fine grinding or surface grinding using planetary kinematics. History The technology is relatively young, having appeared in the 1980s. In the industry, production lapping is being replaced by flat honing in an ever-expanding array of applications. The flat honing process allows for", "-26.07777899804023" ], [ "\"rectangle\". Characteristics The diamond typically has a lozenge shape, a parallelogram with four equal sides, placed on one of its points. The sides are sometimes slightly rounded and the four vertices placed in a square, making the sign look like an astroid.\nNormally diamonds are red in colour. They can however be depicted in blue, which is the case for example in bridge (where it is one of the two minor suits along with Clubs).\nThe following gallery shows the diamonds from a 52-card deck of French playing cards. Not shown is the Knight of Diamonds used in the tarot card games:", "-25.97996137739392" ], [ "Because of the fact that Blu-ray cases are smaller than DVD cases, more Blu-Rays than DVDs can fit on a shelf. Mini Blu-ray Disc The \"Mini Blu-ray Disc\" (also, \"Mini-BD\" and \"Mini Blu-ray\") is a compact 8-centimetre-diameter (~3 in) variant of the Blu-ray Disc that can store 7.8 GB of data in its single layer configuration, or 15.6 GB on a dual layer disc. It is similar in concept to the MiniDVD and MiniCD. Recordable (BD-R) and rewritable (BD-RE) versions of Mini Blu-ray Disc have been developed specifically for compact camcorders and other compact recording devices. Blu-ray Disc recordable \"Blu-ray Disc recordable\" (BD-R)", "-25.908596698369365" ], [ "Labeling of diskettes uses the megabyte to denote 1024×1000 bytes. In the optical disks market, compact discs use MB to mean 1024² bytes while DVDs use GB to mean 1000³ bytes. Consumer confusion In the early days of computers (roughly, prior to the advent of personal computers) there was little or no consumer confusion because of the technical sophistication of the buyers and their familiarity with the products. In addition, it was common for computer manufacturers to specify their products with capacities in full precision.\nIn the personal computing era, one source of consumer confusion is the difference in the way", "-25.862053521035705" ], [ "generic and special points, but a more complicated spectrum, since they represent general dimensions. The discrete valuation case is much like the complex unit disk, for these purposes.)", "-25.851937026323867" ], [ "on top of a cement base. In October 1906 they started producing discs in the more usual manner with shellac. Even with this less eccentric material, the early Pathé discs were unlike any others. The sound was recorded vertically in the groove, rather than side-to-side, and the groove was wider than in other companies' records, requiring a special ball-shaped .005-inch-radius (0.13 mm) stylus for playing. The discs rotated at 90 rpm, rather than the usual 75 to 80 rpm. Originally, the groove started on the inside, near the center of the disc, and spiraled out to the edge. In 1916, Pathé changed", "-25.848568963414436" ], [ "GCR was also used on some platforms, but typically in a \"double\" density form.\n8- and ​5 ¹⁄₄-inch floppy disks were available with both soft sectoring and hard sectoring. Because of the similarity in magnetic characteristics between some disk types, it was possible to use an incorrectly certified disk in a soft sectored drive. Quad density ​5 ¹⁄₄-inch disks were rare, so it was not uncommon to use higher quality double density disks, which were usually capable of sustaining the 96 TPI formatting of quad density, in drives such as the Commodore 8050.\nDisks were available in both single and double sided forms,", "-25.82558575310395" ], [ "of the disc is moved slightly toward the spine to make room for a latch mechanism. The overall dimensions of a DualDisc case are roughly the same as a standard CD case. However, the hinge mechanism is smaller and cannot be dismantled as easily as on a standard jewel case.\nSmaller jewel cases are used for 8 cm CD and DVD media; similar cases without the hub are used for MiniDisc and (magnetic) Zip disk media.\nAdditionally, larger jewel cases that were around the size of VHS keep cases were used for North American releases of games for the Sega CD, all North", "-25.79735927397269" ], [ "friction, as well as being made of a dense material such as glass, so they can be spun to make them coast. The trackball's buttons may be situated to that of a mouse or to a unique style that suits the user.\nLarge trackballs are common on CAD workstations for easy precision. Before the advent of the touchpad, small trackballs were common on portable computers (such as the BlackBerry Tour) where there may be no desk space on which to run a mouse. Some small \"thumbballs\" are designed to clip onto the side of the keyboard and have integral buttons with", "-25.788682017009705" ], [ "Fuzzy dice Fuzzy dice, also known as fluffy dice, soft dice, or stuffed dice, are an automotive decoration consisting of two oversized (usually six-sided) plush dice which hang from the rear-view mirror. The original fuzzy dice, first used in the 1950s, were white and approximately 3 inches (8 cm) across. Nowadays, fuzzy dice come in many colors (including fluorescents, with bright pink or blue being popular) and various sizes. In Britain and other parts of the world it is considered kitsch to display such items in a car. Origin and history The use of fuzzy dice is believed to be traced", "-25.77021270534533" ], [ "a hard drive. While there are read-write optical discs, either mass-produced read-only discs or write-once discs were used for this purpose.\nThe first Compact Disc drives on personal computers were generally much too slow to run complex operating systems; computers were not designed to boot from an optical disc. When operating systems came to be distributed on compact discs, either a boot floppy or the CD itself would boot specifically, and only, to install onto a hard drive. The world's first and oldest non-Linux live CD was the FM Towns OS first released in 1989, before the release of Macintosh System", "-25.711033270519692" ], [ "DVD-Video size, is the conventional case for DVD-Audio, and as of mid-2006, the case format for all albums released by the Universal Music Group in Europe.\nMany alternatives to the standard jewel case may also be found, including larger DVD-style cases with a more book-like shape. It is not uncommon to find CDs housed in custom cases, tins and boxes of varying shapes and sizes. Slipcases and other envelope-type designs are also occasionally used.\nSome DualDiscs are packaged in jewel cases of a somewhat different design from the CD version; the inside edge is rounded instead of flat, and the physical position", "-25.70917309768265" ], [ "(not unlike those of pichenotte), the discs are arranged in a ring (also like in Pichette), each player is given twelve discs instead of nine, and the queen (known as the \"jack\") is pocketed last (similar to Eight-ball or Black ball). South African fingerboard A variant of carrom is played in South Africa under the name fingerboard (Afrikaans: vingerbord). The board has larger pockets, the discs are arranged in a ring, each player has ten discs instead of nine, and the queen (known as the \"donkey\") is pocketed last.((clarify)) Copies and reproductions Several companies made copies of Haskell's carrom game", "-25.67388177633984" ], [ "Disk II The Disk II Floppy Disk Subsystem, often rendered as Disk ][, is a ​5 ¹⁄₄-inch floppy disk drive designed by Steve Wozniak and manufactured by Apple Computer, Inc. It went on sale in June 1978 at a retail price of US$495 for pre-order; it was later sold for $595 (equivalent to $2,290 in 2018) including the controller card (which can control up to two drives) and cable. The Disk II was designed specifically for use with the Apple II personal computer family to replace the slower cassette tape storage. These floppy drives cannot be used with any Macintosh without", "-25.65633609163342" ], [ "depend on the shape of mould from different manufacturers. The most common shape for ring is circle which looks like an \"O\". Triangle, rectangle, square, heart, star shape, rectangle with saw tooth shape or even flower shape can be found for the different purposes on intimate garment.\nMost commonly seen slide and hook are in rectangular shapes which look like \"8\" and \"9\" respectively. The shape of slide usually varies in the size of two holes, which allows different sliding way. Different opening combinations are found for hook, e.g. \"S\" shape which has hook on each side, narrower hole", "-25.616740873490926" ], [ "Drum roll A drum roll (or roll for short) is a technique the percussionist employs to produce, on a percussion instrument, a sustained sound, \"over the value of the written note.\" Timpani roll Rolls on timpani are almost exclusively single-stroked. Due to the instruments' resonance, a fairly open roll is usually used, although the exact rate at which a roll is played depends greatly on the acoustic conditions, the size of the drum, the pitch to which is it tuned and the sticks being used. Higher pitches on timpani require a faster roll to maintain a sustained sound; some timpanists", "-25.606993927038275" ], [ "portable external hard disk drives, optical discs, and storage available through computer networks such as cloud storage. Prevalence Floppy disks became commonplace during the 1980s and 1990s in their use with personal computers to distribute software, transfer data, and create backups. Before hard disks became affordable to the general population, floppy disks were often used to store a computer's operating system (OS). Most home computers from that period have an elementary OS and BASIC stored in ROM, with the option of loading a more advanced operating system from a floppy disk.\nBy the early 1990s, the increasing software size meant large", "-25.56505432864651" ], [ "data to a disk was done by converting 256-byte pages into sets of 5-bit (later, 6-bit) nibbles and loading disk data required the reverse. Moreover, 1982 documentation for the Integrated Woz Machine refers consistently to an \"8 bit nibble\". The term byte once had the same ambiguity and meant a set of bits but not necessarily 8, hence the distinction of bytes and octets or of nibbles and quartets (or quadbits). Today, the terms 'byte' and 'nibble' almost always refer to 8-bit and 4-bit collections respectively and are very rarely used to express any other sizes. Low and high nibbles", "-25.563943933229893" ], [ "the boundary of the surface which is necessarily a one-manifold, that is, the union of closed curves. On the other hand, a point mapped to above the x-axis is an interior point. The collection of interior points is the interior of the surface which is always non-empty. The closed disk is a simple example of a surface with boundary. The boundary of the disc is a circle.\nThe term surface used without qualification refers to surfaces without boundary. In particular, a surface with empty boundary is a surface in the usual sense. A surface with empty boundary which is compact is", "-25.54857828025706" ], [ "records, which had a single round surface capable of holding approximately two minutes of sound. Early shellac disc records records only had recordings on one side of the disc, with a similar capacity (both media could hold between three and four minutes by 1910). Double-sided recordings, with one selection on each side, were introduced in Europe by Columbia Records in 1908, and by 1910 most record labels had adopted the format in both Europe and the United States; the ability to effectively double the amount of sound on the disc was one major factor in its rising to dominance over", "-25.539855903945863" ], [ "was a manufacturer of 3-inch disk drives, and stated in advertisements, \"It's clear that the 3\" floppy will become the new standard.\"\nThe format was widely used by Amstrad in their CPC and PCW computers, and (after Amstrad took over manufacture of the line) the Sinclair ZX Spectrum +3. It was also adopted by some other manufacturers/systems such as Sega, the Tatung Einstein, and Timex of Portugal in the FDD and FDD-3000 disk drives. Despite this, the format was not a major success.\nThree-inch diskettes bear much similarity to the 3½-inch size, but with some unique features. One example is the", "-25.52575350785628" ], [ "Flatiron (geomorphology) Traditionally in geomorphology, a flatiron is a steeply sloping triangular landform created by the differential erosion of a steeply dipping, erosion-resistant layer of rock overlying softer strata. Flatirons have wide bases that form the base of a steep, triangular facet that narrows upward into a point at its summit. The dissection of a hogback by regularly spaced streams often resulted in the formation of a series of flatirons along the strike of the rock layer that formed the hogback. As noted in some, but not all definitions, a number of flatirons are perched upon the slope of a", "-25.510896062274696" ], [ "DiscT@2 DiscT@2 (read aloud as \"disc tattoo\") is a method of writing text and graphics to the data side of a CD-R or DVD disc first introduced by Yamaha in 2002. While often compared with the later LabelFlash and LightScribe technologies, which also offered users consumer-grade computerized disc labeling, DiscT@2 is different in that it required no proprietary media and wrote the graphics to the data side of the disc. Technical details Any CD-R or DVD disc can be engraved by a compatible optical drive, and read by any optical drive. However, as discs can be made from multiple different", "-25.49734912806889" ], [ "Cartesian oval In geometry, a Cartesian oval, named after René Descartes, is a plane curve, the set of points that have the same linear combination of distances from two fixed points. Definition Let P and Q be fixed points in the plane, and let d(P,S) and d(Q,S) denote the Euclidean distances from these points to a third variable point S. Let m and a be arbitrary real numbers. Then the Cartesian oval is the locus of points S satisfying d(P,S) + m d(Q,S) = a. The two ovals formed by the four equations d(P,S) + m d(Q,S) = ±", "-25.482847372812103" ], [ "scratches and do not need a caddy.\nCaddies may be an integral part of the medium, as in some DVD-RAM discs, or separately attached. Examples Caddies date at least to the Capacitance Electronic Disc, which used a caddy from 1976 to protect the grooves of the disc.\nSome early CD-ROM drives used a mechanism where CDs had to be inserted into special cartridges or caddies, somewhat similar in appearance to a jewel case. Although the idea behind this—a tougher plastic shell to protect the disc from damage—was sound, it did not gain wide acceptance among disc manufacturers. Drives that used the caddy", "-25.462287149508484" ], [ "floppy disks and CD-ROMs (and other disk formats) are known as disk images. Images copied from optical media are also called ISO images, after one of the standard file systems for optical media, ISO 9660.\nCreating images from other media is often considerably easier and can often be performed with off-the-shelf hardware. For example, the creation of tape images from games stored on magnetic tapes (from, for example, the Sinclair ZX80 computer) generally involves simply playing the magnetic tape using a standard audio tape player connected to the line-in of a PC sound card. This is then recorded to an audio", "-25.45193122231285" ], [ "judge distance from the center of the diamond. Occasionally the ball may take a tricky bounce off the dirt area or the edge between the dirt and the grass. Multiple World Series championships (including 1924, 1960 and 1986) have been decided or heavily influenced by erratic hops of ground balls.\nIn artificial turf stadiums, infield dirt was originally only placed in five-sided areas around the bases and around the pitcher's and batting areas, which are referred to as \"sliding pits\". In this configuration, the \"grass line\" is usually designated with a white arc. Among Major League Baseball fields, Rogers Centre", "-25.43571124789014" ], [ "Fuzzy bit Explanation and application A fuzzy bit may be an unwanted side effect of a defective storage medium or reader, but can also be a deliberately generated effect. For example, in the 1980's and 1990's, with magnetic media such as floppy disks such bits were deliberately created by poor formatting to serve as a copy protection mechanism. An example of this is the game Dungeon Master, in which inconsistency in multiple read access to such a bit was checked when loading the software and was a prerequisite for operation. Since usual floppy disk drives could not produce such bits,", "-25.43327894878894" ], [ "were a function of the host's OS and its interaction with its controller so that a particular type of media (e.g., 5¼-inch DSDD) would have different block sizes depending upon the host OS and controller.\nOptical discs generally only use fixed block sizes. Low-level formatting (LLF) of hard disks Hard disk drives prior to the 1990s typically had a separate disk controller that defined how data was encoded on the media. With the media, the drive and/or the controller possibly procured from separate vendors, users were often able to perform low-level formatting. Separate procurement also had the potential of incompatibility between", "-25.43154718738515" ], [ "cards. Types of hubs The structural differences between a CD and a DVD have led many manufacturers to study different hub designs for keeping the DVD (or the DVDs, in multi-disc cases) in place: unlike CDs, which are made from one layer of plastic material, DVDs have two layers, which are thinner (so that together they reach the same thickness of a CD) and not bonded all the way to the center. As a result, a DVD hub is weaker than a CD's, and may be damaged if stored in a case which is designed for CDs only.\nIn addition to", "-25.42266769775597" ], [ "Rolling ball sculpture Characteristics Rolling ball sculpture art typically includes rails or tracks made of metal, wood, plastic, or other material, and one or more balls or marbles that travel down the tracks. Ball types include, but are not limited to, steel, acrylic, wood and glass. Rolling ball sculptures are often described as being both busy and soothing at the same time. They are an artistic form of mechanical motion.\nRolling ball sculptures rarely use circular-cross-sectioned tubes for the runs; tubes can induce balls to oscillate in ways that can introduce unpredictable delays; because of this, most sculptures use parallel", "-25.417478642310016" ], [ "and balls are recirculated through various types of return mechanisms. If the ball nut did not have a return mechanism the balls would fall out of the end of the ball nut when they reached the end of the nut. For this reason several different recirculation methods have been developed.\nAn external ballnut employs a stamped tube which picks up balls from the raceway by use of a small pick up finger. Balls travel inside of the tube and are then replaced back in the thread raceway.\nAn internal button ballnut employs a machined or cast button style return", "-25.417321987013565" ], [ "(e.g. three tickets, or three pieces of paper), mai 枚, being the counter unit term for flat objects in Japanese.", "-25.408302490017377" ], [ "Sphere bundle In the mathematical field of topology, a sphere bundle is a fiber bundle in which the fibers are spheres of some dimension n. Similarly, in a disk bundle, the fibers are disks . From a topological perspective, there is no difference between sphere bundles and disk bundles: this is a consequence of the Alexander trick, which implies \nAn example of a sphere bundle is the torus, which is orientable and has fibers over an base space. The non-orientable Klein bottle also has fibers over an base space, but has a twist that produces", "-25.36309772275854" ], [ "specifying that certain notes are flat or sharp throughout the piece, unless otherwise indicated with accidentals added before certain notes. When a sharp is placed before a note, this makes that note one semitone higher. When a flat is placed before a note, this makes that note one semitone lower. Double sharps and double flats are less common, but they are used. A double sharp is placed before a note to make it two semitones higher. A double flat is placed before a note to make it two semitones lower. A natural sign placed before a note renders that note", "-25.3515911718423" ], [ "disk. More generally, a n-sphere is null-cobordant since it bounds a (n + 1)-disk. Also, every orientable surface is null-cobordant, because it is the boundary of a handlebody. On the other hand, the 2n-dimensional real projective space is a (compact) closed manifold that is not the boundary of a manifold, as is explained below.\nThe general bordism problem is to calculate the cobordism classes of manifolds subject to various conditions.\nNull-cobordisms with additional structure are called fillings. \"Bordism\" and \"cobordism\" are used by some authors interchangeably; others distinguish them. When one wishes to distinguish the study of cobordism classes from the study of", "-25.3484740620479" ], [ "sphere and hardened. They are the most durable kind of ball but their performance is limited by the properties of the resin. These balls are also the cheapest and often available as rentals at park golf courses.\nTwo-piece balls have an inner core and outer covering made of different materials. By combining two materials, the advantages of both can be used in the same ball. For example, a ball may have a durable resin core, while the outer layer offers a better feeling to the player hitting the ball. In this way, the two-piece ball improves on the one-piece ball. However,", "-25.347903085465077" ], [ "certain spots assigned to each.\nThere are two main types of racks; the more common triangular type which is used in eight-ball, fifteen-ball, straight pool and many other games, and a diamond-shaped one, is used in nine-ball (for convenience; nine-ball can easily be racked up in a triangular rack, and most venues do not provide diamonds for racking). Special hexagonal racks are available for seven-ball, but the diamond rack can actually be used, sideways, for racking this game. Cues All cue sports (with the exception of cueless offshoots known as finger billiards and hand pool) are of course played with a", "-25.33925233577611" ], [ "Ballas Ballas or shot bort is a term used in the diamond industry to refer to shards of non-gem-grade and -quality diamonds. It comprises small diamond crystals that are concentrically arranged in rough spherical stones with a fibrous texture. Ballas is hard, tough, and difficult to cleave. It is mostly found in Brazil and South Africa.", "-25.244191025092732" ] ]

[ "It's standard imperial measurement. 1 cup=1/2 pint (8 oz.) 1/2 cup= 4 oz. 1/4 cup= 2 oz. 1/8 cup= 1 tablespoon Many measuring cups in the US are glass, and have both imperial and metric measurements marked. Funnily enough, I've gotten used to the metric measurement because I'm left handed, and the metric measurements are on what would be the \"opposite\" side for a right handed pourer.", "The American \"cup\" (also used in Liberia) is a fixed measure of volume. To you Europeans, it's about 2 1/3 deciliters - though it's very frequently rounded up to 2.5 dL in your recipes. It's also a little confusing because a coffee \"cup\" is 5 fluid ounces (1.5 dL), and a British imperial \"cup\" is 9.6 fluid ounces (2.8 dL). Anyway, prior to standardization -- such as it is -- the \"cup\" was a handy way in much of the world to measure ingredients. Everyone had one and if you used the same size cup throughout your baking, you'd always have the proper ratio of ingredients even if you had no idea what the actual volume of the cup was. It also eliminated the need for a scale and weights (which would have been somewhat bulky, and kind of pricey).", "Alton Brown explained in his Cupcake episode that cup size measurements came from American colonists not having fancy scales to weigh things with. So recipes came to be in cups which were more easily obtained. I don't know if this is apocryphal or not.", "You need to double check if you see 'cup' in a recipe, usually if it's an American recipe intended for household use it will refer to a customary cup. (approx 237 ml) but if it's for an industrial process or large-scale catering they may use a US legal cup (240 ml) and if it's a British recipe using imperial measurements it will have British Imperial Cups (284 ml). The difference between the two US versions are negligible, so shouldn't make a difference in cooking, not even in baking, but the British one is different enough to cause problems in recipes calling for accuracy if you confuse them. It happens quite often that recipe books and websites translate the terms across the pond as if they were the same when they are not and that can mess with ratios if a mixture of units are used." ]

[ [ "Fay-Miss (renamed in 1935 as the Bali Brassiere Company), followed, offering A, B, C, and D cup sizes in the late 1930s. Catalog companies continued to use the designations Small, Medium, and Large through the 1940s. Britain did not adopt the American cups in 1933, and resisted using cup sizes for its products until 1948. The Sears Company finally applied cup sizes to bras in its catalog in the 1950s. Band measurement origins Adjustable bands were introduced using multiple hook and eye closures in the 1930s. Prior to the widespread use of bras, the undergarment of choice for Western women", "-30.62118146987632" ], [ "size, reduced to 0.8 oz. in 1991), the \"King Size\" four-pack introduced in the early 1980s is a 0.7 oz. cup (originally a 0.8 oz. cup until 1991) and the \"Lunch\" eight-pack is a 0.55 oz. cup. \"Large Size\" packs of three 0.7 oz. cups, as well as bags containing 0.6 oz. cups, are also available. The \"mini\" cups come in various bag sizes and foil colors for seasonal themes like red, gold and green for the Christmas holiday season. In Canada, where they are packaged as Reese Peanut Butter Cups (except Reese's pieces), but still widely referred to", "-29.59901505050948" ], [ "as coffee cups or safety pins that are extremely large compared to their normal sizes. Kevoian likewise keeps a collection of these \"large\" items in his studio.", "-28.49887128127739" ], [ "America's Cup History The Cup is an ornate sterling silver bottomless ewer crafted in 1848 by Garrard & Co. Henry William Paget, 1st Marquess of Anglesey bought one and donated it for the Royal Yacht Squadron's 1851 Annual Regatta around the Isle of Wight.\nIt was originally known as the \"R.Y.S. £100 Cup\", standing for a cup of a hundred GB Pounds or \"sovereigns\" in value. The cup was subsequently mistakenly engraved as the \"100 Guinea Cup\" by the America syndicate, but was also referred to as the \"Queen's Cup\" (a guinea is an old monetary unit of one pound and", "-28.167977874632925" ], [ "the world prefers metric measurement by weight, though the preference for volume measurements continues among home cooks in the United States (\"almost exclusively\"),, India , Pakistan and the rest of North America. Different ingredients are measured in different ways:\nLiquid ingredients are generally measured by volume worldwide.\nDry bulk ingredients, such as sugar and flour, are measured by weight in most of the world (\"250 g flour\"), and by volume in North America (\"1/2 cup flour\"). Small quantities of salt and spices are generally measured by volume worldwide, as few households have sufficiently precise balances to measure by weight.\nMeats are", "-27.89914495474659" ], [ "Cupcone History Although the origins of the recipe and the first use of the term are unclear, cupcones and cupcake cones have been a party favorite in recent history. The term cupcone is used to describe a cupcake product cooked in a flat bottomed ice cream cone instead of a paper cup in order to eliminate the waste paper after consumption. Described as a way to be more earth friendly, the cupcone takes its name from the common recipe of a cake whose ingredients were measured by volume, using a standard cup, instead of being weighed. Recipes whose ingredients", "-27.87791802198626" ], [ "The most famous digest-sized magazine is Reader's Digest, from which the size appears to have been named. TV Guide also used the format from its inception in 1953 until 2005. CoffeeHouse Digest is a national magazine distributed free of charge at coffeehouses throughout the United States. Bird Watcher's Digest is an international magazine that has retained the digest size since its creation in 1978.\nDigest size is less popular now than it once was. TV Guide dropped it in favor of a larger format. The science fiction magazines Analog and Asimov's had switched to a format slightly larger than digest size", "-27.80761645338498" ], [ "holdback. World record On August 27, 2004, Bruegger's created the world's largest bagel, which currently holds the Guinness World Record. The bagel weighed 868 pounds (394 kg) and required 1,100 pounds (500 kg) of dough, 900 US gallons (3,400 l; 750 imp gal) of water, and 10 hours of baking. It was cooked at the New York State Fair and was sliced and served to onlookers, who were encouraged to make donations to benefit local food banks.", "-27.776330771273933" ], [ "Cooking weights and measures In recipes, quantities of ingredients may be specified by mass (commonly called weight), by volume, or by count.\nFor most of history, most cookbooks did not specify quantities precisely, instead talking of \"a nice leg of spring lamb\", a \"cupful\" of lentils, a piece of butter \"the size of a walnut\", and \"sufficient\" salt. Informal measurements such as a \"pinch\", a \"drop\", or a \"hint\" (soupçon) continue to be used from time to time. In the US, Fannie Farmer introduced the more exact specification of quantities by volume in her 1896 Boston Cooking-School Cook Book.\nToday, most of", "-27.76725958904717" ], [ "American Cookery American Cookery, by Amelia Simmons, is the first known cookbook written by an American, published in Hartford, Connecticut in 1796. Until then, the cookbooks printed and used in the Thirteen Colonies were British. Its full title is: American Cookery, or the art of dressing viands, fish, poultry, and vegetables, and the best modes of making pastes, puffs, pies, tarts, puddings, custards, and preserves, and all kinds of cakes, from the imperial plum to plain cake: Adapted to this country, and all grades of life.\nSimmons' American Cookery used terms known to Americans, and ingredients that were readily available to", "-27.65926686814055" ], [ "The Big 5 History The Big 5 has its origins in an event known as Arab Water and came about from an amalgamation of five separate product-focused events that all had a link to the construction sector - such as HVAC and building materials.\nWith the building of the Dubai World Trade Centre, which began to develop in the late 1970s, the event found a permanent home and has expanded in size along with the venue. When dmg events Middle East, Asia & Africa acquired the exhibition in 2000, the event covered some 12,000m²: this has risen to a current figure", "-27.522355107255862" ], [ "edition of the London Gazette. Culinary measure In some countries, a teaspoon (occasionally \"teaspoonful\") is a cooking measure of volume, especially widely used in cooking recipes and pharmaceutic medical prescriptions. In English it is abbreviated as tsp. or, less often, as t., ts., or tspn. The abbreviation is never capitalized because a capital letter is customarily reserved for the larger tablespoon (\"Tbsp.\", \"T.\", \"Tbls.\", or \"Tb.\") Metric teaspoon The metric teaspoon as a unit of culinary measure is 5 mL, equal to 5 cm³; that is, ​¹⁄₃ UK/Canadian metric tablespoon, or ​¹⁄₄ Australian metric tablespoon. United States customary unit As", "-27.51432362025662" ], [ "cups; however, they were more commonly baked in tins as layers or loaves. In later years, when the use of volume measurements was firmly established in home kitchens, these recipes became known as 1234 cakes or quarter cakes, so called because they are made up of four ingredients: one cup of butter, two cups of sugar, three cups of flour, and four eggs. They are plain yellow cakes, somewhat less rich and less expensive than pound cake, due to using about half as much butter and eggs compared to pound cake.\nThe names of these two major classes of cakes were", "-27.470277439570054" ], [ "Masterpieces\". Recent lid designs like the Viora have improved on Solo Traveler's design, which has too small a vent to allow sufficient air to enter while drinking. Louise Harpman, co-owner of the world's largest collection of coffee cup lids and co-author of the book Coffee Lids (Princeton Architectural Press, 2018), suggests that coffee cup lids \"represent a major shift in American 'to-go' culture\". Cafe drinkware There are cafe cups in various sizes, standardised to reflect paper cup sizes. They are typically 225, 336, 460 and sometimes 570 ml. Slight variation is to be expected among various coffeehouses, but these sizes", "-27.44602194451727" ], [ "inside table (part of the dinette) and the gas stove can be taken outside and attached to the side of the camper. Dimensions Modern pop-ups range in weight from approximately 700 pounds (320 kg) to 3,800 pounds (1,700 kg) pounds empty or full. Models are generally classified by the length of their box, which ranges from 8 feet (2.4 m) to 16 feet (4.9 m). When opened, the length is roughly double the box length. Most pop-ups are between 7 feet (2.1 m) and 7 feet 6 inches (2.29 m) in width and between 4 feet 6 inches (1.37 m) and 5 feet (1.5 m) in height when closed, but “high wall”", "-27.241972300515044" ], [ "cups throughout Europe, with notable examples including silver cups in Wales and a color-changing glass cup in ancient Thrace. In England, cups have been discovered which date back to several thousand years, including the Rillaton Gold Cup, about 3,700 years old. Cups were used in the Americas several centuries prior to the European arrivals. Around the Gulf of Mexico, Native American societies used the Horse conch for drinking cups, among other purposes. Cultural significance and use of cups Since cups have been an integral part of dining since time immemorial, they have become a valued part of human culture. The", "-27.146587673807517" ], [ "that was not available in the standard kitchen of the early 20th century. A distinctive feature of the Hoosier cabinet is its many moving parts and accessories. As originally supplied, they were equipped with various racks and other hardware to hold and organize spices and various staples. One particularly distinctive item is the combination flour-bin/sifter, a hopper that could be used without having to remove it from the cabinet. A similar sugar bin was also common. Additional accessories and innovations were added over the years. Special glass jars were manufactured to fit the cabinet and its racks. Original sets of", "-27.06823565630475" ], [ "to competition from locally owned mom-and-pop specialty stores as well as increased competition from grocery stores, caused a sharp decline in the company's prospects and stock price in 2013.\nGeorgetown Cupcake was the first cupcakery to open in Washington, D.C. The cupcake shop gained widespread publicity after the 2010 premier of TLC's DC Cupcakes, a six-part reality show about the shop and its owners, sisters Sophie LaMontagne and Katherine Kallinis.\nBased in Beverly Hills, California, Sprinkles Cupcakes is owned by Candace Nelson, who is also a star judge on the Food Network's Cupcake Wars, and her husband, Charles Nelson. Sprinkles is", "-26.99055995582603" ], [ "size is increasing,\nleading to a higher demand for larger sizes. Over a 10-year period, the most common size purchased in the UK went from 34B to 36C. In 2001, 27% of UK sales were D or larger.\nThe 2000s brought two large design changes to the bra. The molded one-piece, seamless bra cup became ubiquitous. They are heat-molded around round forms of synthetic fibers or foam that keeps their rounded shape. This construction can include padded bras, contour bras and so-called T-shirt bras. Also new and ubiquitous in the 2000s was the popularity of printed designs such as floral or patterned", "-26.896137731790077" ], [ "and later renamed the \"Dixie Cup\".\nSingle-use cone cups were followed by the commercialization of single-use plates and bowls, wooden cutlery, and paper food wraps. By the 1930s these products were widely used to feed the men and women who worked on the remote dams, bridges and roads of the Works Progress Administration. In the 1940s they were used to feed defense factory workers.\nAfter World War II, foodservice packaging materials like plastic and polystyrene foam were developed. The unique properties of these materials (insulation and weight reduction) and their ability to be made into a variety of shapes and sizes,", "-26.856257605482824" ], [ "companies (Addition-Elle, MXM, Pennington's) on its pages.\nVogue U.S. has faltered on the continued use of recognisable plus-size models for the annual \"Shape Issue\" (April) issue; however British vocalist Adele appeared on the March 2012 cover as the first overtly larger-sized cover subject since sportsman LeBron James in April 2008. U.S. Glamour has declared it will feature more plus-size models as editorial policy after the appearance of a small photograph of model Lizzie Miller caused a groundswell of positive comment.\nElle Quebec featured plus-size models three times on its cover: in May 1997, May 2013 and June 2014.\nHigh fashion print publication V", "-26.82553628855385" ], [ "appearance The first known appearance of the term is in correspondence by Bank of the United States head Nicholas Biddle, who wrote of the presidential advisors that \"the kitchen ... predominate[s] over the Parlor.\" The first appearance in publication was March 13, 1832 by Mississippi Senator George Poindexter, in an article in the Calhounite Telegraph defending his vote against Van Buren as minister to Great Britain:\nThe President's press, edited under his own eye, by a 'pair of deserters from the Clay party' [Kendall and Blair] and a few others, familiarly known by the appellation of the 'Kitchen Cabinet,' is made", "-26.72716555930674" ], [ "by their American name, they come in a standard pack of three 0.55 oz. cups or the king-size variation with four cups. In the United Kingdom and Ireland, they were originally available only in two-packs, though are now only available in three-packs, imported from Canada. In 2008 Reese's Peanut Butter Cups were made available in Europe by Hydro Texaco and 7-Eleven. In Australia, Reese's products can be found in many specialty candy stores, as well as from American stores such as Costco.\nIn the 1970s and 1980s, a series of commercials were run for Reese's Peanut Butter Cups featuring situations in", "-26.66845503973309" ], [ "Fish House Punch History This most venerable of American flowing bowls is held to have been first concocted in 1732 at Philadelphia's fishing club, the State in Schuylkill, also known as the \"Fish House\".\nA 1744 note by the secretary of an embassy of Virginia Commissioners contains what may be the earliest record of the punch. Meeting local notables at the Schuylkill River in Philadelphia, he described being served \"a Bowl of fine Lemon Punch big enough to have Swimmed half a dozen of young Geese.\"\nAmerica's first president, George Washington, was known to be fond of a drink or two, and", "-26.663752497988753" ], [ "were measured using a standard-sized cup could also be baked in cups; however, they were more commonly baked in tins as layers or loaves. In later years, when the use of volume measurements was firmly established in home kitchens, these recipes became known as 1234 cakes or quarter cakes, so called because they are made up of four ingredients in equal ratios; butter, sugar, eggs and flour. They are plain yellow cakes, somewhat less rich and less expensive than pound cake, due to the reduced proportion of butter. The names of these two major classes of cakes were intended to", "-26.645021411735797" ], [ "Illinois, the largest ketchup packet was created by H. J. Heinz Company for a fundraiser for the Collinsville Christian Academy. People could buy a bottle of ketchup for $1 to add to the ketchup packet. After it was filled, it weighed 1,500 lbs. and it was 8 ft × 4 ft (2.4 m × 1.2 m) across and 9.5 in (240 mm) thick.\nAnnual production of ketchup packets by Heinz alone is 11 billion.", "-26.533649871547823" ], [ "Serving size A serving size or portion size is the amount of a food or drink that is generally served. \nA distinction is made between a portion size as determined by an external agent, such as a food manufacturer, chef, or restaurant, and a 'self selected portion size' in which an individual has control over the portion in a meal or snack. Self-selected portion size is determined by several factors such as the palatability of a food and the extent to which it is expected to reduce hunger and to generate fullness (see expected satiety). Measurement Bulk products, such as", "-26.531573430620483" ], [ "The Original Pancake House History The first Original Pancake House opened in 1953 in Portland, Oregon, by Les Highet and Erma Hueneke, who collected recipes for their restaurant from around the world. They soon franchised the name and recipes into locations spanning over more than half of the U.S. states. They are known for their breakfast foods; their signature dishes are the Apple Pancake, Dutch Baby, German Pancake and omelets. They have over 100 franchised locations throughout the United States, and are located from Seattle\nto Edgewater, from Wilmette,\nto Williamsville,\nfrom Honolulu\nto its headquarters in Portland.\nChef and food critic James", "-26.527248005149886" ], [ "Tablespoon A tablespoon is a large spoon used for serving. In many English-speaking regions, the term now refers to a large spoon used for serving, however, in some regions, including parts of Canada, it is the largest type of spoon used for eating. \nBy extension, the term is also used as a cooking measure of volume. In this capacity, it is most commonly abbreviated tbsp. or T., and occasionally referred to as a tablespoonful to distinguish it from the utensil. The unit of measurement varies by region: a United States tablespoon is approximately 14.8 mL (0.50 US fl oz), a United Kingdom and Canadian", "-26.511236578342505" ], [ "but that of Hannah Glasse was extended without challenge over our fire-sides and dinner-tables, with a sway far more imperative and absolute\". The first American edition of The Art of Cookery (1805) included two recipes for \"Indian pudding\" as well as \"Several New Receipts adapted to the American Mode of Cooking\", such as \"Pumpkin Pie\", \"Cranberry Tarts\" and \"Maple Sugar\". Benjamin Franklin is said to have had some of the recipes translated into French for his cook while he was the American ambassador in Paris. Both George Washington and Thomas Jefferson owned copies of the book.\nFood critic John Hess and", "-26.48269405402243" ], [ "Little Hug Little Hug Fruit Barrels is a brand of soft drink manufactured by American Beverage Corporation introduced in 1974. The drink is bottled in plastic 8-ounce shaped bottles with foil caps. It is also available in 16-ounce bottles with sports caps as Big Hug. In recent years, the company created a formula which uses less sugar for a healthier alternative that is currently being sold. The more recent packaging comes with the addition of straws.\nIn 2015, Royal Wessanen sold American Beverage Corporation to Harvest Hill Beverage, owner of Juicy Juice.", "-26.437283326638862" ], [ "Cook's Illustrated History Founder and former editor Christopher Kimball launched Cook's magazine in 1980 with money raised from investors. Kimball eventually sold Cook's to Condé Nast Publications, which discontinued the magazine in 1989. Kimball later reacquired rights to the name, hired several former Cook's staff members, and launched a rebranded Cook's Illustrated in 1993.\nCirculation grew from an initial 25,000 to 600,000 in 2004 and one million subscribers in 2007, maintaining a growth rate substantially higher than the general category of cooking magazines. In 2009, Cook's Illustrated magazine had 1.2 million subscribers, a figure that grew by 11% on average over", "-26.42020130669698" ], [ "USA. Before the Cookbook's publication, other American recipes frequently called for amounts such as \"a piece of butter the size of an egg\" or \"a teacup of milk.\" Farmer's systematic discussion of measurement — \"A cupful is measured level ... A tablespoonful is measured level. A teaspoonful is measured level.\" — led to her being named \"the mother of level measurements.\"\nFarmer left the Boston Cooking School in 1902 and created Miss Farmer's School of Cookery. She began by teaching gentlewomen and housewives the rudiments of plain and fancy cooking, but her interests eventually led her to develop a complete work", "-26.391132618417032" ], [ "a different weight from a bushel of wheat (weighed at a specific moisture level). Indeed, the bushel, the best-known unit of dry measure because it is the quoted unit in commodity markets, is in fact a unit of mass in those contexts.\nConversely, the ton used in specifying tonnage and in freight calculations is often a volume measurement rather than a mass measurement.\nIn US cooking, dry and liquid measures are the same: the cup, the tablespoon, the teaspoon.\nUS dry measures are 16% larger than liquid measures; this is advantageous when cooking with fresh produce, as a dry pint of vegetables", "-26.299970543943346" ], [ "states that while a voluntary consensus of sizes exists, there is much confusion to the 'true' size of clothing. As a result, bra measurement can be considered an art and a science. Online shopping and in-person bra shopping experiences may differ because online recommendations are based on averages and in-person shopping can be completely personalized so the shopper may easily try on band sizes above and below her between measured band size. For the woman with a large cup size and a between band size, they may find their cup size is not available in local stores so may have", "-26.2765546401788" ], [ "sized bubbles. However, there is no hard evidence for this view. Other bottle sizes, mostly named for Biblical figures, are generally filled with Champagne that has been fermented in standard bottles or magnums. Gosset still bottles its Grande Réserve in jeroboam from the beginning of its second fermentation.\nSizes larger than Jeroboam (3 L) are rare. Primat bottles (27 L)—and, as of 2002, Melchizedek bottles (30 L)—are exclusively offered by the House Drappier. (The same names are used for bottles containing regular wine and port; however, Jeroboam, Rehoboam, and Methuselah refer to different bottle volumes.)\nUnique sizes have been made for special", "-26.2227147272788" ], [ "took their name from the cups they were baked in. This is the use of the name that has remained, and the name of \"cupcake\" is now given to any small, round cake that is about the size of a teacup. While English fairy cakes vary in size more than American cupcake, they are traditionally smaller and are rarely topped with elaborate icing.\nThe other kind of \"cup cake\" referred to a cake whose ingredients were measured by volume, using a standard-sized cup, instead of being weighed. Recipes whose ingredients were measured using a standard-sized cup could also be baked in", "-26.218107959255576" ], [ "them to the American colonies.\nThe term Catchup was used in 1690 in the Dictionary of the Canting Crew which was well acclaimed in North America. The spelling \"catchup\" may have also been used in the past. Mushroom ketchup In the United Kingdom, preparations of ketchup were historically and originally prepared with mushrooms as a primary ingredient, rather than tomatoes. Ketchup recipes began to appear in British and then American cookbooks in the 18th century. In a 1742 London cookbook, the fish sauce had already taken on a very British flavor, with the addition of shallots and mushrooms. The mushrooms soon", "-26.20066737307934" ], [ "than its size; because intip is created from the inner bottom of cooking vessel, its size is larger than rengginang.", "-26.1483737367671" ], [ "inches. Some French soldiers carried their favorite bagatelle tables with them to America while helping to fight the British in the American Revolutionary War. Bagatelle spread and became so popular in America as well that a political cartoon from 1863 depicts US President Abraham Lincoln playing a small tabletop version of bagatelle against presidential rival George B. McClellan.\nThe world's largest bagatelle board is believed to be one made by 5th Chislehurst Scout Group in 2016. It measures four by sixteen feet.", "-26.12846356164664" ], [ "Digest size Digest size is a magazine size, smaller than a conventional or \"journal size\" magazine but larger than a standard paperback book, approximately 14 cm × 21 cm (5 ¹⁄₂ by 8 ¹⁄₄ inches), but can also be 13.65 cm × 21.27 cm (5 ³⁄₈ by 8 ³⁄₈ inches) and 14 cm × 19 cm (5 ¹⁄₂ by 7 ¹⁄₂ inches), similar to the size of DVD case. These sizes have evolved from the printing press operation end. Some printing presses refer to digest-size as a \"catalog size\". The digest format was considered to be a convenient size for readers to tote around or to leave on the coffee table within easy reach. Examples", "-26.11074159067357" ], [ "a unit of culinary measure, one teaspoon in the United States is ​¹⁄₃ tablespoon, that is, exactly 4.92892159375 mL; it is exactly 1 ​¹⁄₃ US fluid drams, ​¹⁄₆ US fl oz, ​¹⁄₄₈ US cup, and ​¹⁄₇₆₈ US liquid gallon and ​⁷⁷⁄₂₅₆ or 0.30078125 cubic inches. \nFor nutritional labeling and medicine in the US, the teaspoon is defined the same as a metric teaspoon—precisely 5 millilitres (mL). Dry ingredients For dry ingredients, if a recipe calls for a level teaspoon of a (salt, flour, etc.), this refers to an approximately leveled filling of the spoon, producing the same volume as for", "-26.06604575831443" ], [ "Glass bottles Heinz introduced its octagonal glass bottle for the first time in 1889; the bottle was patented in 1890. While other glass bottle designs have existed, the octagonal glass bottle is still in use and is considered an \"iconic\" example of package design. In the United States, the glass bottle commonly used by restaurants holds 14 ounces (400 g) of ketchup. A small bottle containing about 2.25 ounces (64 g) of ketchup also exists for hotel room service and other situations where it is desirable to serve individual meals with a more personal or luxurious presentation than might be perceived with", "-25.9722138477955" ], [ "190 ml can, but iced coffee cans tend to be short and fat and contain 280 ml. American-sized (350 ml) cans are almost non-existent, although Dydo produces one of that size called \"American Coffee\". Barrel-shaped cans are also fairly popular, while an aspect of the Roots' marketing campaign is the company's unique \"waist-shaped\" can. A new kind of cone top type can with a twist-off cap has appeared in recent years, and many companies offer at least one of their coffee types in this kind of container.\nCommemorative cans are quite common in Japan, for major events such as the Tokyo", "-25.962409660423873" ], [ "Cup A cup is an open-top container used to hold liquids for pouring or drinking; it also can be used to store solids for pouring (e.g., sugar, flour, grains). Cups may be made of glass, metal, china, clay, wood, stone, polystyrene, plastic, aluminium or other materials, and are usually fixed with a stem, handles, or other adornments. Cups are used for quenching thirst across a wide range of cultures and social classes, and different styles of cups may be used for different liquids or in different situations. Cups of different styles may be used for different types of liquids or", "-25.95418842381332" ], [ "Cupcake History The earliest extant description of what is now often called a cupcake was in 1796, when a recipe for \"a light cake to bake in small cups\" was written in American Cookery by Amelia Simmons. The earliest extant documentation of the term cupcake itself was in \"Seventy-five Receipts for Pastry, Cakes, and Sweetmeats\" in 1828 in Eliza Leslie's Receipts cookbook.\nIn the early 19th century, there were two different uses for the term cup cake or cupcake. In previous centuries, before muffin tins were widely available, the cakes were often baked in individual pottery cups, ramekins, or molds and", "-25.895544010971207" ], [ "and many other commodities in the English colonies. After the American Revolution in 1776, American merchants continued to use the same size barrels. History The measurement of an \"oil barrel\" originated in the early Pennsylvania oil fields. The Drake Well, the first oil well in the US, was drilled in Pennsylvania in 1859, and an oil boom followed in the 1860s. When oil production began, there was no standard container for oil, so oil and petroleum products were stored and transported in barrels of different shapes and sizes. Some of these barrels would originally have been used for other products,", "-25.885818459879374" ], [ "Coffee cupping History Cupping is a traditional practice; in the United States, cupping became a standard industry practice in the late 19th century (in what is retrospectively called the First Wave of American coffee), due to its use by Hills Brothers Coffee of San Francisco.", "-25.82908069784753" ], [ "led to international coverage; including the US and the UK, German and Dutch media. The Daily Telegraph assessed that the \"recipe is most popular on the web\" and that the \"5,000 calorie barbeque dish has become one of the most popular meal ideas in the world.\" Commentary in major publications about the health/obesity of Americans quickly suggested dishes like Bacon Explosion as the reason for \"Why Americans are fat\", while another asserted that it is not something a doctor would recommend. It has also been cited as an example of the use of Web 2.0 technology (Chronister is an", "-25.81076119699719" ], [ "and two spouts were reported as early as 1690 and appear to have developed in response to the new and original nouvelle cuisine. French fashion was highly influential in 18th century England where such sauce boats were copied in English silver, and from the 1740s, in English porcelain.\nSauceboats became an important product for English porcelain factories, particularly as Chinese export porcelain wares were uninspiring. Consequently, the earliest factories, such as Bow, Chelsea, Limehouse, Lunds Bristol, and Worcester, all had sauce boats in their product range.\nDuring the second half of the 18th century, the elaborate early porcelain sauce boat designs were", "-25.72165592201054" ], [ "with a larger diameter at the top than American and British bakers. Shops In the early 21st century, a trend for cupcake shops, which are specialized bakeries that sell little or nothing except cupcakes, developed in the United States, playing off of the sense of nostalgia evoked by the cakes. In New York City, cupcake shops like Magnolia Bakery gained publicity in their appearances on popular television shows like HBO's Sex and the City.\nCrumbs Bake Shop, a publicly traded business running the largest cupcake shop chain in the U.S., reached its peak stock price in 2011. Declining sales, due", "-25.685175623744726" ], [ "well as ingredients familiar in European cuisine, Grigson includes sections on bean sprouts, Chinese artichokes, okra, sweet potato, pignuts and other vegetables less well known among her readership in the 1970s. The longest chapters are those on lettuces (13 pages), spinach and tomatoes (both 18 pages) and potatoes (24 pages).\nIn her preface to the first American edition in 1979, Grigson observed that although British and American cooks found each others' systems of measurement confusing (citing the US use of volume rather than weight for solid ingredients), the two countries were at one in suffering from supermarkets' obsession with the appearance", "-25.68125832307851" ], [ "the amount needed. In other cases, the mix is sold pre-measured in a commonly desired size, such as enough baking mix to make a particular size of cake. Around 2012, most large American manufacturers of cake mixes reduced the size of their standard cake mixes by about 15% by weight, as a result of rising prices for ingredients. This resulted in complaints from some customers about the mix making smaller cakes or fewer cupcakes. Betty Crocker and Pillsbury mixes shrank from 18.25 ounces to 15.25 ounces. However, not all manufacturers followed this trend of reducing", "-25.661070558067877" ], [ "America's Best Cook America's Best Cook is an American cooking show which premiered on Food Network and Food Network Canada. It is hosted by Food Network host Ted Allen. The competition The competition began with 16 chefs, four from each region of the north, south, east, and west. They were each mentored by a mentor from their region. Michael Symon mentored the north, Cat Cora helped the south, Tyler Florence mentored the west, and Alexandra Guarnaschelli helped out the east. After week 1, 8 chefs were eliminated and after that they went one by one until the final four reached", "-25.615997739485465" ], [ "Twelve Cupcakes Name The number '12' is significant in daily lives as there are 12 months in a year, 12 numbers on a clock and 12 holes in a typical baking tray. Hence the name Twelve Cupcakes. History In 2011, Daniel Ong and Jaime Teo started Twelve Cupcakes with Jaime having created the recipes of all the cupcakes sold in the stores. The cupcakes sold were made to suit to the Asian palate, which are less sweet compared to western cupcakes. The first outlet of Twelve Cupcakes was opened at United Square Shopping Mall, in Novena, which started with two", "-25.60504016361665" ], [ "Basic American Foods Basic American Foods is an American food corporation. Overview It was started in 1933 by Jaquelin H. Hume and her brother Bill Hume as a dehydration processing plant in Vacaville, California. In the 1950s, they established a potato processing plant in Blackfoot, Idaho, whereby potato powder could be turned into mashed potatoes by adding boiling water. This technique was used by brands such as Potato Pearls, Golden Grill, Classic Casserole and Savory Series. In 1986, they invented the same technique for beans, for brands such as Santiago Refried Beans and later Santiago Black Beans and Santiago Quick-Start", "-25.57415747368941" ], [ "United States due to its durability and low cost. In 1889, the Hanley pottery was opened, later the Alexander pottery, and in 1891 the Imperial Works Pottery. In 1896, the Trent Sanitary Works was opened for the production of non-tableware products, and Alfred Johnson left the business to establish his own pottery. By 1898, Robert Johnson had relocated to New York City to manage Johnson Brothers' rapid expansion into the North American market. Challenge and response (1900–1960) Johnson Brothers continued its growth in the tableware industry throughout the first half of the 20th century. After 1918, the popular \"Dawn\" range", "-25.558784610708244" ], [ "rather than disposable cups, which is therefore the focus of this article. Sizing and selection Most menstrual cup brands sell a smaller and a larger size. The smaller size is recommended for women under 30 who have not given birth vaginally. The larger size is recommended for women who are over 30, have given birth vaginally, or have a heavy flow. Cups with an even smaller size are recommended for teenagers, as well as women and girls who are more physically fit, as those with stronger pelvic floor muscles may find a larger cup uncomfortable. Length also needs to be", "-25.554111940960865" ], [ "as such: \n\"In 1839, my father was an importer of English Porcelain and earthenware in New York, when he happened to see a French porcelain tea service that had, I know not how, found its way across the Atlantic. My father found the material of this service quite superior to that of the English porcelain and earthenware that had been the object of his trade and thought it would be a good thing to be the first in America to introduce tableware very superior to that in use in his country at that time…he went to France with his", "-25.549904640065506" ], [ "on food, recipes by the magazine, recipes submitted by readers, recipes requested by readers and advice sought by readers. But American Cookery was in black-and-white, printed on newsprint, with smaller pages and content focused on America. Gourmet was upscale, slick, in color, with a focus on Europe and New York City, and most of its recipes carrying French names. Subsequent years Condé Nast bought the magazine in 1983.\nOn October 5, 2009 Condé Nast Publications CEO Chuck Townsend announced that the magazine would cease monthly publication; the company \"will remain committed to the brand, retaining Gourmet’s book publishing and television programming,", "-25.52129998028977" ], [ "the company sold its one millionth Hoosier Cabinet and was clearly the leader in free-standing kitchen cabinets. By 1920, two million had been sold. During its peak years, the company produced nearly 700 cabinets per day, and was the largest manufacturer of kitchen cabinets in the United States.\nFree–standing kitchen cabinets began declining in popularity by 1930, and Hoosier Manufacturing responded by making kitchen cabinets that were meant to be built-in to the home. \nThe company also began manufacturing kitchen tables and breakfast sets. During World War II, supplies and man-power became scarce. The company was sold and liquidated in 1942.", "-25.50356249831384" ], [ "sold in Polar Pop cups (previously called Thirst Busters), available in expanded polystyrene cups. Most American locations offer any size for under one American dollar, except for their 52-ounce or above cups, which are priced at over a dollar. The 52-ounce cups are plastic.\nThe Canadian Froster which was introduced to macs stores in 1998 and became very popular throughout western Canada and Ontario. An American version of the Froster was introduced in 1999 Sponsorship Circle K was a part-time primary sponsor of the No. 28 IndyCar Series racecar driven by Ryan Hunter-Reay of Andretti Autosport between 2011 and 2013. In", "-25.462876988225617" ], [ "are the standard. These are the cups that house mochas, lattes, and other coffee drinks. These cups are also made of porcelain and shaped to encourage and aid in creating latte art. Cappuccino The cappuccino is served in its own cup, a 171 ml porcelain cup served on an accompanying saucer. The size of the cup reflects the traditional cappuccino, a drink with a 1:1:1 ratio. 57 ml espresso, 57 ml steamed milk, 57 ml integrated foam. Demitasse The Demitasse is a cup specially crafted for espresso. It is 60-80 ml in capacity, and usually served on a saucer. The", "-25.435323097510263" ], [ "(1982).\nIn 1996, culinary historian Karen Hess encouraged the publishing of the facsimile edition of the American Cookery's second edition (Albany, 1796) by Applewood Books, and wrote the introduction and historical notes for it. This was the Bicentennial edition of American Cookery, published in 1996. Use of American products American Cookery is the first known cook book that brings together English cooking methods with American products. More specifically, it contains the first known printed recipes with the substitution of American maize (cornmeal) for English oats in otherwise English recipes. The recipe for Johnny Cake is believed to be the first", "-25.433035186229972" ], [ "The Bottle, Alabama History Built in 1924, and billed as \"the world's largest bottle\", The Bottle (sometimes referred to as The \"Nehi Inn\") was built by John F. Williams, owner of the Nehi Bottling Company, in Opelika, Alabama. The Bottle stood 64 feet (19.5 m) tall, and measured forty-nine feet (14.94 m) in diameter at the base, and 16 feet (4.88 m) at the cap. The ground floor was a grocery store and service station, and the second and third floors were living quarters and storage. The neck of the Bottle had windows so as to be used as an observation tower.", "-25.3827098691836" ], [ "oval or round containers are used for plants with informal designs. Many aesthetic guidelines affect the selection of pot finish and color. For example, evergreen bonsai are often placed in unglazed pots, while deciduous trees usually appear in glazed pots. Pots are also distinguished by their size. The overall design of the bonsai tree, the thickness of its trunk, and its height are considered when determining the size of a suitable pot.\nSome pots are highly collectible, like ancient Chinese or Japanese pots made in regions with experienced pot makers such as Tokoname, Japan, or Yixing, China. Today many potters worldwide", "-25.287061383016407" ], [ "Chester teapot The Chester teapot is billed as the \"World's Largest Teapot\", which measures 14 feet (4.3 m) in height by 14 feet (4.3 m) in diameter. Its current location is on the former site of a popular amusement park, Rock Springs Park (1897–1970), off an onramp along U.S. Highway 30 in the City of Chester in Hancock County, West Virginia. History It was originally brought to Chester in 1938 to represent the largest pottery industry in the world at that time. The teapot was originally a Hires Root Beer sign in the shape of a large barrel and was converted into", "-25.278956805821508" ], [ "American cooks. \nIt was the first cookbook to include New England specialties such as Indian pudding, johnnycake, and what is now called pumpkin pie. The cookbook was the first to suggest serving cranberry with turkey, and the first to use the Hudson River Valley Dutch word cookey.\nIt introduced the use of pearlash, a precursor of baking soda, as a chemical leavener, starting a revolution in the making of American cakes.\nThe book was quite popular and was printed, reprinted and pirated for 30 years after its first appearance. Only four copies of the first edition are known to exist. It is", "-25.262431508512236" ], [ "an E resembling a capital sigma (\"Σ\", a letter pronounced like English \"s\"). The blue and white colors were inspired by the flag of Greece. The cup subsequently became the metropolitan area's definitive coffee-to-go cup.\nSales of the cup reached 500 million in 1994 (when it was by far the most popular design for the company's cups), but had fallen to about 200 million cups annually by 2005. One New York Times writer in 1995 called the Anthora \"perhaps the most successful cup in history\". By 2007 it was mentioned in passing in a New York Times television review as \"one", "-25.23529468313791" ], [ "1900 to 1930. Hoosier Manufacturing sold two million cabinets from its inception to 1920, and additional cabinets were sold by the company's competitors. Given that there were approximately 20 million households in the United States at that time, as much as 10 percent of homes had Hoosier cabinets made by Hoosier Manufacturing, and an additional unknown quantity had Hoosier cabinets made by competing companies.\nHoosier cabinets remained popular into the 1920s, but by that time houses began to be built with more modern kitchens that included built-in cabinets, counter tops, and other fixtures. Thus supplanted, the Hoosier cabinet largely disappeared. Some", "-25.223305757914204" ], [ "but it is overwhelming: French luxury trunks are by far the best. They are tasteful, renowned and sought after the world over. As a result, French major brands opened successful branch stores in the US and the UK. Yet there are not that many of them, and that is the reason why only three exhibitors participated in the Exposition.\" International Exposition of Modern Industrial and Decorative Arts This event was commissioned in 1912 to be held in 1915, but ended up being postponed for another ten years. Paul Léon, the examiner for the Class 9 of the International Exposition of", "-25.216812696027773" ], [ "reports in Fahrenheit and in Celsius, as does WXL57 weather radio in Des Moines, Iowa. Consumer and retail Some U.S. consumer products come in rounded metric sizes. This appears to be increasing because of the international nature of manufacturing, distribution, and sales. Many items are produced in rounded metric quantities and some manufacturers opt to display the metric quantity first or more prominently (e.g., Crest Glide dental floss is available in 35-, 40-, and 50-meter packages).\nPerhaps the most common metric item sold is the two-liter bottle. Some supermarket chains also make their store brand soft drinks available in 3-liter sizes.", "-25.20278890139889" ], [ " By 1853 they were the largest importer of French porcelain into the United States. Limoges seemed to be particularly popular in North America in four market regions: in French Canada, New York, Mississippi Valley, and in the southeastern United States as a whole. Its popularity in the Antebellum south is shown in the fact that it had subsidiaries in Augusta, Charleston, and Mobile. This also means that during the Civil War and immediately afterwards, Haviland & Co. lost a large share of its buyers who were preoccupied with war. \nThe effects of the Civil War were so", "-25.180446595026297" ], [ "is functional today although the designs have increased in quality and intricacy. It falls in a very different category from fine English and Asian china and pottery that demands high prices in today’s marketplace. Still, Boleslawiec pottery is not inexpensive. Mugs and cups usually cost anywhere from twenty to forty U.S. dollars, larger more intricate pieces like bowls, teapots, Memory boxes, and specialty plates can cost anywhere from one to two hundred U.S. dollars, and some hand-painted pieces by recognized artists can cost close to five hundred U.S. dollars or more. Price is dependent on size, type of item, quality", "-25.152677253703587" ], [ "dry ingredients, such as granulated sugar, are not very compressible, so volume measures are consistent. Others, notably flour, are more variable. For example, 1 cup of all-purpose flour sifted into a cup and leveled weighs about 100 grams (3½ oz), whereas 1 cup of all-purpose flour scooped from its container and leveled weighs about 140 grams (5 oz).\nUsing a measuring cup to measure bulk foods which can be compressed to a variable degree such as chopped vegetables or shredded cheese leads to large measurement uncertainties. It is easier to chop down the units for a better measure.", "-25.143490021509933" ], [ "is a style of punch, traditionally served before the departure of a hunting party in England, but now served at a variety of social events such as garden parties, cricket, tennis matches, and picnics, cups are generally lower in alcohol content than other punches and usually use wine, cider, sloe gin, or liqueurs as the base. They often include quantities of fruit juices or soft drinks. One well known cup is the Pimm's Cup, using Pimm's No.1 and British-style lemonade at a ratio of 1:2; a squeeze of lemon; then add orange, lemon and apple slices; a couple of cucumber", "-25.132508943468565" ], [ "another author discussing the Hoosier cabinet mentioned that some cooks are \"scouring antique stores, farm auctions, and flea markets for this unique, and still useful, piece of Americana.\"\nRestored Hoosier cabinets are often sought after for use in early-twentieth-century-style kitchens, in homes from that era or in new homes built in the styles of that era.\" In 2004, Hoosier cabinets sold at auction were often priced at over $1,000 (equivalent to $1,326 in 2018). Oak versions with all of the accessories (flour bin, sugar bin, glass spice jars, etc.) have sold for over $2,000 (equivalent to $2,653 in 2018). Cabinets without", "-25.130611241358565" ], [ "for the international titles in their respective categories. The categories include Jurors' Favorite, Best Use of Labels, Best Meal, Structural Ingenuity, Honorable Mention and Most Cans. The International Canstruction Competition Convention is held in various cities every year. In 2010, the 14th Annual International Canstruction Competition was held in Las Vegas, Nevada. Guinness Book of World Records In January 2010, Disney partnered with Canstruction to build the largest canned food structure in history. The structure was built at the Walt Disney World Resort in Lake Buena Vista, Florida, USA and officially broke the Guinness World Record on February 11, 2010.", "-25.06095679383725" ], [ "perfection, I will mention the true proportion of its constituent parts. To a quart of boiling water, half a pint of arrack is taken, to which one pound of sugar, and five or six lemons, or instead of them as many tamarinds as are necessary to give it the true acidity, are added: a nutmeg is likewise grated into it. The punch, which is made for the men in our ship was heated with red hot iron balls which were thrown into it. Those who can afford it, make punch a usual drink after dinner. While we stayed in China,", "-25.041269413894042" ], [ "Peanut butter cup Brands The most popular brand of peanut butter cup is the Reese's Peanut Butter Cups (sold as Reese in Canada), now a Hershey brand. The Reese's Peanut Butter Cup is considered the \"finest creation\" of Harry Burnett \"H. B.\" Reese, a former employee of Hershey's, who set up his own candy-manufacturing business in the 1920s. The company merged with Hershey's in a July 2, 1963 tax free stock-for-stock merger, seven years after the May 16, 1956 death of Reese. The famous slogans, \"Two great tastes that taste great together\" and \"How do you eat a Reese's?\"", "-25.030881599814165" ], [ "4 ounces (about 113 g). Volume In American cooking, a stick of butter may also be understood as ½ cup or 8 tablespoons (about 118 mL).", "-25.011183642374817" ], [ "bakeware The size and shape of a cooking vessel is typically determined by how it will be used. Intention, application, technique and configuration also have a bearing on whether a cooking vessel is referred to as a pot or a pan. Generally within the classic batterie de cuisine a vessel designated \"pot\" is round, has \"ear\" handles in diagonal opposition with a relatively low height to cooking surface ratio, and is intended for liquid cooking such as stewing, stocking, brewing or boiling. Vessels with a long handle or ear handles, a relatively high height to cooking surface ratio, used for", "-24.98518408468226" ], [ "almost every one how punch is made; but, that it may be observed for the future where it is made to its greatest perfection, I will mention the true proportion of its constituent parts. To a quart of boiling water, half a pint of arrack is taken, to which one pound of sugar, and five or six lemons, or instead of them as many tamarinds as are necessary to give it the true acidity, are added: a nutmeg is likewise grated into it. The punch, which is made for the men in our ship was heated with red hot iron", "-24.955186063365545" ], [ "seafood in the United States. The Top 10 is based on tonnage of fish sold. According to the NFI, this mild-flavored white-fleshed fish is farmed in Asia, and is being used increasingly in food service. It is finding its way onto restaurant menus and into stores, as well, where one may see it called basa, tra, or swai.", "-24.93781385831244" ], [ "the devices were put on Thingiverse, allowing anyone to make one from scratch. The Cupcake CNC featured a usable build volume of 100 mm x 100 mm x 130 mm (L/W/H) and has outside dimensions of 350 mm x 240 mm x 450 mm.\nBecause of the open source nature of the product, any suggestions for improvements came from users. During its primary production run (April 2009 to September 2010), the Cupcake CNC kit was updated several times to incorporate new upgrades into each successive version. Thing-O-Matic Introduced in September 2010 at Maker Faire NYC, the Thing-O-Matic was MakerBot's second kit. It shipped with many of the", "-24.921174661139958" ], [ "Ruth Siems Ruth Miriam Siems (1931 – November 13, 2005) was the home economist who created Stove Top Stuffing.\nA native of Evansville, Indiana, she developed the stuffing, one of General Foods Corp.'s (now Kraft Foods Inc.) top convenience products, in 1971 while working at the corporation's White Plains, New York, facility.\nHer name was the first on a patent application for the product. Her patent was based on a certain size of bread crumb that makes the rehydration, or addition of water, work. In an interview with The Evansville Courier in 1991, Siems said the idea for the instant stuffing came", "-24.921119932485453" ], [ "storing bowls, pans, and kitchen utensils. The Hoosier cabinet expands on the baker's cabinet by offering a pull-out workspace/shelf and storage for everything a cook would need. The base section usually has one large compartment with the slide-out shelf covered in metal that offers more workspace, and several drawers to one side. The top portion is shallower and has several smaller compartments with doors.\nThe majority of the Hoosier cabinets are about 48 inches (120 cm) wide by 22 inches (56 cm) deep by 72 inches (180 cm) high. In addition to their storage capacity, they offer about 40 inches (100 cm) of counter space", "-24.872559766634367" ], [ "grew and after Paltrow's book food bloggers recreated the dish and merchandise being created. Bon Appétit magazine published a recipe for “Your New Avocado Toast” in its January 2015 issue. It followed with Meryl Streep turning into the fruit toast on the @tasteofstreep Instagram page.\nHannah Goldfield, an author for The New Yorker said, “according to David Sax, the most successful food trends reflect what’s going on in society at a given time. Americans wanted cupcakes ten years ago, he told Brickman, because they sought childhood comforts after the trauma of 9/11; Americans wanted fondue in the sixties because they aspired", "-24.862365877255797" ], [ "Virginia has the highest per capita ratio of waffle and pancake houses in the world. Myrtle Beach, South Carolina has a significant number of pancake houses, numbering over 10 in a two-mile distance. The Grand Strand, a large stretch of beaches on the East Coast of the United States that consists of over 60 miles of beach land, has been noted for having a considerable number of pancake houses. Notable pancake houses As of 2012, Cracker Barrel, whose menu is based on traditional Southern cuisine with appearance and decor designed to resemble an old-fashioned general store, operates 620 stores in", "-24.840393736492842" ], [ "first combination of flavors. Because only large marshmallows were manufactured at the time, he used his wife’s sewing scissors to cut marshmallows into bite-sized pieces to make the first batch of Rocky Road. Cost-cutting changes In 2002, Nestlé insisted on a smaller container to increase profits and so the standard US half gallon (2 quarts) container (1.89 L) was downsized to 1.75 quarts (1.65 L) container. In May 2008, the 1.75 quart container was further downsized to 1.5 quarts (1.42 L). Most other ice cream manufacturers, with the notable exception of Blue Bell, followed the downsizing move.", "-24.819677037885413" ], [ "attractive covers and the design often reflecting the age, with the late 1920s and 1930s examples bearing Art Deco style, for example. \nIt is understood that pre-war and early 1950s programmes are rarer due to recycling for paper shortages as part of the war effort and times of post-war austerity. The size of the programme has increased over the decades from the convenient pocket size to A4 but many clubs in the early 21st century have reverted to a more convenient size. The FA Cup Final has, however, retained its inconvenient size (even acknowledging this by coming with a", "-24.808486560650636" ], [ "not a cup, but a cheesecake\", an homage to the traditional victor's quaffing from a milk bottle at the Indianapolis 500.", "-24.79088527103886" ], [ "was published in a unique format, printed on both sides of heavy creme-colored stock of about 17 x 22 inches (43.3 x 55.5 centimetres) (Demy) paper size, folded double three times to yield \"the smallest newspaper in the world and the only 5-page one... only newspaper in America you can open in the wind.\" Pages 1 and 5 (the front and back) are about 5.5 x 8.5 inches; page 2 is about 8.5 x 11 inches; page 3 is about 11 x 17 inches; page 5 is the full 17 x 22 inches. See these images, from the March 1953 issue of Arizona Highways magazine,", "-24.78634139453061" ], [ "ornament, the use of new technologies and materials, and the application of mass-production techniques to create affordable objects for the expanding middle class. American Modern dinnerware American Modern Dinnerware. Colorful and curvaceous dinnerware designed by Russel Wright originally manufactured by Steubenville Pottery in Steubenville, Ohio and currently manufactured by Bauer Pottery Company of Los Angeles. Its unique and immediately recognizable colors of coral, chartreuse, granite grey and seafoam, as well as its distinctive curvilinear decorative shapes, went on to make American Modern dinnerware the most popular and identifiable china pattern/china colors ever sold, with over 250 million pieces sold between", "-24.778229042247403" ], [ "All American Foods History All American Foods was founded in 1987 by Jeff Thom in Mankato, Minnesota. Today, its 14 acre Mankato, MN campus includes three state-of-the-art manufacturing facilities. In 2000, All American acquired Waseca Foods, which expanded their capacity and processing capabilities. Today, its Pro Mix line of value added food ingredients are used nationwide in a variety of applications. In the news In 2008, Jeff Thom, CEO of All American Foods, Inc. was named Business Person of the Year by Connect Magazine.", "-24.770128871656198" ], [ "smallest bubbles and a thickness of about 1.5 inches to 2 inches (30 mm to 50 mm) of foam. Greek variations Frappé in Greece is available in three degrees of sweetness, determined by the amount of sugar used. These are: glykós (γλυκός, pronounced [ɣliˈkos], \"sweet\", 2 teaspoons of coffee and 4 teaspoons of sugar); métrios (μέτριος, \"medium\", 2 teaspoons of coffee and 2 teaspoons of sugar); and a skétos (σκέτος, \"plain\", 2 teaspoons of coffee and no sugar). All varieties may be served with evaporated milk (με γάλα [me ˈɣala]), in which case they may be called in slang φραπόγαλο (frapógalo, [fraˈpoɣalo], \"frappé-milk\"),", "-24.74515238912136" ], [ "in the boxes so that the printed names showed between the slats. In the 1920s tissue wrappers were replaced with printed logos, and ultimately paper stickers. Packed fruit is designated by size, based on the average number of pieces it takes to fill a box. In the days of wooden crates, sizes generally ranged from the 100s to the 390s, demonstrating the wide range of sizes. The sizes for the smaller cardboard boxes introduced in the 1950s and still in use today range from the 40s to the 210s, depending upon the variety of fruit being shipped.\nToday, packing is often", "-24.740516915684566" ], [ "that is, until 1796, when American Cookery appeared in Hartford, and later the same year, in Albany.\" Hess goes on to say: \"So, again, what makes American Cookery so very American? It is precisely the bringing together of certain native American products and English culinary traditions. So English that entire chapters were \"borrowed\" from The Frugal Housewife by Susannah Carter, which appeared in American editions in 1772 and 1792, and yet so very American in her use of those elements.\" \nJan Longone writes for the Historic American Cookbook Project: \"... the revolutionary and original aspects of her", "-24.675108356866986" ], [ "among the most famous. The origins of the filling date back to the Renaissance as regards the use of spieces.\nIt is produced in bakery laboratories of Crema, being a complex pastry. In 2009 some of them got associated to the so-called Congrega della Spongarda (Coven of Spongarda) in order to protect and promote its spread outside its original area. Ingredients It is prepared with flour, sugar, butter, honey, cinnamon, spices, almonds, walnuts or hazelnuts, raisin and candied fruit. Some people crumble within a mostaccino (spicy biscuit of Crema used in tortelli cremaschi) instead of using spices.", "-24.673390403506346" ], [ "for prominent public figures or presidents. Greyhounds were a popular Bakewell design along with other typical images like lovebirds. Bakewell and company was rivaled by Boston & Sandwich and the Northeast Glass Co but gained fame by being first to make pieces of entirely cut glass. Cut glass is glass designed by a skilled hand and requires high quality ingredients. Bakewell and Company also gained fame because it began producing the first successful glassware containing lead oxide, known as lead crystal.\nThe title for who made the first pressed glassware in America was contested among John P. Bakewell, Enoch Robinson, and", "-24.666230656206608" ] ]

[ "I think so far the responses in this thread are sort of sugar-coating it. - Of course they did eat very pure plants - Sure, they got protein from eating meat But, you should take a step back and realize that in fact, MOST people suffered: - FUCKTONS of people starved to death, or walked around with serious nutritional deficiencies. - They ate animals that were in atrocious conditions. If you haven't eaten in 5 days and you come across a decomposing deer, you might just go ahead and try to pick out some fresher parts. Even if you hunted and killed a fresh animal, you have no idea what kind of diseases or toxins that animal may be carrying, and could ingest something awful. - Furthermore, some peoples didn't live in temperate, plentiful regions. These people took what they could get. - A fair proportion of people probably had one or more skin or tissue conditions, that is until they couldn't keep up and were left behind; or until they got so infected and nasty that they died of it. - People were small because they didn't eat much and didn't have adequate nutrition. So, really, most humans were *at least* a little fucked up by malnutrition. Aches, pains, disorders, etc. And vast sums of people died directly or indirectly from malnutrition. But the brilliant thing about the continuation of a species is that you don't have to have that many of your species survive to keep on going. As long as the strongest/luckiest among us survive, we can keep multiplying at a pretty steady rate. This is why population graphs tend [to look like this]( URL_0 ); in older times, we made a much steadier march in population growth. It's not a coincidence that the population started exploding once we got a handle on medicine and sanitation.", "A lot of them did, and a lot suffered from non-fatal effects of malnutrition. But you are kind of looking at it backwards. Early humans only lived in those areas where they could meet all of their nutritional needs. And they spent millions of years evolving to get that way.", "By eating whatever they could find or catch. Early human hunter-gatherers arguably got more variety in their diet than modern humans. They would forage for fruit, nuts, berries, and edible greens, and when they got hold of meat they would eat more of the animal than we do today, down to breaking the bones open and sucking out the marrow. IIRC, scientists found plant matter between the teeth of a neanderthal skull recently, so even the theory that neanderthals were exclusively meat-eaters seems unlikely.", "there's an amazing thing that happens when people aren't lazy, they move around and find stuff. hunting local wildlife and gathering local crops, berries and etc actually amounts to a lot of food. share that with your group and everybody flourishes.", "That is because they ate whatever they could find. They found a squirrel? They ate it? Dog? ate it. Tiger? Ate it. They didn't have any moral or taste issues with eating cute vs non-cute animals, or mixing broccoli with chicken.", "As opposed to all the nutritional food we eat today? Excuse me, I'm about to place my order at McDonalds", "They had better moms to take care of them.", "If it didn't eat them, they ate it." ]

[ [ "As a result, people died in myriads in late August and September that year and more suffered from acute malnutrition characterized by hunger edema and anemia which modern science now refer to as \"skeletonization\" The only part of the population that was properly fed was the pariah dogs, \"fat as sheep\", that feasted on the bodies of dead children. Most of the officials, however, denied to share such horrors with the English or educated Indians public; whereas, the vernacular press charged that the deaths and starvation were being deliberately misreported to hide the gravity of the famine About three-fifth of", "-33.59730935230618" ], [ "are chronically malnourished. In 2006, more than 36 million died of hunger or diseases due to deficiencies in micronutrients\".\nIn 2010 protein-energy malnutrition resulted in 600,000 deaths down from 883,000 deaths in 1990. Other nutritional deficiencies, which include iodine deficiency and iron deficiency anemia, result in another 84,000 deaths. In 2010 malnutrition caused about 1.5 million deaths in women and children.\nAccording to the World Health Organization, malnutrition is the biggest contributor to child mortality, present in half of all cases. Six million children die of hunger every year. Underweight births and intrauterine growth restrictions cause 2.2 million child deaths a year.", "-33.527875755069545" ], [ "Group estimate that under nutrition, “including fetal growth restriction, stunting, wasting, deficiencies of vitamin A and zinc along with suboptimum breastfeeding- is a cause of 3.1 million child deaths and infant mortality, or 45% of all child deaths in 2011”.\nWhen humans are undernourished, they no longer maintain normal bodily functions, such as growth, resistance to infection, or have satisfactory performance in school or work. Major causes of under nutrition in young children include lack of proper breast feeding for infants and illnesses such as diarrhea, pneumonia, malaria, and HIV/AIDS. According to UNICEF 146 million children across the globe, that one", "-32.40523559652502" ], [ "famine and the poverty of the period. The World Health Organization reported death rates for children at 93 out of every 1000, while those of infants were cited at 23 out of every 1000. Undernourished mothers found it difficult to breast-feed. No suitable alternative to the practice was available. Infant formula was not produced locally, and only a small amount of it was imported.\nThe famine resulted in a population of homeless, migrant children known as Kotjebi. Estimated number of deaths The exact number of deaths during the acute phase of the crisis, from 1994 to 1998, is uncertain.", "-31.937134199790307" ], [ "Poor or non-existent breastfeeding causes another 1.4 million. Other deficiencies, such as lack of vitamin A or zinc, for example, account for 1 million. Malnutrition in the first two years is irreversible. Malnourished children grow up with worse health and lower education achievement. Their own children tend to be smaller. Malnutrition was previously seen as something that exacerbates the problems of diseases such as measles, pneumonia and diarrhea, but malnutrition actually causes diseases, and can be fatal in its own right. History While hunger has been a perennial human problem, there was relatively little awareness of the qualitative aspects of", "-31.641946907126112" ], [ "with the deaths of an estimated one million children annually. Illegal advertising of breast milk substitutes contributed to malnutrition and continued three decades after its 1981 prohibition under the WHO International Code of Marketing Breast Milk Substitutes.\nMaternal malnutrition can also factor into the poor health or death of a baby. Over 800,000 neonatal death have occurred because of deficient growth of the fetus in the mother's womb.\nDeriving too much of one's diet from a single source, such as eating almost exclusively corn or rice, can cause malnutrition. This may either be from a lack of education about proper nutrition, or", "-31.496438183705322" ], [ "the first of such series, investigators define the importance of the 1000 day and identify child malnutrition as being responsible for one third of all child deaths worldwide. This finding is key in that it points at malnutrition as a key determinant of child mortality that is often overlooked. When a child dies of pneumonia, malaria or diarrhea (some of the causes of child mortality in the world), it may well be that malnutrition is a key contributing factor that prevents the body from successfully fighting the infection and recovering from the disease. In the follow up series in 2013,", "-31.213494170835475" ], [ "malnutrition (including marasmus-related malnutrition) and disease were suspected to have been buried in a former septic tank on the site of the home. The child mortality rate at the home during certain local epidemics had averaged up to two a week. Medical reports at the time listed the cause of death as disease or disease-induced effects.\nCatherine Corless, an amateur historian, had obtained death records for 796 children who had died of various diseases and malnutrition (including marasmus-related malnutrition) at the home — an overall rate of 22.1 per year between 1925 and 1961, and finding no trace of their burial", "-31.023611285956576" ], [ "of whom live in sub-Saharan Africa. A 2008 review of malnutrition found that about 55 million children are wasted, including 19 million who have severe wasting or severe acute malnutrition.\nAs underweight children are more vulnerable to almost all infectious diseases, the indirect disease burden of malnutrition is estimated to be an order of magnitude higher than the disease burden of the direct effects of malnutrition. The combination of direct and indirect deaths from malnutrition caused by unsafe water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH) practices is estimated to lead to 860,000 deaths per year in children under five years of age.", "-30.674718471593224" ], [ "of bone, without antiseptics, proper facilities, or knowledge of germs, would become very serious if infected, as they did not have sufficient ways to treat infection.\nThere is also evidence of rickets, bone deformity and bone wastage (Osteomalacia), which is caused by a lack of Vitamin D.\nThe life expectancy in prehistoric times was low, 25–40 years, with men living longer than women; archaeological evidence of women and babies found together suggests that many women would have died in childbirth, perhaps accounting for the lower life expectancy in women than men. Another possible explanation for the shorter life spans of prehistoric", "-30.468681922066025" ], [ "regions of Africa, Asia, and Latin America. Children are most vulnerable as they are yet to fully develop a strong immune system, as well as being dependent upon parents to provide the necessary food and nutritional intake. It is estimated that about 3.5 million children die each year as a result of childhood or maternal malnutrition, with stunted growth, low body weight and low birth weight accounting for about 2.2 million associated deaths. Factors which contribute to malnutrition are socioeconomic, environmental, gender status, regional location, and breastfeeding cultural practices. It is difficult to assess the most pressing factor as they", "-30.422122409421718" ], [ "43 grams (1.5 oz) of protein in the form of daal (pulses). Meanwhile, many more people had succumbed to the famine. In other parts of India, such as the United Provinces, where relief was meagre, the resulting mortality was high. In the second half of 1878, an epidemic of malaria killed many more who were already weakened by malnutrition.\nBy early 1877, Temple proclaimed that he had put \"the famine under control\". Digby noted that \"a famine can scarcely be said to be adequately controlled which leaves one-fourth of the people dead.\"\nAll in all, the Government of India spent Rs. 8 1/30 million", "-30.400783530902117" ], [ "happen due to deficiencies of different nutrients, such as micronutrients, protein or energy. This may cause different effects. Timing Some observers have argued that malnutrition during the first six months of life harms cognitive development much more than malnutrition later in life. However, a study from the Philippines argues that malnutrition in the second year of life may have a larger negative impact than malnutrition in the first year of life. Intrauterine growth retardation Undernutrition during pregnancy, and other factors, may cause intrauterine growth retardation (IUGR), which is one cause of low birth weight. However, it has been suggested that", "-30.36049472142622" ], [ "of the 20th century. At this time many people died from the introduction of preventable diseases to which they were not immune, and as a result, in the 1950’s the Tuparí people were nearly wiped out entirely by measles. According to Caspar (1956), there were only 67 survivors of these epidemics, who were then forced to work for slave wages. The group eventually recovered and increased in their numbers. Now population growth is no longer an issue due to their large family sizes. However, their language is only spoken by approximately 350 people on the two main reserves (Rio Branco", "-30.36031065961288" ], [ "300,000 people had become ill, with more than 50,000 infant hospitalizations and six infant deaths. In a study published in the New England Journal of Medicine, it was reported that melamine exposure increased the incidence of urinary tract stones by seven times in children.\nMelamine may have been added to fool government protein content tests after water was added to fraudulently dilute the milk. Because of melamine's high nitrogen content (66% by mass versus approx. 10–12% for typical protein), it can cause the protein content of food to appear higher than the true value. Officials estimate that about 20% of the", "-30.279040308007097" ], [ "children up until about the age of four. These may have been due to increased risk from disease once the protective antibodies in a mother's milk ended after weening. There was also greater exposure to hard and soft tissue trauma, and subsequent infection, as children became more mobile by crawling and toddling. Iron deficiency anaemia was common among children, probably caused by long-term breastfeeding by mothers that were themselves deficient in minerals. Common childhood diseases included measles, diphtheria and whooping-cough, while parasites were also common. The most badly affected individuals rarely made it beyond the age of 25, thus many", "-30.02142298925901" ], [ "starvation is shown to have limited intrauterine growth and has been identified as one of the most important contributors to coronary heart disease as well as other chronic diseases later in life. These findings agree well with Barker's hypothesis; it supports the theory that maternal under-nutrition leads to a lower birth weight due to restricted intrauterine development and ultimately leads to higher risks of chronic conditions in adult life. The french paradox The French paradox regards the seemingly paradoxical fact that people living in France since many generations suffer from a relatively little incidence of heart disease, although the traditional", "-29.921970068884548" ], [ "and adults more susceptible to contracting life-threatening diseases such as diarrheal infections and respiratory infections. According to the WHO, in 2011, 6.9 million children died of infectious diseases like pneumonia, diarrhea, malaria, and neonatal conditions, of which at least one third were associated with undernutrition. Child malnutrition According to UNICEF, in 2011, 101 million children across the globe were underweight and one in four children, 165 million, were stunted in growth. Simultaneously, there are 43 million children under five who are overweight or obese. Nearly 20 million children under 5 suffer from severe acute malnutrition, a life-threatening condition requiring urgent", "-29.91819666774245" ], [ "a state of starvation which caused many to die.\nThe Roman Historian Flavius Josephus writing in the first century described classic symptoms of the syndrome among survivors of the siege of Jerusalem. He described the death of those who overindulged in food after famine, whereas those who ate at a more restrained pace survived.\nIn his 5th century BC work 'On Fleshes' (De Carnibus), Hippocrates writes, \"if a person goes\nseven days without eating or drinking anything, in this period most die; but there are some who survive that time\nbut still die, and others are persuaded not to starve themselves to death but", "-29.818180089292582" ], [ "children under the age of five years worldwide.\nAs underweight children are more vulnerable to almost all infectious diseases, the indirect disease burden of malnutrition is estimated to be an order of magnitude higher than the disease burden of the direct effects of malnutrition. The combination of direct and indirect deaths from malnutrition caused by unsafe water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH) practices is estimated to lead to 860,000 deaths per year in children under five years of age. Women Researchers from the Centre for World Food Studies in 2003 found that the gap between levels of undernutrition in men and women", "-29.748877604637528" ], [ "in India every five to eight years in the 19th- and early 20th-centuries, resulting in millions starving to death. As also happened in China, these events begat infanticide: desperate starving parents would either kill a suffering infant, sell a child to buy food for the rest of the family, or beg people to take them away for nothing and feed them. Gupta and Shuzhou state that massive famines and poverty-related historical events had influenced historical sex ratios, and they have had deep cultural ramifications on girls and regional attitudes towards female infant mortality. Impact of economic policies on infanticide According", "-29.69483046088135" ], [ "hygiene and unsafe water sources compounded with the food crisis, which made people susceptible to disease. Similarly, a study conducted by Save The Children UK in February 2002 found that the food crisis affected people's health by causing swelling in the hands and feet of both adults and children.\nThe food shortage has resulted in several thousand hunger-related deaths; the exact numbers are unknown. Many of these deaths have further exacerbated the problem of HIV/AIDS, leaving those afflicted by the disease especially vulnerable and also producing a large orphan population. UNICEF estimates that 17% of children do not have living parents", "-29.542355614015833" ], [ "scurvy, osteoporosis, impaired immune system, disorders of cell metabolism, certain forms of cancer, symptoms of premature aging, and poor psychological health (including eating disorders), among many others. Malnutrition Malnutrition refers to insufficient, excessive, or imbalanced consumption of nutrients. In developed countries, the diseases of malnutrition are most often associated with nutritional imbalances or excessive consumption.\nAlthough there are more people in the world who are malnourished due to excessive consumption, according to the United Nations World Health Organization, the greatest challenge in developing nations today is not starvation, but insufficient nutrition – the lack of nutrients necessary for the growth and", "-29.48166879429482" ], [ "uncommonly, death—especially in children. These diarrheal diseases contribute not only to the decreased health of an individual, but also to an increase in poverty. Diseases of this nature cause an inability to attend school and work, thus directly decreasing income as well as educational development. The problem of inadequate sanitation is cyclical in nature—just as it is caused by poverty, it also worsens poverty. Poor nutrition Malnutrition disproportionately affects those in sub-Saharan Africa. Over 35 percent of children under the age of 5 in sub-Saharan Africa show physical signs of malnutrition. Malnutrition, the immune system, and infectious diseases operate in", "-29.458646935934667" ], [ "way in which they are prepared, have varied widely by time, location, and culture.\nIn general, humans can survive for two to eight weeks without food, depending on stored body fat. Survival without water is usually limited to three or four days. About 36 million humans die every year from causes directly or indirectly related to starvation. Childhood malnutrition is also common and contributes to the global burden of disease. However global food distribution is not even, and obesity among some human populations has increased rapidly, leading to health complications and increased mortality in some developed, and a few developing countries.", "-29.441953603207367" ], [ "distress. A dreadful skin disease, loathsome to look upon, broke out upon all alike. None were spared. Men, women, and children sickened, took the disease and died in agony by hundreds, so that when the spring arrived and fresh food was procurable, there was scarcely a person left of all their numbers to get it. Camp after camp, village after village, was left desolate. The remains of which, said the old man, in answer by my queries on this, are found today in the old camp sites or midden-heaps over which the forest has been growing for so many generations.", "-29.311409905320033" ], [ "in children. Prevention Measures have been taken to reduce child malnutrition. Studies for the World Bank found that, from 1970 to 2000, the number of malnourished children decreased by 20 percent in developing countries. Iodine supplement trials in pregnant women have been shown to reduce offspring deaths during infancy and early childhood by 29 percent. However, universal salt iodization has largely replaced this intervention.\nThe Progresa program in Mexico combined conditional cash transfers with nutritional education and micronutrient-fortified food supplements; this resulted in a 10 percent reduction the prevalence of stunting in children 12–36 months old. Milk fortified with zinc and", "-29.286998085080995" ], [ "decreased nutrient absorption, decreased intake of food, increased metabolic requirements, and direct nutrient loss. Parasite infections, in particular intestinal worm infections (helminthiasis), can also lead to malnutrition. A leading cause of diarrhea and intestinal worm infections in children in developing countries is lack of sanitation and hygiene.\nPeople may become malnourished due to abnormal nutrient loss (due to diarrhea or chronic illness affecting the small bowel). This conditions may include Crohn's disease or untreated coeliac disease. Malnutrition may also occur due to increased energy expenditure (secondary malnutrition). Undernutrition A lack of adequate breastfeeding leads to malnutrition in infants and children, associated", "-29.25647615591879" ], [ "famines were common and severe enough to select for thrifty gene in the 2.5 million years of human paleolithic history. This assumption is contradicted by some anthropological evidence. Many of the populations that later developed high rates of obesity and diabetes appeared to have no discernible history of famine or starvation (for example, Pacific Islanders whose \"tropical-equatorial islands had luxuriant vegetation all year round and were surrounded by lukewarm waters full of fish.\"). Moreover, one of the most significant problems for the 'thrifty gene' idea is that it predicts that modern hunter gatherers should get fat in the periods", "-29.234356858418323" ], [ "Prehistoric medicine Disease and mortality Some diseases and ailments were more common in prehistory than they are today; there is evidence that many people suffered from osteoarthritis, probably caused by the lifting of heavy objects which would have been a daily and necessary task in their societies. For example, the transport of latte stones, though this practice only started during the neolithic era which involved hyper extension and torque of the lower back, while dragging the stones, may have contributed to the development of micro fractures in the spine and subsequent spondylolysis. Things such as cuts, bruises, and breakages", "-29.1581808446208" ], [ "days without a meal. No milk was being supplied without a certificate. The hunt for food led to some attempting to eat edible herbs and grass. Many of the children were left to sleep all day by their families to reduce the awareness of starvation. In these conditions, one in three refugee children became affected by tuberculosis. This was soon to amount to tens of thousands of consumptive children. Relief programme In November 1937 a Milk for Spain fund was opened after an appeal to the various co-operative societies and Labour Party branches around the country. The response was overwhelming.", "-29.135162144113565" ], [ "congenital malformations may be more likely when the mother consumes alcohol, but it can also be a cause of genetics or have an unknown cause. \ncongenital malformations have had a significant impact on infant mortality. Malnutrition and infectious diseases were the main cause of death in more undeveloped countries. In the Caribbean and Latin America, congenital malformations only accounted for 5% of the infant deaths in these countries while malnutrition and infectious diseases took 7% to 27% of infants in the 1980s. In more developed countries such as the United States, there was a rise in infant deaths due to", "-29.095316714141518" ], [ "fall off and he or she would continue to improve in health if they halted consumption of ergot. The trunk of the body remained relatively untouched by the disease until its final stages and the victims, not understanding the cause of their ailment, would continue to imbibe ergot-laden food for weeks until the condition reached their digestive system. It is believed that the peasantry and children were most susceptible to ergotism, though the wealthy were afflicted as well, as at times entire villages relied on tainted crops for sustenance and during times of famine, ergotism reached into every house. Ergot", "-29.066755391657352" ], [ "Health. Repeated outbreaks of Old World infectious diseases such as influenza, measles and smallpox (to which they had no natural immunity), were the main cause of depopulation. This combined with other factors such as dispossession from European/Canadian settlements and numerous violent conflicts resulted in a forty- to eighty-percent aboriginal population decrease after contact. For example, during the late 1630s, smallpox killed over half of the Wyandot (Huron), who controlled most of the early North American fur trade in what became Canada. They were reduced to fewer than 10,000 people.\nHistorian David Henige has argued that many population figures are", "-29.037590577383526" ], [ "beriberi, pellagra, and scurvy. These diseases collectively can also cause diarrhea, skin rashes, edema, and heart failure. Individuals are often irritable and lethargic as a result.\nThere is insufficient scientific data on exactly how long people can live without food. Although the length of time varies with an individual's percentage of body fat and general health, one medical study estimates that in adults complete starvation leads to death within 8 to 12 weeks. Starvation begins when an individual has lost about 30%, or about a third, of their normal body weight. Once the loss reaches 40%", "-28.893608006386785" ], [ "a combination of extended malnutrition, overwork, and exposure to cold. Several members became more susceptible to infection due to starvation, such as George Donner, but the three most significant factors in survival were age, sex, and the size of family group that each member traveled with. The survivors were on average 7.5 years younger than those who died; children aged between six and 14 had a much higher survival rate than infants and children under the age of six, of whom 62.5 percent died, including the son born to the Kesebergs on the trail, or adults over the age of 35.", "-28.839857226237655" ], [ "food each day and in “crisis” or “emergency” levels of food insecurity. Effects 1.2 million children under five years of age severely malnourished. Increases in acute malnutrition are due to serious food insecurity, widespread conflict and displacement, poor access to services, high morbidity, extremely poor diets, and poor sanitation and hygiene. In the former counties of Renk, Nyirol, Duk, Twic East and Pibor (Greater Upper Nile region) during the March-May period, Global Acute Malnutrition rates were over 20 percent, which was above WHO’s 15-percent emergency threshold.\nThe period of the lean season between May and July and the ongoing conflicts continuously", "-28.818063216283917" ], [ "India report in 2010 has stated that 50% of childhood deaths in India are attributable to malnutrition.\nGrowing export prices, the melting of the Himalayan glaciers due to global warming, changes in rainfall and temperatures are issues affecting India. If agricultural production does not remain above the population growth rate, there are indications that a return to the pre-independence famine days is a likelihood. People from various walks of life, such as social activist Vandana Shiva and researcher Dan Banik, agree that famines and the resulting large scale loss of life from starvation have been eliminated after Indian independence in 1947.", "-28.8049270597985" ], [ "life expectancy. According to the World Health Organization, hunger and malnutrition are the single gravest threats to the world's public health and malnutrition is by far the biggest contributor to child mortality, present in half of all cases.\nAlmost 90% of maternal deaths during childbirth occur in Asia and sub-Saharan Africa, compared to less than 1% in the developed world. Those who live in poverty have also been shown to have a far greater likelihood of having or incurring a disability within their lifetime. Infectious diseases such as malaria and tuberculosis can perpetuate poverty by diverting health and economic resources from", "-28.799545430083526" ], [ "Unique Exposure Incident In Anatolia, Turkey between 1955 and 1959, during a period when bread wheat was unavailable, 500 people were fatally poisoned and more than 4,000 people fell ill by eating bread made with HCB-treated seed that was intended for agriculture use. Most of the sick were affected with a liver condition called porphyria cutanea tarda, which disturbs the metabolism of hemoglobin and results in skin lesions. Almost all breastfeeding children under the age of two, whose mothers had eaten tainted bread, died from a condition called \"pembe yara\" or \"pink sore\", most likely from high doses of HCB", "-28.74777304410236" ], [ "more likely to die during the first month of their lives. Poor children are at far greater risk of going without health insurance and experience higher prevalence of chronic illness, lead poisoning and other environmental toxins, and accidental injury or death. Many poor children, especially infants, live in households that are \"food insecure\". Low access to proper and sufficient nutrition can lead to both impaired development and, perversely, obesity and a number of other weight-related illnesses such as type-2 diabetes. Some findings indicate that poor children, particularly Mexican-American children, are especially prone to low stature and higher rates of over-weight", "-28.73531167663168" ], [ "Blantyre hospital. Around 200 people were reported to have died of starvation: the shock caused by these famine-related deaths was disproportionate to this official mortality figure, because serious famine had reappeared in this area without warning after an absence of more than a quarter of a century The official mortality figure may also be an underestimate and it excludes many weakened by hunger, particularly young children and the elderly, that died of diseases they might otherwise have recovered from.\nThe government issued free maize seed and cassava cuttings to those sufficiently able-bodied to plant them, and the 1950 harvest was reasonably", "-28.718354772062412" ], [ "to be made extinct by human intervention. Measles Before the introduction of vaccination in the US in the 1960s there were more than 500,000 cases each year resulting in about 400 deaths. In developed countries children were mainly infected between the ages of three and five years old, but in developing countries half the children were infected before the age of two. In the US and the UK, there were regular annual or biannual epidemics of the disease, which depended on the number of children born each year. The current epidemic strain evolved in the first part of the 20th", "-28.656908743505483" ], [ "several times for malnutrition and other maladies as a result of her unwillingness to eat the food provided. Some members of the group reportedly do not believe in vaccination or treatments. On February 8, 2013, one woman's baby allegedly died from untreated flu, with the parents then fleeing from the law. On another occasion, a newborn baby had to be taken to a hospital by force, after the mother refused to go to a hospital to give birth to avoid contact with hospitals and physicians. Other cases of child abuse and neglect have been reported within the group. Perception in", "-28.649846273241565" ], [ "1883, although in 1872 (1941 deaths), 1875 (1816 deaths), 1886 (1889 deaths), and 1899 (1806 deaths), more than one thousand eight hundred infants died.\nIf the afflicted child was less than one month old at their time of death, there may have been premature birth. Without the complex life support technology available in the late 20th and early 21st centuries, this would often prove fatal due to the lack of sufficient infant respiratory development. Other than that, newborn infants might also perish from sharing beds with their parents, who might roll over and smother them inadvertently during sleep; negligent parental alcohol", "-28.64282686234219" ], [ "times, without any anaesthesia and medicine. But it's quite possible that I have survived just because of that. It brought me the opportunity to spend the whole winter wrapped on a hospital bed. I had already left with sequelae of malnutrition. I can say that before the release, I was practically laying next to dead men, just like the old age end weakenings. Half-aware, I have heard - or maybe I just thought I have heard - that doctors disagreed over my fate: Does we give him the last drop of vitamin-C? Its no use, he anyway dies. Then I", "-28.59956445961143" ], [ "Village artisans, along with sustenance farming families, died from lack of food, malnutrition and a wave of diseases. The 1943 famine was not an isolated tragedy. Devastating famines impoverished India every 5 to 8 years in the late 19th century and the first half of 20th century. Between 6.1 and 10.3 million people starved to death in British India during the 1876-1879 famine, while another 6.1 to 8.4 million people died during the 1896-1898 famine. The Lancet reported that 19 million people died from starvation and the consequences of extreme poverty in British India between 1896 and 1900. Sir MacDonnell", "-28.586791060166433" ], [ "decline was attributable to three factors. One was the effect of venereal disease introduced by settlers; secondly, consumption, and thirdly infanticide. Lifestyle Josephson was struck by the Kanolu's refusal to partake of pork, an introduced meat which other tribes were known to eat.", "-28.540014260681346" ], [ "world and the homeless. There have been outbreaks of the condition in refugee camps. Case reports in the developing world of those with poorly healing wounds have occurred. Human trials Notable human dietary studies of experimentally induced scurvy have been conducted on conscientious objectors during World War II in Britain and on Iowa state prisoner volunteers in the late 1960s. These studies both found that all obvious symptoms of scurvy previously induced by an experimental scorbutic diet with extremely low vitamin C content could be completely reversed by additional vitamin C supplementation of only 10 mg per day. In these experiments,", "-28.489403423911426" ], [ "are highly suffering from acute malnutrition. According to the World Health Organization, more than 1.8 million children under the age of five are suffering from acute malnutrition and 500,000 children under five years old are suffering from severe acute malnutrition. A study shows that global acute malnutrition (GAM) 12.5% from 2013 to 2016 in children under five years old. In addition, the study shows that the national average of women between the ages of 15 and 49 suffering from severe malnutrition was 11.4%. However, from 2013 to 2016 it decreased by 1.6%. According to the UN, in total 4.5 million", "-28.48047470289748" ], [ "be seen in some people's hearts. For other reasons, the death of the Yerkes center also indicates that myocardial fibrosis was severe during this period of 14 men and 4 women, autopsies were fragmented by the IMF. Food used to alleviate illness Scientists have begun to study how billions of bacteria, fungi and other microbes living in the stomach and intestines of humans affect our health for the last few decades. What we eat determines which of these microorganisms thrive, and the composition of the intestinal flora has a great influence on other parts of our body. For example, some", "-28.422389495448442" ], [ "broadly, the numbers of births were balanced by numbers of deaths (including high rates of infant mortality). Infant mortality was high for various reasons such as ignorance, insufficient health facilities, and sometimes lack of food. Occasionally, farmers were unable to produce enough food for the population, resulting in death from starvation. However more recently, and especially in the 20th and 21st centuries, due to growth in technology, education, and medical care, the world population has increased rapidly, as many more people have survived to child-bearing age. Natural resources that were once scarce are now being mass-produced. Because of this increase,", "-28.398381349776173" ], [ "basic oral medication to treat infections.\" contained in \"Community-based management of severe acute malnutrition, A Joint Statement by the World Health Organization, the World Food Programme, the United Nations System Standing Committee on Nutrition and the United Nations Children’s Fund.\" Epidemiology The World Health Organization estimates that malnutrition accounts for 54 percent of child mortality worldwide, about 1 million children. Another estimate also by WHO states that childhood underweight is the cause for about 35% of all deaths of children under the age of five years worldwide.\nAccording to a 2008 review an estimated 178 million children under age 5 are stunted, most", "-28.396750768646598" ], [ "showed that undernutrition during the early stages of pregnancy are associated with hypomethylation of the insulin-like growth factor II (IGF2) gene even after six decades. These individuals had significantly lower methylation rates as compared to their same sex sibling who had not been conceived during the famine. A comparison was done with children conceived prior to the famine so that their mothers were nutrient deprived during the later stages of gestation; these children had normal methylation patterns. The IGF2 stands for insulin-like growth factor II; this gene is a key contributor in human growth and development. IGF2", "-28.390564456145512" ], [ "inheritance in humans. These include those of the Dutch famine of 1944–45, wherein the offspring born during the famine were smaller than those born the year before the famine and the effects could last for two generations. Moreover, these offspring were found to have an increased risk of glucose intolerance in adulthood. Differential DNA methylation has been found in adult female offspring who had been exposed to famine in utero, but it is unknown whether these differences are present in their germline. It is hypothesized that inhibiting the PIM3 gene may have caused slower metabolism in later generations, but", "-28.339893863216275" ], [ "100,000 and 150,000. Once they left their rural villages in search of food, their outlook for survival was grim: \"Many died by the roadside – witness the skulls and bones which were to be seen there in the months following the famine.\" Sanitation and undisposed dead The disruption of core elements of society brought a catastrophic breakdown of sanitary conditions and hygiene standards. The weekly newspaper Biplabi commented in November 1943 on the levels of putrefaction, contamination, and vermin infestation:\nBengal is a vast cremation ground, a meeting place for ghosts and evil spirits, a land so overrun by dogs,", "-28.312252762087155" ], [ "contractility. This leads to intrauterine fetal death. Risk of later metabolic disease According to the theory of thrifty phenotype, placental insufficiency triggers epigenetic responses in the fetus that are otherwise activated in times of chronic food shortage. If the offspring actually develops in an environment rich in food it may be more prone to metabolic disorders, such as obesity and type II diabetes.", "-28.2868421480307" ], [ "No adults over the age of 49 survived. Deaths were \"extremely high\" among males aged between 20 and 39, at more than 66 percent. Men have been found to metabolize protein faster, and women do not require as high a caloric intake. Women also store more body fat, which delays the effects of physical degradation caused by starvation and overwork. Men also tend to take on more dangerous tasks, and in this particular instance, the men were required to clear brush and engage in heavy labor before reaching Truckee Lake, adding to their physical debilitation. Those traveling with family members", "-28.272893578134244" ], [ "These co-morbidities tax already malnourished children and may prolong hospital stays initially for PEM and may increase the likelihood of death.\nThe general explanation of increased infectious comorbidity in malnourished people is that (1) the immune system is what prevents such diseases from being more widespread in healthy, well-nourished people and (2) malnutrition stresses and diminishes immune function. In other words, malnutrition tends to cause (mild or moderate) immunodeficiency, eroding the barriers that normally keep infectious diseases at bay. For example, this reversal is well established regarding the variable natural history of tuberculosis in the pre–TB drug era. Epidemiologically, there are", "-28.253064531381824" ], [ "thousand have lost their lives because of this problem.\nChronic malnutrition is much more prevalent in the south and rural areas than in the north and in urban ones. The indigenous population in Mexico faces a significantly more severe situation. For instance, over 33% of children under five suffer from chronic malnutrition, which trumps the national average. Obesity Mexico has experienced a dramatic increase in wealth in recent decades, bringing a significant shift in socio-economic status and a geographical shift from rural to urban. This transformation has brought about harmful dietary patterns: increased access to low-priced highly energy-dense foods and an", "-28.244087578495964" ], [ "stillbirth and cretinism, or nutrient excess health-threatening conditions such as obesity and metabolic syndrome; and such common chronic systemic diseases as cardiovascular disease, diabetes, and osteoporosis. Undernutrition can lead to wasting in acute cases, and the stunting of marasmus in chronic cases of malnutrition. Antiquity The first recorded dietary advice, carved into a Babylonian stone tablet in about 2500 BC, cautioned those with pain inside to avoid eating onions for three days. Scurvy, later found to be a vitamin C deficiency, was first described in 1500 BC in the Ebers Papyrus.\nAccording to Walter Gratzer, the study of nutrition probably began", "-28.206358210067265" ], [ "infant and child mortality The United Nations indicates that about 850 million people are malnourished or starving, and 1.1 billion people do not have access to safe drinking water. Since 1980, the global economy has grown by 380 percent, but the number of people living on less than 5 US dollars a day increased by more than 1.1 billion.\nThe UN Human Development Report of 1997 states: \"During the last 15–20 years, more than 100 developing countries, and several Eastern European countries, have suffered from disastrous growth failures. The reductions in standard of living have been deeper and more long-lasting than", "-28.18347412464209" ], [ "Biafra, but these remain unsubstantiated. Background By 1968, a year after the start of the Nigerian Civil War, large numbers of children were reportedly starving to death due to a blockade imposed by the Federal Military Government (FMG) and military. By 1969 it was reported that over 1,000 children per day were starving to death. A FMG representative declared, \"Starvation is a legitimate weapon of war, and we have every intention of using it.\" With the advent of global television reporting, for the first time, famine, starvation, and the humanitarian response were seen by millions around the world, demanding that", "-28.15007104279357" ], [ "infants hominid skulls (e.g. Taung child skull) that had been traumatized, has been proposed cannibalism by Raymond A. Dart. The children were not necessarily actively killed, but neglect and intentional malnourishment may also have occurred, as proposed by Vicente Lull as an explanation for an apparent surplus of men and the below average height of women in prehistoric Menorca. In the New World Archaeologists have uncovered physical evidence of child sacrifice at several locations. Some of the best attested examples are the diverse rites which were part of the religious practices in Mesoamerica and the Inca Empire. In the Old", "-28.143273071560543" ], [ "and no meat. The only meat in their diets was from rats, snakes, frogs or even insects that they caught. Ahn estimated that 1,500–2,000 people died of malnutrition there every year, mostly children. Despite these deaths, the inmate population remained constant, suggesting that around 1,500–2,000 new inmates arrived each year.\nChildren received only very basic education. From the age of 6 onward they were work assigned, such as picking vegetables, peeling corn or drying rice, but received very little food — only 360 g (13 oz) in all per day. Consequently many children died before the age of ten years. Elderly prisoners had the", "-28.107323708361946" ], [ "care to get an adequate understanding of health achievement and capability.\"\nUNICEF found that healthy children need healthy mothers. A woman in Sub-Saharan Africa has a 1 in 16 chance of dying in childbirth. The report found that at least 20% of the burden of disease in children below the age of 5 is related to poor maternal health and nutrition, as well as the quality of care at delivery and during the newborn period. Yearly, 8 million babies die before or during delivery or in the first week of life. Further, many children are tragically left motherless each year. These", "-28.079610658896854" ], [ "to only 48 years, while one in seven children dies before the age of five. Hunger According to the Food Security Portal, nearly 70 percent of the DRC population have little to no access to an adequate food supply contributing to the malnourishment of one out of every four children. Malnutrition in children is especially high in war-torn provinces that rely on the mining industry. The principal contributing factor to food shortages is population displacement. Due to the ongoing violence the United Nations estimates that approximately 2.3 million persons are displaced in the DRC. The conflicts in mining provinces have", "-28.074602378474083" ], [ "wiped out human civilization and a substantial portion of the human population. A few isolated pockets of humanity survived in underground bunkers, while others quickly reverted to pre-technological savagery.\nShortly before the Great Disaster, a scientist at Walter Reed Army Medical Center, Dr. Michael Grant, developed a drug called Cortexin, which stimulated the reasoning abilities of animals. During the Great Disaster, Grant released the experimental animals affected by the drug, and dumped the Cortexin itself into the stream created by a broken water main. In the ensuing days, animals escaping from the National Zoo drank from that stream and became affected", "-28.064172067999607" ], [ "University, along with Keith Rosenberg cited a case where parents \nfed their child cassava failed to recognize malnutrition because of the edema caused by the syndrome and insisted the child was well-nourished despite the lack of dietary protein.\nProtein should be supplied only for anabolic purposes. The catabolic needs should be satisfied with carbohydrate and fat. Protein catabolism involves the urea cycle, which is located in the liver and can easily overwhelm the capacity of an already damaged organ. The resulting liver failure can be fatal. This means in patients suffering from kwashiorkor, protein must be introduced back into the", "-28.028128851321526" ], [ "in the world. Immunization rates for one-year-old children in 1999 were estimated at 22% for diphtheria, pertussis, and tetanus and 46% for measles. Malnutrition affected an estimated 53% of children under five years of age as of 1989.", "-28.016785948188044" ], [ "days. Hunger would arrive and they would have to seek out other sources of nutrients that they wouldn’t normally eat, like grated roots of plants. Various types of sicknesses would follow. For example, Steven Schwartz writes that after the 1685 hurricane in Puerto Rico about 900 people died from a deadly plague because their immune systems were weakened from hunger. The bodies that were found in rivers ended up contaminating potable water sources and led to the spread of diseases.\nSecondly, the rise in social tensions were revealed in the aftermath of the hurricane. The fear of looting and a breakdown", "-27.973750471603125" ], [ "of malnutrition rose from 5% in October to 8.30% in November, but this was expect to improve more food and milk became available. In July 2011 the Kaloleni area was again experiencing a severe food shortage. The main diet was maize flour, supplemented by mangoes found growing wild. Facilities As of 2010 St. Luke’s MISSION hospital in Kaloleni had been operational for about two years, providing basic care for a population of 400,000 in the region. Malnutrition is a major cause of infant death, often through ignorance of very young mothers. The hospital helps educate the mothers. The hospital provides", "-27.956506633781828" ], [ "many infants were dying as the result of vitamin C deficiencies and that these deaths could be prevented by the injection of the vitamin. According to Kalokerinos, the vitamin C deficiencies could result from infections, gut disturbances including parasitic infestation and other immune insults including vaccination. Dettman's research substantiated Kalolerinos' claim that most of the children were vitamin C deficient, becoming a witness to the dramatic effect that injections of Vitamin C had in saving the lives of many young infants. Dettman's observations had such an impact, he became a firm believer in vitamin C and joined forces", "-27.92626847466454" ], [ "of children are underweight. Examples of food insecurity Famines have been frequent in world history. Some have killed millions and substantially diminished the population of a large area. The most common causes have been drought and war, but the greatest famines in history were caused by economic policy.\nIn 2017, floods and other climate shocks placed more than 21 million people in food crisis and more than 10 million in emergency situations in Afghanistan, Nepal, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, and Yemen – many of which also suffer from conflict and political upheaval. Afghanistan In Afghanistan, about 35% of households are food", "-27.923726870911196" ], [ "been immunized against tuberculosis, diphtheria, pertussis, tetanus, polio, and measles, a proportion roughly comparable to the rate of immunization among other states in sub-Saharan Africa.\nPer capita daily caloric intake in 1988 was 2,046, about average for sub-Saharan Africa but only a little better than 90 percent of daily requirements. Children were most often the victims of malnutrition. Their generally poor diets were deficient in protein in part because local custom discouraged the feeding of fish to children. The scarcity of safe drinking water—available to about one in three Comorans—made intestinal parasites a problem and compounded malnutrition, with children again being", "-27.909581817026265" ], [ "be allowed her to feed her child. Developing nations In many countries, particularly those with a generally poor level of health, malnutrition is the major cause of death in children under 5, with 50% of all those cases being within the first year of life. International organisations such as Plan International and La Leche League have helped to promote breastfeeding around the world, educating new mothers and helping the governments to develop strategies to increase the number of women exclusively breastfeeding.\nTraditional beliefs in many developing countries give different advice to women raising their newborn child. In Ghana babies are still", "-27.900665587978438" ], [ "1,000 live births is 2 and the lifetime risk of death for pregnant women 1 in 24. Nutrition The DRC nutritional situation is still alarming despite global health progress. More than half (69%) of its population suffers from undernutrition The prevalence of stunting is 43% among children under 5 years old, with 14% of women in childbearing age; 8% for wasting with 3% of Severe Acute Malnutrition in children under 5 years old and finally 23% for underweight in children of the same age group. Stunting prevalence still higher and remains the most common of undernutrition in the country according", "-27.881122811231762" ], [ "than 10 percent of the \"young\" elderly (up to age 75) malnourished, while 30 to 65 percent of the elderly in home care, long-term care facilities, or acute hospitals are malnourished. Many elderly people require assistance in eating, which may contribute to malnutrition. However, the mortality rate due to undernourishment may be reduced. Because of this, one of the main requirements of elderly care is to provide an adequate diet and all essential nutrients. Providing the different nutrients such as protein and energy keeps even small but consistent weight gain. Hospital admissions for malnutrition in the United Kingdom have been", "-27.87144757725764" ], [ "an unusual mechanism was at work. Disease The hyperdisease hypothesis, proposed by Ross MacPhee in 1997, states that the megafaunal die-off was due to an indirect transmission of diseases by newly arriving aboriginal humans. According to MacPhee, aboriginals or animals travelling with them, such as domestic dogs or livestock, introduced one or more highly virulent diseases into new environments whose native population had no immunity to them, eventually leading to their extinction. K-selection animals, such as the now-extinct megafauna, are especially vulnerable to diseases, as opposed to r-selection animals who have a shorter gestation period and a higher population size.", "-27.837380579061573" ], [ "of 2007. However, it is estimated that between 500,000 and 3 million people died from famine in the 1990s, and a 1998 United Nations (UN) World Food Program report revealed that 60 percent of children suffered from malnutrition, and 16 percent were acutely malnourished. UN statistics for the period 1999–2001 reveal that North Korea's daily per capita food supply was one of the lowest in Asia, exceeding only that of Cambodia, Laos, and Tajikistan, and one of the lowest worldwide. Because of continuing economic problems, food shortages and chronic malnutrition prevail in the 2000s. Oman Oman's healthcare system was ranked", "-27.825112801685464" ], [ "many died of exposure, starvation and illness.", "-27.81670588447014" ], [ "groups such as the very young and very old where differential mortality in relation to body composition is highly unlikely.\nMoreover, there is some confusion among proponents of the thrifty gene hypothesis about how long famines have played a role in evolution. On the one hand some proponents suggest famines have been an \"ever present\" threat dating back to the dawn of Australopithecines about 4–6 million years ago, while others indicate that famines may actually only have been important since the invention of agriculture, because crop failures would exert devastating effects on our ancestors. Speakman argues that either scenario poses difficulties.", "-27.805564583512023" ], [ "therefore, the death toll as well. Additionally, since these children were born pardo, it can be assumed if they reached adulthood, they did not hold high socioeconomic status, signifying a higher susceptibility to the disastrous effects of the drought. Furthermore, the children of the unaccounted pardo population were also disadvantaged; with a higher susceptibility to disease, the president of Ceará remarked the “sad truth” of the disproportionate death rate of malnourished children.  \nAnother misconstruction is apparent through analyzation of the emigration statistics. Although the vast majority of the population, “an estimated 90 percent,” emigrated Ceará during the drought, it is", "-27.756439133008826" ], [ "increase in the all-cause death rate among the elderly were also observed.\" This was caused by how the population tried to reduce the energy store without reducing the nutritional value of the food.\nA letter published in the Canadian Medical Association Journal (CMAJ) criticizes the American Journal of Epidemiology for not taking all factors into account and says that \"The famine in Cuba during the Special Period was caused by political and economic factors similar to the ones that caused a famine in North Korea in the mid-1990s. Both countries were run by authoritarian regimes that denied ordinary people the food", "-27.72215237734781" ], [ "of population since the 18th century can be attributed to a decline in mortality from infectious diseases, largely to a better standard of living, particularly to better nutrition, but later also to better hygiene, and only marginally and late to medicine. The work of Fogel and collaborators provided the necessary evidence that more and better food was the main drive for the reduction in mortality from infectious diseases. As summarized by Nobel laureate Angus Deaton (2013, pp 91–92):\n'Nutrition was clearly part of the story of early mortality decline. ... With the beginnings of the agricultural revolution, the [Malthusian] trap began", "-27.714369260531384" ], [ "blood loss, sweating and by shedding cells of the skin and the mucosal lining of the gastrointestinal tract. The total amount of loss for healthy people in the developed world amounts to an estimated average of 1 mg a day for men, and 1.5–2 mg a day for women with regular menstrual periods. People with gastrointestinal parasitic infections, more commonly found in developing countries, often lose more. Those who cannot regulate absorption well enough get disorders of iron overload. In these diseases, the toxicity of iron starts overwhelming the body's ability to bind and store it. Iron import Most cell types take", "-27.69395430077566" ], [ "family members were often buried for days, then exhumed once the corpses were infested with maggots, at which point the corpse would be dismembered and served with the maggots as a side dish.\nThe demographic distribution evident in the infection rates – kuru was eight to nine times more prevalent in women and children than in men at its peak – is because Fore men considered consuming human flesh to weaken them in times of conflict or battle, while the women and children were more apt to eat the bodies of the deceased, including the brain, where the prion particles were", "-27.688219569303328" ], [ "for preterm infants (unless where hereditary disorders make infants unable to properly digest milk, such as galactosemia). Other research by NIEHS scientists suggests that infant girls fed soy formula are more likely to develop severe menstrual pain as young adults.\nIn 2003 such a kosher soy-based baby milk substitute by Remedia (a Heinz subsidiary) was found to be lacking in vitamin B1, after twenty Israeli babies were admitted to hospitals suffering from brain damage. On human reproductive health On human reproductive health specifically, a 2012 Swiss literature review found a lack of large-scale clinical studies examining the potentially adverse effects of", "-27.67556417679225" ], [ "procreation on pain of death, so human children are born only in outcast villages. Nevertheless, there are some humans born in the Pliocene (i.e. Sunny Jim Quigley and Calistro, a goat-herder).\nSome humans are happy with Tanu rule. Humans with valuable talents like genetics, robotics, etc. are often given golden torcs and are sometimes even ennobled. Other humans with great metapsychic powers are also given silver or golden torcs and may eventually achieve high rank. This is of course, as long as these humans are willing to work for the benefit of the Tanu. Though ramapithecine apes are made to do", "-27.64432368951384" ], [ "this, the child can be kept warm with covering including of the head or by direct skin-to-skin contact with the mother or father and then covering both parent and child. Prolonged bathing or prolonged medical exams should be avoided. Warming methods are usually most important at night. Mortality Mortality due to malnutrition accounted for 58 percent of the total mortality in 2006: \"In the world, approximately 62 million people, all causes of death combined, die each year. One in twelve people worldwide is malnourished and according to the Save the Children 2012 report, one in four of the world’s children", "-27.626435516984202" ], [ "diseases like HIV have a higher risk of malnutrition, since their bodies cannot absorb nutrients as well. Diseases such as measles are a major cause of malnutrition in children; thus immunizations present a way to relieve the burden. Maternal factors The nutrition of children 5 years and younger depends strongly on the nutrition level of their mothers during pregnancy and breastfeeding.\nInfants born to young mothers who are not fully developed are found to have low birth weights. The level of maternal nutrition during pregnancy can affect newborn baby body size and composition. Iodine-deficiency in mothers usually causes brain damage", "-27.60999800117861" ], [ "one year in prison.\nThe Special Period's malnutrition created epidemics, but it had positive effects too. Manuel Franco describes the Special Period as \"the first, and probably the only, natural experiment, born of unfortunate circumstances, where large effects on diabetes, cardiovascular disease and all-cause mortality have been related to sustained population-wide weight loss as a result of increased physical activity and reduced caloric intake\".\nA paper in the American Journal of Epidemiology, says that \"during 1997-2002, there were declines in deaths attributed to diabetes (51%), coronary heart disease (35%), stroke (20%), and all causes (18%). An outbreak of neuropathy and a modest", "-27.59748990627122" ], [ "children usually need total parenteral nutrition through a central venous catheter. Further worsening of liver damage should however be avoided if possible. Diarrhea will likely continue even though food stops passing through the gastrointestinal system. They can subsequently be managed with tube feeding, and some may be weaned from nutritional support during adolescence. Epidemiology Tricho-hepato-enteric syndrome is estimated to affect 1 in 300,000 to 400,000 live births in Western Europe. This syndrome was first reported in 1982 with a report on 2 siblings, and as of 2008 there were around 25 published cases in medical journals. There seem to be", "-27.544991870992817" ], [ "Deformity Mortality In many cases in which a major deformity is present at birth, it is the result of an underlying condition severe enough that the baby does not survive very long. The mortality of severely deformed births may be due to a range of complications including missing or non-functioning vital organs, structural defects that prevent breathing or eating, and high susceptibility to injuries, abnormal facial appearance, or infections that lead to death. In mythology Mythological creatures may have been created due to a deformative syndrome also, for instance, descriptions of mermaids may be related to the symptoms of sirenomelia.", "-27.537481768755242" ], [ "obesity and diseases such as childhood metabolic disease, asthma, atopic dermatitis, Type I diabetes, and childhood cancers are also seen in children who are breastfed. Long-term effects for the mother Maternal health problems include complications from childbirth that do not result in death. For every woman that dies during childbirth, approximately 20 suffer from infection, injury, or disability. Around 75% of women who die in childbirth would be alive today if they had access to pregnancy prevention and healthcare interventions. Black women are more likely to experience pregnancy related deaths as well as receiving less effective medical care during pregnancy.\nAlmost", "-27.52863688772777" ], [ "to become a continental epidemic as it has already spread the infection radius many miles since its induction in the early 1900s.\nFifty years ago it was believed that the Yakut people had extremely degraded immune systems as result of malnourishment and starvation from the World War. It was believed that this disease was docile and those with healthy immune systems could easily fight it off. This inclination appeared to be accurate until a case of a single Caucasian Russian woman. Supposedly, she infected herself as a means to end her own life. She injected herself with cerebrospinal fluid of a", "-27.517809244658565" ], [ "was sought for the non-indigenous.\nBetween 1942 and 1952, malnourished children from six residential schools were used in experiments without consent or parental notification. They were split into treatment and control groups and denied adequate nutrition as they were used to determine whether certain combinations of supplements mitigated problems. Children died, developed anemia, and were denied dental care as they developed cavities and gingivitis. The experiments were run by the Department of Indian Affairs of Canada and directed by Percy Moore and Frederick Tisdall, a former president of the Canadian Paediatric Society. In 2014, the Society released a statement outlining guidelines", "-27.48720227202284" ], [ "living with compromised immune systems, such as individuals taking immunosuppressant drugs and corticosteroids for malignancies or organ transplants, and those with HIV infection.\nL. monocytogenes was not identified as a cause of foodborne illness until 1981, however. An outbreak of listeriosis in Halifax, Nova Scotia, involving 41 cases and 18 deaths, mostly in pregnant women and neonates, was epidemiologically linked to the consumption of coleslaw containing cabbage that had been contaminated with L. monocytogenes-contaminated sheep manure. Since then, a number of cases of foodborne listeriosis have been reported, and L. monocytogenes is now widely recognized as an important hazard in", "-27.420298782992177" ], [ "died of malnutrition and disease.", "-27.36904432112351" ], [ "12 years of age are malnourished and 15% are anemic.\nlate 1980s: Childhood mortality decreases to .9%\n1991: Health officials in Ecuador, Bolivia and Chile banned entry of uncooked food from Peru, particularly fish, which reduced the spread of many diseases in Ecuador.\n2010: Dengue hemorrhagic fever epidemic in Ecuador. General health of Ecuadorians Life expectancy at birth: 78 years\nChildhood mortality (per 1000 live births): 24\nProbability of dying between 15 and 60 years m/f (per 1000 population): 206/123 Diseases There are many prevalent diseases in Ecuador, mainly due to environmental conditions, geographical location, and lack of health care. \nSpecific health problems that are", "-27.363227775116684" ] ]

[ "The chances of you needing a seatbelt in a bus are far less than in a VW bug. The weight and size of a bus makes it inherently safer to drive in than a smaller vehicle. The only problem here is if the bus flips. Then you're fucked.", "I was once in a bus accident on a non-divided highway back in the 1990s. We were driving along in a coach bus at 100km/h. A van driving in front of us slowed down, signaling a right turn at a side road. Our bus pulled into the oncoming traffic lane to pass them on the left. The van turned left, and got T-boned by the bus at 100km/h. As a passenger near the back, it felt like we hit a speedbump. I just felt light on my seat for a second, then everything was normal again. We were then confused as to why the bus was pulling over. The van had its entire side destroyed. You could see the steel beam that runs down the side of the van in relief, every body panel and window on the left side of the van was crushed. Fortunately there were no serious injuries in the van (but probably lots of whiplash). In summary: momentum is awesome. As far as I can recall, this bus had no seatbelts. (Ironic part: we were watching a movie on the bus. It was \"Alive\", and our bus accident happened shortly after the airplane crash scene was shown.)", "Town/ city buses drive at about 20-30 mph. They have handles often on sides or the seat in front. They are not legally required to have seat belts atleast here in the uk. And the inconvenience of having to take it on and off every time someone wants off. On the other hand, coaches or intercity buses travel on highways often faster and are required by law to have them and in proper operating condition. And people don't get on and off as often. These are checked on every inspection and yearly MOT(government vehicle check) Ps- city buses can drive fast but only when no passengers on board", "FYI buses in the U.K. Won't emergency stop either. This is because they don't have seat belts so hitting the brakes hard would increase the risk of injury more than hitting the object and slowing down using this (slow speeds only) One of the things a friend got told when learning to ride a motorbike was don't mess with buses they won't stop for you", "Physics! The bus weighs so much that an accident will not be nearly as dangerous to passengers as a similar accident when in a smaller lighter vehicle. Most accidents would be with another vehicle, not a brick wall. So the bus would not instantly decelerate.", "Here in the UK there are some, but they tend to be on the longer distance, newer coaches rather than local or town-town bus routes. There definitely doesn't *seem* (feel free to correct me anyone...wait, this is Reddit, of course you will :D) to be any legal requirement or enforcement on people belting-up on public transport, even when belts are provided. Often wondered why meself.. I'd've thought that *not* having em would play merry hell with public liability insurance costs..", "The rationale for a school bus is that in the case of young children, if there is an accident most of them are probably going to have trouble undoing their seat belts on their own, and in the case of something like the bus catching fire, it would be more hazardous to have them than not", "Here any buss made after 2004 has to have seatbelt for all passengers. Unless its made for urban traffic only. And its illegal to not use seatbelt if one is available.", "I thought the designs of the seats were to mitigate any possible accident. The seat backs are tall enough that seated passengers will not fly forward, and the seats are designed to take the impact. Side impacts and rollovers, the passengers are screwed." ]

[ [ "as Delta and White Rock. In such case, the vehicles are modified standard transit bus, but with only one door and air conditioning. The vehicles provide accommodation for the disabled (through a lift or ramp at the front), and thus has a few high-back seats, usually in the front, that can be folded up for wheelchairs. The rest of the seats are reclining upholstered seats and have individual lights and overhead storage bins. Because it is a commuter bus, it has some (but not much) standing room, stop-request devices, and a farebox. This model also has a bike", "-31.49818689672975" ], [ "impact were to occur. Seatbelts in buses are sometimes believed to make recovering from a roll or tip harder for students and staff as they could be easily trapped in their own safety belt.\nIn 2015, for the first time, NHTSA endorsed seat belts on school buses. Motor coaches In the European Union, all new long distance buses and coaches must be fitted with seat belts.\nAustralia has required lap/sash seat belts in new coaches since 1994. These must comply with Australian Design Rule 68, which requires the seat belt, seat and seat anchorage to withstand 20g deceleration and an impact by", "-31.428190205129795" ], [ "belts on school buses.\nPros and cons had been alleged about the use of seatbelts in school buses.\nSchool buses which are much bigger in size than the average vehicle allow for the mass transportation of students from place to place. The American School Bus Council states in a brief article saying that, “The children are protected like eggs in an egg carton – compartmentalized, and surrounded with padding and structural integrity to secure the entire container.” (ASBC). Although school buses are considered safe for mass transit of students this will not guarantee that the students will be injury free if an", "-30.900383432977833" ], [ "over one ton of passengers alone. The seats in the passenger version raise the load, passengers, above the floor, further raising the center of gravity (and often shifting it rearward). The bench seats allow passengers to slide if safety belts are not used. In the United States it is common for only the front seat passengers to use their safety belts, perhaps because belted passengers feel they can still lean and shift a large amount. The U.S. National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) has determined that belted passengers are about four times more likely to survive in rollover crashes.\nSafety", "-30.831820949562825" ], [ "Standing passenger In urban public transport, provision is made for standing passengers, often called straphangers or standees, to rationalize operation and to provide extra capacity during rush hour. Occurrence On crowded rapid transit urban lines, while most travelers may be seated during off-peak services, only a limited proportion will be seated during the peak services. The longer the journey, the less willing passengers are to stand. On intercity rail or coach services, the willingness among passengers to stand is often low, or it may even be prohibited, with reserved seating to ensure that all passengers can be seated.\nIn aviation,", "-30.22611723607406" ], [ "safety measures require all passengers and crew to be seated during take-off and landing, so airlines do not allow passengers to travel without a seat. However, in 2010, Ryanair, a low-cost airline proposed a \"vertical seat\" design for use by standing passengers on its aircraft. Seated to standing ratio The seated to standing ratio is the ratio between the number of passengers that can be seated and the number of standing passengers on a public transport vehicle. A higher standing ratio allows for more passengers in a given area, but detracts the perceived quality of the transport, in particular over", "-30.164467202150263" ], [ "installed behind passenger seats close to the sliding door mechanism. Although, feeder routes use low street-level doors. This is achieved with the driver's door at the front-left side of the bus on big buses and a pair of a designated hydraulic folding door on medium buses.\nSeats in old buses face the aisle to optimise passengers' movement during rush hours. New Buses have their seats facing front, which is to reduce sexual harassment that usually happens in public transportation in rush hours.\nEach bus is equipped with an electronic board and speakers that announce the name of shelters in Indonesian and English.", "-30.1309591694735" ], [ "conference-type layout. British Airways, United Airlines and American Airlines also have rearward-facing seats in their Club World, (select) United BusinessFirst (Intercontinental Business Class) and (select) Business Class Cabins, respectively. It has been argued that rearward-facing seats are safer because in the event of a crash, the sudden deceleration will propel the passenger into a rearward-facing seat instead of out of it, meaning the force is distributed over the entire seat back, instead of the straps of the seat belt. The argument against such seats has been based on passenger comfort, safety and cost. It could be argued that passengers who", "-30.121505709757912" ], [ "requiring all passengers to wear a seat belt being New York on December 1, 1984. Currently, there are no countries whose automobiles do not offer seat belts and it is a standardized practice worldwide.\nDuring the development of the seat belt, the federal legislation created several agencies responsible for automobile and road safety: The National Traffic Safety Agency, the National Highway Safety Agency, and the National Highway Safety Bureau, which were merged by the 1970 Highway Safety Act into the combined National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA).\nThe NHTSA was authorized to promulgate regulations - the Federal Motor Vehicle Safety Standards (FMVSS)", "-29.984605272009503" ], [ "that the minibus was not fitted with seatbelts, as legislation did not require minibuses or coaches to be at the time. The law was changed in 1997 to make seat-belts standard equipment on all minibuses and coaches as well as outlawing the \"crew bus\" – a minibus in which two opposing benches face towards each other – and promoting the forward facing coach.\nAfter the crash a bus safety training package called Belt Up School Kids (BUSK) for pupils and teachers was established. It comprised safety training, in-class training for pupils, teachers, parents, voluntary personnel, and governors, and driver training, as", "-29.880069152090073" ], [ "an unrestrained occupant to the rear.\nIn the United States, NHTSA has now required lap-shoulder seat belts in new \"over-the-road\" buses (includes most coaches) starting in 2016. Airplanes Lap belts are found on all passenger aircraft. Unlike road vehicles, aircraft seat belts are not primarily designed for crash protection. In fact, their main purpose is to keep passengers in their seats during events such as turbulence. Many civil aviation authorities require a \"fasten seat belt\" sign in passenger aircraft that can be activated by a pilot during takeoff, turbulence, and landing. The International Civil Aviation Organization recommends the use of child", "-29.707467986183474" ], [ "car seats, booster seats, and seat belts and using them on every trip, no matter how short.", "-29.57547284476459" ], [ "the door. And for the tram, there are a few priority seats offered near the driver in the lower deck. Also, there is priority seating offered by the Cathay Pacific airline, for passengers with disabilities. But since other transportations such as taxi and ferry which usually do not allow standing, there are no specifically designated priority seats. Other related information Some disabilities are more unfamiliar and uneasily recognized. The Toronto Transit Commission reminds everyone of the possibility that people who refuse to offer their seat may have a hidden disability that is either not likely to be recognized or a", "-29.358339518716093" ], [ "Car seat Bucket seat and bench seat A bucket seat is a separate seat with a contoured platform designed to accommodate one person, distinct from a bench seat that is a flat platform designed to seat up to three people. Individual bucket seats typically have rounded backs and may offer a variety of adjustments to fit different passengers. Folding seats Early touring cars featured folding auxiliary seats to offer additional passenger capacity. Some early automobiles were available with an exterior rumble seat that folded open into an upholstered seat for one or two passengers.\nSome sedan models offer fold-down rear seats", "-29.35149794491008" ], [ "research report commissioned by Airbus concluded that an extra inch in seat width improves sleep quality by 53 percent. Aisle chair An airplane \"aisle chair\" is a mobile seat designed for wheelchair-enabled patrons. While trains, buses and other forms of public transportation have space for a passenger's own wheelchair for seating and a ramp or lift assist for boarding, airplane aisles are too narrow for conventional wheelchairs. The aisle chair provided by the airline affords the wheelchair passenger assisted mobility in boarding and deplaning, as well as in-flight moving within the cabin, such as to the lavatory. Material Airline seats", "-29.282574374461547" ], [ "conditions likely would not withstand judicial scrutiny, and the courts probably would not uphold such bans. Space considerations Some services have guidelines regarding the amount of space a passenger can take up whether with one's body or belongings.\nIn some transit systems, including the New York City Subway, it is unlawful to place one's belongings on another seat, even when vacant; however, in the New York City Subway, this rule is frequently flouted.\nPrivately run intercity bus services usually have limits for carry-on and checked luggage, similar to the baggage allowance system on airplanes.\nSome transit systems have a seating precedence rule for", "-29.245117365120677" ], [ "rider use at a conductor's discretion. When lowered, these seats would block side door leaves, so they were protected by lock to ensure only a conductor could lower them. Under regular conditions, 78 seats were available for riders in each car. During the 1950s, many (but not all) of the rattan seats were replaced by sprung leather or a plastic compound (velon) that replicated the feel of rattan.\nFor standees, the cars featured four poles by each side door and small handles on the ends of transverse seats. Due to higher than anticipated ridership, metal straps were added above longitudinal seats", "-29.1329237758182" ], [ "such as lack of seatbelts, crowded buses, and in Northern Ireland especially, the use of \"three for two\" seating, where three children are expected to sit on a bench seat intended for two passengers.\nOther concerns include poorly maintained buses, drivers' backgrounds, children travelling on public buses and school children's behaviour. In one case in 2009, two boys aged 14 and 15 fell out of a bus window, after they leaned on the side of the Premiere Travel bus they were travelling on.\nAs a result of this, over the past decade, starting in around 2000, the talk of and introduction of", "-28.96089131088229" ], [ "not have seat belts, and the law in the United Kingdom only requires wearing seat belts where these are fitted in the vehicle. While there was previously an exemption in the law meaning those making local deliveries were not required to wear a seat belt, which would in theory have included drivers and passengers in milk floats with seat belts fitted, the law was changed in 2005 to deliveries less than 50 metres (160 ft) apart. Statistics In August 1967, the UK Electric Vehicle Association put out a press release stating that Britain had more battery-electric vehicles on its roads than", "-28.931677838263568" ], [ "Foster, and Alberto Meda.\nBusiness travellers commonly wish to use laptop computers while waiting and so seating for them may incorporate a charging point and a form of desk.\nRobert Sommer studied the design of airport seating and concluded that the arrangement of chairs in rigid lines bolted to the floor was deliberately sociofugal — discouraging social interaction such as conversation and encouraging the sitters to go to commercial locations such as shops and cafes. The provision of arms on the chairs increased the usage of the chairs, as compared with bench seats without arms. Strangers are more comfortable sitting adjacent each", "-28.889984594658017" ], [ "rows of seats, each of which seats four adults (babies and children not being counted as they are expected to sit on the lap of an adult). Additionally there are two front passenger seats, so the vehicle can carry a total of up to eighteen passengers, in addition to the driver and the conductor.\nThe conductor is responsible for opening and closing the main sliding door and collecting money from passengers, and will stand in the space by the door if all seats are occupied. No tickets are issued on this form of taxi.\nMoto Taxis\nA large portion of the vehicles on", "-28.686158736811194" ], [ "of seatbelt usage, Cohen and Einav found no evidence that the risk compensation effect makes seatbelt wearing drivers more dangerous, a finding at variance with other research. Increased traffic Other statistical analyses have included adjustments for factors such as increased traffic and age, and based on these adjustments, which results in a reduction of morbidity and mortality due to seat belt use. However, Smeed's law predicts a fall in accident rate with increasing car ownership and has been demonstrated independently of seat belt legislation. School buses In the US, six states—California, Florida, Louisiana, New Jersey, New York, and Texas—require seat", "-28.629453267203644" ], [ "or pushchairs can be accommodated unfolded, due to space/safety concerns.\nLow floors can be complemented by a hydraulic or pneumatic 'kneeling device', which can be used when the bus is not in motion, tilting it or lowering it at the front axle even further, often down to normal curb height. Depending on how close to the curb the bus is parked and wheelchair design, this can allow wheelchair users to board unaided. Though such technology has been available and in use on high-floor buses since the 1970s, it is of significant utility on low-floor vehicles only where it enables less-mobile passengers", "-28.483195851033088" ], [ "intact, none of the occupants were wearing seat belts at the time of the crash; the seat belts for the aftermarket seats were under the seats and inaccessible. As a result, the NTSB issued a recommendation to the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, asking the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration to mandate minimum performance standards for aftermarket seats installed in vehicles modified into limousines. The NTSB also recommended that limousine operators encourage passengers to wear seat belts, and that mandated state inspections should check that seat belts are functional and accessible. Federal and state responses After a 2015 limousine crash", "-28.454574847011827" ], [ "for travelling. By the end of the century the definition had expanded to include bicycles and tricycles. In 1916, the United States Society of Automobile Engineers defined a roadster as: \"an open car seating two or three. It may have additional seats on running boards or in rear deck.\" Due to it having a single row of seats, the main seat for the driver and passenger was usually further back in the chassis than it would have been in a touring car. Roadsters usually had a hooded dashboard.\nIn the United Kingdom, historically the preferred terms were \"open two-seater\" and \"two-seat", "-28.446431070799008" ], [ "seats and have individual lights and overhead storage bins. Because it is a commuter bus, it has some (but not much) standing room, stop-request devices, and a farebox. This model also has a bike rack at the front to accommodate two bicycles.\nSuburban models in the United States are often used in Park-and-Ride services, and are very common in the New York City area, where New Jersey Transit Bus Operations is a major operator serving widespread bedroom communities. Usage The number of miles traveled by vehicles in the United States fell by 3.6% in 2008, while the number of trips", "-28.43290533063555" ], [ "their previous speed due to inertia, and impact the vehicle interior, with a force equivalent to many times their normal weight due to gravity. The purpose of crumple zones is to slow down the collision to increase the time over which the occupants decelerate so as to decrease the average force imparted on the occupants over a given time.\nSeatbelts restrain the passengers so they don't fly through the windshield, and are in the correct position for the airbag and also increase the time over which the occupants decelerate. Seat belts also absorb passenger inertial energy by being designed to stretch", "-28.42245355284831" ], [ "Most of the buses also have air conditioning as well, save for the 4500 series (the GMC New Looks) which do not have A/C. All buses have padded frontal seats for additional comfort, with the 4500 series featuring both front and rear padded seats.\nIn compliance with the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 all RVTD buses feature some form of wheelchair ramp or lift as well as securement methods for the chairs themselves. The design in all buses allows a maximum of two wheelchairs to be secured safely in the bus at any given time. The majority of the fleet", "-28.331237693608273" ], [ "Bench seat Design The front bench seat typically allowed three people to sit abreast, or six passengers in most four-door sedans with this type of arrangement. For example, \"although advertised as an economical 'compact' car, the [1952] Willys Aero could comfortably sit three abreast on its front and rear bench seats, and deliver excellent fuel economy.\" Nash Motors introduced the unique \"airliner\" reclining front bench seats that would be transformed into a bed. American Motors promoted its exclusive adjustable bench seats on the 1959 Ramblers and Ambassadors featuring several restful positions, including a \"comfortable nap couch for children and older", "-28.266985730733722" ], [ "off-centre placement of driveline components - mainly engine and transmission. As a result, many of such buses require electronically controlled air suspension to compensate the lopsided configuration. Other features Low-floor buses usually include an area without seating (or seating that folds up) next to at least one of the doors, where wheelchairs, walkers, strollers/prams, and where allowed even bicycles, can be parked. This is sometimes not the only purpose of this area, though, as many operators employ larger standee areas for high occupancy at peak times. Despite the space existing, operators may also insist that only one or two wheelchairs", "-28.218282889341936" ], [ "seats on each side which flip up for wheelchairs or bicycles. On cab cars, a large equipment locker behind the cab replaces one row of seats. There are single-width side doors at intermediate levels for high-platform loading, and similar doors outboard of the bogies except at the cab position on cab cars. The latter doors of NJ Transit coaches have stepwell trapdoors, allowing these doors to be used for both high and low-platform loading. Exo coaches have one-piece end doors without traps, which can be used only for low-platform loading. There are also an automated announcement system and LED destination", "-28.19656760065118" ], [ "by seat belts.\nIn 1966, he developed the first set of automobile safety standards. In 1970, he developed an improved shoulder harness to restrain the upper body and prevent injuries that occur when the occupant hits the dashboard or windshield.\nStates drafted the New York State seat belt law in 1983, the first such law in the US. Similar laws have now been adopted in 49 states, and the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration credits these laws with dramatically increasing seat belt use and decreasing injuries and fatalities from traffic accidents.\nStates received the Distinguished Career Award from the Injury Control and Emergency", "-28.16105052502826" ], [ "of having a step up to the passenger compartment as was traditional until around the 1970s. This is achieved by having a low-slung chassis with the \"low floor\" resting between the trucks, rather than resting completely on top with a simpler straight chassis design. This improved design is seen in many passenger cars today, especially double decker cars. The low floor enables easy access for bicycles, strollers, suitcases, wheelchairs and those with disabilities, which is otherwise not always convenient or even possible with the traditional passenger car design.\nWithin the United States, the Pennsylvania Railroad developed 'The Keystone'", "-28.117221206135582" ], [ "two if bucket seats were fitted, though some extended and crew cabs retain them to keep costs down since separate availability of bucket seats (captain's chairs) adds to the parts cost.\nUntil recently, around the mid 1990s, bench seats were still favored on large premium sedans and minivans, but even in this market they have become rare. The Toyota Avalon is among some of the newest models to drop availability of this feature, and models such as the Buick LeSabre replaced by new models such as the Buick Lucerne and Cadillac DTS in which it is offered as an option. ", "-28.10218386759516" ], [ "low floor section at the driver's level, most coaches in the UK are being made accessible through the use of wheelchair lifts, with the 2005 Caetano Levante being one of the largest introductions.\nWhile another widely stated benefit of low floor buses is quicker boarding for able-bodied passengers due to the lack of steps, studies have found the opposite effect in the UK. This is apparently due to the prevailing system of operation where passengers enter and exit through one single front door. It has been suggested that the previous 1980s/90s high floor step entrance buses which featured a centre rail,", "-28.09881206582213" ], [ "\"usual seatbelt\" would make it a case against airbags or other passive restraint systems in cars. Further value was placed on analyzing the underlying core assumptions of a case; in the \"usual seatbelt\" example, the assumption was that safety should be an individual's personal choice rather than mandated by government. The best teams were able to argue both the specific case and the general philosophical point. Cases that seemed to be prepared in advance and linked awkwardly to the resolution were strongly discouraged, and judges were trained to deduct points accordingly.\nBy about 1987, several factors had led", "-28.078014456958044" ], [ "other parts of the world have purchased low-floor vehicles.\nIn the United States, the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 required that all new transit vehicles placed into service after 1 July 1993 be accessible to persons in wheelchairs. Some transit agencies had already begun to accommodate such passengers by purchasing buses with wheelchair lifts, and early examples of fleets of lift-equipped trolleybuses included 109 AM General trolleybuses built for the Seattle trolleybus system in 1979 and the retrofitting of lifts in 1983 to 64 Flyer E800s in the Dayton system's fleet.\nTrolleybuses in other countries continued to lack disabled access until the", "-27.97572482671967" ], [ "heads on the backs of the seats in front of them. Some passengers had difficulty unfastening their seatbelts because they were unfamiliar with the mechanism (it differs from the type used in car seatbelts). The purser went to announce instructions to the passengers but the public address system handset had been torn off. He then tried to open the left-side forward door, which was blocked by trees. The door opened partway, and the emergency escape slide began inflating while it was stuck partly inside the fuselage. The purser, a passenger, and a flight attendant (a guest from another airline) managed", "-27.880855248804437" ], [ "seats are in green with words of \"PRIORITY SEAT\" and symbols of elderly, handicapped, pregnant women, and people with infants or young children to help passengers identify them. Advertisements were also broadcast in order to raise the awareness of passengers to offer seats. Receiving positive and supportive feedback after the 6-month trial, in the year 2012, the KMB decided to have priority seats set up in all of its buses and the headrests of such seats were changed into dark purple.\nAccording to press releases from the government, for the minibus, priority seat is provided at the first single seat near", "-27.83537829006673" ], [ "floor, the wheels protrude into the passenger cabin, and need to be contained in wheel pockets of waist height, and this occupies space which would otherwise be used for seating. To allow space for technical equipment, many low-floor buses have the seats mounted on podiums, making a small step up from the floor, while others are able to mount the seats directly to the floor, avoiding the step. Seating layout for a low-floor bus therefore requires careful design. Low floor configuration is also known to have poor side to side dead load distribution within the chassis due to the asymmetrical", "-27.821531712077558" ], [ "usage rates of manual seat belts, particularly in the United States.\nThe 1972 Volkswagen ESVW1 Experimental Safety Vehicle presented passive seat belts. Volvo tried to develop a passive three point seatbelt. In 1973, Volkswagen announced they had a functional passive seat belt. The first commercial car to use automatic seat belts was the 1975 Volkswagen Golf.\nAutomatic seat belts received a boost in the United States in 1977 when Brock Adams, United States Secretary of Transportation in the Carter Administration, mandated that by 1983 every new car should have either airbags or automatic seat belts. There was strong lobbying against the passive", "-27.766594339555013" ], [ "the bus, most commonly between the front door and the middle door (more popular in North America). In North America, both types are commonly called low-floor, as the majority of the vehicle has a low floor, without steps at the doors.\nThe main reason for choosing a low-entry configuration is to allow better placement for the powertrain and other technical equipment in the raised floor section, in addition to allowing a more comfortable ride on rough roads. Some manufacturers use the initials LF or L in their model designations for fully low-floor models (or in the case of German manufacturers, NF", "-27.711570569546893" ], [ "when vehicles are more likely to have multiple occupants, and when seat belts are less likely to be used.\nThe Insurance Institute for Highway Safety proposes restrictions for new drivers, including a \"curfew\" imposed on young drivers to prevent them driving at night, an experienced supervisor to chaperone the less experienced driver, forbidding the carrying of passengers, zero alcohol tolerance, raising the standards required for driving instructors and improving the driving test, vehicle restrictions (e.g. restricting access to 'high-performance' vehicles), a sign placed on the back of the vehicle (an N- or P-Plate) to notify other drivers of a novice driver", "-27.68669126772147" ], [ "with third parties, and that passengers are prohibited from using information from other passengers' profiles to infringe upon their rights. Despite these assurances, some companies are still unwilling to implement social seating programs, not just because of a lack of demand, but because they still feel that there is the potential for misuse. As Ali Bullock, Cathay Pacific's digital and social manager, stated, \"It’s got to be in the interest of the passengers, and we feel there are privacy issues surrounding the idea of social seating\".", "-27.672869847156107" ], [ "SeatbeltBags have based past designs for handbags on, automobiles, vintage clothing, art, retro architecture, iconic pop culture, tattoos, nature, dessert foods, and customer input.\nThe strength of the material used to make the bags led to the creation of a lifetime guarantee against manufacture defects and the slogan \"Guaranteed Tough\". Durable, fade resistant automotive grade seatbelts and YKK zippers are sewn on industrial sewing machines (the kind used to sew horse saddles) with NASA grade nylon 69 thread. Handbags Harveys SeatbeltBags first started using solid colors of seatbelts with names including, but not limited to, Limo Black, SUV Navy, and", "-27.63072107572225" ], [ "belts first in all outboard seating positions and eventually in all seating positions in passenger vehicles. Since September 1, 2007, all new cars sold in the U.S. require a lap and shoulder belt in the center rear seat. \nBesides regulatory changes, \"seat belt syndrome\" has led to tremendous liability for vehicle manufacturers. One Los Angeles case resulted in a $45 million jury verdict against Ford; the resulting $30 million judgment (after deductions for another defendant who settled prior to trial) was affirmed on appeal in 2006. Sash A \"sash\" or shoulder harness is a strap that goes diagonally over the", "-27.626798494020477" ], [ "low-cost carriers, some of these amenities may not be installed. For instance, on several aircraft, Ryanair has installed non-reclining seats without seat pockets with the safety manuals stitched to the seat back instead. Even on airliners with reclining seats, some seats may have a restricted recline or no recline. Typically this will be the rear row of the cabin where a rear bulkhead blocks the recline, or seats immediately in front of the emergency exit where a reclined seat might restrict access to the emergency exit, creating a potential safety hazard. Independent seat review sites such as SeatGuru often warn", "-27.60183644964127" ], [ "to board and leave the vehicle without help from others. Many vehicles are also equipped with wheel-chair lifts, or ramps which, when combined with a low floor, can provide a nearly level entry.\nAn interesting implementation of the low floor design exists in Australia, where Custom Coaches makes a \"Hybrid\" variant of its CB60 bodywork. These buses combine a smaller low floor area with a small underfloor bin for some luggage. Whilst these buses do not provide a full amount of luggage space, they can be used to house more luggage than what can be held inside the bus itself. Another", "-27.60049021843588" ], [ "seatmap is simply held as a two-dimensional array and as such can only display a grid of seats, as opposed to the more ingenious layouts now used in First and Business Class.\nNichols et al. (2013) have reported that when people book seats on-line, they exhibit a leftward preference for seats on an aircraft, but a rightward preference for seats at the theatre. Published by specialized websites In addition to those published seat maps which can be found on airline websites, there are some other websites that publish aircraft seat maps for almost all commercial carriers. Seat maps that can be", "-27.58829188742675" ], [ "to offer available seats online and passengers to find a ride. People could select the users that they want to ride with, how much space and comfort they needed, where they wanted to meet and what they were willing to pay. \nPeople could also book and pay for a seat online and drivers and passengers could rate each other after a ride.\nThe service could be accessed from a computer, a mobile phone (iPhone, Android) or Facebook. It was available in seven languages and localized in 9 countries. The site also offered rides on train, bus and planes to give passengers", "-27.58455304763629" ], [ "extended wheel arch. Behind the front axle there is a storage possibly for snow chains. Two illuminated steps provide access to the higher floor level at the rear. All seats are located on the raised floor and are equipped with safety belts, while those located on the side of the stairs have additional armrests and handles. Above the seats in the low floor part of the bus there are shelves for luggage on the ceiling. The higher door has wheelchair access. Optionally, in place of the wheelchair bay the space can be transformed for four additional passenger seats. The ventilation", "-27.562607283471152" ], [ "sides of the aircraft, and usually next to a window, although some aircraft have seat rows where there is a window missing. Window seats are preferred by passengers who want to have a view, or a wall which they can lean against. Passengers in seats adjacent to the aisle have the advantage of being able to leave the seat without having to clamber over the other passengers, and having an aisle they can stretch their legs into. If a seat block has three or more seats, there will also be middle seats which are unpopular because the passenger is sandwiched", "-27.554203010826313" ], [ "bus line generally connects a suburban area to the downtown core.\nThe vehicle can be something as simple as a merely refitted school bus (which sometimes already contains overhead storage racks) or a minibus. Often a suburban coach may be used, which is a standard transit bus modified to have some of the functionality of an interstate coach. The vehicles provide accommodation for the disabled (through a lift or ramp at the front), and thus has a few high-back seats, usually in the front, that can be folded up for wheelchairs. The rest of the seats are reclining upholstered", "-27.532715641194955" ], [ "would not attach their seat belts on properly in order to spend less time in the pit lane and lower safety standards, \"If things like this start to be ignored then it's not the right thing to do.\" After teams signed a letter conveying their disappointment and safety concerns such as seat belt fastening to the stewards, it was decided to postpone the change until the Santiago ePrix to allow teams to utilise additional safety garage equipment for team members and invest in sports car style seat belts.\nThe inaugural in-season rookie test was scheduled to be held at the circuit", "-27.525013654958457" ], [ "installed on some buses, the Kneel Down facility is more common on public transport buses. This helps reduce the step height for easy ingress of passengers.The Kneel Down facility is also used when using the built in wheel chair ramps. Due to several advantages air suspension has been extensively used in commercial vehicles since 1980. Use on light commercial vehicles Air suspension is starting to make its way to light commercial vehicles. The new Mercedes-Benz VS30 Sprinter, for instance, offers air suspension as an optional extra. It has not been developed by Mercedes-Benz themselves, but was designed by the Dutch", "-27.473680776456604" ], [ "is often filled with row upon row of seats like that in a passenger airliner. Other arrangements of the \"open\" type are also found, including seats around tables, seats facing windows (often found on mass transit trains since they increase standing room for rush hour), and variations of all three. Seating arrangement is typically [2+2], while the hard seat in China has [3+2] arrangements. The seating arrangements and density, as well as the absence or presence of other facilities depends on the intended use – from mass transit systems to long distance luxury trains. Reclining seats, as in the illustration", "-27.465635660802945" ], [ "wheelchair, but too short for a mobility scooter. Hallways may be too narrow to make a right-angle turn. Or the \"privacy\" wall in most washrooms may restrict the entry so that the scooter cannot maneuver around it.\nThe weight minimum and limitations may be cause for concern as well with the minimum weight requirement being 170 lbs and the maximum being between 250-400 pounds depending on the make.\nThese limitations may prevent some disabled individuals from using scooters. In addition, scooter limitations may vary depending on model and manufacturer. A limitation of one make/model does not necessarily carry over to all. Individual", "-27.435041454969905" ], [ "than models without ABS. A 2004 study found that ABS reduced the risk of multiple vehicle crashes by 18 percent, but had increased the risk of run-off-road crashes by 35 percent. Seat belts A 1994 research study of people who both wore and habitually did not wear seatbelts concluded that drivers were found to drive faster and less carefully when belted.\nSeveral important driving behaviors were observed on the road before and after the belt use law was enforced in Newfoundland, and in Nova Scotia during the same period without a law. Belt use increased from 16 percent to 77 percent", "-27.41660493487143" ], [ "as minibuses or buses used for public transport. They have a bigger platform and higher load capacity so they are suitable even for heavy electric wheelchairs with a heavy occupant (more than 300 kg. in all). A mono-arm Lift is preferable for private transport because it can fit smaller vehicles. A mono-arm lift is lighter and smaller than the other ones and it ensures a clear view when it's installed in the back of the car. Moreover, mono-arm lifts are preferable for the side-door installation because they are thinner than a double-arm. Other types Crane type lifts are combined with seats", "-27.41296108881943" ], [ "leather seats are designed for comfort. The cabin has air conditioning which is adjusted according to the number of passengers on board, to lower energy consumption. Each car has ten doors and two toilets (one standard and one for people with reduced mobility). The Caravaggio has luggage storage areas and dedicated spaces for bicycles, sockets to charge electric bicycles. The trains have LED lighting, Wi-Fi, USB sockets, a passenger information system, energy meters, and a passenger counter. Staircases above the bogies give access to the upper deck. The doors are fitted with movable steps to cover the gap between", "-27.4129499894334" ], [ "occupant-protection provisions of FMVSS 208. Over the subsequent years, this NHTSA program was gradually expanded in scope. 1980s In 1984, New York State passed the first U.S. law requiring seat belt use in passenger cars. Seat belt laws have since been adopted by 49 states (New Hampshire has not). NHTSA estimates the resulting increased seat belt use saves 10,000 per year in the United States.\nIn 1986, the central 3rd brake light was mandated in North America with most of the world following with similar standards in automotive lighting.\nIn 1989, companies in Israel implemented Advanced Brake Warning systems, where the driver", "-27.401678451657062" ], [ "folding back seats and a tailgate in order for easy entry and exit of the passengers. The folding back seats also result in increased storage space. The roofline has been designed in a downsloping manner, resulting in more headroom for passengers in the rear seats. Apart from that, the car features a redesigned nose, unique wheels, a glass roof, front air vents near the front wheels for increased downforce and improved brake cooling, thinner headlamps and unique quad tail lamps. Giugiaro wanted a Ferrari that he could easily use with his family and which allowed easy entry and exit of", "-27.382231529103592" ], [ "also used for the Wright Commander from Wrightbus. The weight of the older buses differs from later models because of different materials and a different engine. Its interior varies by company. The passenger seats are made inexpensively; they are plastic cups with a layer of foam on the seat and fabric on top. Several buses have been equipped with more-luxurious seats.", "-27.37237115413882" ], [ "Control, Tire pressure monitoring system, active head restraints for front-seat occupants, 3-point seatbelts and headrests for all seats, emergency locking retractors (ELR) for all seats, automatic locking retractors (ATR) for all seats (except driver's), front seatbelt pretensioners with force limiters, and LATCH (Lower Anchors and Tethers for Children) for rear outboard seats.\nSeven standard airbags include dual-stage front airbags, driver's knee airbag, front seat-mounted side airbags, 2-row side curtain airbags and fuel pump cut-off switch with airbag deployment.\nVenza owners have reported a safety concern because the sun visor can suddenly sag and obscure the driver's vision while driving. The", "-27.31361629255116" ], [ "that turn and lower to the ground as a means of providing wheelchair access to some types of vehicles.\nSome companies offer the option of a \"transfer seat\", in which the front driver's or passenger's seat moves on a track back to the wheelchair's position allowing the wheelchair user to transfer into the OEM front seat and then move the seat back into its original position. The conversion is very simple and does not carry the complicated engineering and electronics typically found in a side-entry conversion. As a result, they are very well suited for commercial and heavy-cycle applications", "-27.311846714495914" ], [ "and space for wheelchairs. Interior fittings and destination displays may also be designed to be usable by the visually impaired. Coaches generally use wheelchair lifts instead of low-floor designs. In some countries, vehicles are required to have these features by disability discrimination laws. Configuration Buses were initially configured with an engine in the front and an entrance at the rear. With the transition to one-man operation, many manufacturers moved to mid- or rear-engined designs, with a single door at the front or multiple doors. The move to the low-floor design has all but eliminated the mid-engined design, although some coaches", "-27.256335935962852" ], [ "seeing, he proposed, in late 1955, retractable seat belts, recessed steering wheels, reinforced roofs, roll bars, automatic door locks, and passive restraints such as the air bag. Subsequently, in 1966, Congress passed the National Traffic and Motor Vehicle Safety Act requiring all automobiles to comply with certain safety standards.\nAmerican car manufacturers Nash (in 1949) and Ford (in 1955) offered seat belts as options, while Swedish Saab first introduced seat belts as standard in 1958. After the Saab GT 750 was introduced at the New York Motor Show in 1958 with safety belts fitted as standard, the practice became commonplace.\nGlenn Sheren,", "-27.22220868893055" ], [ "seat passengers. The four-point belt represents a possible next-generation safety belt system that is designed to be more comfortable and easier to use than traditional three-point belts. The dash, headliner, steering wheel, and four low-back bucket seats are wrapped in leather. There are retractable headrests that deploy from the roof, adjusting fore and aft as well as up and down for each occupant. The audio control panel and climate controls are stowable, and there is a gated six-speed shifter in the center dash.", "-27.203352207932767" ], [ "have 4 or 6 berths (consisting of a bottom, middle and top bunk on each side of the compartment). Open section berths The berths clustered in compartments contrasted with the berths in the open sections of Pullman cars in the United States, common until the 1950s. In these cars passengers faced each other in facing seats during the day. Porters pulled down the upper berth, and brought the lower seats together to create the lower berth. All of these berths faced the aisle running down the center of the sleeping car. Each berth had a curtain for privacy away from", "-27.199148503073957" ], [ "Airline seat An airline seat is a seat on an airliner in which passengers are accommodated for the duration of the journey. Such seats are usually arranged in rows running across the airplane's fuselage. A diagram of such seats in an aircraft is called an aircraft seat map. Features and amenities Seats are attached to rails underneath the floor which run along the aircraft fuselage. If the airline wants to reconfigure the seating, this is a minor operation. For passenger safety, all airline seats are equipped with seatbelts. Basic amenities Seats are frequently equipped with further amenities. Airline seats may", "-27.1840837463169" ], [ "seat belts, out of necessity, automakers began to reconsider the use of airbags as passive restraints. By 1988, dual airbags remained nearly unused in cars sold in the United States, with the exception of the Mercedes S-Class (W126) and the Porsche 944. To comply with the legislation, Lincoln introduced the 1988 Continental with dual airbags, becoming the first Ford Motor Company (and first domestically-produced vehicle) with them standard. As adding airbags to the 1988-1989 Town Car would require a redesign of the steering column and entire dashboard, dual airbag were moved to the FN36 project, making them an intended standard", "-27.156734037562273" ], [ "countless people have been ejected from these vehicles in accidents. Seatbelts did not become optional until the 2006 model year.", "-27.096840233629337" ], [ "conventional roads or bus lanes.\nBus manufacturing may be by a single company (an integral manufacturer), or by one manufacturer's building a bus body over a chassis produced by another manufacturer. Accessibility Transit buses used to be mainly high-floor vehicles. However, they are now increasingly of low-floor design and optionally also 'kneel' air suspension and have electrically or hydraulically extended under-floor ramps to provide level access for wheelchair users and people with baby carriages. Prior to more general use of such technology, these wheelchair users could only use specialist paratransit mobility buses.\nAccessible vehicles also have wider entrances and interior gangways", "-27.07386355701601" ], [ "if the shield is forced open. On buses which do not have the shield, the seats directly behind the driver are generally off limits.\nThe growing popularity in the United States of new bus lines such as Megabus and BoltBus that pick up and drop off passengers on the street instead of bus depots has led to a rise in the perceived security of intercity buses. Megabus states that a quarter of its passengers are unaccompanied women. Urban-suburban bus line Urban-suburban bus line is generally categorized as public transit, especially for large metropolitan transit networks. Usually these routes cover a long", "-27.057569866767153" ], [ "three-point hitches. Pneumatic Pneumatic (compressed air) systems are rarely found in passenger cars.\nLarger vehicles often use air brakes and the pressure may be used to drive other systems. Windshield wipers, automatic gear boxes, and other common hydraulic or vacuum powered accessories are often adapted. On buses where the engine is often at the rear of the vehicle, compressed air may be used for the throttle and clutch. \nBus doors are typically air powered, as well as the steps and the suspension, allowing the bus to lower itself or \"kneel\" at stops to allow passengers on or off.", "-27.02222521416843" ], [ "configuration, where seats are placed along the long sides of the car, rather than lateral seating, where seats face the front and back of the vehicle. The longitudinal seating creates wider aisles, is preferred by advocates for the disabled, provides more room for standing passengers, and may accommodate bicycles on board, as the bicycle policy only allows folding bikes on board. However, in the initial set of LRV4s delivered, the long benches were flat and lacked the individual seating pockets (dubbed \"butt dents\" by riders) used in the Breda longitudinal benches.\nThe new S200 SF vehicles are projected to be able", "-27.000083226244897" ], [ "breaks. Seats The types of seats that are provided and how much legroom is given to each passenger are decisions made by the individual airlines, not the aircraft manufacturers. Seats are mounted in \"tracks\" on the floor of the cabin and can be moved back and forth by the maintenance staff or removed altogether. Naturally the airline tries to maximize the number of seats available in every aircraft to carry the largest possible (and therefore most profitable) number of passengers.\nPassengers seated in an exit row (the row of seats adjacent to an emergency exit) usually have substantially more legroom than", "-26.99938476260286" ], [ "desire the natural layout of forward-facing seats may be uncomfortable with a rearward layout. On the safety aspect, the argument has been that during a plane crash, debris, such as luggage, will fly forward in the cabin, quite possibly into the passengers in rearward-facing seats. On the cost aspect, rearward-facing seats need additional strengthening which adds extra weight and therefore higher fuel costs.\nMany airlines provide maps of their seating configurations on the various aircraft they fly. \nFor airlines who don't have seat maps, websites like SeatGuru show seat maps for the aforementioned airlines. Arrangement Window seats are located at the", "-26.938958647864638" ], [ "several models, by 1968 front shoulder and rear lap belts were introduced, and in 1974 three point front lap belts were adopted in most automobiles. The first United States Federal law pertaining to the use of seat belts became effective January 1, 1968 with the help of the U.S. Department of Transportation which was created two years prior. The law has since been modified but currently requires all vehicles to be produced with three-point seat belts in all seating areas. The use and legality of seat belts varies from state to state, with the first state to pass the law", "-26.93115489205229" ], [ "A large cargo rack on the roof may be used to carry personal bags, spare parts and agricultural goods. Seating is 5 across, 2 fixed seats on either side the central aisle and a hinged middle seat to allow passage through the vehicle. Up to 3 passengers may be seated in the front passenger seat as well, depending on size and the preferences of the driver. Each vehicle is capable of carrying at least 42 passengers.\nEach bus is manned by a driver and at least one apprentice, though many of the buses carry 2 or 3. The apprentice is responsible", "-26.91937242001586" ], [ "remains unfastened. Efficacy In 2001, Congress directed NHSTA to study the benefits of technology meant to increase the use of seat belts. NHSTA found that seat belt usage had increased to 73% since the initial introduction of the SBR system. In 2002, Ford demonstrated that seat belts were used more in Fords with seat belt reminders than in those without: 76% and 71% respectively. In 2007, Honda conducted a similar study and found that 90% of people who drove Hondas with seat belt reminders used a seat belt, while 84% of people who drove Hondas without seat belt reminders used", "-26.916102578456048" ], [ "They were standard equipment on the Ford Crown Victoria, Mercury Grand Marquis, and Lincoln Town Car until they were discontinued in 2011. As of 2013, it was reported that only one American automobile, the Chevrolet Impala was sold with a bench seat, and the option was terminated in the next model year. The front bench seat also declined due to safety concerns as air bags could only protect two front seat passengers.", "-26.903416409273632" ], [ "used to increase the height of the driver. Orthopedic backrests provide support for the back. Car seats sometimes have built-in and adjustable lumbar supports. These can also be used on kitchen chairs.\nChair mats are mats meant to cover different types of flooring. They are usually made from plastic. This allows chairs on wheels to roll easily over the carpet and protects the carpet or floor. They come in various shapes, some specifically sized to fit partially under a desk.\nRemote control bags can be draped over the arm of easy chairs or sofas and used to hold remote controls for home", "-26.885970398769132" ], [ "supports seat belts for the driver and front seat passenger.", "-26.865345185622573" ], [ "Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) Civil Aerospace Medical Institute, discussed concerns regarding the emergency evacuation of higher capacity aircraft. This type of seat was pioneered by Recaro, but several other manufacturers (such as Weber Aircraft LLC and B/E Aerospace) have introduced their own slimline seats as well. These seats may or may not feature moveable headrests, and generally do not feature adjustable lumbar support.\nA newer innovation by Zodiac Seats U.S. (formerly Weber Aircraft LLC) is an articulating seat bottom, where the seat bottom moves forward in addition to the seat back tilting backwards. Examples of airlines that have introduced such", "-26.851614299346693" ], [ "accessible to those with disabilities. Since not all FrontRunner passenger cars are wheelchair accessible, signage at the stations, on the passenger platforms, and on the passenger cars clearly indicate accessibility options. In addition, each train has one or more Train Hosts available to provide assistance as may be needed, including the placement of ramps for wheelchair boarding on FrontRunner trains. Ramps on the passenger platform and assistance from the TRAX train operator may be necessary for wheelchair boarding on TRAX Blue Line (weekdays only). In accordance with the Utah Clean Air Act and UTA ordinance, \"smoking is prohibited on", "-26.839074403396808" ], [ "include a passenger airbag. General Motors marketed its first airbag modules under the \"Air Cushion Restraint System\" name, or ACRS. The automaker discontinued the option for its 1977 model year, citing lack of consumer interest. Ford and GM then spent years lobbying against air-bag requirements, claiming that the devices were unfeasible and inappropriate. Chrysler made driver-side airbags standard on 1988–1989 models, but airbags did not become widespread in American cars until the early 1990s. As a substitute to seat belts Airbags for passenger cars were introduced in the United States in the mid-1970s, when seat-belt", "-26.83659604814602" ], [ "airbags in the 1984 version of the law. When it came to developing seatbelt standards in the 1989 version of FMVSS 208, there were concerns about the loss of effectiveness. Which this concern, the court was able to conclude that there was no basis to demonstrate the intent of preemption in state law claims by federal auto safety standards. A legal provision for FMVSS 208 was then enacted in September 2007 requiring vehicles to have lap and shoulder belts for all seats in the rear of the vehicle. Problems with preemption Courts have struggled to define a consistent theory on", "-26.79050397820538" ], [ "in wheelchairs or with perambulators directly from low-rise platforms that are not much more than raised footpaths/sidewalks. This satisfies requirements to provide access to disabled passengers without using expensive wheelchair lifts, while at the same time making boarding faster and easier for other passengers. Passengers appreciate the ease of boarding and alighting from low-floor trams and moving about inside 100 per cent low-floor trams. Passenger satisfaction with low-floor trams is high. In some jurisdictions this has even been made mandatory since the 1990s, for example by the HMRI in Britain and the Disability discrimination act in the United Kingdom and", "-26.78556981694419" ], [ "can be raised to avoid road obstacles – it also lowers at speed on the highway to improve aerodynamics.\nHeight adjustable air suspensions are also equipped on some buses, mainly \"low-floor\" city buses or \"kneeling buses\", however in recent years some high floor charter/intercity buses have been equipped with this feature as well. This allows the floor to be lowered when the bus is stopped, to allow people with large or bulky luggage, passengers with disabilities, or simply when stopping at stops with unusual curb arrangements to enter or exit the vehicle easily. It can also raise the bus more than", "-26.775062548098504" ], [ "ran the full length of the car, with the front seats next to the operator's booth having the benefit of a large picture window. However, the newly refurbished cars now have full-width operator's cabs, resulting in the loss of four passenger seats, in addition to a number of folding longitudinal seats for ADA compliance.\nEach PATCO car has a pair of doors on each side with a foyer area inside the doors for standing passengers. There are also hand-holds on all seat backs for standing passengers the entire length of the aisles. Car end-doors are unlocked, but inter-car movement is discouraged", "-26.772455045575043" ], [ "to go through the Bangor Depot.\nSeveral of the newer buses offer plush seats and air-conditioning, as well as low floors designed to make it easier for wheelchair passengers to board the bus without having to use a wheelchair lift.\nAll buses are ADA compliant and are wheelchair ready.\nRiders are allowed to get on and off at almost any intersection along the road, without having to use designated bus stops. There are a few exceptions where passenger safety is an issue.\nThe bus system was previously known as BAT Community Connector (or \"the BAT\").\nA free, unofficial mobile phone application for the Community Connector", "-26.76446606614627" ], [ "may include a head rest. There are companies which can fit their own backrests and seat cushions for people with increased need for stability in the trunk, or at increased risk of pressure sores from sitting out. Finally, specialist seating solutions are available for users who need individually tailored support. Leg rests may be integrated into the seating design and may have powered adjustment for those users who need to vary their leg position. Powerchairs may also have a tilt-in-space, or reclining facility for users who are unable to maintain an upright seating position indefinitely. This function", "-26.761923310376005" ], [ "that time period. The NHTSA proposed using passive restraint systems, devices that would protect drivers even if drivers took no action other than that necessary to drive the car. The two main proposed mechanisms were automatic seat belts and airbags. In 1969, the NHTSA proposed a standard requiring installation of some kind of passive restraint for drivers, which was later amended to include all front seat passengers. The regulations adopted required passive restraints for vehicles built after 1975 and allowed those built between 1973 and 1975 to use a system in which the car would start only if the seatbelt", "-26.690129758033436" ], [ "a seat belt/starter interlock system to prevent passenger cars from being started with an unbelted front-seat occupant. This mandate applied to passenger cars built after August 1973, i.e., starting with the 1974 model year. The specifications required the system to permit the car to be started only if the belt of an occupied seat were fastened after the occupant sat down, so pre-buckling the belts would not defeat the system. \nThe interlock systems used logic modules complex enough to require special diagnostic computers, and were not entirely dependable—an override button was provided under the hood of equipped cars, permitting one", "-26.688303025905043" ], [ "vehicle occupants, laws that required a particular technical approach would rapidly become dated as motor manufacturers would tool up for a particular standard which could not easily be changed. For example, in 1969 there were competing designs for lap and three-point seat belts, rapidly tilting seats, and airbags being developed. But as countries started to mandate seat belt restraints the global auto industry invested in the tooling and standardized exclusively on seat belts, and ignored other restraint designs such as air bags for several decades\nAs of 2016, seat belt laws can be divided into two categories: primary and secondary. A", "-26.67429250002897" ], [ "priority seats use red moquette and orange straps and poles to hold on to clarify the distinction between those seats and regular seats. Wheelchair spaces are located behind the driver's cab in both cars on each end of the train.\nOn the first two batches, the floor had a subtle blue-gray, two-color combination, but starting with the third batch of cars produced in 2009, cars have pale gray, single-color doors with yellow lines surrounding the door for improved visibility.\nEach car has internal LED passenger information panels, displaying the next stop, above each of the three pairs of passenger doors on each", "-26.66105693677673" ], [ "long distances. This metric is normally limited to urban mass transit, due to intercity transport normally only offering seated travel. On longer haul services, bilevel cars are often used to allow for increased seating, though this increases the dwell time at stations, making increased seating ratio versus service time tradeoffs. Passengers per square metre Passengers per square metre is a quality of service metric used to determine the standard of comfort provided to standing passengers in a transportation vehicle. Multiplying this number by the total available standing area on a vehicle gives the total standing passenger capacity. Bus services in", "-26.65033276018221" ], [ "to and after travel, and is therefore often only feasible over longer distances or in areas where a lack of ground infrastructure makes other modes of transport impossible. Bush airlines work more similarly to bus stops; an aircraft waits for passengers and takes off when the aircraft is full. Bus and coach Bus services use buses on conventional roads to carry numerous passengers on shorter journeys. Buses operate with low capacity (compared with trams or trains), and can operate on conventional roads, with relatively inexpensive bus stops to serve passengers. Therefore, buses are commonly used in smaller cities, towns, and", "-26.64783918231842" ], [ "to smaller vehicle occupants, though GM did not find a safety performance improvement in vehicles with seat-mounted belts versus belts mounted to the vehicle body.\nBIS type belts have been used by automakers in convertibles and pillarless hardtops, where there is no \"B\" pillar to affix the upper mount of the belt. Chrysler and Cadillac are well known for using this design. Antique auto enthusiasts sometimes replace original seats in their cars with BIS-equipped front seats, providing a measure of safety not available when these cars were new. However, modern BIS systems typically use electronics that must be installed and connected", "-26.622690434829565" ] ]

[ "Only people who fly the confederate flag think it's appropriate. The rest of us go \"Ah, you're one of them\" and then sit somewhere else.", "Because the Nazi atrocities did not occur over a long enough time span for it to become culture, plus the US has a really strong freedom of speech protection. You can, in fact, fly a Nazi flag if you really wanted to deal with the fallout (fallout not related to the legal system) That, and people are morons.", "Well for one, nobody likes the Confederate flag. That's something you only see in super south states and usually flown by fucking morons. Secondly; the Confederates didn't set up extermination camps and slaughter millions of innocents.", "A lot of it has to do with the mythology of \"The Lost Cause\". Some people, mostly but not always southerners, have nostalgia for the pre-Civil War south. Think of Gone With The Wind: beautiful women and handsome brave men walking around on elegant plantations while childlike but mostly happy slaves care for them, and are fed and clothed in return. [Never mind that this was not the norm - we're talking myths here.] The Civil War destroyed the south quite comprehensively, and it took a century to recover - if it ever really did in Mississippi and Alabama. People have a tendency to look back to a better past when their present is grim. So the idea emerged that the South had just been ground down by a tyrannical North, intent on planting its boots on the neck of freedom loving patriots, etc, etc. Add this to the actual records of the war itself, with some truly spectacular commanders (I point to Robert E. Lee, who was a brilliant commander with balls of steel - and who felt that slavery was an evil institution but still fought on that side.) plus amazing tenacity on the part of the common soldiers often well beyond what we would consider rational. People who had been so comprehensively beaten want to find some positive things in their defeat. (Note that post WW1 Germans fely that their noble soldiers had been sold out by rear echelon politicians - I'm pretty sure Hitler felt this way, but he probably tossed in the Jews as well.) And, yes, it is also a symbol for some people who are just flat racist, but the US has very strong protections for free speech, no matter how odious.", "Nazism ideals included heavy interests to naturalizm to the extreme point of killing lots of innocent people. The Confederate state of America were about more than just slavery. They wanted clear definitions of states rights and felt that the north was taking away states rights when convenient. Also sectionalism and cotton trade. the south was being bullied and they revolted, it just didn't work.", "My high school had a big debate over the Confederate flag, which led to it being brought to the School District and it was banned across the entire District. People who so much as had a bumper-stickers of the Confederate flag on their vehicles could no longer park in the school parking lot, that they had paid for a parking pass to use. They claimed it was heritage, not discrimination, but the whole issues stemmed from some ill-mannered kids I think the only reason I made it past a school poll was they organized a walk-out to gain media attention. I'm sure I wasn't the only one who used it as an excuse to ditch class, rather than protest", "For some weird reason I keep seeing confederate flags in small towns in Norway. They are very much in to the rockabilly aesthetic bit still... It's fucking weird as fuck.", "The Confederate flag is nothing like the Nazi flag. That is just a stupid comparison that people are are already prejudiced use. I think a more fair comparison is the U.S. Flag and the Battle Flag (which has been the popular Southern flag since Gone With The Wind made it popular again. Now under the U.S. Flag we have seen wars of aggression and conquest (hello Mexican War), we had a nationalistic movement that declared the U.S. had a \"Manifest Destiny\" to spread from sea to shining sea. The Nazis tried to exterminate the Jews, the U.S. very nearly exterminated the Native Americans. Not to mention slavery being legal in the U.S. up until the 13th Amendment to the Constitution. Also if you look at how the slave trade enriched many in the North, whether it was from the actual importation of slaves, or if it was Northern banks financing the slave trade, the whole \"slavery was just a Southern evil\" turns a blind eye to the North's history in relation to slavery. Segregation and racism have always been Northern problems too. In fact the most segregated schools in the U.S. are now found in the North. If you look at what has happened during the life of both flags I think there is a strong case for the U.S. Flag being more like the Nazi flag. Or another way to say it would be Yankees who live in glass houses should shut the hell up about our flag.", "The Confederacy was Americans and were fighting a functionally defensive war for simple independence. Slavery was an important part of the Confederate states' culture because it was an integral part of their economy. It was considered one of the key issues they felt threatened by northern dominance of the federal government. However, they did not fight against the North in order to conquer it or exterminate blacks, but to break away from what was in their view the threat of tyranny. Racism was not the primary motivation factor of the confederacy. Economics and political power were. Contrast this with the NAZIs who were seeking explicit extermination of undesirables and expansionist policy through an all-powerful central government.", "I'm from Alabama, I can give you a pretty solid answer behind this. People who's fly the confederate flag more likely than not do so because they are proud of the region they come from, and or, to pay homage to their ancestors who fought in the war. Slavery was a by product of southern farming culture. The rebel flag has nothing to do with this. The National Socialism Party, or Nazis as many refer to them as, had beliefs that revolved around eradicating other races to perpetuate the longevity and success of their own. Nazis flag is a symbol for their beliefs The Rebel flag is a symbol for a region", "Its not so much a difference between the Confederates and the Nazis as a difference between how Americans and Germans view freedom of speech. Americans strongly feel people should be allowed to express their views even when they are ignorant and hateful. Germans are more comfortable with forbidding offensive ideas.", "Isn't the flag we are talking about a battle flag....not the actual CSA flag? My question is: What positive spin can you attach to it?", "Confederate flags are anti American. They tried to break free and be their own country" ]

[ [ "association between the Confederate flag and slavery to a \"wave of political correctness\" and calls it a \"cultural cleansing.\"", "-34.266389820026234" ], [ "an administrative offence that can be handled without a court process and that carries only a fine that is not legally considered a punishment). Postwar use within the United States In the United States, conversely, American-founded white supremacist groups like the Ku Klux Klan have used the Reichskriegsfahne side-by-side with the Confederate \"battle flag\" at their gatherings at times. As the public display of Nazi flags within the United States is protected by the First Amendment to the United States Constitution which guarantees the right to freedom of speech, sights like the Nazi and Confederate \"rebel flag\" together at white", "-33.187753775153396" ], [ "banned them from the group's events. However, protesters with Confederate flag clothing are still routinely reported to be seen at protests.", "-32.315962963490165" ], [ "Hitler salute.\nIn 1990, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled in United States v. Eichman that the prohibition of burning the U.S. flag conflicts with the First Amendment right to freedom of speech and is therefore unconstitutional.\nThe Freedom to Display the American Flag Act of 2005 prohibits real estate management organizations from restricting homeowners from displaying the flag of the United States on their own property.\nThe Army Specialist Joseph P. Micks Federal Flag Code Amendment Act of 2007 added a provision to fly the flag at half-staff upon the death of a member of the Armed Forces from any state, territory,", "-32.14686912918114" ], [ "scrutinized. The suggestion was made that allowing the use of the Confederate flag amounted to racism. He was criticised for having defended a display of Confederate symbols and having allegedly run \"race-baiting\" ads during his 1990 campaign against liberal activist and Democrat Jim Hightower for Texas agriculture commissioner. The ads pictured Hightower next to Jesse Jackson while a voice-over asks \"Does Agriculture Commissioner Jim Hightower share your values?\"\nThe ads were criticized for their racial content by leaders in Texas's congressional black caucus, fellow members with Hightower of the Democratic Party. However, several black Texas Democrats, such as former state Senator", "-32.12503802116407" ], [ "of the Confederate flag some Republicans proposed a moderate amendment to allow Confederate symbols at national cemeteries. Representative Lynn Westmoreland distinguished between racism and a memorial,\nWhen you're putting a flag on someone's grave, to me it's a little different from being racist. It's more of a memorial ... You can't make an excuse for things that happened, but the majority of people that actually died in the Civil War on the Confederate side did not own slaves. These were people that were fighting for their states. I don't think they had even any thoughts about slavery.\n— Representative Lynn Westmoreland July 2015\nWhen", "-31.966832053825783" ], [ "other Supreme Court rulings, the school board could not ban Confederate flag T-shirts while other \"controversial racial and political symbols\" like the \"X\" symbol associated with Malcolm X and the Black Muslim movement were permitted. In Defoe v. Spiva, the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Sixth Circuit ruled that \"racially hostile or contemptuous speech\" can be restricted, even if it was not disruptive. This deviated from the Tinker ruling, which said the school's restriction of the Tinkers' speech was unconstitutional because it was not disruptive.\nThe U.S. Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit applied Tinker in February 2014", "-31.813836811285" ], [ "Black Flag (whose debut album, Damaged (1981), was described by the BBC as \"essentially an album of electric protest songs [... that] takes a swing at the insularities and shortcomings of the 'me' generation.\"), Dead Kennedys (whose sweeping criticism of the U.S., \"Stars and Stripes of Corruption\" (1985), contains the lyric \"Rednecks and bombs don't make us strong / We loot the world, yet we can't even feed ourselves\"), and Bad Religion; a tradition carried on in the following decades more modern punk band like Anti-Flag and Rise Against. Of the few remaining old-school punks still recording in the late", "-31.44482184683875" ], [ "defending American culture against dangerous foreigners and their ideas. It carried the American flag rather than the Confederate flag that later followers adopted.\nThis group believed that it was defending traditional American values; however, it often violated some of those values. Drinking alcoholic beverages was suddenly disdained publicly as a symbol of southern Europeans, Catholics and Jews. They not only strongly supported national prohibition of alcohol, but actively enforced it, sometimes with violence. Women The Women of the Ku Klux Klan auxiliary was open to white, Protestant, American-born women \"of good character\" over the age of 18 who owed no", "-31.097115501470398" ], [ "state of Robert E. Lee and Stonewall Jackson. That is our heritage. It is what makes us Virginia.\" He also claimed that the Confederate flag was totally unrelated to racism or slavery. \"I'm proud to be next to the Confederate flag,\" Stewart said. \"That flag is not about racism, folks, it's not about hatred, it's not about slavery. It's about our heritage. It's time that we stop running away from our heritage.\"\nOn June 13, Stewart narrowly lost the primary to Gillespie, garnering 155,466 votes (42.5%) to Gillespie's 160,003 (43.7%).\nFollowing the primary, Stewart remained critical of Gillespie, calling him \"boring\" and", "-30.766274645953672" ], [ "of the California punk scene in their own right.\nIn a 1983 Flipside interview, guitarist Pat Fear noted:\nPeople give us a lot of shit for being called 'White Flag' and that we're ripping off Black Flag and all the Black Flag bros in Long Beach want to kill us — but the truth is Black Flag are our friends, Henry is like our biggest fan. So why are these Black Flag people trying to kick our asses?\nThe whole reason for the name is to reintroduce anarchy back into the musical aspect of punk, because when it started out it wasn't political", "-30.704580359975807" ], [ "red flag, and in pledging allegiance to \"the workers' red flag, and to the cause for which it stands, one aim throughout our lives, freedom for the working class.\" Stromberg was also found to have owned a number of books and other printed materials advocating violence and armed uprisings, though she testified that none of such materials were employed in her teaching of the children.\nStromberg was tried and convicted in state court. She appealed the conviction to the Supreme Court on the grounds that the California statute in question outlawed the symbol of a legally recognized party. Stromberg's attorneys cited", "-30.513780047738692" ], [ "perceived the flag of Japan as the national flag even before the passage of the Law Regarding the National Flag and National Anthem in 1999. Despite this, controversies surrounding the use of the flag in school events or media still remain. For example, liberal newspapers such as Asahi Shimbun and Mainichi Shimbun often feature articles critical of the flag of Japan, reflecting their readerships' political spectrum. To other Japanese, the flag represents the time where democracy was suppressed when Japan was an empire.\nThe display of the national flag at homes and businesses is also debated in Japanese society. Because of", "-30.468106402360718" ], [ "Taylor of Mississippi, a Democrat. Confederate flag Moore has spoken out against the display of the Confederate flag; in 2015, two days after the Charleston church shooting (in which nine black churchgoers were murdered in an apparent hate crime), Moore wrote: \"The cross and the Confederate flag cannot co-exist without one setting the other on fire. White Christians, let's listen to our African-American brothers and sisters. Let's care not just about our own history, but also about our shared history with them.\" Nationalism and the Syrian refugee crisis In 2015, during the Syrian refugee crisis, Moore wrote an op-ed in", "-30.142187249992276" ], [ "anarchism has a shared ancestry with—amongst other ideologies—socialism, a movement strongly associated with the red flag. As anarchism became more and more distinct from socialism in the 1880s, it adopted the black flag in an attempt to differentiate itself. However, some anarchists at the time such as Peter Kropotkin preferred to continue using the red flag rather than adopt the black. Subsequent use The black flag first became associated with anarchism in the 1880s. The French anarchist paper, Le Drapeau Noir (The Black Flag), which existed until 1882, is one of the first published references to use black as an", "-29.928617894125637" ], [ "by some municipalities to remove Confederate monuments and flags from public places because of their racist symbolism and historical connection to white-supremacy movements. The organization began installing large Confederate battle \"mega flags\" on private property overlooking major highways, a project they called \"Flags Across the Carolinas\". In January 2018, the North Carolina chapter vowed to install one flag in every county. Antiracist activists, such as Roland Stanton, criticized the project: Stanton, president of the Durham branch of the North Carolina National Association for the Advancement of Colored People, said the Confederate flag: \"is a symbol of oppression, genocide and slavery.\"", "-29.88358027677168" ], [ "a violation of religious freedom. Widespread protests against the Taliban regime broke out in Bhopal, India. In the United States, the chairman of the Anti-Defamation League Abraham Foxman compared the decree to the practices of Nazi Germany, where Jews were required to wear labels which identified them as such. The comparison was also drawn by California Democrat and holocaust survivor Tom Lantos, and New York Democrat and author of the bipartisan 'Sense of the Congress' non-binding resolution against the anti-Hindu decree Eliot L Engel. In the United States, congressmen and several lawmakers wore yellow badges on the floor of the", "-29.68509020408237" ], [ "any association between the Confederate flag and slavery. Instead he focuses on his pride in the Confederate flag as a memorial to his ancestors who fought for the Confederacy in what he refers to as “The War of Northern Aggression.\" For example, in an editorial Jones wrote titled, “The Second War of Northern Aggression,” his only mention of slavery is in scare quotes, “Since the North won, the conventional wisdom there is usually simple: the North fought the Civil War to ‘free the slaves’ and to save the Union from the secessionist traitors of the South” He also attributes any", "-29.651527456080657" ], [ "of or co-ordinating with white supremacist organizations such as the Ku Klux Klan, whose symbol is the burning cross. The BBC News website refers to it as railing against \"the military–industrial complex, justifying killing for the benefit of, as the song puts it, the chosen whites.\" The song reflects the racial tensions that exist in United States; it was released six months after the Los Angeles Riots, which were triggered by the acquittal of four white police officers who beat black motorist Rodney King.\nTom Morello created the heavier guitar riffs while teaching a student drop D tuning; he briefly paused", "-29.64310232864227" ], [ "\"a Nazi\" who \"didn't like the American flag\". In April 1931, Laurello was arrested by Baltimore police for abandoning his spouse, after she lodged a complaint via telegram.", "-29.518334364314796" ], [ "the granting of an amnesty. According to Michel, the \"black flag is the flag of strikes and the flag of those who are hungry\".\nThe black flag soon made its way to the United States. The black flag was displayed in Chicago at an anarchist demonstration in November 1884. According to the English language newspaper of the Chicago anarchists, it was \"the fearful symbol of hunger, misery and death\". Bisected flag The colors black and red have been used by anarchists since at least the late 1800s when they were used on cockades by Italian anarchists in the 1864 Bologna insurrection", "-29.496496826679504" ], [ "Satanic lyrics. Politics A wide range of political views are found in the black metal scene. The vast majority of black metal bands are not openly political, although there is said to be an undercurrent of romantic and ethnic nationalism in black metal. National Socialist black metal National Socialist black metal (also known as NSBM) promotes neo-Nazi or similar beliefs through its lyrics and imagery. Artists typically meld neo-Nazi ideology with ethnic European paganism, but a few meld these beliefs with Satanism or occultism. Some commentators see this ideology as a natural development of the black metal worldview. Members of", "-29.449260919791413" ], [ "at meetings to speak against removal of Confederate monuments and memorials. Some are anti-Abraham Lincoln and for the right of states to secede, i.e., that the Confederacy was legitimate under U.S. law. See Lost Cause of the Confederacy. Georgia origin of flaggers The earliest documentation of a flagger group as an organization is the Virginia Flaggers, whose Web site says they were founded in 2011. However, the flagger movement first appeared, spontaneously and unorganized, in Georgia in 2001.\nThe flag of Georgia from 1956 to 2001 incorporated the Confederate battle flag. Responding in part to pressure from civil rights groups who", "-29.424256323225563" ], [ "became legendary, especially in the Southern California area. Much of the band's history is chronicled in Henry Rollins' own published tour diary Get in the Van. Black Flag were reportedly blacklisted by the LAPD and Hollywood rock clubs because of the destructiveness of their fans, though Rollins has claimed that police caused far more problems than they solved.\nSST Records, an independent American record label that was initially founded to release Black Flag's debut single, released recordings by influential bands such as Bad Brains, Minutemen, Descendents, Meat Puppets, and Hüsker Dü. As well, SST released some albums by Negativland, Soundgarden, and", "-29.40651346264349" ], [ "Southern Unionist In the United States, Southern Unionists were White Southerners living in the Confederate States of America, opposed to secession, and against the Civil War. These people are also referred to as Southern Loyalists, Union Loyalists, Southern Yankees or Lincoln Loyalists. Pro-Confederates in the South derided them as Tories (in reference to the pro-Crown Loyalists of the American Revolution). During Reconstruction, these terms were replaced by “scalawag” (or “scallywag”), which covered all Southern whites who supported the Republican Party.\nTennessee (especially East Tennessee), North Carolina and Virginia (which included West Virginia at that time) were home to the largest", "-29.24755619262578" ], [ "if it was likely to lead to disorder. It was used primarily against nationalist parades and took over the function of controlling parades and processions from the Special Powers Act. Flags and Emblems (Display) Act This made it an offence to interfere with the display of the Union Jack on private property and enabled the police to remove any other flag if it was likely to cause public disorder. This act was primarily directed against displays of the Irish tricolour, although contrary to popular belief, it did not ban it. This was because it would have been legally very difficult", "-29.110460661075194" ], [ "\"It was easy to focus on the flag, as opposed to the issues that have divided blacks and whites historically.\"\nIn July 2016, Swain criticized Black Lives Matter, suggesting it was \"a Marxist organization\" and \"a very destructive force in America.\" She reiterated that it was \"pure Marxism\" and concluded that it \"needs to go\".\nIn August 2016, Swain appeared in Hillary's America: The Secret History of the Democratic Party, directed by Dinesh D'Souza. Views on Islam On January 16, 2015, in the wake of the Charlie Hebdo shooting, Swain wrote an op-ed criticizing Islam in The Tennessean. She argued:\nIslam is not", "-29.0747428763716" ], [ "Anti-Flag played with AFI and Rise Against in the Mourning in Amerika Tour. Name and criticism Anti-Flag explained their name on the artwork for their 1999 release, A New Kind of Army, saying \"Anti-Flag does not mean Anti-American. Anti-Flag means anti-war. Anti-Flag means the common people of the world are better off living in unity and peace. Anti-Flag means to stand against corporate greed that hurts millions while benefiting a handful of extremely rich. Anti-Flag means to fight against mindless nationalism. Anti-Flag means unity.\"\nAnti-Flag's anti-capitalism stance drew criticism towards them when they signed to major label RCA Records. Due to", "-29.06409958342556" ], [ "their name to Black Flag after discovering another band using the name \"Panic\". Black Flag Chuck Dukowski was responsible for booking Nationwide and worldwide tours, bringing Black Flag across the globe to spread their anarchic musical message of Freedom of speech and expression to the world for all of their early tours until 1986. Dukowski also wrote some of Black Flag's most popular songs, including \"My War,\" \"The Bars,\" \"I Love You\" and \"Modern Man.\" He left the band before the release of My War, and afterward served as Black Flag's manager. Dukowski was also the co-owner of SST Records", "-29.06049523101683" ], [ "Flag (which has been produced since around 1970), Bulletin of the Anarchist Black Cross, Mutual Aid, and Taking Liberties. Black Flag, in particular, is known for its advocacy for \"class war anarchism\". In conjunction, the Anarchist Black Cross considers itself less attached to liberalism than groups like the Freedom Press. The Anarchist Black Cross continued its activity through at least the late 1990s.\nThe Black Cross's aid efforts include fundraising and acts of solidarity. Fundraising includes events that educate and involve community collaboration, and the funds raised buy prisoners stamps, writing implements, among other basic needs. Solidarity efforts include campaigns, letter-writing", "-28.884079494018806" ], [ "the burning of the flags of Denmark, France, and Norway. The Swiss flag was also burned at some protests, possibly due to its similarity to the Danish flag. At some of these protests, many American, British, and Israeli flags were also burned. In addition to burning, some demonstrators walked on Danish flags or tore them up. Since the Danish flag incorporates a cross, desecrating a Danish flag can be seen as both anti-Danish and anti-Christian. An interview in the Russian media asserts that a US newspaper made the cartoons, and the Jyllands-Posten only distributed it. This assertion is widely accepted", "-28.831872651575395" ], [ "At the City Hall, members of the KKK march up, loudly voicing their support for the current flag as a symbol of \"white power\". This causes discomfort amongst Jimbo, Ned, and a number of the other flag supporters: they don't wish to be sided on any issue with the Klan. To remedy this issue, Jimbo and Ned infiltrate in the clan and suggest that if they want the flag to remain unchanged they should advocate that the flag should be changed, because the majority of the people will always vote against what the Klan wants. The leader embraces the idea,", "-28.69785637181485" ], [ "used the history of the Confederacy to justify their opposition to the civil rights Movement in the 1950s and 1960s. Historian David Blight writes that current neo-Confederates are \"driven largely by the desire of current white supremacists to re-legitimize the Confederacy, while they tacitly reject the victories of the modern civil rights movement\". Cultural and religious Many neo-Confederates promote an unabashed Christian culture. For example, they support public displays of Christianity, such as Ten Commandments monuments and displays of the Christian cross. Almost all neo-Confederates strongly support the right to keep and bear arms, present in both the United States", "-28.674858455735375" ], [ "on skin color. The KKK's reasons for supporting racial segregation are not primarily based on religious ideals, but some Klan groups are openly Protestant. The KKK and other white supremacist groups like Aryan Nations, The Order and the White Patriot Party are considered antisemitic.\nNazi Germany promulgated white supremacy based on the belief that the Aryan race, or the Germans, were the master race. It was combined with a eugenics programme that aimed for racial hygiene through compulsory sterilization of sick individuals and extermination of Untermenschen (\"subhumans\"): Slavs, Jews and Romani, which eventually culminated in the Holocaust.\nChristian Identity is another movement", "-28.67016159457853" ], [ "segregation.\"\nPolitical pressure for a change in the official state flag increased during the 1990s, in particular during the run-up to the 1996 Olympic Games that were held in Atlanta. The National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) focused on the Georgia flag as a major issue and some business leaders in Georgia felt that the perceptions of the flag were causing economic harm to the state. In 1992, Governor Zell Miller announced his intention to get the Confederate element removed, but the state legislature refused to pass any flag-modifying legislation. The matter was dropped after the 1993 legislative", "-28.629304945876356" ], [ "Printing Presses and Publications Act 1984. On 21  August 2007, the daily had published a caricature of Jesus Christ clutching a cigarette and a can of beer.\nOn 23 January 2006, the National Fatwa Council, Malaysia's highest Islamic authority, banned Muslims from taking part in the activities associated with Black Metal music. Datuk Mustafa Abdul Rahman, the director-general of the Islamic Development Department, told a press conference on 27 January 2006, that Black Metal often led its followers to worship Satan, rebel, kill, and incite hatred. Nevertheless, the government favored counseling rather than a ban upon the musical genre.\nOn or about", "-28.61640136060305" ], [ "burner, Shōichi Chibana, burned the national flag not only to show opposition to atrocities committed by the wartime Japanese army and the continued Japanese-requested presence of U.S. forces, but also to prevent it from being displayed in public. Other incidents in Okinawa included the flag being torn down during school ceremonies and students refusing to honor the flag as it was being raised to the sounds of \"Kimigayo\".\nIn South Korea, some protesters have even taken to eating Japanese flags as a method of desecration. Malaysia While Malaysia does not have specific legislation regarding flag desecration, legal action can be taken", "-28.56528976742993" ], [ "savage and immoral\". Historian James M. McPherson has said that the present-day UDC promotes a white supremacist and neo-Confederate agenda, saying\nI think I agree a hundred percent with Ed Sebesta, though, about the motives or the hidden agenda not too deeply hidden I think of such groups as the United Daughters of the Confederacy and the Sons of the Confederate Veterans. They are dedicated to celebrating the Confederacy and rather thinly veiled support for white supremacy. And I think that also is the again not very deeply hidden agenda of the Confederate flag issue in several Southern states.\nThe Southern Poverty", "-28.55515691509936" ], [ "Satanism as the primary opposition to Christianity, instead placing their faith in the Vikings and Odin. Many artists claim affiliation to the modern Pagan religion of Heathenry, treating Christianity as a foreign influence that was forcibly imposed, and therefore as a wrong to be righted.\nSome members of the Norwegian black metal scene were motivated to take violent action against this influence – for instance, the church burnings by black metal musicians Varg Vikernes, Samoth, Faust, and Jørn Inge Tunsberg, among others. While most bands or individuals did not go that far, an undercurrent of racism, nationalism, and anti-Semitism continues to", "-28.45581930287881" ], [ "Wampyr Daoloth (of Necromantia and Thou Art Lord) said in an interview for Lords of Chaos: \"If you consider that fascism and Satanism have a lot of similarities as they both advocate power, spiritual and physical excellence, responsibility, survival of the fittest, elitism, etc., it's logical that some bands advocate both\".\nHowever, many pagan and far-right bands see Satanism as a part of Christianity or Judaism. Also, some non-political Satanic black metal musicians hold pagan bands in contempt, and do not recognize them as black metal because their lyrics and ideology do not include Satanism. Connections with broader white nationalist movement", "-28.455660211562645" ], [ "flag a federal crime in an attempt to counter a Supreme Court ruling asserting that flag-burning was protected by the First Amendment, Thurmond opined that securing flag burning as a federal crime through a constitutional amendment was \"the only sure and foolproof way to protect the integrity of the American flag\". Anti-crime and drug policies In May 1982, Thurmond introduced anti-crime legislation that included provisions altering the bail system to allow a judge to deny bond to defendants the judge considered a danger to society along a \"presumption\" that defendants charged with drug trafficking or the use of a weapon", "-28.436819796595955" ], [ "white-red-white flag is used as a symbol of the opposition to the regime of Alexander Lukashenko, most notably at the protests after the 2006 and 2010 presidential elections and at mass rallies on Freedom Day celebrations as well as Dziady memorial marches. The flag is not officially banned from public usage, but is treated by the authorities as an unregistered symbol which means that demonstration of it by political activists or sports fans can lead to arrests and confiscation of the flags. In early 2010, the political activist Siarhei Kavalenka was arrested for placing the white-red-white flag atop a Christmas", "-28.304249992244877" ], [ "two-thirds expressed negative or extremely negative views about Nazism and neo-Nazism. Legal recognition In 2004 it was claimed that Satanism was allowed in the Royal Navy of the British Armed Forces, despite opposition from Christians. In 2016, under a Freedom of Information request, the Navy Command Headquarters stated that \"we do not recognise satanism as a formal religion, and will not grant facilities or make specific time available for individual 'worship'.\"\nIn 2005, the Supreme Court of the United States debated in the case of Cutter v. Wilkinson over protecting minority religious rights of prison inmates after a lawsuit challenging the", "-28.247189713874832" ], [ "Confederate Veterans as giving an invocation which recalled \"the last real Christian civilization on Earth\". The article further mentions that the LewRockwell.com website hosts a collection of anti-Lincoln articles.\n\"Whitewashing the Confederacy\" was a review that alleged that the film Gods and Generals presented a false, pro-Confederate view of history. Critics have accused the neo-Confederacy of being essentially a movement with racist undertones. Most prominently, the Sons of Confederate Veterans and the Council of Conservative Citizens (formerly the White Citizens' Councils) have had this charge leveled against them.", "-28.197118641477573" ], [ "the ban on the usage of swastikas and other Nazi symbols in video games. \"Through the change in the interpretation of the law, games that critically look at current affairs can for the first time be given a USK age rating,\" USK managing director Elisabeth Secker told CTV. \"This has long been the case for films and with regards to the freedom of the arts, this is now rightly also the case with computer and videogames.\" Heraldry Under the Nazi regime, government bodies were encouraged to remove religious symbolism from their heraldry. Symbols such as crosses, saints, etc. were seen", "-28.189096073328983" ], [ "express the belief that this was a good thing. While many banners are ostensibly pro one group rather than anti the other, they are generally taken to mean – and often do mean – opposition to the other side. For example, a Bible on a Protestant banner is usually not simply an assertion that the Bible is a good thing, but also an attack on Catholicism, which is seen as overly dependent on priests and ignorant of the word of God.\nMany banners are also allegorical. Several members of the Orange Order have argued that their historical banners are actually metaphors", "-28.137253069289727" ], [ "governments and capitalism are harmful and undesirable. The symbols of anarchism was usually either a black flag or a black letter A. More recently it is usually represented with a bisected red and black flag, to emphasise the movement's socialist roots in the First International. Anarchism was most popular in Spain, France, Italy, Ukraine and Argentina. There were also small but influential movements in the United States and Russia. In the latter, the movement initially allied itself with the Bolsheviks.\nThe Black Army was a collection of anarchist military units which fought in the Russian Civil War, sometimes on the", "-28.124215586485718" ], [ "punish Johnson for burning the flag because the First Amendment to the United States Constitution protects such activity as symbolic speech. The court also concluded that the flag burning in this case did not cause or threaten to cause a breach of the peace.\nThe State of Texas asked the Supreme Court of the United States to hear the case. Attorneys David D. Cole and radical civil rights activist William Kunstler acted as Johnson's lawyers. In 1989, the Supreme Court handed down a controversial 5-4 decision in favor of Gregory Johnson, holding that Johnson's conviction for flag desecration was inconsistent with", "-28.063609941513278" ], [ "from the South Carolina Arts Commission because she was offended by legislators' decision to move the Confederate flag from the state Capitol dome to another spot on the grounds in response to a boycott of the state by flag opponents. A lifelong supporter of African-American rights, she felt the flag should be removed completely, and commented, \"In my view, this was no compromise. It was a deliberate affront to the African-Americans, who see it as a sign of oppression and hate\".\nFurthermore, Warrick held a teaching license of the Unity School of Christianity. Later years In her senior years, she became", "-28.062764445960056" ], [ "sexual relations between \"Aryans\" and \"inferior races\"), to be classed as \"racial treason.\" Freisler looked to racist laws in the United States as a model for Nazi legislation targeting Jewish people in Germany. Freisler considered American Jim Crow racist legislation \"primitive\" for failing to provide a legal definition of the term black or negro person. Nevertheless, while some more conservative Nazi lawyers objected to the lack of precision with which a person could be defined as a \"Jew,\" Freisler argued that American judges were able to identify black people for purposes of laws in American states that prohibited \"miscegenation\" between", "-28.04080030787736" ], [ "most vitriolic hate propaganda ever to come to the attention of the committee. Common Sense defines communism as \"Judaism\" and devotes its pages almost exclusively to attacks on the Jewish and to a lesser extent the Negro minorities in our Nation. Sympathy for the former Nazi regime in Germany also is injected into this propaganda, which is hardly distinguishable from that of the National Renaissance Party except for the latter's open appeal for a fascist government in the United States.\nDespite its patriotic claims, Common Sense has in fact employed and/or carried the writings of a number of individuals associated", "-28.01537320166244" ], [ "their hair to confuse the band's hardcore punk audience.\nBlack Flag's change in musical style and appearance alienated many of their original fans, who focused their displeasure on Rollins by punching him in the mouth, stabbing him with pens, or scratching him with their nails, among other methods. He often fought back, dragging audience members on stage and assaulting them. During a Black Flag concert, Rollins repeatedly punched a fan in the face who had continuously reached for his microphone. Rollins became increasingly alienated from the audience; in his tour diary, Rollins wrote \"When they spit at me, when they grab", "-28.013047530897893" ], [ "labeled as NSBM for exploring Nazi Germany in their lyrics or referencing it for shock value.\nNSBM artists are a small minority within the genre. While some black metal fans boycott NSBM artists, many are indifferent or appreciate the music without supporting the musicians. NSBM has been criticized by some prominent and influential black metal artists—including Jon Nödtveidt, Gorgoroth, Dark Funeral, Richard Lederer, Michael Ford, and Arkhon Infaustus. Some liken Nazism to Christianity in that it is authoritarian, collectivist, and a \"herd mentality\". Olson writes that the shunning of Nazism by some black-metallers \"has nothing to do with notions of a", "-27.990439714706554" ], [ "a movement to remove Confederate Iconography from the campus. Students banned together to form \"Students Against Social Injustice,\" or \"SASI.\" SASI protested to remove the Mississippi State Flag, which contains the Confederate flag, from flying on campus. Later that year, the Associated Student Body voted 33-15 in favor of its removal. As of October 2019, the University does not fly the flag. In 2018, SASI continued their campaign with protests demanding the relocation of the confederate monument from the center of the campus. In 2019, the protests picked up momentum. During Black History Month, student activists marched twice in protest", "-27.974732678791042" ], [ "a person for burning a United States flag, because to do so would be inconsistent with the First Amendment. The Government conceded that flag-burning constitutes expressive conduct and enjoys the First Amendment's full protection. It is clear that the \"Government's asserted interest\" in protecting the \"physical integrity\" of a privately owned flag in order \"to preserve the flag's status as a symbol of the Nation\" and certain national ideals, is related to the suppression, and concerned with the content of free expression.\nThe majority wrote that mere destruction or disfigurement of a symbol's physical manifestation does not diminish or otherwise affect", "-27.972580737929093" ], [ "Confederate Flag which was removed by the South Carolina General Assembly following the Charleston church shooting. Corley later sent Christmas cards featuring the Confederate Flag to his fellow Republican lawmakers, suggesting they \"take this joyous time as an opportunity to ask for forgiveness of all your sins such as betrayal\". Admission of guilt in domestic abuse In December 2016, during an argument with his wife in which she accused him of infidelity, Corley allegedly punched her in the face, pointed a Smith & Wesson SD9 VE 9mm pistol at her, and threatened to kill her in the presence of two", "-27.963419884908944" ], [ "have held up a shirt stained with the blood of a carpetbagger whipped by the Ku Klux Klan during the Reconstruction Era. \"Waving the bloody shirt\" became an idiom in the South, attributed to rhetoric by Republican politicians such as Oliver Hazard Perry Morton in the Senate, who used emotional accounts of injustices done to Northern soldiers and carpetbaggers to bolster support for the Republicans' Reconstruction policies in South Carolina. The red shirt symbolism quickly spread. Suspects accused in the Hamburg Massacre wore red shirts as they marched on September 5 to their arraignment in Aiken, South Carolina. Martin Gary,", "-27.95732866600156" ], [ "that claim\" that the war \"had never [italics in original] been fought on behalf of slavery; loyalty to the South, Southern self-government, Southern culture, or states' rights — rather than to slavery and white supremacy — fueled the Southern war effort\".\nHonor of the Confederacy and its veterans is another controversial feature of neo-Confederate dogma. The neo-Confederate movement is concerned with giving honor to the Confederacy itself, to the veterans of the Confederacy and Confederate veterans' cemeteries, to the various flags of the Confederacy and to Southern cultural identity. Political beliefs Political values held by neo-Confederates vary, but they often revolve around", "-27.94619042910199" ], [ "the largest black, white, and red flag on their whole street. This short account portrays why Jewish families were often described as \"more German than the Germans.\"", "-27.82680949999485" ], [ "Loyal White Knights of the Ku Klux Klan Activism In a 2014 recruiting campaign, the group left flyers on cars and in mailboxes in predominantly white neighborhoods of Texas, Louisiana, Illinois, Pennsylvania, South Carolina, and Georgia.\nIn July 2015, members of the Loyal White Knights, who are currently considered the largest KKK chapter, and members of the Trinity White Knights protested the removal of the Confederate flag from the South Carolina State House in Columbia, South Carolina. Their rally in front of the State House was joined by members of other KKK chapters, the Neo-Nazi National Socialist Movement, and Christian fundamentalists.", "-27.818568459282687" ], [ "another \"idea\" or \"point of view\" competing for recognition in the marketplace of ideas. Millions and millions of Americans regard it with an almost mystical reverence regardless of what sort of social, political, or philosophical beliefs they may have. I cannot agree that the First Amendment invalidates the Act of Congress, and the laws of 48 of the 50 States, which make criminal the public burning of the flag.\nHowever, the Johnson majority found the lack of evidence for flag protection in the Constitution that necessitated the claim of \"uniqueness\" to counter indicate protection of the flag from free speech. They", "-27.78902990388451" ], [ "It has been used by extension to make a statement about distress in civic, political, or other areas. On the 13 April 1996 episode of Saturday Night Live, musical guests Rage Against the Machine made a statement about the host, billionaire Steve Forbes, by hanging two upside-down American flags from their amplifiers. Confederate flag The Battle Flag of the North Virginian Army, commonly referred to as the Confederate flag, has sometimes been burned in protest as well. In 2000, protesters from the Jewish Defense League burned Confederate and Nazi flags to protest an arson attempt against a Reno, Nevada synagogue.", "-27.762382765246002" ], [ "accusing them of anti-white prejudice: \"the day that black people admire Forrest as much as I do is the day when they will be free and equal, for they will have gotten prejudice out of their minds as we whites are trying to get it out of ours.\" Foote argued in favor of \"the Confederate flag flying anywhere anybody wants to fly it at any time. If they have a referendum in a state that says ‘Take the flag down off the state capitol,’ I think they ought to take the flag down. But the flag to me represents many", "-27.761477168467536" ], [ "the civil war, like the Confederate \"(I Wish I Was in) Dixie\" and Federal \"Battle Hymn of the Republic\", emphasizing Mingus's contempt for racism. Lyrics Oh, Lord, don't let 'em shoot us!\n\nOh, Lord, don't let 'em stab us!\n\nOh, Lord, no more swastikas!\n\nOh, Lord, no more Ku Klux Klan!\n\nName me someone who's ridiculous, Dannie.\n\nGovernor Faubus!\n\nWhy is he so sick and ridiculous?\n\nHe won't permit integrated schools.\n\nThen he's a fool! Boo! Nazi Fascist supremisists!\n\nBoo! Ku Klux Klan (with your Jim Crow plan)\n\nName me a handful that's ridiculous, Dannie Richmond.\n\nFaubus, Rockefeller, Eisenhower\n\nWhy are they so sick and ridiculous?\n\nTwo, four, six, eight:\n\nThey brainwash and teach", "-27.758104752821964" ], [ "they wanted in a way which photographs couldn't. A photograph would show a Jew as a human, whereas caricatures meant the Nazi party could portray Jews as inhumane in cartoon form. The cartoons intended to spread the create widespread support for Nazi ideology, in this case, anti-Americanism. Origins of Propaganda between Germany and the USA There were several events subsequent to Hitler coming into power which created the relationship which led to the hostile propaganda between Germany and America. The Nazi Boycott of Jewish businesses in April 1933. When word of the Nazi boycott of Jewish businesses reached America, the", "-27.75453990902315" ], [ "one of his primary inspirations, particularly in regards to their work ethic. With Million Dead, if anything went wrong with their tour, Turner said they would \"Think Black Flag.\" Vocalist Maynard James Keenan of the bands Tool and A Perfect Circle, has described seeing Black Flag perform in 1986 as a young punk rocker in Grand Rapids, Michigan, as a \"revelatory and life-changing\" experience. A Perfect Circle also covered the Black Flag song \"Gimmie Gimmie Gimmie\" on their Emotive album. Punk band Rise Against portrayed Black Flag in the 2005 Lords of Dogtown film, and their cover of \"Nervous Breakdown\"", "-27.71907260278749" ], [ "Matthews was attracted to a type of music called \"black metal\". Black metal is an extreme kind of heavy metal music linked to arsons at Christian churches in other parts of the world in the 1990s. He frequently posted on social media about pagan beliefs or traditions, and had recently uploaded picture of a gun and a knife with the caption, \"I carry this..... maybe not legally but I only truly follow the law of Odin.....\" (Odin is a pagan Norse god). Aftermath The NAACP has called these fires incidents of \"domestic terrorism\", adding that \"church burning in Southern states", "-27.69123471378589" ], [ "to heed his warnings that he would do so if fans continued to chant \"The South Will Rise Again\". This continued a trend of the University of Mississippi ceasing to use symbols of the Confederate States of America, and followed their removal of Colonel Reb as a mascot and a ban on sticks being carried into Vaught–Hemingway Stadium, which effectively prevented the waving of Confederate battle flags at games. \nThe ban was not received well by some students. Prior to an Ole Miss football game, the Ku Klux Klan protested the removal of the song outside the university's chapel; they", "-27.67137518501113" ], [ "Confederate flag from statehouse grounds, as well as debates over the context of its symbolic nature, were renewed after the attack by several prominent figures, including President Barack Obama, Mitt Romney, and Jeb Bush. On June 20, 2015 several thousand people gathered in front of the South Carolina State House in protest. An online petition at MoveOn.org encouraging the flag's removal had received over 370,000 signatures by that time.\nAt a statehouse press conference on June 22, Governor Nikki Haley, flanked by elected officials of both parties, including U.S. Republican senators Lindsey Graham and Tim Scott, and former Republican Governor Mark", "-27.64949776337926" ], [ "v. Black 2003 case, the highest courts have ruled that the local governments can prohibit the use of swastika along with other symbols such as cross burning, if the intent of the use is to intimidate others. Germany The German and Austrian postwar criminal code makes the public showing of the Hakenkreuz (the swastika), the sig rune, the Celtic cross (specifically the variations used by white power activists), the wolfsangel, the odal rune and the Totenkopf skull illegal, except for scholarly reasons (and, in the case of the odal rune, as the insignia of the rank of sergeant major, Hauptfeldwebel,", "-27.6348501718021" ], [ "performed at a London concert in 1978. Schobert alleges a neo-Nazi \"cultural offensive\" targeting the Dark Wave subculture.\nMattias Gardell claims that while older American racist groups are Christian and patriotic (Christian Identity), there is a younger generation of white supremacists who have rejected both Christianity and mainstream right-wing movements. Many neo-Nazis have also left Christianity for neopaganism because of Christianity's Jewish roots and patriotism in favour of Odinism because they view both Christianity and the United States government as responsible for what they see as the evils of a liberal society and the decline of the white race. Kaplan", "-27.610916345074656" ], [ "clubs.)\nIn 1999, there was an incident where some members of the media had a row with staff at the Ministry of Agriculture, Farming and Fisheries over the display of a Japanese flag at the meeting hall of the ministry kisha club. This was just after the National Flag and National Anthem Law was passed, in the midst of a debate about whether the government was forcing groups to display flags. In response to actions by some sections of the media, there was criticism from both those in favor of the National Flag and National Anthem Law and those against, including", "-27.604957616567845" ], [ "territory. The flying of flags is an issue in Northern Ireland, and flying certain flags in certain places can be highly controversial. There have been many protests and clashes involving flags and symbols over the years. In 1964 there were riots after a republican election candidate put an Irish tricolour (which was then illegal) in the window of his office on the Falls Road, Belfast. The unionist Minister of Home Affairs, responding to pressure from hardliners, ordered police to remove the flag. This sparked fierce clashes between republicans and the police.\nBelfast City Council had long been dominated by unionists, mainly", "-27.594993745849933" ], [ "the poll. It was a simple but effective gimmick that, at the time, was misunderstood by the Communists. They, in fact, tried to ridicule the freedom movement in Poland as an invention of the \"Wild\" West, especially the U.S. But the poster had the opposite impact: Cowboys in Western clothes had become a powerful symbol for Poles. Cowboys fight for justice, fight against evil, and fight for freedom, both physical and spiritual. Solidarity trounced the Communists in that election, paving the way for a democratic government in Poland. It is always so touching when people bring this poster up to", "-27.587064600142185" ], [ "or a rejection of hate\" but that Nazism is shunned \"because its hatred is too specific and exclusive\". While some black-metallers boycott NSBM bands and labels, others draw a line between the music and the musicians, as they only care for the music. Some have criticized this as passive support for NSBM. The bigger print metal magazines tend to ignore records by NSBM bands. The book Unheilige Allianzen caused a short debate, leading Legacy magazine to stop printing ads for NSBM labels. Another debate happened in the \"letters\" section of Rock Hard magazine following the article Der rechte Rand im", "-27.566602272854652" ], [ "Nazi uniform and his French lawyer said it was \"deeply unfair\" that Burley who had organised the uniforms had not also been prosecuted.\nAn internal Conservative party inquiry found that Burley had \"caused deep offence.\" Although not a racist, he had not clearly shown his disapproval of the Nazi toast and had not been present during Nazi chanting. However the Daily Mail published pictures which it claimed proved that Burley had misled the enquiry in that he had been present during the chanting. The paper also criticised the inquiry for accepting Burley's word at face value and not interviewing their reporters.", "-27.478076725295978" ], [ "image abroad, particularly in Europe, where the U.S. was fighting Nazi Germany under the slogans of freedom and racial justice. Germany, as well as Japan, were apt to use every instance of racial unrest in the U.S. for propaganda purposes. Official reaction by the White House was somewhat delayed by the President Roosevelt's absence: at the time he was on a warship on his way from Hawaii to the Aleutian islands. At 7:45 p.m. on August 3, in his twenty-fifth seizure order under the Smith–Connally Act, President Roosevelt authorized the Secretary of War Henry L. Stimson to take control of the", "-27.462936509255087" ], [ "that toward the end of the 20th century—in order to support the idea that the Civil War was not about slavery—neo-Confederates began to claim that \"thousands of African Americans had served in the Confederate army\". A neo-Confederate publication, Confederate Veteran, published by the Sons of Confederate Veterans and the Military Order of the Stars and Bars, said in 1992 that \"the overwhelming majority of blacks during the War Between the States supported and defended, with armed resistance, the Cause of Southern Independence\". Historian Bruce Levine says that \"their [neo-Confederates'] insistent celebration these days of 'Black Confederates' ... seeks to legitimate", "-27.399721952999244" ], [ "of whites described the flag as a symbol of pride, while 75% of blacks said the flag represented racism. Earl Holt political donations Earl Holt, the leader of the Council of Conservative Citizens, whose website Roof credited in his manifesto for shaping his views, gave more than $74,000 to Republican candidates and committees in recent years, including campaign donations to 2016 presidential candidates Ted Cruz, Rick Santorum, and Rand Paul, who have all condemned Roof's racially based motives. Following the shooting, and after a journalist contacted the campaigns with details about the donor's background, a spokesman for the Ted Cruz", "-27.397221509438168" ], [ "powerful symbol of Americanism, and is flown on many occasions, with giant outdoor flags used by retail outlets to draw customers. Reverence for the flag has at times reached religion-like fervor: in 1919 William Norman Guthrie's book The Religion of Old Glory discussed \"the cult of the flag\"\nand formally proposed vexillolatry.\nDespite a number of attempts to ban the practice, desecration of the flag remains protected as free speech. Scholars have noted the irony that \"[t]he flag is so revered because it represents the land of the free, and that freedom includes the ability to use or abuse that flag", "-27.359104319504695" ], [ "Strafgesetzbuch Strafgesetzbuch ([ˈʃtʁaːfɡəˌzɛtsbuːx]), abbreviated to StGB, is the German penal code. Notable sections These sections differ significantly from the criminal codes in other countries, and/or are relevant for topics discussed in other articles. § 86a: Use of symbols of unconstitutional organisations Outlaws the distribution or public use of symbols of unconstitutional groups, in particular, flags, insignia, uniforms, slogans and forms of greeting. The laws ban most Nazi insignia from any usage for propagating the ideology outside artistic, scientific, research, or opposition uses (swastikas, SS sig runes, Totenkopf, Othala rune, the neo-Nazi version of the Celtic Cross, the swastikas versions of", "-27.30700238935242" ], [ "and briefly in English and Rwandan textbooks. The use of the term ‘fascism’ to describe the German and Japanese authorities during the Second World War and the use of the term ‘genocide’ (datusha) in Chinese textbooks to refer to crimes committed by both the Japanese forces in Nanjing and the National Socialists in the Holocaust detract from historical distinctions. Comparisons are also evoked by the use of images. The juxtaposition of images of different events, such as the images of Auschwitz and the Nanjing massacre in one French textbook, or of Dresden and Hiroshima in another French textbook, the association", "-27.302612922969274" ], [ "established powers or who had renounced material possessions.\nIn Japan black can also symbolize experience, as opposed to white, which symbolizes naiveté. The black belt in martial arts symbolizes experience, while a white belt is worn by novices. Japanese men traditionally wear a black kimono with some white decoration on their wedding day.\nIn Indonesia black is associated with depth, the subterranean world, demons, disaster, and the left hand. When black is combined with white, however, it symbolizes harmony and equilibrium. Political movements Anarchism is a political philosophy, most popular in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, which holds that", "-27.299106020509498" ], [ "ability to limit or interfere with the institution of \"negro\" slavery. In the Cornerstone Speech, Confederate vice president Alexander Stephens declared that one of the Confederacy's foundational tenets was white supremacy over black slaves. Following the war, a secret society, the Ku Klux Klan, was formed in the South. Its purpose was to \"restore\" white supremacy after the Reconstruction period, even though there still was white, Protestant supremacy in the United States, at the time. The group preached supremacy over all other races, as well as supremacy over Jews, Catholics, and other minorities.\nAccording to William Nichols, religious antisemitism can be", "-27.298118107340997" ], [ "tourist after giving him a warning. United States During the Red Scare of 1919–20 in the United States, many states passed laws forbidding the display of red flags, including Minnesota, South Dakota, Oklahoma, and California. In Stromberg v. California, the United States Supreme Court held that such laws are unconstitutional. Iran Communist symbols along with the Marxist-Leninist and Communist ideologies are banned in Iran since 1949 and again in the early 1980s following the Iranian Revolution. This included the Tudeh Party of Iran and the People's Mojahedin of Iran. Moldova In 2009, such a ban was proposed in Moldova", "-27.293418627872597" ], [ "been working for half a century to combat. In the world of Gods and Generals, slavery has nothing to do with the Confederate cause. Instead, the Confederates are nobly fighting for, rather than against, freedom, as viewers are reminded again and again by one white southern character after another.\nWoodworth criticized the portrayal of slaves as being \"generally happy\" with their condition. He also criticizes the relative lack of attention given to the motivations of Union soldiers fighting in the war. He excoriates the film for allegedly implying, in agreement with Lost Cause mythology, that the South was more \"sincerely Christian.\"", "-27.26338478254911" ], [ "anxieties about illegal immigration, urban crime, civil unions, and same-sex marriage. In 2006 J. Keith Akins argued that \"Klan literature and propaganda is rabidly homophobic and encourages violence against gays and lesbians ... Since the late 1970s, the Klan has increasingly focused its ire on this previously ignored population.\"\nMany KKK groups have formed strong alliances with other white supremacist groups, such as neo-Nazis. Some KKK groups have become increasingly \"nazified\", adopting the look and emblems of white power skinheads.\nThe American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU) has provided legal support to various factions of the KKK in defense of their First Amendment rights", "-27.25353891524719" ], [ "four members of the Supreme Court argued that his actions were forms of anti-patriotism, and therefore punishable and unprotected by the First Amendment.\nIn Chief Justice William Rehnquist's dissenting opinion he asserted that the American flag is a visible symbol for the country and therefore should be preserved. Rehnquist argued that burning the flag expressed disapproval and anti-patriotism for the nation’s policy, and was therefore a symbolic desecration of the U.S. in its entirety. Still today, many argue that the act of burning the American flag is a clear act of anti-patriotism and should not be protected by the First Amendment.", "-27.24720939222607" ], [ "symbol of racial and sexual supremacy and were protected by the men of the KKK. Some women assisted with sewing Klansmen's costumes and others let the men borrow their own clothes to serve as a disguise. One of the stated purposes of the Klan in the first wave was that \"females, friends, widows, and their households shall ever be special objects of our regard and protection\", which only referred to white women. Black and low-class white women, and white women judged as promiscuous were often the victims of rape and assault because Klansmen deemed them to be", "-27.233509590063477" ], [ "Southern Poverty Law Center defines both white nationalism and white separatism as \"ideologies based on white supremacy.\" Facebook has banned content that is openly white nationalist or white separatist because \"white nationalism and white separatism cannot be meaningfully separated from white supremacy and organized hate groups\".\nUse of the term to self-identify has been criticized as a dishonest rhetorical ploy. The Anti-Defamation League argues that white supremacists use the phrase because they believe it has fewer negative connotations than the term white supremacist.\nDobratz & Shanks-Meile reported that adherents usually reject marriage \"outside the white race\". They argued the existence of \"a", "-27.21092242639861" ], [ "of thought. Most school textbooks were illustrated to depict Islam as the norm, and often all women and girls were shown wearing the Muslim head covering. There were no depictions of practices of other religions in textbooks. The Ministry prohibits the teaching of other religions and comparative religious studies. At one private school that offers Islam instruction during regular school hours, Christian students have been allowed to attend church during those periods when Muslim students receive instruction about Islam.\nThe Government did not prohibit or restrict parents from giving religious instruction to children in their own homes.\nReligious authorities encouraged Muslim women", "-27.165361324143305" ], [ "television and the internet), and, in other laws, established a blacklist for censoring websites which describe suicide, glorify illegal drugs, or contain child pornography. A second amendment passed in 2013 added \"propaganda\" promoting \"Non-traditional sexual relationships\" as a class of harmful content under the law.", "-27.158967433630096" ], [ "hard work, clannishness and obtrusiveness, lack of social tact, low cunning, and especially lack of patriotism. Later, Nazi propaganda also dwelt on supposed physical differences, such as the shape of the \"Jewish nose\". Racial antisemitic legislation In Nazi Germany, the Nuremberg Race Laws of 1935 prohibited sexual relations and marriage between any Aryan and Jew (such relations under Nazi ideology was a crime punishable under the race laws as Rassenschande or \"racial pollution\"), and made it that all Jews, even quarter- and half-Jews, were no longer citizens of their own country (their official title became \"subject of the state\"). This", "-27.145233027127688" ], [ "White nationalism History and usage The first documented use of the term \"white nationalist\" was 1970, according to Merriam-Webster. The term was originally used by white supremacists as a euphemism for white supremacy, with specific views being developed later. According to Daryl Johnson, a former counterterrorism expert at the Department of Homeland Security, the term was used to appear more credible while also avoiding negative stereotypes about white supremacists. Modern members of racist organizations such as the Ku Klux Klan generally favor the term and avoid self-describing as white supremacist.\nSome sociologists have used white nationalism as an umbrella-term for a", "-27.103668140334776" ], [ "matters like saluting the flag were issues of \"school discipline\" that are better left to local officials rather than federal judges. Justice Jackson rejected this argument as well:\nThe case is made difficult not because the principles of its decision are obscure but because the flag involved is our own. Nevertheless, we apply the limitations of the Constitution with no fear that freedom to be intellectually and spiritually diverse or even contrary will disintegrate the social organization. To believe that patriotism will not flourish if patriotic ceremonies are voluntary and spontaneous instead of a compulsory routine is to make an unflattering", "-27.091333327814937" ], [ "of neo-fascism because of the association of \"black shirt\" with the Fascist Blackshirts of Benito Mussolini, and many nightclub attendees from the far right raised an arm in the fascist salute when the song was played. In response, left-wing media network Indymedia called for a boycott of the song. Juanes later stated that \"'La Camisa Negra' has got nothing to do with fascism or Mussolini...People can interpret music in all kinds of ways I guess.\" The song was also banned in the Dominican Republic for its sexual undertones. It was also implicated in controversy at his August 2009 performance in", "-27.086144081040402" ], [ "Islam before, and many were stunned to learn that some black people had such strong feelings toward white people. For many white viewers, it was the first time they learned there was a radical black alternative to the Civil Rights Movement.\nSome African Americans could not believe that black people were saying such things out loud, but more than a few agreed with it. The number of people attending Nation of Islam meetings increased significantly, and the group's membership doubled to 60,000 within weeks after the broadcast.\nThe Hate That Hate Produced catapulted Malcolm X to national attention. Although he had rarely", "-27.06254470073327" ], [ "pledges were instituted in a number of states during the Spanish–American War. During World War I, many more states instituted mandatory flag pledges with only a few dissents recorded by the American Civil Liberties Union. It was not until World War II was drawing to a close that the practice was officially challenged in the court system.\nIn 1935, Rutherford proscribed flag salutes, stating them to be a form of idolatry \"contrary to the Word of God.\" This stance drew mob violence against Witnesses and many children of Witnesses were expelled from public schools. The Witnesses' apparent lack of patriotism angered", "-27.057086430839263" ], [ "of racism. The group has taken direct inspiration from several black activists in the United States and their reassertion of history. A particular inspiration was Malcolm X, who notably became a Muslim as part of his political journey: the group sometimes cite his pronouncement that \"I am a soldier named Alaha, so put down the cross and pick up the X\". In the song \"President Propaganda\", Fun-Da-Mental's lyrics rely on the rhetoric of the Nation of Islam to send anti-Western messages. The lines \"you had us whipped, raped, and lynched/Took away the Quran, you gave us the Bible\" allude", "-27.055580263768206" ], [ "the Ku Klux Klan. The North Georgia White Knights of the Ku Klux Klan describe themselves as \"a patriotic, White Christian revival movement dedicated to preserving the maintenance of White Pride and the rights of the White Race\". A 2002 study identified white pride as a motivation for racial hate crimes on a US college campus, while in a different study on internet racism, the slogan was identified as being part of an emerging transnationalist trend in white supremacist movements. The slogan was also documented to have been used in hate speech incidents at New York University, Vassar College, Temple", "-27.04152773960959" ] ]

[ "We do have one. It's called the Interstate Highway System. It's very much like the Autobahn, except that it always has speed limits.", "My experience driving in Germany compared with driving in the US has caused me to form the opinion that we just aren't responsible enough in general. Also, the specifications of cars sold in this market have been designed to cut corners and save costs where allowed by our own rules and regulations. Germans are generally raised to obey the rules for the sake of the common good. Example: In German cities everywhere you'll see people standing waiting the for the lights to change at a pedestrian crossing when there aren't even cars in sight. They have a saying there that, \"even during a protest, nobody will walk on the grass\". Basically it means that even when a large number of people who are pissed off and exercising civil disobedience, they'll still kindly obey somebody's sign asking not to walk on their grass... You rarely see this in the States; if somebody can get away with something here and/or they feel like they deserve it, they'll probably just do it. This difference in mindset is even more visible in how we drive in the US. I live in NJ so my experience definitely falls on the worst end of the spectrum, but there is zero lane discipline on the highway here. Keep right, pass left? Fuck that! People doing ten under the speed limit sitting in the left lane oblivious to reality, others getting impatient and zipping around them at 90mph in the right lane... Unrestricted speed limits absolutely depend on people exercising lane discipline and following all other restrictions with religious discipline. Could you imagine if somebody pulled in front of you without signalling while you were doing 150mph in the left lane? Fiery death. This brings me to my next point, which is that cars sold in the EU all have superior brake systems compared with US market vehicles. Since any car sold in the EU may wind up on the autobahn cruising at triple digit speeds, they have to be able to slow down repeatedly from top speed without brake fade or instability. Cars sold in the US that aren't in the premium market segment (so around $35k and under) all have the bare minimum in terms of stopping performance. Additionally, vehicle inspection in the US is also a joke compared with Germany. For example, here in NJ there is no more safety inspection. If your car passes emissions you could have no seatbelts, a cracked windshield and brakes with 10 years of wear on them and you'll get a valid inspection sticker. Put a car like that on a highway where you can do 120mph all day and that person would invariably die or be the cause of someone else's untimely death. TL;DR: America just doesn't have the driver education and enforcement required to make something like the Autobahn work safely... And we suck at cooperating with each other for our own sake.", "It all comes down to two things: 1. Costs - The autobahn costs more, per mile, than the US interstate system and it is *constantly* under massive maintenance. Also, cars must be held to an even higher repair standard than they are in the US, resulting in a higher cost for the public. 2. Training - Driving is much more of an \"everyone should be allowed to do it\" in the US and the barrier for getting a license is lower than it is in Germany.", "So we used to have a pretty wide spread lack of speed limits. The gas crisis changed that. The faster you're going the more fuel you're consuming and it's not linear. Going 90 doesn't mean you're using 33.3% more fuel than going 60, its actually more than that. SO if people can get the same distance for a lower price by going a little slower, we can save resources, esp. during a crisis. The Fed basically said here are the mandated speed limits, post and enforce them, or your state gets no federal funding. Also, driving faster on roads causes more wear and tear. Our highways are only like 2 inches thick where the Autobahn is like 6-10 inches thick (i forget the exact number). That makes everything from building to repairs more expensive and we have a hard time funding basic social programs like... roads here in the US. Also I'm pretty sure the Germans used imprisoned jews to build at least parts of the Autobahn, so that cut costs in a pretty significant way Edit: as a side note, I was in Airzona once, close to the mexican border, and there was a speed limit sign that just said \"Use Caution\" so there are still some places you can be free from real speed limits" ]

[ [ "United States, a freeway is defined by the US government's Manual on Uniform Traffic Control Devices as a divided highway with full control of access.\nThis means two things: first, adjoining property owners do not have a legal right of access,\nmeaning all existing driveways must be removed and access to adjacent private lands must be blocked with fences or walls; instead, frontage roads provide access to properties adjacent to a freeway in many places.\nSecond, traffic on a freeway is \"free-flowing\". All cross-traffic (and left-turning traffic) is relegated to overpasses or underpasses, so that there are no traffic conflicts on the main", "-30.729968014755286" ], [ "American freeways (known as parkways) opened in the New York City area in the 1920s. Britain, heavily influenced by the railways, did not build its first motorway, the Preston By-pass (M6), until 1958.\nMost technologically advanced nations feature an extensive network of freeways or motorways to provide high-capacity urban travel, or high-speed rural travel, or both. Many have a national-level or even international-level (e.g. European E route) system of route numbering. History The first version of modern controlled-access highways evolved during the first half of the 20th century. The Long Island Motor Parkway on Long Island, New York, opened in 1908", "-30.540995338837092" ], [ "New York, and Shenango Valley Freeway (a portion of US 62) in Pennsylvania.\nUnlike in some jurisdictions, not all freeways in the US are part of a single national freeway network (although together with non-freeways, they form the National Highway System). For example, many state highways such as California State Route 99 have significant freeway sections. Many sections of the older United States Numbered Highways network have been upgraded to freeways but have kept their existing US Highway numbers. British overseas territories A number of the United Kingdom's overseas territories have controlled-access highways, including the Turks and Caicos Islands and Cayman Islands.", "-30.292997404700145" ], [ "of time due to the US Interstate system's higher speed limits, increased lane capacity and reduced likelihood of being delayed by a road accident.\nAmerican transportation planning academic Wendell Cox has also identified improvements to the system, so that Canada would have a comprehensive national freeway network comparable to the American Interstate Highway System, as an economically critical project for the country to undertake in the 21st century. Routes In its current form, the National Highway System includes routes in all Canadian provinces and territories except Nunavut, which has no conventional road connections to any other Canadian province or territory.\nOfficially the", "-30.268713269149885" ], [ "in Europe because they help minimize interruptions in flow, while traffic signals that create greater interference with traffic are still preferred in North America. There may be occasional interchanges with other major arterial roads. Examples include US 23 between SR 15's eastern terminus and Delaware, Ohio, along with SR 15 between its eastern terminus and I-75, US 30, SR 29/US 33, and US 35 in western and central Ohio. This type of road is sometimes called an expressway. Construction techniques The most frequent way freeways are laid out is usually by building them from the ground up after things such as forestry or buildings are cleared", "-30.25890571612399" ], [ "Texas are nothing more than a two-lane rural road, while others are urban freeways. Although the U.S. Highways have been replaced for the most part by Interstate Highways for through traffic, the U.S. Highways still serve as important regional connectors. Several notable examples of U.S. Highways that are built to freeway standards include US 75 and US 80 in Dallas, US 59 and US 290 in Houston, and US 90 and US 281 in San Antonio.\nThe Interstate Highways have replaced several portions of the U.S. Highway network in Texas and as a result, they have been removed from the State", "-30.05590611413936" ], [ "the Suncoast Parkway in Florida.\nIn some US jurisdictions, especially where freeways replace existing roads, non-motorized access on freeways is permitted. Different states of the United States have different laws. Cycling on freeways in Arizona may be prohibited only where there is an alternative route judged equal or better for cycling. Wyoming, the least populated state, allows cycling on all freeways. Oregon allows bicycles except on specific urban freeways in Portland and Medford.\nIn countries such as the United Kingdom new motorways require an Act of Parliament to ensure restricted right of way. Since upgrading an existing road (the \"Queen's Highway\")", "-29.684460362041136" ], [ "freeways may be convenient and safe, at least in comparison to uncontrolled roads, they may not expand recreation, employment and education opportunities equally for different ethnic groups, or for people located in certain neighborhoods of any given city. Still, they may open new markets to some small businesses.\nConstruction of urban freeways for the US Interstate Highway System, which began in the late 1950s, led to the demolition of thousands of city blocks, and the dislocation of many more thousands of people. The citizens of many inner city areas responded with the freeway and expressway revolts. Through the study of Washington's", "-29.22099728131434" ], [ "relies on two-lane highways, or expressways which are not fully up to international freeway standards; according to Lakehead University economics professor Livio di Matteo, many parts of the system, even on the main Trans-Canada Highway portion of the network, still leave \"the nation’s east-west flow of personal and commercial traffic subject to the whims of an errant moose\". Some motorists, further, prefer to drive between Western Canada and Eastern Canada by travelling through the United States rather than on Canadian highways; even though this represents a slightly longer trip than the Trans-Canada Highway route, it frequently takes a shorter amount", "-29.079690110433148" ], [ "Two-lane expressway Justification Two-lane freeways are usually built as a temporary solution due to lack of funds, as an environmental compromise or as a way to overcome problems constrained from highway reconstruction when there are four lanes or more. If the road is widened, the existing road is typically allocated to traffic going in one direction, and the lanes for the other direction are built as a whole new roadbed adjacent to the existing one. When upgraded in this manner, the road becomes a typical freeway. Many two-lane freeways are built so that when the road is upgraded to a", "-29.02331469231285" ], [ "the vague word generally, it imposes a requirement that 50% of an expressway's intersections must be grade-separated for the term to apply.\nOnly Minnesota enacted the exact MUTCD definitions, in May 2008.\nThe term expressway is also used for what the federal government calls \"freeways\". Where the terms are distinguished, freeways can be characterized as expressways upgraded to full access control, while not all expressways are freeways.\nExamples in the United States of roads that are technically expressways (under the federal definition), but contain the word \"freeway\" in their names: State Fair Freeway in Kansas, Chino Valley Freeway in California, Rockaway Freeway in", "-28.832344542868668" ], [ "under various stages of construction. South Africa Colloquially, the terms \"freeway\", \"highway\", and \"motorway\" are used synonymously. The term \"expressway\" is not common in South Africa. A freeway, highway or motorway refers to a divided dual carriageway with limited access, and at least two lanes in either direction. A central island, usually either with drainage, foliage, or high-impact barriers, provides a visible separation between the carriageways in opposite directions. As in the United Kingdom, Ireland, Australia, and Japan, South Africans drive on the left-hand side of the road and nearly all steering wheels are on the right-hand side of vehicles.\nFreeways", "-28.82943178527057" ], [ "differently. California expressways do not necessarily have to be divided, though they must have at least partial access control. For both terms to apply, in Wisconsin, a divided highway must be at least four lanes wide; and in Missouri, both terms apply only to divided highways at least 16 kilometres (10 mi) long that are not part of the Interstate Highway System. In North Dakota and Mississippi, expressways may have \"full or partial\" access control and \"generally\" have grade separations at intersections; a freeway is then defined as an expressway with full access control. Ohio's statute is similar, but instead of", "-28.711969946860336" ], [ "on freeways built before January 1, 1960, and toll highways that are self-supporting but have Interstate designation, under a grandfather clause. As a result, such areas often provide only minimal services such as restrooms and vending machines.\nPrivate entrepreneurs develop additional facilities, such as truck stops or travel centers, restaurants, gas stations, and motels in clusters on private land adjacent to major interchanges. In the US, Pilot Flying J and TravelCenters of America are two of the most common full-service chains of truck stops. Because these facilities are not directly connected to the freeway, they usually have huge signs", "-28.615618020819966" ], [ "narrower corridors through dense urban areas. Control of access Control of access relates to a legal status which limits the types of vehicles that can use a highway, as well as a road design that limits the points at which they can access it.\nFreeways are usually limited to motor vehicles of a minimum power or weight; signs may prohibit cyclists, pedestrians and equestrians and impose a minimum speed. It is possible for non-motorized traffic to use facilities within the same right-of-way, such as sidewalks constructed along freeway-standard bridges and multi-use paths next to freeways such as the Suncoast Trail along", "-28.60329504715628" ], [ "cross streets.\nOver 80% of Houston freeways have service roads, which locals typically call feeders. Many service roads in urban and suburban areas of Texas have the convenience of Texas U-turns, as a left lane curving under an overpass, allowing drivers to avoid stopping for traffic lights when making a U-turn.\nService roads are often built as part of a multi-phase plan to construct new limited-access highways. They initially serve as a highway with access to local business before the freeway is constructed years later. After the completion of the freeway, frontage roads serve as a major thoroughfare for local", "-28.46520455472637" ], [ "a parkway is recreation, while the purpose of a freeway is movement. Thus, as originally conceived, a freeway is simply a strip of public land devoted to movement to which abutting property owners do not have rights of light, air or access. Cross sections Two-lane freeways, often undivided, are sometimes built when traffic volumes are low or right-of-way is limited; they may be designed for easy conversion to one side of a four-lane freeway. (Most of the Bert T. Combs Mountain Parkway in Eastern Kentucky is two lanes, but work has begun to make all of it four-lane.) These", "-28.391976886836346" ], [ "Interstate Highway System facilitated the relocation of heavy manufacturing to the South and spurred the development of Southern-based corporations like Walmart and FedEx.\nThe Interstate Highway System has been criticized for contributing to the decline of some cities and for destroying predominantly African-American neighborhoods in urban centers. Other critics have blamed the Interstate Highway System for the decline of public transportation in the United States since the 1950s.", "-28.321852515160572" ], [ "(East-West Link) is currently in planning. All of the tunnels are designed to act as an inner-city ring road or bypass system and include provision for public transport, whether underground or in reclaimed space on the surface. However, freeways are not beneficial for road-based public transport services, because the restricted access to the roadway means that it is awkward for passengers to get to the limited number of boarding points unless they drive to them, largely defeating the purpose.\nIn Canada, the extension of Highway 401 into Detroit, known as the Herb Gray Parkway, has been designed with numerous tunnels and underpasses", "-28.294030779972672" ], [ "parts of the United States, notably the Trans-Pecos Region it has several unique features that differentiate it from other Interstate Highways. I-10 is one of the very few Interstates that has at-grade intersections (roads that intersect it at a 90-degree angle, as opposed to an overpass or underpass with on and off ramps). These are private access roads (mostly from large ranches) which occur over a limited stretch in western Texas.\nThe stretch from Kerr County to El Paso County has an 80 mph (129 km/h) speed limit, which was the highest in the nation, until the opening of the 85 mph (137 km/h) southern", "-28.130662003764883" ], [ "in the main route. Some toll roads are called motorways or tollways to avoid perceived difficulties with charging people to use a freeway. Most Australian capital cities have one or more freeways across, past, or leading to them.\nWhen limited-access highways began to be built in Sydney in the 1950s, beginning with the Cahill Expressway, they were provisionally named expressways, but in the 1960s Australian transport ministers agreed that they be called freeways (like in the United States and other countries). The Cahill Expressway has kept its original name. Melbourne's South Eastern Freeway (now called the 'Monash Freeway') was the second", "-27.98751312159584" ], [ "line of the highway, which must be regulated by traffic lights, stop signs, or other traffic control devices. Achieving such free flow requires the construction of many overpasses, underpasses, and ramp systems. The advantage of grade-separated interchanges is that freeway drivers can almost always maintain their speed at junctions since they do not need to yield to vehicles crossing perpendicular to mainline traffic.\nIn contrast, an expressway is defined as a divided highway with partial control of access.\nExpressways may have driveways and at-grade intersections, though these are usually less numerous than on ordinary arterial roads.\nThis distinction was apparently first developed in", "-27.928152480977587" ], [ "or less, right-side exit only and only to arterial connections. The Interstate standards have set the pace in the United States for optimal highway design, including those of elevated highways. Today Elevated expressways are now common around the world, particularly in the central urban areas where traffic volumes and urban densities are high such as cities in the Americas, East and Southeast Asia. Entire networks of elevated expressways exist in the central areas of cities such as Manila, Guangzhou, Bangkok, Osaka, Shanghai, Tokyo, and Wuhan.", "-27.90736919781193" ], [ "away. Sometimes they deplete farmland, but other methods have been developed for economic, social and even environmental reasons.\nFull freeways are sometimes made by converting at-grade expressways or by replacing at-grade intersections with overpasses; however, any at-grade intersection that ends a freeway remains. Often, when there is a two-lane undivided freeway or expressway, it is converted by constructing a twin corridor on the side by leaving a median between the two travel directions. The opposing side for the old two-way corridor becomes a passing lane.\nOther techniques involve building a new carriageway on the side of a divided highway that has a", "-27.847693980205804" ], [ "of the Idaho–Montana border.\nSome freeways' exit number starts from a advanced number (i.e. higher than 1). One reason for starting with a number higher than 1 is that the maintaining agency expects that the highway will be extended. For example, Ontario Highway 400 starts at 20 because it was expected that the southern end of the highway would extend to downtown Toronto (which was never built). Another reason to use a higher number is that the freeway is branching off from another freeway. An example is British Columbia Highway 5, which branches off British Columbia Highway 1 and starts at", "-27.697401244891807" ], [ "Controlled-access highway A controlled-access highway is a type of highway that has been designed for high-speed vehicular traffic, with all traffic flow ingress- and egress-regulated. Common English terms are freeway (in Australia, South Africa, United States and Canada), motorway (in the United Kingdom, Pakistan, Ireland, New Zealand and parts of Australia) and expressway (parts of Canada, parts of the United States, India and many other Asian countries). Other similar terms include Interstate and thruway (in the United States) and parkway. Some of these may be limited-access highways, although this term can also refer to a class of highway with", "-27.65582218079362" ], [ "the California Freeway and Expressway System, and all three routes are part of the National Highway System, a network of highways that are considered essential to the country's economy, defense, and mobility by the Federal Highway Administration.", "-27.632545533906523" ], [ "service roads to get ahead of regular traffic back ups, often causing accidents which lead to the shut down of said service roads, defeating their purpose. Texas Most Texas freeways have service roads on both sides. In urban and suburban areas, the traffic typically travels one-way, in the direction of the adjacent freeway. Most other areas have two-way traffic, but as an area urbanizes, the frontage road is often converted to one-way traffic (2 lanes). In cases of freeway congestion or shutdown, the frontage road provides an instant detour but delayed by each stop sign or stoplight at", "-27.62420879979618" ], [ "although they receive federal aid to build and maintain freeways signed as part of the 46,000 mile (75,000 km) nationwide Interstate highway network. Changes by state initiative may be made with federal approval. A large number of expressways are actually government or privately operated toll roads in many East Coast and Midwestern states. West Coast freeways are generally free to users (\"freeways\", no toll charged per use), although since the 1990s there have been some small experiments with toll roads operated by private companies.\nAfter the collapse of the I-35W Mississippi River bridge in Minnesota in August 2007, the backlog of road", "-27.5117191321915" ], [ "from downtown to the Los Angeles International Airport, the Santa Monica Freeway is still one of the busiest freeways in the world. All three freeway-to-freeway interchanges along its length are notorious for their congestion, and are routinely ranked among the top 10 most congested spots in the United States.\nDue to the high traffic volume, car accidents are so common that Caltrans has constructed special Accident Investigation Sites separated from the freeway by fences. These enable the California Highway Patrol to quickly clear accidents from the through traffic lanes, and the fences reduce congestion by preventing rubbernecking (in which", "-27.445080678066006" ], [ "new light rail and rapid transit lines. Freeway names Southern California residents idiomatically refer to freeways with the definite article, as \"the [freeway number]\", e.g. \"the 5\" or \"the 10\". This use of the article differs from other American dialects, including that of Northern California, but is the same as in the UK (e.g. \"Take the M1 to the M25\") and other European countries (e.g. \"La A1\"). In addition, sections of the southern California freeway system are often referred to by names rather than by the official numbers. For example, the names Santa Monica and San Bernardino are used for", "-27.419323955778964" ], [ "NYSDOT outside New York City and the New York City Department of Transportation (NYCDOT) within New York City.\nToday, the state parkways are for the most part equivalent to expressways and freeways built in other parts of the country, except for a few oddities. First, because many of these roads were either designed before civil engineers had experience building roads for automobile use or widened in response to increasing traffic, many New York parkways lack shoulders. Second, because designers focused more on making routes scenic rather than efficient, the parkways are meandering, often built to follow a river, and so contain", "-27.395585532358382" ], [ "until the Special Roads Act had been passed. Work on the motorways continued until the 1970s when the oil crisis and The Troubles both intervened causing the abandonment of many schemes. Australia Australia's major cities, Sydney, Melbourne, Brisbane and Perth, feature a network of freeways within their urban areas, while Canberra, Adelaide, Hobart and the regional centres of Newcastle, Geelong, Gold Coast and Wollongong feature a selection of limited-access routes. Outside these areas traffic volumes do not generally demand freeway-standard access, although heavily trafficked regional corridors such as Sydney–Newcastle (M1 Pacific Motorway (F3)), Sydney–Wollongong (M1 Princes Motorway (F6)), Brisbane–Gold", "-27.309227108053165" ], [ "Melbourne, to a dual carriageway highway.\nAlthough these inter-city highways are dual carriageway they are not all controlled access highways. Most of these inter-city highways have driveways to adjacent property and at-grade junctions with smaller roads.\nUnlike many other countries, some of Australia's freeways are being opened to cyclists. As the respective state governments upgrade their state's freeways, bicycle lanes are being added and/or shoulders widened alongside the freeways. The state of Queensland is an exception however, as cyclists are banned from all freeways, including the breakdown lane. New Zealand The term Motorway in New Zealand encompasses multilane divided freeways as well", "-27.25470309710363" ], [ "freeway system could solve the region's transportation problems. Leaders of surrounding cities, such as Whittier, South Gate, Long Beach, and Pasadena, accordingly called for a web of freeways to connect the whole region, rather than funneling their residents out of their own downtowns and into that of Los Angeles. Pro-freeway sentiments prevailed, and by 1947, a new comprehensive freeway plan for Los Angeles (based largely on the original locally planned 1930s system, but without the light rail tracks in the median strips of the freeways) had been drawn up by the California Department of Public Works (now Caltrans). San Diego", "-27.252646908396855" ], [ "segments of the Interstate 10 even though overhead freeway signs installed at interchanges since the 1990s don't display these names, using instead the highway number, direction, and control city. A freeway 'name' may refer to portions of two or more differently numbered routes; for example, the Ventura Freeway consists of portions of U.S. Route 101 and State Route 134, and the San Diego Freeway consists of portions of Interstate 5 and the full length of Interstate 405.\nWhen Southern California freeways were built in the 1940s and early 1950s, local common usage was primarily the freeway name preceded by the definite", "-27.19897949323058" ], [ "Interstate Highway standards Exceptions The standards have been changed over the years, resulting in many older Interstates not conforming to the current standards, and yet others are not built to standards because to do so would be too costly or environmentally unsound.\nSome roads were grandfathered into the system. Most of these were toll roads that were built before the Interstate system came into existence or were under construction at the time President Dwight D. Eisenhower signed the Federal Aid Highway Act of 1956. One example is the Pennsylvania Turnpike, which originally had a very narrow median that later required the", "-27.17784377067437" ], [ "were never started. Other routes which presented expensive engineering challenges (e.g. the Angeles Crest and the Decker Freeways) were also dropped. The result was a system filled with gaps and bottlenecks. That is, many of the freeways that were built ended up with traffic levels far above their original capacity because planners had expected those traffic loads to be shared by other freeways that were never constructed.\nBy contrast, San Diego County is nearing completion of its originally planned freeway system and is using regional sales tax money to support various extensions and building new toll roads like State Route 125", "-27.126885664765723" ], [ "the freeways at all prior to 2005, but a legal amendment on 1 April 2005 has partially lifted the ban. A person aged at least 20 who has held a motorcycle driver's license for at least 3 years may now carry a passenger on a two-wheel motorcycle on a freeway, but some segments of the Shuto Expressway still prohibit passengers on two-wheel motorcycles. A motorcycle with a sidecar may carry a passenger on the freeways. Philippines Before June 2006, the Department of Public Works and Highways Department Order No. 123 banned motorcycles with engine displacement under 400 cc, while allowing high-power", "-27.11834501096746" ], [ "bridges, tunnels and other structures whose ownership, mode of use or availability would otherwise exclude them from the general definition of a highway, examples in recent years are commonly toll bridges and tunnels which have the definition of highway imposed upon them (in a legal order applying only to the individual structure) to allow application of most traffic laws to those using them but without causing all of the general obligations or rights of use otherwise applicable to a highway. United States In American law, the word \"highway\" is sometimes used to denote any public way used for travel, whether", "-27.1149957543239" ], [ "US 38 between Omaha and Denver, and an old California State Highway 7 mostly in the Mojave Desert. US 6 was itself pared back to Bishop, California in the Great Renumbering of California in 1964.\nAs the states build freeways as a new classification of highways, the state may strip the old highway of its old designation as a numbered highway or downgrade it to a \"lesser\" status. For example, US 66, which connected Los Angeles and Chicago from 1926 until 1985, lost its designation as a U.S. Highway in favor of faster, more direct Interstate highways, which had supplanted it. Some highways may", "-27.043034288362833" ], [ "mean a pedicab or bicycle rickshaw.\nAn expressway refers to a controlled-access highway, often tolled. A major non-tolled highway maintained by the national government is called a national road, often used generically for a highway section with no formal name. Road terminology generally follow American practice, but some British/Commonwealth usages can be found as well from the use of Australian engineering design documents, such as dual carriageway for a divided highway. A median barrier lined with trees and plant boxes is called a center island. An overpass either refers to a grade-separated road crossing using a bridge or a footbridge across", "-27.042575821164064" ], [ "to exit directly to transit centers or to enter the freeway directly into the HOV lane without crossing multiple lanes of traffic. Timed freeway entrances, which regulate the addition of cars to the freeway, are also common. Houston and San Antonio have extensive networks of freeway cameras linked to transit control centers to monitor and study traffic.\nOne characteristic of Texas's freeways are its frontage roads (also known as service roads, feeder roads, and access roads). Texas is the only state that widely constructs frontage/access roads along its highways even in the most remote areas.Frontage Roads - What are Frontage Roads", "-27.025830778864474" ], [ "are Bundesstraßen (federal highways) with yellow signs. Some controlled-access highways are classified as \"Bundesautobahn\" in spite of not meeting the autobahn construction standard (for example the A 62 near Pirmasens).\nSimilar to some other German words, the term autobahn when used in English is usually understood to refer specifically to the national highway system of Germany, whereas in German the word autobahn is applied to any controlled highway in any country. For this reason, in German the more specific term Bundesautobahn is strongly preferred when the intent is to make specific reference to Germany's Autobahn network. Early Years The idea for", "-26.99091822115588" ], [ "U.S. Route 141 and U.S. Route 441 branch off U.S. Route 41. The now defunct U.S. Route 66, known as the \"Mother Road\", was a cultural touchstone that inspired literature, songs, and other media.\nThe Interstate Highway System, indicated by a red and blue shield with white numbers, is a system of entirely freeways (unlike the U.S. Highway System, which is mostly undivided surface roads). The Interstate System is also based on a grid, with east–west routes bearing even numbers and north–south routes bearing odd numbers. In order to prevent confusion with the earlier U.S. Highway System, however, the Interstates are", "-26.941963717525596" ], [ "to what would be designated as an \"expressway\", \"freeway\", or \"motorway\" in other areas. Parkways generally have multiple lanes in each direction of travel, no intersections (crossroads are accessed by interchanges), high speed limits, and are of dual carriageway design (or have high crash barriers on the median). Victoria Victoria uses the term \"parkway\" to sometimes refer to smaller local access roads that travel through parkland. Unlike other uses of the term, these parkways are not high-speed routes but may still have some degree of limited access. Other countries Singapore uses the term \"parkway\" as an alternative to \"expressway\". As", "-26.844840650446713" ], [ "World War, boasted the longest illuminated stretch of roadway built.\nA decade later, the first section of Highway 401 was opened, based on earlier designs. It has since gone on to become the busiest highway in the world.\nThe word freeway was first used in February 1930 by Edward M. Bassett. Bassett argued that roads should be classified into three basic types: highways, parkways, and freeways. In Bassett's zoning and property law-based system, abutting property owners have the rights of light, air and access to highways, but not parkways and freeways; the latter two are distinguished in that the purpose of", "-26.836770452791825" ], [ "highways due to the presence of the Amazon rainforest. In this region, highways, when they are present, generally are unpaved. Manaus, for example, has no major paved highways connecting it to any other city but Boa Vista in the north. Motorways Due to the country's growth and the associated traffic increase, the Government has started the construction and adaptation of main road sections into motorways. The first one to be completed was the so-called Via Dutra (BR-116), the important highway connecting São Paulo to Rio de Janeiro, which was finished on the 1975 with a 2X2 setting, but retained some", "-26.76786223007366" ], [ "and Why Does Texas Have So Many? Frontage roads provide access to the freeway from businesses alongside, such as gas stations and retail stores, and vice versa. Alongside most freeways along with the frontage roads are two to four lanes in each direction parallel to the freeway permitting easy access to individual city streets. A TxDOT policy change now limits the frontage road construction for new highways, but the existing frontage will remain. New landscaping projects and a longstanding ban on new billboards are ways Houston has tried to control the potential side effects of convenience.\nAnother common characteristic found near", "-26.74583961251483" ], [ "as national parks) and at federal facilities (like military bases). The Interstate Highway System is partly funded by the federal government but owned and maintained by individual state governments. There are a few private highways in the United States, which use tolls to pay for construction and maintenance. There are many local private roads, generally serving remote or insular residences.\nPassenger and freight rail systems, bus systems, water ferries, and dams may be under either public or private ownership and operation. Civilian airlines are all privately owned and financed. Most airports are owned and operated by local", "-26.719953163177706" ], [ "a \"road, street, and parkway\"; however, in practical and useful meaning, a \"highway\" is a major and significant, well-constructed road that is capable of carrying reasonably heavy to extremely heavy traffic. Highways generally have a route number designated by the state and federal departments of transportation.\nCalifornia Vehicle Code, Sections 360, 590, define a \"highway\" as only a way open for use of motor vehicles, but the California Supreme Court has held that \"the definition of 'highway' in the Vehicle Code is used for special purposes of that act,\" and that canals of the Los Angeles neighborhood of Venice, California, are", "-26.707422915380448" ], [ "cities, along with Modesto and Visalia, are passed by as I-5 veers west to avoid the congestion of the populated eastern side of the Central Valley as it connects Sacramento and Los Angeles.\nThe state's freeway network has expanded ever since the Arroyo Seco Parkway, the first freeway in the Western United States, connecting Los Angeles and Pasadena, opened in 1940. However, the state is not immune to freeway revolts, such as those that have prevented a freeway in San Francisco between the Golden Gate Bridge and the San Francisco–Oakland Bay Bridge, and an expansion of I-710 through South Pasadena. County", "-26.70174551208038" ], [ "some Australian cities to refer to freeways that have been allocated a metropolitan route number. Roads may be part-highway and part-freeway until they are fully upgraded. The Cahill expressway is the only \"named\" expressway in New South Wales, which opened in 1954, the first in the region. Austria In contrast to Germany, according to a 2002 amendment of the Austrian federal road act, Bundesstraßen is the official term referring only to autobahns (Bundesstraßen A) and limited-access roads (Schnellstraßen, Bundesstraßen S). The administration of all other former federal highways (Bundesstraßen B) has passed to the federal states (Bundesländer).\nTherefore, officially classified as", "-26.69041387020843" ], [ "existing two-lane roads. This proposed freeway was never built due to environmental and financial issues.", "-26.66967568930704" ], [ "of the heaviest traffic in Australia.\nMany of the highways are built to freeway standard (\"M\" freeways), while most are generally sealed and of reasonable to high quality. Urban freeways In the 1950s and 1960s, private ownership of cars increased, and newer suburbs were created beyond the tram and rail networks. This eventually led to congestion on the road network between the suburbs and the CBD.\nAs Melbourne extended, planners and politicians decided that the roads could no longer cope. The 1969 Melbourne Transportation Plan called for construction of an extensive network of freeways. The Victorian government were advised by American highway", "-26.6097045009883" ], [ "with intersections are probably more dangerous for motorcycles and their passengers than the limited access freeways. Mainland China In Mainland China, two-wheel motorcycles driven on the freeways may not carry passengers. A vehicle must be capable of maintaining a speed of 70 km/h to be driven on the freeways. However, in many Chinese provinces, motorcycles cannot use expressways at all.\nMacau has no freeways, while Hong Kong operates under different systems than Mainland China. Japan In Japan, a motorcycle must have an engine displacement of more than 125 cc to be driven on freeways. Two-wheel motorcycles were not allowed to carry passengers on", "-26.60588908556383" ], [ "unaltered when US 27 between Gaylord and Indian River was converted to a freeway; this freeway was redesignated as I-75 in 1962. Some states, such as California, do not allow two highways in their state to carry the same highway number, which is not the case in Michigan. A reconstruction project in 1966 bypassed some sharp curves in the roadway and straightened sections between Boyne City and Walloon Lake. As of 2008, the highway remains unaltered since the reconstruction.", "-26.58555797324516" ], [ "freeway while the other is being reconstructed.\nA similar concept is utilized with 3-lane setups where 2 lanes have right of way, and the opposing side has to yield to the oncoming side on major highways that are mostly 2 lanes, of which those are more common.\nThese roads also exist in Texas, which calls them \"Super 2\", as that term has more than one definition.\nIn the 1950s, New York state built many highways which totaled 3 lanes wide, with traffic moving in either direction permitted to use the center lane for passing. After less than ten years of a frighteningly high", "-26.576787296740804" ], [ "for freeways and motorways are among common examples of one-way single-track roads. Private single-track roads The most common example of private single-track roads are long driveways of rural properties such as country houses and farm property. Ice roads The mountain passes on the Dalton Highway in Alaska have a rule where goods-carrying northbound truck traffic has the right of way, while returning southbound traffic has to stop, as mentioned on Ice Road Truckers. The reason behind this procedure is that traffic going north is in somewhat of a hurry to deliver equipment to Deadhorse, Prudhoe Bay, and the drill", "-26.52152464550454" ], [ "the county. Interstate Highway System In April 1955, a Caltrans official announced that US 80 would be built as a freeway for its entire length in California, as it was to be included in the Interstate Highway System. In the meantime, while plans moved further along on US 101, San Diego Mayor John D. Butler asked the California Highway Commission to keep the US 80 project on track. However, the construction was put on hold because of lower traffic levels on US 80, compared to other local highways. State Assemblyman Sheridan N. Hegland raised the issue in the Assembly Highway subcommittee in December, stating", "-26.510569357778877" ], [ "not part of the National Highway System, a system of roadways important to the nation's economy, defense, and mobility.", "-26.487065197201446" ], [ "not part of the National Highway System, a system of roadways important to the nation's economy, defense, and mobility.", "-26.487065197201446" ], [ "United States, for instance, Interstate 40 uses Los Angeles as a control city for motorists west of Flagstaff, even though I-40 does not reach Los Angeles, and neither does Interstate 15, which is at its western terminus. And suppose the U.S. state of New Mexico were to use the next major city as a control city on its interstates instead of using smaller cities/minor towns, Interstate 25 would use El Paso as a control city southbound from Albuquerque; while I-25 doesn't reach El Paso, it transitions onto I-10 which does go to that city.\nWhile the vast majority of control", "-26.469231974100694" ], [ "freeways – Kwinana Freeway, Mitchell Freeway, and Graham Farmer Freeway – as well as sections of several highways which are subject to control of access and only have grade-separated intersections. Such highways may be described as freeway-standard or expressway-standard.", "-26.425888949124783" ], [ "somewhat less isolation from other traffic.\nIn countries following the Vienna convention, the motorway qualification implies that walking and parking are forbidden, and they are reserved for the use of motorized vehicles only.\nA controlled-access highway provides an unhindered flow of traffic, with no traffic signals, intersections or property access. They are free of any at-grade crossings with other roads, railways, or pedestrian paths, which are instead carried by overpasses and underpasses. Entrances and exits to the highway are provided at interchanges by slip roads (ramps), which allow for speed changes between the highway and arterials and collector roads. On the controlled-access", "-26.412026554811746" ], [ "its Interstate-type highways, often called freeways. In Germany, where significant sections to the Autobahn network do not have mandatory speed limits, the death rate on such highways was 1.74 road fatalities per 1 billion vehicle-km, about half the U.S. rate for Interstate-type highways. (For chart, see: Safety: international comparison), when according to the German Road Safety Council (DVR) the number of deaths per kilometer of motorway is 30% lower when motorways have speed limit.\n \nAnother difference between the USA and Europe is that people in Europe believe higher speed limit have an adverse impact on safety: according to the", "-26.385096530953888" ], [ "federal Interstate funding, since it could no longer be part of the continuous I-35E. Two notable alternatives came out of the draft EIS—a parkway with or without an I-94 connection. The parkway with a connection would provide the same level of service as a typical freeway.\nR.I.P. 35E and other citizens' groups continued to oppose a direct connection, arguing that it would be no different from a typical freeway, since drivers would be more likely to exceed the speed limit if it was a continuous roadway to I-94. Saint Paul changed its mind again in September 1981, supporting a direct connection,", "-26.36099135587574" ], [ "Transportation in Texas Highways Texas freeways have\non heavily traveled since their 1948 beginnings with a several-mile stretch of Houston's Gulf Freeway, and are often under construction to meet the demands of continuing growth. As of 2005, there were 79,535 miles of public highway in Texas (up from 71,000 in 1984). Texas Department of Transportation (TxDOT) planners have sought ways to reduce rush hour congestion, primarily through High-occupancy vehicle (HOV) lanes for vans and carpools. The \"Texas T\", an innovation originally introduced in Houston, is a ramp design that allows vehicles in the HOV lane, which is usually the center lane,", "-26.344920893607195" ], [ "the Interstate Highway system.", "-26.33665185238351" ], [ "of Sydney (which has five such freeways), Brisbane (which has three), and Melbourne (which has two). This has had the benefit of not creating heavily trafficked surface roads and, in the case of Melbourne's Eastlink Motorway, prevented the destruction of an ecologically sensitive area.\nOther Australian cities face similar problems (lack of available land, cost of home acquisition, aesthetic problems and community opposition). Brisbane, which also has to contend with physical boundaries (the Brisbane River) and rapid population increases, has embraced underground freeways. There are currently three open to traffic (Clem Jones Tunnel (Clem7), Airport Link and Legacy Way) and one", "-26.33013397769537" ], [ "concessionaire companies.\nHighways, on the other hand, complement the national network of expressways and federal roads and built under the JKR R5 rural highway standard, with relatively high design speed limit (although not as high as the expressway speed limit) of 100 km/h, allowing the maximum speed limit of 90 km/h. The highways are built with partial access control, and grade-spearated interchanges and at-grade crossings are both permitted. However, it is possible for a federal or state highway to be built with almost equivalent standard of an expressway with the exception of lower speed limit, for example the Federal Highway. Highways can be", "-26.310652972053504" ], [ "of traffic may be shifted to the other roadway. If the road being constructed is a highway, the used half is called a semi-highway. Freeways and motorways When controlled-access highways undergo reconstruction, both sides are often reduced to one lane. In some cases, traffic may be shifted onto one half, making it a temporary two-lane freeway corridor. An example of this is Interstate 10 in Arizona, in which eastbound traffic is reduced to one lane and shifted onto the westbound half of the road. Another technique is to treat the rightmost hard shoulder as a travel lane. On a", "-26.268916178902145" ], [ "Freeways in Australia This is a list of freeways (or motorways/expressways) in Australia, sorted by states and territories and their corresponding routes. This list includes tollways / toll roads such as the CityLink freeway system in Melbourne. This list has over 70 entries. The only jurisdiction in Australia without freeways is the Northern Territory. Victoria has the largest and densest freeway network in Australia. New South Wales New South Wales has the second largest number and second highest density of motorways in Australia, with the majority being located in Sydney City or the metropolitan areas. Tasmania While the overall quality", "-26.257917396054836" ], [ "(which require queues waiting to make such turns). This also makes logical sense since freeways have a higher capacity than arterials and right-turn ramps serve effectively to absorb capacity and reduce traffic on the arterial.\nSome parclos have the right-turning (directional) on-ramp leave the arterial road after the exit ramp intersection. This configuration is often used when another road meets the freeway off-ramp and gives traffic from this road the option of turning right to use the directional on-ramp to enter the freeway.\nTraffic exiting the freeway to the arterial road is provided with a long, relatively straight exit ramp, preventing most", "-26.25300200120546" ], [ "limit increase to 140 km/h (87 mph) on the Autobahn 1 freeway. They may only be used by powered vehicles that are designed to achieve at least 60 km/h (37 mph). While on the motorway voluntary stops, U-turns and backward driving are prohibited. Schnellstraßen Schnellstraßen (officially Bundesstraßen S) are federal limited-access roads very similar to Autobahnen; the chief difference is that they are more cheaply built with fewer tunnels, mostly just following the given topography. Depending on the road extension, they are either signposted as Autobahn or Autostraße according to Austrian traffic regulations. The speed limit on Schnellstraßen is 100 km/h, however", "-26.19972606547526" ], [ "Residents of American cities commonly use urban Interstates to travel to their places of work. The vast majority of long-distance travel, whether for vacation or business, is by the national road network; of these trips, about one-third (by the total number of miles driven in the country in 2003) utilize the Interstate system.\nIn addition to the routes of the Interstate system, there are those of the U.S. highway system, not to be confused with the above-mentioned National Highway System. These networks are further supplemented by State Highways, and the local roads of counties, municipal streets, and federal agencies, such", "-26.18723224848509" ], [ "refer to other state, provincial, local, or national highways, local usage in those areas does not mimic the Michigan usage in most cases. In countries like the United Kingdom, M refers to motorways, analogous to freeways in the United States, whereas M-numbered designations in Michigan simply indicate state trunklines in general and may exist on any type of highway. M-numbered trunklines are designated along a variety of roads, including eight-lane freeways in urban areas, four-lane rural freeways and expressways, principal arterial highways, and two-lane highways in remote rural areas. The system also includes M-185 on Mackinac Island, a non-motorized road", "-26.136244121706113" ], [ "into decommissioned highway by 1985. A similar situation existed on countless other US Highways through small towns in which roadside businesses, formerly located directly on the main road and with unrestricted ability to rent space for signage from any landowner on the route, would soon find that not only had traffic been bypassed away from them by limited access freeways (often running approximately in parallel to the old road with no offramp to exit from one road to the other), but that federally imposed highway beautification initiatives prohibited them from placing any new signs on the new freeway to attempt", "-26.0692256889306" ], [ "the largest U.S. city not directly linked to an Interstate highway. When the Interstate Highway System was created in the 1950s, the decision was made to build what is now Interstate 5 on the west side of the Central Valley, and thus bypass many of the population centers in the region, instead of upgrading what is now State Route 99. Due to rapidly rising population and traffic in cities along SR 99, as well as the desirability of Federal funding, much discussion has been made to upgrade it to interstate standards and eventually incorporate it into the interstate system, most", "-26.052562746510375" ], [ "its aim. After the motorway was completed in 1986, more congestion arose on the motorway. In 2009, new plans were made to extend the road from 2x4 lanes to 2x6 or even 2x7. The start of the construction in 2011 led again to protests, with clearly visible banners along the motorway. United States In the United States the \"revolts\" occurred mainly in cities and suburbs. Many cities have unused highways, abruptly terminating freeway alignments, and short stretches of freeway in remote areas, all evidence of larger projects which were never completed. In some instances, freeway revolts have led", "-26.02816566056572" ], [ "Transportation in metropolitan Detroit Freeways Metropolitan Detroit has a comprehensive network of interconnecting freeways including Interstate Highways such as Interstate 75 (I-75), I-94 and I-96. The region's extensive toll-free highway system which, together with its status as a major port city, provide advantages to its location as a global business center. Taxi services and rental cars are readily available at the airport and throughout the metropolitan area.\nDetroiters often refer to their freeways by name rather than route number (Fisher Freeway and Chrysler Freeway for sections of I-75, Edsel Ford Freeway for a section of I-94, Jeffries Freeway for parts of", "-26.018395128026896" ], [ "(397 mi) route had five stretches of motorway (designated as A1(M)), reducing to four stretches in March 2018 with completion of the A1(M) through North Yorkshire.\nContinental European non-motorway dual carriageways typically have limits set at 110–130 km/h (68–81 mph) for passenger cars.\nResearch shows 85 percent of motor vehicle-bicycle crashes follow turning or crossing at intersections. Freeway travel eliminates almost all those conflicts save at entrance and exit ramps—which, at least on those freeways where cycling has not been banned, have sufficient room and sight for cyclists and motorists. An analysis of crashes in Arizona showed no safety problems with cycling on freeways. Fewer", "-26.016492434137035" ], [ "a quadrupling of traffic volumes, the original roadway north of the Los Angeles River largely remains as it was when it opened in 1940. Trucks and buses were banned in 1943, though the bus restriction has since been dropped; this has kept the freeway in good condition and relatively safe, despite its outdated design. This design, state-of-the-art when built, includes tight \"right-in/right-out\" access with a recommended exit speed of 5 miles per hour (8.0 km/h) and stop signs on the entrance ramps; there are no acceleration or deceleration lanes. While the curves are banked for higher speeds, they were designed at", "-25.990074289264157" ], [ "article. It took several decades for Southern California locals to start to also commonly refer to the freeways with the numerical designations, but the usage of the definite article persisted. For example, it evolved to \"the 605 Freeway\" and then shortened to \"the 605\".", "-25.964142188895494" ], [ "that building a freeway system would be to their common\nbenefit. Say, they plan to build freeways F1, F2, ..., Fn−1. We let Fn be the existing traffic\nchannels of car, truck and bus. We assume that all the potential freeways have the same\nlength. Otherwise we can make up the assumption by dividing long freeways into smaller\nsegments and rename them all. The freeways with higher traffic intensity should be built\nwith more driving lanes and so receive more investments. Of all the traffic flow on Fi, we\nlet P(i,j) be the (estimated) proportion of the traffic flowing into Fj. Then the authority\ndistribution π satisfying", "-25.95162903011078" ], [ "many turns. Finally, because most use low, decorative stone-arch overpasses that would trap trucks, commercial vehicles, trucks and tractor trailers are banned from parkways. In Manhattan, this has led to nearly all trucks being forced onto local streets as the island has only one short Interstate (the Trans-Manhattan Expressway) passing through Washington Heights, a neighborhood in Upper Manhattan. Other parkways Some regions of New York have parkways that are not owned or maintained by a state agency. Westchester County, for example, contains some highways that were originally part of the TSPC and WCPC, while Suffolk County has preserved a section", "-25.928252187673934" ], [ "Highway, nor is it signed as a U.S. or state highway. It exists as a sub-standard freeway only between I-465 and I-70. It is properly named and classified as an expressway because it contains stoplights east of I-70 and west of Executive Drive; as well as a now-removed at-grade railroad crossing just east of its interchange with I-70. Renaming The opening of the Col. H. Weir Cook Terminal at the Indianapolis International Airport on November 11, 2008, meant the Sam Jones Expressway was no longer a direct route for reaching the airport terminal. This prompted the city to rename the", "-25.925963502228115" ], [ "are in service and another 1500 km are under construction. Australia In Australia, a highway is a distinct type of road from freeways, expressways, and motorways. The word highway is generally used to mean major roads connecting large cities, towns and different parts of metropolitan areas. Metropolitan highways often have traffic lights at intersections, and rural highways usually have only one lane in each direction. The words freeway, expressway or motorway are generally reserved for the most arterial routes, usually with grade-separated intersections and usually significantly straightened and widened to a minimum of four lanes. The term motorway is used in", "-25.922243175969925" ], [ "Non-motorized access on freeways Bike freeways Bike freeways are long-distance cycle tracks with few intersections intended for long-distance travel with access restricted for motorized vehicles and usually pedestrians.", "-25.919366585381795" ], [ "America and illustrating how a motorway system may be laid down over the entire country—across mountains, over rivers and lakes, through cities and past towns—never deviating from a direct course and always adhering to the four basic principles of highway design: safety, comfort, speed, and economy.\nThe modeled highway construction emphasized hope for the future as it served as a proposed solution to traffic congestion of the day, and demonstrated the probable development of traffic in proportion to the automotive growth of the next 20 years. Bel Geddes assumed that the automobile would be the same type of carrier and still", "-25.91435201265267" ], [ "only colloquially but on state and federal government documents and web sites and some road signs. Traffic disruption Other than the Pacific Highway, which the freeway has superseded, the freeway is the only direct route between Sydney and the Central Coast, and is the major road route for road transport from Sydney to the Hunter region, northern NSW and Queensland. The freeway thus carries a heavy mix of commuter traffic, road freight transport, and (periodically) holiday and recreational travellers. It often suffers from traffic disruptions, generally associated with traffic volume and congestion related to on-road breakdowns and vehicle accidents, or", "-25.889046475524083" ], [ "on all freeways in South Korea The only exceptions are emergency vehicles such as police motorcycles, army/prisoner convoy units, ambulances, etc. Additionally, there are some non-freeway roads that motorcycle riding is forbidden.", "-25.888305593049154" ], [ "2000 that they would seek federal funding for the freeway. To obtain funding the freeway would need to be classified as a road of 'national importance', despite the fact that it did not form part of the national highway grid. The 'U-turn' on the freeway was strongly criticised by opponents such as the Public Transport Users Association as it would result in public transport alternatives such as the Rowville railway line being scrapped.\nIn 2001, University of Melbourne academic Paul Mees launched legal action in the Federal Court seeking an injunction under section 475 of the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation", "-25.876755695906468" ], [ "to a full motorway will result in extinguishing the right of access of certain groups such as pedestrians, cyclists and slow-moving traffic, many controlled access roads are not full motorways. In some cases motorways are linked by short stretches of road where alternative rights of way are not practicable such as the Dartford Crossing (the furthest downstream public crossing of the River Thames) or where it was not economic to build a motorway alongside the existing road such as the former Cumberland Gap. The A1 is a good example of piece-wise upgrading to motorway standard—as of January 2013, the 639-kilometre-long", "-25.822956053816597" ], [ "the interstate highway system was in the planning stages, planners noted no direct connection existed between the central United States and southern California. The result to fill this gap was a new freeway that would be built west from Green River, Utah, towards Cove Fort, along a path that used to be inaccessible by paved roads. Since that time, Cove Fort has also served as the western terminus of Interstate 70.\nIn 2004, the Federal Highway Administration was testing a new typeface, Clearview, designed to have improved readability at night with headlight illumination. One test sign was placed at Baltimore, Maryland", "-25.817203379352577" ], [ "They range from four lane expressways with grade-separated intersections and limited access - distinguished from the motorways by lack of emergency lanes only - to four or six lane urban expressways with numerous at-grade intersections and traffic lights or two lane limited access roads with grade separated intersections. The expressways include both incomplete motorways, built in stages, and some state roads (with either limited access, more than two traffic lanes, grade-separated intersections or any combination thereof). There are even some instances of county roads which may be regarded expressways such as Jadranska Avenue (Ž1040).\nAs a rule, the expressways are not", "-25.78383082873188" ], [ "with adding toll HOV/HOT lanes in cities such as Atlanta, Dallas, and Los Angeles. Although part of the tolling is an effect of the SAFETEA‑LU act, which has put an emphasis on toll roads as a means to reduce congestion, present federal law does not allow for a state to change a freeway section to a tolled section for all traffic. Toll Interstate Highways About 2,900 miles (4,700 km) of toll roads are included in the Interstate Highway System. While federal legislation initially banned the collection of tolls on Interstates, many of the toll roads on the system were either completed", "-25.78291123872623" ], [ "routes with those numbers would likely pass through states that currently have U.S. Highways with the same numbers, which is generally disallowed under highway administration guidelines.\nSeveral two-digit numbers are shared between road segments at opposite ends of the country for various reasons. Some such highways are incomplete Interstates (such as I-69 and I-74) and some just happen to share route designations (such as I-76, I-84, I‑86, I-87, and I-88). Some of these were due to a change in the numbering system as a result of a new policy adopted in 1973. Previously, letter-suffixed numbers were used for long spurs off", "-25.767502225236967" ], [ "such intersections safely as a 4-way stop, proceeding only when safe to proceed. The results are not yet clear. Freeways Bicyclists are often prohibited from using freeway ramps, and, sometimes, the freeways themselves (controlled entry, controlled exit roadways). The main exception is usually that if there is no alternative road then a bicyclist may use the freeway. This is usually between cities. Some places may have signs saying that bicycle riding ends and all bicyclists must exit at the next ramp. Many have signs on the entry ramps prohibiting bicycle riding. Some laws require bicyclists not only to remain as", "-25.75359485251829" ], [ "in the state maintained by MDOT range from two-lane rural highways up to 12-lane freeways. In addition to the Interstates, other trunklines are built to freeway standards. Sections of US 10, US 23, US 31, US 127 and US 131 have been upgraded to freeway standards. All or part of several state trunklines are also freeways. In the Metro Detroit area, M-5, M-8 (Davison Freeway), M-10 (Lodge Freeway), M-14, M-39 (Southfield Freeway), M-53 (Van Dyke Freeway), and M-59 have such sections. In the rest of the state, M-6 near Grand Rapids, Conn. M-13 near Bay City, M-47 near Midland, M-60 near Jackson, and Bus. US 131", "-25.744508128147572" ] ]

[ "First of all it has been ranked the worlds 3rd most safest country as of last year. Since it boasts the safe and secure environment, you can freely move around, explore the bush, climb mountains, play, picnic, catch the public transports, discover the beaches or enjoy anything to your heart’s content without any fear. Also NZ is widely accepting of cultures and foreigners that are not in tune with their own.", "Corruption plays a big part in this. Where it is low people can actively engage in the government process. Your access to the same as everyone else's. Unless you are a rugby player or related to a rugby player and you can do whatever the hell you feel like.", "As a New Zealander, I wonder this myself. Our head of country, Prime Minister [John Key]( URL_2 ), made his fortunes on Wall St working for Merrill-Lynch as the head of global foreign exchange. During this period, Merrill-Lynch began their extremely risky (and highly illegal) period of deregulation which eventually caused numerous recessions and cost the world tens of trillions of dollars. Whilst he was there, he amassed millions of dollars from bonuses generated by short term imaginary income which inevitably crashed, and walked away a very rich man when things started to go a little sour. John Key still has shares with Bank of America (the company that acquired ML in 2008), a company which is a creditor to a large percentage of New Zealand's debt; i.e, the more debt NZ gets the more money he earns. [Our debt is growing at a ridiculously fast rate.]( URL_4 ) He has been questioned a number of times about this and never directly answered the question. He has, however, been called out over some of his controversial money-making schemes in New Zealand when he was much younger than he is now; and [he was a lot more smug and condescending about it then than he is now.]( URL_0 ) Currently, he is participating in negotiations for the highly secretive [Trans-Pacific Partnership Agreement (TPPA)]( URL_1 ) with America and a number of other Pacific rim countries, which is currently very controversial and a bit worrying. The negotiations are secret and very little information about it is available to the public, but some of the little that is known is very concerning. To me, the worst part is how they want to set up off-shore \"investor-state dispute settlement tribunals\" that aren't regulated by any governing body, and give corporations the right to sue Governments for undue actions (eg new laws) that reduce their profits. Start a publicly funded wind farm? A coal company could sue your Government for stealing customers. Amend a law to include a new species and protect their only habitat from forestry? Off to the corporation court as that's lumber that now can't be sold. The Government wants to publicly fund a revolutionary, life-saving, cheap new medicine that could revolutionise healthcare? Oh, heellllll no, Pharmac and Pfizer ain't letting their business go down the drain thanks to competitors. Add to that the even stricter copyrighting and piracy laws that they're trying to implement, it's got the potential to be a very frightening agreement when it goes public and we find out all of the parts we aren't allowed to know currently. One speculation on the unknown contents is that there will be clauses around even more data exchanges and setting up new links for intelligence agencies between countries, as 4 of the 5 countries in the [Five Eyes]( URL_3 ) intelligence alliance are big pushers of the act. Thanks to our current Governance, I can't see at all how anyone would call our country the least corrupted and free in the world.", "Because it doesn't have an Air Force AT ALL - or Defence Force to speak of... so it's FREE for the taking! The FREEST country of all!", "I fucking love NZ, the best Summer I had, or should I say Winter \"in NZ\", was in NZ, the people, the food, the weather, activities, I can go on forever, I love you Kiwis, you too Mauris.", "Can you link the freedom indexes? Most of the ones I see don't assign a numerical rank, they just rate countries as \"free\" \"partly free\" or \"not free\". In that case, NZ is ranked \"free\" because it has the same political origins as many other Western liberal democracies: the Enlightenment and the French Revolution. Many philosophers wrote influential works about the rights of man and equality. These thoughts eventually became law in things like Britain's Bill of Rights and France's \"Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen\" New Zealand became a British colony in the 19th century and established similar voting rights as the British had. From there various social movements secured equal voting rights for everyone, as well as protection of civil liberties. NZ tends to have a similar freedom score as many Western European nations, as well as Canada and the US, all of who have similar political origins and are liberal democracies. If I had to guess as to why it's *most* free, I would guess population has something to do with it. If you look at the most effective democracies, you see countries like NZ, Switzerland, Norway, Sweden, all of who have populations of 10 million or less. It's a lot easier for democracy to be effective and to stop corruption when governing a small amount of people.", "There are only 4 million people there and maybe 40 million sheep. Despite what people think you really can't control sheep. They'll drink their own piss. They'll shag the neighbour's wife. They'll do whatever they like because they are animals. So it's considered the freest country in the world because most of the population consists of free-willed animals." ]

[ [ "New Zealand free-trade agreements New Zealand is party to several free-trade agreements (FTAs) worldwide. History The Economy of New Zealand is a market economy which is greatly dependent on international trade, mainly with Australia, the United States of America, China and Japan. It is strongly dependent on tourism and agricultural exports, and has only small manufacturing and high-tech components. Economic free-market reforms of the last decades have removed many barriers to foreign investment, and the World Bank has praised New Zealand as being the most business-friendly country in the world .\nRegional and bilateral free trade agreements have become an important", "-26.030564440996386" ], [ "Economic history of New Zealand The economic history of New Zealand dates to before European colonisation of the country. By the 20th century, it had become one of the most globalized economies in the world, relying heavily on international trade with developed countries including Australia, Canada, China, European Union, the United States, Japan, and South Korea. It is a mixed economy that functions on free-market principles and has a sizable manufacturing and service sector and an efficient agricultural sector. New Zealand has the 54th largest export economy in the world measured by nominal gross domestic product. In 2016, New Zealand", "-24.829077760572545" ], [ "have since pursued centre-left social and economic policies while maintaining a free market economy. The current Prime Minister of New Zealand Jacinda Ardern formerly served as President of the International Union of Socialist Youth. Ardern is a self-described social democrat who has criticized capitalism as a \"blatant failure\" due to high levels of homelessness and low wages. New Zealand still has a small socialist scene, mainly dominated by Trotskyist groups.\nMelanesian Socialism developed in the 1980s, inspired by African Socialism. It aims to achieve full independence from Britain and France in Melanesian territories and creation of a Melanesian federal union. It", "-24.73914813423471" ], [ "New Zealand, it means Australia, New Zealand and former New Zealand dependencies.", "-24.327118070970755" ], [ "economic and social impact of international capital, commerce and advertising. New Zealanders were exposed to a previously unknown array of consumer goods and franchises. Aided by overseas programming, commercial radio and TV stations enjoyed rapid growth. Local manufacturing suffered from cheap imports, with many jobs lost. These reforms led to a dramatic increase in the gap between the richest and poorest New Zealanders, and an increase in the numbers living in poverty. Recent appreciation of real estate values increased the wealth of a generation of landowners while making housing unaffordable for many. Some are concerned that a New Zealand property", "-23.45506424978521" ], [ "were notable for their very comprehensive coverage and innovations. Specific policies included: floating the exchange rate; establishing an independent reserve bank; performance contracts for senior civil servants; public sector finance reform based on accrual accounting; tax neutrality; subsidy-free agriculture; and industry-neutral competition regulation. Economic growth was resumed in 1991. New Zealand was changed from a somewhat closed and centrally controlled economy to one of the most open economies in the OECD. As a result, New Zealand, went from having a reputation as an almost socialist country to being considered one of the most business-friendly countries of the world, next", "-23.4367366428487" ], [ "on \"overseas experience\", known as \"OE\". New Zealanders also identify closely with Australians, as a result of the two nations' shared historical, cultural and geographic characteristics.\nThe New Zealand government promotes Māori culture by supporting Māori-language schools, by ensuring the language is visible in government departments and literature, by insisting on traditional Māori welcomes (pōwhiri) at government functions and state school award programs, and by having Māori run the welfare services targeted at their people.\nNew Zealanders are distinctive for their twangy dialect of English and propensity to travel long distances, and are quickly associated with the All Blacks rugby team and", "-23.264903255098034" ], [ "a report by the International Monetary Fund ranked New Zealand as the most unaffordable country in the OECD and recommended the taxation of property speculation. That same year, the Demographia think-tank ranked Auckland's housing market the fourth-most unaffordable in the world — behind Hong Kong, Sydney and Vancouver — with median house prices rising from 6.4 times the median income in 2008 to 10 times in 2017.\nThe housing shortage was a major issue during the 2017 general election. The incumbent National Party campaigned to build 200,000 houses over the next six years while the opposition Labour Party vowed to build", "-23.256467071769293" ], [ "New Zealand have been major competitors in the British food-products market since the early 1900s. Denmark's desire for access to the United Kingdom's dairy market influenced the negotiations for the United Kingdom's accession to the European Economic Community in the 1970s, and thus had a substantial impact on New Zealand's economy in the following years. Agreements The two countries have agreements covering double taxation, pensions, and other social security payments. working holidays, and air services. New Zealand has encouraged immigration of temporary workers from Denmark, and vice versa for working holidays by New Zealand citizens to Denmark. Bilateral visits Queen", "-23.19264123026187" ], [ "growing global trade and other international economic events have made New Zealanders increasingly aware of their country’s dependence on unstable overseas markets. New Zealand governments strongly advocate free trade, especially in agricultural products, and the country belongs to the Cairns group of nations in the WTO.\nNew Zealand's economic involvement with Asia has become increasingly important. New Zealand is a “dialogue partner” with the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), a member of the East Asia Summit and an active participant in APEC.\nAs a charter member of the Colombo Plan, New Zealand has provided Asian countries with technical assistance and capital.", "-23.138673601992195" ], [ "New Zealand Australians 20th century Under various arrangements since the 1920s, there has been a free flow of people between Australia and New Zealand. Since 1973 the informal Trans-Tasman Travel Arrangement has allowed for the free movement of citizens of one nation to the other. The only major exception to these travel privileges is for individuals with outstanding warrants or criminal backgrounds who are deemed dangerous or undesirable for the migrant nation and its citizens. In recent decades, many New Zealanders have migrated to Australian cities such as Sydney, Brisbane, Melbourne and Perth. \nNew Zealanders in Australia were previously granted", "-23.12315813969508" ], [ "and are free from the abuse and tyranny of adults (child abuse is a recurring theme). Free Country is run by a council of various children who have existed there hundreds of years. The council is attempting to bring over all the children in the world, but unfortunately Free Country is having trouble supporting them all. To help bolster Free Country's power they bring over five innately powerful children. As long as the children stay in Free Country they provide the place with power.\nThe comics include many references to the works of Robert Browning. Arcana: The Books of Magic", "-22.97076517145615" ], [ "million once the extra costs were included. Public opinion The New Zealand public are generally in favour of the retention of the monarchy, with polls showing it to have between 50 and 70% support. Polls indicate that many New Zealanders see the monarchy as being of little day-to-day relevance; a One News Colmar Brunton poll in 2002 found that 58% of the population believed the monarchy has little or no relevance to their lives. National Business Review poll in 2004 found 57% of respondents believed New Zealand would become a republic \"in the future\".\nHowever, the institution still enjoys the support", "-22.87534971894638" ], [ "had listed over 300 securities with a market capitalization of NZD $164.5 billion. Overview The economy of New Zealand has been listed as first in the world for Social Progression, a societal tracker that watches areas such as Basic Human Needs, Foundations of Wellbeing, and the level of Opportunity provided to its residents. However, New Zealand's economy used to be much stronger than it is today. During the 1970s, the New Zealand income level was higher than it was in many of the other countries in Western Europe leading up to the oil shock crisis of this time. Due to", "-22.75014429091243" ], [ "was part of the United Kingdom. The synonymous \"Home Countries\" (not to be confused with the \"home counties\") is also sometimes used.\nThe term has yet a third meaning in the context of British Cycling, where it refers collectively to the seven teams representing the four constituent countries of the United Kingdom plus the three Crown Dependencies (the Isle of Man, Jersey and Guernsey) that participate in the Commonwealth Games. The Crown Dependencies are not part of the United Kingdom, but are politically associated with it, and together make up the British Islands. Association football In association football, the Home Nations", "-22.644096647225524" ], [ "high level of corporate and individual investment between the two countries and the US is a major source of tourists coming to New Zealand. In March 2012, the United States had a total of $44 billion invested in New Zealand. Proposed Free Trade Agreement The government of New Zealand had indicated its desire for a free trade agreement (FTA) between the United States and New Zealand. Such an agreement would presumably be pursued alongside, or together with, an FTA between the United States and Australia since New Zealand and Australia have had their own FTA for almost twenty years and", "-22.605915698368335" ], [ "governor-general costs New Zealand taxpayers about $7.6 million in ongoing costs and $11 million for Government House upgrades, figures Monarchy New Zealand claimed had been \"arbitrarily inflated\" by New Zealand Republic. Cook Islands, Niue and territories The sovereign of New Zealand also serves as monarch to Cook Islands and Niue, territories in free association with New Zealand within the larger Realm of New Zealand. The New Zealand monarchy, however, is unitary throughout all jurisdictions in the realm, with the headship of state being a part of all equally. As such, the sovereignty of Cook Islands and Niue is passed on", "-22.56812091968459" ], [ "New Zealand as too high; in 2004, he stated: \"We are being dragged into the status of an Asian colony and it is time that New Zealanders were placed first in their own country.\" On 26 April 2005, he said: \"Māori will be disturbed to know that in 17 years' time they will be outnumbered by Asians in New Zealand\", an estimate disputed by Statistics New Zealand, the government's statistics bureau. Peters quickly rebutted that Statistics New Zealand has underestimated the growth-rate of the Asian community in the past.\nIn April 2008, deputy New Zealand First party leader Peter Brown drew", "-22.531520621796517" ], [ "New Zealand place names Most New Zealand place names have Māori or British origins. Both groups used names to commemorate notable people, events, places from their homeland, and their ships, or to describe the surrounding area. It is unknown whether Māori had a name for the whole of New Zealand before the arrival of Europeans, but post-colonisation the name Aotearoa (commonly translated as 'long white cloud') has been used to refer to the whole country. Dutch cartographers named the islands Nova Zeelandia, the Latin translation of the Dutch Nieuw Zeeland (after the Dutch province of Zeeland). British explorer James", "-22.3858149197913" ], [ "economy much more so than previous governments – while putting more of an emphasis on social policy and outcomes. For example, employment law was modified to give more protection to workers, and the student loan system was changed to eliminate interest payments for New Zealand resident students and graduates.\nNew Zealand retains strong but informal links to Britain, with many young New Zealanders travelling to Britain for their \"OE\" (overseas experience) due to favourable working visa arrangements with Britain. Despite New Zealand's immigration liberalisation in the 1980s, Britons are still the largest group of migrants to New Zealand, due in part to", "-22.38520291916211" ], [ "a book entitled 'Presence of Mind: New Zealand in the World'. The book New Zealand in the World is a selection of writings on the place of New Zealand in the world reflecting on the position of a small country such as New Zealand and its place on the international stage from the perspective of a small, internationally minded, modern and multicultural democracy. The book stresses the importance of New Zealand taking an independent view on international affairs, reflecting its heritage as a nation located in the south-west Pacific with both Maori and European roots.\nO'Brien continues as an Advisor to", "-22.371685792226344" ], [ "flooded in while New Zealand remained prosperous by exporting farm products to Britain. In 1953 New Zealanders took pride that a countryman, Edmund Hillary, gave Queen Elizabeth II a coronation gift by reaching the summit of Mount Everest.\nFrom the 1890s, the economy had been based almost entirely on the export of frozen meat and dairy products to Britain, and in 1961, the share of New Zealand exports going to the United Kingdom was still at slightly over 51%, with approximately 15% going to other European countries. The 1960s was a decade of rising prosperity for most New Zealanders, but from", "-22.348539803955646" ], [ "adopted by most EU countries.\nAustralia and New Zealand continued their large multi-ethnic immigration programs and became more integrated in the Asia Pacific region. While remaining constitutional monarchies within the Commonwealth, distance has grown between them and Britain, spurred on by Britain's entry into the European Common Market. Australia and New Zealand have integrated their own economies via a free trade agreement. While political and cultural ties with North America and Europe remain strong, economic reform and commodities trade with the booming economies of Asia have set the South Pacific nations on a new economic trajectory with Australia largely avoiding a", "-22.216862728906563" ], [ "fell behind those of Australia and Western Europe, and by 1982 New Zealand had the lowest per-capita income of all the developed nations surveyed by the World Bank. In the mid-1980s New Zealand deregulated its agricultural sector by phasing out subsidies over a three-year period. Since 1984, successive governments engaged in major macroeconomic restructuring (known first as Rogernomics and then Ruthanasia), rapidly transforming New Zealand from a protected and highly regulated economy to a liberalised free-trade economy.\nUnemployment peaked above 10% in 1991 and 1992, following the 1987 share market crash, but eventually fell to a record low (since 1986) of", "-22.214549522672314" ], [ "Zealand and the United Kingdom merge and form a new entity in international politics. Andrew Roberts suggested that such a bloc could slot into the international order as a third pillar of the West (alongside the United States and the European Union). Beyond this, Roberts argues that due to its territorial scale, geographic scope and advanced economy that it would qualify as a \"great power\" and potentially a \"global power\" (or emerging superpower).\nSome advocates such as Roberts favour a federal or confederal union. Others, such as Lilico describe the objective as being the creation of a \"geopolitical partnership\" akin to", "-22.16127265067189" ], [ "as one of the most LGBT-friendly countries in the world. New Zealand has a visible and open LGBT scene, though small by international standards. Auckland has multiple gay bars, restaurants, clubs, festivals and other venues. The magazine Gay Times has ranked Auckland the fifteenth \"gayest city\" in the world. Outside Auckland, there are also visible, albeit smaller, LGBT scenes in Wellington, Tauranga, Christchurch, Dunedin, and Hamilton. Several organisations and publications in New Zealand cater to LGBT people.\nIn May 2015, PlanetRomeo, an LGBT social network, ranked New Zealand as the happiest country in Oceania (and the eleventh worldwide) for gay men.", "-22.12854922679253" ], [ "with its reform period by selling off telecommunications, airlines, computing services, government printing offices, and many others. The government decided that many agencies in the economy should be viewed as profit-making and tax-paying enterprises. Open economy New Zealand's economy entered into the longest period of significant growth in 1998 and lasted until 2006. This growth came as a result of a newly diversified and deregulated economy and benefitted the economy a great deal. For the first time in history, New Zealand was running long-term fiscal surpluses in the OCED and unemployment had fallen to never before seen levels. Despite these", "-22.075343725504354" ], [ "sold its telecommunications company, railway network, a number of radio stations and two financial institutions. These reforms were initially implemented by the Labour Party, which has since reverted to its social democratic and interventionist outlook; whereas the centre-right New Zealand National Party has taken up the cause of small government and continues to promote private enterprise, low taxation, reduced spending on social welfare and overall limited state interference. Small government is associated with conservatism in contemporary New Zealand politics. United Kingdom The idea of small government was heavily promoted in the United Kingdom by the Conservative government under the Premiership", "-22.055772247113055" ], [ "obligations the treaty remained in effect between New Zealand and Australia, whose foreign policy has followed a similar historical trend. Close political contact is maintained between the two countries, with free trade agreements and travel arrangements that allow citizens to visit, live and work in both countries without restrictions. In 2013 there were about 650,000 New Zealand citizens living in Australia, which is equivalent to 15% of the resident population of New Zealand.\nNew Zealand has a strong presence among the Pacific Island countries. A large proportion of New Zealand's aid goes to these countries and many Pacific people migrate to", "-22.021756744245067" ], [ "Australasia, which included Australia and New Zealand, was created. New Zealand became an independent province in 1970 and from New Zealand, the Redemptorists went to Samoa in 1972.\nThe years after the Second World War were a time of rapid expansion. As well as ongoing participation in the development of the vice-provinces in the Philippines and in Singapore and Malaysia, further houses were opened in New Town in Tasmania and Townsville and Miami in Queensland. There were also communities established in New South Wales: Campbell's Hill, Concord, Fairfield West, Penrith and Yagoona. In Victoria, there were communities at Balwyn Box", "-21.99688828678336" ], [ "Zealand residents. Just over 25% of New Zealand's population was born overseas, with the majority (52%) living in the Auckland Region. The United Kingdom remains the largest source of New Zealand's overseas population, with a quarter of all overseas-born New Zealanders born there; other major sources of New Zealand's overseas-born population are China, India, Australia, South Africa, Fiji and Samoa. The number of fee-paying international students increased sharply in the late 1990s, with more than 20,000 studying in public tertiary institutions in 2002. Language English is the predominant language in New Zealand, spoken by 96.1% of the population. New Zealand", "-21.948243467661086" ], [ "within Europe. New Zealand exports goods worth more than $373 million to France and the French Pacific Islands every year, according to New Zealand Trade and Enterprise. Australia New Zealand has a very close and significant relationship with Australia. When New Zealand passed the New Zealand Nuclear Free Zone, Disarmament, and Arms Control Act 1987, Australia found itself torn between not offending its longstanding ally (New Zealand) and upsetting its more strategic relationship with the United States. The Australian Government was unwilling to adopt New Zealand's nuclear stand. In November 1987, the summit between the prime ministers of Australia and", "-21.89009171788348" ], [ "Islands gave New Zealand jurisdiction over tax matters. New Zealand New Zealand's Inland Revenue Department said that they were working to obtain details of people who have tax residence in the country who may have been involved in arrangements facilitated by Mossack Fonseca.Gerard Ryle, director of the International Consortium of Investigative Journalists, told Radio New Zealand on April 8, 2016 that New Zealand is a well-known tax haven and a \"nice front for criminals\". New Zealand provides overseas investors with foreign trusts and look-through companies. New Zealand government policy is to not request disclosure of the identity of either the", "-21.888122742442647" ], [ "2008 study ranked New Zealand 99.9% in \"Business freedom\", and 80% overall in \"Economic freedom\", noting amongst other things that it only takes 12 days to establish a business in New Zealand on average, compared with a world-wide average of 43 days. Other indicators measured were property rights, labour market conditions, government controls and corruption, the last being considered \"next to non-existent\" in the Heritage Foundation and Wall Street Journal study. Economic reform in the USSR and Russia Economic reforms began in the Soviet Union when Perestroika was introduced in June 1985 by the then Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev. Its", "-21.83876074143336" ], [ "barriers to business between New Zealand and Latin America; promote New Zealand tourism in the region; improve airlinks between New Zealand and the region; deepen education and research and science links. There are significant flows of tourists and students from Latin America to New Zealand. For example, in the year to June 2010, around 30,000 Latin Americans visited New Zealand. In addition, New Zealand has popular Working Holiday Schemes with Brazil, Argentina, Chile, Peru, Mexico and Uruguay. Pacific relations Much of New Zealand's foreign policy is focused on the Pacific region, particularly Polynesia and Melanesia. Bilateral economic assistance resources have", "-21.815377153288864" ], [ "Tourism New Zealand Tourism New Zealand is the marketing agency responsible for promoting New Zealand as a tourism destination internationally. It is the trading name of the New Zealand Tourism Board, a Crown entity established under the New Zealand Tourism Board Act 1991. The Ministry of Business, Innovation and Employment; (previously the New Zealand Ministry of Tourism) is the government department tasked with tourism policy and research.\nNew Zealand was the first country to dedicate a government department to tourism. In 1901, the Department of Tourist and Health Resorts came into being. Through most of the 20th century, its role", "-21.7936218035029" ], [ "Home Nations The Home Nations, or Home Countries, refer collectively to England, Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland (countries of the United Kingdom), and in certain sports (e.g. rugby football and cricket) include the whole island of Ireland. The term \"Home Nations\" is used in this second sense partly because Northern Ireland and the Republic of Ireland have a unified association structure in certain sports, such as the Irish Rugby Football Union and Cricket Ireland. Formerly, the term was applied in general in this same wider sense, such as the period between 1801 and 1922, when the whole island of Ireland", "-21.774625240039313" ], [ "and work in any of the four countries - similar to the Trans-Tasman Travel Arrangement between Australia and New Zealand. Toponymy From the anglicisation of the Dutch appellation Nieuw Zeeland onward, historical ties with the United Kingdom have contributed substantially to New Zealand's toponymy. James Cook's early map combined local Māori place-names with a number of his own coinages. Subsequent settlers added references to places in United Kingdom, aristocratic sponsors, early British explorers, the Royal Family, battles in which the United Kingdom was involved and notable institutions such as Christ Church, Oxford.\nMany of these contributions have been retained in common", "-21.75895704521099" ], [ "This actual moment in history then inspires two modern day Australian politicians to merge both Australia and New Zealand. This the forms the foundation of the advertisement and sets for both nations to unite over a lamb barbecue, satirically among a floating party in the middle of the Tasman Sea. The critically acclaimed 'We Love Our Lamb' campaign of Summer 2019 celebrates both nations and joins both nations as New Australia-Land. Summer Lamb ad 2017 The Meat and Livestocks 2017 Australia Day Lamb advertisements – which notably does not mention Australia Day – opens to an Australian coastline, as the", "-21.74044184293598" ], [ "have endured in New Zealand music, cinema and literature. Kerikeri, founded in 1822, and Bluff founded in 1823, both claim to be the oldest European settlements in New Zealand after the CMS mission station at Hohi, which was established in December 1814. Language New Zealand English is a major variety of the English language and is used throughout New Zealand. Having an official status in the Constitution, New Zealand English is the one of the country's official languages and is the first language of the majority of the population.\nNew Zealand English began to diverge from British English after the English", "-21.737452909728745" ], [ "diverse migrant communities have brought with them food, lifestyle and cultural practices, which have been absorbed into mainstream Australian culture. New Zealand New Zealand is a sovereign Oceanic country that adopted its multicultural policies post World War II. The country used to have immigration policies similar to Australia's White Australia Policy, and The United States Immigration Act of 1924, but it would later follow suit with Australia and Canada in the 1970s and adopt similar multicultural policies. The relaxation of migration led to an influx of new migration to New Zealand in the 1980s. This led to an increase of", "-21.720168223022483" ], [ "Rather, Australia's economic prosperity was largely derived from its rich natural resources and immigration. Horne observed that Australia \"showed less enterprise than almost any other prosperous industrial society.\"\nIn his 1976 follow-up book, Death of the Lucky Country, Horne clarified what he had meant when he first coined the term:\nWhen I invented the phrase in 1964 to describe Australia, I said: 'Australia is a lucky country run by second rate people who share its luck.' I didn't mean that it had a lot of material resources … I had in mind the idea of Australia as a [British] derived society whose", "-21.717128477990627" ], [ "Third National Government of New Zealand Significant policies By 1975, New Zealand had a generous welfare system, which included unemployment and sickness benefits, a benefit for single parents (the DPB) and a means tested old-age pension from the normal retirement age of 60 plus a Universal pension from 65 years.\nThe third National government scrapped Labour's contributory scheme and introduced National Superannuation, a non-means tested pension available to all New Zealand citizens over the age of 60, linked to the average wage (initially 70% with the intention of increasing it to 80%). This was enormously expensive, costing NZ$2.5 billion per annum by", "-21.693455882603303" ], [ "New Zealand has an advanced market economy, ranked 16th in the 2018 Human Development Index and third in the 2018 Index of Economic Freedom. It is a high-income economy with a nominal gross domestic product (GDP) per capita of US$36,254. The currency is the New Zealand dollar, informally known as the \"Kiwi dollar\"; it also circulates in the Cook Islands (see Cook Islands dollar), Niue, Tokelau, and the Pitcairn Islands.\nHistorically, extractive industries have contributed strongly to New Zealand's economy, focussing at different times on sealing, whaling, flax, gold, kauri gum, and native timber. The first shipment of refrigerated meat on", "-21.635289835801814" ], [ "the Australian states of New South Wales, South Australia, Victoria and Western Australia, and in the Kermadec Islands (New Zealand).", "-21.613060917326948" ], [ "and failed to pass through the Parliament.\nIn November 2014, then Mayor of London Boris Johnson expressed support for establishing \"mobility zones\" between Canada, Australia, New Zealand and the United Kingdom, stating that \"the UK, Australia, Canada and New Zealand share the same head of state, the same language and the same common-law legal system. Critically, they are all highly economically developed democracies and there is also a distinct common culture and familial bond between them\".\nThe Adam Smith Institute expressed its support for CANZUK in early 2018.\nConservative MEP for South East England Daniel Hannan expressed his support for CANZUK as", "-21.60551204707008" ], [ "Hamilton, Christchurch), mountains (Mount Tasman, Mount Dampier), islands (Auckland Islands, Great Barrier Island) and many other geographical features.\nNew Zealand and various parts of it have acquired a range of colloquial names over the years. Unofficial late 19th century names for New Zealand included \"Maoriland\" and \"God's Own Country\". The former occurred widely in the labour movement and an early labour newspaper was named the Maoriland Worker. Premier Richard John Seddon (in power 1893–1906) popularised \"God's Own Country\". Both names fell out of popularity in the 20th century, although \"God's Own Country\" (or \"Godzone\") still occasionally appears. Latinate names for the", "-21.513713648018893" ], [ "three remaining islands of Bonaire, Sint Eustatius and Saba became special municipalities of the Netherlands itself. New Zealand and Cook Islands Cook Islands is a member of the Pacific Islands Forum and as such is part of the \"Umbrella Agreement\" including Australia and New Zealand, called the \"Pacific Agreement on Closer Economic Relations\" (PACER). This agreement includes the future creation of a free trade area amongst the 14 ACP Forum Islands Countries (FICs) called the \"Pacific Island Countries Trade Agreement\" (PICTA), without Australia and New Zealand. Under the Cotonou Agreement, Cook Islands is committed to negotiating the new reciprocal Economic", "-21.475239003630122" ], [ "Puerto Rico (an unincorporated territory of the United States) as a nation in its reports, because, internationally, the people of Puerto Rico are often considered to be a Caribbean nation with their own national identity. Most recently, in a June 2016 report, the Special Committee called for the United States to expedite the process to allow self-determination in Puerto Rico. More specifically, the group called on the United States to expedite a process that would allow the people of Puerto Rico to exercise fully their right to self-determination and independence. ... [and] allow the Puerto Rican people to take decisions", "-21.47119462354067" ], [ "meaning \"great island\" or \"great island-group\", for both the Pleistocene continent and the present-day lands, and this name has been widely accepted by biologists. Others have used Meganesia with different meanings: travel writer Paul Theroux included New Zealand in his definition and others have used it for Australia, New Zealand and Hawaii. Another biologist, Richard Dawkins, coined the name Australinea in 2004. Australia-New Guinea has also been used. Indigenous peoples Indigenous Australians are the original inhabitants of the Australian continent and nearby islands who migrated from Africa to Asia around 70,000 years ago and arrived in Australia around 50,000 years", "-21.451480338553665" ], [ "Korea, Japan, and Brazil, as well as a half-dozen U.S. cities. The majority of these groups are now inactive, however, and many people and organizations engaged in freegan activities do not use the label. Motivations and ideology Studies usually find that most people that participate in practices associated with freeganism, dumpster diving for food, do so for economic reasons. Freegans are usually distinguished as being a subset of this population which has an ideological or political motivation for recovering waste or avoiding consumption, although some freegans also say that they do so for amusement, to acquire free goods, or out", "-21.42190446681343" ], [ "Puerto Rico and Puerto Ricans in the Olympic Games Puerto Rico participates in the Olympics as an independent nation but because of Puerto Ricans having American citizenship, Puerto Rican athletes have the option of representing Puerto Rico or moving to the United States, living there for 3 previous years or more and then representing that country in the games. Some Puerto Ricans, such as Gigi Fernández in tennis, have won gold medals for the U.S.\nThe 1948 Summer Olympics celebrated in London, was a historical one for Puerto Rico because it was the first time that the island would participate", "-21.377701630350202" ], [ "the United Kingdom, Australia, New Zealand and Canada. Others have settled in countries such as the United States, the Republic of Ireland, the Netherlands, Spain, Argentina, Mexico and Brazil. A large number of young people are also taking advantage of working holiday visas made available by the United Kingdom and other Commonwealth states. Culture White Africans, including the British diaspora, generally enjoy an outdoor lifestyle and sports. The braai is a popular way to gather with friends and family. Other popular pastimes include visiting game reserves, hiking, camping and recreational angling. There is a particular appreciation of country life and", "-21.314519264444243" ], [ "Dominion Post serves the lower North Island and Canterbury's The Press and Otago Daily Times serve the South Island.\nProvincial and community newspapers, such as the Waikato Times daily, serve particular regions, cities and suburbs. Ownership of New Zealand newspapers is dominated by Stuff and New Zealand Media and Entertainment with Stuff (formerly Fairfax) having 48.6% of the daily newspaper circulation. Local and overseas tabloids and magazines cover food, current affairs, personal affairs, gardening and home decor, and business or appeal to gay, lesbian, ethnic and rural communities. Literature Māori in New Zealand had non-literate culture before contact with the Europeans", "-21.209316626715008" ], [ "and Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation.\nAustralia is a member of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development and the World Trade Organization, and has pursued several major bilateral free trade agreements, most recently the Australia–United States Free Trade Agreement and Closer Economic Relations with New Zealand, with another free trade agreement being negotiated with China — the Australia–China Free Trade Agreement — and Japan, South Korea in 2011, Australia–Chile Free Trade Agreement, and as of November 2015 has put the Trans-Pacific Partnership before parliament for ratification.\nAustralia maintains a deeply integrated relationship with neighbouring New Zealand, with free mobility of citizens between the two", "-21.19572194671491" ], [ "improvements, the country remained stagnant on the international income ranking level due to higher interest rates stemming from an unwillingness to save. Nonetheless, New Zealand is still a top choice for foreign investors which totalled NZ$107.69 billion in 2014, a statistic which has increased more than 1,000 times over since 1989 when foreign investment totalled NZ$9.7 billion. Economic outlook Since the 1980s, New Zealand has gone from being one of the most heavily regulated economies in the OCED to one of the least regulated and most free market economy. Projecting an increase in growth of 3% for 2018, OCED believes", "-21.188048390846234" ], [ "New York City.\nLong Island is the most populated island in the United States and the 17th most populous island in the world, but is more prominently known for recreation, boating, and miles of public beaches, including numerous town, county, and state parks, as well as Fire Island National Seashore and wealthy and expensive coastal residential enclaves. Along the north shore, the Gold Coast of Long Island, featured in the film The Great Gatsby, is an upscale section of Nassau and western Suffolk counties that once featured many lavish mansions built and inhabited by wealthy business tycoons in the earlier years", "-21.11251583241392" ], [ "obtain a permit to enter Tokelau from the Tokelau Apia Liaison Office in Apia, at least 2 weeks prior to travel. Tokelau can only be reached by boat from Samoa and a permit from the Samoan Immigration Authorities is required to leave and re-enter Samoa. Before 1881 In the early years New Zealand was seen by Europeans as the most remote country on earth. For most Europeans New Zealand was an unappealing prospect, a strange and lonely land reached after 100 days on dangerous seas; its coasts were thought treacherous, its inhabitants bloodthirsty. Only exceptional reasons led people to set", "-21.08252365552471" ], [ "unattainable due to their lower caste identity. Australia The Fair Trade Association of Australia and New Zealand (FTAANZ) is a member-based organization that supports two systems of fair trade. The first is the Australia and New Zealand member of FLO International, which unites Fairtrade producer and labelling initiatives across Europe, Asia, Latin America, North America, Africa, Australia and New Zealand. The second, is the World Fair Trade Organization (WFTO), of over 450 worldwide members, to which FTAANZ is one. Fairtrade (one word) refers to FLO certified commodity and associated products. Fair trade (two words) encompasses the wider Fair Trade movement,", "-21.08166814793367" ], [ "Zealand's fastest-growing export market and its 19th largest export market; this led to agreements on aviation, healthcare and education being made between the two nations. Earlier that year, a goal was set by both countries to double trade between the two of them, as both countries were set on signing the Trans-Pacific Partnership amidst criticism. Migration New Zealand also has a relatively small Vietnamese community of around 6,000 people, which consists of refugees and their families, economic migrants, and students.", "-21.076456027221866" ], [ "consistently inferior to U.S. national levels, while the average aid provided in Puerto Rico has exceeded the U.S. national average ($94 versus $74.79, respectively; 2001 estimate). Because of this, Puerto Rico has been called the \"welfare island\". People from the Dominican Republic do many of the jobs in Puerto Rico that pay too little to attract the locals. However, proponents of the program argue that Puerto Rico's social condition is in far worse shape than any of the 50 U.S. states. Approximately half of the island's population lives below the U.S. Federal poverty guidelines, and many have difficulties in meeting", "-20.992365595215233" ], [ "government, administered by the states and territories which in turn are beneath the federal tier. Unlike the United States, United Kingdom and New Zealand, there is only one level of local government in all states, with no distinction such as counties and cities. Today, most local governments have equivalent powers within a state, and styles such as \"shire\" or \"city\" refer to the nature of the settlements they are based around. Ideology in Australian politics The Australian party system has been described by political scientists as more ideologically driven than other similar Anglophone countries such as the United States and", "-20.962999351040253" ], [ "businesswomen in early 2016, Lara Meyer an adviser to the Australian Government cited incivility in the workplace has cost New Zealand approximately $15 Million a year. Noting that Australia is also losing out about $26 Million a year due to a lack of workplace civility. There could even potentially be more loss that is unaccounted for in New Zealand businesses, as the cost of rudeness could be holding them back from working together more politely and agreeably. In Hungary Civil Összefogás Fórum (Civil Cooperation Forum), founded on April 5, 2009, is a kind of umbrella organisation for numerous community groups", "-20.924307596927974" ], [ "exercise their rights to self-determination, enjoying and maintaining their cultural uniqueness New Zealand New Zealand has three official languages. English is the de facto and principal official language, accepted in all situations. The Māori language and New Zealand Sign Language both have limited de jure official status under the Māori Language Act 1987 and New Zealand Sign Language Act 2006 Pakistan Urdu is the national language of Pakistan. Urdu and English both are official languages in Pakistan. Pakistan has more than 60 other languages. Russia Russian is the official language of the Russian Federation and in all federal subjects, however", "-20.913542244263226" ], [ "in Australia for two years before they could receive payments. This is also the case for Australian citizens residing in New Zealand. However, this was subsequently restricted further: as of 26 February 2001 a New Zealand citizen must apply for and be granted a formal Australian permanent visa to obtain certain social security benefits not covered by the bilateral Social Security Agreement in 2001. Recent concerns about New Zealanders taking Australian jobs In a 2013 article entitled \"Tougher policy needed for New Zealanders wanting to work in Australia\", Bob Birrell, an academic at Monash University, wrote that:\n\"During the 1990s, the", "-20.88328969309805" ], [ "a separate country, this would place it as the 21st richest country in the world, on a GDP per capita basis. This statement is based on the International Monetary Fund's ranking in 2015.\nAs of February 2016, Hobart, the state's capital, had domestic rental vacancy rates of 0.9 per cent for houses and 1.6 per cent for units, the highest rates in the country. This has caused a shortage of rental accommodation. Hobart's average house price in December 2016 was $AUD 345,000. Making it the most affordable capital province in Australia to buy a house.\nTasmania's unemployment rate in January 2017 was", "-20.849619149063074" ], [ "Puerto Rico is much lower than the average per-capita income on the mainland, more Puerto Rico residents pay income taxes to the local taxation authority than if the IRS code were applied to the island. That occurs because \"the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico government has a wider set of responsibilities than do U.S. State and local governments.\" As residents of Puerto Rico pay into Social Security, Puerto Ricans are eligible for Social Security benefits upon retirement but are excluded from the Supplemental Security Income (SSI) (Commonwealth of Puerto Rico residents, unlike residents of the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands", "-20.83322705750834" ], [ "of terms is used to refer to its constituent parts, which are sometimes called the four countries of the United Kingdom. The four are sometimes collectively referred to as the Home Nations, particularly in sporting contexts. Although the four countries are important for legal and governmental purposes, they are not comparable to administrative subdivisions of most other countries.\nHistorically, the subnational divisions of the UK have been the county and the ecclesiastical parish, whilst following the emergence of a unified parliament of the United Kingdom, the ward and constituency have been pan-UK political subdivisions. More contemporary divisions include Lieutenancy areas and", "-20.803687061685196" ], [ "are New South Wales, Queensland, South Australia, Tasmania, Victoria, and Western Australia. The two major mainland territories are the Northern Territory and the Australian Capital Territory. Western Australia is the largest state covering just under one third of the Australian landmass, followed by Queensland, South Australia, and New South Wales.\nAustralia also has several minor territories; the federal government administers a separate area within New South Wales, the Jervis Bay Territory, as a naval base and sea port for the national capital. In addition Australia has the following inhabited, external territories: Norfolk Island, Christmas Island, Cocos (Keeling) Islands, and several largely", "-20.79386918347882" ], [ "island's official capital is Kingston; it is, however, more a centre of government than a sizeable settlement. The largest settlement is at Burnt Pine.\nThe most important local holiday is Bounty Day, celebrated on 8 June, in memory of the arrival of the Pitcairn Islanders in 1856.\nLocal ordinances and acts apply on the island, where most laws are based on the Australian legal system. Australian common law applies when not covered by either Australian or Norfolk Island law. Suffrage is universal at age eighteen.\nAs a territory of Australia, Norfolk Island does not have diplomatic representation abroad, or within the territory, and", "-20.788758412454627" ], [ "the past, however, it was considered an island country for tourism purposes (among others) and is sometimes referred to as such.", "-20.788330740993842" ], [ "Dependent Territories\", and in 2002 they were renamed the British Overseas Territories. The eleven inhabited territories are self-governing to varying degrees and are reliant on the UK for foreign relations and defence. Most former British colonies and protectorates are among the 52 member states of the Commonwealth of Nations, a non-political, voluntary association of equal members, comprising a population of around 2.2 billion people. Sixteen Commonwealth realms, including Canada and several countries in the Caribbean, voluntarily continue to share the British monarch, Queen Elizabeth II, as their head of state.", "-20.784750594350044" ], [ "the 196 countries included in the report and earned the country a \"Not Free\" status.", "-20.77853446212248" ], [ "Poverty in New Zealand Poverty in New Zealand deals with the incidence of relative poverty in New Zealand and its measurement. Between 1982 and 2011, New Zealand's gross domestic product grew by 35%. Almost half of that increase went to a small group who were already the richest in the country. During this period, the average income of the top 10% of earners in New Zealand (those earning more than $72,000) almost doubled going from $56,300 to $100,200. The average income of the poorest tenth increased by only 13% from $9700 to $11,000.\nGrowing inequality is confirmed by Statistics New", "-20.77581216769613" ], [ "to neoliberalism in international trade relations; and its involvement in humanitarian, environmental, and other matters of international diplomacy. 21st century In the 21st century, international tourism is a major contributor to the New Zealand economy, and the service sector more generally has grown. Meanwhile, the traditional agricultural exports of meat, dairy and wool have been supplemented by other products such as fruit, wine and timber as the economy has diversified.\nThe Fifth Labour Government led by Helen Clark was elected in 1999. In power for nine years, it maintained most of the previous governments' economic reforms – restricting government intervention in the", "-20.7504615406433" ], [ "in capitalistic economies since the 1980s. The term rentier state is mainly used not in its original meaning, as an imperialistic state thriving on labor of other countries and colonies, but as a state which derives all or a substantial portion of its national revenues from the rent of indigenous resources to external clients.", "-20.715424494963372" ], [ "2012. Prime Minister John Key blamed the global financial crisis for the continuing drain.\nIt was estimated in December 2012 that 170,000 New Zealanders had left for Australia since the Key government came to power in late 2008. However, this net migration was reversed soon after, with a net migration gain of 1,933 people achieved in 2016. Reasons for this reversal have been theorized by economists, citing New Zealand's housing and construction boom at the time Australia's political instability and reduced investment in mining industries during this time was also mentioned as a key factor.\nNew Zealand enjoys immigration of qualified foreigners,", "-20.68744900108868" ], [ "Britain In general, the use of the term British Isles to refer to the archipelago is common and uncontroversial within Great Britain, at least since the concept of \"Britishness\" was gradually accepted in Britain after the 1707 Act of Union. In Britain it is commonly understood as being a politically neutral geographical term, although it is sometimes used to refer to the UK or Great Britain alone.\nIn 2003, Irish newspapers reported a British Government internal briefing that advised against the use of \"British Isles\". There is evidence that its use has been increasingly avoided in recent years in fields like", "-20.642666979052592" ], [ "that of industrial or manufacturing sectors) to pay capital gains taxes. This made Puerto Rico a tax haven for U.S. mainland citizens who are looking to invest in the manufacturing industry, but continues to ignore the problem of structural dependency and economic stagnation that has led to such a large amount of unpayable debt. Response Critics suggest that the law continues to treat the island as an \"anomaly\", remarking on Puerto Rico's somewhat unique status as a populous unincorporated territory of the United States, while also alleging that PROMESA does not do enough to deal with the problems that Puerto", "-20.640394985995954" ], [ "New Zealand for employment. Permanent migration is regulated under the 1970 Samoan Quota Scheme and the 2002 Pacific Access Category, which allow up to 1,100 Samoan nationals and up to 750 other Pacific Islanders respectively to become permanent New Zealand residents each year. A seasonal workers scheme for temporary migration was introduced in 2007 and in 2009 about 8,000 Pacific Islanders were employed under it. A regional power, New Zealand is involved in the Pacific Islands Forum, the Pacific Community, Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation and the Association of Southeast Asian Nations Regional Forum (including the East Asia Summit). New Zealand is", "-20.636280474209343" ], [ "published on January 12, 2010. 9 countries (Cameroon, Chad, Congo Brazzaville, DR Congo, Ivory Coast, Rwanda, Somalia, Sudan and Zimbabwe) have \"not free\" status under the same ranking systems.\nThis system ranks the degree of democracy and political freedom in each country in the world. Levels of political freedom and civil rights are ranked on a scale of 1 through 7, and each country is assigned a status of \"free\", \"partially free\" or \"not free\".", "-20.626595205365447" ], [ "New Zealand, Australia, Greece, Chili, Austria, UK and other countries.", "-20.61332953060628" ], [ "Islands are a nation that is in free association with New Zealand. It has no first-order administrative subdivisions. French collectivities in Polynesia There are two French collectivities in Polynesia—French Polynesia and Wallis and Futuna. French Polynesia has a flag that shares its official status with that of the French tricolor; Wallis and Futuna does not. Also, Clipperton Island is a French territory in Polynesia, but not a collectivity. It is uninhabited and does not have its own official flag. French Polynesia French Polynesia is an overseas collectivity of France. It consists of six archipelagos: the", "-20.57374428953335" ], [ "was necessary. The required capital came mainly from outside of New Zealand. Refrigerated shipping remained the basis of New Zealand's economy until the 1970s. New Zealand's highly productive agriculture gave it probably the world's highest standard of living, with fewer at the rich and poor ends of the scale.\nDuring this era (c. 1880 – c. 1914) the banking system was weak and there was little foreign investment, so businessmen had to build up their own capital. Historians have debated whether the \"long depression\" of the late 19th century stifled investment, but the New Zealanders found a way around adverse conditions. Hunter has", "-20.573693903250387" ], [ "census, 174 languages are used in New Zealand (including sign languages). As recorded in the 2013 census, Samoan is the most widely spoken non-official language (2.2%), followed by Hindi (1.7%), \"Northern Chinese\" (including Mandarin, 1.3%) and French (1.2%). Arts New Zealand has two 'high cultural' traditions: Māori and Western. However most cultural material consumed in New Zealand is imported from overseas, particularly from Britain and the United States. Because of this and New Zealand's small population, most New Zealand artists, performers and writers struggle to make a living from their art. Some funding for the arts is provided through a", "-20.559185201578657" ], [ "Demographics of New Zealand Terminology While the demonym for a New Zealand citizen is New Zealander, the informal \"Kiwi\" is commonly used both internationally and by locals. The name derives from the kiwi, a native flightless bird, which is the national symbol of New Zealand. The Māori loanword \"Pākehā\" usually refers to New Zealanders of European descent, although some reject this appellation, and some Māori use it to refer to all non-Polynesian New Zealanders. Most people born in New Zealand or one of the realm's external territories (Tokelau, the Ross Dependency, the Cook Islands and Niue) before 2006 are New", "-20.555897632613778" ], [ "to go where they can earn good money to remit to their stay-at-home relatives. Many Polynesian locations, such as Easter Island, supplement this with tourism income. Some have more unusual sources of income, such as Tuvalu which marketed its '.tv' internet top-level domain name or the Cooks that relied on postage stamp sales. Inter-Polynesian cooperation The first major attempt at uniting the Polynesian islands was by Imperial Japan in the 1930s, when various theorists (chiefly Hachirō Arita) began promulgating the idea of what would soon become known as the Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere. Under the Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity", "-20.546742673337576" ], [ "of New Zealand citizens who identified as Australian residents as a human rights violation. In response, the Australian Minister for Home Affairs Peter Dutton defended his government's deportation policy and called on Little to reflect \"a little more\" on the Transtasman relationship. Little countered by expressing concern about what he perceived as a growing \"venality\" in Australia's treatment of foreigners.\nOn 24 July 2018, Little rejected a call by the United Nations committee on women's rights for a Royal Commission of Inquiry into New Zealand's Family Court system, saying the New Zealand Government already has a fair idea of what the", "-20.53640452469699" ], [ "Commonwealth members. As of 2013 Canada is currently in negotiations with the Caribbean Community (primarily Commonwealth countries), the European Union (UK, Malta and Cyprus are Commonwealth members), as well as India and Singapore. New Zealand Winston Peters, the leader of the New Zealand First political party, called in February 2016 for a Commonwealth Free Trade Area modelled on the one in existence between Australia and New Zealand. In his comments, he suggested the inclusion of the UK, Canada, Australia and New Zealand in this area, with the possibility of adding South Africa, India, or others, referring to the putative", "-20.5262071841571" ], [ "Māori culture Change and adaptation over time Māori cultural history is inextricably tied into the culture of Polynesia as a whole. New Zealand is the southwestern corner of the Polynesian Triangle, a region of the Pacific Ocean with three island groups at its corners: Hawaiian Islands, Rapa Nui (Easter Island), and New Zealand (Aotearoa in Māori). The many island cultures within the Polynesian Triangle share similar languages derived from a proto-Malayo-Polynesian language used in southeastern Asia 5,000 years ago. Polynesians also share cultural traditions such as religion, social organisation, myths, and material culture. Anthropologists believe that all Polynesians have descended", "-20.52112399080943" ], [ "Small government Australia In Australian politics, the Labor Party has traditionally been perceived as the party of big government while the Liberal Party is the party of small government. Of the 34 advanced economies, Australia's revenue is the ninth-lowest and spending the seventh-lowest. Denmark Former Prime Minister of Denmark Anders Fogh Rasmussen wrote the book From Social State to Minimal State (Danish: Fra socialstat til minimalstat) in 1993, in which he advocated an extensive reform of the Danish welfare system along classical liberal lines. In particular, he favors lower taxes and less government interference in corporate and individual matters.\nHowever, Rasmussen", "-20.48947248017066" ], [ "overseas and its foreign debt exceeds A$600 billion and is growing. Australia simply does not produce more than it uses. The country has been living on borrowed time, and Australians have stopped talking about productivity and value adding. For example, Australia exports raw materials and its unique fine wool, but then imports them back at a higher value. Free trade agreements have been signed by Australia, which further expose what manufacturers it has left, and then Australian governments bolster strategic industries to save jobs.\nAustralia is recognised as an innovative and productive country, and it needs local governments and consumers to appreciate", "-20.46502546026022" ], [ "Localism in Hong Kong Terminology Localism in the western context constitutes libertarian ideas of a decentralised local government as opposed to the central government, and stresses on self-sufficiency, agriculture and communalism. Although it also stresses Hong Kong's economic self-sufficiency and local democracy, localism in the Hong Kong context, emphasises the mainland Chinese cultural and political threat to the city and attempts to reinforce a Hong Kong identity as opposed to the Chinese national identity. It often includes an anti-immigration stance especially in the right-wing rhetoric, and it has been said that \"nativism\" is synonymous with localism. Some localists call themselves", "-20.461381760513177" ], [ "the richest 5% owns 38% – while half the population, including State beneficiaries and pensioners, receive less than $24,000. Poverty In the 21st century concern has been growing that an increasing number of New Zealanders, especially children, have been pushed into poverty where poverty is defined in income terms as households living at below 60% of the national median income. In 2005, an international report found that one in six children in New Zealand were being raised in poverty – making New Zealand children 23rd poorest out of 26 rich nations. In 2009 according to NCCSS, over half a million", "-20.45175925065996" ], [ "2000s until 2009 The country's tourism has become the primary industry of income for itself and his major provinces, dedicated to this industrial activity. The country offers a wide choice of accommodations in the city, in the mountains and in the hotels of coastal shorebirds. The Dominican Republic is one of the top vacation places for the countries of the European continent, North America US and Canada and also the countries of South America. This is because the island has a rich history and unique culture, and its people so welcoming and friendly. Also for its great Caribbean beaches and", "-20.42465262429323" ], [ "was ranked fourth in Lonely Planet Best in Travel 2011's Top 10 Cities to Visit in 2011. New Zealanders make up the largest visitor market, with 3.6 million visits each year; New Zealand visitors spend on average NZ$2.4 million a day. There are approximately 540,000 international visitors each year, who spend 3.7 million nights and NZ$436 million. The largest international visitor market is Australia, with over 210,000 visitors spending approximately NZ$334 million annually.\nIt has been argued that the construction of the Te Papa museum helped transform Wellington into a tourist destination. Wellington is marketed as the 'coolest little capital in the world' by Positively", "-20.393955402789288" ], [ "of California. Like Australia, Oz is an island continent. Like Australia, Oz has inhabited regions bordering on a great desert. One might almost imagine that Baum intended Oz to be Australia, or perhaps a magical land in the center of the great Australian desert.\" Other epithets and nicknames Australia is colloquially known as \"the Land Down Under\" (or just \"Down Under\"), which derives from the country's position in the Southern Hemisphere, at the antipodes of the United Kingdom. The term was first recorded in print in 1886, and was popularised internationally by the 1980 song of the same name by", "-20.387642375717405" ], [ "believe that the United Kingdom would be Better Off Out of the developing European Republic of the 21st century. We British have a thousand year history of self-government. We have been free and democratic longer than any other nation. The European Union is too diverse, too bureaucratic, too corporatist and too centralist to be a functioning democracy. We are happy to trade with our European friends and the rest of the world – but we would prefer to govern ourselves. Involvement with the Conservative Party after 1992 Tebbit privately said of John Major on 17 November 1994: \"He has the", "-20.370520013733767" ], [ "contributed 11.7% of the Gross State Product. There is a belief that too much of the wealth of Western Australia is lost to the federal system and redistributed among the Eastern States. Only 6% of the total goods and services tax (GST) allocations to the states and territories is distributed to Western Australia. Many Western Australians believe they are actually subsidising and paying for the other states, which they derisively call \"poor states.\"\nSome Western Australians consider their state to be a \"forgotten\" Cinderella State. Often sporting and concert events bypass the state for financial reasons because of its isolation. Western", "-20.358570356580458" ], [ "Zealand’s culture, role and identity on the world stage.", "-20.354564096196555" ] ]

[ "I just use it as an estimation symbol. \"I had the busy shift but I made ~200 bucks in tips.\"", "Strictly speaking, this is a [swung dash]( URL_0 ). A tilde is the similar-looking symbol ˜ used as over certain letters in Spanish, Portuguese and other languages to show a change in the way the letter is pronounced.", "In Japanese culture, it makes a sentence \"cute\" just like \"?\" makes a question. I'm assuming anime has brought it over to English.", "The tilde sign generally means 'about' or 'approximately', and when used at the end of a sentence it's intended to convey a cute warbling trail-off rather than an abrupt stop. Like the sort of sound an excited teenager would make. \"Oh my goooood~!\"", "Well, in Spanish, año means year. Ano means anus. Without a tilde, you'd be wishing someone a happy anus.", "~ is often used to activate a developer's console in many mainstream video games (Source Engine.) I know this isn't what you were looking for, but the other explanations in this thread were pretty on par.", "This one might be a little bit ELI12... It is used in many modern programming languages as an operator called \"NOT\" which performs bitwise negation. [More info here]( URL_0 ), but I'll give a quick summary: You can represent numbers in binary using ones and zeroes, as you probably know. It's a lot like counting the way you're used to, which is called base 10 or Decimal, except, instead of getting all the way up to 9 before you have to use another number to show how big something is, you do it after counting just one. Binary numbers are typically represented using the same number of numbers at all times, like this: | Binary Number | Decimal (Regular) Number | |:--------------|-------------------------:| | 0001 | 1 | | 0010 | 2 | | 0011 | 3 | | 0100 | 4 | When you perform a bitwise NOT, you turn all the zeroes into ones and vice versa, so using the table above: | Binary | Decimal | Binary NOT | Decimal NOT | |:------|:---------|----------:|-----------:| | 0001 | 1 | 1110 | 14 | | 0010 | 2 | 1101 | 13 | | 0011 | 3 | 1100 | 12 | | 0100 | 4 | 1011 | 11 | If the way that binary numbers are counted doesn't make sense, here's a quick breakdown: when you count in decimal, for every \"column\" of numbers (going left) you multiply that number by a larger factor (or power) of 10; this is very natural for us, so we don't even know we're doing it. Example: | 1 |,| 2 || 0 || 5 | |--|-|--|-|--|-|--|-| | 1 x 1,000 (10^3) |+| 2 x 100 (10^2) |+| 0 x 10 (10^1) |+| 5 x 1 (10^0) | | 1000 |+| 200 |+| 0 |+| 5 | ||||||=|1,205| In binary, we count the same way, but with bigger and bigger powers of 2, so | 1 || 1 || 0 || 1 | |--|-|--|-|--|-|--|-| | 1 x 8 (2^3) |+| 1 x 4 (2^2) |+| 0 x 2 (2^1) |+| 1 x 1 (2^0) | | 8 |+| 4 |+| 0 |+| 1 | ||||||=|13| For more information on how computers (usually, these days) treat binary numbers, including handling negatives and such, check our [this page on Two's Complement]( URL_1 )." ]

[ [ "Emping Production Emping production is a home industry, with emping traditionally handmade in a labor-intensive process. The melinjo seeds are sauteed in a medium fire without oil, or sometimes using sand as a media. Some people boil the melinjo seeds to ease the peeling process. Both the softer outer skin and the harder inner skin of the seeds are peeled off by hand. Each of the gnetum seeds is whacked with a wooden hammer-like instrument or pressed with a stone cylinder to create flat and round emping, and later arranged in a tray made of weaved bamboo and sun-dried for", "-22.884722491731736" ], [ "polydextrose originated with a process developed by Hans H. Rennhard of Pfizer, Inc. Rennhard began investigating the potential of polysaccharides as low-calorie replacements for sugar, fat, flour, and starch. In 1965, he created polydextrose, a polymer of dextrose, produced from the naturally occurring components: glucose, sorbitol, and citric acid. Commercial uses Polydextrose is commonly used as a replacement for sugar, starch, and fat in commercial beverages, cakes, candies, dessert mixes, breakfast cereals, gelatins, frozen desserts, puddings, and salad dressings. Polydextrose is frequently used as an ingredient in low-carb, sugar-free, and diabetic cooking recipes. It is also used as a humectant,", "-22.651115533146367" ], [ "Kraft process The kraft process (also known as kraft pulping or sulfate process) is a process for conversion of wood into wood pulp, which consists of almost pure cellulose fibers, the main component of paper. The kraft process entails treatment of wood chips with a hot mixture of water, sodium hydroxide (NaOH), and sodium sulfide (Na₂S), known as white liquor, that breaks the bonds that link lignin, hemicellulose, and cellulose. The technology entails several steps, both mechanical and chemical. It is the dominant method for producing paper. In some situations, the process has been controversial because kraft", "-22.38827913556088" ], [ "HeLa HeLa (/ˈheɪlɑː/; also Hela or hela) is an immortal cell line used in scientific research. It is the oldest and most commonly used human cell line. The line was derived from cervical cancer cells taken on February 8, 1951 from Henrietta Lacks, a patient who died of cancer on October 4, 1951. The cell line was found to be remarkably durable and prolific, which warrants its extensive use in scientific research.\nThe cells from Lacks's cancerous cervical tumor were taken without her knowledge or consent, which was common practice at the time. Cell biologist George Otto Gey found that they", "-22.293032139990828" ], [ "such as strands of chili peppers called ristras). However, amate paper has been made as a commodity only since the 1960s. Prior to that time, it was made for mostly ritual purposes. The success of amate paper has been as the base for the creation of other products based both in traditional Mexican handcraft designs and more modern uses. Because of the product's versatility, both Otomi artisans and others have developed a number of variations to satisfy the tastes a various handcraft consumers. The paper is sold plain, dyed in a variety of colors and decorated with items such", "-22.134941594093107" ], [ "Daniel Butson, mailed 1,000 potatoes to Parliament House, Canberra painted and arranged as the rainbow flag to protest for marriage equality in Australia. It also inspired Bananas Gone Wild, founded by electrocardiogram technician Davonte Wilson of Plano, Texas, and Nannergram, founded by Konnor Willison and based in Lehi, Utah, which delivers bananas with personalized messages. There is also Eggplant Mail, which delivers eggplants. Reception Cosmopolitan's Tess Koman reviewed Potato Parcel with \"It's the new glitter-bombing, but way more depressing.\" Tech Cocktail's Elliot Volkman said \"these are the perfect way to tell people exactly how you feel.\"", "-22.09911274869046" ], [ "Rappie pie History It is thought that rappie pie has its origins in the Acadian Expulsion, among Acadians who lived out their exile in Massachusetts. This opportunity to meet and interact with other immigrant groups would naturally encourage a sharing of cultural recipes. It may have been German or Swiss immigrants who taught the Acadians their technique for using grated potatoes in their recipes, but whoever it was, this proved to be an important tip for those that returned to Nova Scotia when the expulsion was lifted. When they returned, they found that their fertile land had been given to", "-21.909626245324034" ], [ "TILLING (molecular biology) TILLING (Targeting Induced Local Lesions in Genomes) is a method in molecular biology that allows directed identification of mutations in a specific gene. TILLING was introduced in 2000, using the model plant Arabidopsis thaliana. TILLING has since been used as a reverse genetics method in other organisms such as zebrafish, corn, wheat, rice, soybean, tomato and lettuce. Overview The method combines a standard and efficient technique of mutagenesis using a chemical mutagen such as ethyl methanesulfonate (EMS) with a sensitive DNA screening-technique that identifies single base mutations (also called point mutations) in a target gene. The TILLING", "-21.842976575600915" ], [ "icings can be made from combinations of sugar and cream cheese or sour cream, or by using ground almonds (as in marzipan).\nIcing can be applied with a utensil such as a knife or spatula, or it can be applied by drizzling or dipping (see glaze), or by rolling the icing out and draping it over the cake. The method of application largely depends on the type and texture of icing being used. Icing may be used between layers in a cake as a filling, or it may be used to completely or partially cover the outside of a cake", "-21.828586856470793" ], [ "Tiep Recipe It is a preparation of fresh or dried fish, and rice (rice Wolof), cooked with vegetables (such as cassava, pumpkin, cabbage, carrot, turnip, or eggplant), parsley, tomato paste, peppers, garlic and onions. Originally made with fish, it is nowadays frequent to see it served with beef or even chicken. By Country Originally from Senegal, the traditional recipe includes fish, rice, tomato and onions. However, tiep is commonly consumed in several countries in West Africa. Depending on the country, the recipe and the ingredients change—even the method of cooking can differ. In Mali, tiep is known as \"tieb,\"", "-21.680238291766727" ], [ "Bandstand included \"Broken Nose\", an angry sexual rant involving the British class structure, and \"Ready To Go\", a swipe at Family's detractors in the British rock press. Family also were becoming more adept with introspective tunes like \"Coronation\", about an apartment dweller ruminating about his neighbours and his own dishevelled flat, and \"Dark Eyes,\" a light, folkish ballad Chapman wrote with Poli Palmer. Many Family fans cited \"Glove\", a soulful power ballad about meeting a woman through an act of chivalry, as one of their best songs ever. \"My Friend The Sun\", a straight acoustic ballad, displayed a tenderness previously", "-21.631180690281326" ], [ "Tapari Tapari (Nepali: टपरी) is a leaf plate used in Nepal. Tapari is used as a plate in traditional feasts during different religious ceremonies like marriage. Nowadays tapari are used to serve food not only during traditional wedding parties and religious ceremonies, but even by urban fast food stalls. Ingredients Tapari is made from mature green leaves of Shorea robusta (sal tree). Leaves are gathered and stitched together with bamboo fine sticks called sinkaa.", "-21.567435143486364" ], [ "paprika and mustard. At this time, the combination was sometimes served with soups and salads, and was used on salads for decades thereafter. It was also commonly served at parties beginning around this time. It was consumed as a dessert, rather than after-dessert by some during the Great Depression in the United States, and was sometimes consumed by President Franklin D. Roosevelt and Eleanor Roosevelt in the White House for dessert, along with other foods.\nBeginning in the 1950s, cheese and crackers was recommended as a snack for children by parenting experts, home economists and authors of cookbooks. Consumption of", "-21.463350342353806" ], [ "Njuup History The history of Njuup derives from the Ndut classical teachings. Young Serer boys in the Ndut (nest) were required to compose religious songs during their circumcision rite of passage in order to take their minds off the pending circumcision operation, develop their artistic skills and spirituality. These songs are Serer religious in nature. The Njuup tradition is the progenitor of Mbalax and for a long part of its history has remained within the confines of the Ndut. Unlike the Mbalax which is a party music, the Njuup tradition is religious, and it was not until some prominent", "-21.422926513885614" ], [ "Production Generic parmesans may be legally defined in various jurisdictions.\nIn the United States, the Code of Federal Regulations includes a Standard of Identity for \"Parmesan and reggiano cheese\". This defines both aspects of the production process and of the final result. In particular, parmesan must be made of cow's milk, cured for 10 months or more, contain no more than 32% water, and have no less than 32% milkfat in its solids. Most grated parmesans in the US have cellulose added as an anti-caking agent, with up to 4% considered acceptable under Federal law. \nKraft Foods is a major North", "-21.41912414097169" ], [ "originating the tomtato idea himself 15 years ago in the US, when visiting a garden where someone had planted a potato under a tomato as a joke.\nGrafting is a difficult process because the tomato and the potato stems have to be the same thickness, and Thompson & Morgan trialed the hybrid for several years before selling it. Production and grafting of tomtatos begins in a specialist laboratory in the Netherlands, before being shipped back to the UK and grown in greenhouses until they are ready to be sold.", "-21.399204395864217" ], [ "a cryoprotectant additive (mixed with sucrose and sodium polyphosphates) in the manufacture of surimi, a processed fish paste. It is also used as a humectant in some cigarettes.\nBeyond its use as a sugar substitute in reduced-sugar foods, Sorbitol is also used as a humectant in cookies and low-moisture foods like peanut butter and fruit preserves. In baking, it is also valuable because it acts as a plasticizer, and slows down the staling process. Medical importance Aldose reductase is the first enzyme in the sorbitol-aldose reductase pathway responsible for the reduction of glucose to sorbitol, as well as the reduction of", "-21.394139834097587" ], [ "be used to heat the cake in a microwave without ruining the crispness of the cake. A paper crown is included with the cake to crown the \"king\" who finds the fève in their piece of cake. To ensure a random distribution of the cake shares, it is traditional for the youngest person to place him- or herself under the table and name the recipient of the share which is indicated by the person in charge of the service.\nFormerly, the cake was divided into as many shares as there were guests, plus one. The latter, called \"the share of God,\"", "-21.37053611184092" ], [ "Penitent band In Methodism, inclusive of the holiness movement, a penitent band is a group of Christians that meets on Saturday night to keep themselves away from temptation. Saturday was the day that the founder of Methodism, John Wesley, had penitent bands meet because that was the day \"the night of greatest temptation for many\" as bars experienced much traffic. Penitent band meetings \"were very formal, and the hymns, prayers, and teachings were designed to apply to the types of problems the members were experiencing.\" Members of penitent bands often included those who continually backslid from the expectations of their", "-21.362368954942212" ], [ "made from cotton, which is already 90% cellulose.\nThere are three main chemical pulping processes: the sulfite process dates back to the 1840s and it was the dominant method extent before the second world war. The kraft process, invented in the 1870s and first used in the 1890s, is now the most commonly practiced strategy, one of its advantages is the chemical reaction with lignin, that produces heat, which can be used to run a generator. Most pulping operations using the kraft process are net contributors to the electricity grid or use the electricity to run an adjacent paper mill. Another", "-21.336474586303666" ], [ "method relies on the formation of DNA heteroduplexes that are formed when multiple alleles are amplified by PCR and are then heated and slowly cooled. A “bubble” forms at the mismatch of the two DNA strands, which is then cleaved by a single stranded nucleases. The products are then separated by size on several different platforms (see below).\nMismatches may be due to induced mutation, heterozygosity within an individual, or natural variation between individuals.\nEcoTILLING is a method that uses TILLING techniques to look for natural mutations in individuals, usually for population genetics analysis. DEcoTILLING is a", "-21.325984174113273" ], [ "Tater tots History The product was created in 1953 when Ore-Ida founders F. Nephi Grigg and Golden Grigg were trying to figure out what to do with leftover slivers of cut-up potatoes. They chopped up the slivers, added flour and seasoning, then pushed the mash through holes and sliced off pieces of the extruded mixture. Thus, tots were born. The product was first offered commercially in stores in 1956.\nOriginally, the product was very inexpensive; according to advertising lectures at Iowa State University, people did not buy it at first because there was no perceived value. When the price was raised,", "-21.31107911991421" ], [ "Stack cake Contemporary cuisine The practice of stack cake creation in the region has all but disappeared (at least to those looking from outside the region). It has lived on through local organization and church cookbooks throughout Appalachia, and has been passed down through families. Renditions of the concept are being popularized in some haute cuisine restaurants and magazines. It has also been mentioned by magazines such as Martha Stewart Living and Parade.", "-21.266810298140626" ], [ "uncovered for at least 24 hours. Chlorine and chloramines can both be removed by activated carbon filters and other methods.\nAdding a small quantity of diastatic malt provides maltase and simple sugars to support the yeasts initially.\nBakers often make loaves with fermented dough from a previous batch (which they call \"mother dough\", \"mother sponge\", \"chef\", or \"seed sour\") rather than making a new starter every time they bake. The original starter culture may be many years old. Because of their pH level and the presence of antibacterial agents, such cultures are stable and able to prevent colonization by unwanted yeasts and", "-21.195856184804143" ], [ "out at random while the band rehearsed the songs. Perhaps indicative of Thom Yorke's influences, instructions for \"How to make a Dada poem\" appeared on Radiohead's website at this time.\nStephen Mallinder of Cabaret Voltaire reported to Inpress magazine's Andrez Bergen that \"I do think the manipulation of sound in our early days – the physical act of cutting up tapes, creating tape loops and all that – has a strong reference to Burroughs and Gysin.\" Another industrial music pioneer, Al Jourgensen of Ministry, named Burroughs and his cut-up technique as the most important influence on how he approached the use", "-21.171727928056498" ], [ "Code Pie History Code Pie began with a series of home recordings by singer Enzo Palermo. Palermo later contacted guitarist Salvatore Ciolfi through an internet ad, and the two began writing and playing music together Originally influenced by post-rock, the duo were soon joined by drummer Vince Varano and bassist Michel Semienchuk. The additions of trumpet player Eva Boodman and cellist Rebecca Lessard completed the sextet, and the group fell into a more immediate pop-rock sound, releasing their first album, This Habit in 2005. After the release of the album, the band played numerous shows in the Northeast, including", "-21.095822209706967" ], [ "fruits. The paper is either hand-made or by industrial process. Religion and popular beliefs In India, bananas serve a prominent part in many festivals and occasions of Hindus. In South Indian weddings, particularly Tamil weddings, banana trees are tied in pairs to form an arch as a blessing to the couple for a long-lasting, useful life.\nIn Thailand, it is believed that a certain type of banana plants may be inhabited by a spirit, Nang Tani, a type of ghost related to trees and similar plants that manifests itself as a young woman. Often people tie a length of colored satin", "-21.039608928607777" ], [ "of lipases encompasses production of biopolymers, generation of cosmetics, use as a herbicide, and as an effective solvent. However, perhaps the most well known use of lipases in this field is its use in the production of biodiesel fuel. In this role, lipases are used to convert vegetable oil to methyl- and other short-chain alcohol esters by a single transesterification reaction.\nCellulases, hemicellulases and pectinases are different exoenzymes that are involved in a wide variety of biotechnological and industrial applications. In the food industry these exoenzymes are used in the production of fruit juices, fruit nectars, fruit purees", "-20.908338519599056" ], [ "Cupcone History Although the origins of the recipe and the first use of the term are unclear, cupcones and cupcake cones have been a party favorite in recent history. The term cupcone is used to describe a cupcake product cooked in a flat bottomed ice cream cone instead of a paper cup in order to eliminate the waste paper after consumption. Described as a way to be more earth friendly, the cupcone takes its name from the common recipe of a cake whose ingredients were measured by volume, using a standard cup, instead of being weighed. Recipes whose ingredients", "-20.891280405106954" ], [ "Pomato The pomato (or tomtato, ketchup and chips) is a grafted plant that is produced by grafting together a tomato plant and a potato plant, both of which are members of the Solanaceae (nightshade) family. Cherry tomatoes grow on the vine, while white potatoes grow in the soil from the same plant. Background The concept of grafting related potatoes and tomatoes so that both are produced on the same plant was originally developed in 1930 by Oscar Soderholm in Worcester, MA as the \"tomapotato\", and later in 1977 at the Max Planck Institute for Developmental Biology in Tübingen, Germany, and", "-20.836002418538556" ], [ "together or singly (only in case of a banana leaf) to make a leaf-plate for serving a meal. Custom In olden days, until a century ago, a would-be son-in-law was tested on his dexterity in making a patravali plate and bowl (for serving more liquid parts of the meal such as daal or stew) before being declared acceptable by the soon to be father-in-law. Modern day The plate is made by machines with silver foil cover at the bottom and with border for better form. And the traditional patravali is back because of its environment-friendly nature and biodegradability.", "-20.771562228386756" ], [ "Fingerling potato A fingerling potato is a small, stubby, finger-shaped type of potato which may be any heritage potato cultivars. Fingerlings are varieties that naturally grow small and narrow. They are fully mature when harvested and are not to be confused with new potatoes. Popular fingerling potatoes include the yellow-skinned Russian Banana, the pink-skinned, yellow fleshed French Fingerling, the Purple Peruvian, and the Swedish Peanut Fingerling. Due to their size and greater expense compared to other potatoes, fingerlings are commonly either halved and roasted as a side dish or used in salads.", "-20.73823132203688" ], [ "ingredient in toothpastes as an anti-staining and tartar prevention ingredient. Food additive As a food additive, SHMP is used as an emulsifier. Artificial maple syrup, canned milk, cheese powders and dips, imitation cheese, whipped topping, packaged egg whites, roast beef, fish fillets, fruit jelly, frozen desserts, salad dressing, herring, breakfast cereal, ice cream, beer, and bottled beverages, among other foods, can contain SHMP. Reactions SHMP hydrolyzes in aqueous solution, particularly under acidic conditions, to sodium trimetaphosphate and sodium orthophosphate. History Hexametaphosphoric acid was named (but misidentified) in 1849 by the German chemist Theodor Fleitmann (1828–1904). By 1956, chromatographic", "-20.69915887672687" ], [ "Icing (food) Icing, or frosting, is a sweet, often creamy glaze made of sugar with a liquid, such as water or milk, that is often enriched with ingredients like butter, egg whites, cream cheese, or flavorings. It is used to cover or decorate baked goods, such as cakes or cookies. When it is used between layers of cake, it is called filling.\nIcing can be formed into shapes such as flowers and leaves using a pastry bag. Such decorations are commonplace on birthday and wedding cakes. Chef's colour dye (food colouring) is commonly added to icing mixtures to achieve the desired", "-20.695843167137355" ], [ "in an idea binder from the age of four. These ideas included peanut butter and jelly that squirted from the same tube to make it easier for children to prepare their own sandwiches and a robot daddy that would substitute for her father at work so he could stay home and play with her.\nThe idea for Zollipops, the sugar-free lollipops that are the company's flagship product, originated in 2012. Morse, seven years old, was at a bank with her father, when she was offered a lollipop that her father stopped her from eating, saying that it would rot her teeth.", "-20.661308743794507" ], [ "that songs and engravings took the “Fried Potato Vendor” as a popular subject. But at first, these were cut in rounds. In 1865, Gogué, in France, wrote to cut them either round or “in long and squared pieces”; in 1870, Cauderlier, in Belgium, also offered both options. Given the lag between practice and print, one cannot say that the five years’ difference is significant; the most likely hypothesis is that the practice grew up spontaneously and spread across both countries. Some other sources refer to the old-English verb to french, meaning to cut lengthwise, as the origin of the name.", "-20.645215274824295" ], [ "Esculeoside A Synthesis This natural product can be obtained using column chromatographies of high-porous polystyrene gels and reversed silica gels from a methanolic extract of many varieties of tomatoes. It will appear as colorless needles when synthesized using this method.\nEvidence suggests that α-tomatine is a precursor of esculeoside A. In order for alpha tomatine to be converted to esculeoside A, isomerization of the F-ring is required. The mechanism for this reaction is unclear at this time but research from Iijima and colleagues in 2009 suggest a glycosylation step in the putative pathway from α-tomatine to esculeoside A depends on", "-20.615136882523075" ], [ "of pages to be added to a three ring binder. It was a collection of 94 songs mostly North American in origin, but selections from Israel, Ireland, England, and Chile were added. In keeping with the teaching philosophy of the school it favored lots of songs which were suitable for group involvement. Each page had a short history of the song, the chord progression, rhythm indicators, a transcription of the melody and lyrics for the verses. Chord fingering charts were provided for guitar and banjo. 1960s and early 1970s Pete Seeger, Mahalia Jackson, Jimmy Driftwood, Big Bill Broonzy, and Josh", "-20.592700904235244" ], [ "Bandstand A bandstand is a circular or semicircular structure set in a park, garden, pier, or indoor space, designed to accommodate musical bands performing concerts. A simple construction, it both creates an ornamental focal point and also serves acoustic requirements while providing shelter for the changeable weather, if outdoors. In form bandstands resemble ornamental European garden gazebos modeled on outdoor open–sided pavilions found in Asian countries from early times. Origins During the 18th and 19th centuries this type of performance building was found in the fashionable pleasure gardens of London and Paris where musicians played for guests dining and dancing.\nThey", "-20.591562071058434" ], [ "instant soup mixes. In the 1950s in the United States, Lipton ran an advertisement campaign promoting French onion dip prepared at home using Lipton's French onion soup mix, thus helping to popularize chips and dip. After this time, many new commercially produced varieties of dips (numbering in the hundreds) were created and produced in the U.S. Present day Like most branded teas, Lipton teas are a blend selected from many different plantations around the world, from well-known producing countries such as Sri Lanka, India, Kenya, and China. Lipton Yellow Label is blended from as many as 20 different teas.\nApart from", "-20.576941835461184" ], [ "so the cake is generally called confetti cake, or can also be referred to as a sprinkle cake. Modern Confetti cake has inspired many interpretations such as confetti cookies, cereal bars, and even croissants. The idea of making something into a \"confetti\" treat is produced by adding rainbow colored sprinkles into the creation.", "-20.548047626100015" ], [ "A mixture of clay and water is the most commonly used binder. There are two types of clay commonly used: bentonite and kaolinite, with the former being the most common. Oil Oils, such as linseed oil, other vegetable oils and marine oils, used to be used as a binder, however due to their increasing cost, they have been mostly phased out. The oil also required careful baking at 100 to 200 °C (212 to 392 °F) to cure (if overheated, the oil becomes brittle, wasting the mold). Resin Resin binders are natural or synthetic high melting point gums. The two common types", "-20.52085454736516" ], [ "Shive (papermaking) A shive is a small bundle of incompletely cooked wood fibres in the chemical pulp used in papermaking. They are smaller than knots and are more difficult to separate from the pulp. Typically the content of shives in kraft pulp is 0.1 to 1.0%. An excess of shives is a sign of poor impregnation of the wood chips. Shives are separated from the pulp in the screening and can be added back after refining. Even though shives are darker than rest of the pulp, they may pass unnoticed to the paper machine because they are easily bleached. Shives", "-20.515010060058557" ], [ "first successful combination chemotherapy was MOPP, introduced in 1963 for lymphomas.\nThe term \"induction regimen\" refers to a chemotherapy regimen used for the initial treatment of a disease. A \"maintenance regimen\" refers to the ongoing use of chemotherapy to reduce the chances of a cancer recurring or to prevent an existing cancer from continuing to grow.\nChemotherapy regimens are often identified by acronyms, identifying the agents used in the drug combination. However, the letters used are not consistent across regimens, and in some cases - for example, \"BEACOPP\" - the same letter combination is used to represent two different treatments.\nThere is no", "-20.47213884879602" ], [ "Norwegian Americans, was eaten with gusto during this time.\nWhile lefse is generally not eaten with day-to-day meals in Norway today, Norwegian Americans traditionally give prominence to having lefse with dinner. Furthermore, that some Norwegian Americans still make lefse has been considered by some ethnic Norwegians to be unstylish, as it has fallen so out of tradition to hand-make the dish. Where lefse is found In Norway today, most families tend to purchase their lefse rather than making it. While today’s Norwegian Americans consider making lefse at Christmas a tradition, more families are turning to purchase it from the store instead.", "-20.471937813941622" ], [ "Jellied Banana Salad, Cream Dressing, and Pound Cake.\" By 1958, Hellmann's Mayonnaise advertised their product as \"traditional on bacon, lettuce, and tomato sandwiches,\" suggesting that the combination had been around for some time. However, there are several references to a \"B.L.T\" in the early 1970s, including in one review of Bruce Jay Friedman's play entitled Steambath titled: \"A B.L.T. for God – hold the mayo.\". The abbreviation used in title references a line of dialogue in the play in which God yells, \"Send up a bacon and lettuce and tomato sandwich, hold the mayo. You burn the toast, I'll smite", "-20.449114328919677" ], [ "an important social meeting place for colleagues. Julebords are a popular tradition that creates high season for the restaurant industry, the taxi industry and ferry companies Fjord Line, Stena Line, DFDS, Hurtigruten and Color Line during these months. Norwegian revelers spends billions of Kroner on food and beverages alone during this period. Etymology The Norwegian word jule-bord and the Swedish word jul-bord directly translates as \"Christmas-table\", while jule-frokost means \"Christmas-lunch\". History The custom of julebord originated in the Middle Ages, when it was customary to leave the food all through the Christmas period so poor people and vagrants could feed", "-20.43763934582239" ], [ "traditionally used. In horticulture, the spelling clon was used until the twentieth century; the final e came into use to indicate the vowel is a \"long o\" instead of a \"short o\". Since the term entered the popular lexicon in a more general context, the spelling clone has been used exclusively. Natural cloning Cloning is a natural form of reproduction that has allowed life forms to spread for hundreds of millions of years. It is the reproduction method used by plants, fungi, and bacteria, and is also the way that clonal colonies reproduce themselves. Examples of these organisms include blueberry", "-20.431833937171177" ], [ "guitar line almost on the spot and they decided to record it using Tim's Tascam Portastudio 464. From that day forward, they would frequently get together on Mondays and Wednesdays to write and record more music.\nOn 15 September 2017, Main Line Method released their first EP, Fluid Dynamics on Bandcamp for free or donation, while offering paid physical-copies (CD or Tape). The EP has nine tracks with one bonus track for a total of ten, all together lasting roughly 30 minutes. The EP has gathered about 415 plays on bandcamp since its release to mid-January 2018, with Friend Zone (I'm", "-20.411453020758927" ], [ "primer in subsequent PCR. It can also be used to add nucleotides labeled with radioactive isotopes, for example in the TUNEL assay (Terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase dUTP Nick End Labeling) for the demonstration of apoptosis (which is marked, in part, by fragmented DNA). It is also used in the immunofluorescence assay for the diagnosis of acute lymphoblastic leukemia.\nIn immunohistochemistry, antibodies to TdT can be used to demonstrate the presence of immature T and B cells and pluripotent hematopoietic stem cells, which possess the antigen, while mature lymphoid cells are always TdT-negative. While TdT-positive cells are found in small numbers in healthy", "-20.385937339015072" ], [ "Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher is said to have used the product when her throat became strained from public speaking.\nThe lozenges are relatively unchanged since their creation. The original paper packets later became foil-lined and packaged in a cardboard carton. In some locales the standard 25 gram paper-foil packs are replaced by collectible tins, which can sometimes be redeemed from the manufacturer in exchange for a certain number of the paper-foil packs as part of promotional events. Ingredients Original Extra Strong lozenges contain sugar, liquorice extract, menthol, eucalyptus oil, dextrin, tragacanth, and capsicum tincture.\nThe sugar free versions of the lozenges contain", "-20.38169548776932" ], [ "Although the founders' names are still attached to the product, they do not hold any board or management position and are not involved in day-to-day management of the company.\nIn 2001, Ben & Jerry's U.S. completed the transition to \"Eco-Pint\" packaging, which packaged all pint flavors in environmentally friendly unbleached paperboard Eco-Pint containers, a decision it later reversed. The use of brown-kraft unbleached paperboard had been a critical first step toward a totally biodegradable pint made without added chlorine. Due to what they described as increasing supply, quality, and cost challenges, Ben & Jerry's discontinued their use of the Eco-Pint in", "-20.37834477675642" ], [ "as binders to mix with pigment in order to hold the pigment particles together in the formation of paint. Egg-based tempera was especially popular in Europe from the Middle Ages until the early 16th century. However, since that time, the binder of choice for paint has been oil.", "-20.377697360003367" ], [ "Rock Island Line History The earliest known version of \"Rock Island Line\" was written in 1929 by Clarence Wilson, a member of the Rock Island Colored Booster Quartet, a singing group made up of employees of the Chicago, Rock Island and Pacific Railroad at the Biddle Shops freight yard in Little Rock, Arkansas. The lyrics to this version are largely different to the version that later evolved and became famous, with verses describing people and activities associated with the yard.\nThe first audio recording of the song was made by folklorist and musicologist John A. Lomax at the Tucker, Arkansas prison", "-20.377622697444167" ], [ "Ticked Writing and recording The origins for Ticked can be traced back to 1994, when the alternative rock movement was at its peak. As Apologetix gained popularity with youth groups, the band realized that they would need to write music that the youth at the time were interested in. As such, the band started to listen to music that was currently popular, and crafted appropriate parodies. Although the band had previously structured their parodies to be retellings of Bible stories, Apologetix set out to record songs for Ticked that would tackle specific issues facing Christians, like \"suicide, atheism, evolution, hypocrisy,", "-20.377075042852084" ], [ "Johnnycake Johnnycake The earliest attestation of the term \"johnny cake\" is from 1739 (in South Carolina); the spelling \"journey cake\" is only attested from 1775 on the Gulf Coast, but may be the earlier form.\nThe word is likely based on the word Jonakin, recorded in New England in 1765, itself derived from the word jannock, recorded in Northern England in the sixteenth century. According to Edward Ellis Morris, the term was the name given \"... by the [American] negroes to a cake made of Indian corn (maize).\"\nAnother suggested derivation is that it comes from Shawnee cake, although some writers disagree.", "-20.361385772266658" ], [ "earlier times, mass-produced graham crackers were typically prepared using yeast-leavened dough, which added flavor to the food via the process of fermentation, whereas contemporary mass-production of the product typically omits this process. The dough is sometimes chilled before being rolled out, which prevents blistering and breakage from occurring when the product is baked. Uses Graham cracker crumbs are used to create graham cracker crusts for pies and moon pie, and as a base, layer or topping for cheesecake. Graham cracker pie crusts are also mass-produced in the United States, and consumer versions of the product typically consist of a graham", "-20.34699239116162" ], [ "for the 3' position, where AZT has an azide (N3) group instead of a hydroxyl (OH) group. That 3' OH is needed for linking nucleotides together, so AZT could potentially act as a chain terminator (it could be added to a growing nucleic acid chain, but additional nucleotides couldn't link to it).\nAZT was first synthesized in 1964 by a Michigan Cancer Foundation researcher, Jerome Horwitz, with hopes it could be used to treat leukemia, but it wasn't found to be effective and raised toxicity concerns so it was abandoned. There was limited research on it in the following years,", "-20.33134074800182" ], [ "to develop a process of layering very thin sheets of cellulose acetate (or rhodoid) and laminating them to form a \"multi-coloured sandwich of plastic\". Each 'sandwich' was baked for a long time, then cooled and cut into shapes. The process could take as long as six months.\nThis technique allowed Stein to insert different fabrics (such as brocades and lace), colors and textures into the plastic. Jewellery Stein's brooches feature animals, cars, household items, celebrities and people in a distinctive style, sometimes resembling Art Deco (which leads some people to mistakenly date her work to the 1920s). Each", "-20.3063059898559" ], [ "RNA Tie Club was an effort to generate a set of contingency tables for the purpose of writing a computer program that would determine the correspondence between any three-letter sequence (triplet) of nucleotide bases and any amino acid (the building blocks of proteins). Sponsored by Gamow, Ledley published his work in 1955 in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. Though Ledley had produced a combinatorial table that could theoretically be used to determine which three-letter sequence of DNA bases corresponded to which amino acid, the problem required several thousand years of computation time on the world’s fastest computers", "-20.303944906103425" ], [ "Velvet assembler Introduction The development of next-generation sequencers (NGS) allowed for increased cost effectiveness on very short read sequencing. The manipulation of de Bruijn graphs as a method for alignment became more realistic but further developments were needed to address issues with errors and repeats. This led to the development of Velvet by Daniel Zerbino and Ewan Birney at the European Bioinformatics Institute in the United Kingdom.\nVelvet works by efficiently manipulating de Bruijn graphs through simplification and compression, without the loss of graph information, by converging non-intersecting paths into single nodes. It eliminates errors and resolves repeats by first using", "-20.29106146542472" ], [ "Bandstand (musical) Productions A workshop of Bandstand was held in September 2014 in New York City, and featured Laura Osnes, Corey Cott and Beth Leavel.\nThe show, retitled as The Bandstand, began previews on October 8, 2015, at the Paper Mill Playhouse in Millburn, New Jersey, before its official opening on October 18, 2015, for a limited run until November 8, 2015. Direction and choreography was by Andy Blankenbuehler, with the cast that starred Corey Cott, Laura Osnes and Beth Leavel as Donny, Julia, and Mrs. Adams, respectively. The musical contains swing, bebop, and jitterbug.\nThe musical, once again titled Bandstand, premiered", "-20.27552776243101" ], [ "Razor. The song found new popularity in the 2000s, not only among people from County Donegal, but people from all over Ireland. The album was a mix of modern material and traditional Irish folk written mostly by Pat Gallagher. Legacy The song was blared from the Croke Park PA system after Donegal won the Sam Maguire Cup in 2012. It was again played on the Croke Park PA system just before Donegal were presented with the National League Division 2(football) Cup in April 2019.", "-20.232877777001704" ], [ "\"eel soup\" (Aal/Ool translated ‘eel’), but the name probably comes from the Low Saxon allns [aˑlns], meaning \"all\", \"everything and the kitchen sink\", not necessarily eel. Today eel is often included to meet the expectations of unsuspecting diners. There is Bratkartoffeln (pan-fried potato slices), Finkenwerder Scholle (Low Saxon Finkwarder Scholl, pan-fried plaice), Pannfisch (pan-fried fish with mustard sauce), Rote Grütze (Low Saxon Rode Grütt, related to Danish rødgrød, a type of summer pudding made mostly from berries and usually served with cream, like Danish rødgrød med fløde) and Labskaus (a mixture of corned beef, mashed potatoes and beetroot, a cousin", "-20.230630391990417" ], [ "line is a model for cancer research, with emphasis on the lack of activated Src protein.", "-20.22985736708506" ], [ "been used by bands such as Snow Patrol and The Libertines and poet Rick Holland; it may be intended to evoke labelling used to mark magnetic tapes.", "-20.19528833538061" ], [ "verbal record starting in 1971 of those who have visited where Roseman lives including friends, relatives, workers (plumbers, etc.), door-to-door solicitors (Jehovah’s witness, etc.). “Groups: Friends and Acquaintances” began in 1956 but did not develop into an organized project until 1985. For many years the work lacked form. When transposed to the Internet, the new form intersected with the work itself, engendering “Groups: Individual Pages”. The art work serves as a cultural and social document. Its patterns have been tracking the intersecting lives of some participants for as long as thirty-eight years. These web-based works consist of thousands of photographs", "-20.17236419046094" ], [ "or shawls in which the crafter meditates or says prayers of their faith while hand knitting with the intent on comforting the recipient, are donated to those experiencing loss or stress. Many knitters today hand knit and donate \"chemo caps,\" soft caps for cancer patients who lose their hair during chemotherapy. Yarn companies offer free knitting patterns for these caps.\nPenguin sweaters were hand knitted by volunteers for the rehabilitation of penguins contaminated by exposure to oil slicks. The project is now complete.\nChicken sweaters were also hand knitted to aid battery hens that had lost their feathers. The organization is", "-20.169887632597238" ], [ "a stent may be used. History Endovascular coiling was a developed through the synthesis of a number of innovations that took place between 1970 and 1990 in the field of electronics, neurosurgery, and interventional radiology. While the procedure itself has been and continues to be compared to surgical clipping, the development of the concept and procedure has resulted in it becoming the gold standard at many centers. Filling the intravascular compartment The first documented technique of using metal coils to induce thrombosis was accomplished by Mullan in 1974. Copper coils were inserted into a giant aneurysm through externally puncturing the", "-20.165134958020644" ], [ "from simple materials like bamboo, Japanese rice paper (known as \"papél de Hapón\") or crêpe paper, and were lit by a candle or coconut oil lamp. Simple parols can be easily constructed with just ten bamboo sticks, paper, and glue. Present-day parol has endless possible shapes and forms and is made of a variety of materials, such as cellophane, plastic, rope, capiz shell, glass, and even recycled refuse. Parol-making is a folk craft, and many Filipino children often craft them as a school project or for leisure.\nThe Giant Lantern Festival is an annual festival held the Saturday before Christmas Eve", "-20.158463465908426" ], [ "the Huthaus, the administrative building, which was decorated for the occasion. Singing miners' songs such as Der Steiger, the miners would give thanks to God for the products of the mine. A simple, traditional meal ended the shift. The meal usually consisted of bratwurst with mashed potatoes and sauerkraut as well as herbed schnapps and a cigar (gaahlem Gelecht). Also common are glühwein, tea and bacon-fat butterbrot.\nThe idea of the Mettenschicht has spread from the Ore Mountains to many exhibition mines as an idea for a Christmas celebration with elements of mining tradition. They vary from end-of-year celebrations focusing on", "-20.14423188846922" ], [ "each trio are unrelated, however trios are related in themselves. Nuclear family Nuclear family consists of two generation simple family pedigree. Extended pedigrees In extended pedigree include multiple generation pedigree. It can be as deep or wide as the pedigree information is available. Extended pedigree are attractive for linkage-based analysis. Linkage vs association analysis Linkage and association analysis are primary tools for gene discovery, localization and functional analysis. While conceptual underpinning of these approaches have been long known, advances in recent decades in molecular genetics, development in efficient algorithms, and computing power have enabled the large scale application of these", "-20.119958759882138" ], [ "looking to document the process have been rejected. \nThe success of amate paper commercialization has led to environmental issues in the San Pablito area and farther away. It is getting harder to find bark due to the over-stripping of trees and the loss of forests to agriculture and development. There have been attempts to cultivate the tree species currently used for paper-making, but without success. Currently, there are attempts to reforest the area with a similar species which grows to maturity faster. The use of caustic soda and industrial dyes in the process of making amate has caused problems with", "-20.11342675278138" ], [ "Binder (material) A binder or binding agent is any material or substance that holds or draws other materials together to form a cohesive whole mechanically, chemically, by adhesion or cohesion.\nIn a more narrow sense, binders are liquid or dough-like substances that harden by a chemical or physical process and bind fibres, filler powder and other particles added into it. Examples include glue, adhesive and thickening.\nExamples of mechanical binders are bond stones in masonry and tie beams in timber framing. Classification Binders are loosely classified as organic (bitums, animal and plant glues, polymers) and inorganic (lime, cement, gypsum, liquid glass, etc.).", "-20.10146291126148" ], [ "commonly used technique is the baking of food in aluminum foil packets. Food is wrapped inside a durable packet of tin or aluminum foil, crimped to seal, and placed on or under hot coals. Baked potatoes are commonly cooked this way but entire meals can be cooked in one packet. Besides aluminum or tin, organic material such as leaves (of tree, \"Nelumbo nucifera\" lotus, \"Dendrocalamus latiflorus Munro\" bamboo aka Bambusa oldhamii (麻竹葉), phragmites, plantain, taro, etc.), husks (of corn, \"Phyllostachys makinoi\" bamboo (桂竹籜), etc.), and skins of fruit (citrus, etc.) are also frequently employed. Tree leaves such as those from", "-20.101421216000745" ], [ "Christmas. General While the Midwest generally always makes its lefse with potatoes, this is not necessarily the case in Norway. When one uses the term “lefse” in the United States, it typically refers to what Norwegians call potato lefse. Norwegians, however, also make Hardanger lefse with egg yolks and buttermilk. The tradition of making lefse was brought over by Norwegian Americans, and potato lefse itself was made when their potato crop was successful. Due to this, it became more prevalent than other types in the United States. When lefse was able to be made, it was stored in small storage", "-20.088139169252827" ], [ "to as \"freakshakes\" were popular in the United Kingdom and Australia around this time. A 2018 article described a date shake made with ice milk and a concentrated form of dates called \"date crystals\"; the milkshake, sold in Palm Springs, California, was described by the reviewer as \"[e]arthy and sweet\", with tastes of \"butterscotch, caramel and even chocolate\", with \"surprisingly complex flavors\". Use in protests In May 2019, during the build-up to the EU parliament elections in the United Kingdom, the throwing of milkshakes emerged as a protest tactic, usually targeting right-wing politicians. The movement originated with the \"milkshaking\" of", "-20.071564766170923" ], [ "solvents.\nThe poppy straw methods predominate in Continental Europe and the British Commonwealth, with the latex method in most common use in India. The latex method can involve either vertical or horizontal slicing of the unripe pods with a two-to five-bladed knife with a guard developed specifically for this purpose to the depth of a fraction of a millimetre and scoring of the pods can be done up to five times. An alternative latex method sometimes used in China in the past is to cut off the poppy heads, run a large needle through them, and collect the dried latex 24", "-20.06466131840716" ], [ "may also be used as a designer object to hold candles, flowers or ornaments for a holiday etc. \nIn traditional use, an epergne is a fancy way to display side dishes, fruit, or sweetmeats, or can be used for chips, dips, or other finger foods etc. Name The derivation is probably from the French épargne meaning \"saving,\" the idea being that dinner guests were saved the trouble of passing dishes (although an epergne in French is called a surtout). In addition the word épergne in French can also mean \"spare\", another way of saying \"to save\", or a spare, meaning", "-20.039869462314527" ], [ "debate, it is similar to a cake called Herman friendship cake which was developed in Europe. Anne Byrn, who researched hundreds of historical recipes for her book American Cake remembers the friendship bread craze popping up in newspaper columns in the late 1980s, but thinks the recipe can be traced back much further. Obtaining starter Starter can easily be created from scratch with a package of regular baker's yeast and the ingredients that are used to maintain it. Also it is possible to create it in a baker's kitchen through natural wild yeasts. Typically, however, a friend shares a", "-20.031874166088528" ], [ "Sandwich History The modern concept of a sandwich using slices of bread as found within the West can arguably be traced to 18th-century Europe. However, the use of some kind of bread or bread-like substance to lie under (or under and over) some other food, or used to scoop up and enclose or wrap some other type of food, long predates the eighteenth century, and is found in numerous much older cultures worldwide.\nThe ancient Jewish sage Hillel the Elder is said to have wrapped meat from the Paschal lamb and bitter herbs in a soft matzah—flat, unleavened bread—during Passover in", "-20.008512285072356" ], [ "provides reservation, candlelight service on Valentine's Day beginning in 2008 with one restaurant in Johns Creek, Georgia, and growing into over 30 in 2009.\nThe servers use a proprietary version of diner lingo to call in orders, and the menu suggests some use of the same lingo when placing orders for hash brown potatoes: \"scattered\" (spread on the grill), \"smothered\" (with onions), \"covered\" (with cheese), \"chunked\" (with diced ham), \"diced\" (with diced tomatoes), \"peppered\" (with jalapeño peppers), \"capped\" (with mushrooms), \"topped\" (with chili), and \"all the way\" (with all available toppings). The option of \"country\" was added for hash browns with", "-20.00775719559715" ], [ "to Research Triangle, North Carolina in 1970.\nRideout specialized in nucleoside chemistry. Nucelosides are chemical compounds consisting of a pentose sugar bound to a nitrogenous base. When phosphorylated, nucleosides become nucleotides, which are the building blocks of nucleic acids (DNA and RNA). As such, they're needed for replication (copying of the genome before cells divide so that each gets a copy). Therefore, cells that replicate frequently, such as cancer cells and bacteria have a high demand for nucleosides. Recognizing this, teams of scientists, including a team at Burroughs Wellcome including Janet Rideout dedicated themselves to studying chemical analogs that could mimic", "-20.001587203565578" ], [ "arranged in a thin layer, soaked in water, and dyed using natural pigments. The strips are then woven together in various designs, each with a symbolic meaning, and the ends are trimmed. Each box is covered with silk or satin, and finally, a double layer of paper is used to line the base. Chaesang are usually created in nested groups of three, although five or even seven nested boxes are not unheard of. It can take two weeks, or even as long as a month to produce a set.", "-19.974184681283077" ], [ "they were individually wrapped by hand in squares of aluminum foil. The introduction of machine wrapping in 1921 simplified the process while adding the small paper ribbon to the top of the package to indicate that it was a genuine Hershey product. Today, 80 million of the candies are produced daily. Other products introduced included Mr. Goodbar (1925), containing peanuts in milk chocolate, Hershey's Syrup (1926), semisweet chocolate chips (1928), and the Krackel bar containing crisped rice (1938). Unionization Labor unrest came to Hershey in the late 1930s as a Congress of Industrial Organizations-backed union attempted to organize", "-19.939196251914836" ], [ "into a host cell as a vector and cloned. Finally, mutants are selected by DNA sequencing to check that they contain the desired mutation.\nThe original method using single-primer extension was inefficient due to a low yield of mutants. This resulting mixture contains both the original unmutated template as well as the mutant strand, producing a mixed population of mutant and non-mutant progenies. Furthermore, the template used is methylated while the mutant strand is unmethylated, and the mutants may be counter-selected due to presence of mismatch repair system that favors the methylated template DNA, resulting in fewer mutants. Many", "-19.938677613943582" ], [ "reaction) based techniques would be used to create, assign and identify nucleotide sequences that can be recognized by universal primers.\nThere are a variety of reasons to use biobarcodes, including protection of patented organisms, detection of transgenics, and tracking of the dispersal of genetic materials. Gressel suggests that such a system would have benefits to industry, regulators and taxpayers.\nAnother area of Gressels's research concerns the evolution of volunteers (plants that germinate in later years, after a crop has been harvested) and feral plants (derived from crops that have become de-domesticated). Understanding processes in the domestication and de-domestication of crops is particularly", "-19.93417650059564" ], [ "techniques.\nKnitting selvages makes the fabric easier to sew together than it would be otherwise. It also makes it easier to pick up stitches later, and is a good basis for crocheting a further decorative edge. In printing and philately In the print industry, selvage is the excess area of a printed or perforated sheet of any material, such as the white border area of a sheet of stamps or the wide margins of an engraving etc.", "-19.924965906455327" ], [ "processor; however, a manual method such as ricing is best for potatoes, which are starchy and become glutinous when over-processed. Ricers are often used to puree food for babies.\nA ricer can be used to remove excess water from foods such as cooked greens that are to be added to quiche, thawed frozen spinach, and sliced or grated potatoes to improve the quality of potato chips or hash browns made from them.\nRicers are also used to make Mont Blanc (a dessert of chestnut puree), lefse (a Norwegian) flatbread, spätzle (German noodles), passatelli (a type of Italian pasta), and process ice", "-19.916557480006304" ], [ "industry at that time. In 2010, Frito-Lay reformulated Lay's Kettle and Lay's flavored chips into a new variant labeled as being made with all-natural ingredients. Sales of Lay's potato chips grew by 8% following the change to all-natural ingredients. As a result, Frito-Lay announced in 2010 its plans to convert approximately half of all Frito-Lay products, including Sun Chips, Tostitos, Fritos, and Rold Gold pretzels, to all-natural ingredients in 2011. Stereotyping in 1960s commercials In 1967, the company introduced a cartoon spokesman, the Frito Bandito, which became the subject of criticism from Mexican-American groups, who expressed concerns that it portrayed", "-19.89729314361466" ], [ "Dental bonding History Adhesive dentistry began in 1955 with a paper by Dr. Michael Buonocore on the benefits of acid etching. Technologies have changed multiple times since then, with generally recognized generations established in the literature. Dental bonding agents have evolved from no-etch to total-etch (4th- and 5th-generation) to self-etch (6th- and 7th-generation) systems. The evolution of products improved convenience and reduced sensitivity to operator errors. However, the best bonding and longevity was achieved with 4th generation agents (having separate etch, prime, and bond steps).\nIrwin Smigel founder and current president of the American Society for Dental Aesthetics and diplomate of", "-19.894112170673907" ], [ "protocol is based on the fact that the formaldehyde cross-linking is more efficient in nucleosome-bound DNA than it is in nucleosome-depleted regions of the genome. This method then segregates the non cross-linked DNA that is usually found in open chromatin, which is then sequenced. The protocol consists of cross linking, phenol extraction and sequencing the DNA in aqueous phase. FAIRE FAIRE uses the biochemical properties of protein-bound DNA to separate nucleosome-depleted regions in the genome. Cells will be subjected to cross-linking, ensuring that the interaction between the nucleosomes and DNA are fixed. After sonication, the fragmented and fixed DNA is", "-19.851551083571394" ], [ "by spontaneous or induced mutation of a nuclear gene to a dominant or recessive allele. As a rule one character is affected at a time in the leaf, flower, fruit, or other parts. Plastid gene-differential chimeras These chimeras arise by spontaneous or induced mutation of a plastid gene, followed by the sorting-out of two kinds of plastid during vegetative growth. Alternatively, after selfing or nucleic acid thermodynamics, plastids may sort-out from a mixed egg or mixed zygote respectively. This type of chimera is recognized at the time of origin by the sorting-out pattern in the leaves. After sorting-out is complete,", "-19.851084836147493" ], [ "In the PIE Chairperson's Annual Report for 1975–1976, Hose wrote that \"The only way for PIE to survive, was to seek out as much publicity for the organization as possible.... If we got bad publicity we would not run into a corner but stand and fight. We felt that the only way to get more paedophiles joining PIE... was to seek out and try to get all kinds of publications to print our organization's name and address and to make paedophilia a real public issue.\"\nA campaign to attract media attention was not effective, but Hose's attendance at the 1975 annual", "-19.845365618821234" ], [ "Potato Records (sometimes spelled \"special Potatoe\") began as the primary outlet for self-released albums and those featuring members or alumni of The Slackers. After the initial release of a Nods record, followed by a solo record, over time, Special Potato became the calling card for distribution of Ruggiero's early works and continues to release albums.\nAn innovative solo artist and collaborator, Ruggiero has written, recorded and produced dozens of albums that have introduced rocksteady, ska and reggae to younger generations of listeners. His solo albums in particular are influenced by early rock n roll, doo-wop, blues and punk rock. He has", "-19.8230189383612" ], [ "Bressa Creeting Cake History The band, originally named Breast Secreting Cake, formed in Auckland around 1991 around the nucleus of Edmund Cake, Geoff Maddock and Joel Wilton. Edmund, Geoff and Joel had played together on songs while they were at school, but the first line up to gig and release music included Dave Neilsen. The band's first recordings were made by Ed on four tracks and Ed and Dave at a 16-track studio the band was lent. A few of these songs were being played on local college radio station bFM by 1994 and the band had found an audience.", "-19.810436029212724" ], [ "Bindeez Bindeez (also marketed as Aqua Dots, Beados, Pixos, and Aquabeads) are a children's toy, consisting of small colored plastic beads that can be arranged in designs.\nIn 2007, Bindeez was subject to a multi-national product recall after it was found that the Wangqi Product Factory in Shenzhen, China had, in some shipped toys, used a cheap chemical that was a pharmacologically active sedative prodrug instead of the safer chemical specified by the designers, resulting in the illness and hospitalization of some children who ingested the beads. Since then, safer replacements have been marketed. Description Bindeez contains a craft kit", "-19.810288050415693" ], [ "Allochem Allochem is a term introduced by Folk to describe the recognisable \"grains\" in carbonate rocks. Any fragment from around 0.5 mm upwards in size may be considered an allochem. Examples would include ooids, peloids, oncolites, pellets, fossil or pre-existing carbonate fragments. Fragments are still termed allochems if they have undergone chemical transformations – for example if an aragonite shell were to dissolve and be later replaced by calcite, the replacement would still be deemed an allochem.\nThe allochems are typically embedded in a matrix of micrite (lime mud) or sparry calcite.", "-19.808887351915473" ], [ "in 1966 after discussions with the Musicians' Union, miming was banned. After a few weeks during which some bands' attempts to play as well as on their records were somewhat lacking, a compromise was reached whereby a specially recorded backing track was permitted – as long as all the musicians on the track were present in the studio. The TOTP Orchestra, led by Johnny Pearson, augmented the tracks when necessary. This set-up continued until 1980, when a protracted Musicians' Union strike resulted in the dropping of the live orchestra altogether and the use of pre-recorded tracks only. This accounts for", "-19.798887435557845" ], [ "dropped by the label. Terry helped out the group again organizing the re-release of \"Sliced Tomatoes\" on the Music Merchant label in 1972. The Just Brothers recorded two new tracks, \"Tears Ago\" and \"You've Got The Love To Make Me Over\",for the Music Merchant label originally meant for an uncompleted album. These ended up backing \"Sliced Tomatoes\" on its single releases. \"Sliced Tomatoes\" became a Northern soul staple.\nThe Bryant Brothers later fronted a local group named the Firebirds. Jimmy Bryant died in 1996.", "-19.79374889639439" ] ]

[ "1.) It fundamentally changed the relationship between the federal government and the individual citizen. This was discussed at length during the Supreme Court hearing (by Kennedy, I believe), pointing out that the government had never claimed the power to force individuals into engaging in commerce with other private parties under penalty of law. 2.) It was a windfall for the very insurance industry that was villainized during its passage. You would be hard-pressed to think of a better way to enrich the Insurance companies while doing very little to address the underlying issues with the cost of healthcare. 3.) It is detrimental to a significant portion of young working families by either forcing them to buy insurance at a time when it is reasonable to forego it due to low risks or to buy it at higher premiums. 4.) The law was huge and complicated, but passed in a rushed, opaque manner at a time when the Democrats had a near supermajority in Congress. It really felt like they were trying to slip something by before anyone had a chance to fully analyze it, leading to a very difficult implementation. The law was rapidly written in a piecemeal fashion by multiple parties, leading to contradictory language and badly in need of a streamlined approach. 5.) It failed to remove long-standing and important barriers to insurance access such as the an on interstate purchase of insurance. This a particularly egregious example of congressional overreach based on the Commerce clause of the Constitution. Congress simultaneously bans interstate commerce on insurance and claims the right to regulate it as interstate commerce. 6.) It is the worst of all solutions. It is neither the relatively simplified and easily regulated single payer solution nor the fully competitive free market solution (I.e. removing barriers like in number 5), but with arguably some of the worst elements of both. I could g on, but I hope this at least shows that it's not all partisan vitriol spewed by puppets of the almighty Fox News clown show as some claim.", "Middle-class hates it. For the lower class it really is helpful and useful, but if you make a normal amount of money it is expensive as FUCK to pay for", "The government forces people to buy a certain product or be penalized, which is illegal and stupid. Obamacare made everyone's health insurance cost go up by a huge amount (my wife's increased by 400%). Also, it's immoral for someone to steal my money at gunpoint to pay for someone else's medical care.", "I could be mistaken, but I could have sworn before it came into effect, Obama promised that it wouldn't cause my current insurance costs to go up. They went up a fucking lot." ]

[ [ "the use of \"Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act\" or \"Affordable Care Act\" became limited to more formal and official use. Use of the term in a positive sense was suggested by Democrat John Conyers. Obama endorsed the nickname, saying, \"I have no problem with people saying Obama cares. I do care.\"\nIn March 2012, the Obama reelection campaign embraced the term \"Obamacare\", urging Obama's supporters to post Twitter messages that begin, \"I like #Obamacare because ...\".\nIn October 2013, the Associated Press and NPR began cutting back on use of the term. Stuart Seidel, NPR's managing editor, said that the term", "-33.94382484268863" ], [ "For example, the editorial by Skinner and Chandra criticized Obama's claim that the ACA was limiting the growth of health care spending, and Butler's editorial argued that the savings produced by the ACA may not have benefited consumers. Conclusions regarding the Affordable Care Act In the article, Obama reviews the effects of his signature health care reform law, the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act, widely known as \"Obamacare\". He concludes that since the law took effect, 20 million more Americans have gained health insurance under it, and the uninsurance rate has dropped to 9.1% (as of 2015). He also", "-32.86594280926511" ], [ "\"Obamacare\" and the \"Affordable Care Act\" were different or did not know. Approximately 45% were unsure whether the \"repeal of Obamacare\" also meant the \"repeal of the Affordable Care Act.\" 39% did not know that \"many people would lose coverage through Medicaid or subsidies for private health insurance if the A.C.A. were repealed and no replacement enacted,\" with Democrats far more likely (79%) to know that fact than Republicans (47%).\nA 2017 study found that personal experience with public health insurance programs leads to greater support for the Affordable Care Act, and the effects appear to be most pronounced among Republicans", "-32.55028256669175" ], [ "and low-information voters. \"Obamacare\" The term \"Obamacare\" was originally coined by opponents as a pejorative. The term emerged in March 2007 when healthcare lobbyist Jeanne Schulte Scott used it in a health industry journal, writing \"We will soon see a 'Giuliani-care' and 'Obama-care' to go along with 'McCain-care', 'Edwards-care', and a totally revamped and remodeled 'Hillary-care' from the 1990s\". According to research by Elspeth Reeve, the expression was used in early 2007, generally by writers describing the candidate's proposal for expanding coverage for the uninsured. It first appeared in a political campaign by Mitt Romney in May 2007 in Des", "-31.899220556253567" ], [ "said the bill was \"necessary to stop students from basically doing what I did when I was a kid: voting as a liberal.\" Controversy over the Affordable Care Act and slavery In August 2013, O'Brien spoke at a rally in New Hampshire of the Americans for Prosperity, a conservative political advocacy group, where he likened the Affordable Care Act to an 1850 pro-slavery federal law. In his remarks O'Brien called the healthcare act, popularly known as Obamacare, \"a law as destructive to personal and individual liberty as the Fugitive Slave Act of 1850 that allowed slave owners to come", "-31.83960667636711" ], [ "which many Republicans assail it as an attack on freedom, but the provision in President Obama's health care law requiring all Americans to buy health insurance has its roots in conservative thinking.\"\nOther Republican politicians who had previously supported individual mandates, including Romney and Orrin Hatch, similarly emerged as vocal critics of the mandate in Obama's legislation. Writing in The New Yorker, Ezra Klein stated that \"the end result was... a policy that once enjoyed broad support within the Republican Party suddenly faced unified opposition.\"\nThe Affordable Care Act signed in 2010 by Obama included an individual mandate to take effect in 2014.\nOn", "-31.826049681345467" ], [ "Affordable Care Act signed into law in 2010 by President Obama, but the two differ on how to approach the legislation known as Obamacare. McAllister opposed the United States federal government shutdown of 2013 as a proper method to force the repeal of the measure: \"Obamacare is a nightmare, but it's a reality, and it's here. [We] have to live with it, we have to make it livable. We have to make it work for the people until one day we [have the votes] to repeal it.\" Riser supported the House Republicans' failed effort to de-fund the Affordable Care Act", "-31.514165689819492" ], [ "it now. He told the Lawrence Journal-World in response to a question if the Affordable Care Act should be repealed in its entirety, amended to address specific problems or left as it is, he said, \"I opposed ACA because it did nothing to fix a broken system. We had a national crisis in health care before the Affordable Care Act passed, and that crisis still exists today. But instead of playing political games with this issue as Republicans and Democrats in Congress have done, I believe we need to focus on what Washington can actually do to ensure that health", "-31.185798771184636" ], [ "Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act (PPACA, also known simply as the Affordable Care Act or \"Obamacare\") and perceived attacks by the federal government on their 1st, 2nd, 4th and 10th Amendment rights. Tea Party groups have also voiced support for right to work legislation as well as tighter border security, and opposed amnesty for illegal immigrants. On the federal health care reform law, they began to work at the state level to nullify the law, after the Republican Party lost seats in congress and the Presidency in the 2012 elections. It has also mobilized locally against the United Nations", "-31.099558076413814" ], [ "would amend the Civil Rights Act of 1964 to include a ban on discrimination on the basis of sexual orientation or gender identity.\nRegarding the Affordable Care Act, he has stated his desire to improve the law rather than fight to repeal or defund it. Dold has said the Affordable Care Act was right to require insurance coverage for pre-existing conditions and to allow students to stay on a parent's insurance to age 26. Upon his return to the House in 2015, Dold became one of just three Republican Congressmen to vote against repeal of the Affordable Care Act - the", "-31.084213060501497" ], [ "the Fairness for American Families Act, Rep. Young argued that \"rather than driving healthcare costs down, the individual mandate is imposing a new tax and burdensome costs on middle class families\" and therefore \"hardworking Americans deserve the same exemptions that President Obama is unilaterally granting to businesses and labor unions.\" House Majority Leader Eric Cantor agreed with this, announcing that the House would work on this bill the week of July 15, 2013.\nThe New York Times (NYT) described Obama's decision to delay the employer mandate as a \"self-inflicted wound\" which Republicans saw as an opportunity. The NYT suggested", "-31.07786837592721" ], [ "plans have not been refiled with the regulatory agencies of the various states. Opponents argue that this situation makes it difficult or impossible for insurance companies to undo the policy cancellations made in preparation for Obamacare. Subsequent criticism President Obama's promise and the subsequent legislation aimed to allow American citizens to keep their healthcare plan were widely seen as promises that could not be kept. Obama's statement \"if you like your healthcare plan you can keep it...\" was later dubbed \"Lie of the Year\" by PolitiFact.com.", "-31.064463704591617" ], [ "services.\nBacon favors repealing the Affordable Care Act, commonly known as Obamacare. He was supportive of the March 2017 version of American Health Care Act, the GOP's replacement plan for Obamacare. On May 4, 2017, Bacon voted to repeal the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act and pass the American Health Care Act, nicknamed \"Trumpcare.\" Foreign policy He is a steadfast backer of Israel, and supports the United States recognizing Jerusalem as Israel's capital. In an American Family Association candidate questionnaire from 2016, Bacon opposed the question \"The U.S. military should wait for militant Islamic groups to directly threaten our national", "-31.04623211652506" ], [ "Fairness for American Families Act Background The Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act (PPACA), commonly called Obamacare or the Affordable Care Act (ACA), is a United States federal statute signed into law by President Barack Obama on March 23, 2010. Together with the Health Care and Education Reconciliation Act, it represents the most significant government expansion and regulatory overhaul of the U.S. healthcare system since the passage of Medicare and Medicaid in 1965.\nThe ACA is aimed at increasing the affordability and rate of health insurance coverage for Americans, and reducing the overall costs of health care (for individuals and the", "-30.979259881278267" ], [ "denying at a public event that insurers were cancelling insurance. Rather, they were signing customers up “with new plans that are compliant with ACA.” He insisted that under five percent of the population would lose their insurance under Obamacare and that most would “get a much better deal in the healthcare exchange - good price and much better benefits than what they were paying before.” He added that young people are “probably going to get a real good deal” under Obamacare.\nKind voted against the 2017 Republican health-care bill. \"I thought it was a bad piece of legislation,” he said, “both", "-30.799767939202866" ], [ "Affordable Care Act. That's my main issue, because I think that's, again, about the health and financial health of the America's families and if Hillary had won, I could go home.\" She furthered that Republicans had misrepresented their prior position of being opposed to pre-existing conditions during the election cycle and called for Republicans to join Democrats in \"removing all doubt that the pre-existing medical condition is the law – the benefit – is the law of the land\". Abortion Pelosi voted against the Partial-Birth Abortion Ban Act of 2003 and earlier attempts at similar bans, and voted against the", "-30.72518889186904" ], [ "American Health Care Act of 2017 Background The ACA (colloquially called \"Obamacare\"), a major reform of health care in the United States, was passed in 2010 by the 111th Congress and signed by President Barack Obama in 2010 after nearly a year of bipartisan debate. The ACA draws from many conservative ideas proposed by the Heritage Foundation in the 1980s and 1990s, which included a mandate that all have coverage (to prevent \"free riders\"), subsidy tax credits, and Medicaid reform. Heritage proposed funding program costs by taxing health insurance premiums paid by employers on behalf of workers (presently exempt from", "-30.71631060922664" ], [ "American Health Care Act because it has more bad policy than any bill I have ever faced.\" On May 4, 2017 Brooks voted to pass the American Health Care Act, which would repeal the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act.\nIn an interview with CNN's Jake Tapper, Brooks controversially argued that the AHCA \"will allow insurance companies to require people who have higher health care costs to contribute more to the insurance pool. That helps offset all these costs, thereby reducing the cost to those people who lead good lives, they're healthy, they've done the things to keep their bodies healthy. And", "-30.698377169275773" ], [ "the repeal of the Affordable Care Act (also known as Obamacare). However, she does support improving upon the act, which she has called \"imperfect.\" She has co-sponsored the Marketplace Certainty Act to bring more stability to the healthcare marketplace in lieu of insurance providers leaving the program.\nIn December 2018, Cortez Masto was one of forty-two senators to sign a letter to Trump administration officials Alex Azar, Seema Verma, and Steve Mnuchin arguing that the administration was improperly using Section 1332 of the Affordable Care Act to authorize states to \"increase health care costs for millions of consumers while weakening protections", "-30.657797543040942" ], [ "public option, and asserted that the option has popular support because \"when people hear 'public option' they hear 'free health care'. Everybody wants free health care. Everybody wants health care they don't have to pay for.\"\nLandrieu voted for the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act (known as \"Obamacare\") in December 2009. In September 2013, Landrieu voted to restore funding for the ACA that House Republicans had eliminated in their version of the funding bill.\nOn March 1, 2012, Landrieu voted against a measure that would have repealed a birth control mandate in the health care bill. In October 2013, she introduced", "-30.630097780034703" ], [ "the majority of Americans (77%) feel that it is either \"Quite Important\" or \"Extremely Important\" to \"give people a choice of both a public plan administered by the federal government and a private plan for their health insurance\" in August 2009. A Rasmussen Reports poll taken on August 17–18 stated that 57% of Americans did not support the current health care bill being considered by Congress that did not include a public option, a change from their findings in July 2009. A NBC News/Wall Street Journal poll, conducted August 15–17, found that 47% of Americans opposed the idea", "-30.600520076899556" ], [ "House Minority Leader Nancy Pelosi favor the Obama policy.\nDarrell Issa, a Republican congressman from California, said that Americans are divided on this issue: \"While some Americans may not feel that forcing them to pay for contraception are an infringement on their religious beliefs, others consider it to be an assault against their freedom of conscience.\" Issa's February 2012 hearing on the matter was criticized for including only men from conservative religious institutions, and no women. Framing the issue Some people see the matter as primarily one of women's health, such as the National Women's Law Center. Others see it as", "-30.542683455820224" ], [ "out that not all policy proposals have been modeled. Affordable Care Act and health-care reform As the 2016 campaign unfolded, Trump stated that he favors repealing the Affordable Care Act (ACA or \"Obamacare\")—which Trump refers to as a \"complete disaster\"—and replacing it with a \"free-market system.\" On his campaign website, Trump says, \"on day one of the Trump Administration, we will ask Congress to immediately deliver a full repeal of Obamacare.\" Trump's campaign has insisted that the candidate has \"never supported socialized medicine.\"\nTrump has cited the rising costs of premiums and deductibles as a motivation to repeal the Affordable Care", "-30.488158186199144" ], [ "of regulations about Obamacare, which included a shift to an \"honor system\" for judging eligibility for Obamacare subsidies. After it was introduced, the White House released a statement indicating that the President will veto the bill if it was passed by Congress. Debate about the final version Some Republicans were unhappy with the final deal. Senator Cruz referred to the Senate bill as a \"terrible deal.\" Two of the conservative organizations that had pushed for the attempt to defund the health law, Heritage Action and the Club for Growth, opposed it.\nRepublicans did not get a delay on", "-30.45938858833688" ], [ "larger pool. Economists believe the repeal of the individual mandate will lead to higher premiums and lower enrollment in the current market though they do not agree with how much. In 2017 the new Republican healthcare bill known as the American Health Care Act was passed by the House of Representatives under President Donald Trump. Although the Affordable Care Act and the American Health Care Act both propose tax cuts in order to make insurance more affordable for Americans; however, each of these bills affected Americans in different ways. The people most affected by President Trump's plan are young people,", "-30.387288407655433" ], [ "ran more than $3 million worth of advertisements opposing the Affordable Care Act, including a series of ads in which Uncle Sam was depicted as a \"creepy\" doctor. The ads are directed at women and young adults, and are designed to \"undermine confidence\" and to dissuade younger people from enrolling in health care coverage through exchanges which opened October 1, 2013. In October 2013, the Americans for Prosperity group began a campaign to oppose \"Obamacare\" in the state of Virginia. Criminal justice reform The Koch brothers have advocated reform of the United States' criminal justice system. In 2011, Koch Industries", "-30.386643279489363" ], [ "as a result of health care reform, a family would \"be denied medical care, emergency or otherwise, because they can't afford it.\" Political efforts to repeal the Affordable Care Act The Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act, commonly called the \"Affordable Care Act (ACA)\" or \"Obamacare\", was enacted by the 111th United States Congress and signed into law by President Barack Obama in 2010. From 2011 to 2017, numerous attempts to repeal the Affordable Care Act were made by Republicans opposed to the law, although none were successful before President Obama left office on January 20, 2017.\nOn March 6, 2017,", "-30.316974834306166" ], [ "the Affordable Care Act. On May 4, 2017, he voted to pass the American Health Care Act, which would have effectively repealed the ACA and included cuts to Medicaid. He said it included the best parts of previous attempts to repeal the ACA. He received criticism for taking money from insurance companies and avoiding discussions of his vote to repeal. In his 2018 campaign the health care section of Poliquin's website no longer explicitly mentioned the Affordable Care Act.\nIn 2018 Poliquin co-sponsored legislation that would have cut $7 billion of federal aid to children's health insurance. Veterans affairs In October", "-30.295322711866106" ], [ "American Health Care Reform Act of 2013 Background All Republicans in the United States House of Representatives opposed the passage of the Affordable Care Act (ACA) championed by President Barack Obama. After gaining control of the House following the 2010 elections, they moved to \"repeal and replace\" the ACA. Opponents offered alternatives including the Patient's Choice Act of 2009, Empowering Patients First Act of 2009 and 2013. Rep. Steve Scalise chaired the 175-member Republican Study Committee which produced the draft of the American Health Care Reform Act. Rep. Scalise told reporters, \"I think we’ve done a very effective job of", "-30.23156548639963" ], [ "of their primary policy goals. The Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act, signed into law by President Barack Obama on March 23, 2010, has been one of the most significant pushes for universal health care to become a reality. As of April 2014, more than 10 million Americans have enrolled in healthcare coverage since the Affordable Care Act was launched. Education Democrats favor improving public education by raising school standards and reforming the head start program. They also support universal preschool and expanding access to primary education (some Democrats who support this through charter schools). They call for slashes in", "-30.194405995425768" ], [ "Affordable Care Act (Obamacare) and thinks the country should eventually move to a single-payer healthcare system. Quist opposes the American Health Care Act (AHCA), the House Republican bill to repeal the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act (Obamacare). Quist said that AHCA \"will raise healthcare costs for working Montanans\", which is consistent with an analysis by the Kaiser Family Foundation. Quist has described AHCA as a \"tax cut for millionaires\".\nQuist has criticized inequality in the United States, and argued that tax breaks for the rich exacerbates the inequality. He has called for tax cuts for the working class.\nQuist opposes the privatization of", "-30.1739132769726" ], [ "the American people.\" Health care After voting dozens of times to repeal Obamacare, McMorris Rodgers responded in 2014 to reports that Obama's program had provided coverage to over 600,000 Washington residents by acknowledging that the law's framework would probably remain and that she favored reforms within its structure. In May 2017, she voted for American Health Care Act of 2017, which would have repealed and replaced Obamacare, and defended her vote in a Washington Post op-ed column. For her 2018 re-election campaign, McMorris Rodgers no longer mentioned the Affordable Care Act. LGBT rights McMorris Rodgers opposes same-sex marriage and cosponsored", "-30.097188876461587" ], [ "to repeal and replace Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act (ACA or \"Obamacare\"). Shortly after taking office, he urged Congress to repeal and replace it. In May of that year, the House of Representatives voted to repeal it. Over the course of several months' effort, however, the Senate was unable to pass any version of a repeal bill. Trump has expressed a desire to \"let Obamacare fail\", and the Trump administration has cut the ACA enrollment period in half and drastically reduced funding for advertising and other ways to encourage enrollment. The tax reform Trump signed into law at the", "-30.076347838214133" ], [ "\"Discrimination is a nuanced issue, tough to completely clobber with one order from above. But banning it is smart business–and Obama’s leadership on this specific issue is certainly a step in the right direction.\"\nSome religious groups asked the President to add exemptions for religious groups that function as federal contractors and object to employing LGBT persons, while others opposed such exemptions, viewing them as \"a cover for overt discrimination\". On June 25, 160 leaders of churches, religious institutions, and organizations sent a letter to President Obama asking him to exempt them from the requirements of the anticipated executive order. Without", "-30.072072341805324" ], [ "although the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act could have been better, he supports it because it provides 450,000 uninsured Arkansans with health care. He criticized Blanche Lincoln for watering down the act, claiming she \"sided with the insurance companies and HMOs who gave her campaign more than $800,000.\" Farming and rural communities Halter has made agriculture one of his \"top priorities\", pledging to support farmers, not corporate agribusiness. He believes that too much money is given in subsidies to those who don't need it, whilst failing to provide support for family farmers. Consumer protection and financial reform Halter has", "-30.0177773667383" ], [ "that it would help Congress and the American people judge and follow the progress of the ACA.\nRepublicans argue that the bill is necessary because the Obama Administration has refused to provide information about usage of healthcare.gov and enrollment in new health insurance plans. Heritage Action notes that the bill is \"designed to increase transparency in the operation of American Health Benefits Exchanges\" in response to security and transparency failures, but believes \"the only acceptable solution is to repeal the law entirely and replace it was a market-based, patient-centered alternative.\"\nSome Republicans have also asked for additional information related to Obamacare that", "-29.987031978260347" ], [ "American Health Care Act of 2017, also known as TrumpCare. Comstock stated her opposition was due to her concern over some of its provisions, in particular one that would allow states to let insurers again charge more to customers with preexisting medical problems, while conservative blogger Jim Hoeft suggested that her decision was an attempt to walk a fine line in a district where elections are becoming more favorable to Democrats. Wexton is not yet in favor of moving forward with impeachment, saying she wants to collect facts and evidence first, although she has said, \"The biggest problem facing those", "-29.97669318964472" ], [ "balances a respect for religious diversity against the need to prevent fraud and abuse.\"\nAccording to Grace-Marie Turner of the National Review, that bill would not \"fix\" Obamacare, but would make \"an important statement about bipartisan support for religious liberty.\"\nThe American Humanist Association opposed the bill and urged its members to contact their representatives and tell them to oppose the bill as well. According to the American Humanist Association, \"religious freedom is being misrepresented by those who support this bill, and it’s time for those who really care about our First Amendment rights and the health of children to step up", "-29.96309504075907" ], [ "heartless\" due to a combination of income tax rate reductions (which he argued mainly benefit the wealthy) and large spending cuts that would affect the poor and middle classes. The New York Times editorial board wrote: \"We are also certain that repealing [Obama's healthcare] reform – the Republicans' No. 1 goal – would do enormous damage to all Americans and make it even harder to wrestle down health care costs, the best way to deal with the country's long-term fiscal crisis.\"\nThe Heritage Foundation, a conservative think tank, felt \"The Ryan budget features strong, substantive, market-based reforms to the health entitlements", "-29.95554772943433" ], [ "Barack Obama rely on a \"public option\" in which government insurance would supposedly \"compete\" with private insurers, a move many see as leading to a single-payer system. By contrast, the Wyden-Bennett Healthy Americans Act relies on the private insurance market while imposing a series of regulations to squeeze savings from the private sector. It also requires individuals to buy coverage for themselves, the controversial \"individual mandate.\"\nDavid Brooks of The New York Times provided evidence of the political impediments to HAA, citing an incident witnessed during a May 12, 2009 hearing during which the Senate Finance Committee heard from a \"vast", "-29.86897999305802" ], [ "(Obamacare). His health care policy aims to serve three basic principles: \"One, no American should suffer or die from preventable or treatable illness. Two, no one should go broke because they get sick. And three, no business should go under or lay off employees because it can't keep up with health insurance premiums.\" He does not support pushing for a single-payer health care system.\nOssoff opposed both the March 2017 and May 2017 versions of the American Health Care Act, the House Republican bill that repeals and replaces the Affordable Care Act. Ossoff said that the May 2017 version was worse", "-29.86227263585897" ], [ "are uninsured, noting that taxpayers already pay over $15 billion annually to care for the uninsured. Obama cites cost as the reason so many Americans are without health insurance. Obama's health care plan includes implementing guaranteed eligibility for affordable health care for all Americans, paid for by insurance reform, reducing costs, removing patent protection for pharmaceuticals, and required employer contributions. He would provide for mandatory health care insurance for children.\nIn July 2008 The New York Times reported that Senator Obama has promised to \"bring down premiums by $2,500 for the typical family.\" His advisers have said that the", "-29.856233777769376" ], [ "for their health insurance.\" \nPresident Obama, whose late mother had problems and disagreements with her own insurance carrier before she died from ovarian cancer, followed up on May 8, 2010, by severely criticizing WellPoint for the practice in his weekly radio address.\nAs a result of the intense pressure from the Obama administration, WellPoint agreed to voluntarily end such practices. The nation's other largest health insurance companies only days later followed suit.\nPraising the reform, The New York Times editorial page said in a May 2, 2010 editorial:\nAmericans are already starting to see the benefits of health care reform ... In", "-29.810889430722455" ], [ "in cavalier activity, and providing options for adoption, and helping single mothers if they want to choose to keep the baby'. Those are all things that we put in the Democratic platform for the first time this year, and I think that's where we can find some common ground, because nobody's pro-abortion. I think it's always a tragic situation. We should try to reduce these circumstances.\"\nObama voted for a $100 million education initiative to reduce teen pregnancy and provide contraceptives to young people. Disability rights Obama was the only Democratic presidential candidate to issue an unsolicited statement expressing his views on", "-29.779146901943022" ], [ "over President Barack Obama's health care proposals, the organization's president at the time, Charmaine Yoest, met with representatives of the Obama administration to discuss \"conscience protection\" and the absence of \"explicit language banning abortion funding and coverage\" in the bill. AUL later came out in opposition to the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act, and its affiliated legislative action group launched a targeted campaign in congressional districts of House members who supported the bill. In the two op-eds for the Wall Street Journal, Yoest argued that the health care bill would allow for federal funding of abortions and does not", "-29.77774542593852" ], [ "really I think the worst thing that has happened in this nation since slavery ... And it is in a way, it is slavery in a way, because it is making all of us subservient to the government, and it was never about health care. It was about control.\" As an alternative to the Affordable Care Act, Carson said in 2013: \"Here's my solution. When a person is born, give him a birth certificate, an electronic medical record and a health savings account.\" In arguing that the Affordable Care Act gave the government \"control of the people,\" Carson several times", "-29.75643931014929" ], [ "ACA or \"Obamacare\", with laws to keep the federal government open or to increase the federal debt limit. The organization played an instrumental role in the government shutdown of October 2013. While the shutdown was ongoing Heritage Action continued to urge lawmakers not to negotiate a measure to fully fund the government without dismantling the ACA. The strategy of Heritage Action in tying the ACA to the shutdown, according to then-CEO Michael Needham, was to make President Obama \"feel pain\" because of the shutdown. Senator Orrin Hatch criticized Heritage for warning legislators not to vote for the Senate budget compromise", "-29.74873958650278" ], [ "acknowledges that more work remains to be done to improve America's health care system, noting that many Americans still cannot afford many of their medical treatments and visits, or have no health insurance at all. Recommendations In the article, Obama recommends that after he leaves office, the next president should introduce a \"public option\" for health insurance in parts of the United States where there are few insurers in the marketplace. He also calls on his successor to try to reduce prices of prescription drugs.", "-29.716905111039523" ], [ "October 10, 2009, Obama stated in a speech before the Human Rights Campaign that he would end the ban, but he offered no timetable. Obama said in his 2010 State of the Union Address: \"This year, I will work with Congress and our military to finally repeal the law that denies gay Americans the right to serve the country they love because of who they are.\" This statement was quickly followed up by Defense Secretary Robert Gates and Joint Chiefs Chairman Michael Mullen voicing their support for a repeal of DADT. Don't Ask, Don't Tell Repeal Act of 2010 Democrats", "-29.709003420197405" ], [ "consumer and business confidence, and manufacturing job creation (initially) compared favorably, while government debt, trade deficits, and persons without health insurance did not. Legislation President Trump advocated repealing and replacing the Affordable Care Act (ACA or \"Obamacare\"). The Republican-controlled House passed the American Health Care Act (AHCA) in May 2017, handing it to the Senate, which decided to write its own version of the bill rather than voting on the AHCA. The Senate bill, called the \"Better Care Reconciliation Act of 2017\" (BCRA), failed on a vote of 45–55 in the Senate during July 2017. Other variations also failed to", "-29.66689394763671" ], [ "checks on all commercial sales of guns. Health care Johnson opposes the Affordable Care Act (Obamacare) and has voted to repeal it. During a radio interview in August 2017, Johnson said the following about John McCain's \"thumbs-down\" vote that ultimately killed Republicans' Obamacare repeal bill, \"He has a brain tumor right now, the vote occurred at 1:30 in the morning, so some of that might have factored in.\" A McCain spokesman called the statements \"bizarre and deeply unfortunate.\" Johnson later stated that he was \"disappointed I didn't more eloquently express my sympathy for what Sen. McCain is going through.\"\nIn early", "-29.61739940273401" ], [ "Health Care Act \"is a critical step\" towards the goal of rescuing \"this failing healthcare system\".\nOn May 4, 2017, Walters voted to repeal the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act (Obamacare) and pass the American Health Care Act. In early 2017, Walters tweeted that she was \"committed to protecting patients w/ pre-existing conditions to ensure their access to quality, affordable healthcare\". However, USA Today noted that the version of the American Health Care Act that she voted in favor of allows insurance companies to charge higher premiums to individuals with pre-existing conditions (such as cancer, epilepsy, diabetes and pregnancy). Walters", "-29.556842153033358" ], [ "2013, a majority of the public (52–34%) indicated a desire for \"Congress to implement or tinker with the law rather than repeal it\". After the Supreme Court upheld the individual mandate, a 2012 poll held that \"most Americans (56%) want to see critics of President Obama's health care law drop efforts to block it and move on to other national issues\".A 2014 poll reported that 48.9% of respondents had an unfavorable view of ACA vs. 38.3% who had a favorable view (of more than 5,500 individuals).\nA 2014 poll reported that 26% of Americans support ACA. Another held that 8% of", "-29.536944860694348" ], [ "respondents say that the Affordable Care Act \"is working well the way it is\". In late 2014, a Rasmussen poll reported Repeal: 30%, Leave as is: 13%, Improve: 52%.\nIn 2015, a CBS News / New York Times poll reported that 47% of Americans approved the health care law. This was the first time that a major poll indicated that more respondents approved ACA than disapproved of it. The recurring Kaiser Health Tracking Poll from December 2016 reported that: a) 30% wanted to expand what the law does; b) 26% wanted to repeal the entire law; c) 19% wanted to move", "-29.53425335812426" ], [ "repealing the Affordable Care Act (ACA, or Obamacare). Explaining why the American Health Care Act (the House Republicans' bill to repeal and replace for the Affordable Care Act) failed in March 2017, Barton said, \"Sometimes you're playing fantasy football and sometimes you're in the real game. We knew the president, if we could get a repeal bill to his desk, would almost certainly veto it. This time we knew if it got to the president's desk it would be signed.\" Hurricane Harvey relief Barton voted against Hurricane Harvey relief in 2017. Barton said that he could not support an increase", "-29.508356212405488" ], [ "if we replace or substitute Obamacare, that means it would no longer exist.\"\nOn May 3, 2017, Curbelo tweeted that \"I just reiterated to @HouseGOP leaders that #AHCA in its current form fails to sufficiently protect Americans with pre-existing conditions.\" On May 4, 2017, he voted to repeal the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act and pass the American Health Care Act (AHCA). Explaining his vote, Curbelo said the AHCA was \"not perfect, but that it was important for him to be a part of negotiations\" and that the vote \"is just a step in the legislative process for this bill", "-29.49654136132449" ], [ "puts Americans first.\" Defense In March 2012 she called for cuts in defense spending. Health care Bustos strongly supports the Affordable Care Act (commonly known as Obamacare). In October 2012, her congressional campaign website said, \"The new reform law is not perfect, but makes real improvements in our health care system. It lowers costs for small businesses and makes sure you have coverage that cannot be taken away. It stops insurance companies from denying coverage of preexisting conditions and allows children to stay on their parents' health insurance for longer.\" Bustos, a Catholic, supports legalized abortion. She also supported President", "-29.379157321163802" ], [ "question the fairness of what they feel amount to subsidies for having children, such as the Earned Income Tax Credit (US), free K–12 education paid for by all taxpayers, family medical leave, and other such programs.\nOthers, however, do not believe overpopulation to be a problem in itself; regarding such problems as overcrowding, global warming, and straining food supplies to be problems of public policy and/or technology.\nSome have argued that this sort of conscientiousness is self-eliminating (assuming it is heritable), so by avoiding reproduction for ethical reasons the childfree will only aid deterioration of concern for the environment and future generations.", "-29.377901924424805" ], [ "(Obamacare) with a \"Medicare-for-All\" healthcare system and has said that it is an \"illusion\" that Obamacare is a \"step in the right direction\" toward single-payer healthcare. When asked in August 2016 whether she supported a ballot measure in Colorado to create the first universal healthcare system in the nation (ColoradoCare), Stein said she was not ready to endorse the plan, citing concerns about gaps and loopholes in the ballot measure.\nStein has been critical of subsidizing unhealthy food products and of \"agri-business\" for its advertisements encouraging unhealthy eating. She has said that due to agri-business, Greeks no longer have the healthy", "-29.366421015685773" ], [ "Act (Obamacare). On May 4, 2017, he voted to repeal Obamacare and pass the American Health Care Act.\nHultgren supported a bill that would allow employers to exclude veterans receiving health insurance from the United States Department of Defense or the United States Department of Veterans' Affairs from their list of employees. This would keep their list of employees shorter, allowing some small businesses to fall underneath the 50 full-time employees line that would require them to provide their employees with healthcare under the Affordable Care Act. Identity fraud Hultgren and three other members of Congress sponsored the Protecting Children from", "-29.352210952609312" ], [ "for hardworking Americans\".\nOn May 4, 2017, Blum voted to repeal the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act and pass the revised version of the American Health Care Act. Blum said that the bill had been improved to his liking. He described the bill as \"Trumpcare\" but also as \"Obamacare 2.0\" because \"We've probably changed 10, 20 percent of the bill is all.\" Blum said that \"AHCA will stabilize the market, lower premiums for Iowans, increase choices, reduce taxes, and protect people who have pre-existing conditions.\"\nAsked why he voted for the legislation before the impact of the bill had been assessed", "-29.270300049858633" ], [ "remain in their homes.\nIn June 2015, after the Supreme Court ruled to uphold the ACA’s subsidies, Sanders stated the ruling was not a surprise since no one \"thought that we should look at the ... federal exchanges any differently than the state exchanges\" and stressed that \"today, despite the gains of the Affordable Care Act, which is certainly voted for, we still have 35 million Americans without any health insurance, and many more who are underinsured.\"\nIn December 2016, Sanders was one of five senators to vote against the Obama administration-supported 21st Century Cures Act, legislation increasing funding for disease research", "-29.2663182039978" ], [ "\"partial-birth\" abortions saying the ban didn't sufficiently consider the mother's health. He has, however, expressed support of banning some late-term abortions, provided they include exemptions for the mental and physical health of the mother.\nDuring the third debate during the 2008 presidential election, Obama further detailed his stance on abortion:\n\n\"[...] there surely is some common ground when both those who believe in choice and those who are opposed to abortion can come together and say, 'We should try to prevent unintended pregnancies by providing appropriate education to our youth, communicating that sexuality is sacred and that they should not be engaged", "-29.25760774995433" ], [ "provisions.\" On March 23, 2017 (the seventh anniversary of ACA and one day prior to the vote on the American Health Care Act), former President Obama hailed the successes of the Affordable Care Act, including 20 million more Americans insured, preexisting conditions covered, young people staying on their parents' plans until 26, lowered costs for women's health care and free preventive care. Later versions After the House passed the AHCA, but before any legislation passed the Senate, Republican congressmen gathered with Trump to celebrate in the Rose Garden. In his speech, Trump described the bill as \"very incredibly well-crafted.\" Republican", "-29.250781882961746" ], [ "that parents cover their children, but does not require adults to buy insurance.\nAccording to an October 26, 2008 article in the New York Times, Obama is considering a new payroll tax on large and medium employers who do not already provide their employees with health insurance, and this tax would be used to pay for health care for uninsured people, but Obama has not cited the specific percentage of payroll that the tax would be, or how small a number of employees the employer would have to have in order to be exempt from the tax. Homes, mortgages, mortgage crisis,", "-29.190230213687755" ], [ "promise that Americans who liked their health insurance could keep it.\nIn March 2010, Kucinich announced that he supported the Affordable Care Act after previously indicating opposition. LGBT rights Kucinich supports same-sex marriage. Kucinich voted for the expansion of hate crime laws in the United States and against banning LGBT adoption in Washington, D.C. Trade Kucinich has consistently opposed free trade on the grounds that it costs American jobs and enables abusive working conditions in other countries. Youth rights In a Democratic debate during the 2008 Presidential Election, Kucinich and Mike Gravel were the only two candidates who favored lowering the", "-29.180801320588216" ], [ "bill in July. Health care Yoder opposed the Affordable Care Act (Obamacare). On May 4, 2017, he voted to repeal the act and pass the American Health Care Act. \nIn March 2017, ProPublica reported that Yoder had said that the quality of health care in the country had declined due to the Affordable Care Act, an assertion that ProPublica found to be without proof and in contradiction to some data. Scientific research Yoder has advocated for increased funding for biomedical research. In 2016, Yoder tried to convince \"the most ardent or strident conservatives in the House of Representatives to get", "-29.156631003992516" ], [ "the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act, also known as the \"ACA\" or \"Obamacare\". According to the United States Census Bureau, in 2012 there were 45.6 million people in the US (14.8% of the under-65 population) who were without health insurance. Following the implementation of major ACA provisions in 2013, this figure fell by 18.3 million or 40%, to 27.3 million by 2016 or 8.6% of the under-65 population.\nHowever, under President Trump these gains in healthcare coverage have begun to reverse. The Commonwealth Fund estimated in May 2018 that the number of uninsured increased by 4 million from early 2016", "-29.14088726195041" ], [ "and Affordable Care Act (PPACA). Many pro-choice representatives said they would oppose AHCAA with the Stupak-Pitts language, and proposed to adopt PPACA. Stupak and several supporters said they would oppose PPACA without the amendment, but withdrew their opposition after President Obama promised an executive order to bar such funding. Pro-life groups criticized this action, saying that the executive order would not be effective. Introduction of the amendment Under the Hyde Amendment, the federal government was prohibited from paying for abortion services. The AHCAA was to provide a \"public option\", under which individuals could buy subsidized health insurance from a federal", "-29.051717161841225" ], [ "Juliet Lapidos of The New York Times noted that this might have worked better than Obama's other attempts to expand Medicare, as it would have merely been adding to the already existing healthcare structure. Furthermore, the public has stated since in polls that certain provisions of the Affordable Care Act are agreeable.\nDraper discusses how, in July 2011, when Obama was seeking a \"grand bargain\" that included tax increases and other benefits in order to obtain Republican agreement, a number of Democrats became opposed to the idea. Led by Nancy Pelosi, a group of House Democrats had a closed caucus meeting", "-29.03283045993885" ], [ "Americans who are already paying enough\". Jim Hoffa, president of the Teamsters union, and Senator Jay Rockefeller (D-WV) also expressed opposition to the health plan tax. President Barack Obama expressed support for the proposed tax, saying that \"I do think that giving a disincentive to insurance companies to offer Cadillac plans that don't make people healthier is part of the way that we're going to bring down health care costs for everybody over the long term.\" Republicans in the Finance Committee have called the tax a violation of Obama's campaign promise to not raise taxes on anyone earning less than", "-29.018134588593966" ], [ "Affordable Care Act, due to \"appearance of a conflict of interest\" based on the work of his wife.\nThomas was reconciled to the Catholic Church in the mid-1990s. In his 2007 autobiography, he criticized the church for its failure to grapple with racism in the 1960s during the civil rights movement, saying it was not so \"adamant about ending racism then as it is about ending abortion now\". Thomas is (as of 2019) one of 14 practicing Catholic justices in the Court's history, of 114 justices total, and one of five currently serving (along with Samuel Alito, Brett Kavanaugh, John Roberts,", "-28.98049138377246" ], [ "of the Obama administration's proposal for universal control of the movement of capital.\" Health In a 2016 Twitter post, Carvalho stated, citing Dr. Carlos Armando de Moura Ribeiro, that \"vaccines either kill you or drive you crazy. Never vaccinate your children.\" \nHe has also falsely declared that AIDS does not pose a risk to heterosexuals, basing his arguments on journalist Michael Fumento's book The Myth of Heterosexual Aids. Politics Carvalho spread the debunked conspiracy theory that Barack Obama was not born in the United States. Furthermore, he has claimed that Foro de São Paulo \"is the largest political organization that", "-28.974674479708483" ], [ "have policy reasons for reading the ACA as they do. The Obama administration takes the “broader purpose” approach, contending that Congress would not have set up the insurance program on a basis that is as limited as the challengers contend.\nIn a 2009 paper published in The Journal of Law, Medicine & Ethics, Timothy Jost argued that one way to avoid a commandeering issue with the ACA would be \"by offering tax subsidies for insurance only in states that complied with federal requirements.\" Jost later published an op-ed in the Washington Post arguing that allowing subsidies for Federal exchanges is", "-28.924974293942796" ], [ "of prohibiting federal funding for abortion coverage in insurance plans subsidized under the Affordable Health Care for America Act—a vote which Perriello has claimed was an attempt to keep a promise to constituents in his conservative, mostly rural district. Perriello has since apologized repeatedly for the vote, calling it a \"bad vote and a bad pledge,\" while promising that he sees abortion as a \"fundamental right\" that should be accessible to all women.\nPerriello criticized Northam for having twice voted for George W. Bush—votes that Northam said occurred at a time when he was largely apolitical, prior to his first run", "-28.92337439901894" ], [ "as \"talking white\". However, Obama is also a mixed-race American, with a White American mother.\nObama's presidential victory in the 2008 election and public image prompted a public discussion about whether he would shift the ground of critics of 'acting white'. Commentators John McWhorter and Stephen J. Dubner have said that it might. Yahanna of the Israelite School of Universal Practical Knowledge, described by the Southern Poverty Law Center as a black supremacist sect, did not consider Obama to be black but \"African of white descent\" and advised African Americans not to vote for him.\nObama strongly criticized the idea that achievement", "-28.92202181823086" ], [ "Department of Labor to investigate ways that would \"allow more small businesses to avoid many of the [Affordable Care Act's] costly requirements.\" Under the ACA, small-employer and individual markets had \"gained important consumer protections under the ACA and state health laws — including minimum benefit levels.\" In a December 28, 2017 interview with the New York Times, Trump explained that, \"We've created associations, millions of people are joining associations. ...That were formerly in Obamacare or didn't have insurance. Or didn't have health care. ...It could be as high as 50 percent of the people. So now you have associations, and", "-28.907154464628547" ], [ "described how his daughters and the presidency have made him a feminist. Religious views Obama is a Protestant Christian whose religious views developed in his adult life. He wrote in The Audacity of Hope that he \"was not raised in a religious household\". He described his mother, raised by non-religious parents, as being detached from religion, yet \"in many ways the most spiritually awakened person ... I have ever known\". He described his father as a \"confirmed atheist\" by the time his parents met, and his stepfather as \"a man who saw religion as not particularly useful\". Obama explained how, through", "-28.878443843015702" ], [ "Party, has made single-payer universal health care one of their primary policy goals. The Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act, signed into law by President Obama on March 23, 2010, has been one of the most significant pushes for universal health care to become a reality. By April 2014, more than 10 million Americans had enrolled in health care coverage since the launch of the Affordable Care Act. Education Democrats favor improving public education by raising school standards and reforming the head start program. They also support universal preschool and expanding access to primary education, including through charter schools. They", "-28.87400034343591" ], [ "2014, Johnson criticized the ability of Congress to continue using pre-tax employer contributions to help pay for their medical care, rather than being subject to the full text of the Affordable Care Act that the rest of the nation must follow. Johnson initiated a lawsuit against the Obama Administration offering ACA exemptions to members of Congress and their staff. \"I really do believe that the American people expect, and they have every right to expect, that members of Congress, the political class here in Washington, should be fully subject to all of the rules, all the laws that Congress imposes", "-28.842561942117754" ], [ "not categorizing\" and that going after such violations would turn the U.S. into a \"banana republic, where every president gets prosecuted and every president gets thrown in jail when they’re done with office.\" Affordable Care Act repeal Paul introduced a bill on January 25, 2017, that sought to replace the Affordable Care Act which included each person's having a tax credit of $5,000 and not requiring everyone to have coverage, unlike Obamacare.\nOn March 2, after marching to the House of Representatives side of Capital Hill, Paul was filmed knocking on a door while demanding to see their copy of the", "-28.807453684974462" ], [ "that might mean. And that was included specifically in the law, so that kindergarteners are able to exercise some possible protection against abuse....\" In 2007, in response to a similar attack from Mitt Romney, an Obama spokesperson stated his position that communities should determine the curriculum. The Illinois bill did not call for addressing all sex-related issues in kindergarten classes, and Obama has said that he \"does not support teaching explicit sex education to children in kindergarten.\" HIV Obama has encouraged Democrats to reach out to evangelicals and other religious groups. In December 2006, he joined Sen. Sam Brownback (R-KS)", "-28.796434184419923" ], [ "nation will be catastrophic.\nIn 2010, Brooks signed a pledge sponsored by Americans for Prosperity to not vote for any Global Warming legislation that would raise taxes.\nIn 2017, after Republican controlled Congress failed to repeal the Affordable Care Act, Brooks stated on SiriusXM Patriot, \"We have Republicans who do not want to repeal ObamaCare. They may have campaigned that way, they may have voted that way a couple of years ago when it didn't make any difference.\" Foreign policy Brooks believes that \"we cannot continue to be the world police.\" He has expressed disappointment that the U.S. military didn't leave", "-28.7521666707471" ], [ "“Obamacare has not delivered on countless promises.” It was reported in April 2017 that Upton had “serious concerns” with President Donald Trump’s proposed health-care law because it would mean “potential higher costs to those with pre-existing illnesses.” In May 2017, after the addition of a new amendment written by Upton that provided additional funds for those with pre-existing conditions, he said he would vote for the bill and said he believed it could now pass the House. In July, Upton was among a group of members from both parties who “unveiled a set of solutions” intended to improve health-care coverage.", "-28.732100185137824" ], [ "messing with one number but rather interfering with an entire ecosystem of statistics\" and \"would require a conspiracy theory of massive proportions, involving hundreds if not thousands of people.\" Criticism of the Congressional Budget Office In March 2017, Mulvaney stated that the Congressional Budget Office was not capable of assessing the American Health Care Act, stating that \"[i]f the CBO was right about Obamacare to begin with, there'd be 8 million more people on Obamacare today than there actually are.\" According to FactCheck.Org, \"[t]he CBO actually nailed the overall impact of the law on the uninsured pretty closely...It's true (as", "-28.73001789281261" ], [ "Employee Health Care Protection Act of 2013 Background President Barack Obama, when arguing in favor of healthcare reform and talking about his signature legislation, the Affordable Care Act (ACA), Obama often said that \"if you like your plan, you can keep it\" in reference to individuals' health insurance plans. However, the ten requirements from the ACA meant that some existing health insurance plans were being forced to be discontinued. Provisions of the bill The Employee Health Care Protection Act of 2013 would permit a health insurance issuer that has in effect health insurance coverage in the group market on any", "-28.725755130843027" ], [ "Moines, Iowa. Romney said, \"In my state, I worked on healthcare for some time. We had half a million people without insurance, and I said, 'How can we get those people insured without raising taxes and without having government take over healthcare?' And let me tell you, if we don't do it, the Democrats will. If the Democrats do it, it will be socialized medicine; it'll be government-managed care. It'll be what's known as Hillarycare or Barack Obamacare, or whatever you want to call it.\"\nBy mid-2012, Obamacare had become the colloquial term used by both supporters and opponents. In contrast,", "-28.716475479013752" ], [ "criticized the amendment, stating it could mean that people whose health insurance currently covers abortions will lose that service. Those who voted against the amendment argued that, because premiums of private individuals would pay for the abortions, they were distinguished from situations covered by the Hyde Amendment.\nThe American Civil Liberties Union joined the opposition to the amendment, saying it \"jeopardizes the abortion coverage that millions of women currently have\".\nAccording to the Guttmacher Institute, 13% of all abortions in 2001 were directly billed to private insurance companies. Some in the debate used this statistic to argue that relatively few women seemed", "-28.68529828567989" ], [ "market entry barriers for drug providers and improved access to imported medication corresponding to safety standards.\nExplaining how he would address the problem of ensuring the people that would lose their insurance coverage if Obamacare were repealed, Trump said, \"We have to come up, and we can come up with many different plans. In fact, plans you don't even know about will be devised because we're going to come up with plans—health care plans—that will be so good. And so much less expensive both for the country and for the people. And so much better.\" His plan has been criticized by", "-28.685278020013357" ], [ "protections for individuals with preexisting conditions. A number of Republican candidates claimed to support provisions of the Affordable Care Act, such as protections for preexisting conditions, even though they supported efforts that either weakened or eliminated those provisions. In the final weeks of the campaign, Democrats indicated their desire to keep the focus of the campaign on Republican efforts to repeal provisions of Obamacare through the proposed American Health Care Act of 2017. A Gallup poll conducted days before the election found that voters considered healthcare and the economy to be the top issues among registered voters, though many voters", "-28.678605846420396" ], [ "\"in keeping with the commonwealth's longtime practice of approving specialty plates with all manner of political and social messages.\"\nKaine previously criticized the Obama administration for \"not providing a 'broad enough religious employer exemption'\" in the contraceptive mandate of the Affordable Care Act, but praised a 2012 amendment to the regulations that required insurers to provide birth control to employees when an employer was an objecting religious organization.\nIn 2005, when running for governor, Kaine said he favored reducing abortions by: (1) \"Enforcing the current Virginia restrictions on abortion and passing an enforceable ban on partial birth abortion that protects the life", "-28.661645566346124" ], [ "end of his first year in office effectively repealed the individual health insurance mandate that was a major element of the Obamacare health insurance system; this repeal is scheduled to be implemented in 2019. Social issues Trump favored modifying the 2016 Republican platform opposing abortion, to allow for exceptions in cases of rape, incest, and circumstances endangering the health of the mother. He has said he is committed to appointing pro-life justices. He says he personally supports \"traditional marriage\" but considers the nationwide legality of same-sex marriage a \"settled\" issue. Despite the statement by Trump and the White House saying", "-28.659335881180596" ], [ "assault weapons.\" Health care Northam supports the Affordable Care Act (\"Obamacare\"), although he has argued that it is in need of improvement. After Republican attempts to repeal the law, Northam called for members of Congress to \"put a stop to the uncertainty and work on stabilizing and building on the Affordable Care Act's progress.\"\nNortham opposes a single-payer healthcare system in Virginia, preferring that such a plan be run by the federal government, but supports the creation of a state-run public health insurance option.\nOn June 7, 2018, Northam signed a bipartisan bill expanding Medicaid in Virginia. This fulfilled one of his", "-28.653158264482045" ], [ "Trump did state he believed in exceptions of rape and incest as well as to saving the life of the mother on his anti abortion stance.\nIn a 2015 poll, 6 out of 10 moderate Republicans believed that abortion should be legal in most or all instances. Civil rights Republicans, especially Republican women, are generally against affirmative action for women and some minorities, often describing it as a 'quota system', and believing that it is not meritocratic and that it is counter-productive socially by only further promoting discrimination. Many Republicans support race-neutral admissions policies in universities, but support taking into account", "-28.650322637986392" ], [ "policies being written into law. African Americans support LGB civil liberties more than their white counterparts. Some theorize that this is because of conservative churches' role in advocating for African American civil liberties, and that this advocacy has spilled over onto the LGB population as a result.\nEducation also has an impact on homophobic attitudes within the black community. This impacts their views towards sexuality. This also follows a nationwide trend, as the more educated a person is the more they are accepting of non-heterosexual sexuality. Also increased education typically means less affiliation to a specific conservative religion or denomination, which", "-28.648884226451628" ], [ "Care Act, citing its inclusion of a provision mandating that companies provide access to the morning-after pill, claimed by his companies to be an abortifacient.\nIn September 2012, Hobby Lobby filed a lawsuit against the United States over new regulations requiring health insurance provided by employers to cover emergency contraceptives, stating: \"[T]he Green family's religious beliefs forbid them from participating in, providing access to, paying for, training others to engage in, or otherwise supporting abortion-causing drugs and devices\". Hobby Lobby argued that the Free Exercise Clause of the First Amendment to the United States Constitution and the Religious Freedom Restoration Act", "-28.64090553310234" ], [ "five-page ruling agreed with Scott's argument that only the Commission on Ethics “has constitutional authority to investigate Mr. Hinkle's complaint.” Health care Scott has been a harsh critic of the Affordable Care Act, also known as Obamacare, but in his 2018 Senate campaign stopped harshly criticizing the bill. In 2017, Scott said that individuals with preexisting conditions should be protected. In June 2018, when the Trump administration sought to remove provisions of the Affordable Care Act protecting individuals with preexisting conditions, Scott declined to criticize the administration. Scott said that he did not know enough about it to comment.\nScott has", "-28.63654972256336" ], [ "Obama has moderate to high rankings with the Secular Coalition for America whereas the majority of the Republican candidates have ratings in the low-to-failing range.\nAlthough a diverse group themselves, atheists and secular people may include individuals who are fiscally conservative. In this case, fiscally conservative atheists and secularists will come together due to their opposition to the religiously bound social policies of the Christian right. There is still a social stigma relating to atheism in the nation and polls show that a majority of the American people would be more comfortable voting for a Muslim or gay candidate than an", "-28.634447599819396" ], [ "in, parenting is not going on. In the old days, you couldn't hooky school because every drawn shade was an eye. And before your mother got off the bus and to the house, she knew exactly where you had gone, who had gone into the house, and where you got on whatever you had on and where you got it from. Parents don't know that today.\nIn the speech, Cosby says that African Americans should no longer blame discrimination, segregation, governmental institutions, or others for higher unemployment rates among blacks or the racial achievement gap; rather, they have their own culture", "-28.62097459900542" ], [ "a shrinking number of people do really well, while a growing number of Americans barely get by. Or we can restore an economy where everyone gets a fair shot, everyone does their fair share, and everyone plays by the same set of rules.” Obama reiterated his call for Congress to extend the payroll tax cut through the end of the year, a benefit to working-class families, urged Congress in his speech to make college more affordable and warned colleges and universities that they risk losing federal funding if they do not keep tuition costs down. The President called upon Congress", "-28.613018773001386" ] ]

[ "Because USB protocol follows master-slave convention. One device is \"ruling\" USB bus and other devices must follow. If you connect two computers that way, both would want to be \"masters\". There is also electrical problem, because both PC are providing power to 5V lines. If that circuitry is badly designed it could just fail when there is voltage from the other side present. There are however special USB cables designed exactly for data transfer. They act like external network card.", "Just like you can't connect to garden hoses together and transfer water between the two houses. It was only meant for the water to flow in 1 direction.", "An obscure part of the USB 3.0 spec actually includes support for that. It works because the USB 3 system is smart enough to know not to push power when connected to another compatible device. However as far as I know this has only been implemented in [one case]( URL_0 ), and so far no operating systems support it for basic file transfer.", "USB is tricky, because it was specifically designed to be one way, but you can easily use an Ethernet cable. In the past, this required a crossover cable, which is basically an Ethernet cable with some of the pins switched on one end so that each computer is on equal footing. Nowadays, Windows automatically recognizes that you are plugging into another PC, so you can just use an ordinary Ethernet cable.", "But you can..... get a system transfer cable at any office supply store. Or use Ethernet cable or wireless networking", "use an ethernet cable and set up a local network using IP addresses 192.168.1.1 and 192.168.1.2", "Did you ever see Requiem for a Dream? It's kind of like that scene with Jennifer Connelly.", "You can do this with Firewire and Thunderbolt-- at least on Macs. They won't appear as external drives, though, but instead they'll connect through networking. Or-- again, on a Mac-- you can put one of the computers into \"target disk mode\" which will make it appear as an external drive. Part of what might be confusing you is, these ports don't just hook into the hard drive. When you plug a USB hard drive into your computer, it's not like the internal drive and external drive are two buckets, and the USB cable is a hose connecting them. It's a lot more complicated. There's a whole bunch of computer stuff in both the computer and the external hard drive that are talking to each other, and figuring out how to transfer data. So you can only do that if Firewire and Thunderbolt because it's all been designed to work that way. USB was not designed that way.", "OMFG man, if you can take that concept between any given two devices you're gonna be rich! Don't tell anyone else about it, just keep researching and network yourself with the right people.", "Because that's what Ethernet cables are literally for." ]

[ [ "cable plugs, allowing devices with USB 3.0 Micro-B ports to run at USB 2.0 speeds on USB 2.0 Micro-B cables. However, it is not possible to plug a USB 3.0 Micro-B plug into a USB 2.0 Micro-B receptacle, due to a physically larger connector. Backward compatibility USB 3.0 and USB 2.0 (or earlier) Type-A plugs and receptacles are designed to interoperate.\nUSB 3.0 Type-B receptacles, such as those found on peripheral devices, are larger than in USB 2.0 (or earlier versions), and accept both the larger USB 3.0 Type-B plug and the smaller USB 2.0 (or earlier) Type-B plug. USB 3.0 Type B plugs are larger than USB 2.0 (or earlier) Type-B", "-34.04842723615002" ], [ "requires a special proprietary bridge cable. A directly connected pin-to-pin USB type A cable does not work, as USB does not support such a type of communication. In fact, attempting to do so may even damage the connecting computers, as it will effectively short the two computers' power supplies together by connecting their 5V and GND lines. This can possibly destroy one or both machines and cause a fire hazard since the two machines may not have exactly the same USB source voltage. Therefore, Direct Cable Connection over USB is not possible; a USB link cable must be used, as", "-33.219791216775775" ], [ "typical laptop there are several USB ports, an external monitor port (VGA, DVI, HDMI or Mini DisplayPort), an audio in/out port (often in form of a single socket) is common. It is possible to connect up to three external displays to a 2014-era laptop via a single Mini DisplayPort, utilizing multi-stream transport technology. Apple, in a 2015 version of its MacBook, transitioned from a number of different I/O ports to a single USB-C port. This port can be used both for charging and connecting a variety of devices through the use of aftermarket adapters. Google, with its updated version of", "-33.004290880249755" ], [ "cables have different ends: A and B, with different physical connectors for each. Each format has a plug and receptacle defined for each of the A and B ends. USB cables have plugs, and the corresponding receptacles are on the computers or electronic devices. In common practice, the A end is usually the standard format, and the B side varies over standard, mini, and micro. The mini and micro formats also provide for USB On-The-Go with a hermaphroditic AB receptacle, which accepts either an A or a B plug. On-The-Go allows USB between peers without discarding the directed topology by", "-32.997588386700954" ], [ "the receptacle, with no screws, clips, or thumb-turns as some connectors use.\nThe different A and B plugs prevent accidentally connecting two power sources. However, some of this directed topology is lost with the advent of multi-purpose USB connections (such as USB On-The-Go in smartphones, and USB-powered Wi-Fi routers), which require A-to-A, B-to-B, and sometimes Y/splitter cables.\nUSB connector types multiplied as the specification progressed. The original USB specification detailed standard-A and standard-B plugs and receptacles. The connectors were different so that users could not connect one computer receptacle to another. The data pins in the standard plugs are recessed compared to", "-32.86779810745065" ], [ "plug into its receptacle incorrectly. The USB specification requires that the cable plug and receptacle be marked so the user can recognize the proper orientation. The USB-C plug is reversible. USB cables and small USB devices are held in place by the gripping force from the receptacle, with no screws, clips, or thumb-turns as other connectors use. \nThe different A and B plugs prevent accidentally connecting two power sources. However, some of this directed topology is lost with the advent of multi-purpose USB connections (such as USB On-The-Go in smartphones, and USB-powered Wi-Fi routers), which", "-32.84909213590436" ], [ "require A-to-A, B-to-B, and sometimes Y/splitter cables. See the USB On-The-Go connectors section below for a more detailed summary description. \nThere are cables with A plugs on both ends, which may be valid if the cable includes, for example, a USB host-to-host transfer device with 2 ports. Durability The standard connectors were designed to be more robust than many past connectors. This is because USB is hot-pluggable, and the connectors would be used more frequently, and perhaps with less care, than previous connectors.\nStandard USB has a minimum rated lifetime of 1,500 cycles of insertion and removal, the mini-USB receptacle increases", "-32.31430675368756" ], [ "solution) which is similar to Synergy. For devices without multi-computer support, the receiver and input devices can be moved together from one computer to another, maintaining their paired status after being unplugged, as the pairing information is held in the little USB receiver—this is much simpler than transferring the peripheral from one receiver to another by changing the setup in software, and also avoids the limitation to 45 pairings of older devices. This also allows the use of peripherals on computing devices that do not support Unifying Software, e.g. devices supporting USB OTG with operating systems such as Android: first", "-32.0623193909978" ], [ "portable Macintoshes have used the MagSafe connection for their power cords. The cable attaches to the computer magnetically, rather than mechanically, so an unexpected yank on the cord will merely disconnect the cable, rather than send the delicate laptop flying. Networking Early Macs used the built-in serial ports for LocalTalk, which set up a fast (at the time) network between two machines. Later, a modified AUI port was added named Apple Attachment Unit Interface to provide a more user friendly version of 10BASE2 cabling and adapters, with Apple's version known as FriendlyNet. As this was an implementation of an Ethernet", "-31.84480779839214" ], [ "can also be used). The USB 3.0 Micro-B plug effectively consists of a standard USB 2.0 Micro-B cable plug, with an additional 5 pins plug \"stacked\" to the side of it. In this way, cables with smaller 5 pin USB 2.0 Micro-B plugs can be plugged into devices with 10 contact USB 3.0 Micro-B receptacles and achieve backward compatibility.\nUSB cables exist with various combinations of plugs on each end of the cable, as displayed below in the USB cables matrix. USB On-The-Go connectors USB On-The-Go (OTG) introduces the concept of a device performing both master and slave roles. All current", "-31.671244542587374" ], [ "lanes, two sideband pins, and‍—‌for dock, detachable device and permanent cable applications only‍—‌two USB 2.0 pins and one configuration pin can be used for Alternate Mode transmission. The modes are configured using VDMs through the configuration channel. Proprietary connectors and formats Manufacturers of personal electronic devices might not include a USB standard connector on their product for technical or marketing reasons. Some manufacturers provide proprietary cables that permit their devices to physically connect to a USB standard port. Full functionality of proprietary ports and cables with USB standard ports is not assured; for example, some devices only use the USB connection", "-31.663572653837036" ], [ "However, if one chooses to forego the \"no technical knowledge needed\" aspect of USB and think as an engineer, it is possible to use passive USB extender cables to assemble a cable length approaching 15 feet and use it without problems. Despite being nonstandard, these extender cables are readily available from many sources.\nAnother class of USB extenders are actually USB hubs with a length of cable permanently attached. These do comply with the USB standard, if not more than a limited number of them are connected together. However, they require power from the USB connection and so", "-31.642830372788012" ], [ "a null modem adapter connected to a standard serial cable) must be used to connect each of the two computers to communicate properly. Such connection uses PPP protocol. DCC with parallel port If the parallel ports are used, Windows supports standard or basic 4-bit cable (commonly known as LapLink cable), Enhanced Capabilities Port (ECP) cable, or Universal Cable Module (UCM) cable (which was known as DirectParallel cable by Parallel Technologies). DCC with IR Infrared communication ports, like the ones found on laptop computers (such as IrDA), can also be used. DCC with USB Connecting any two computers using USB", "-30.915162742661778" ], [ "of the USB system without the need for users to calculate cable lengths or enforce technical rules.\nThe intention of USB is to make sure any standard-compliant cable can be used to connect any two compatible devices, and the connection will work, without question. To this end, the USB standard limits the maximum length of any compliant (and thus logo-bearing) USB cable (to about 15 feet), and up to this length, users are expected to buy a longer cable rather than extending a shorter one they already have. For a longer cable length, a USB hub is required. ", "-30.845161277393345" ], [ "temporarily transfer the host role to the B-device.\nOTG devices attached either to a peripheral-only B-device or a standard/embedded host have their role fixed by the cable, since in these scenarios it is only possible to attach the cable one way. USB-C Developed at roughly the same time as the USB 3.1 specification, but distinct from it, the USB-C Specification 1.0 was finalized in August 2014 and defines a new small reversible-plug connector for USB devices. The USB-C plug connects to both hosts and devices, replacing various Type-A and Type-B connectors and cables with a standard meant to be future-proof.\nThe 24-pin double-sided", "-30.69946223939769" ], [ "have unique connectors\nto avoid accidental mis-plugging of incompatible devices. For example, it is not possible to plug a parallel SCSI disk into an FC-AL backplane, nor to connect a cable between an SSA initiator and an FC-AL enclosure. Mixing different speeds SCSI devices in the same SCSI transport family are generally backward-compatible. Within the parallel SCSI family, for example, it is possible to connect an Ultra-3 SCSI hard disk to an Ultra-2 SCSI controller albeit with reduced speed and feature set. Mixing Single-Ended and Low Voltage Differential However, there are some compatibility issues with parallel SCSI buses. Ultra-2,", "-30.60976961666529" ], [ "can be comparable to legacy computers even on machines with modern parts if the flash drive transfers such speeds. One way to solve this is to use a USB hard drive, as they generally give better performance than flash drives regardless of the connector. Windows Although many live USBs rely on booting an open-source operating system such as Linux, it is possible to create live USBs for Windows by using Diskpart or WinToUSB.", "-30.603043963434175" ], [ "connector provides four power-ground pairs, two differential pairs for USB 2.0 data bus (though only one pair is implemented in a USB-C cable), four pairs for SuperSpeed data bus (only two pairs are used in USB 3.1 mode), two \"sideband use\" pins, VCONN +5 V power for active cables, and a configuration pin for cable orientation detection and dedicated biphase mark code (BMC) configuration data channel. Type-A and Type-B adaptors and cables are required for older devices to plug into USB-C hosts. Adapters and cables with a USB-C receptacle are not allowed.\nFull-featured USB-C 3.1 cables are electronically marked cables that contain a", "-30.564417949703056" ], [ "adapter such as a PCMCIA Card or USB dongle. Built-in wireless networking might be enabled by default, without the owner realizing it, thus broadcasting the laptop's accessibility to any computer nearby.\nModern operating systems such as Linux, macOS, or Microsoft Windows make it fairly easy to set up a PC as a wireless LAN \"base station\" using Internet Connection Sharing, thus allowing all the PCs in the home to access the Internet through the \"base\" PC. However, lack of knowledge among users about the security issues inherent in setting up such systems often may allow others nearby access to the", "-30.52298607735429" ], [ "inside data centers. Conventional PCI-E data cables carry data at up to eight gigabits per second, while networking cables reach 40 Gbit/s. The latest version of the USB standard tops out at ten Gbit/s. The technology does not directly replace existing cables in that it requires a separate circuit board to interconvert electrical and optical signals. Its advanced speed offers the potential of reducing the number of cables that connect blades on a rack and even of separating processor, storage and memory into separate blades to allow more efficient cooling and dynamic configuration.\nGraphene photodetectors have the potential to surpass germanium devices", "-30.47100806950766" ], [ "It can accept either a mini-A plug or a mini-B plug, while mini-A adapters allows connection to standard-A USB cables coming from peripherals. The standard OTG cable has a mini-A plug on one end and a mini-B plug on the other end (it can not have two plugs of the same type).\nThe device with a mini-A plug inserted becomes an OTG A-device, and the device with a mini-B plug inserted becomes a B-device (see above). The type of plug inserted is detected by the state of the ID pin (the mini-A plug's ID pin is grounded, while the mini-B plug's", "-30.458518400308094" ], [ "seen in the Microsoft knowledge base article 814982. However, with a USB link cable, a program which supports data transfer using that cable must be used. Typically, such a program is supplied with the USB link cable. The DCC wizard or Windows Explorer cannot be used to transfer files over a USB link cable. Windows Vista changes Windows Vista drops support for the Direct cable connection feature as ethernet, Wi-Fi and Bluetooth have become ubiquitous on current generation computers. To transfer files and settings, Windows Vista includes Windows Easy Transfer, which uses a proprietary USB-to-USB bridge cable known as", "-30.44045452166756" ], [ "systems, although when the device is connected it grants access to its internal flash memory and any memory card slots as though they were USB Mass Storage devices (on all models except PRS-500s that have not received the free EPUB upgrade from Sony), allowing the user to transfer files directly. See the Third party tools section below for a third-party software utility that provides comprehensive support for MS Windows, Apple Mac OS X, and Linux. Note if the device is locked, using the optional 4 digit pin it will not mount via USB, the lock option needs to be disabled", "-30.381960769416764" ], [ "and cable specification. Type-C cables and connectors are reversible and are electrically backward compatible, but not physically backward compatible, with previous USB plugs and receptacles. New-to-existing cables and adapters have been defined. Some USB Type-C cables and connectors can support \"USB performance at SuperSpeed USB 10 Gbps (USB 3.1) and USB Power Delivery up to 100W\" although USB Type-C cables are only required to support USB 2.0 (non-SuperSpeed) data rates and 3 A (60 W at 20 V) of current. Such minimum-specification USB Type-C cables are sometimes referred to as \"charge\" cables because, for most mobile device battery charging", "-30.281640870845877" ], [ "production after December 2013 for other than specialty applications. 44-pin variant A 44-pin variant PATA connector is used for 2.5 inch drives inside laptops. The pins are closer together and the connector is physically smaller than the 40-pin connector. The extra pins carry power. 80-wires variant ATA's cables have had 40 wires for most of its history (44 conductors for the smaller form-factor version used for 2.5\" drives—the extra four for power), but an 80-wire version appeared with the introduction of the UDMA/66 mode. All of the additional wires in the new cable are ground wires, interleaved with the previously", "-30.248327336506918" ], [ "one of the devices to be connected to the two normally unused pins in the connector to allow both to be connected at once through a special splitter cable. This configuration is common on IBM/Lenovo Thinkpad notebooks among many others.\nThe PS/2 keyboard interface is electrically the same as the 5-pin DIN connector on earlier AT keyboards, and keyboards designed for one can be connected to the other with a simple wiring adapter. Such wiring adapters and adapter cables were once commonly available for sale. Note that IBM PC and PC XT keyboards use a different unidirectional protocol with the same", "-30.234386784024537" ], [ "jack, so that the user can connect external headphones or amplified speaker systems for listening to music or other audio. Expansion cards In the past, a PC Card (formerly PCMCIA) or ExpressCard slot for expansion was often present on laptops to allow adding and removing functionality, even when the laptop is powered on; these are becoming increasingly rare since the introduction of USB 3.0. Some internal subsystems such as: Ethernet, Wi-Fi, or a wireless cellular modem can be implemented as replaceable internal expansion cards, usually accessible under an access cover on the bottom of the laptop. The standard for such", "-30.199983663056628" ], [ "previous one allowing for a slimmer form factor. Apple Lightning cables have duplicate pins on both sides of the plug, this makes the plug reversible. Various accessories are available to connect the Apple Lightning connector to the older 30-pin dock connector or USB, although not all old accessories will work, because the lightning connector cannot handle analog signals.", "-30.09340020385571" ], [ "while two lanes implement bidirectional USB 3.1 Gen 2 channel between the PC and the headset. Unlike the classic DisplayPort USB-C alternate mode, VirtualLink has no USB 2.0 channels active, instead providing a higher speed USB 3.1 Gen 2 (SuperSpeed+) over the same A6, A7, B7, B6 pins. VirtualLink also requires the PC to provide 15 to 27 Watts of power. No information pertaining to VirtualLink alternate mode compatibility with USB4 (and so Thunderbolt 3 alternate mode) has been published, as of April 2019.\nTo achieve 6 high-speed lanes over USB-C, VirtualLink requires special cables that conform to version 1.3 of", "-29.995379175408743" ], [ "is limited to 400 mA if it has no external power connection and is drawing all its power from a host computer. With each device drawing 100 mA, it is therefore only possible to run four low-power decorations.\nIf instead a USB hub has an external power adapter, it may be able to support much higher power loads. In many cases, the powered hub may not even need to be connected to a computer host, but can serve as a stand-alone power source for USB decorations that need only DC power. Decorative usage USB decorations may have no useful functionality other than", "-29.969446272938512" ], [ "adapter, without the need for any intervening controller. External variants of these native drive protocols are extremely similar to the internal protocols, but are often expanded to carry power (such as eSATAp and the SCSI Single Connector Attachment) and to use a more durable physical connector. A host adapter with external port may be necessary to connect a drive, if a computer lacks an available external port. Direct attach serial interfaces USB or FireWire connections are typically used to attach consumer class external hard drives to a computer. Unlike SCSI, eSATA, or SAS these require circuitry to convert the", "-29.92283538000993" ], [ "combined with the small size of the contacts, prevented connections in some cases. Also, the plug's 'hook' tended to lose its hooking capability, making it even easier to accidentally lose connection. The data cables had to be original in most cases.", "-29.914343254018604" ], [ "a cable with a micro USB-B connector for connecting to a mobile phone. This cable can be either captive (permanently attached to the power supply) or detachable. If detachable, the cable must connect to the power supply via a standard USB type-A plug.\nThe MoU which defines the common external power supply as well as the related EC standardisation mandate both allow for the use of the common external power supply also with phones not equipped with a micro-USB receptacle. \"... [MoU] 4.2.1 ... if a manufacturer makes available an Adaptor from the Micro-USB connector of a Common EPS to", "-29.876864586403826" ], [ "over USB. The MIDI capability is extended to allow up to sixteen simultaneous virtual MIDI cables, each of which can carry the usual MIDI sixteen channels and clocks.\nUSB is competitive for low-cost and physically adjacent devices. However, Power over Ethernet and the MIDI plug standard have an advantage in high-end devices that may have long cables. USB can cause ground loop problems between equipment, because it connects ground references on both transceivers. By contrast, the MIDI plug standard and Ethernet have built-in isolation to 500V or more. eSATA/eSATAp The eSATA connector is a more robust SATA connector, intended for connection", "-29.851689346018247" ], [ "connector are then pushed together, causing it to grip the wires. The most important advantage of this system is that it does not require a mating half to be fitted to the wire ends, therefore saving space and cost inside miniaturised equipment. See flexible flat cable. Hard disk drives ZIF tape connections are used for connecting Parallel ATA and Serial ATA disk drives (mostly drives in the 1.8-inch form factor). PATA hard drives with ZIF-style connectors were used primarily in the design of ultra-portable notebooks. They have since been phased out, as SATA has a relatively small-form-factor connector by", "-29.80905794107821" ], [ "their own, Phone Companion is not required for file transfers. What it offers users is a visible shortcut to the transfer activities, which users may have been unaware previously.\nDue to iOS’ security policies, it is not possible to transfer files from a PC to an iPhone or an iPad using File Explorer.", "-29.717834212089656" ], [ "pairs, which additionally require shielding (typically, shielded twisted pair but twinax is also mentioned by the specification). Thus, to support SuperSpeed data transmission, cables contain twice as many wires and are thus larger in diameter.\nThe USB 1.1 standard specifies that a standard cable can have a maximum length of 5 meters (16 ft 5 in) with devices operating at full speed (12 Mbit/s), and a maximum length of 3 meters (9 ft 10 in) with devices operating at low speed (1.5 Mbit/s).\nUSB 2.0 provides for a maximum cable length of 5 meters (16 ft 5 in) for devices running at high speed (480 Mbit/s). The primary reason for this limit is", "-29.65488504350651" ], [ "have been sold through Vocamaster as English-learning tools. Expandability The GP2X had an expansion \"EXT\" port on the base of the unit into which a range of special cables (for USB host, TV-out etc.) or break out box could be plugged, allowing four USB devices to be connected to and used with the GP2X directly. The only thing limiting what can be used through this interface is the availability of drivers.\nThe connector used to expand the GP2X is hard to come by on its own but it is used with a few other devices. The Samsung e810/e730 and LG U8110/20/30/36/38", "-29.652272269653622" ], [ "this method.\nLike the Wi-Fi USB Connector software itself, ICS offers the user no configurable options. This means that ICS may not function as expected, or at all, in complex network environments. In addition, Windows cannot handle multiple ICS configurations simultaneously, or in other words, only a single application or network device can use and configure ICS at one time. This means that if your network is currently relying on ICS or you use software that utilizes it (such as Windows Media Center Extender for the Xbox 360), you may not be able to use the Wi-Fi USB Connector at all.", "-29.625274497113423" ], [ "a USB 2.0 Standard-B receptacle, due to a physically larger connector. The Standard-B is used at the device side.\nSince USB 2.0 and USB 3.0 ports may coexist on the same machine and they look similar, the USB 3.0 specification recommends that the Standard-A USB 3.0 receptacle have a blue insert (Pantone 300C color). The same color-coding applies to the USB 3.0 Standard-A plug.\nUSB 3.0 also introduced a new Micro-B cable plug, which consists of a standard USB 1.x/2.0 Micro-B cable plug, with an additional 5-pin plug \"stacked\" inside it. That way, the USB 3.0 Micro-B host connector preserved its backward compatibility with the USB 1.x/2.0 Micro-B", "-29.571511310059577" ], [ "While some manufacturers are competing for the smallest size with the biggest memory, some manufacturers differentiate their products by using elaborate housings, which are often bulky and make the drive difficult to connect to the USB port. Because the USB port connectors on a computer housing are often closely spaced, plugging a flash drive into a USB port may block an adjacent port. Such devices may carry the USB logo only if sold with a separate extension cable. Such cables are USB-compatible but do not conform to the USB standard.\nUSB flash drives have been integrated into other commonly carried items,", "-29.536666158674052" ], [ "with the target device (except for specific files which the host might be modifying/accessing). In practice, therefore, when a USB host computer has mounted an MSC partition, it assumes absolute control of the storage, which then may not be safely modified by the device without risk of data corruption until the host computer has severed the connection. Furthermore, because the host computer has full control over the connected storage device, there is a risk that the host computer may corrupt the file system, reformat it to a file system not supported by the USB device, or otherwise modify it in", "-29.527567212004215" ], [ "MB/s, respectively. Bluetooth sideloading Bluetooth’s OBEX/OPP profiles allow for file transfer between a PC and a mobile device. Using this option is slightly more complicated than using a USB connection as the two devices have to be paired first. Also, unlike the familiar drag and drop that is usually available via USB, Bluetooth implementation is specific to the Bluetooth transceiver and drivers being used.\nFiles that are sideloaded to mobile devices via Bluetooth are often received as messages, in the same way that SMS texts would be received. While these files can be saved to any storage medium, their initial", "-29.510579077075818" ], [ "power connector designed to detach easily when yanked. These features were later brought over to the MacBook. The optical drive was reduced in size in order to fit into the slimmer MacBook Pro, hence it runs slower than the optical drive in the PowerBook G4 and cannot write to dual layer DVDs.\n\nBoth the original 15- and 17-inch model MacBook Pros come with ExpressCard/34 slots, which replace the PC Card slots found in the PowerBook G4. All first generation 15-inch models have two USB 2.0 ports and one FireWire 400 port, while the 17-inch models have three USB 2.0 ports as", "-29.483327520021703" ], [ "electromagnetic interference caused by USB 3.0. Connectors A USB 3.0 Standard-A receptacle accepts either a USB 3.0 Standard-A plug or a USB 2.0 Standard-A plug. Conversely, it is possible to plug a USB 3.0 Standard-A plug into a USB 2.0 Standard-A receptacle. This is a principle of backward compatibility. The Standard-A is used for connecting to a computer port, at the host side.\nA USB 3.0 Standard-B receptacle accepts either a USB 3.0 Standard-B plug or a USB 2.0 Standard-B plug. Backward compatibility applies to connecting a USB 2.0 Standard-B plug into a USB 3.0 Standard-B receptacle. However, it is not possible to plug a USB 3.0 Standard-B plug into", "-29.440379149556975" ], [ "provide the full 500 mA (milliamperes) required for the device to work from one USB interface only.\nIf the connection is frequently disrupted or is unstable (or usable at slow speeds only), the two plug USB cable should be used instead.\nThe E220 antenna is internal; the USB cable does not act as an antenna. The external antenna connector is not accessible without opening the device (voiding any warranty). It is still possible to connect an external antenna without opening the device and using the (internal) external antenna connector. Together with a high gain antenna like an LPDA or an OMNI booster", "-29.407997210117173" ], [ "peripheral can use any available receptacle. USB takes full advantage of the additional processing power that can be economically put into peripheral devices so that they can manage themselves; USB devices often do not have user-adjustable interface settings. The USB interface is \"hot pluggable\", meaning devices can be exchanged without rebooting the host computer. Small devices can be powered directly from the USB interface, displacing extra power supply cables. Because use of the USB logos is only permitted after compliance testing, the user can have confidence that a USB device will work as expected without extensive interaction with settings", "-29.38607776927529" ], [ "or it may be wired with pins 2 and 5, as a straight through cable from the BT plug (which uses pins 2 and 5 for the line, unlike RJ11, which uses pins 3 and 4). Thus cables are not in general compatible between different phones, as the phone base may have a socket with pins 2 and 5 (requiring a straight through cable), or have an RJ11 socket (requiring a crossover cable).\nWhen modular connectors are used, the latch release of the connector should be on the ridge side of flat phone wire in order to maintain polarity.\nThough four wires", "-29.36857003736077" ], [ "can be used to synchronize distant, non-connected PCs. A list of the files contained in the source folder is stored in a small package file, that can be kept on a USB stick. The package is then synchronized with the target folder on another computer. Files only present or modified on the target computer will be packed into the package. A package hence contains only the files that are different and not the entire folder, which makes it a tool to keep non-connected computers synchronized (e.g. a PC at work and a PC at home). Reporting and printing Results form", "-29.36195414068061" ], [ "OTG devices are required to have one, and only one, USB connector: a Micro-AB receptacle. (In the past, before the development of Micro-USB, On-The-Go devices used Mini-AB receptacles).\nThe Micro-AB receptacle is capable of accepting both Micro-A and Micro-B plugs, attached to any of the legal cables and adapters as defined in revision 1.01 of the Micro-USB specification.\nTo enable Type-AB receptacles to distinguish which end of a cable is plugged in, plugs have an \"ID\" pin in addition to the four contacts in standard-size USB connectors. This ID pin is connected to GND in Type-A plugs, and left unconnected in Type-B", "-29.33074324647896" ], [ "to Ultra-640) deprecates single-ended devices, so some devices may not be electrically backward compatible. Mixing Wide and Narrow Both narrow and wide SCSI devices can be attached to the same parallel bus. All the narrow SCSI devices must be placed at one end and all the wide SCSI devices at the other end. The high half of the bus needs to be terminated in between because the high half of the bus ends with the last wide SCSI device. You can get a cable designed to connect the wide part of the bus to the narrow part which either", "-29.313356481172377" ], [ "is floating).\nPure mini-A receptacles also exist, used where a compact host port is needed, but OTG is not supported. OTG micro cables When an OTG-enabled device is connected to a PC, it uses its own USB-A or USB Type-C cable (typically ending in micro-B, USB-C or Lightning plugs for modern devices). When an OTG-enabled device is attached to a USB slave device, such as a flash drive, the slave device must either end in the appropriate connection for the device, or the user must supply an appropriate adapter ending in USB-A. The adapter enables any standard USB peripheral to", "-29.295482038636692" ], [ "personal-computer industry, restricting the use of ribbon cables to connect devices together. \"Naked\" ribbon cable could be used inside the case of a computer or peripheral device, but any ribbon cable connecting two boxes together had to be grounded. This rule led to solutions such as ribbon cables covered by a copper-braid shield, which made it impossible to see or separate the individual connectors. On the Apple II, these cables passed through the holes on the back of the computer that were grounded to the power supply. Eventually, ribbon connectors were replaced, for inter-connect purposes, by a wide profusion of", "-29.260099897510372" ], [ "which means that if very sensitive and precise data transfer is required, the USB to serial adapter might be unreliable and not a desired solution. Virtual COM drivers are usually available for Windows, Linux and MAC only.", "-29.249809912056662" ], [ "inserted into a socket that is only intended for 15 mm long plugs. Some banana plugs have exposed set screws that are electrically connected to the wire. When stacking plugs using transverse holes in a plug, large parts of the pin of the second plug are exposed. Another reason why banana connectors are not rated for mains usage is the lack of double insulation of wires and connectors. The hazards include electric shock, electrocution, burns from accidental short circuits, and damage to the attached equipment. \nWhere electrical safety is an issue, sheathed plugs and sockets are used. These plugs have", "-29.216120394074096" ], [ "over a bus such as Universal Serial Bus (USB). PnP-X allows network-connected devices to appear as devices inside Windows connected physically and provides an installation experience that is similar to attaching a bus-connected device. The device manufacturer implements PnP-X capabilities to supplement either UPnP or Web Services for Devices (WSD) enabled devices. As a result, for end users, the device is relatively as easy to install as traditional Plug and Play devices. Universal Plug and Play Universal Plug and Play (UPnP) is an IP-based protocol suite based on preliminary versions of Web Services protocols such as XML and Simple Object", "-29.197275089332834" ], [ "wires between them. Most DuoDisk drives, the Disk IIc, the UniDisk 5.25\" and the AppleDisk 5.25\" even use the same 19-pin D-Sub connector, so they are directly interchangeable. The only ​5 ¹⁄₄\" drive Apple sold aside from the Disk II family was a 360k MFM unit made to allow Mac IIs and SEs to read PC floppy disks.\nThis is not the case with Apple's ​3 ¹⁄₂-inch drives, which use several different disk formats and several different interfaces, electronically quite dissimilar even in models using the same connector; they are not generally interchangeable. Disk II Apple did not originally offer a disk", "-29.158305788761936" ], [ "socket Similar to 610, but with the contacts of pairs one and two allowed to connect when no plug is inserted, contact 1 connecting to 2 and 5 to 6.\nThis is particularly designed for mode 3 connection. The incoming line to the mode 3 device is connected using pair one, and pair two is used as the outgoing line to other devices. If the mode 3 device is unplugged, the switch contacts maintain line connection to the other devices.\nThis function is not generally supported by modular connectors. Modular connectors providing suitable switch contacts are available but not common; Instead, mode", "-29.14871582602791" ], [ "G5/G6, Moto Z, Nokia 8, Razer Phone, Samsung Galaxy S8/S9, Samsung Galaxy Note 8/Note 9,Sony Xperia XZ1/XZ2, Apple iPhone 8/X etc. Power issues with cables Many cables claiming to support USB-C are actually not compliant to the standard. Using these cables would have a potential consequence of damaging devices that they are connected to. There are reported cases of laptops being destroyed due to the use of non-compliant cables.\nSome non-compliant cables with a USB-C connector on one end and a legacy USB-A plug or Micro-B receptacle on the other end incorrectly terminate the Configuration Channel (CC) with a 10kΩ pullup", "-29.109039404953364" ], [ "to the connectors and cables, presumably to reduce costs. Most third parties, as well as any non-Apple equipment would use standard 10BASE2 cabling, including T-connectors and manual termination. Additionally, Apple's 10BASE2 cables were not really feasible for all uses since they only came in fixed lengths and the ends were not detachable, making it very difficult to wire them through walls. Unfortunately, when mixing and matching Apple and non-Apple 10BASE2 devices, there were many seemingly natural configurations of cables and connectors which would cause the network to become unreliable or unusable in the area, reducing the value of the complex", "-29.104313092015218" ], [ "plugs; therefore, USB 3.0 Type-B plugs cannot be inserted into USB 2.0 (or earlier) Type-B receptacles.\nMicro USB 3.0 (Micro-B) plug and receptacle are intended primarily for small portable devices such as smartphones, digital cameras and GPS devices. The Micro USB 3.0 receptacle is backward compatible with the Micro USB 2.0 plug.\nA receptacle for eSATAp, which is an eSATA/USB combo, is designed to accept USB Type-A plugs from USB 2.0 (or earlier), so it also accepts USB 3.0 Type-A plugs.", "-29.07335747643083" ], [ "not be enough to connect to a peripheral that is not listed. A powered USB hub may sidestep the issue, if supported, since it will then provide its own power according to either the USB 2.0 or USB 3.0 specifications.\nSome incompatibilities in both HNP and SRP were introduced between the 1.3 and 2.0 versions of the OTG supplement, which can lead to interoperability issues when using those protocol versions. Charger compatibility Some devices can use their USB ports to charge built-in batteries, while other devices can detect a dedicated charger and draw more than 500 mA (0.5 A), allowing them to charge more", "-28.98450695662177" ], [ "be seen from the diagram above, although the S-Video signals are available on the corresponding pins, neither variant of the connector will accept an unmodified 4-pin S-Video plug, though they can be made to fit by removing the key from the plug. In the latter case, it becomes all too easy to misalign the plug when inserting it with consequent damage to the small pins.", "-28.957714753079927" ], [ "default. \nMini-SATA (mSATA) can be used where even smaller form factors are required. \nInternally, nearly all hard drives use ZIF tape to connect their circuit board to their platter motor. ZIF tape connections are also heavily used in the design of the iPod range of portable media players, not just for the hard drive but also for other connections from the main circuit board. \nThree types of ZIF connectors are known to exist on 1.8 inch PATA drives. ZIF-24, ZIF-40, and ZIF-50 have 24, 40, and 50 pins respectively.", "-28.943826179180178" ], [ "127 devices to connect directly to a host. Because there are no wires or ports, there is no longer a need for hubs.\nHowever, to facilitate migration from wired to wireless, WUSB introduced a new Device Wire Adapter (DWA) class. Sometimes referred to as a \"WUSB hub\", a DWA allows existing USB 2.0 devices to be used wirelessly with a WUSB host.\nWUSB host capability can be added to existing PCs through the use of a Host Wire Adapter (HWA). The HWA is a USB 2.0 device that attaches externally to a desktop or laptop's USB port or internally to a laptop's", "-28.906931306177285" ], [ "programmer just needs to open a MIDI connection, regardless of whether the port is connected to USB or RTP-MIDI.\nSome complaints arose about the use of the MIDI over USB with iOS devices, since the iPad/iPhone must provide power supply to the external device. Some USB MIDI adapters draw too much current for the iPad, which limits the current and blocks the startup of the device, which then does not appear as available to the application. This problem is avoided by the use of RTP-MIDI. Javascript Since June 2013, a Javascript implementation of RTP-MIDI, created by J.Dachtera, is available as an", "-28.895486144152528" ], [ "to reduce the attack surface over USB including no longer allowing the device to automatically mount as a hard drive when plugged in over USB, as well as release security patches for vulnerabilities such as those exploited by Mactans.\nAndroid devices commonly prompt the user before allowing the device to be mounted as a hard drive when plugged in over USB. Since release 4.2.2, Android has implemented a whitelist verification step to prevent attackers from accessing the Android Debug Bridge without authorization.\nJuice jacking is not possible if a device is charged via the AC adapter shipped with the device, a battery", "-28.844748633884592" ], [ "instances, allowing both phone calls and networking over a single cable.\nGenerally this requires some hand-crimping of a cable using three RJ11 jacks, connecting a single jack to two, one with two wires for the phone and the other with the other two for networking. Superseded by Though PhoneNet transceivers are still available from third parties for use on legacy Macintosh networks, no current Apple computer or device model comes with the RS-422 serial ports that are required for PhoneNet transceivers.\nAll modern Apple devices network use Ethernet or Wi-Fi or Bluetooth.", "-28.826552813203307" ], [ "proprietary serial port (a 19-pin D-subminiature connector) for external floppy or hard drives, until SCSI was introduced with the Macintosh Plus. SCSI remained the Macintosh drive medium of choice until the mid-1990s, when less expensive ATA drives were introduced, first on budget models, then across the whole range. Current Macs use Serial ATA for internal hard drives and optical drives, and FireWire or USB 2.0 for external drives.\nOnly the Power Macs, Mac Pros, Xserves, and MacBook have user-accessible drive bays to allow one or more hard drives to be installed internally. All other machines have one dedicated space for one", "-28.819743502303027" ], [ "through the configuration channel, or they can implement the full USB Power Delivery specification using both BMC-coded configuration line and legacy BFSK-coded VBUS line.\nConnecting an older device to a host with a USB-C receptacle requires a cable or adapter with a USB-A or USB-B plug or receptacle on one end and a USB-C plug on the other end. Legacy adapters (i.e. adapters with a USB-A or USB-B plug) with a USB-C receptacle are \"not defined or allowed\" by the specification because they can create \"many invalid and potentially unsafe\" cable combinations. Audio Adapter Accessory Mode A device with a USB-C", "-28.804238894139417" ], [ "known as Laplink Software, Inc. and their main software is now PCmover. With the demise of parallel ports on PCs Laplink no longer sells the traditional cable. Instead it has USB to hard drive, USB to USB and Ethernet to Ethernet cables. Comparison to null modem cables A Laplink cable can be seen as a parallel equivalent to a serial null modem cable. Because of the higher bandwidth of the parallel port versus the serial port, a Laplink® cable is able to transfer data more quickly.", "-28.8040555290645" ], [ "as keyboards and mice, to PCs. The USB is a Plug and Play bus that can handle up to 127 devices on one port, and has a theoretical maximum throughput of 480 Mbit/s (high-speed USB defined by the USB 2.0 specification). Because USB ports are standard features of PCs, they are a natural evolution of conventional serial port technology. However, it is not widely used in building industrial test and measurement systems for several reasons (e.g., USB cables are rarely industrial grade, are noise sensitive, are not positively attached and so are rather easily detachable, and the maximum distance between", "-28.794250779872527" ], [ "devices, although powered Ethernet can support them at longer cable distances; however, PoweredUSB does not incorporate USB 3.x officially. In general, since the voltage drop at high currents can be significant over even a few meters, higher voltages are desired for larger distances.\nIn 2012, the USB-IF released the USB Power Delivery Specification (USB PD) as an optional part of the USB 2.0 and 3.x specifications. It defines features similar to those addressed by PoweredUSB, but without requiring the use of proprietary connectors. Instead, the connectors defined in the USB 2.0 and 3.0 standards are continued to be used; higher currents require PD-aware USB-cables,", "-28.776743173468276" ], [ "even more difficult. Ribbon cables are poorly shielded, and the standard relies upon the cabling to be installed inside a shielded computer case to meet RF emissions limits.\nExternal hard disk drives or optical disk drives that have an internal PATA interface, use some other interface technology to bridge the distance between the external device and the computer. USB is the most common external interface, followed by Firewire. A bridge chip inside the external devices converts from the USB interface to PATA, and typically only supports a single external device without cable select or master/slave. Compact Flash interface Compact Flash in", "-28.701827804965433" ], [ "for connecting coaxial network cables like 10BASE2. A different mechanical encoding (Type E) prevented mix-up with phone plugs.\nEAD cables were duplex connections replacing two thin-wire cables, with the T-connector integrated into the BNC end. The contacts of an EAD outlet are closed if no connector is plugged in. When a cable is plugged in, the normally-closed contacts in the socket are opened so that signals pass through the loop cable. Worn out connectors or outlets can cause the same problems that haunted the simpler connectors but user errors are largely reduced.", "-28.699710624288855" ], [ "introduced Type-A SuperSpeed plugs and receptacles as well as micro-sized Type-B SuperSpeed plugs and receptacles. The 3.0 receptacles are backward-compatible with the corresponding pre-3.0 plugs.\nUSB 3.x and USB 1.x Type-A plugs and receptacles are designed to interoperate. To achieve USB 3.0's SuperSpeed (and SuperSpeed+ for USB 3.1 Gen 2), 5 extra pins are added to the unused area of the original 4 pin USB 1.0 design, making USB 3.0 Type-A plugs and receptacles backward compatible to those of USB 1.0.\nOn the device side, a modified Micro-B plug (Micro-B SuperSpeed) is used to cater for the five additional pins required to achieve the USB 3.0 features (USB-C plug", "-28.677102975618254" ], [ "off the USB device without affecting the filesystem of the host. A user installs most applications (including Microsoft Office, Adobe Photoshop, Firefox) on the portable storage device by simply running the installer inside this environment. The user can switch between the host environment and the MojoPac environment by using the MojoBar at the top of the screen. Once the user is done with the applications, they exit MojoPac and eject the USB device.\nTo run the applications on a different computer, the user does not need to reinstall the application. The user can plug the portable storage device into any Windows", "-28.66821443277877" ], [ "Apple wishing to maintain control over supply chain of accessories and the ability to charge a licensing fee; and the mechanical weakness of USB connectors. The optional supplemental standard USB On-The-Go allows USB devices to do this.\nOn April 10, 2015, Apple announced a new line of MacBooks that featured USB-C, which has similarities with Lightning, and advantages over microUSB. USB-C, like Lightning, but unlike its predecessor microUSB, can be plugged in either direction. USB-C and Lightning are not interchangeable; as they are entirely different pin-outs, protocols and connectors, and until the launch of the new MacBooks required adapters to work", "-28.665915452264016" ], [ "application, which is cross-platform compatible with both Mac OS X and Windows.\nSome software developers use traditional USB flash drives as software license dongles that contain hardware serial numbers in conjunction with the stored device ID strings, which are generally not easily changed by an end-user. A developer can also use the dongle to store user settings or even a complete \"portable\" version of the application. Not all flash drives are suitable for this use, as not all manufacturers install unique serial numbers into their devices. Although such medium security may deter a casual hacker, the lack of a processor", "-28.643950694378873" ], [ "simplest—frames are simply sent and received without modification one at a time. This was a good strategy for USB 1.1 systems (current when the protocol was issued) with 64 byte packets but not for USB 2.0 systems which use 512 byte packets.\nThe problem is that Ethernet frames are about 1500 bytes in size—about 3 USB 2.0 packets, and 23 USB 1.1 packets. According how the USB system works, each packet is sent as a transfer, a series of maximum-length packets terminated by a short packet or a special ZLP (zero-length packet). After this, there is bus latency, where nothing is", "-28.576531607286597" ], [ "turned on, it becomes possible to use most USB printers even if they do not support Google Cloud Print. Link handling Chrome OS was designed with the intention of storing user documents and files on remote servers. Both Chrome OS and the Chrome browser may introduce difficulties to end users when handling specific file types offline; for example, when opening an image or document residing on a local storage device, it may be unclear whether and which specific Web application should be automatically opened for viewing, or the handling should be performed by a traditional application acting as a preview utility.", "-28.561522897463874" ], [ "distant devices. USB has a strict \"tree\" topology and \"master-slave\" protocol for addressing peripheral devices; peripheral devices cannot interact with one another except via the host, and two hosts cannot communicate over their USB ports directly. Some extension to this limitation is possible through USB On-The-Go. A host cannot \"broadcast\" signals to all peripherals at once -- each must be addressed individually. Some very high speed peripheral devices require sustained speeds not available in the USB standard. While converters exist between certain \"legacy\" interfaces and USB, they may not provide full implementation of the legacy hardware; for example, a USB", "-28.55318839784013" ], [ "drive itself, which must be manually set to Device 0 (Primary/Master) or Device 1 (Secondary/Slave). If there is a single device on a cable, it should be configured as Device 0. However, some certain era drives have a special setting called Single for this configuration (Western Digital, in particular). Also, depending on the hardware and software available, a Single drive on a cable will often work reliably even though configured as the Device 1 drive (most often seen where an optical drive is the only device on the secondary ATA interface). Master and slave clarification Although they were in common", "-28.54408290318679" ], [ "drives can have their contents encrypted using third-party disk encryption software, which can often be run directly from the USB drive without installation (for example, FreeOTFE), although some, such as BitLocker, require the user to have administrative rights on every computer it is run on.\nArchiving software can achieve a similar result by creating encrypted ZIP or RAR files.\nSome manufacturers have produced USB flash drives which use hardware-based encryption as part of the design, removing the need for third-party encryption software. In limited circumstances these drives have been shown to have security problems, and are typically more expensive than software-based systems,", "-28.530675008660182" ], [ "4 wires and incorrect wiring will likely harm the device. Due to Windows CE limitations the maximum drive size seems to be 120GB (including 128GB based solid state drives). Note that compatibility is limited to 1.8\" PATA drives and uses a specific ZIF interface. The ZIF connector is plug and play but users will have to host their own firmware update server to allow the Zune software to load firmware onto the new drive due to Microsoft's discontinuation of all Zune services.", "-28.48508594359737" ], [ "3 devices use two modular connectors, one for the incoming line and the other for the outgoing line. The convenience of using a single connector in this application is one reason for the continued use of 600 series connectors, but mixing this wiring scheme with modular connectors does not work well. For example, if a modern modem with its supplied 6P2C adaptor is plugged into a conventionally wired 611 mode 3 socket, the result is to disconnect all downstream devices.\nIn some sockets conductors 3 and 4 also connect when no plug is present, shorting pair three. Sockets are also available", "-28.484891090425663" ], [ "with claims of having higher capacities than they actually have. These are typically low capacity USB drives which are modified so that they emulate larger capacity drives (for example, a 2 GB drive being marketed as a 64 GB drive). When plugged into a computer, they report themselves as being the larger capacity they were sold as, but when data is written to them, either the write fails, the drive freezes up, or it overwrites existing data. Software tools exist to check and detect fake USB drives, and in some cases it is possible to repair these devices to remove the false", "-28.474278948677238" ], [ "be unreliable, failing to grab all the solder balls. Another type of BGA socket, also free of insertion force but not a \"ZIF socket\" in the traditional sense, does a better job by using spring pins to push up underneath the balls. ZIF wire-to-board connectors ZIF wire-to-board connectors are used for attaching wires to printed circuit boards inside electronic equipment. An example would be the cable between the LCD screen and motherboard in laptops. The wires, often formed into a ribbon cable, are pre-stripped and the bare ends placed inside the connector. The two sliding parts of the", "-28.473033147631213" ], [ "backup device, or by utilizing a USB cable with only power wires and no data wires present. A tool originally called the USB Condom (now renamed to SyncStop) has been released with the sole purpose of disallowing data connections to be passed over a USB cable.", "-28.467869007319678" ], [ "this to 5,000 cycles, and the newer Micro-USB and USB-C receptacles are both designed for a minimum rated lifetime of 10,000 cycles of insertion and removal. To accomplish this, a locking device was added and the leaf-spring was moved from the jack to the plug, so that the most-stressed part is on the cable side of the connection. This change was made so that the connector on the less expensive cable would bear the most wear.\nIn standard USB, the electrical contacts in a USB connector are protected by an adjacent plastic tongue, and the entire connecting assembly is usually protected", "-28.446260683238506" ], [ "for other chip models must be manually installed (e.g. for Windows and MacOS, WCH CH340 , Silicon Labs 210x.\nWhen the USB to serial adapter is connected to the computer via the USB port the drivers on the computer creates a virtual COM port which shows up in Device Manager on Windows, and under /dev on Linux and MacOS. This virtual COM port can be accessed and used as if it was a built-in serial COM port. However, the characteristics of the virtual COM port are not exactly the same as a real internal COM port, mainly due to data latency;", "-28.42326385641718" ], [ "the speed of USB storage devices (more evident with USB 3.0 devices, but also noticeable with USB 2.0 ones) is that the USB Mass Storage Bulk-Only Transfer (BOT) protocol drivers are generally slower than the USB Attached SCSI protocol (UAS[P]) drivers.\nOn some old (2009–2010) Ibex Peak-based motherboards, the built-in USB 3.0 chipsets are connected by default via a 2.5 GT/s PCI Express lane of the PCH, which then did not provide full PCI Express 2.0 speed (5 GT/s), so it did not provide enough bandwidth even for a single USB 3.0 port. Early versions of such boards (e.g. the Gigabyte Technology P55A-UD4 or P55A-UD6) have a", "-28.40186754934257" ], [ "non-ATX computers and care should be taken to avoid damaged or bent pins when connecting devices. This issue is slightly alleviated in modern times with the advent of the PS/2-to-USB adapter: users can just leave a PS/2 connector plugged into the PS/2-to-USB adapter at all times and not risk damaging the pins this way. A USB-to-PS/2 adapter does not have this problem. Fault isolation In a standard implementation both PS/2 ports are usually controlled by a single microcontroller on the motherboard. This makes design and manufacturing extremely simple and cheap. However, a rare side effect of this design is that", "-28.401731890975498" ], [ "on the cable; it is not used by the host when communicating with the drives.\nWith the 40-wire cable, it was very common to implement cable select by simply cutting the pin 28 wire between the two device connectors; putting the Device 1 device at the end of the cable, and the Device 0 on the middle connector. This arrangement eventually was standardized in later versions. If there is just one device on the cable, this results in an unused stub of cable, which is undesirable for physical convenience and electrical reasons. The stub causes signal reflections, particularly at higher transfer", "-28.381752187749953" ], [ "be attached to an OTG device. Attaching two OTG-enabled devices together requires either an adapter in conjunction with the slave device's USB-A cable, or an appropriate dual-sided cable and a software implementation to manage it. This is becoming commonplace with USB Type-C devices. Backward compatibility USB OTG devices are backward-compatible with USB 2.0 (USB 3.0 for SuperSpeed OTG devices) and will behave as standard USB hosts or devices when connected to standard (non-OTG) USB devices. The main exception is that OTG hosts are only required to provide enough power for the products listed on the TPL, which may or may", "-28.34529913199367" ], [ "laptop through the serial port. During download, the LED flashed and the flashing programmed the watch much like the horizontal bars of the CRT.\nIn addition, systems running on Windows versions other than Windows 95 or Windows 98, such as Windows NT, no longer offered the option of CRT synchronization, making the use of the adapter a requirement even for desktop computers. In addition for systems without a serial port, a USB to serial adapter can be used to connect the Timex adapter to a USB port. Timex Datalink USB The Datalink USB was introduced in 2003. It included the Timex", "-28.328500307456125" ], [ "USB 3.0 Architecture and features In USB 3.0, dual-bus architecture is used to allow both USB 2.0 (Full Speed, Low Speed, or High Speed) and USB 3.0 (SuperSpeed) operations to take place simultaneously, thus providing backward compatibility. The structural topology is the same, consisting of a tiered star topology with a root hub at level 0 and hubs at lower levels to provide bus connectivity to devices. Data transfer and synchronization The SuperSpeed transaction is initiated by a host request, followed by a response from the device. The device either accepts the request or rejects it; if accepted, the device sends data or", "-28.286395263974555" ], [ "It is often possible to replace an optical drive with a newer model. In certain laptop models there is a possibility to replace an optical drive with a second hard drive, using a caddy that fills the extra space the optical drive would have occupied. Inputs An alphanumeric keyboard is used to enter text and data and make other commands (e.g., function keys). A touchpad (also called a trackpad), a pointing stick, or both, are used to control the position of the cursor on the screen, and an integrated keyboard is used for typing. An external keyboard and mouse may", "-28.273471939450246" ], [ "hot swapped but this should be avoided. Durability PS/2 connectors are not designed to be plugged in and out very often, which can lead to bent or broken pins. Additionally, PS/2 connectors only insert in one direction and must be rotated correctly before attempting connection (if a user does not pull the connector out before rotating and attempting to insert again, then bent pins will result).\nMost but not all connectors include an arrow or flat section which is usually aligned to the right or top of the jack before being plugged in. The exact direction may vary on older or", "-28.27295745734591" ], [ "devices (e.g., digital cameras, portable music players) cannot make use of USB flash drives (even if the device has a USB port), whereas the memory cards used by the devices can be read by PCs with a card reader. External hard disk Particularly with the advent of USB, external hard disks have become widely available and inexpensive. External hard disk drives currently cost less per gigabyte than flash drives and are available in larger capacities. Some hard drives support alternative and faster interfaces than USB 2.0 (e.g., Thunderbolt, FireWire and eSATA). For consecutive sector writes and reads (for example, from", "-28.2672960433556" ] ]

[ "Pot smoke is, per unit volume, actually more dangerous than tobacco smoke. However, the average tobacco smoker smokes a pack a day, and anyone who is smoking 20 joints per day on average has much bigger problems than bad lungs.", "Not enough research. We know for a *fact* that smoking cigarettes can cause cancer. I think we can be fairly sure that smoking anything can increase your chances of getting cancer of the lungs. We just don't know much yet, because not enough research has been done.", "Yep, pretty much. People like to huff and puff (pun intended) that cigarettes are full of \"chemicals\"—they are, but lung cancer is caused by tar, which is caused by inhaling burning material (smoke). The ALA counters the \"but I only smoke once per day\" narrative with \"ok, right, but you inhale more deeply and often hold your breath to consume as much smoke as possible.\" URL_0 All of that said, people don't generally get cancer from moderate behaviors—we live in cities, we run in smog, we occasionally drink and overeat and process our hair. So rest assured the sober among us will strongly advise against marijuana smoke, and it may eventually be banned from indoor public use, much like cigarettes are today. Edibles FTW.", "I'm on mobile, so it's difficult to find sources, but I can confidently say most everyone on here is wrong. The original study re: how toxic marijuana smoke is was done by a doctor out of UCLA medical. He correctly noted that marijuana smoke contains many times more tar and carcinogens than tobacco smoke. **HOWEVER**, the same doctor, curious from his study, performed another extensive one looking into the actual health affects of the smoke. After all, with such a substantially higher level of risk, there should be a higher level of detectable harm. What he found, though, was that people who smoke marijuana are no more likely to get lung cancer than people who do not smoke anything. The media often reports about his first findings while ignoring the follow-up. As to why it is that way, as others have pointed out, it's difficult to do such studies in the US due to federal law, so we aren't sure. The leading theory is that the cannabinoids in marijuana negate the carcinogenic effect. I'm hoping there's enough in that for someone else to do the googling. If not, I'll pull out my research files when I get home and grab you citations.", "Cannabis smoke opens up the bronchial tubes in the lungs which causes much of the tar to be removed. It was prescribed for asthma about a hundred years ago and there are current studies that suggest that THC could be used to treat asthma for some people. The largest study ever done on cannabis smoking and lung health showed that it is nowhere close to as bad as cigarette smoking and there is at least one recent study that suggests that just smoking tobacco is worse for the lungs than smoking tobacco and cannabis.", "Whether it's equally damaging, more, or less, I don't know. But it's fucking bad. A layman's science experiment: Take one drag of weed smoke, and put your lips against a napkin, and then blow through it. With just one exhale, you've got a brown ring on the napkin. Imagine that build-up over hundreds and thousands of tokes. Or just look at your pipe or bong after owning it for a couple of weeks. That same stuff is in your lungs. There is no way in hell that sludge building up inside of you isn't extremely harmful. People who claim it's not harmful (to whatever degree) are denying themselves or are too stoned to use reason. And I say this as someone who's been smoking regularly for more than 10 years. I'm just being honest with myself.", "I always used to keep my cigarette butts so I could fill my pipe (normally used for pot) with the little tobacco left in the butts. It's very crude but this is what happens when you keep trying, but can't quit smoking cigarettes. What I learned from this crude act was that the pipe would fill with very gooey tar way quicker from tobacco than with pot. There were plenty of times when I would only smoke one or the other out of the pipe for months at a time. From these many experiences I was convinced that tar was more abundant in tobacco than in pot.", " URL_0 Tldr: its not, that said vaping is still better" ]

[ [ "the development of head and neck cancer. Respiratory effects A 2013 literature review by Gordon and colleagues concluded that inhaled cannabis is associated with lung disease, although Tashkin's 2013 review has found \"no clear link to chronic obstructive pulmonary disease\".\nOf the various methods of cannabis consumption, smoking is considered the most harmful; the inhalation of smoke from organic materials can cause various health problems (e.g., coughing and sputum). Isoprenes help to modulate and slow down reaction rates, contributing to the significantly differing qualities of partial combustion products from various sources.\nSmoking cannabis has been linked to adverse respiratory effects including: chronic", "-36.06713336589746" ], [ "chemically similar to that found in tobacco smoke, and over fifty known carcinogens have been identified in cannabis smoke, including; nitrosamines, reactive aldehydes, and polycylic hydrocarbons, including benz[a]pyrene. Cannabis smoke is also inhaled more deeply than tobacco smoke. As of 2015, there is no consensus regarding whether cannabis smoking is associated with an increased risk of cancer. Light and moderate use of cannabis is not believed to increase risk of lung or upper airway cancer. Evidence for causing these cancers is mixed concerning heavy, long-term use. In general there are far lower risks of pulmonary complications for regular cannabis smokers", "-35.770570394874085" ], [ "polycyclic hydrocarbons, including benz[a]pyrene. Light and moderate use of cannabis is not believed to increase risk of lung or upper airway cancer. Evidence for causing these cancers is mixed concerning heavy, long-term use. In general there are far lower risks of pulmonary complications for regular cannabis smokers when compared with those of tobacco. Combustion products are not present when using a vaporizer, consuming THC in pill form, or consuming cannabis edibles.\nThere is serious suspicion among cardiologists, spurring research but falling short of definitive proof, that cannabis use has the potential to contribute to cardiovascular disease. Cannabis is believed to", "-35.67870673908328" ], [ "smoke have a 16–19% increase in risk. Investigations of sidestream smoke suggest that it is more dangerous than direct smoke. Passive smoking results in roughly 3,400 lung cancer-related deaths each year in the US.\nMarijuana smoke contains many of the same carcinogens as those in tobacco smoke. However, the effect of smoking cannabis on lung cancer risk is not clear. A 2013 review did not find an increased risk from light to moderate use. A 2014 review found that smoking cannabis doubled the risk of lung cancer. Radon gas Radon is a colorless and odorless gas generated by the breakdown of", "-35.59330803656485" ], [ "or in those who ceased use earlier in adulthood.\nThere has been a limited amount of studies that have looked at the effects of smoking cannabis on the respiratory system. Chronic heavy marijuana smoking is associated with coughing, production of sputum, wheezing, coughing, and other symptoms of chronic bronchitis. Regular cannabis use has not been shown to cause significant abnormalities in lung function.\nCannabis smoke contains thousands of organic and inorganic chemical compounds. This tar is chemically similar to that found in tobacco smoke, and over fifty known carcinogens have been identified in cannabis smoke, including nitrosamines, reactive aldehydes, and", "-35.133710018824786" ], [ "cancer risk at extremely high dosage.\"\nCannabis smoke contains thousands of organic and inorganic chemicals, including many of the same carcinogens as tobacco smoke. A 2012 special report by the British Lung Foundation concluded that cannabis smoking was linked to many adverse effects, including bronchitis and lung cancer. They identified cannabis smoke as a carcinogen and also said awareness of the danger was low compared with the high awareness of the dangers of smoking tobacco particularly among younger users. They said there was an increased risk from each cannabis cigarette due to drawing in large puffs of smoke and holding", "-34.90801794491563" ], [ "2012 identifies cannabis smoke as a carcinogen and also finds awareness of the danger is low compared with the high awareness of the dangers of smoking tobacco particularly among younger users. Other observations include possible increased risk from each cigarette; lack of research on the effect of cannabis smoke alone; low rate of addiction compared to tobacco; and episodic nature of cannabis use compared to steady frequent smoking of tobacco. Professor David Nutt, a UK drug expert, points out that the study cited by the British Lung Foundation has been accused of both \"false reasoning\" and \"incorrect methodology\". Further, he", "-34.53621654130984" ], [ "from light or moderate use, although evidence is mixed concerning possible carcinogenic risks of heavy, long-term use.\"\nIn 2013 the International Lung Cancer Consortium found no significant additional lung cancer risk in tobacco users who also smoked cannabis. Nor did they find an increased risk in cannabis smokers who did not use tobacco. They concluded that \"[o]ur pooled results showed no significant association between the intensity, duration, or cumulative consumption of cannabis smoke and the risk of lung cancer overall or in never smokers.\" They cautioned that \"[o]ur results cannot preclude the possibility that cannabis may exhibit an association with lung", "-34.45498105039587" ], [ "those who used it in place of alcohol or tobacco either reduced or stopped their intake of the latter substances.\nA limited number of studies have examined the effects of cannabis smoking on the respiratory system. Chronic heavy marijuana smoking is associated with coughing, production of sputum, wheezing, and other symptoms of chronic bronchitis. The available evidence does not support a causal relationship between cannabis use and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Short-term use of cannabis is associated with bronchodilation. Other side effects of cannabis use include cannabinoid hyperemesis syndrome.\nCannabis smoke contains thousands of organic and inorganic chemical compounds. This tar is", "-34.20007966191042" ], [ "increases is uncertain.\" Lung There have been a limited number of studies that have looked at the effects of smoking cannabis on the respiratory system. Chronic heavy cannabis smoking is associated with coughing, production of sputum, wheezing, and other symptoms of chronic bronchitis. Regular cannabis use has not been shown to cause significant abnormalities in lung function.\nRegular cannabis smokers show pathological changes in lung cells similar to those that precede the development of lung cancer in tobacco smokers. Gordon and colleagues in a 2013 literature review said: \"Unfortunately, methodological limitations in many of the reviewed studies, including selection", "-34.127641632105224" ], [ "effects to the lungs. The long-term effect from vaping a base containing nicotine on lung tissue is unknown. Limited evidence suggests that e-cigarettes produce less short-term effects on lung function than with traditional cigarettes. Many ingredients used in e-liquids have not been examined in the lung. The effects of e-cigarette use in respect to asthma and other respiratory diseases are unknown. It is not clear whether long-term inhalation of e-cigarette vapor will make asthma better or worse. A 2015 review found e-cigarettes may induce acute lung disease.\nExposure to inhaled nicotine-containing e-cigarette fluids triggered effects normally associated with the development of", "-33.492042622179724" ], [ "conditions. Another review found tentative evidence for use of cannabis in treating peripheral neuropathy, but little evidence of benefit for other types of long term pain.\nWhen cannabis is inhaled to relieve pain, blood levels of cannabinoids rise faster than when oral products are used, peaking within three minutes and attaining an analgesic effect in seven minutes. A 2014 review found limited and weak evidence that smoked cannabis was effective for chronic non-cancer pain. A 2015 meta-analysis found that inhaled medical cannabis was effective in reducing neuropathic pain in the short term for one in five to six patients. Another 2015", "-33.476304212148534" ], [ "carcinogens, or leaking nicotine. Leaked nicotine is a poisoning hazard for the user of electronic cigarettes, as well as others around them, particularly children.\"\nCannabinoid-enriched e-liquids require lengthy, complex processing, some being readily available online despite lack of quality control, expiry date, conditions of preservation, or any toxicological and clinical assessment. It is assumed that vaporizing cannabinoids at lower temperatures is safer because it produces smaller amounts of toxicants than the hot combustion of a cannabis cigarette. The health effects specific to vaping these cannabis preparations is largely unknown. Fires, explosions, and other battery-related malfunctions Concern exists from the risk of", "-33.26423475424963" ], [ "up if the lungs become enveloped in smoke and the brain will be stimulated and the person will be awoken. This does not work if the person is incapacitated or under the influence of drugs and/or alcohol.\nCigarette smoke is a major modifiable risk factor for lung disease, heart disease, and many cancers. Smoke can also be a component of ambient air pollution due to the burning of coal in power plants, forest fires or other sources, although the concentration of pollutants in ambient air is typically much less than that in cigarette smoke. One day of exposure to", "-33.24862038588617" ], [ "also smoke tobacco. This causes confounding factors, where questions arise as to whether the tobacco, the cannabis, or both that have caused a cancer. Another difficulty researchers have is in recruiting people who smoke cannabis into studies. Because cannabis is an illegal drug in many countries, people may be reluctant to take part in research, and if they do agree to take part, they may not say how much cannabis they actually smoke.\nA 2015 review found that the use of high CBD-to-THC strains of cannabis showed significantly fewer positive symptoms such as delusions and hallucinations, better cognitive function and both", "-33.176674973539775" ], [ "coughing, wheezing, sputum production, and acute bronchitis. It has been suggested that the common practice of inhaling cannabis smoke deeply and holding breath could lead to pneumothorax. In a few case reports involving immunocompromised patients, pulmonary infections such as aspergillosis have been attributed to smoking cannabis contaminated with fungi. The transmission of tuberculosis has been linked to cannabis inhalation techniques, such as sharing water pipes and 'Hotboxing'. Reproductive and endocrine effects A study released by the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine cited significant evidence for a statistical link between mothers who smoke cannabis during pregnancy and lower birth", "-33.07221236650366" ], [ "toxins and carcinogens in cigarette smoke. The risks of developing lung cancer, brain tumors, and acute myeloid leukemia and the incidence of heart disease and benign respiratory diseases increase with the inhalation of sidestream smoke. Additionally, the chance of developing breast cancer and cervical cancer also increases with the inhalation of sidestream smoke.\nEvidence has shown that sidestream smoke may be more harmful, per gram, than mainstream smoke. However, sidesmoke is inhaled in far lesser amounts than mainstream smoke in people who smoke tobacco.\nThe relative risk of cardiovascular disease is 1.2–1.3 with exposure to sidestream smoke due the cyanide present in", "-33.01633083075285" ], [ "cannabis. Spotting cannabis oil or resin is thought to be particularly harmful to the lungs, as the smoke comes off the oil at such a high temperature. One possible way of minimizing the risks of spotting marijuana is using cooler knives, leading to the tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) being vaporised rather than the entire plant matter being burnt. Some users also fill the lower half of the spottle with ice (that stays in place by being frozen to the edges of the spottle), but much more common is to just freeze the bottle, which leads to a cooler smoke that is less", "-32.93372667092626" ], [ "Abuse, \"Studies show that someone who smokes five joints per week may be taking in as many cancer-causing chemicals as someone who smokes a full pack of cigarettes every day.\" Marijuana contains more than 400 chemicals, including the most harmful substances found in tobacco smoke. For example, smoking one marijuana cigarette deposits about four times more tar into the lungs than a filtered tobacco cigarette. ... The short-term effects are also harmful. They include: memory loss, distorted perception, trouble with thinking and problem solving, loss of motor skills, decrease in muscle strength, increased heart rate, and anxiety. Marijuana impacts young", "-32.908914529834874" ], [ "alcohol and tobacco.\nWithdrawal from heavy, chronic cannabis use does not usually exceed 3–4 days, but it has the potential to be psychologically addictive. Withdrawal symptoms are generally mild - loss of appetite, insomnia, feelings of uneasiness/anxiety, tension, stomach ache, headache and irritability all being common symptoms. There are studies that show no actual increased risk of cancer from smoking marijuana, even when duration of use is expanded over several years. In fact, some studies indicate THC to have anticancer properties, with studies showing tumor reduction in mice. Confusion with Jimson weed Historically, and possibly related to the \"Reefer Madness\" legend,", "-32.85684607044095" ], [ "eaten, infused into other foods, or drunk) and a lack of production controls. The potential for adverse effects from smoke inhalation makes smoking a less viable option than oral preparations. Cannabis vaporizers have gained popularity because of a perception among users that fewer harmful chemicals are ingested when components are inhaled via aerosol rather than smoke. Cannabinoid medicines are available in pill form (dronabinol and nabilone) and liquid extracts formulated into an oromucosal spray (nabiximols). Oral preparations are \"problematic due to the uptake of cannabinoids into fatty tissue, from which they are released slowly, and the significant first-pass liver", "-32.641825835453346" ], [ "on the rise of e-cigarette use among young people. E-cigarettes are being used to inhale MDMA, cocaine powder, crack cocaine, synthetic cathinones, mephedrone, α-PVP, synthetic cannabinoids, opioids, heroin, fentanyl, tryptamines, and ketamine.\nLooming concerns exist with the potential misuse with liquids containing the active ingredients of cannabis by youth, and with e-cigarette devices that could potentially be used to deliver other psychoactive drugs, including methamphetamine, cocaine, heroin, or cathinones. Being exposed to nicotine early on can lead to greater risk of dependence later in life for nicotine and other drugs such as alcohol. Nicotine obtained from vaping is frequently used in", "-32.60089979620534" ], [ "when compared with those of tobacco. A 2015 review found an association between cannabis use and the development of testicular germ cell tumors (TGCTs), particularly non-seminoma TGCTs. A 2015 analysis of six studies found little evidence that long-term or regular cannabis smoking was associated with lung cancer risk, though it could not rule out whether an association with heavy smoking exists. Another 2015 meta-analysis found no association between lifetime cannabis use and risk of head or neck cancer. Combustion products are not present when using a vaporizer, consuming THC in pill form, or consuming cannabis foods.\nThere is concern that cannabis", "-32.42067513951224" ], [ "with a possible risk of developing head and neck cancers. In May 2014, Cancer Research UK stated that there are \"very preliminary unpublished results that suggest that e-cigarettes promote tumour growth in human cells.\" The e-cigarette vapors triggered DNA strand breaks and lowered cell survival in vitro, regardless of nicotine content. A 2013 study found some samples of e-cigarette vapors had cytotoxic effects on cardiac muscle cells, though the effects were less than with cigarette smoke. Studies demonstrate that e-cigarette vapor have adverse effects on primary airway epithelial cells and tumor cell lines, and other epithelial cell lines, that ranged", "-32.24668864638079" ], [ "Pipe and Cigar smoke are not inhaled because of its high alkalinity, which are irritating to the trachea and lungs. However, because of its higher alkalinity (pH 8.5) compared to cigarette smoke (pH 5.3), non-ionized nicotine is more readily absorbed through the mucous membranes in the mouth. Nicotine absorption from cigar and pipe, however, is much less than that from cigarette smoke. Nicotine and cocaine activate similar patterns of neurons, which supports the existence of common substrates among these drugs.\nThe inhaled nicotine mimics nicotinic acetylcholine which when bound to nicotinic acetylcholine receptors prevents the reuptake of acetylcholine thereby increasing that", "-32.10888191941194" ], [ " that cigarette smoking adversely affects serum hydrocodone levels. Prescribing physicians should be aware that in some cigarette smokers, serum hydrocodone levels might not be detectable.\nIn a study from Denmark reviewing many reports in the literature, it was concluded that smoking should be considered a weak risk indicator and not a cause of low back pain. In a multitude of epidemiologic studies, an association between smoking and low back pain has been reported, but variations in approach and study results make this literature difficult to reconcile. \nIn a massive study of 3482 patients undergoing lumbar spine", "-31.998569983989" ], [ "also worth noting that the effects of smoking on the heart may be more subtle. These conditions may develop gradually given the smoking-healing cycle (the human body heals itself between periods of smoking), and therefore a smoker may develop less significant disorders such as worsening or maintenance of unpleasant dermatological conditions, e.g. eczema, due to reduced blood supply. Smoking also increases blood pressure and weakens blood vessels. Renal In addition to increasing the risk of kidney cancer, smoking can also contribute to additional renal damage. Smokers are at a significantly increased risk for chronic kidney disease than non-smokers. A history", "-31.951738749979995" ], [ "doses may last even longer. Oral ingestion use eliminates the need to inhale toxic combustion products created by smoking and therefore negates the risk of respiratory harm associated with cannabis smoking. Neurological effects The areas of the brain where cannabinoid receptors are most prevalent are consistent with the behavioral effects produced by cannabinoids. Brain regions in which cannabinoid receptors are very abundant are the basal ganglia, associated with movement control; the cerebellum, associated with body movement coordination; the hippocampus, associated with learning, memory, and stress control; the cerebral cortex, associated with higher cognitive functions; and the nucleus accumbens, regarded as", "-31.93706661147371" ], [ "either hypoxia induced by the cigarette smoke, or the chemical consequences of nicotine.\nInhaling cigarette smoke increases blood levels of carbon monoxide which negatively affects oxygenation throughout the body leading to hypoxia. One response to hypoxia is the upregulation in synthesis of the major methyl donor S-adenosylmethionine. Upregulation of this methyl donor through heightened expression of methionine adenosyltransferase 2A leads to increased DNA methylation, which can lead to the down-regulation of target genes. \nNicotine found in cigarette smoke binds to nicotinic acetylcholine receptors. \nThis binding leads to an increase in calcium levels which in turn can activate the cAMP response element-binding", "-31.932040989981033" ], [ "lung, or cardiac diseases.\nAs with cardiovascular disease, evidence consistently indicates that exposure to e-cigarette aerosol has adverse effects on lungs and pulmonary function. Repeated exposure to acrolein, which is produced by heating the propylene glycol and glycerin in e-liquids, causes chronic pulmonary inflammation, reduction of host defense, neutrophil inflammation, mucus hypersecretion, and protease-mediated lung tissue damage, which are linked to the development of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. E-cigarette aerosol also exposes users to highly oxidizing free radicals. Animal studies have also shown that e-cigarettes increase pulmonary inflammation and oxidative stress while inhibiting the immune system.\nConsistent with these experimental results, people", "-31.84709647107229" ], [ "smoking Tobacco smoking is harmful to the ovaries, and the degree of damage is dependent upon the amount and length of time a woman smokes or is exposed to a smoke-filled environment. Nicotine and other harmful chemicals in cigarettes interfere with the body’s ability to create estrogen, a hormone that regulates folliculogenesis and ovulation. Also, cigarette smoking interferes with folliculogenesis, embryo transport, endometrial receptivity, endometrial angiogenesis, uterine blood flow and the uterine myometrium. Some damage is irreversible, but stopping smoking can prevent further damage. Smokers are 60% more likely to be infertile than non-smokers. Smoking reduces the chances of", "-31.796769064152613" ], [ "but these changes were only substantial with traditional cigarettes. No published research is available on vaping and thrombosis, platelet reactivity, atherosclerosis, or blood vessel function. The small particles generated from e-cigarette use have the ability to get through airways and enter circulation, which pose a potential risk to cardiovascular systems. The minute nicotine particles in the e-cigarette vapor could increase the risk of cardiac arrhythmias and hypertension which may put some users, particularly those with atherosclerosis or other cardiovascular risk factors, at significant risk of acute coronary syndrome. There are many compounds in the e-cigarette vapor that have an impact", "-31.713452874100767" ], [ "radioactive smoke from tobacco fertilized this way is deposited in lungs and releases radiation even if a smoker quits the habit. The combination of carcinogenic tar and radiation in a sensitive organ such as lungs increases the risk of cancer.\nIn contrast, a 1999 review of tobacco smoke carcinogens published in the Journal of the National Cancer Institute states that \"levels of polonium-210 in tobacco smoke are not believed to be great enough to significantly impact lung cancer in smokers.\" In 2011 Hecht has also stated that the \"levels of ²¹⁰Po in cigarette smoke are probably too low to be involved", "-31.674935301038204" ], [ "Type 1 being sidestream smoke and Type 2 being mainstream smoke. Sidestream smoke is the smoke that comes from the lighted cigarette, while mainstream smoke is the smoke that is exhaled by smokers. Sidestream is the more deadly of the two because it has more carcinogens and contains smaller particles that can easily maneuver into human cells.\nSmoking also causes major damages to the heart, causing coronary heart disease, which is the number-1 killer in the United States. Cigarette smoke causes shrinkage in the arteries, which heightens their chance of developing peripheral vascular disease. According to the Centers for Disease Control", "-31.671561134207877" ], [ "a chronic obstructive lung disease-like tissue damage in a nicotine-dependent manner. Preclinical research indicate that vaping escalates the virulence of drug resistant microorganisms and diminishes the capacity of lung cells to eliminate bacteria. E-cigarettes have been correlated with pleural effusions. A 2015 study found that e-cigarette vapors can induce oxidative stress in lung endothelial cells. Constant lung inflammation as a result of the e-cigarette vapor could result in lung pathogenesis and induce serious diseases, including chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and fibrosis. There is strong evidence that e-cigarette vapors can result in acute endothelial cell injury, but the long-term effects regarding", "-31.632392089348286" ], [ "shows that tobacco smokers who are exposed to residential radon are twice as likely to develop lung cancer as non-smokers. As well, the risk of developing lung cancer from asbestos exposure is twice as likely for smokers than for non-smokers.\nNew research has found that women who smoke are at significantly increased risk of developing an abdominal aortic aneurysm, a condition in which a weak area of the abdominal aorta expands or bulges, and is the most common form of aortic aneurysm.\nSmoking leads to an increased risk of bone fractures, especially hip fractures. It also leads to slower wound-healing after", "-31.58390769531252" ], [ "notes that other studies have failed to connect cannabis with lung cancer, and accuses the BLF of \"scaremongering over cannabis\". Short-term effects When smoked, the short-term effects of cannabis manifest within seconds and are fully apparent within a few minutes, typically lasting for 1–3 hours, varying by the person and the strain of cannabis. After oral ingestion of cannabis, the onset of effect is delayed relative to smoking, taking 30 minutes to 2 hours, but the duration is prolonged due to continued slow absorption. The duration of noticeable effects has been observed to diminish after prolonged, repeated use and the", "-31.52311324193397" ], [ "than other cigarettes. The risk of lung cancer is no different for menthol cigarettes compared to regular cigarettes. Some studies have even suggested that they are more addictive. \nYoung people who use menthol cigarettes are also thought to be 80% more likely to become life-long smokers than those who use regular cigarettes.\nMenthol increases nicotine receptor density in the brain, making menthol cigarettes more addictive than unflavored ones.\nMenthol cigarettes have been shown to inhibit nicotine metabolisation, leading to increased systemic nicotine exposure and increased nicotine addiction.", "-31.489322891982738" ], [ "bias, small sample size, limited generalizability, and lack of adjustment for tobacco smoking, may limit the ability to attribute cancer risk solely to marijuana use.\" Reviewing studies adjusted for age and tobacco use, they said there was a risk of lung cancer even after adjusting for tobacco use, but that the period of time over which the risk increases is uncertain.\nA 2013 review which specifically examined the effects of cannabis on the lung concluded \"[f]indings from a limited number of well-designed epidemiological studies do not suggest an increased risk for the development of either lung or upper airway cancer", "-31.436902872519568" ], [ "mucous membranes of the oral cavity, including the tongue. Infection Smoking is also linked to susceptibility to infectious diseases, particularly in the lungs (pneumonia). Smoking more than 20 cigarettes a day increases the risk of by two to four times, and being a current smoker has been linked to a fourfold increase in the risk of invasive disease caused by the pathogenic bacteria Streptococcus pneumoniae. It is believed that smoking increases the risk of these and other pulmonary and respiratory tract infections both through structural damage and through effects on the immune system. The effects on the immune system", "-31.42822729217005" ], [ "strong association of smoking with lung cancer; the lifetime risk of developing lung cancer increases significantly in smokers. A large number of known carcinogens are found in cigarette smoke. Potent carcinogens found in cigarette smoke include polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH, such as benzo[a]pyrene), Benzene, and Nitrosamine. Mechanisms of carcinogenicity Carcinogens can be classified as genotoxic or nongenotoxic. Genotoxins cause irreversible genetic damage or mutations by binding to DNA. Genotoxins include chemical agents like N-nitroso-N-methylurea (NMU) or non-chemical agents such as ultraviolet light and ionizing radiation. Certain viruses can also act as carcinogens by interacting with DNA.\nNongenotoxins do not directly affect", "-31.40135525551159" ], [ "effects are almost immediate when the smoke is inhaled. Between 1996 and 1999, eight U.S. states supported cannabis prescriptions opposing policies of the federal government. Most people who are prescribed marijuana for medical purposes use it to alleviate severe pain. Ancient China Cannabis, called má 麻 (meaning \"hemp; cannabis; numbness\") or dàmá 大麻 (with \"big; great\") in Chinese, was used in Taiwan for fiber starting about 10,000 years ago.\nThe botanist Hui-lin Li wrote that in China, \"The use of Cannabis in medicine was probably a very early development. Since ancient humans used hemp seed as food, it was quite natural", "-31.397163981513586" ], [ "them. Cannabis smoke has been listed on the California Proposition 65 warning list as a carcinogen since 2009, but leaves and pure THC are not. Head and neck A 2011 review of studies in the United States found that although some supported the hypothesis that cannabis use increased the risk of getting head and neck cancer, when other factors are accounted for the majority did not. Gordon and colleagues (2013) said there was a risk of these cancers associated with cannabis use over a long period of time. A 2015 review found no association with lifetime cannabis use and", "-31.355163090047427" ], [ "the liver (particularly with co-existing hepatitis C), lungs, heart, and vasculature\". The authors cautioned that \"evidence is needed, and further research should be considered, to prove causal associations of marijuana with many physical health conditions\". Brain Imaging studies suggest that long-term exposure does not lead to decreases in white matter or grey matter volume, but may lead to reductions in hippocampal volume. Variations in the methodologies used lend some uncertainty to this conclusion. Heart and circulation The acute effects of cannabis use in humans include a dose-dependent increase in heart rate, typically accompanied by a mild increase in blood", "-31.344761134299915" ], [ "harsh on the lungs.\nCare must be taken not to touch the side of a plastic spottle with a hot knife when inhaling spots, as burning plastic gives off many toxic chemicals, including (in the case of polyvinyl chloride (PVC) plastics) dioxin, a carcinogen. For this reason, many smokers prefer to use a glass bottle.\nA 1998 joint submission by the Royal Society and the Academy of Medical Science on the recreational and medical use of marijuana expressed concern about the use and dissemination of the \"hot knives\" technique. The submission speculated that increasing use of methods of smoking that enable massive", "-31.341442885246508" ], [ "that medical marijuana is safer than opioid for pain management. Cancer Cannabinoids have been shown to exhibit some anti-cancer effects in laboratory experiments, although there has been little research into their use as a cancer treatment in people. Laboratory experiments have suggested that cannabis and cannabinoids have anticarcinogenic and antitumor effects, including a potential effect on breast- and lung-cancer cells. The National Cancer Institute reports that as of November 2013 there have been no clinical trials on the use of cannabis to treat cancer in people, and only one small study using delta-9-THC that reported potential antitumoral activity. While cannabis may", "-31.34016424836591" ], [ "common and more pronounced in smokers, and becomes less noticeable when smoking is stopped. Smoking cannabis is known to be linked to this condition. It may also develop in areas subjecte to repeat subclinical irritation, caused by low grade irritants such as spices, oral debris or tobacco. Diagnosis Leukoedema lesions disappear when the mucosa is stretched, which helps to differentiate it from other white lesions in the mouth. The differential diagnosis is with leukoplakia, oral candidiasis, oral lichen planus, white sponge nevus, morsicatio buccarum, hereditary benign intraepithelial dyskeratosis and dyskeratosis congenita. Tissue biopsy is not indicated, but when taken, the", "-31.292948706424795" ], [ "release of inflammatory mediators. E-cigarette aerosol also induces platelet activation, aggregation, andadhesion. All these changes are associated with an increased risk of cardiovascular disease. These physiological changes are manifest in rapid deterioration of vascular function following use of e-cigarettes. E-cigarette and traditional cigarette smoking in healthy individuals with no known cardiovascular disease exhibit similar inhibition of the ability of arteries to dilate in response to the need for more blood flow. This change reflects damage to the lining of the arteries (the vascular endothelium), which increases both the risk of long-term heart disease and an acute event such as a", "-31.263370136497542" ], [ "also contribute to the chronic inflammation present in COPD. Cardiovascular disease Inhalation of tobacco smoke causes several immediate responses within the heart and blood vessels. Within one minute the heart rate begins to rise, increasing by as much as 30 percent during the first 10 minutes of smoking. Carbon monoxide in tobacco smoke exerts negative effects by reducing the blood's ability to carry oxygen.\nSmoking also increases the chance of heart disease, stroke, atherosclerosis, and peripheral vascular disease. Several ingredients of tobacco lead to the narrowing of blood vessels, increasing the likelihood of a blockage, and thus a heart attack or", "-31.248886162415147" ], [ "disorientation, and congestive heart failure but it was unclear the degree to which they were the result of e-cigarettes. Less serious adverse effects include abdominal pain, headache, blurry vision, throat and mouth irritation, vomiting, nausea, and coughing. They may produce less adverse effects compared to tobacco products. E-cigarettes reduce lung function, but to a much lower extent than with traditional cigarettes, and they reduce cardiac muscle function and increase inflammation, but these changes were only substantial with traditional cigarettes. In 2019, an outbreak of severe lung illness across multiple states in the US has been linked to the use of", "-31.21412480401341" ], [ "develop schizophrenia in the future than their nonsmoking peers.\nIt is of interest that cigarette smoking affects liver function such that the antipsychotic drugs used to treat schizophrenia are broken down in the blood stream more quickly. This means that smokers with schizophrenia need slightly higher doses of antipsychotic drugs in order for them to be effective than do their non-smoking counterparts.\nThe increased rate of smoking in schizophrenia may be due to a desire to self-medicate with nicotine. One possible reason is that smoking produces a short term effect to improve alertness and cognitive functioning in persons who suffer this illness.", "-31.1848021390324" ], [ "on the onset and advancement of atherosclerosis. Some case reports documented the possible cardiovascular adverse effects from using e-cigarettes, the majority associated was with improper use. Even though e-cigarettes are anticipated to produce fewer harmful substances than traditional cigarettes, limited evidence recognizes they comparatively have a lowered raised cardiovascular risk.\nPreliminary studies have shown that using a nicotine containing e-cigarette for just five minutes causes similar lung irritation, inflammation, and effect on blood vessels as smoking a traditional cigarette, which may increase the risk of a heart attack. E-cigarette use leads to sympathomimetic effects because of nicotine intake. It is argued", "-31.16962139923271" ], [ "regards to cannabis, however, typically only metabolites (produced by the body and thus not found in smoke) are tested rather than THC, so failure is unlikely to result from non-extreme passive exposure. High doses of niacin will help you pass Niacin, also known as Vitamin B3, is speciously claimed by some to \"burn it out\" of one's system when taken at high doses (250–500 mg per day). While some Internet (and other) sources claim that this works wonders, there is no supporting scientific evidence. Very high doses can also cause adverse side effects.\nThis legend may have been (inadvertently) inspired by", "-31.160446159308776" ], [ "e-cigarette vapor poses substantial potential risk. The cytotoxicity of e-liquids varies, and contamination with various chemicals have been detected in the liquid. E-cigarette users who use devices that contain nicotine are exposed to its potentially harmful effects. E-cigarette vapor potentially contains harmful chemicals not found in tobacco smoke. Adverse effects The short-term and long-term effects from electronic cigarette use remain unclear. As of 2018, the knowledge of possible acute and long-term health effects of aerosols inhaled from e-cigarettes is still limited partially due to incomplete awareness of physical phenomena related to e-cigarette aerosol dynamics. Makers of vaping products state that", "-31.11646729335189" ], [ "cannabis cigarettes in several respects. It is assumed that vaporizing cannabinoids at lower temperatures is safer because it produces smaller amounts of toxicants than the hot combustion of a cannabis cigarette. Recreational cannabis users can individually \"vape\" deodorized or flavored cannabis extracts with minimal annoyance to the people around them and less chance of detection, known as \"stealth vaping\". While cannabis is not readily soluble in the liquid used for e-cigarettes, recipes containing synthetic cannabinoids which are soluble are available online. Companies also make synthetic cannabinoids liquid cartridges for use in e-cigarettes. This is likely the result of companies capitalizing", "-31.087907201377675" ], [ "could possibly carry similar risks as smoking tobacco due to carcinogens in all smoke, and the ultimate conclusions on these factors are disputed.\nCannabis use disorder is defined as a medical diagnosis in the fifth revision of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5). Cannabinoids and cannabinoid receptors The most prevalent psychoactive substances in cannabis are cannabinoids, particularly THC. Some varieties, having undergone careful selection and growing techniques, can yield as much as 34% THC. Another psychoactive cannabinoid present in Cannabis sativa is tetrahydrocannabivarin (THCV), but it is only found in small amounts and is a cannabinoid antagonist.\nThere are", "-31.032444965967443" ], [ "trigger tremors and spasms. The use of e-cigarettes has been found associated with nose bleeding, change in bronchial gene expression, release of cytokines and proinflammatory mediators, and increase in allergic airway inflammation which can exacerbate asthmatic symptoms, thus by elevating infiltration of inflammatory cells including eosinophils into airways. A 2016 study found vaping using an e-liquid containing 23% alcohol was linked to reduced performance on the Purdue Pegboard Test.\nThe US Food and Drug Administration Center for Tobacco Products reported between 2008 and the beginning of 2012, 47 cases of adverse effects associated with e-cigarettes, of which eight were considered serious.", "-30.97941373917274" ], [ "Smokers thus show a higher risk to develop OSA, but the effect of cigarette on increased OSA is reversible with the cessation of smoking. Children exposed to cigarette smoke may also develop OSA as the lymphadenoid tissue will proliferate excessively in contact of the irritants. An individual may also experience or exacerbate OSA with the consumption of alcohol, sedatives, or any other medication that increases sleepiness as most of these drugs are also muscle relaxants. Allergic rhinitis and asthma have also been shown to be implicated in the increased prevalence of adenotonsillar hypertrophy and OSA. Craniofacial syndromes There are patterns", "-30.967714252987207" ], [ "in tobacco smoke, such as ash, tar, and carbon monoxide. A 2014 review found that e-cigarette aerosol contains far fewer carcinogens than tobacco smoke, and concluded that e-cigarettes \"impart a lower potential disease burden\" than traditional cigarettes. The public health community is divided, even polarized, over how the use of these devices will impact the tobacco epidemic. Some tobacco control advocates predict that e-cigarettes will increase rates of cigarette uptake, especially among youth. Others envision that these devices have potential for aiding cessation efforts, or reducing harm among people who continue to smoke. Scientific studies advocate caution before designating e-cigarettes", "-30.949226413365977" ], [ "myocardial infarction (heart attack). Using e-cigarettes is also accompanied by a shift in balance of the autonomic (reflex) nervous system toward sympathetic predominance, which is also associated with increased cardiac risk. The biological stresses that e-cigarette use impose on the cardiovascular system are manifest as an increase in risk of acute myocardial infarction. A cross-sectional analysis of data in the US 2014 and 2016 National Health Interview Surveys revealed that daily e-cigarette use was associated with increased odds of having suffered a myocardial infarction, controlling for traditional cigarette smoking, demographic characteristics (age, gender, body mass index, family income) and health", "-30.929969811804767" ], [ "is then inhaled by the smoker. The effects, felt almost immediately after smoking, are very intense and do not last long – usually 2 to 10 minutes. When smoked, cocaine is sometimes combined with other drugs, such as cannabis, often rolled into a joint or blunt. Powdered cocaine is also sometimes smoked, though heat destroys much of the chemical; smokers often sprinkle it on cannabis. The language referring to paraphernalia and practices of smoking cocaine vary, as do the packaging methods in the street level sale. Suppository Another way users consume cocaine is by making it into a suppository which", "-30.916104764211923" ], [ "dependent smoker to quit gradually, while discontinuing further damage to health.\nRecent evidence has shown that smoking tobacco increases the release of dopamine in the brain, specifically in the mesolimbic pathway, the same neuro-reward circuit activated by drugs of abuse such as heroin and cocaine. This suggests nicotine use has a pleasurable effect that triggers positive reinforcement. One study found that smokers exhibit better reaction-time and memory performance compared to non-smokers, which is consistent with increased activation of dopamine receptors. Neurologically, rodent studies have found that nicotine self-administration causes lowering of reward thresholds—a finding opposite that of most other drugs of", "-30.89081924239872" ], [ "similar to caffeine), attenuates, or reduces the higher anxiety levels caused by THC alone.\nAccording to Delphic analysis by British researchers in 2007, cannabis has a lower risk factor for dependence compared to both nicotine and alcohol. However, everyday use of cannabis may be correlated with psychological withdrawal symptoms, such as irritability or insomnia, and susceptibility to a panic attack may increase as levels of THC metabolites rise. However, cannabis withdrawal symptoms are typically mild and are never life-threatening.\nRisk of adverse outcomes from cannabis use may be reduced by implementation of evidence-based education and intervention tools communicated to the public with", "-30.872224048267526" ], [ "decreased subjects' cravings for cigarettes. Mechanism Nicotine is a small molecule that, after inhalation into the lungs, quickly passes into the bloodstream, subsequently crossing the blood–brain barrier. Once in the brain, it binds to specific nicotine receptors, resulting in the release of neurotransmitters, such as dopamine and norepinephrine.\nNicVAX is a relapse prevention therapy designed to stimulate the immune system to produce antibodies that bind to nicotine in the bloodstream and prevent and/or slow it from crossing the blood–brain barrier and entering the brain. With a reduced amount of nicotine reaching the brain, neurotransmitter release is greatly", "-30.807465547928587" ], [ "cigarette smoking, diet and drinking habits. The research team noted that \"This association is consistent with a large number of studies identifying carcinogens in incense smoke, and given the widespread and sometimes involuntary exposure to smoke from burning incense, these findings carry significant public health implications.\"\nIn 2015, the South China University of Technology found toxicity of incense to Chinese hamsters' ovarian cells to be even higher than cigarettes.\nIncensole acetate, a component of Frankincense, has been shown to have anxiolytic-like and antidepressive-like effects in mice, mediated by activation of poorly-understood TRPV3 ion channels in the brain.", "-30.807388861328945" ], [ "study found that while tobacco and cannabis smoke are quite similar, cannabis smoke contained higher amounts of ammonia, hydrogen cyanide, and nitrogen oxides, but lower levels of carcinogenic polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). This study found that directly inhaled cannabis smoke contained as much as 20 times as much ammonia and 5 times as much hydrogen cyanide as tobacco smoke and compared the properties of both mainstream and sidestream (smoke emitted from a smouldering 'joint' or 'cone') smoke. Mainstream cannabis smoke was found to contain higher concentrations of selected polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) than sidestream tobacco smoke. However, other studies have", "-30.797871175784167" ], [ "some users experience, little is known about CBD's effects on humans. The well-controlled studies with humans have a hard time showing that CBD can be distinguished from a placebo, or that it has any systematic effect on the adverse effects of cannabis. When ingested orally, THC can produce stronger psychotropic effects than when inhaled. At doses exceeding the psychotropic threshold, users may experience adverse side effects such as anxiety and panic attacks that can result in increased heart rate and changes in blood pressure.\nIn the United States research about medical cannabis has been hindered by federal law. Smoking any substance", "-30.796124885207973" ], [ "e-cigarettes, to 21 starting July 1, 2019, Physiology The active substances in tobacco, especially cigarettes, are administered by burning the leaves and inhaling the vaporized gas that results. This quickly and effectively delivers substances into the bloodstream by absorption through the alveoli in the lungs. The lungs contain some 300 million alveoli, which amounts to a surface area of over 70 m² (about the size of a tennis court). This method is not completely efficient as not all of the smoke will be inhaled, and some amount of the active substances will be lost in the process of combustion, pyrolysis.", "-30.791976869699283" ], [ "overwhelming majority of smokers smoked cigarettes and more cigarette users inhale, this was thought to be a factor in developing lung cancer at a higher rate.\nMost importantly, the study proved a dose-dependent relationship. Subjects who developed lung cancer smoked more excessively and for a more prolonged period of time than individuals who did not develop the disease. Impact The Wynder and Graham 1950 study was able to conclude that \"smoking was an important factor in the production of bronchogenic carcinoma,\" but smoking wasn't established as a causal factor until four years later, when Wynder published another paper entitled, \"Tobacco", "-30.788206117111258" ], [ "under the influence of marijuana drive slower, they don’t take as many risks\". Another consideration, they added, was the fact that users of marijuana tend not to go out as much.\nOn the other hand, a recent study of Journal of Transport & Health indicated that the numbers of fatal crashes involving marijuana after the recreational marijuana legalization or decriminalization have significantly increased in Colorado, Washington, and Massachusetts. Detection of impairment A major US insurance company states that \"there are no widely accepted methods for detecting impairment from marijuana\". The U.S. drug czar Gil Kerlikowske said in 2012, \"I'll be dead", "-30.774122830829583" ], [ "no lung damage has been detected in those who are exposed to cigarette smoke and who ingest a physiologic dose of β-carotene (6 mg), in contrast to high pharmacologic dose (30 mg). Therefore, the oncology from β-carotene is based on both cigarette smoke and high daily doses of β-carotene.\nIncreases in lung cancer may be due to the tendency of β-carotene to oxidize, and may hasten oxidation more than other food colors such as annatto. A β-carotene breakdown product suspected of causing cancer at high dose is trans-β-apo-8'-carotenal (common apocarotenal), which has been found in one study to be mutagenic and genotoxic in", "-30.77223013807088" ], [ "characteristics (hypertension, diabetes, and hypercholesterolemia). Significantly, the effect of using e-cigarettes on the odds of myocardial infarction approached what was found with traditional cigarette smoking. Effects on oral health There is little evidence indicating that using e-cigarettes rather than continue to smoke will help periodontal disease. Vaping with or without nicotine or flavoring may help cause periodontal disease. Nicotine as well as their flavoring may be damaging to periodontal ligament, stem cells, and gingival fibroblasts in cultures as a result of creation of aldehydes and/or carbonyls from e-cigarette vapor. It is possible that e-cigarettes could harm the periodontium because of", "-30.764870215090923" ], [ "limit exposure of cigarette smoke to their children had lower levels of nicotine found in dust. Homes that had not been smoked in did not contain any traces of nicotine. Exposure and health effects Humans can be exposed to THS through inhalation, skin contact, or ingestion. There are also many surfaces that can accumulate THS compounds. Common surfaces that humans come into contact with daily include couches, furniture, curtains, and car seats. THS is thought to potentially cause the greatest harm to infants and young children because younger children are more likely to put their hands in their mouths or", "-30.76126653436222" ], [ "smoke. Exposure to mutagenic and other harmful substances is lower than with traditional cigarettes. However, reduced exposure to harmful substances does not mean that health risks are equally reduced. Even low exposure increases the risks for cancers, stroke, and other cardiovascular diseases compared to non-smokers. It is still unclear to what extent the reduced levels lead to lowered health risks. Lower levels of harmful emissions has been shown, but lowering the risk to the smoker who transitions to using them has not been shown, as of 2018. Heat-not-burn tobacco products do not reduce being exposed to nicotine or the risk", "-30.753882959485054" ], [ "is uncertain. A 1995 study found that \"no lung or other injury in cannabis users has ever been attributed to paraquat contamination\". Also a United States Environmental Protection Agency manual states: \"... toxic effects caused by this mechanism have been either very rare or nonexistent. Most paraquat that contaminates cannabis is pyrolyzed during smoking to dipyridyl, which is a product of combustion of the leaf material itself (including cannabis) and presents little toxic hazard.\"\nIn a study by Imperial Chemical Industries, rats who inhaled paraquat showed development of squamous metaplasia in their respiratory tracts after a couple of weeks. This study", "-30.75162371713668" ], [ "He does not support smoking of marijuana because of the dangers of smoke inhalation. Hanuš is against uncontrolled use of marijuana, but he fully supports its use for medical purposes.\nIn April 2010 and September 2011, Hanuš took part in a seminar of Czech Parliament aimed at introduction of cannabinoid treatment.", "-30.74812913495407" ], [ "relative to human pulmonary fibroblasts, raising potential concerns about exposure risks for pregnant women. There are concerns about the health impacts of pediatric exposure to second-hand and third-hand e-cigarette vapor. A 2014 Surgeon General report found \"that nicotine adversely affects maternal and fetal health during pregnancy, and that exposure to nicotine during fetal development has lasting adverse consequences for brain development.\" The belief that e-cigarettes are safer than traditional cigarettes could increase their use in pregnant women. The toxic effects identified with e-cigarette refill liquids on stem cells may be interpreted as embryonic death or birth defects. Since e-cigarettes are", "-30.725384026183747" ], [ "lower incidence of Parkinson's disease compared to people who have never smoked, although the authors stated that it was more likely that the movement disorders which are part of Parkinson's disease prevented people from being able to smoke than that smoking itself was protective. Another study considered a possible role of nicotine in reducing Parkinson's risk: nicotine stimulates the dopaminergic system of the brain, which is damaged in Parkinson's disease, while other compounds in tobacco smoke inhibit MAO-B, an enzyme which produces oxidative radicals by breaking down dopamine.\nIn many respects, nicotine acts on the nervous system in a similar way", "-30.714466396719217" ], [ "using their e-cigarette. A 2015 Monitoring the Future survey findings on e-cigarette use highlights uncertainty about what teens are actually inhaling when using vaping devices, and at least 6% report they are using the vaporizers to inhale cannabis. About 6% do not know what substance they last vaped.\nSome personal vaporizer devices can be used with cannabis plant material or a concentrated resin form of cannabis called \"wax\". E-cigarettes can be altered to use hash oil, wax concentrated with tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), or dried cannabis leaves. E-liquids may be filled with substances other than nicotine, thus serving as a way to deliver", "-30.678233475249726" ], [ "Compared to smoking one cigarette, a single hookah session exposes users to more carbon monoxide and PAHs, similar levels of nicotine, and lower levels of tobacco-specific nitrosamines. Because of inhaling these chemicals, hookah smokers are at increased risk of many of the same health problems as cigarette smokers. Short-term health effects Carbon monoxide (CO) in hookah smoke binds to hemoglobin in the blood to form carboxyhemoglobin, which reduces the amount of oxygen that can be transported to organs including the brain. There are several case reports in the medical literature of hookah smokers needing treatment in hospital emergency rooms for", "-30.665465917354823" ], [ "shift towards cardiac sympathetic activity, which are both associated with a risk of developing cardiovascular disease. A 2012 case report found a correlation between paroxysmal atrial fibrillation and vaping. Research indicates a relationship between exposure to particulate matter with a diameter of 2.5 μm and the chance of developing cardiovascular disease.\nE-cigarettes adversely impact the cardiovascular system. Although the specific role of nicotine in cardiovascular disease remains debated, nicotine is not the only biologically active component in e-cigarette aerosol. E-cigarettes work by creating an aerosol of ultrafine particles to carry nicotine deep into the lungs. These particles are as small as—and", "-30.651865703694057" ], [ "in lung cancer induction ...\" Oxidation and inflammation Free radicals and pro-oxidants in cigarettes damage blood vessels and oxidize LDL cholesterol. Only oxidized LDL cholesterol is taken-up by macrophages, which become foam cells, leading to atherosclerotic plaques. Cigarette smoke increases proinflammatory cytokines in the bloodstream, causing atherosclerosis. The pro-oxidative state also leads to endothelial dysfunction, which is another important cause of atherosclerosis. Nicotine Nicotine, which is contained in cigarettes and other smoked tobacco products, is a stimulant and is one of the main factors leading to continued tobacco smoking. Nicotine is a highly addictive psychoactive chemical. When tobacco is smoked,", "-30.638650733744726" ], [ "thus leading to reduce penile blood flow. Female infertility Smoking is harmful to the ovaries, potentially causing female infertility, and the degree of damage is dependent upon the amount and length of time a woman smokes. Nicotine and other harmful chemicals in cigarettes interfere with the body's ability to create estrogen, a hormone that regulates folliculogenesis and ovulation. Also, cigarette smoking interferes with folliculogenesis, embryo transport, endometrial receptivity, endometrial angiogenesis, uterine blood flow and the uterine myometrium. Some damage is irreversible, but stopping smoking can prevent further damage. Smokers are 60% more likely to be infertile than non-smokers. Smoking", "-30.626307085971348" ], [ "2014 study who vaped with a base of nicotine which was associated with lung inflammation. Any reported harmful effects to cardiovascular and respiratory functions after short-term use of e-cigarettes were appreciably milder in comparison to cigarette smoke. When used in the short-term, an e-cigarette resulted in a rise of respiratory resistance comparatively to traditional cigarettes. E-cigarette use could result in respiratory diseases among youth. Evidence from animal studies indicate that children or adolescents exposed to second-hand vapor containing nicotine may impede their lung development. Adolescents with asthma who vape could have greater odds of having a higher number of respiratory", "-30.61113450388075" ], [ " One of the most common of these adulterants, talc, has an apparently greater potential to damage the lungs (as well as other organs, such as the kidneys) when present in the bloodstream, than when inhaled.\nIn any case, it is always harmful to expose the lungs to any kind of smoke or heated vapor. Inhaling heroin appears to rarely lead to toxic leukoencephalopathy. There are also documented cases of both severe acute asthma and exacerbation of underlying asthma caused by heroin inhalation, potentially resulting in death.", "-30.604733922576997" ], [ "found in the e-cigarette vapor may induce cell damage and initiate inflammatory cytokine such as in human lung fibroblasts. A 2017 review found \"E-cigarette aerosols and copper nanoparticles induced mitochondrial ROS production, mitochondrial stress (reduced stability of OxPhos electron transport chain (ETC) complex IV subunit) and DNA fragmentation in lung fibroblasts.\" A 2013 review found metallic and nanoparticles are associated with respiratory distress and disease. A 2014 review found considerable amounts of tin, metals, and silicate particles that came from various components of the e-cigarette were released into the aerosol, which result in exposure that could be higher than with", "-30.601513385307044" ], [ "but due to studies in the late 1990s it became apparent that its precursor is cannabigerolic acid, which goes through oxidocyclization through the actions of the enzyme THCA-synthase.\nIt is unstable, and slowly decarboxylates into THC during storage, and the THC itself slowly degrades to cannabinol, found with potential immunosuppressive and anti-inflammatory activities. When heated or burned, as when cannabis is smoked or included in baked goods, the decarboxylation is rapid but not complete; THCA is detectable in people who smoke or otherwise consume cannabis. Legal status THCA is not scheduled by the United Nations' Convention on Psychotropic Substances. United", "-30.601130733150057" ], [ "work, increased catecholamine levels, and impaired blood oxygen carrying capacity due to the production of carboxyhemoglobin. Cancer A 2012 review examining the relation of cancer and cannabis found little direct evidence that cannabinoids found in cannabis, including THC, are carcinogenic. Cannabinoids are not mutagenic according to the Ames test. However, cannabis smoke has been found to be carcinogenic in rodents and mutagenic in the Ames test. Correlating cannabis use with the development of human cancers has been problematic due to difficulties in quantifying cannabis use, unmeasured confounders, and that cannabinoids may have anti-cancer effects.\nAccording to a 2013 literature review, cannabis", "-30.565432731527835" ], [ "Medicine report found that \"except for the harms associated with smoking, the adverse effects of marijuana use are within the range of effects tolerated for other medications.\" He points out that there are a number of delivery routes that were not considered by the Institute, such as transdermal, sublingual, and even rectal administration, in addition to vaporizers, which release cannabis' active ingredients into the air without burning the plant matter.\nA study published in the March 1, 1990 issue of the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences stated that \"there are virtually no reports of fatal cannabis overdose in humans\"", "-30.561327015282586" ], [ "are unlike traditional cannabis cigarettes in several respects. It is assumed that vaporizing cannabinoids at lower temperatures is safer because it produces smaller amounts of toxicants than the hot combustion of a cannabis cigarette. Recreational cannabis users can individually \"vape\" deodorized or flavored cannabis extracts with minimal annoyance to the people around them and less chance of detection, known as \"stealth vaping\". While cannabis is not readily soluble in the liquid used for e-cigarettes, recipes containing synthetic cannabinoids which are soluble are available online. Companies also make synthetic cannabinoids liquid cartridges for use in e-cigarettes. This is likely the result", "-30.54852175549604" ], [ "\"Thermophilic actinomycetes\" were also found in cannabis. Long-term effects Exposure to marijuana may have biologically-based physical, mental, behavioral and social health consequences and is \"associated with diseases of the liver (particularly with co-existing hepatitis C), lungs, heart, eyesight and vasculature\" according to a 2013 literature review by Gordon and colleagues. The association with these diseases has only been reported in cases where people have smoked cannabis. The authors cautioned that \"evidence is needed, and further research should be considered, to prove causal associations of marijuana with many physical health conditions\".\nCannabis use disorder is defined in the fifth revision of the", "-30.546122535452014" ], [ "reduction Public Health researchers are now showing that the consumption of low nitrosamine smokeless tobacco (LN-SLT) as an alternative to cigarettes may have mortality and morbidity risks for oral cancer and heart disease, but \"The risks of using LN-SLT products...should not be portrayed as comparable with those of smoking cigarettes as has been the practice of some governmental and public health authorities in the past.\"", "-30.531475335126743" ], [ "conducted by the Italian National Cancer Institute, three cigarettes were left smoldering, one after the other, in a 60 m³ garage with a limited air exchange. The cigarettes produced PM pollution exceeding outdoor limits, as well as PM concentrations up to 10-fold that of the idling engine.\nsecondhand tobacco smoke exposure has immediate and substantial effects on blood and blood vessels in a way that increases the risk of a heart attack, particularly in people already at risk. Exposure to tobacco smoke for 30 minutes significantly reduces coronary flow velocity reserve in healthy nonsmokers. secondhand smoke is also associated with impaired vasodilation", "-30.51038506583427" ], [ "from the pharmacologic effects of nicotine. Attenuating these cues, while holding nicotine intake constant, significantly reduced the psychological rewarding and satiating effects of cigarette smoke. Conversely, presenting sensory inhalational cues down-regulated smoking behavior. First radiotracer nicotine studies Rose elucidated the brain pharmacokinetics of inhaled nicotine: Rose et al. conducted the first direct assessment of the rate of brain nicotine uptake during cigarette smoking, using cigarettes spiked with the radiotracer [11C]nicotine and PET scanning to image nicotine in the brain. The results overturned the widely held “puff bolus” hypothesis, which held that the nicotine from each puff of smoke should generate", "-30.505388560093706" ], [ "has rapidly accumulated since 2014. This new evidence indicates that the true risk of e-cigarette use is much higher than the \"95% safer\" claim would indicate.\nIn June 2014, the Royal College of Physicians stated that, \"On the basis of available evidence, the RCP believes that e-cigarettes could lead to significant falls in the prevalence of smoking in the UK, prevent many deaths and episodes of serious illness, and help to reduce the social inequalities in health that tobacco smoking currently exacerbates.\" Since vapor does not contain tobacco and does not involve combustion, users may avoid several harmful constituents usually found", "-30.442359033739194" ], [ "of other angiogenic growth factors. In 2001, it was found that nicotine was a potent angiogenic agent at tissue and plasma concentrations similar to those induced by light to moderate smoking. Effects of nicotine on angiogenesis have been demonstrated for a number of tumor cells, such as breast, colon, and lung. Similar results have also been demonstrated in in vivo mouse models of lung cancer, where nicotine significantly increased the size and number of tumors in the lung, and enhanced metastasis.\nA 2014 study suggested that e-cigarette use may be a risk factor for lung cancer. In several in vitro experiments,", "-30.37487408277957" ], [ "DNA to produce harmful mutations. Inhalation Outdoor air may contain low levels of benzene from automobile service stations, wood smoke, tobacco smoke, the transfer of gasoline, exhaust from motor vehicles, and industrial emissions. About 50% of the entire nationwide (United States) exposure to benzene results from smoking tobacco or from exposure to tobacco smoke. After smoking 32 cigarettes per day, the smoker would take in about 1.8 milligrams (mg) of benzene. This amount is about 10 times the average daily intake of benzene by nonsmokers.\nInhaled benzene is primarily expelled unchanged through exhalation. In a human study 16.4 to 41.6%", "-30.370763863320462" ], [ "inhalation (and therefore higher intake of cannabinoids) may lead to an increase in incidents of short-term cannabis-related mental disturbance. Other Purposes The same general procedure is also used with opium, morphine base paste, and black-tar heroin.", "-30.369168686505873" ], [ "of lung cancer cases are associated with tobacco use. Other carcinogens include asbestos and radioactive materials. Both smoking and second-hand exposure from other smokers can lead to lung cancer and eventually death. Therefore, prevention of tobacco use is paramount to prevention of lung cancer.\nIndividual, community, and statewide interventions can prevent or cease tobacco use. 90% of adults in the US who have ever smoked did so prior to the age of 20. In-school prevention/educational programs, as well as counseling resources, can help prevent and cease adolescent smoking. Other cessation techniques include group support programs, nicotine replacement therapy (NRT), hypnosis, and", "-30.357148598413914" ], [ "stroke. According to a study by an international team of researchers, people under 40 are five times more likely to have a heart attack if they smoke.\nExposure to tobacco smoke is known to increase oxidative stress in the body by various mechanisms, including depletion of plasma antioxidants such as vitamin C.\nRecent research by American biologists has shown that cigarette smoke also influences the process of cell division in the cardiac muscle and changes the heart's shape.\nThe usage of tobacco has also been linked to Buerger's disease (thromboangiitis obliterans) the acute inflammation and thrombosis (clotting) of arteries and veins of the", "-30.33207461948041" ] ]

[ "Nuclear energy has really, really, bad PR. Between the population associating destructive forces like nuclear weapons with nuclear power, and the high profile nuclear power incidents that have happened in the past (namely, Chernobyl, 3 Mile Island, and more recently Fukushima) what people think of isn't clean, efficient, safe power. They think of large scale widespread disasters, cities vaporized, and everyone getting cancer. People point out that, for instance, with Fukushima, iirc no one directly died as a consequence, pretty phenomenal safety given the magnitude of the disaster. People point out that coal power plants emit radiation that likely contributes to far more cancer related deaths. But ultimately, the Nuclear side doesn't have the PR power to fight against our fearful imaginings, and quite possibly the PR power of competing interests who like to keep us afraid of it.", "I currently work in the power industry. A few users have mentioned PR, and that's a part of it. Most of the reason though, is because it is incredibly expensive. The capital expense for building a nuclear power plant is huuuuge! A lot of companies aren't willing to spend that kind of capital because it would take a long time pay itself off.", "Misinformation and fear. Too many people would freak the hell out if they thought a nuclear plant was going to be built near them. There'd be protests about how the (non-existent) radiation would give their kids cancer and won't you think of the children? They'd bring up the devastation (that never happened) from 3 Mile Island, the explosion (caused by idiotic tests nobody else would even conduct) of Chernobyl, and the countless deaths (2 injured workers with radiation burns) from Fukushima.", "This article gives a pretty good picture of the state of nuclear energy in the U.S. But one of the biggest reasons that hold nuclear energy back is cost. You can build multiple natural gas power plants fast and cheaper then you can a nuclear power plant. URL_0 ", "Construction of nuclear plants is difficult and carries a lot of risks. Risks of delay, cost overrun, technical problems, unexpected design problems. Because nuclear plants are complicated, they tend to be very big - big projects have their own problems. 1. You need a ton of workers to build them (and there may not be enough workers available with the special skills needed). When Finland started building a new nuclear plant in 2005, there weren't enough nuclear certified welders in Finland, so they looked to next door Sweden and Norway. Still not enough. They had to get workers in from as far away as Bulgaria. The result was you had workers speaking 20 different languages, doing complex difficult jobs, and well - not everyone got things right, so a lot of work had to be dismantled and done again. 2. There may be unexpected construction problems. A similar reactor was being built in France. The nuclear inspectors required that the reactor pressure vessel be of suitable quality. However, you can only analyse the steel by cutting a chunk out and examining it - so you can't do it with the finished pressure vessel. You have to build a prototype using the exact same method, and then cut up the prototype for inspection. For reasons of time, the builders installed the first pressure vessel they made, then started building the sacrificial one. By the time the sacrificial one was ready, the original one had been installed and welded in, and the concrete containment building had been built around it. The sacrifical reactor failed the quality tests, indicating that the manufacturing process was flawed and the installer reactor vessel could not be trusted. No idea how they are going to get out of this problem. 3. Sometimes design problems crop up late. The UK designed a 2nd generation type of reactor called an advanced gas cooled reactor. These were designed to use natural uranium (i.e. uranium as it comes from the refinery, without the very expensive and difficult enrichment process). The design was to make the fuel by putting uranium pellets into tubes made of the special metal beryllium. Beryllium is useful because it is completely transparent to the radiation in the reactor so, doesn't affect the nuclear reaction. By the time the plants were already mostly built, it was realised that there were problems with the beryllium and the fuel was redesigned to use stainless steel but this change meant that it would be impossible for the reactors to operate on natural uranium, and enriched uranium was required. This change pushed up the cost of fuel so much, that there was talk of abandoning some of the reactors because the fuel would be too expensive. 4. Because these projects take so long, there is very little \"learning\" on the job. In most jobs, the first one is the most difficult, and once you've done one job, you sort of know what you are doing and where the problems are. By the time you've done 10, you've pretty much started to crack the problems. If, however, a job takes 10 years - then by the time the job is done, workers are retiring, or have moved away, died, left the country, changed career, etc. Not very many workers build 2 or more nuclear plants. As a result, even building a 2nd or 3rd is much more risky than you might expect. This is often made worse because different utilities or local governments may want to have preferred suppliers for parts or workers, so different suppliers get brought in, even for the same overall design. 5. Because construction is so expensive, it adds a lot of financial risk. A lot of money has to be borrowed, because not many companies just have $20 billion cash sitting in the bank. Because so much money needs to be borrowed, it needs to be repaid over a long period - so, this means that changes in interest rates are a big risk. If interest rates rise, then a 30 year loan has 30 years of extra interest to pay, whereas a 5 year loan for a simple gas plant, only brings 5 years of extra interest risk. Because of this risk, the money lenders often want a higher rate for these longer loans....", "A couple of reasons: 1. Public opinion remains staunchly against the plants due to public fears of the danger. Much of this panic is unfounded, but in the court of public opinion facts matter less. 2. Nuclear energy is not \"clean\" energy. It produces highly toxic waste that many countries have struggled disposing of. 3. Nuclear energy requires high technical expertise but the labor force does not match with the labor demands in many countries. You can't build more plants without more engineers and technicians. 4. There also has been a long history of over promising nuclear energy's capabilities. While it is efficient we aren't going to be living in a world where we only need nuclear, it's always going to be a mixed energy market.", "They explain simply with three great videos URL_1 URL_2 URL_0 ", "Well, we have constructed more plants; Watts Bar 2 is the newest plant and it got its license to start testing with nuclear material in October. There are 4 others under construction now. But the cost is massive; the two new reactors at Vogtle will be $14 billion. So they cost billions and take about 7-8 years to build (because they must be built very carefully), so when a utility is trying to figure out what to build, it will go with something much cheaper and more flexible. But if the public was clamoring for it (which they are not), the federal government could subsidize the construction of other plants as well as the training of all the nuclear certified welders that are needed (there are not a lot of nuclear certified workers). But after factoring in the $15 billion to build a nuke plant, utilities often find they will have cheaper power sources by building something else. In addition to the 1 undergoing testing and the 4 under construction, there are 18 other proposed projects; 1 construction and operation license has been granted, a few others are expected in 2016." ]

[ [ "in 2011. Public support for nuclear energy is often low as a result of safety concerns, however for each unit of energy produced, nuclear energy is far safer than fossil fuel energy. \nTraditional environmental groups such as Greenpeace and the Sierra Club are opposed to all use of nuclear power. Individuals who have described nuclear power as a green energy source include early Greenpeace member Patrick Moore,, Stewart Brand, George Monbiot, Bill Gates and James Lovelock.\nNewer nuclear reactor designs are capable of burning nuclear waste until it is no longer (or dramatically less) dangerous, and have design features that greatly", "-40.41272305714665" ], [ "a dependence on imported fuels. Proponents advance the notion that nuclear power produces virtually no air pollution, in contrast to the chief viable alternative of fossil fuel. Proponents also believe that nuclear power is the only viable course to achieve energy independence for most Western countries. They emphasize that the risks of storing spent fuel are small and can be further reduced by using the latest technology in newer reactors, fuel recycling and long-lived radioisotope burn-up. The operational safety record in the Western world is excellent when compared to the other major kinds of power plants.\nOpponents say that nuclear power", "-37.831997791072354" ], [ "efficiency can simultaneously ameliorate greenhouse warming, reduce acid rain and air pollution, save money, and avoid the problems of nuclear power. Given the urgency of abating global warming, Lovins stated that we cannot afford to invest in nuclear power when those same dollars put into efficiency would displace far more carbon dioxide.\nIn \"Nuclear Power: Climate Fix or Folly,\" published in 2010, Lovins argued that expanded nuclear power \"... does not represent a cost-effective solution to global warming and that investors would shun it were it not for generous government subsidies lubricated by intensive lobbying efforts.\" Randall Forsberg Randall Forsberg (née Watson,", "-37.724294427607674" ], [ "forward to rapidly replace fossil-based fuels in the global energy mix, with intense academic debate. Sometimes the IEA says that countries without nuclear should develop it as well as their renewable power.\nIn developed nations the economically feasible geography for new hydropower is lacking, with every geographically suitable area largely already exploited. Proponents of wind and solar energy claim these resources alone could eliminate the need for nuclear power.\nSome analysts argue that conventional renewable energy sources, wind and solar do not offer the scalability necessary for a large scale decarbonization of the electric grid, mainly due to intermittency-related considerations. Along with", "-37.3037125737319" ], [ "requires increased use of nuclear energy. Phil Radford, Executive Director of Greenpeace US responded that nuclear energy is too risky, takes too long to build to address climate change, and by showing that the can U.S. shift to nearly 100% renewable energy while phasing out nuclear power by 2050.\nEnvironmentalist Stewart Brand wrote the book Whole Earth Discipline, which examines how nuclear power and some other technologies can be used as tools to address global warming. Bernard Cohen, Professor Emeritus of Physics at the University of Pittsburgh, calculates that nuclear power is many times safer than other forms of power generation.\nPresident", "-36.603348913486116" ], [ "carbon emissions in accordance with the Paris Agreement signed by 195 nations. They emphasize that the risks of storing waste are small and existing stockpiles can be reduced by using this waste to produce fuels for the latest technology in newer reactors. The operational safety record of nuclear is excellent when compared to the other major kinds of power plants and by preventing pollution, actually saves lives every year.\nOpponents say that nuclear power poses numerous threats to people and the environment and point to studies in the literature that question if it will ever be a sustainable energy source. These", "-36.36556966810895" ], [ "that the United States should develop factories and reactors that will recycle some spent fuel. But the Blue Ribbon Commission on America's Nuclear Future said in 2012 that \"no existing technology was adequate for that purpose, given cost considerations and the risk of nuclear proliferation\".\nThere is an \"international consensus on the advisability of storing nuclear waste in deep underground repositories\", but no country in the world has yet opened such a site. The Obama administration has disallowed reprocessing of nuclear waste, citing nuclear proliferation concerns. Water use in nuclear power production A 2011 NREL study of water use in electricity", "-36.29087994934525" ], [ "continue some nuclear reactors under construction.\nAs of 2016, countries such as Australia, Austria, Denmark, Greece, Malaysia, New Zealand, and Norway have no nuclear power stations and remain opposed to nuclear power. Germany, Italy, Spain and Switzerland are phasing-out their nuclear power. Energy efficiency Moving away from fossil fuels will require changes not only in the way energy is supplied, but in the way it is used, and reducing the amount of energy required to deliver various goods or services is essential. Opportunities for improvement on the demand side of the energy equation are as rich and diverse as those on", "-36.22915045595437" ], [ "burn fossil fuels. Nuclear power is acclaimed by the World Nuclear Association and Environmentalists for Nuclear Energy to be the safe and sustainable energy source in reducing carbon emissions. Retrospectively, the corporations of Greenpeace International and NIRS are known to be opposed to nuclear power, arguing that it threatens the environment more than anything. Carbon Capture Storage (CCS) Carbon dioxide is a major greenhouse gas that contributes to climate change, and its levels have increased from human activity, promoting incidents such as fossil fuel combustion. One of the main technologies meant for reducing carbon dioxide emissions is carbon capture storage", "-35.91036708879983" ], [ "down greenhouse gas emissions with deployment of additional nuclear reactors will not be effective unless the nuclear energy industry in the U.S. improves its efficiency. \nSome of the energy input into nuclear power plants occurs as production of concrete, which consumes little electricity from power plants. Applications to other industries As with nuclear power plants, hydroelectric dams are built with large amounts of concrete, which equate to considerable CO2 emissions, but little power usage. The long lifespan of hydroplants then contribute to a positive power ratio for a longer time than most other power plants.\nFor the environmental impact of solar", "-35.77284532733029" ], [ "pointing out that large amounts of fossil fuels are burned to construct, operate, and maintain these facilities.\nOther perceived problems include that enriched uranium can also be used as a nuclear weapon, prompting security issues such as nuclear proliferation. Also nuclear waste requires extensive waste management because it can remain radioactive for centuries.\nThe only nuclear reactor in Australia is currently located at Lucas Heights, and it has had leaks of water into heavy water since its completion, reducing public confidence in nuclear power plants in Australia. Renewable energy Renewable energy technologies currently contribute about 6% of Australia's total energy supply and", "-35.62902008448145" ], [ "source, with lifecycle greenhouse gas emissions (including the mining and processing of uranium), similar to the emissions from renewable energy sources.\nThere is considerable controversy over whether nuclear power can be considered sustainable, with debates revolving around the risk of nuclear accidents, the cost and construction time needed to build new plants, the generation of radioactive nuclear waste, and the potential for nuclear energy to contribute to nuclear proliferation. These concerns have led to a decrease in the contribution of nuclear energy to the global electricity supply since 1993. At a global level, opposition to nuclear energy stood at 62 percent", "-35.60127177351387" ], [ "reserves in the U.S. than they have oil reserves in Saudi Arabia. If we find a way to deal with it and use it so it doesn't hurt the environment, we're going to find ourselves not contributing to global warming ... I think we have to take another look at nuclear power. // We haven't had a licensed nuclear power plant in 30 years. It has to be done carefully. But we haven't lost a life to nuclear power yet.\nGiuliani did not address the fact that coal-generated electricity produces more carbon dioxide than other fossil fuels, and was not asked", "-35.53312708699377" ], [ "reduce the attractiveness of spent fuel to theft and lower the volume of high level nuclear waste. Reprocessing of civilian fuel from power reactors is also currently done in the United Kingdom, Russia, Japan, and India.\nThe main constituent of spent fuel from the most common light water reactor, is uranium that is slightly more enriched than natural uranium, which can be recycled, though there is a lower incentive to do so. Most of this \"recovered uranium\", or at times referred to as reprocessed uranium, remains in storage. It can however be used in a fast reactor, used directly as fuel", "-35.49176229443401" ], [ "short of disastrous for us to discover a source of clean, cheap, abundant energy because of what we would do with it. We ought to be looking for energy sources that are adequate for our needs, but that won't give us the excesses of concentrated energy with which we could do mischief to the earth or to each other.\n— Amory Lovins, 1977.\nLet's face it. We don't want safe nuclear power plants. We want NO nuclear power plants.\n— Spokesman for the Government Accountability Project, 1985.\n... we also thought that as you provide societies with more energy it enables them to do more environmental", "-35.47997912991559" ], [ "Earth, as fusion reactors are not yet available. However nuclear power is controversial politically and scientifically due to concerns about radioactive waste disposal, safety, the risks of a severe accident, and technical and economical problems in dismantling of old power plants.\nThorium is a fissionable material used in thorium-based nuclear power. The thorium fuel cycle claims several potential advantages over a uranium fuel cycle, including greater abundance, superior physical and nuclear properties, better resistance to nuclear weapons proliferation and reduced plutonium and actinide production. Therefore, it is sometimes referred as sustainable. Solar Currently, photovoltaic (PV) panels only have the ability to", "-35.356293144694064" ], [ "reactors are less effective at displacing greenhouse gas emissions than energy efficiency initiatives and renewable energy technologies\". They go on to argue \"that (a) its near-term potential is significantly limited compared to energy efficiency and renewable energy; (b) it displaces emissions and saves lives only at high cost and at the enhanced risk of nuclear weapons proliferation; (c) it is unsuitable for expanding access to modern energy services in developing countries; and (d) Hansen's estimates of cancer risks from exposure to radiation are flawed\". James Hansen and a colleague subsequently wrote a counter-rebuttal.\nMark Diesendorf and B.K. Sovacool review the \"little-known", "-35.34925339277834" ], [ "tin, mercury or silver, though a debate over the timing of peak uranium does exist.\nNuclear power reduces carbon emissions. Although a very viable resource, nuclear power can be a controversial solution because of the risks associated with it. Another factor in the debate with nuclear power is that many people or companies simply do not want any nuclear energy plant or radioactive waste near them.\nCurrently, nuclear power provides 13% of the world's total electricity. The most notable use of nuclear power within the United States is in U.S. Navy aircraft carriers and submarines, which have been exclusively nuclear-powered for several", "-35.284330410009716" ], [ "a new light because of the Fukushima storage pool experience\". Mark Cooper suggested that the cost of nuclear power, which already had risen sharply in 2010 and 2011, could \"climb another 50 percent due to tighter safety oversight and regulatory delays in the wake of the reactor calamity in Japan\".\nIn 2011, London-based bank HSBC said: \"With Three Mile Island and Fukushima as a backdrop, the US public may find it difficult to support major nuclear new build and we expect that no new plant extensions will be granted either. Thus we expect the clean energy standard under discussion in US", "-35.253355506989465" ], [ "then-current use rate.\nLight water reactors make relatively inefficient use of nuclear fuel, mostly fissioning only the very rare uranium-235 isotope. Nuclear reprocessing can make this waste reusable. Newer generation III reactors also achieve a more efficient use of the available resources than the generation II reactors which make up the vast majority of reactors worldwide. With a pure fast reactor fuel cycle with a burn up of all the Uranium and actinides (which presently make up the most hazardous substances in nuclear waste), there is an estimated 160,000 years worth of Uranium in total conventional resources and phosphate ore", "-35.1562239229097" ], [ "can meet our aggressive climate goals if we eliminate nuclear power as an option.\"\nAnalysis in 2015 by Professor and Chair of Environmental Sustainability Barry W. Brook and his colleagues on the topic of replacing fossil fuels entirely, from the electric grid of the world, has determined that at the historically modest and proven-rate at which nuclear energy was added to and replaced fossil fuels in France and Sweden during each nation's building programs in the 1980s, within 10 years nuclear energy could displace or remove fossil fuels from the electric grid completely, \"allow[ing] the world to meet the most stringent", "-35.134809325041715" ], [ "not be financially viable when compared to sustainable energy alternatives, such as wind and solar energy.\nAdditionally, an AP investigation published in June 27, 2011 found that older nuclear power plants were also often built in areas that at the time the plants were built were located outside of urban areas but are now in close proximity to metropolitan cities and their suburban sprawl. The twin dangers of increased proximity and decrepit plants has raised alarm bells for concerned area residents. Public response to nuclear accidents Over the years, public opinion about the nuclear industry, both in the United States and", "-35.12023441068595" ], [ "of nuclear power advocate the use of energy conservation, efficient energy use, and appropriate renewable energy technologies to create our energy future. Amory Lovins, from the Rocky Mountain Institute, has argued that centralized electricity systems with giant power plants are becoming obsolete. In their place are emerging \"distributed resources\"—smaller, decentralized electricity supply sources (including efficiency) that are cheaper, cleaner, less risky, more flexible, and quicker to deploy. Such technologies are often called \"soft energy technologies\" and Lovins viewed their impacts as more gentle, pleasant, and manageable than hard energy technologies such as nuclear power.\nNuclear energy systems have a long stay", "-35.11514239835378" ], [ "having never been attempted due to its prohibitive cost, and with far greater land area that would be required to be devoted to the wind, wave and solar projects, along with the inherent assumption that humanity will use less, and not more, energy in the future. As Brook notes the \"principal limitations on nuclear fission are not technical, economic or fuel-related, but are instead linked to complex issues of societal acceptance, fiscal and political inertia, and inadequate critical evaluation of the real-world constraints facing [the other] low-carbon alternatives.\"\nNuclear power may be uncompetitive compared with fossil fuel energy sources in countries", "-35.068657458235975" ], [ "as GE, Toyota and Sharp, and investment firms such as Goldman Sachs are making multibillion-dollar investments in clean technology. Emerging clean tech cities are seen to include Copenhagen, where wind power generates 20 percent of Denmark's electricity, and Chicago, a leader in \"green\" buildings saving energy, heating and cooling costs. Statistics from the U.S. and from abroad, especially from China, India, Brazil, and Europe are presented.\nThe authors' claim that nuclear power and clean coal are not clean technologies. Apart from the risks associated with nuclear power, \"multibillion-dollar nuclear plants are simply not cost-effective when compared with other energy sources.\"", "-35.03539428213844" ], [ "and Tom Wigley have released an open letter stating, in part, that \nRenewables like wind and solar and biomass will certainly play roles in a future energy economy, but those energy sources cannot scale up fast enough to deliver cheap and reliable power at the scale the global economy requires. While it may be theoretically possible to stabilize the climate without nuclear power, in the real world there is no credible path to climate stabilization that does not include a substantial role for nuclear power.\nIn a published rebuttal to Hansen's analyses, eight energy and climate scholars say that \"nuclear power", "-35.035224293358624" ], [ "visiting power plants, national laboratories and the Yucca Mountain nuclear waste repository.\nCravens, after interviewing leading researchers, engineers, and experts in the fields of nuclear fission and radiation, public health, counterterrorism, and risk assessment, concludes that nuclear power is clean and safe. Exploration of the issues from multiple points of view and her own observations reveal to her that nuclear fission as a power source is being economically and cleanly harnessed in the U.S. She finds that in countries like France and Sweden, which both derive considerable energy from nuclear plants, the environment is far safer and cleaner than in those", "-34.96442361852678" ], [ "not as low as solar, wind, and hydroelectric. On the other hand, peak load generators, such as natural gas, have low fixed costs, low plant load factor and high marginal costs.\nCoal and nuclear power plants do not change production to match power consumption demands since it is more economical to operate them at constant production levels, and not all power plants are designed for it. However, some nuclear power stations, such as those in France, are physically capable of being used as load following power plants and do alter their output, to some degree, to help meet varying demands.", "-34.9640387641266" ], [ "nations that continue to get most of their electricity from burning fossil fuels. She learns that in the worldwide energy industry - including wind and solar - nuclear power has by far the fewest deaths per terawatt-hour generated. She concludes that if we are to care for subsequent generations, embracing nuclear energy is an ethical imperative.", "-34.957762438942154" ], [ "the existing capacity is under stress due to climate change. Renewable energy is seen as an important component of future energy generation, but being essentially intermittent, can not be effectively managed by the current power distribution technologies. Hence, nuclear energy is seen as an important option for power generation in many countries.\nPresent generation nuclear reactors are all uranium based, fueled with either freshly mined uranium or recycled plutonium and uranium as the fissile material. There are concerns about a continued supply of uranium, due to resource depletion, as well as various obstacles to mining uranium deposits. Moreover, the currently", "-34.95720286152209" ], [ "or reprocessing not presently being commonplace as it is often considered to be cheaper to use a once-through nuclear fuel cycle in many countries, depending on the varying levels of intrinsic value given by a society in reducing the long-lived waste in their country, with France doing a considerable amount of reprocessing when compared to the US.\nNuclear power, with a 10.6% share of world electricity production as of 2013, is second only to hydroelectricity as the largest source of low-carbon power. Over 400 reactors generate electricity in 31 countries.\nA Yale University review published in the Journal of Industrial Ecology analyzing", "-34.920480279717594" ], [ "accidents, the safety record of nuclear power, in terms of lives lost (ignoring nonfatal illnesses) per unit of electricity delivered, is better than every other major source of power in the world, and on par with solar and wind. Energy transition The Energy transition is the shift by several countries to sustainable economies by means of renewable energy, energy efficiency and sustainable development. This trend has been augmented by diversifying electricity generation and allowing homes and businesses with solar panels on their rooftops to sell electricity to the grid. In the future this could \"lead to a majority of our", "-34.8835630727408" ], [ "the electricity grid only from nuclear and renewables may be done together with interconnected countries, such as France in the case of Britain.\nNuclear power is comparable to, and in some cases lower, than many renewable energy sources in terms of lives lost per unit of electricity delivered.\nHowever, as opposed to renewable energy, conventional designs for nuclear reactors produce a smaller volume of manufacture and operations related waste, most notably, the intensely radioactive spent fuel that needs to be stored or reprocessed.\nA nuclear plant also needs to be disassembled and removed and much of the disassembled nuclear plant needs to be", "-34.84715303982375" ], [ "first opposing it and now supporting it. In Australian newspaper The Age, he writes \"Greenpeace is wrong—we must consider nuclear power\". He argues that any realistic plan to reduce reliance on fossil fuels or greenhouse gas emissions need increased use of nuclear energy. Phil Radford, Executive Director of Greenpeace US responded that nuclear energy is too risky, takes too long to build to address climate change, and claims that most countries, including the U.S., could shift to nearly 100% renewable energy while phasing out nuclear power by 2050.\nA French journalist under the pen name Olivier Vermont wrote in his book", "-34.829062894394156" ], [ "of available energy options which may help to address these problems:\n...91% (of which 66% strongly) were in favour of \"creating tax incentives to encourage the development and use of alternative energy sources, such as solar or wind power\". Asked whether \"building new nuclear power plants, to reduce reliance on oil and coal\" would be a good idea, 52% agreed (of which 22% strongly) while 43% disagreed (of which 25% strongly).\nInternational nuclear policy consultant Mycle Schneider has reported that, as of June 2007, the overall lifetime load factor of the 22 Canadian nuclear reactors was 68.5%, which is quite a poor", "-34.80241725908127" ], [ "and devotion we all continue to depend; the impressive operational improvements in U.S. power reactors in recent years deserve great credit. It is simply how technologies and markets evolved, despite the best intentions and immense effort. In nuclear power's heydey, its proponents saw no competitors but central coal-fired power stations. Then, in quick succession, came end-use efficiency, combined-cycle plants, distributed generation (including versions that recovered valuable heat previously wasted), and competitive windpower. The range of competitors will only continue to expand more and their costs to fall faster than any nuclear technology can match.\nIn 1988, Lovins argued that improving energy", "-34.67314612743212" ], [ "was being formed. Environmentalists saw the advantages of nuclear power in reducing air pollution, but became critical of nuclear technology on other grounds. The view that nuclear power was better for the environment than conventional fuels was partially undermined in the late 1960s when major controversy erupted over the effects of waste heat from nuclear plants on water quality. The nuclear industry \"... gradually and reluctantly took action to reduce thermal pollution by building cooling towers or ponds for plants on inland waterways.\" \nSeveral scientists, including John Gofman and Arthur Tamplin, challenged the prevailing view that the small", "-34.565597413642536" ], [ "nuclear power stations wrote that while considered \"experimental\" and not expected to be competitive with coal and oil, they \"became competitive because of inflation... and the large increase in price of coal and oil.\" He wrote that for nuclear power stations the capital cost is the major cost factor over the life of the plant, hence \"antinukes\" try to increase costs and building time with changing regulations and lengthy hearings, so that \"it takes almost twice as long to build a (US-designed boiling-water or pressurised water) atomic power plant in the United States as in France, Japan, Taiwan or", "-34.50864068289229" ], [ "mostly to the risk of high-level environmental damage, although nuclear power contributes positively to the environment in the areas of air pollution and climate change. According to Fatih Birol, Chief Economist at the International Energy Agency, without a phasing out of fossil fuel subsidies, countries will not reach their climate targets.\nA 2010 study by Global Subsidies Initiative compared global relative subsidies of different energy sources. Results show that fossil fuels receive 0.8 US cents per kWh of energy they produce (the estimate of fossil fuel subsidies applies only to consumer subsidies and only within non-OECD countries), nuclear energy receives 1.7", "-34.47789181454573" ], [ "professor of civil and environmental engineering at Stanford University, has said: \"If our nation wants to reduce global warming, air pollution and energy instability, we should invest only in the best energy options. Nuclear energy isn't one of them\". Arnold Gundersen, chief engineer of Fairewinds Associates and a former nuclear power industry executive, has questioned the safety of the Westinghouse AP1000, a proposed third-generation nuclear reactor. John Gofman, a nuclear chemist and doctor, raised concerns about exposure to low-level radiation in the 1960s and argued against commercial nuclear power in the U.S. In “Nuclear Power: Climate Fix or Folly,” Amory", "-34.43215775801218" ], [ "between 10-40% of the energy produced by a power station. It also asserts that CCS is expensive, potentially doubling plant costs, and is very risky, as permanent storage cannot be guaranteed. Nuclear energy In terms of resources, aside from its strong production of low-cost coal and natural gas, Australia has approximately 40% of the world's uranium deposits, and is considered to be the third largest producer of uranium. Nuclear technology offers significant generation capability. Claiming that it is carbon-free, some claim that increased reliance on nuclear power could reduce greenhouse gas emissions which cause global warming. Others dispute this claim,", "-34.37773350061616" ], [ "rather than using a secondary water system. \nThermal energy from nuclear reactors can also be used directly, without conversion to electricity. \nNuclear reactor heat can be used in hydrogen production and other commercial operations, such as water desalination and the production of petroleum products (extracting oil from tar sands, creating synthetic oil from coal, etc.). Staffing Several SMR developers are claiming that their designs will require fewer staff members to run the reactors because of the increased inherent and passive safety systems. Fewer staff members is also a safety risk if plant owners decide to cut corners by assigning even", "-34.34681001183344" ], [ "stored as low level nuclear waste for a few decades.\nIn an EU wide 2018 assessment of progress in reducing greenhouse gas emissions per capita, France and Sweden were the only two large industrialized nations within the EU to receive a positive rating, as every other country received a \"poor\" to \"very poor\" grade.\nA 2018 analysis by MIT argued that, to be much more cost-effective as they approach deep decarbonization, electricity systems should integrate baseload low carbon resources, such as nuclear, with renewables, storage and demand response.\nNuclear power stations require approximately one square kilometer of land per typical reactor. Environmentalists and", "-34.33264507725835" ], [ "their country \"could almost entirely replace coal and nuclear energy within 20 years by becoming highly energy-efficient and focusing on generating energy from the Sun and wind\". Globally, 39% want to continue using existing reactors without building new ones, while 30% would like to shut everything down now.\nIn 2011, Deutsche Bank analysts concluded that \"the global impact of the Fukushima accident is a fundamental shift in public perception with regard to how a nation prioritizes and values its populations health, safety, security, and natural environment when determining its current and future energy pathways\". As a consequence, \"renewable energy will be", "-34.31986613413028" ], [ "be powered by solar energy collected from satellites beaming the energy down in the form of radiation to receiving stations on Earth, which will end dependence on hydrocarbons, and dramatic advances in robotics and genetic science will lead to a great increase in labor productivity, and significant increases in human longevity. It also hints at more widespread nuclear proliferation, claiming that Japan, Turkey, and Poland will have nuclear weapons by mid-century, as the technology will be a century old by that time, and \"there won't be any mystery to how to build and deliver them.\" Revision of predictions In 2015,", "-34.29039804218337" ], [ "Promise, economics professor, John Quiggin, comments that it presents the environmental rationale for nuclear power, but that reviving nuclear power debates is a distraction, and the main problem with the nuclear option is that it is not economically viable. Quiggin says that we need more efficient energy use and more renewable energy commercialization.", "-34.279531102482" ], [ "massive amount of pollution and carbon emission generated from burning fossil fuels like coal, oil and natural gas. Modern society demands always-on energy to power communications, computer networks, transportation, industry and residences at all times of day and night. In the absence of nuclear power, utilities need to burn fossil fuels to keep the energy grid reliable, even with access to solar and wind energy, because those sources are intermittent. Proponents also believe that nuclear power is the only viable course for a country to achieve energy independence while also meeting their \"ambitious\" nationally determined contributions (NDCs) to reduce", "-34.27490997120913" ], [ "power plant system can achieve a 40% electrical conversion efficiency while a nuclear power plant is slightly lower at 32%. Fuel cell systems are capable of reaching efficiencies in the range of 55%–70%. However, as with any process, fuel cells also experience inherent losses due to their design and manufacturing processes. Overview A fuel cell consists of an electrolyte which is placed in between two electrodes – the cathode and the anode. In the simplest case, hydrogen gas passes over the cathode, where it is decomposed into hydrogen protons and electrons. The protons pass through the electrolyte", "-34.26628691636142" ], [ "the future of the nuclear fuel cycle. His suggestion was to \"limit the processing of weapon-usable material in civilian nuclear programs, as well as the production of new material, by agreeing to restrict these operations exclusively to facilities under multinational control.\" Also, \"nuclear-energy systems should be deployed that, by design, avoid the use of materials that may be applied directly to making nuclear weapons.\" He concluded by saying that \"considerable advantages would be gained from international co-operation in these stages of the nuclear-fuel cycle. These initiatives would not simply add more non-proliferation controls, to limit access to weapon-usable nuclear material;", "-34.25277693825774" ], [ "waste is small and can be reduced through the latest technology of newer reactors, and that the operational safety record of fission-electricity is unparalleled.\nOpponents believe that nuclear power poses many threats to people and the environment such as the risk of nuclear weapons proliferation and terrorism. They also contend that reactors are complex machines where many things can and have gone wrong. In years past, they also argued that when all the energy-intensive stages of the nuclear fuel chain are considered, from uranium mining to nuclear decommissioning, nuclear power is neither a low-carbon nor an economical electricity source.\nArguments of economics", "-34.22739874047693" ], [ "minimize the possibility of a nuclear accident. These designs have yet to be commercialized. (See: Molten salt reactor) Some forms of nuclear power can \"burn\" nuclear waste through a process known as nuclear transmutation, such as an Integral Fast Reactor. Nuclear power plants can be more or less eliminated from their problem of nuclear waste through the use of nuclear reprocessing and newer plants such as fast breeder plants. Fuel switching For a given unit of energy produced, the greenhouse gas emissions of natural gas are around half the emissions of coal when used to generate electricity, and around two-thirds", "-34.20570316264639" ], [ "the current LWR nuclear power plants age beyond 60 years, there are possibilities for increased frequency of system, structures, and components failures that initiate safety-significant events, reduce existing accident mitigation capabilities, or create new failure modes. Plant designers commonly \"over-design\" portions of nuclear power plants and provide robustness in the form of redundant and diverse engineered safety features to ensure that, even in the case of well-beyond design basis scenarios, public health and safety will be protected with a very high degree of assurance.\nThe ability to better characterize and quantify safety margin holds the key to improved decision making about", "-34.187784894311335" ], [ "2012, Lynas published an article titled In defence of nuclear power, in which he states that \"nuclear provides the vast majority of the UK's current low-carbon electricity – as much as 70%, whilst avoiding the emission of 40 million tonnes of carbon dioxide per year. This is why I want to see more nuclear power in the UK and elsewhere, in order to avoid more carbon emissions\". In September 2012, Lynas wrote a follow-up article in the Guardian entitled \"Without nuclear, the battle against global warming is as good as lost.\"\nIn 2013, Lynas published Nuclear 2.0: Why A Green Future", "-34.17311183421407" ], [ "nuclear energy. It has also led to the elimination of unnecessary overhead supply in formerly nationalised markets, allowing for capital resources to be utilised more effectively on things such as network infrastructure instead of maintaining idle power stations. These increases in efficiency have led to lower prices paid by consumers in nations, such as the United Kingdom, which have more heavily pursued deregulation.\nThe creation of pooled energy sources per the British model and other systems adopted in Chile and Texas have led to greater demand price-response, allowing for the more efficient use of electricity and increasing the response of consumers", "-34.14424744361895" ], [ "similar majority of 70 percent says the United States should 'definitely build more' nuclear energy facilities [in 2010].\" According to Ann Bisconti, PhD, \"This unprecedented support for nuclear energy is being driven largely by people's concerns for meeting future energy demand and environmental goals, but it coincides with statements by President Obama and other national leaders who have voiced strong support for more nuclear power plants.\" 2011 Fukushima accidents and public policy impact What had been growing acceptance of nuclear power in the United States was eroded sharply following the 2011 Japanese nuclear accidents, with public support for building nuclear", "-34.141600436123554" ], [ "chequered with budget overruns and delays in new build and refurbished plants. Nuclear has high capital costs and lead times, but low operational costs, making it suitable only for base load applications. In comparison, natural gas plants have short lead times but high operational and fuel costs. However, recently a range of economic factors have had a major impact on the cost of nuclear power. Groups such as the Ontario Clean Air Alliance are quick to point out that fluctuations in uranium prices have made operational costs associated with nuclear generation rise higher than those of natural gas plants and", "-34.13129997852957" ], [ "well as for energy storage solutions for intermittent power sources.\nOn the other hand, measures to mitigate global warming, such as a carbon tax or carbon emissions trading, may favor the economics of nuclear power.\nAnalysis of the economics of nuclear power must also take into account who bears the risks of future uncertainties.\nTo date all operating nuclear power plants have been developed by state-owned or regulated electric utility monopolies\nMany countries have now liberalized the electricity market where these risks, and the risk of cheaper competitors emerging before capital costs are recovered, are borne by plant suppliers and operators rather than consumers,", "-34.13105301198084" ], [ "100% renewable energy 100% clean electricity Other electricity generating sources are considered clean, though not necessarily renewable, as they also do not emit carbon dioxide or other greenhouse gases. The largest of these is nuclear energy which produces no emissions. Carbon capture and storage projects may still use coal or natural gas but capture carbon dioxide for storage or alternative uses. Pathways to eliminate greenhouse gases may include these in addition to renewable energy so as to avoid shutting down existing plants and allow for flexibility in designing a carbon-free electric grid.\nIn 2018 California passed SB 100, which will mandate", "-34.092476168763824" ], [ "nuclear waste prevents re-use of the sites by industry.\nWithout a long-term solution to store nuclear waste, a nuclear renaissance in the U.S. remains unlikely. Nine states have \"explicit moratoria on new nuclear power until a storage solution emerges\".\nSome nuclear power advocates argue that the United States should develop factories and reactors that will recycle some of the spent nuclear fuel. (It is not now the policy of the United States to recycle its spent nuclear fuel.) But the Blue Ribbon Commission on America's Nuclear Future said in 2012 that \"no existing technology was adequate for that purpose, given cost", "-34.08085665025283" ], [ "small share of the renewables market. However, in some cases poor investment designs have caused bankruptcies and low returns, and unrealistic promises have been shown to be far from reality.\nNuclear power plants were closed, and the existing nine plants will close earlier than planned, in 2022.\nOne factor that has inhibited efficient employment of new renewable energy has been the lack of an accompanying investment in power infrastructure to bring the power to market. It is believed 8,300 km of power lines must be built or upgraded. The different German States have varying attitudes to the construction of new power lines. Industry", "-34.078100466154865" ], [ "could save fuel and reduce materials used for production; nanotechnology-enabled fuel cells and light-emitting diodes (LEDs) could reduce pollution from energy generation and help conserve fossil fuels; self-cleaning nanoscale surface coatings could reduce or eliminate many cleaning chemicals used in regular maintenance routines; and enhanced battery life could lead to less material use and less waste. Green Nanotechnology takes a broad systems view of nanomaterials and products, ensuring that unforeseen consequences are minimized and that impacts are anticipated throughout the full life cycle. Solar cells Research is underway to use nanomaterials for purposes including more efficient solar cells, practical fuel", "-34.04363953007851" ], [ "have been extended to 60 years, and plans to build another dozen are under serious consideration. There is also a considerable number of new reactors being built in South Korea, India, and Russia.\nNuclear power's capability to add significantly to future low carbon energy growth depends on several factors, including the economics of new reactor designs, such as Generation III reactors, public opinion and national and regional politics.\nThe 104 U.S. nuclear plants are undergoing a Light Water Reactor Sustainability Program, to sustainably extend the life span of the U.S. nuclear fleet by a further 20 years. With further US power plants", "-34.03182108240435" ], [ "storage and considered to be nuclear waste, by the nuclear industry and the general public. Nuclear waste from light water reactors retains more than 95% of its original energy because such reactors cannot burn fertile U238, while fast reactors can. The current U.S. inventory of spent fuel is equivalent to nine trillion barrels of oil - four times more than the known reserves. Non-proliferation By using spent nuclear waste and depleted uranium stockpiles as its fuel source, a large-scale deployment of the EM2 could reduce the long-term need for uranium enrichment and eliminate conventional nuclear reprocessing, which requires plutonium separation.\nConventional", "-34.01435072453751" ], [ "extra energy that a new nuclear power plant would generate but can and should make use of on renewables such as solar and wind, of which South Africa is well positioned to take advantage.\nIn January 2018 Eskom's acting Chief Financial Officer stated that the company cannot afford a new build, following a 34% drop in interim profits due to declining sales and increasing financing costs. The government stated it will proceed with the plan but more slowly. The draft 2018 IRP does not call for new nuclear power, partly due to declining electricity demand, forecast 30% lower than in the", "-34.00947411717789" ], [ "electric generation has the highest power density (global mean of 170 W/m²) among renewable energies.\nSolar power is pollution-free during use, which enables it to cut down on pollution when it is substituted for other energy sources. For example, MIT estimated that 52,000 people per year die prematurely in the U.S. from coal-fired power plant pollution and all but one of these deaths could be prevented from using PV to replace coal. Production end-wastes and emissions are manageable using existing pollution controls. End-of-use recycling technologies are under development and policies are being produced that encourage recycling from producers.\nPV installations can operate for", "-34.00881343981018" ], [ "\"Nuclear power plants = weapons of mass destruction waiting to be detonated.\" In 2012, Stein said, \"three times more jobs are created per dollar invested in conservation and renewables. Nuclear is currently the most expensive per unit of energy created.\" Stein says that she will \"ensure that any worker displaced by the shift away from fossil fuels will receive full income and benefits as they transition to alternative work.\" She has further argued that moving away from fossil fuels will produce substantial savings in healthcare costs. She wants to \"treat energy as a human right\".\nStein says that climate change is", "-33.974918849009555" ], [ "Lovins, a physicist with the Rocky Mountain Institute, argued that expanded nuclear power \"does not represent a cost-effective solution to global warming and that investors would shun it were it not for generous government subsidies lubricated by intensive lobbying efforts\".\nPatrick Moore (an early Greenpeace member and former president of Greenpeace Canada) spoke out against nuclear power in 1976, but today he supports it, along with renewable energy sources. In Australian newspaper The Age, he writes \"Greenpeace is wrong — we must consider nuclear power\". He argues that any realistic plan to reduce reliance on fossil fuels or greenhouse gas emissions", "-33.96052369824611" ], [ "as hydropower and biomass, producing substantially more global warming forcing 24 and 230 g CO\n2-eq/kWh respectively.\nIn 2014, Brookings Institution published The Net Benefits of Low and No-Carbon Electricity Technologies which states, after performing an energy and emissions cost analysis, that \"The net benefits of new nuclear, hydro, and natural gas combined cycle plants far outweigh the net benefits of new wind or solar plants\", with the most cost effective low carbon power technology being determined to be nuclear power.\nDuring his presidential campaign, Barack Obama stated, \"Nuclear power represents more than 70% of our noncarbon generated electricity. It is unlikely that we", "-33.93082125869114" ], [ "be attached to other modules to provide increased power supplies if necessary.\nThe electricity needs in remote locations are usually small and highly variable. Large nuclear power plants are generally rather inflexible in their power generation capabilities. SMRs have a load-following design so that when electricity demands are low they will produce a lower amount of electricity.\nMany SMRs are designed to use new fuel ideas that allow for higher burnup and longer fuel cycles. Longer refueling intervals can decrease proliferation risks and lower chances of radiation escaping containment. For reactors in remote areas, accessibility can be troublesome, so longer fuel life", "-33.92077109080128" ], [ "now has the highest energy efficiency in the world. From 1965 to 2008, the use of fossil fuels has continued to grow and their share of the energy supply has increased. From 2003 to 2008, coal was the fastest growing fossil fuel.\nIt is estimated that between 100 and 135 billion tonnes of oil has been consumed between 1850 and the present. Nuclear power As of 1 July 2016, the world had 444 operable grid-electric nuclear fission power reactors with 62 others under construction.\nAnnual generation of nuclear power has been on a slight downward trend since 2007, decreasing 1.8% in 2009", "-33.90206955379108" ], [ "of energy that can replace fossil fuels and create water that is safe for human consumption. The Hydrogen fuel cells in the hybrid simulation model can produce safe water for homes using solar electricity. Oxygen and hydrogen gained from both the Electrolyzer and Bioreactor and Hydrogen steam reformer create the clean water thus, aid more homes in the El Paso/Juarez region access to clean water through the use of solar electricity Water use Despite scarce resources in many Mexican regions water consumption is at a high level, partly favored by poor payment rates and low tariffs. In 2006, more than", "-33.895711277771625" ], [ "case in point.\nMany UN and US agencies warn that building more nuclear reactors unavoidably increases nuclear proliferation risks. A fundamental goal for American and global security is to minimize the proliferation risks associated with the\nexpansion of nuclear power. If this development is \"poorly managed or efforts to contain risks are unsuccessful, the nuclear future will be dangerous\". For nuclear power programs to be developed and managed safely and securely, it is important that countries have domestic “good governance” characteristics that will encourage proper nuclear operations and management:\nThese characteristics include low degrees of corruption (to avoid officials selling materials and technology", "-33.853358513035346" ], [ "of some units.\nNuclear power plants can produce a huge amount of power from a single unit. However, disasters in Japan have raised concerns over the safety of nuclear power, and the capital cost of nuclear plants is very high.\nHydroelectric power plants are located in areas where the potential energy from falling water can be harnessed for moving turbines and the generation of power. It may not be an economically viable single source of production where the ability to store the flow of water is limited and the load varies too much during the annual production cycle.\nDue to advancements in technology,", "-33.837398651987314" ], [ "fuel cycle, which minimizes nuclear proliferation risks and the need for long-term repositories to secure nuclear materials. Economics and workforce capacity EM2 power costs are expected to be lower due to high power conversion efficiency, a reduced number of components, and long core life. EM2 is expected to achieve a conversion efficiency of above 50% due to its high core outlet temperature and closed Brayton power cycle. The Brayton cycle eliminates many expensive components, including steam generators, pressurizers, condensers, and feedwater pumps. The design would utilize only 1/6th of the nuclear concrete of a conventional light water reactor.\nEach module can", "-33.814823433524" ], [ "biogas. \nRenewable energy generation on site, in addition to increased energy efficiency, has already allowed at least twelve plants worldwide not only to achieve energy neutrality but also to produce more energy than they need. Energy efficiency programs and renewable energy generation have proven successful in diminishing the dependence of the wastewater sector from the energy grid, reducing treatment costs and the environmental impact associated with the grid connection. Advantages of on-site renewable energy generation The production and recovery of energy of site offers numerous advantages contributing to operation and management cost reduction of the treatment processes, source of revenue,", "-33.806527207671024" ], [ "disposal issue needed to be addressed. After years of research, the majority of states which produced electricity by means of nuclear power plants, agreed that the best way to store spent nuclear fuel was in deep rock formations. This option meets both safety and technical feasibility conditions and, moreover, is economically viable.", "-33.803698207921116" ], [ "replaced; however, their efficiency, cost of operation, and lack of noise/physical pollutants make them one of the cleanest and least expensive forms of energy. Solar power plants require the work of many facets of engineering; electrical engineers are especially crucial in constructing the solar panels and connecting them into a grid, computer engineers code the cells themselves so that electricity can be effectively and efficiently produced, and civil engineers play the very important role of identifying areas where solar plants are able to collect the most energy. Wind power plants Wind power plants, also known as wind turbines, derive their", "-33.79345509619452" ], [ "than many renewable energy sources. There is no radioactive spent fuel that needs to be stored or reprocessed with conventional renewable energy sources. A nuclear plant needs to be disassembled and removed. Much of the disassembled nuclear plant needs to be stored as low level nuclear waste.\nSince nuclear power plants are fundamentally heat engines, waste heat disposal becomes an issue at high ambient temperature. Droughts and extended periods of high temperature can \"cripple nuclear power generation, and it is often during these times when electricity demand is highest because of air-conditioning and refrigeration loads and diminished hydroelectric capacity\". In", "-33.77025768836029" ], [ "reductions in residential electricity consumption. Although solar electricity is still expensive, its potential scale of application is huge and its prospects for further substantial cost reductions are excellent. Energy efficiency The most important energy saving options include improved thermal insulation and building design, super efficient electrical machines and drives, and a reduction in energy consumption by vehicles used for goods and passenger traffic. Industrialized countries such as Australia, which currently use energy in the least efficient way, can reduce their consumption drastically without the loss of either housing comfort or amenity. Increased energy efficiency of buildings had the support of", "-33.75639649276627" ], [ "insulation and to be fitted with energy-saving lights; heating and cooling systems had to be more efficient; appliances were redesigned to use less power; and utilities were told to motivate their customers to use less electricity. Rosenfeld acted on his basic principle: \"Conserving energy is cheaper and smarter than building power plants.\"\n\nWhile the pressure to build nuclear facilities was growing as the population grew, utilities and policymakers began to agree that new power plants were not always needed. In 1976, for instance, after he explained to California governor Jerry Brown that a proposed nuclear power plant would not be needed", "-33.75280198053224" ], [ "posed by the waste.\nReprocessing nuclear fuel using pyroprocessing and electrorefining has not yet been demonstrated on a commercial scale, so investing in a large IFR-style plant may be a higher financial risk than a conventional light water reactor. Passive safety The IFR uses metal alloy fuel (uranium/plutonium/zirconium) which is a good conductor of heat, unlike the LWR's (and even some fast breeder reactors') uranium oxide which is a poor conductor of heat and reaches high temperatures at the center of fuel pellets. The IFR also has a smaller volume of fuel, since the fissile material is diluted with fertile material", "-33.73354707378894" ], [ "ordinary reactors, we offer energy that is cheaper than energy from fossil fuel. Moreover, this source of energy when properly handled is almost nonpolluting. Whereas fossil-fuel burners emit oxides of carbon, nitrogen, and sulfur... there is no intrinsic reason why nuclear systems must emit any pollutant except heat and traces of radioactivity.\nBut the price that we demand of society for this magical source is both a vigilance from and longevity of our social institutions\nthat we are quite unaccustomed to.\nWeinberg was fired by the Nixon administration from ORNL in 1973 after 18 years as the laboratory's director, because he continued to", "-33.727885753964074" ], [ "a handful of countries export oil and gas). Renewable energy offers lower financial and economic risk for businesses through a more stable and predictable cost base for energy supply.\nEnergy efficiency gains in recent decades have been significant, but there is still much more that can be achieved. With a concerted effort and strong policies in place, future energy efficiency improvements are likely to be very large. Heat is one of many forms of \"energy wastage\" that could be captured to significantly increase useful energy without burning more fossil fuels. Sustainable biofuels Biofuels, in the form of liquid fuels derived from", "-33.70972566015553" ], [ "when the fuel cell's waste heat is used to heat a building in a cogeneration system this efficiency can increase to 85%. This is significantly more efficient than traditional coal power plants, which are only about one third energy efficient. Assuming production at scale, fuel cells could save 20–40% on energy costs when used in cogeneration systems. Fuel cells are also much cleaner than traditional power generation; a fuel cell power plant using natural gas as a hydrogen source would create less than one ounce of pollution (other than CO\n2) for every 1,000 kW·h produced, compared to 25 pounds of pollutants", "-33.6923477553064" ], [ "in that it does not produce carbon dioxide, a green house gas, as do traditional natural gas or coal-fired power plants. The economics of the deployment of mini nuclear reactors has been discussed in an article in \"The Economist\".\nThe advantages of mini nuclear reactors has also been discussed by Secretary of Energy, Steven Chu. As discussed by Chu, the reactors would be manufactured in a factory-like situation and then transported, intact by rail or ship to different parts of the country or world. Economy of scale by size is replaced by economy of scale by number. ", "-33.684828251512954" ], [ "CO₂ capture and sequestration and possibly nuclear power stations are available. However, \"clean coal\" technologies may not be commercially available for at least 20 years. Furthermore, to bring down the high cost of nuclear power to a level where it could compete with wind power would require a new generation of nuclear power stations that is still on the drawing board, which could take at least 15 years.\nIn November 2007 when the Rudd (Labor) government was elected in Australia, it ratified Australia's commitment to the Kyoto Protocol, promised a target of 20% renewable power by 2020 and to do more", "-33.5651418500056" ], [ "capital cost, most nuclear power reactors have sought to reduce cost per Watt by increasing the total power output of the reactor system. However, this often leads to very large projects that are difficult to finance, manage and to standardize.\nTerrestrial Energy is arguing for a different approach: to produce a more compact, more efficient reactor system. Efficiency Traditional nuclear reactors, such as pressurized and boiling water reactors, feature relatively low efficiency, typically around 32-34%. \nThis is due to the relatively low temperature heat produced. \nThe higher salt temperature of the IMSR provides heat at higher temperatures that results in an", "-33.56273497035727" ], [ "them with renewable energy resources but rather with coal or natural gas. \nThis is because unlike renewable energy sources such as wind and solar, coal and natural gas can be used to generate electricity on a 24-hour basis. Industry and academic The American Nuclear Society (ANS) scientific and educational organization has both academic and industry members. The organization publishes a large amount of literature on nuclear technology in several journals. The ANS also has some offshoot organizations such as North American Young Generation in Nuclear (NA-YGN).\nThe Nuclear Energy Institute (NEI) is an industry group whose activities include lobbying, experience sharing", "-33.55589645024156" ], [ "majority of current and planned cogeneration desalination plants use either fossil fuels or nuclear power as their source of energy. Most plants are located in the Middle East or North Africa, which use their petroleum resources to offset limited water resources. The advantage of dual-purpose facilities is they can be more efficient in energy consumption, thus making desalination more viable.\nThe current trend in dual-purpose facilities is hybrid configurations, in which the permeate from reverse osmosis desalination is mixed with distillate from thermal desalination. Basically, two or more desalination processes are combined along with power production. Such facilities have been implemented", "-33.49437751243022" ], [ "further argue that when all the energy-intensive stages of the nuclear fuel chain are considered, from uranium mining to nuclear decommissioning, nuclear power is not a low-carbon electricity source. Electricity and energy supplied The World Nuclear Association has reported that nuclear electricity generation in 2012 was at its lowest level since 1999. The WNA has said that \"nuclear power generation suffered its biggest ever one-year fall through 2012 as the bulk of the Japanese fleet remained offline for a full calendar year\".\nData from the International Atomic Energy Agency showed that nuclear power plants globally produced 2,346 terawatt-hours (8,450 PJ) of", "-33.48427389297285" ], [ "fossil fuel burning\" and, if continued, it could prevent up to 7 million deaths and 240 GtCO₂-eq emissions by 2050. Future As of 2018, there are over 150 nuclear reactors planned including 50 under construction. However, while investment on upgrades of existing plant and life-time extensions continues, investment in new nuclear is declining, reaching a 5-year-low in 2017.\nIn 2016, the U.S. Energy Information Administration projected for its “base case” that world nuclear power generation would increase from 2,344 terawatt hours (TWh) in 2012 to 4,500 TWh in 2040.\nMost of the predicted increase was expected to be in Asia.\nThe future of", "-33.48135171554168" ], [ "cost. Highly purified silicon production needs a lot of energy which would add to the cost of this technology on one hand and hurt the green chemistry on the other. Efforts are underway to bring about new ways to aggregate as much stacks of silicon material as possible to increase the PCE which does not seem to help as far as cost reduction is concerned. The inorganic solar panels are heavy and non-flexible. These factors count towards limiting this technology for mass adaptation and may not be able to compete with other green and cheap energy sources like wind and", "-33.46703444478362" ], [ "plant decommissioning and nuclear waste storage costs. On the other hand measures to mitigate global warming, such as a carbon tax or carbon emissions trading, may favor the economics of nuclear power versus fossil fuels.\nIn recent years there has been a slowdown of electricity demand growth and financing has become more difficult, which affects large projects such as nuclear reactors, with very large upfront costs and long project cycles which carry a large variety of risks. In Eastern Europe, a number of long-established projects are struggling to find finance, notably Belene in Bulgaria and the additional reactors at Cernavoda in", "-33.46409762444091" ], [ "without a carbon tax program, and in comparison to a fossil fuel plant of the same power output, nuclear power plants take a longer amount of time to construct.\nTwo new, first of their kind, EPR reactors under construction in Finland and France have been delayed and are running over-budget. However learning from experience, two further EPR reactors under construction in China are on, and ahead, of schedule respectively. As of 2013, according to the IAEA and the European Nuclear Society, worldwide there were 68 civil nuclear power reactors under construction in 15 countries. China has 29 of these nuclear power", "-33.46325783725479" ], [ "use of renewable energy and greater recycling in order to prevent future drops in availability of energy and raw materials, and reduce ecological damage. Solar energy in particular is often emphasized, as the cost of solar panels continues to drop (and could drop far more with automated production by self-replicating machines), and advocates point out the total solar power striking the Earth's surface annually exceeds our civilization's current annual power usage by a factor of thousands.\nAdvocates also sometimes argue that the energy and raw materials available could be greatly expanded if we looked to resources beyond the Earth. For example,", "-33.461815885530086" ], [ "and power Combined Heat and Power (CHP) is a technology which by allowing the more efficient use of fuel will at least reduce carbon emissions; should the fuel be biomass or biogas or hydrogen used as an energy store then in principle it can be a zero carbon option. CHP can also be used with a nuclear reactor as the energy source; there are examples of such installations in the far North of the Russian Federation. Agriculture Most of the agricultural facilities in the developed world are mechanized due to rural electrification. Rural electrification has produced significant productivity gains,", "-33.460382444260176" ], [ "is more than if the fuel were burned in a furnace or boiler at the building being heated. If the same fuel could be used for space heating by a consumer, it would be more efficient overall to burn the fuel at the end user's building. On the other hand, replacing electric heating with fossil fuel burning heaters, isn't necessary good as it removes the ability to have renewable electric heating, this can be achieved by sourcing the electricity from a renewable source.\nVariations between countries generating electrical power affect concerns about efficiency and the environment. In France 10% is generated", "-33.434941331797745" ], [ "is believed to have a greater chance of success than top-down modes of decision making, but the process is necessarily slow, and there is \"inadequate experience around the world to know if it will succeed in all existing and aspiring nuclear nations\".\nMoreover, most communities do not want to host a nuclear waste repository as they are \"concerned about their community becoming a de facto site for waste for thousands of years, the health and environmental consequences of an accident, and lower property values\". China In China (People's Republic of China), ten reactors provide about 2% of electricity and five more", "-33.42673879927315" ], [ "volumes of waste compared to other power plants because of the high energy density of nuclear fuel. Safe management of these byproducts of nuclear power, including their storage and disposal, is a difficult problem for any country using nuclear power. Exploration A deposit of uranium, such as uraninite, discovered by geophysical techniques, is evaluated and sampled to determine the amounts of uranium materials that are extractable at specified costs from the deposit. Uranium reserves are the amounts of ore that are estimated to be recoverable at stated costs.\nNaturally occurring uranium consists primarily of two isotopes U-238 and U-235, with 99.28%", "-33.403932612302015" ], [ "burn-up fuels with improved safety, cladding integrity, and improved nuclear fuel cycle economics. Background Nuclear fuel performance is a significant driver of nuclear power plant operational performance, safety, operating economics, and waste disposal requirements (Over the past two decades, the nuclear power industry has improved plant capacity factors with incremental improvements achieved in fuel reliability and use or burnup). However, these upgrades are reaching their maximum achievable impact to achieve significant safety margin improvements while improving operating margins and economics, significant steps beyond incremental improvements in the current generation of nuclear fuel are required. Fundamental changes are required in the", "-33.39933465211652" ] ]

[ "The People's Republic of China has been most communist in name only. It is communist only in the sense of how the political party functions, and has had no responsibility to redistribute wealth since the 1990's. China has a capitalist economy that is state-driven, as opposed to the market-driven economies of the West.", "The long and short of it is that China is not communist, and there has never been a communist nation in the history of the world. Many nations have *claimed* to be communist, sure, but the inequality gap has always existed and sometimes even been wider win these countries. One of the fundamental aspects of communism is eliminating different social classes; this has never been achieved on a nation-wide scale.", "1. China is not communist. Even when it abided by Maoism (which it doesn't really anymore), it wasn't communist. 2. Communism requires full industrialisation of capitalism before it can be realised. This did not happen in any nation claiming or attempting to abide by a Marxist framework 3. Communism is inherently globalist and anti-statist so whilst it could be under a dictatorship of the proletariat or democratically socialist it could never be classified as communist. (For the record, it attempt to have the first one, kind of, then very quickly disregarded it) 4. Corruption from state officials 5. China has a mixed-economy applying liberal economic policies combined with centralised statist ones, moving towards further liberalism. 6. The protectionist, closed off nature off early Maoist China delayed industrialisation leaving an impoverished peasantry. China is currently in a similar state of economics that Britain was during the Industrial revolution, over time wealth will spread.", "It's a common perception in the western world that China has always been a communist country. It hasn't. If anyone is interested: URL_1 It's a capitalistic nation for most of its history. In 1911, a capitalistic \"Republic of China\" was established. The country's first president was Sun Yat Sen. Its second president was Chiang Kai Shek. Chiang Kai Shek's government was very corrupt. People were struggling to eat. The fact that income inequality was too great of a problem in China was what fueled the rise of the \"People's Republic of China\" in 1949 by \"Chairman\" Mao Ze Dong. At the time, communism was thought to be the solution to the economic inequality problem. The only problem was - it killed productivity. Mao Ze Dong has a very idealistic world-view (most of the ~~communist~~ dictatorial leader does - Hitler for example). His idealistic world-view brings the deaths of hundreds of thousands of people. This is what's portrayed by the Western world. In 1976, Mao Ze Dong passed away and gave a way for other leaders to emerge. One of these leaders is Deng Xiao Ping who initialized the privatization of enterprises in China - again. All in all - the Chinese economy was a socialist from 1949 to 1978 - a 29 year ordeal. Western Propaganda is another issue though. Based on this: URL_0 , the Chinese government launched a $586 billion stimulus program in 2008. Do you remember who else had a stimulus program ? TL;DR - Income inequality has always been a problem in China. Communism was just another effort to minimize this.", "Have you seen the AT & T commercial with the little kid saying \"We want more! We want more!\"? That's pretty much why. Because communism more or less requires a government that is more involved in the path of the economy, politicians and bureaucrats have more power, and since they want more they get more.", "China switched to a capitalist economy decades ago. An economy that gives 1% everything and 99% nothing meshes nicely with ruling elites.", "because some people are more equal than others. Now back to the gulag for you.", "China is best described as [state capitalist]( URL_0 )." ]

[ [ "that 3.1% of the Chinese population live below the national poverty line. Increased inequality China's growth has been so rapid that virtually every household has benefited significantly, fueling the steep drop in poverty. However, different people have benefited to very different extents, so that inequality has risen during the reform period. This is true for inequality in household income or consumption, as well as for inequality in important social outcomes such as health status or educational attainment. Concerning household consumption, the Gini measure of inequality increased from 0.31 at the beginning of reform to 0.45 in 2004. To some extent", "-33.943595068878494" ], [ "dominant economic system; China's socialist economic reforms have brought the country into the global capitalist sphere.\nThe development of the New Left is correlated to increased Chinese nationalism after its period of low-profile presence on the world stage during the Deng Xiaoping era. It is seen as a response to problems faced by China during its modernization drive since the 1980s, which has led to growing social inequality between coast and hinterlands and rich and poor. Some scholars believe that, based on its unique and drastic 20th-century economic and political changes, China cannot adopt the social-democratic, capitalist model of many Western", "-32.80764760298189" ], [ "Poverty in China In China today, poverty refers mainly to the rural poor, as decades of economic growth have largely eradicated urban poverty. The dramatic progress in reducing poverty over the past three decades in China is well known. According to the World Bank, more than 850 million Chinese people have been lifted out of extreme poverty; China's poverty rate fell from 88 percent in 1981 to 0.7 percent in 2015, as measured by the percentage of people living on the equivalent of US$1.90 or less per day in 2011 purchasing price parity terms.\nSince the start of far-reaching economic reforms", "-32.51485178852454" ], [ "While several globalizers have seen an increase in inequality, most notably China, this increase in inequality is a result of domestic liberalization, restrictions on internal migration, and agricultural policies, rather than a result of international trade.\nPoverty has been reduced as evidenced by a 5.4 percent annual growth in income for the poorest fifth of the population of Malaysia. Even in China, where inequality continues to be a problem, the poorest fifth of the population saw a 3.8 percent annual growth in income. In several countries, those living below the dollar-per-day poverty threshold declined. In China, the rate declined", "-32.40858375987591" ], [ "people. In Capital in the Twenty-First Century, Thomas Piketty of the Paris School of Economics asserts that inequality is the inevitable consequence of economic growth in a capitalist economy and the resulting concentration of wealth can destabilize democratic societies and undermine the ideals of social justice upon which they are built.\nStates with capitalistic economic systems have thrived under political regimes deemed to be authoritarian or oppressive. Singapore has a successful open market economy as a result of its competitive, business-friendly climate and robust rule of law. Nonetheless, it often comes under fire for its brand of government which though democratic", "-32.34765608236194" ], [ "this progression and the progression in Chinese Marxism between a market socialist society and world communism.\nThe revival of the concept of a Xiaokang Society was in part a criticism of social trends in mainland China in the 1990s under Jiang Zemin, in which many in China felt was focusing too much on the newly rich and not enough on mainland China's rural poor. Furthermore, there has been a fear in some circles that Chinese society has become too materialistic placing material wealth above all other social needs.\nIn contrast to previous concepts such as the spiritual civilization and the campaigns", "-32.197468728991225" ], [ "the loss of state revenue which exacerbated economic disparity. Effect on inequality The economic reforms have increased inequality dramatically within China. Despite rapid economic growth which has virtually eliminated poverty in urban China and reduced it greatly in rural regions and the fact that living standards for everyone in China have drastically increased in comparison to the pre-reform era, the Gini coefficient of China is estimated to be above 0.45, comparable to some Latin American countries and the United States.\nIncreased inequality is attributed to the disappearance of the welfare state and differences between coastal and interior provinces, the latter being", "-32.06382137257606" ], [ "which thus leads to internal social tensions and instability. Recent economic growth helped to stabilize the Chinese society: in times of economic growth, individuals look simply for personal life improvement. Millions of poor farmers and workers work hard and silently in hope of a better lives tomorrow; they want to buy TVs, computers, cellphones, cars, fridges. To keep them happy and stable, China have to stay largely supplied in raw materials - oil, copper, zinc, cobalt - from abroad.\nAlso, driven by this politico-economic desire to obtain sources of raw materials and energy for China's continuing economic growth and open up", "-32.00774766062386" ], [ "that exacerbate this tendency toward higher inequality and restrict some of the potential mechanisms that would normally lead to an eventual decline in inequality. Rural-urban divide Much of the increase in inequality in China can be attributed to the widening rural-urban divide, particularly the differentials in rural-urban income. A household survey conducted in 1995 showed that the rural-urban income gap accounted for 35% of the overall inequality in China.\nIn 2009, according to the China's National Bureau of Statistics, the urban per capita annual income at US$2,525 was approximately three times that of the rural per capita annual income. This was", "-31.966814600338694" ], [ "income gap and rising unemployment in the urban cities. The increasing challenge for the Chinese government and social organizations is to address and solve poverty issues in urban areas where the people are increasingly being economically and socially marginalized. According to the official estimates, 12 million people were considered as urban poor in 1993, i.e. 3.6 per cent of the total urban population, but by 2006 the figure had jumped to more than 22 million, i.e. 4.1 per cent of the total urban population and these figures are estimated to grow if the government fails to institute any effective measures", "-31.91535374027444" ], [ "which there is a class system in which the proletariat is exploited by the bourgeoisie. Officially, according to the Chinese governments state ideology, China is currently in the primary stage of socialism. However, because of Deng Xiaoping and subsequent leaders' Chinese economic reforms, instituting pragmatism within policy, China has undertaken policies that are commonly considered capitalistic, including employing wage labor, increasing unemployment to motivate those who are still working, transforming state owned enterprises into joint stock companies and encouraging the growth of the joint venture and private capitalist sectors. A contrary Marxist view would describe China as just another variant", "-31.42647361115087" ], [ "Income inequality in China History In a landmark paper published in the Review of Development Economics, economists Ravi Kanbur and Xiaobo Zhang conclude that there have been three peaks of inequality in China in the last fifty years, “coinciding with the Great Famine of the late 1950s, the Cultural Revolution of the late 1960s and 1970s, and finally the period of openness and global integration in the late 1990s.” Their research indicates that these periods of inequality are driven by “three key policy variables – the ratio of heavy industry to gross output value, the degree of decentralization, and", "-31.352582462510327" ], [ "far more prosperous compared to rural and interior regions. China brought more people out of extreme poverty than any other country in history—between 1978 and 2018, China reduced extreme poverty by 800 million. China reduced the extreme poverty rate—per international standard, it refers to an income of less than $1.90/day—from 88% in 1981 to 1.85% by 2013. According to the World Bank, the number of Chinese in extreme poverty fell from 756 million to 25 million between 1990 and 2013. China's own national poverty standards are higher and thus the national poverty rates were 3.1% in 2017 and 1% in", "-31.344877070801886" ], [ "growth of the poorest 20% population segment to be almost in par with China, while the richest 10% are stagnating. Reduction Brazil may achieve social indicators similar to those of developed countries by 2016 if the country is able to maintain the same rate of reduction of extreme poverty and income inequality as recorded over the 2003 to 2008 period. As well, the country may record an absolute poverty rate of 4%. The data, was taken from a document issued by the Institute of Applied Economic Research (Ipea), linked to the Secretariat of Strategic Affairs of the Presidency of the", "-31.293222275679" ], [ "can be attributed to the increase in returns to education.” Urban-biased policies and inland-coastal inequality exacerbates the issue of education inequality in China. One of the primary issues is their generation of sector-biased income transfers and expenditures on health, housing and education, which \"not only distort economic incentives of the workers in the sectors, but will also affect the human-capital attainments of their children, which may further widen the rural-urban income gap.\" In other words, inland and rural inequality can help create a vicious cycle by funneling money towards the coastal cities and away from investments in human capital elsewhere.", "-31.282603727420792" ], [ "but it was through sweatshops that the economy grew and people were able to accumulate wealth and move out of poverty.\nIn contrast, similar efforts in developing nations have not produced the same results, because of corruption and lack of democracy in communist nations such as China and Vietnam, worker intimidation and murder in Latin America—and corruption throughout the developing world. These barriers prevent creation of similar legal protections for workers in these countries, as numerous studies by the International Labour Organization show. Nonetheless, a boycott approach to protesting these conditions is likely to hurt workers willing to accept employment even", "-31.25208140630275" ], [ "the surplus value produced by the economy. The Chinese economy also does not constitute socialism in the sense of widespread self-management or workplace democracy. The study concluded that as of 2006 capitalism is not the dominant mode of organization either and it is instead partially a pre-capitalist agrarian system with almost 50% of its population engaged in agricultural work.\nAs of 2015, Curtis J. Milhaupt and Wentong Zheng classify China's economic system as state capitalism because the state directs and guides all major aspects of the Chinese economy—including both the state and private sectors—while not collecting dividends from the ownership of", "-31.21843358129263" ], [ "attempting to rebalance the economy away from investment and exports toward domestic consumption and public services, to help reduce social disparities. Relocation of the poor from poverty stricken regions to more developed urban areas is also being implemented as part of the holistic plan to tackle rural poverty. Overview Since Deng Xiaoping began instituting market reforms in the late 1970s, China has been among the most rapidly growing economies in the world, regularly exceeding 10 percent GDP growth annually. This growth has led to a substantial increase in real living standards and a marked decline in poverty. Between 1981 and", "-31.079786239686655" ], [ "were started in 1978 under the leadership of Deng Xiaoping and since then China has managed to bring down the poverty rate from 53% in the Mao era to just 6% in 2001. These reforms are sometimes described by outside commentators as a regression to capitalism, but the communist parties describe it as a necessary adjustment to existing realities in the post-Soviet world in order to maximize industrial productive capacity. In these countries, the land is a universal public monopoly administered by the state, as are natural resources and vital industries and services. The public sector is the dominant sector", "-31.03759623435326" ], [ "village and not for selling on the market. Even in the heartlands of China where agriculture is used for commercial purposes, the economic boom of China has actually led to a decrease in the price of produce which has resulted in a loss of income for these producers.\nChildren growing up in poverty are more likely to be undernourished, have less educational opportunity, and have lower literacy levels. The disproportionate amount of inequality in China's rural sector along with correlation between poverty and education shows that children born in rural China are much more likely to score lower on literacy tests", "-30.990953309927136" ], [ "this rise in inequality is the natural result of the market forces that have generated the strong growth; but to some extent it is \"artificial\" in the sense that various government policies exacerbate the tendencies toward higher inequality, rather than mitigate them. Changes to some policies could halt or even reverse the increasing inequality. (See List of countries by income equality.)\nThe Nobel Prize-winning economist Sir Arthur Lewis noted that \"development must be inegalitarian because it does not start in every part of the economy at the same time\" in 1954. China classically manifests two of the characteristics of development that", "-30.918433353188448" ], [ "Education inequality in China Education inequality in China exists on multiple levels, with significant disparities occurring along gender, geographical, and ethnic divides. More specifically, disparities exist in the distribution of educational resources nationwide, as well as the availability of education on levels ranging from basic to higher education. History after 1949 Shortly after the Chinese Revolution of 1949, the Communist government was confronted with heavy educational disparities across the nation. In the years following the Chinese Revolution, the Chinese government attempted to address these disparities with alternating approaches, creating periods of differing emphasis on opposing educational models. The first model,", "-30.707592949504033" ], [ "trying to rebalance China's production away from investment and exports towards domestic consumption and services, to improve the country's long-term macroeconomic health and the situation of the relatively poor in China.\nRecent government measures to reduce disparities including relaxation of the hukou system, abolition of the agricultural tax, and increased central transfers to fund health and education in rural areas. Poverty reduction China has maintained a high growth rate for more than 30 years since the beginning of economic reform in 1978, and this sustained growth has generated a huge increase in average living standards. 25 years ago, China had many", "-30.658378337771865" ], [ "be a menace to social stability, and potentially causes a disappearance of middle class capital that would impede China’s economic growth.\n“Hu Angang, an influential researcher in China, warned that further increases in regional disparities may lead to China’s dissolution, like in the former Yugoslavia,” while other scholars have noted that “further expansions of the differences may create serious social and political problems, generate nationalist conflicts and negatively influence China’s economic and social stability.”\n“The current institutions and policies are detrimental to China’s future growth because the sector-biased income transfers and expenditures on health, housing, and education not only distort economic incentives", "-30.56731209634927" ], [ "by both left-wing and right-wing groups: socialism, communism, anarchism, libertarianism, binary economics and participatory economics, among others.\nInequality can be reduced by progressive tax.\nIn law, there has been a move to establish the absence of poverty as a human right.\nThe IMF and member countries have produced Poverty Reduction Strategy papers or PRSPs.\nIn his book The End of Poverty, prominent economist Jeffrey Sachs laid out a plan to eradicate global poverty by 2025. Following his recommendations, international organizations such as the Global Solidarity Network are working to help eradicate poverty worldwide with intervention in the areas of housing, food, education, basic health,", "-30.56287667097058" ], [ "just to stay alive.\" In more unequal societies, there are stronger drivers for consumerism and stronger belief in free enterprise, and the rich also use a disproportionate amount of resources. Thus, in developed countries, inequality tends to accelerate resource consumption by all classes.\nResearch also shows that biodiversity loss is higher in countries or in US states with higher income inequality. Political outcomes Higher income inequality led to less of all forms of social, cultural, and civic participation among the less wealthy. When inequality is higher the poor do not shift to less expensive forms of participation.\nIn 2015, a study", "-30.557490437378874" ], [ "because they are not fully solved by changes in political institutions. While the outcomes of political institutions highly vary from regime to regime, most of the literature finds that high amounts of economic inequality in developed countries depress voter turnout for poorer individuals and increase voter turnout for more affluent individuals (this depends on social cohesion of societies, correlating negatively with affluent political participation when economic inequality is high). Other literature finds that educational inequality depresses voter turnout depending on one’s income level and perceived relative educational status (how one perceives one’s social status and others’ education levels).", "-30.53715349768754" ], [ "2010 led to certain government policy directly dealing with the issue of poverty with the removal of agriculture tax in 2006 and a program which the government paid rural families to plant trees on degraded land. Unequal educational opportunity Education is a prerequisite for the development of human capital which in turn is an important factor in a country's overall development. Apart from the increasing income inequality, the education sector has long suffered from problems such as funding shortages and unequal allocation of education resources, adding to the disparity between China's urban and rural life; this was exacerbated by the", "-30.536682091420516" ], [ "burdened by a larger state sector. Some Western scholars have suggested that reviving the welfare state and instituting a re-distributive income tax system is needed to relieve inequality, while some Chinese economists have suggested that privatizing state monopolies and distributing the proceeds to the population can reduce inequality. Comparison to other developing economies China's transition from a planned economy to a socialist market economy has often been compared with economies in Eastern Europe that are undergoing a similar transition. China's performance has been praised for avoiding the major shocks and inflation that plagued the Eastern Bloc. The Eastern bloc economies", "-30.535472605843097" ], [ "a problem too.\nIn particular, poverty has been linked strongly to education and employment. Research papers published by the Bangladesh Institute of Development Studies (BIDS) have shown that poverty acts as both a cause and effect of a lack of education, which in turn adversely affects employment opportunities. Having an unskilled workforce also greatly decreases the productivity of the workforce which decreases the appeal of Foreign Direct Investments (FDIs) and thus impedes sustainable economic growth. In essence, education is an important contribution to the social and economic development of a country.\nSecondly, rising landlessness is also a consequence of poverty in Bangladesh.", "-30.49982874743" ], [ "strongly-ideological debate over socialism versus capitalism that emerged after the 1989 Tiananmen Square protests, only quieting in the wake of Deng Xiaoping’s 1992 trip to Shenzhen and the subsequent 14th Party Congress that year. Deng’s call for economic reform unleashed market forces and a series of often-wasteful, duplicative investment. n the wake of this upsurge of market activity, the New Left (a loose-knit group of young intellectuals) emerged and began developing a new critique of China’s economic and social path. Economics Economics plays a significant role in the Chinese New Left, whose development is closely associated with Chinese economic reform.", "-30.48951150267385" ], [ "the widest income gap recorded in China since 1978. Urban-biased economic policies adopted by the government contribute to the income disparities. This is also known as the ‘artificial’ result of the rural-urban divide. In terms of the share of investments allotted by the state, urban areas were given a larger proportion when compared with rural areas. In the period 1986-1992, investments to urban state-owned enterprises (SOE) accounted for more than 25% of the total government budget. On the other hand, less than 10% of the government budget was allocated to investments in the rural economy in the same period by", "-30.320968909887597" ], [ "wealthy and the poorest nations more poor. Inside the countries the tight gap between the social classes became bigger, and the powerful people started to make the technologies of machines, doing the process faster and cheaper, so many workers lost their jobs because the machines could replace them, creating more inequality between the social classes. Global Poverty Global poverty is when people within certain countries are living on less than a dollar a day.\nThere are six different aspects that can attribute to global poverty. Six Dimensional Aspects 1. Hunger: Countries without the proper amount of food to", "-30.260063843124954" ], [ "also a connection between inequality and democratic government. When unequal distributions of economic resources lead to wider wealth and income gaps, which in turn lead to more poverty, there is a negative impact on democracy. Hermann Heller stresses that a sufficiently homogeneous economic basis among citizens provides for equal participation in the democratic process. Once citizens have reached an adequate social and economic standing, they can form their own independent opinions and participate equally in the democratic process. Scholars agree that real political equality cannot be produced if there is severe socio-economic inequality. Civil society Merkel states that civil", "-30.24398450308945" ], [ "living in poverty, can halve poverty in ten years, but a country with high inequality would take nearly 60 years to achieve the same reduction. In the words of the Secretary General of the United Nations Ban Ki-Moon: \"While economic growth is necessary, it is not sufficient for progress on reducing poverty.\" Competition policy intending to prevent companies from abusing market power contributes to inclusive growth. Environment Multiple arguments can be made about the relationship between poverty and the environment. In some cases, alleviating poverty can result in detrimental environmental affects or exacerbate degradation; the smaller the economic inequality, the", "-30.202148679454695" ], [ "China, Egypt, India, Mexico, and Nigeria. \nIn 2013, a study of the 138 countries over the period 2005 to 2010 found that the basic ideas of Poverty-Growth-Inequality Triangle hold and that both growth and inequality impact absolute poverty as Bourguignon described. Model The Poverty-Growth-Inequality Triangle can be drawn as a triangle with arrows pointing out of each corner. At the top of the triangle is \"absolute poverty.\" This refers to the percent of the population below the income poverty line. At the bottom left of the triangle is \"inequality\" or \"distribution.\" This refers to differences", "-30.171940051717684" ], [ "lessen the disparity of wealth between the rich and the poor, which has been a long problem in Latin America that stunted economic growth.\nAdvances in public health caused an explosion of population growth, making it difficult to provide social services. Education expanded, and social security systems introduced, but benefits usually went to the middle class, not the poor. As a result, the disparity of wealth increased. Increasing inflation and other factors caused countries to be unwilling to fund social development programs to help the poor. Bureaucratic authoritarianism Bureaucratic authoritarianism was practised in Brazil after 1964, in Argentina, and in Chile", "-30.135480341967195" ], [ "Yang began to establish small, rural industries and collectives to mitigate the increasing socioeconomic gap and provide an alternative to large-scale capitalism.\nAlthough Hegang has had the largest number of laid-off workers since 1996, the city has registered China's highest rate of economic growth. Cui Zhiyuan suggests that the cause of this phenomenon is its \"combining public land ownership and the market\"; Hegang has focused on stimulating its real estate market to stimulate the development of related industries.\nOf the Chinese Communist Party's current ideology, the idea of privatising China's countryside has not been accepted and it remains in public hands. Although", "-30.083453161336365" ], [ "that the government has put in place to ameliorate the poverty. In Transformation of Rural China, Jonathan Unger points out that the lack of taxation at the village level restricts the villages from dealing with the problems they face. This means problems such as food instability and lack of education are not able to be addressed by local officials. Supporters of government policy point out that over the time period of 1978 to 2014, China has reduced rural poverty from 250 million people to just over 70 million people. China's Rural Poverty Alleviation and Development Outline from 2001 to", "-30.072591592528624" ], [ "in agricultural output, and poverty was cut in half over the short period from 1981 to 1987. From 1987 to 1993 poverty reduction stagnated, then resumed again. From 1996 to 2001 there was once more relatively little poverty reduction. Since China joined the WTO in 2001, however, poverty reduction resumed at a very rapid rate, and poverty was cut by a third in just three years.\nTaken from the Asian Development Bank, there was an estimated average annual growth rate of 0.5% in China between 2010-2015. This brought the Chinese population to 1.37 billion in 2015. It is important to note", "-30.040649350499734" ], [ "Like in the United States, education funding is primarily the responsibility of local governments in China. As poor localities are less able to fund these services and poor households are less able to afford the high private cost of basic education, China has seen an increase in the inequality of education outcomes. “For example, in 1998, per pupil expenditure in Beijing was 12 times that in Guizhou, and the difference jumped to 15 times in 2001.” Demographic Change According to research published in the China Economic Review, population aging is “largely responsible for the sharp increase in income inequality in", "-30.0398100244347" ], [ "educational aspect of rural China. Gender inequality exists because of gender stereotypes in rural China. For example, families may consider that it is useless for girls to acquire knowledge at school because they will marry someone eventually, and their major responsibility is to take care of housework.\nFurthermore, the current formal education in Asia might be also a result of the historical tendencies. For instance, insufficient supply and demand for education of women reflect the development of numeracy levels throughout Asia between 1900-1960. Regions like South and West Asia had low numeracy levels during the early and mid-20th century. As a", "-30.023345187661107" ], [ "future. Social Equality The Social Equality and Equity as pillars of sustainable development focus on the social well-being of people. The growing gap between incomes of rich and poor is evident throughout the world with the incomes of the richer households increasing relative to the incomes of middle - or lower-class households.This is attributed partly to the land distribution patterns in rural areas where majority live from land. Global inequality has been declining, but the world is still extremely unequal, with the richest 1% of the world’s population owning 40% of the world’s wealth and the poorest 50% owning around", "-30.00245359679684" ], [ "The researchers recommend serious reconsideration of the one-child policy to mitigate these effects. Impact In December 2009, a survey conducted by the Economy and Nation Weekly magazine of Xinhua news revealed that 34 out of the 50 leading Chinese economists surveyed think of income inequality as a challenge to China’s sustainable development. Economist Kenneth Rogoff also cautioned on the problem of income inequality, commenting that “There is no doubt that income inequality is the single biggest threat to social stability around the world, whether it is in the United States, the European periphery, or China.” Income inequality is argued to", "-29.971351692453027" ], [ "problems that have arisen in socialist society today, or to correctly understand and carry out the continual reform that is essential for our technological and social advance. On the contrary, their position will only lead people to criticize, doubt and negate socialism, to consider it as hopeless as capitalism and to renounce their confidence in the future of socialism and communism. \"So what's the point of building socialism?\" they say.\nDespite Deng's condemnation, High Culture Fever continued to rise in China, with the work of Fredric Jameson being particularly popular. Marxist philosophy in modern China In modern China, Marxism is modified", "-29.948315172223374" ], [ "communism remains elusive.\nOn the other hand, the combination of labor movements, technology, and social liberalism has diminished extreme poverty in the developed world today, though extremes of wealth and poverty continue in the Third World.\nIn the Outlook on the Global Agenda 2014 from the World Economic Forum the widening income disparities come second as a worldwide risk.", "-29.927992247976363" ], [ "policy between 1880 and 1930. On the contrary, social policy developed more easily in countries that were previously more egalitarian, suggesting that unequal societies were in a sort of inequality trap, where inequality itself was an obstacle to redistribution.\" War, terrorism and political instability One study finds that income inequality increases political instability. A 2016 study finds that interregional inequality increases terrorism. Another 2016 study finds that inequality between social classes increases the likelihood of coups but not civil wars. A lack of reliable data makes it difficult to study the relationship between inequality and political violence.\nJohn A. Hobson, Rosa", "-29.907376112882048" ], [ "the idea that personal failings are the cause of poverty. The argument presented is that poverty in the United States is the result of “failings at the structural level.” Key social and economic structural failings which contribute heavily to poverty within the U.S. are identified in the article. The first is a failure of the job market to provide a proper number of jobs which pay enough to keep families out of poverty. Even if unemployment is low, the labor market may be saturated with low-paying, part-time work that lacks benefits (thus limiting the number of full-time, good paying jobs).", "-29.87137671763776" ], [ "of its population living in poverty, can halve poverty in ten years, but a country with high inequality would take nearly 60 years to achieve the same reduction. In the words of the Secretary General of the United Nations Ban Ki-Moon: \"While economic growth is necessary, it is not sufficient for progress on reducing poverty.\" Environmental impact Critics such as the Club of Rome argue that a narrow view of economic growth, combined with globalization, is creating a scenario where we could see a systemic collapse of our planet's natural resources.\nConcerns about negative environmental effects of growth have prompted some", "-29.868237900780514" ], [ "rural China,” especially at the beginning of the 2000s. As a result of Chinese governmental attempts to control population growth with the one-child policy implemented in 1979, many fewer young adults have reached the working age over the course of the past decade, leading to a significant “fall in the ratio of household members of working age.” This created a labor shortage, which in combination with the rapid expansion of industrialization served to increase income inequality. Beyond income inequality, this research also indicates that “an imbalanced population structure will influence the social and economic development in many other respects.”", "-29.862146880681394" ], [ "the difficulty in being admitted to their positions of relative financial prosperity and because emigration from China would result in losing significant status and income. These middle-class citizens are not completely voiceless, however, as they will protest the regime's choices through a process of remonstrations where they blame the failure of a policy on implementation by lower-level officials rather than criticize the policy directly. The regime is also aware that loyalty is bought at the price of financial stability; financial instability because of harmful policies would result in the same kinds of widespread protests that happened in 1989.\nHirschman postulated that", "-29.816780279623345" ], [ "produce lesser inequality and lesser poverty at the lowest margins.\nThe rise of China has brought into focus the relevance of an alternate economic model which has helped propel the economy of China for thirty years since its opening up in 1978. The socialist market economy or a system based on what is called \"socialism with Chinese characteristics\". A confident China is increasingly offering it as an alternate development model to the Anglo-Saxon model to emerging economies in Africa and Asia. History of Anglo-Saxon model The Anglo-Saxon capitalism originates from growth and development of Anglo-Saxon economy in eleventh century. The growth", "-29.724927588744322" ], [ "approach, developed by Galor and Zeira, inequality is associated with lower level of human capital formation (education, experience, apprenticeship) and higher level of fertility, while lower level of human capital is associated with lower levels of economic growth. Princeton economist Roland Benabou's finds that the growth process of Korea and the Philippines \"are broadly consistent with the credit-constrained human-capital accumulation hypothesis\". In addition, Andrew Berg and Jonathan Ostry suggest that inequality seems to affect growth through human capital accumulation and fertility channels.\nIn contrast, Perotti argues that the political economy mechanism is not supported empirically. Inequality is associated with", "-29.69403305812739" ], [ "of the progress achieved by Brazil in fighting poverty and inequality is either directly or indirectly related to the structuring of public policies of social intervention, provided for in the Federal Constitution of 1988.\nThe Ipea also points out three other decisive factors to fighting poverty and inequality: increased social spending in the country, which went from 19% of the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) in 1990 to 21.9% of the GDP in 2005; decentralization of social policy, with an extended role played by municipalities in the implementation of social policies, as their share of social spending rose 53.8% from 1980 to", "-29.682575739680033" ], [ "The Communist Party of China maintains that despite the co-existence of private capitalists and entrepreneurs with public and collective enterprise, China is not a capitalist country because the party retains control over the direction of the country, maintaining its course of socialist development. Proponents of this economic model distinguish it from market socialism as market socialists believe that economic planning is unattainable, undesirable or ineffective and thus view the market as an integral part of socialism whereas proponents of the socialist market economy view markets as a temporary phase in development of a fully planned economy.\nCui Zhiyuan traces the theoretical", "-29.67809074150864" ], [ "\"China Minsheng Development Report\" also shows that China's property inequality has risen year by year. In 1995, the Gini coefficient of China's property was 0.45, in 2005 it was 0.55, and in 2012 it reached 0.73. The degree of property inequality has been significantly higher than income inequality. Urban-biased policies More than 10% of China’s total inequality is attributed to the rural-urban gap, according to a study published in the PNAS. Research conducted by Dennis Tao Yang published in the journal of the American Economic Association indicates that the root of China’s rural-urban divide “lies in the strategy of the", "-29.638462363970177" ], [ "the social problems that resulted from China's market economic reforms. Credit for the theory is given to former Chinese leader Hu Jintao and his administration, who was in power from 2002 to 2012. It is the newest slogan added to the idea of Socialism with Chinese characteristics ratified into the Communist Party of China's constitution at the 17th Party Congress in October 2007. It is lauded by the Chinese government as a successor and extension ideology to Marxism-Leninism, Mao Zedong Thought, Deng Xiaoping Theory and the Three Represents. Background Before Jiang Zemin left his office of General Secretary of the", "-29.588930692174472" ], [ "or similar scheme, which are central features in most models of market socialism. They concluded that China is not a market socialist economy, but it is an unstable form of capitalism.\nAnother analysis carried out by the Global Studies Association at the DePaul University in 2006 reports that the Chinese economic system does not constitute a form of socialism when socialism is defined as a planned economy where production for use has replaced production for profit as the driving force behind economic activity, or when socialism is defined as a system where the working class is the dominant class which controls", "-29.586886496515945" ], [ "economic and social policies and public policy as an important cause of inequality; others believe its causes are not well understood. Inequality has been described both as irrelevant in the face of economic opportunity (or social mobility) in America and as a cause of the decline in that opportunity.\nOthers consider that the exodus of manufacturing jobs from industrialized countries since the 1990s has been another defining factor. For instance, the journalist James Surowiecki pointed out in a 2013 article for The New Yorker how in 50 years \"big business\" had changed from high-paying manufacturers to low-paying retailers\n In 1960, the", "-29.579390713595785" ], [ "Neoauthoritarianism (China) Background Post-Mao China stressed a \"pragmatic approach to rebuilding the country's economy\", employing \"various strategies of economic growth\" following the 1978 Third Plenum that made Deng Xiaoping paramount leader of China and began the Chinese economic reform. By 1982 the success of China's market experiments had become apparent, making more radical strategies seem possible, if not desirable. This led to the lifting of price controls and agricultural decollectivization, signalling the abandonment of the New Economic Policy, or economic Leninism, in favour of market socialism. \nAlongside economic development, political changes were made as well, departing from totalitarianism towards what", "-29.56807214707078" ], [ "China, that has resulted in the recent decline in labor's share of income and increased unemployment in the U.S. And the Economic Policy Institute and the Center for Economic and Policy Research argue that some trade agreements such as the Trans-Pacific Partnership could result in further job losses and declining wages.\nOne argument contrary to the globalization/technology hypothesis relates to variation across countries. Japan, Sweden and France did not experience significant increases in income inequality during the 1979–2010 period, although the U.S. did. The top 1% income group continued to receive less than 10% of the income share in these countries,", "-29.558873643167317" ], [ "because its initial wage distribution is much more equal than Western economies. Likewise, the socialist planned economies of the former Soviet Union and Eastern bloc featured very little income redistribution because private capital and land income – the major drivers of income inequality in capitalist systems – was virtually nonexistent; and because the wage rates were set by the government in these economies. Class analysis One studysuggests that \"the middle class faces a paradoxical status\" in that they tend to vote against income redistribution, even though they would benefit economically from it. Objectives The objectives of income redistribution are to", "-29.53538988530636" ], [ "Income inequality in Brazil Rural urban divide Varying levels of economic development exists in urban and rural areas. Those living in the rural communities face a lack of proper education, healthcare and infrastructure. The lack of access to technology, formal education and skills training have resulted in fewer employment opportunities, and hence contribute to lower revenues of people living in rural areas. Low levels of education The low level of education in Brazil in general has been a concern as it perpetuates the income inequality situation by decreasing social mobility. This limits the opportunities of those in low income groups,", "-29.48666156711988" ], [ "to reduce social tension and maintain political stability. In particular, sociological research in China focuses on issues related to socioeconomic developments, such as social stratification, social mobility, community construction, state-society relations, migration and economic sociology.\nIn 2003, a large Chinese General Social Survey program has begun.\nChinese sociology has also been steadily moving from overemphasis on Marxism (see also Maoism and Marxist sociology).\nOn the other hand, there is a notable lack of theoretical research in Chinese sociology, as it is still looked upon unfavorably by the state.", "-29.48592438478954" ], [ "in particular in societies where the polarization between rich and poor has become pronounced and has been identified in public policy as a problem that needs to be overcome, such as in Venezuela where the supporters of Hugo Chavez identify social apartheid as a reality which the wealthy try to maintain and Brazil, where the term was coined to describe a situation where wealthy neighbourhoods are protected from the general population by walls, electric barbed wire and private security guards and where inhabitants of the poor slums are subjected to violence. France and Ireland The term social apartheid has also", "-29.48213632730767" ], [ "by Lahtinen and Wass suggested that low social mobility reduces turnout among lower classes.\nAccording to a 2017 review study in the Annual Review of Political Science by Stanford University political scientist Kenneth Scheve and New York University political scientist David Stasavage, \"the simple conjectures that democracy produces wealth equality and that wealth inequality leads to democratic failure are not supported by the evidence.\"\nSome, such as Alberto Alesina and Dani Rodrik, argue that economic inequality creates demand for redistribution and the creation of welfare states. A 2014 study questions this relationship, finding that \"inequality did not favour the development of social", "-29.473592868220294" ], [ "relatively high, because more people who want ordinary consumer goods and services will be able to afford them, while the labor force will not be as relatively monopolized by the wealthy. Effects on social welfare In most western democracies, the desire to eliminate or reduce economic inequality is generally associated with the political left. One practical argument in favor of reduction is the idea that economic inequality reduces social cohesion and increases social unrest, thereby weakening the society. There is evidence that this is true (see inequity aversion) and it is intuitive, at least for small face-to-face groups of people.", "-29.455352562945336" ], [ "would settle in these countries. However, this did not change their economic level. This meant that they would just be bringing their inequality to another location.\n3. Structure of Economy: Colonialism and historical experiences are widely perceived as creating an unfair global economy that keeps poor countries poor and rich countries rich.\n4. Population Growth: Poor countries have had a large increase in population over the years. This causes a lack of resources. More people mean more resources being used.\n5. Government Policies: Some eastern countries have policies where the people must rely on religion and not science. This may leave the people", "-29.43902448321751" ], [ "cannot be used to give any meaningful insight on topics like poverty and inequality.\nCritics also argue that the simplified nature of the model means that it misses factors that affect absolute poverty. Poverty itself can be considered a barrier for economic growth, meaning that the Poverty-Growth-Inequality Triangle would need to consider the effect of poverty on growth. Other economists argue that the triangle should include financial instability, crises, the business cycle, and their effects on poverty. Finally, many economists believe that there is a strong link between education, literacy rates, and poverty, and that the focus on decreasing", "-29.42774451407604" ], [ "2008, the proportion of China's population living on less than $1.25/day is estimated to have fallen from 85% to 13.1%, meaning that roughly 600 million people were taken out of extreme poverty. At the same time, this rapid change has brought with it different kinds of stresses. China faces serious natural resource scarcity and environmental degradation. It has also seen growing disparities as people in different parts of the country and with different characteristics have benefited from the growth at different rates.\nStarting from the pre-reform situation, some increase in income inequality was inevitable, as favored coastal urban locations", "-29.423652363941073" ], [ "development and claim that China's economy underwent its rapid growth only after Maoist policies had been widely abandoned. All in all, both supporters and critics alike generally agree that the human cost has been staggering. Development Authoritarian socialism is best understood through an examination of its developmental history, allowing for the analysis and comparison of its various global examples. Although authoritarian socialism was by no means restricted to the Soviet Union, its ideological development occurred in tandem with the Stalinist regimes. As the Soviet Union was a developmental model for many socialist states in the post-World War II era, Soviet", "-29.39572408265667" ], [ "credit market imperfection approach, inequality is associated with lower level of human capital formation (education, experience, and apprenticeship) and higher level of fertility, and thereby lower levels of growth. He found that inequality is associated with higher levels of redistributive taxation, which is associated with lower levels of growth from reductions in private savings and investment. Perotti concluded that, \"more equal societies have lower fertility rates and higher rates of investment in education. Both are reflected in higher rates of growth. Also, very unequal societies tend to be politically and socially unstable, which is reflected in lower rates of investment", "-29.369045116603957" ], [ "school.\nThe Lula administration (2003–2011) reduced 9.8% the rate of poverty based on labor income during June 2002 and June 2006 according to Fundação Getúlio Vargas. In June 2006, the rate of extreme poverty was 18.57% of the population.\nThe rate of poverty is in part attributed to the country's economic inequality. Brazil ranks among the world's highest nations in the Gini coefficient index of inequality assessment. A study on the subject shows that the poor segment constitutes roughly one third of the population, and the extremely poor make out 13% (2005 figures). However, the same study shows the income", "-29.367269724680227" ], [ "Effects of economic inequality Effects of inequality researchers have found include higher rates of health and social problems, and lower rates of social goods, a lower population-wide satisfaction and happiness and even a lower level of economic growth when human capital is neglected for high-end consumption. For the top 21 industrialised countries, counting each person equally, life expectancy is lower in more unequal countries (r = -.907). A similar relationship exists among US states (r = -.620).\n2013 Economics Nobel prize winner Robert J. Shiller said that rising inequality in the United States and elsewhere is the most important problem.\nThe economic", "-29.356216945685446" ], [ "on economic development since it creates a pressure for distortionary redistributive policies that have an adverse effect on investment and economic growth.\nIn accordance with the credit market imperfection approach, a study by Roberto Perotti showed that inequality is associated with lower level of human capital formation (education, experience, apprenticeship) and higher level of fertility, while lower level of human capital is associated with lower growth and lower levels of economic growth. In contrast, his examination of the political economy channel found no support for the political economy mechanism. Consequently, the political economy perspective on the relationship between inequality and growth", "-29.335293460375397" ], [ "contradictions will only cause them to emerge elsewhere. For example, attempts to reduce unemployment too much would result in inflation and too much job security would erode labour discipline. In contrast to social democracy, democratic socialists advocate a post-capitalism economic system based on either market socialism combined with workers' self-management or on some form of participatory, decentralised planning of the economy.\nMarxian socialists argue that social democratic welfare policies cannot resolve the fundamental structural issues of capitalism such as cyclical fluctuations, exploitation and alienation. Accordingly, social democratic programs intended to ameliorate living conditions in capitalism—such as unemployment benefits and taxation on", "-29.322181327057706" ], [ "only 12 out of 204 types of jobs. In urban and rural areas After the Communist Party took power of Mainland China, the Chinese government began using the family register system to control the movement of people between urban and rural areas. Individuals were broadly categorised as \"rural\" or \"urban\" workers. Urban dwellers enjoyed a range of social, economic and cultural benefits, and China's 800 million rural residents were treated as second-class citizens.\nThe millions of people who have left village life remain stuck at the margins of urban society and have been blamed for issues of rising crime and unemployment.", "-29.29362700821366" ], [ "Targeted Poverty Alleviation China's Poverty Line and Poorer Population In November 2011, then Chinese Premier Wen Jiabao announced that China has raised the poverty line from RMB 1274 to 2300 (per capital net income). More than 128 million Chinese were living under that line, which meant they could only spend 1 US dollar per day.\nThe World Bank’s international poverty line was $1.90 US dollars per person, per day in 2011 purchasing power parity (PPP).\nIn 2015, the central government of China revised the poverty line, ruling that people with an annual income of less than RMB 2800 a year were in", "-29.285902344679926" ], [ "based on egalitarianism, emphasizes equality across regions of varying economic wealth and development. Conversely, the second model, based on competition, emphasizes individualistic competition, rationalizing any existing educational disparities as a necessary sacrifice for national economic development.\nThe Chinese government also focused educational policies on higher education and specialized training, leaving basic education underdeveloped throughout large parts of the country. Government funding for education was reserved for urban areas; rural communities, already at an economic disadvantage, were left to fund their own schools, exacerbating the already existing divide between urban and rural education. When collectivization policies passed in 1955, placing rural families", "-29.1726460736827" ], [ "each recipient was the difference in their income and the poverty line. The Scheme has grown rapidly and has since been adopted by over 580 cities and 1120 counties. Rural Poverty While poverty has been reduced immensely in China over the past decade, it still remains a large problem in rural China. Rural China has historically been disproportionately taxed and also have received fewer benefits from the recent economic development and success of China. Agriculture has been the main occupation for the inhabitants of rural China, and in villages the produce generated is used to feed the", "-29.144301970689412" ], [ "South Korea's welfare system and universal healthcare. As a result of a poorer welfare, the increasing mental-illness issue could be worsened in South Korea causing social issues. In addition, the high costs of education and low fertility in South Korea will further decrease the domestic consumption in its economy which will lead to slower economic growth in the future if the issue is not addressed. Segmented Groups The cause of unemployment is different for each segmented groups. High school graduate and college dropouts have a higher rate of job separation than college graduates. High job separation is due to", "-29.1389168985188" ], [ "are unable to solve the fundamental and structural issues of capitalism such as cyclical fluctuations, exploitation and alienation. Accordingly, social democratic programs intended to ameliorate the issues of capitalism—such as unemployment benefits and taxation on profits—create further contradictions in capitalism by limiting the efficiency of the capitalist system by reducing incentives for capitalists to invest in further production. Therefore, the welfare state only serves to legitimize and prolong the exploitative and contradiction-laden system of capitalism to society's detriment.</ref needed>\nDemocratic socialists such as the American philosopher and mathematician David Schweickart contrast social democracy with democratic socialism by defining the former as", "-29.113845056519494" ], [ "for this categorization is the existence of financial markets in the Chinese economic system, which are absent in the market socialist literature and in the classic models of market socialism; and that state profits are retained by enterprises rather than being equitably distributed among the population in a basic income/social dividend or similar scheme, which are major features in the market socialist literature. They conclude that China is neither a form of market socialism nor a stable form of capitalism. Taiwan Taiwan's economy has been classified as a state capitalist system influenced by its Leninist model of political control, a", "-29.050262569449842" ], [ "and Eastern Europe, such as Andrej Babiš's ANO in the Czech Republic, are \"a potentially ambiguous phenomenon, articulating genuine societal demands for political reform and pushing issues of good governance centre stage, but further loosening the weak checks and balances that characterise post-communist democracy and embedding private interests at the core of the state.\" Economic inequality and social discontent Many political economy scholars, such as Daron Acemoglu and James A. Robinson, have investigated the effect of income inequality on democratic breakdown. Studies of democratic collapse show that economic inequality is significantly higher in countries that eventually move towards a more", "-29.041342720738612" ], [ "appear to be an effect of economic inequality across a population. Nations and regions with greater economic inequality show poorer outcomes in life expectancy, mental health, drug abuse, obesity, educational performance, teenage birthrates, and ill health due to violence. On an international level, there is a positive correlation between developed countries with high economic equality and longevity. This is unrelated to average income per capita in wealthy nations. Economic gain only impacts life expectancy to a great degree in countries in which the mean per capita annual income is less than approximately $25,000.\nThe United States shows exceptionally low health outcomes", "-29.03321564826183" ], [ "(g). Labour market A major cause of economic inequality within modern market economies is the determination of wages by the market. Where competition is imperfect; information unevenly distributed; opportunities to acquire education and skills unequal; market failure results. Since many such imperfect conditions exist in virtually every market, there is in fact little presumption that markets are in general efficient. This means that there is an enormous potential role for government to correct such market failures. Malthusian Argument See Thomas Malthus Taxes Another cause is the rate at which income is taxed coupled with the progressivity of the tax", "-29.02830153144896" ], [ "Many supporters of the New Left generally believe that a leftist economic model should be found to tackle China's dependence on exports and savings, reduce the growing economic gap between rural and urban areas and stimulate private business through public ownership and state planning. The capitalist free-market model applied in most social-democratic programs is undesireable because instead of challenging and reforming the existing market economy and representative democracy, it seeks to moderate the social consequences of structural division and hierarchy. A suitable, sustainable market model is vital for China's leftist movement.\nNew Left economist Cui Zhiyuan believes that a labour-capital partnership,", "-29.01464366685832" ], [ "program of socialism with Chinese characteristics. Initial reforms in decollectivising agriculture and opening the economy to foreign investment in the late 1970s and early 1980s later led to large-scale radical reforms, including corporatization of the state sector, partial privatisation of some enterprises, liberalisation of trade and prices and dismantling of the \"iron rice bowl\" system of job security in the late 1990s. With Deng Xiaoping's reforms, China's GDP rose from some US$150 billion in 1978 to more than $1.6 trillion in 2004, with an annual increase of 9.4 percent. Analysis Many commentators and scholars have described China's economic system as a form", "-29.01052865840029" ], [ "and as empirically suggested in this study. A degree of inequality can play a beneficial role for economic growth when that inequality is driven by market forces and related to hard work and growth-enhancing incentives like risk taking, innovation, capital investment, and agglomeration economies. The challenge for policy makers is to control structural inequality, which reduces the country's capacities for economic development, while at the same time keeping in place those positive incentives that are also necessary for growth.\" Mechanisms The Galor and Zeira's model predicts that the effect of rising inequality on GDP per capita is negative in relatively", "-29.01023400714621" ], [ "within nations, globally it has fallen over the 20 years leading up to 2014. He argues that though income inequality may make individual nations worse off, overall, the world has improved as global inequality has been reduced. Social justice arguments Patrick Diamond and Anthony Giddens (professors of Economics and Sociology, respectively) hold that 'pure meritocracy is incoherent because, without redistribution, one generation's successful individuals would become the next generation's embedded caste, hoarding the wealth they had accumulated'.\nThey also state that social justice requires redistribution of high incomes and large concentrations of wealth in a way that spreads it more widely,", "-29.002677920274436" ], [ "absolute poverty.\nPoverty alleviation has been one of Xi’s priorities. The ruling Communist Party of China, led by General Secretary Xi, set 2020 as the year that the country should wipe out poverty and become a moderately prosperous society or “Xiaokang”. Xi said \"no one should be left behind on the road towards Xiaokang.\" “Tough Battle” In October 2017, Xi urged “all-out” efforts to fight the “tough battle” against poverty. Two months later a statement was issued after the Central Economic Work Conference which also targeted poverty alleviation as one of three “tough battles” to win on the following three years,", "-28.990920336342242" ], [ "which results in a cycle of poverty.\nIn the United States more than 40.6 million people live in poverty (Census.gov, 2016 ), caused mainly by wage inequality (Adams, 2004 ), inflation and poor education (Western & Pettit, 2010. The vast majority living in poverty is uneducated people that end up increasing more unemployment(Census.gov, 2016 ) and crime (Western & Pettit, 2010 ). Therefore, in order to reduce poverty, higher education needs to become a priority as higher educated people have a better chance in succeeding in life (Hoynes, Page, & Stevens, 2006 ). People with college degrees face", "-28.98882920766482" ], [ "development of the entire socio-economy. The influence and control capacity of SOEs have further increased. State owned economy has played an irreplaceable role in China's socialist modernisation drive.\nOther Marxist analyses point out that because the Chinese economic system is based on commodity production, has a role for private capital and disempowers the working class, it represents a capitalist economy. Classical Marxists believe a socialist commodity economy (or a socialist market economy) is contradictory. Other socialists believe the Chinese have embraced many elements of market capitalism, specifically commodity production and privatisation, resulting in a full-blown capitalist economic system. Although many enterprises", "-28.97156366892159" ], [ "exists in how communism and capitalism are perceived in the popular consciousness. The worst excesses of capitalism, including slavery, unemployment, economic inequality, global warming, robber barons, war and imperialism, the Great Depression and the Great Recession, are often minimized and this allows the history of capitalism to be more dynamic and nuanced. By contrast, Communism is often equated only with the Soviet Union (Communist experiments in Eastern Europe, Latin America, Africa and Asia are often ignored) and then only the twenty-six years of Stalin's rule, with strong emphasis placed on gulags, purges and famines and almost no consideration for the", "-28.946379467786755" ], [ "of inequality. The conclusions of this study offered a new point of view for two reasons. Firstly, the United Nations and the World Bank used to believe that although poverty rates were falling, the total number of poor people was increasing. He claimed that both were falling. Secondly, the United Nations and the World Bank believe that individual income inequalities were on the rise. He claimed that they were not.\nSala i Martin is the author of the economic growth textbook Apuntes de Crecimiento Economico (in Spanish) and the co-author (with Robert Barro) of the textbook Economic Growth (original in English;", "-28.942279004724696" ], [ "two. This incredible success was delivered by a combination of a rapidly expanding labour market, driven by a protracted period of economic growth, and a series of government transfers such as an urban subsidy, and the introduction of a rural pension. World Bank suggest that the percentage of the population living below the international poverty line of $1.9 (2011 PPP) fall to 0.7 percent in 2015, and poverty line of $3.2 (2011 PPP) to 7% in 2015. As at the end of 2018, the number of people living below China's national poverty line of 2,300 yuan per year (in 2010", "-28.884917823132128" ], [ "5-10%. Much of this downturn can be attributed to lower demand as a response to the Chinese stock market crash. In response, in 2016 China announced its plans to downsize its steel and coal industries and layoff 15% of the respective industries workforce. Part of this larger trend can be attributed to China's movement away from heavy industry, and movement into light industry such as producing consumer goods for the world market. China has also seen growth in other sectors such as construction, technology, finance, and energy which can also be attributed to the decline and reliance on industry as", "-28.880678917834302" ], [ "the social welfare function, the different results depend on the elasticity of marginal utility. A declining marginal utility of consumption means that a poor person is judged to benefit more from increases in consumption relative to a richer person. A constant marginal utility of consumption does not make this distinction, and leads to the result that richer countries should mitigate less.\nA third approach looks at the problem from the perspective of who has contributed most to the problem. Because the industrialized countries have contributed more than two-thirds of the stock of human-induced GHGs in the atmosphere, this approach suggests that", "-28.870575175620615" ], [ "that the wage increases raise inequality. It is hard to imagine that manufacturing wages would have risen so rapidly if there had not been such controls on labor migration. Third, recent studies focusing on migrants have shown that it is difficult for them to bring their families to the city, put their children in school, and obtain healthcare. So, the growth of the urban population must have been slowed down by these restrictions.\nChina's urbanization so far has been a relatively orderly process. One does not see in China the kinds of slums and extreme poverty that exist in cities throughout", "-28.86201249739679" ], [ "found that some of the major causes of poverty were the inability of poor households to invest in property and education, limited access to credit, in some cases these instances produce more poverty via inherited poverty. The systematic exclusion of ethnic minorities, scheduled castes, tribes, women and people with disabilities and health issues. Persistence of poverty is partially attributed to these classes not having access to institutions and markets.\nWar and violence may be some of the primary causes of poverty. Political violence and organized crime have affected 39 countries since 2000, in those countries the poverty level is twice that", "-28.846160023123957" ] ]

[ "Summarised: * iOS users had Google Maps, undoubtedly the best mapping solution, due in part to things like street view, transit directions, consistent maps, etc. * Apple (in their continuing \"get Google off iOS\" mission) removed Google Maps, and users had to use Apple's mapping system. * The mapping system has every error possible. Cities moved, missing features, incorrect information. [This] ( URL_0 ) tumblr will help explain some of the issues. Also, it shows very clearly to the average consumer something the tech world has known for years: Apple will reduce the user experience for company interests. **** Edit: Apple Maps is *okay* in the US. Not as good as Google Maps, but perhaps useable by those that don't use public transport. Outside of the US, it's terrible.", "For me it's the bus system. I used to be able to type in any address and it would give me buses to the next point in a very clear and concise manner, like name of the bus, time, etc, but now after I enter an address and select bus, it makes me go into a different app that almost never works correctly (times out, doesn't show all the routes, etc). Plus it's apparently missing a lot of smaller streets that Google Maps had.", "Probably because apple built new airports, train stations, made the earth a wavy lays chip, etc. overnight", "Because unlike a company like Nokia that has spent billions of dollars and years of effort to make their incredible mapping tools happen, apple simply demontrated their typical arrogance by licensing questionable data and repackaging, hoping their usual marketing nonsense would carry them through. In the larger sense, apple maps shouldn't be a surprise, it's the same approach/ logic as every other apple product. Looking at their iPhone hype when it came out, you'd think people used carrier pigeons in 2005...to this day the iPhone doesn't do some of the things phones have been able to do for years...oh but it can send attachments now! Innovation indeed. Or the iPad...which is the first ever tablet...omg you can touch the Internet! Kiss my ass you shitheads. -typed from my mint condition iPhone which mysteriously stopped detecting the sim card.", "Well, Apple Maps is basically upsetting a ton of people because of false information. Apple Maps is using a company named TomTom, I believe. You have to remember, everyone is comparing Apple Maps to google maps. Google maps showed landmarks and transit maps, and Apple Maps lacks both.", "Even after Apple fixes all of the inaccuracies they'll still be way behind Google in mapping. Google Streetview is a massive worldwide effort to capture an enormous amount of data. Streetview is even available [inside the White House]( URL_0 )." ]

[ [ "user experience design, in April 2013 told technology news website TechRadar that Apple was the problem. According to him, Apple was trying to combine too many sources of data to create Apple Maps. Modern reception Despite fixing preliminary issues, Apple Maps has received mixed reviews, with some critics complimenting its \"Flyover\" feature and appearance of the street map, while others are criticizing its lack of features similar to those in Google Maps. ZDNet said \"[Apple Maps] had its share of problems, but Apple Maps is back with a vengeance. Powered by some jaw-dropping 3D graphics and enjoying an aggressive multi-platform", "-33.32042054343037" ], [ "strategy, Apple is finally set to redefine our geospatial expectations – and take Google down a few notches.\" An editor of The Street wrote \"But, today, and presumably after the iOS 7 update, Apple Maps has come into its own. Despite the lingering absence of transit directions (at last check, Apple still suggests Google Maps and other \"routing\" apps), I now prefer to Apple over Google.\" Macworld wrote \"Apple Maps has vastly improved since it was first launched and now we conclude the turn-by-turn navigation is a lot better than Google's offering. While there are areas that both Google and", "-31.378072341380175" ], [ "Apple can improve on, we’re certain that using Apple Maps won’t direct you to drive into the Thames and that most of the initial issues have been fixed.\" Thrillist wrote an article about \"Things Apple Maps Does Better Than Google Maps,\" praising its ability to let the user \"send directions instantly from your computer to your phone,\" \"see turn-by-turn directions from the lock screen,\" \"get more specific recommendations for nearby attractions,\" \"know which subway car to get on and which exit to use,\" \"see true-to-life details,\" and \"get seamless directions from Siri.\"\nTaiwan (Republic of China) was classified as a province", "-30.92277584565454" ], [ "Maps with its own Apple Maps as the default mapping service for the operating system, and immediately faced criticism for inaccurate or incomplete data, including a museum in a river, missing towns, satellite images obscured by clouds, missing local places, and more.\nApple CEO Tim Cook issued a letter on Apple's website apologizing for the \"frustration caused by the Maps application\", and recommended downloading alternative map apps from the App Store. Scott Forstall, the then-VP of iOS software engineering, was involuntarily dismissed from his role at Apple in October 2012 after he \"refused to sign his name to a letter apologizing", "-30.524547487468226" ], [ "all American smartphone users used Apple Maps — this includes users with operating systems for which Apple Maps was not compatible. During the same period, it was concluded that between 40% and 51% of American smartphone owners used the application Google Maps.\nFurthermore, comScore studied the market share of Apple Maps on iPhones in the United Kingdom. In September 2013, one year after its launch, more than 6.2 million of the total 10.35 million British iPhone owners used Apple Maps. Google Maps had the second largest market share on British iPhones with over 1.8 million British iPhone users.\nIn the second half", "-30.151256779499818" ], [ "betas of new versions of iOS and OS X. Furthermore, Cue commented that before Maps was launched Apple's executive team long discussed if Apple should have its own mapping service. One month later, Tim Cook looked back to the launch of Apple Maps in an interview with The Washington Post and said \"Maps was a mistake.\" He added that the company admitted its mistake and that Maps is something the company is now proud of because of the improvements. TomTom's response As the primary provider of map data, TomTom has received criticism as well. Cees van Dok, TomTom's head of", "-30.06830987808644" ], [ "couple of years\" for iPhone users. In September 2012, when Apple Maps was released, a source connected to both Google and Apple Maps claimed to technology website TechCrunch that Apple was recruiting Google employees that worked on Google Maps. 2012–2015 In the first year after its release, Apple Maps received a number of improvements which solved various errors in the application. Other changes included adding more satellite imagery and making the navigation available in more cities. In 2013, Apple also acquired a few companies to improve Apple Maps, namely HopStop, Embark, WifiSlam, and Locationary, as well as the team and", "-29.9614700388629" ], [ "products, even while comparing the company to a higher standard than for competitors. The Apple III was an example of the company's reputation among dealers that one described as \"Apple arrogance\". After examining a PC and finding it unimpressive, Apple confidently purchased a full-page advertisement in The Wall Street Journal with the headline \"Welcome, IBM. Seriously\". Microsoft head Bill Gates was at Apple headquarters the day of IBM's announcement and later said \"They didn't seem to care. It took them a full year to realize what had happened\". Apple prioritized the Apple III for three years, spending what Steve Wozniak", "-29.959057639585808" ], [ "He argues that Apple's ecosystem is its greatest innovation.\nThe Wall Street Journal reported in June 2017 that Apple's increased reliance on Siri, its virtual personal assistant, has raised questions about how much Apple can actually accomplish in terms of functionality. Whereas Google and Amazon make use of big data and analyze customer information to personalize results, Apple has a strong pro-privacy stance, intentionally not retaining user data. \"Siri is a textbook of leading on something in tech and then losing an edge despite having all the money and the talent and sitting in Silicon Valley\", Holger Mueller, a technology analyst,", "-29.781888607423753" ], [ "public apology by Apple CEO Tim Cook in late September and the departure of two key employees of Apple (see also §Early inaccuracy).\nBefore Apple Maps launched as the default mapping application in iOS, Google Maps held this position since the first generation iPhone release in 2007. In late 2009, tensions between Google and Apple started to grow when the Android version of Google Maps featured turn-by-turn navigation, a feature which the iOS version lacked. At the time, Apple argued that Google collected too much user data. When Apple made iOS 6 available, Google Maps could only be accessed by iOS", "-29.304467279289383" ], [ "write that \"When it comes to software, Apple’s attention to detail is crumbling away\". However, he also looked back in history, mentioning that Apple Music's original design, a lack of optical typography alignment in the Calendar app, and previously-fixed iOS design mistakes being ported to the macOS software had established that \"This inconsistency and lack of attention to detail are not new at Apple\". He firmly stated: \"Perhaps this is inevitable, given the monumental task of having to update the operating system every year. But for a company that claims to have an obsessive attention to detail, this is not", "-29.23726185236592" ], [ "was originally developed at SRI International. Departure from Apple The aftermath of the release of iOS 6, on September 19, 2012, proved a troubled period for Apple. The newly introduced Maps application, completely designed in-house by Apple, was criticized for being underdeveloped, buggy and lacking in detail. In addition, the clock app used a design based on the trademarked Swiss railway clock, which Apple had failed to license, forcing Apple to pay Swiss railways a reported $21 million in compensation. In October, Apple reported third-quarter results in which revenues and profits grew less than predicted, the second quarter in a", "-29.09841459065501" ], [ "the fact that Apple Inc is losing market share and stock value to Samsung they will be more aggressive and eye tracking is a logical place to make that move.", "-29.0326094031916" ], [ "notch\" on the announcement of Amazon's Alexa, the Journal wrote: \"Today, Apple is playing catch-up in a product category it invented, increasing worries about whether the technology giant has lost some of its innovation edge.\" The report cites the primary causes as being Apple's prioritization of user privacy, including randomly-tagged six-month Siri searches, whereas Google and Amazon keep data until actively discarded by the user, and executive power struggles with some employees leaving. Apple declined to comment on the report, while Eddy Cue said: \"Apple often uses generic data rather than user data to train its systems and has the", "-28.909090163971996" ], [ "comScore, the latter figure had dropped to 58.7 million in September 2013, a year after the release of Apple Maps. At the same time, there were 35 million American Apple Maps users and a total of 136.7 million people with iOS or Android in the United States. Out of the 60.1 million iPhone users, 8.3 million used Google Maps. However, some of those iPhone users were not able to use Apple Maps, since their devices were not updated to iOS 6. In addition, research by comScore conducted between July 2013 and February 2016 revealed that between 20% and 30% of", "-28.85299581271829" ], [ "6 in September 2012, in which Apple replaced support for Google Maps with their own mapping, HopStop was named as one of the top transit apps for Apple products by multiple publishers, including Business Insider, FastCompany, and Wired.\nApple Inc. acquired HopStop in July 2013 and dropped support for Windows Phone a few days later. In September 2013, Apple removed the Android version of its app from the Play Store. In October 2015, HopStop was no longer available on any platform; Apple, instead, began using the iOS 9 update to supply Apple Maps transit directions. Apple received some criticism in response", "-28.692008884403094" ], [ "navigation should be and more.\" Bree Fowler of the Associated Press compared Google's and Apple's map applications, saying: \"The one clear advantage that Apple has is style. Like Apple devices, the maps are clean and clear and have a fun, pretty element to them, especially in 3-D. But when it comes down to depth and information, Google still reigns superior and will no doubt be welcomed back by its fans.\" Gizmodo gave it a ranking of 4.5 stars, stating: \"Maps Done Right\". According to The New York Times, Google \"admits that it’s [iOS app is] even better than Google Maps", "-28.620715141080836" ], [ "Apple III Design Steve Wozniak and Steve Jobs expected hobbyists to purchase the Apple II, but because of VisiCalc and Disk II, small businesses purchased 90% of the computers. The Apple III was designed to be a business computer and successor. Though the Apple II contributed to the inspirations of several important business products, such as VisiCalc, Multiplan, and Apple Writer, the computer's hardware architecture, operating system, and developer environment are limited. Apple management intended to clearly establish market segmentation by designing the Apple III to appeal to the 90% business market, leaving the Apple II to home and education", "-28.57585158557049" ], [ "have done to improve the Apple II, or how much could have been done by Apple to give us products in IBM's market.\n— Steve Wozniak, 1985\nThe Apple III's technical problems made marketing the computer difficult. Ed Smith, who after the APF Imagination Machine became a distributor's representative, described the computer as \"a complete disaster\". He recalled that he \"was responsible for going to every dealership, setting up the Apple III in their showroom, and then explaining to them the functions of the Apple III, which in many cases didn’t really work\". Pohlman said that Apple was only selling 500 units a", "-28.45715567714069" ], [ "especially combined with the Apple III's bad reputation due to poor engineering and its high retail price of nearly US $4,000 (equivalent to $9,318 in 2018).", "-28.425826472463086" ], [ "Apple Maps Initial release On June 11, 2012, during the Apple Worldwide Developers Conference (WWDC), Apple announced the initial release of Apple Maps and revealed that the application would replace Google Maps as the default web mapping service in iOS 6 and beyond. Apple also announced that the application would include turn-by-turn navigation, 3D maps, Flyovers, and the virtual assistant Siri. Furthermore, Apple stated that iPhone users would be able to navigate Apple Maps while in the locked screen. The mapping service was released on September 19, 2012. Following the launch, Apple Maps was heavily criticized, which resulted in a", "-28.250538553344086" ], [ "fits into Apple's iOS product line, being twice the screen size of an iPhone without the phone abilities. While there were initial fears of product cannibalisation the FY2010 financial results released in Jan 2011 included commentary of a reverse 'halo' effect, where iPad sales were leading to increased sales of iMacs and MacBooks. Resurgence compared to Microsoft Since 2005, Apple's revenues, profits, and stock price have grown significantly. On May 26, 2010, Apple's stock market value overtook Microsoft's, and Apple's revenues surpassed those of Microsoft in the third quarter of 2010. After giving their results for the first quarter of", "-28.241099155391566" ], [ "in October 2012. Sources told technology news website The Verge that he had been fired for refusing to sign Tim Cook's letter of apology. According to business magazine Bloomberg Businessweek, Richard Williamson, the person responsible for the mapping team at Apple, left the following month. He was succeeded by Eddy Cue.\nIn June 2016, Eddy Cue said in an interview with Fast Company that Apple \"had completely underestimated the product, the complexity of it.\" He also said the problems with Apple Maps led to \"significant changes to all of our development processes.\" After the launch of Maps, Apple started offering public", "-28.233837443054654" ], [ "and 76% of the 3G network. At the turn of the year, the same values amounted to 73% and 82% respectively. Early inaccuracy Apple Maps received considerable criticism after its launch on September 19, 2012, due to wrong and inaccurate information about places and points of interests. Many of these errors are now fixed.\nSome places were misspelled, were displayed with the wrong name, or were missing entirely. Examples of those mistakes included the Ukrainian capital Kiev, which was incorrectly spelled as \"Kylv\", the Welsh place Pontypridd, whose label was shown 6 miles (10 kilometres) northeast of its actual location, and", "-28.154403041116893" ], [ "of the operating systems became available in September 2015. In addition to these new releases, Apple acquired a few companies in 2015 in order to improve the mapping application even further. In the spring, Apple also acquired Coherent Navigation, that provides precise location data through High Integrity GPS, and the startup company Mapsense later that year. The latter had developed software to organize large amounts of location data.\nIn 2016, Apple Maps opened a new development center and it was updated for watchOS and iOS. The application was improved when watchOS 2.2 came out in March 2016. Apple Maps was renewed", "-28.067954182683025" ], [ "frequently visited destinations by users in order to improve Apple Maps. In addition, new satellite imagery was added once again. On September 18, 2013, Apple released iOS 7. At that time, the new iPhone 5S included a new motion coprocessor, the M7, which can identify whether a user is walking or driving in order to adjust the navigation mode.\nDuring that same conference, Apple announced that a desktop version of the application would be made available for OS X Mavericks. On October 22, 2013, Apple released OS X Mavericks and the desktop version of Apple Maps. The desktop version was similar", "-28.03760267229518" ], [ "edit business information, such as location and open hours. After the user logs in with their Apple ID, they are given a prompt to claim and link an Apple Maps listing to their account. The user can search through Apple's database to either locate their listing or add a missing listing to Apple's database. Market share ComScore investigated the market shares of different web mapping services in the United States using polls. Prior to the launch of Apple Maps in September 2012, there were 103.6 million Americans with iOS or Android, 81 million of which used Google Maps. According to", "-27.764379020547494" ], [ "favorable reviews on its speed and performance on older Macintosh computers.\nDue to its compatibility with the older operating system, the browser lacks the entire feature set of modern Firefox versions. In particular, it does not fully support Core Text, so it does not understand Apple Advanced Typography features in certain international fonts; it does not support graphics acceleration for compositing; and it does not support WebGL (because PowerPC Tiger does not support OpenGL 2). Furthermore, for security and maintainability reasons, NPAPI plugins support is deprecated, and has been subsequently removed.", "-27.664919740673213" ], [ "to that in iOS 7, but it connected with the Contacts and Calendar applications. Additionally, the desktop version enabled users to send locations and directions to other devices with iOS. In June of the following year, Apple acquired the company Spotsetter, a social search engine that gave personalized recommendations for places to visit. Since the acquisition, most of its employees now work at Apple.\nOn September 17, 2014, the successor of iOS 7, iOS 8, became available. Later that year, on October, 16, Apple released OS X Yosemite. Neither update brought any major modifications to Apple Maps. However, the feature \"City", "-27.631610984545205" ], [ "other companies, Apple had to balance between maintaining access to the Chinese market with the negative public image of capitulating to its government, though argued that Apple had more at stake in China than other multinational companies with most of its product assembly in China and its reliance on the Chinese market. The developer criticised Apple's decision on Thursday, saying on Twitter that it does not \"solicit, promote, or encourage criminal activity.\" It also argued that there was no evidence to support the CSTCB's claim that the app has been used to target or ambush police, or that it threatened", "-27.46193969073647" ], [ "of Apple Inc., had used this way of apologizing in the past. A week before the release of the letter of apology, just after the launch of Apple Maps, spokesperson Trudy Miller had stated to technology news website All Things Digital that Apple Maps was a major initiative and that they \"were just getting started with it.\" Miller also said the application would improve as more people used it.\nIn the aftermath of the criticism, two key employees left the company due to the problems associated with Apple Maps. The departure of Scott Forstall, senior vice president of iOS, was announced", "-27.43102703965269" ], [ "the sophisticated monitor software, user expandability, and comprehensive documentation. The author concluded that \"the Apple II is a very promising machine\" which \"would be even more of a temptation were its price slightly lower ... for the moment, colour is an Apple II\".\nAlthough it sold well from the launch, the initial market was to hobbyists and computer enthusiasts. Sales expanded exponentially into the business and professional market when the spreadsheet program VisiCalc was launched in mid-1979. VisiCalc is credited as the defining killer app in the microcomputer industry.\nDuring the first five years of operations, revenues doubled about every four months.", "-27.399323991441634" ], [ "default browser on Macintosh, while also announcing its collaboration with Microsoft on Java compatibility. Microsoft made a $150 million investment in Apple stock purchased at market price and agreed not to sell it for at least three years. Steve introduced Bill Gates via satellite. 1998 In San Francisco, Steve Jobs gave an update on the PowerPC G3 chip that was announced on November 10, 1997. Apple built three systems around this chip: G3 Desktop, G3 MiniTower, and G3 PowerBook. The G3 Desktop sold for $1,999. The G3 MiniTower sold for $2,449. Apple had forecasted that they would sell 80,000", "-27.39142258866923" ], [ "months after introducing the III Plus, after selling 65,000-75,000 computers and replacing 14,000 defective units.\nJobs said that the company lost \"infinite, incalculable amounts\" of money on the Apple III. Wozniak estimated that Apple had spent $100 million on the III, instead of improving the II and better competing against IBM. Pohlman claimed that there was a \"stigma\" at Apple associated with having contributed to the computer. Most employees who worked on the III reportedly left Apple. Legacy The file system and some design ideas from Apple SOS, the Apple III's operating system, were part of Apple ProDOS and Apple GS/OS,", "-27.38447513524443" ], [ "told the Journal. The report further claims that development on Siri has suffered due to team members and executives leaving the company for competitors, a lack of ambitious goals, and shifting strategies. Though switching Siri's functions to machine learning and algorithms, which dramatically cut its error rate, the company reportedly still failed to anticipate the popularity of Amazon's Echo, which features the Alexa personal assistant. Improvements to Siri stalled, executives clashed, and there were disagreements over the restrictions imposed on third-party app interactions. While Apple acquired an England-based startup specializing in conversational assistants, Google's Assistant had already become capable of", "-27.30747500261714" ], [ "tremendous evolution without much essential damage\" from 1984. He praised its spatial file manager as \"probably a more complete definition of a PC-based universe than any\" competitor, with users able to seamlessly use floppies, local and remote hard disks, and large and small file servers. Alsop said that even if Apple had stolen Xerox's technology for Finder, it was now very different. While criticizing the lack of a right mouse button and MultiFinder's clumsiness, he concluded that \"Apple remains the king of user interfaces. Finder is the only interface with 1.5 million people sitting in front of it daily. Apple", "-27.298040741006844" ], [ "things that’s been pulled, come back. I have great hope on that and great optimism on that\". However, TechCrunch's Jon Russell criticized this line of thinking, writing that \"Firstly, Apple didn’t just remove a 'couple of things' from the reach of China-based users\", but rather \"a couple of hundred\" apps, acknowledging that \"even that is under counting\". Furthermore, Russell listed censorship efforts by the Chinese government, including VPN bans and restrictions on live video and messaging apps, and wrote that \"Apple had little choice but to follow Beijing’s line in order to continue to do business in the lucrative Chinese", "-27.24960733847547" ], [ "in the problem-plagued Newton division based on John Sculley's unrealistic market forecasts. Ultimately, none of these products helped and Apple's market share and stock prices continued to slide.\nThroughout this period, Microsoft continued to gain market share with Windows by focusing on delivering software to cheap commodity personal computers, while Apple was delivering a richly engineered but expensive experience. Apple relied on high profit margins and never developed a clear response; instead, they sued Microsoft for using a GUI similar to the Apple Lisa in Apple Computer, Inc. v. Microsoft Corp. The lawsuit dragged on for years before it was finally", "-27.244609975197818" ], [ "installation from a list of Apple programs to download by default, even when an existing installation of Safari was not detected on a user's machine. John Lilly, former CEO of Mozilla, stated that Apple's use of its updating software to promote its other products was \"a bad practice and should stop.\" He argued that the practice \"borders on malware distribution practices\" and \"undermines the trust that we're all trying to build with users.\" Apple spokesman Bill Evans sidestepped Lilly's statement, saying that Apple was only \"using Software Update to make it easy and convenient for both Mac and Windows users", "-27.226967024966143" ], [ "port, but said that the computer \"isn't everything it could be\", criticizing the lack of change from the IIc's memory capacity (\"128K doesn't quite cut it\") and difficulty in adding more. The magazine concluded, \"It's disappointing that a company as technologically sophisticated as Apple couldn't have gone a step further ... The IIc Plus is a nice system, but it's too little, too late\". A separate editorial in the issue began \"What if you announced a new computer and nobody cared? Apple Computer could be facing such a dilemma\". Even with an accompanying price increase for the IIGS, the magazine", "-27.171737720214878" ], [ "with such interventions Apple might be moving towards censorship.\nNovember 26, 2010, an informational magazine about Google's OS from the Danish publisher Mediaprovider wasn't allowed in the app store.\nThe Guardian described rejection of explicit content by Apple as analogous to that of the distributor WH Smith, a main distributor which for many years imposed content restrictions on British publishers. Workers at the fashion magazine Dazed & Confused have nicknamed their iPad edition the \"Iran edition\". Pulitzer Prize-winning cartoons In December 2009, Apple banned a cartoon app called NewsToons by cartoonist Mark Fiore, on the grounds that it \"ridiculed public", "-27.160669510951266" ], [ "Maps, Forstall refused to sign it. Under long-standing practice at Apple, Forstall was the \"directly responsible individual\" for Maps, and his refusal to sign the apology convinced Cook that Forstall had to go.\nForstall's skeuomorphic design style, strongly advocated by former CEO Steve Jobs, was reported to have also been controversial and divided the Apple design team. In a 2012 interview, Ive, then head of hardware design only, refused to comment on the iOS user interface, \"In terms of those elements you're talking about, I'm not really connected to that.\" Present Forstall did not make public appearances after his departure from", "-27.114670920011122" ], [ "for the sake of it but, in the main, making the iOS experience gradually better. That in itself is something other companies would do well to emulate.\" Jason Parker of CNET wrote that \"iOS 6 is a welcome upgrade for any iOS user, but it's not going to completely change the way you use your device. Instead, each of the tweaks here will make many daily smartphone actions easier across the board and offer some relief to those waiting for certain features (sending images from e-mail and call controls, for example).\" Maps app launch In iOS 6, Apple replaced Google", "-27.073396382911596" ], [ "reported that Apple had acquired the company Placebase, an online mapping service, in July of that year. Since then, the CEO of Placebase became a part of Apple's \"Geo Team\". In the following two years, Apple acquired two more mapping related companies who specialized in 3D maps: Poly9 in 2010 and C3 Technologies in 2011. C3 Technologies' imagery was later used for the Flyovers feature in Apple Maps. Earlier in 2011, Apple indicated its plan for a mapping service when it stated on its website that it was collecting location data to create \"an improved traffic service in the next", "-27.06212439131923" ], [ "consumers and hurt Apple's reputation for simplicity. Apple's retail resellers like Sears and CompUSA often failed to sell or even competently display these Macs. Compounding matters was the fact that, although the machines were cheaper than a comparable PC (when taken into account all the components built-in that had to be added to the 'bare bones PC'), the poor marketing gave the impression that the machines were more expensive. Inventory grew as Apple consistently underestimated demand for popular models and overestimated demand for others.\nIn 1991, Apple partnered with long-time competitor IBM and Motorola to form the AIM alliance. The ultimate", "-27.04892961587757" ], [ "April 2016, Apple's privacy policy addresses requests from government agencies for access to customers' data: \"Apple has never worked with any government agency from any country to create a 'backdoor' in any of our products or services. We have also never allowed any government access to our servers. And we never will.\" In 2015 the Electronic Frontier Foundation awarded Apple five out of five stars \"commend[ing] Apple for its strong stance regarding user rights, transparency, and privacy.\"\nApple iOS in combination with their specific hardware uses crypto-shredding when activating the \"Erase all content and settings\" by obliterating all the keys in 'effaceable", "-27.04634940058986" ], [ "customer location data 8 million times.\nIn response to customers' privacy concerns in the post Edward Snowden era, Apple's iPhone 6 has been designed to disrupt investigative wiretapping efforts. The phone encrypts e-mails, contacts, and photos with a code generated by a complex mathematical algorithm that is unique to an individual phone, and is inaccessible to Apple. The encryption feature on the iPhone 6 has drawn criticism from FBI director James B. Comey and other law enforcement officials since even lawful requests to access user content on the iPhone 6 will result in Apple supplying \"gibberish\" data that requires law enforcement", "-27.041226058267057" ], [ "re-create the old business model, wherein they are pushing content to you on their terms rather than you going out and finding content, or a search engine discovering content for you.\" But Sweeting also thought that the limitations imposed by Apple impart the feeling of a safe neighborhood, saying, \"Apple is offering you a gated community where there's a guard at the gate, and there's probably maid service, too.\" Laura Sydell, the article's author, concludes, \"As more consumers have fears about security on the Internet, viruses and malware, they may be happy to opt for Apple's gated community.\" The Russian", "-27.013434274471365" ], [ "Steve Taffe, manager of instructional strategy at MECC, a developer and publisher of educational software, explained his excitement about the Classic: \"[it] is terrific – both because it's a Mac and because of that low price. Everyone can now afford a Macintosh.\" Scholastic, an educational software developer, was also confident of Apple's ability to compete with MS-DOS machines, stating: \"They are just as cost-effective and as powerful as MS-DOS computers, but the Apples will have a superior comfort-level.\" Sue Talley, Apple's manager of strategic planning in education, said of the Classic: \"we see it going into applications where you need", "-26.951701698824763" ], [ "has nothing to do with the failed Apple stores. ComputerWare UK, as at 2010, has many happy customers and is a going concern.\nComputerWare UK started in 1992 by Rik and Christeen Alexander in order to provide computer input device solutions and test equipment through Manufacturers, System Integrators, Value Added Resellers and PC Builders. The business objectives included never employing people and never selling software or services although ComputerWare UK are appointed agents acting on behalf of companies in the Middle East and Africa. Rik and Christeen are members of the Finchampstead Cricket Club. Apple Authorization In November", "-26.90388536163664" ], [ "at #17.\nIn a 2013 article for Macworld, veteran Mac software developer and commentator John Gruber concluded his reflection on \"the unlikely persistence of AppleScript\" by noting: \"In theory, AppleScript could be much better; in practice, though, it's the best thing we have that works. It exemplifies the Mac's advantages over iOS for tinkerers and advanced users.\"\nIn October 2016, longtime AppleScript product manager and automation evangelist Sal Soghoian left Apple when his position was eliminated \"for business reasons\". Veterans in the Mac community such as John Gruber and Andy Ihnatko generally responded with concern, questioning Apple's commitment to the developer community", "-26.89526541205123" ], [ "and that \"the fundamental problem with the OS X Finder is that it's trying to support two opposing paradigms at once – the browser metaphor ... and the spatial metaphor from the original Mac Finder ... and it ends up doing neither one very well.\" Reviewing the same version of Mac OS X, Siracusa comments that the Finder \"provides exactly the same self-destructive combination of spatial and browser-style features as all of its Mac OS X predecessors\". Finder replacements Third-party macOS software developers offer Finder replacements that run as stand-alone applications, such as ForkLift, Path Finder, Xfile, and XtraFinder. These replacements", "-26.88948200022645" ], [ "the list. On a global level, all Apple Stores had a combined revenue of US$16 billion. Under the leadership of Ron Johnson, the former senior Vice President of Retail Operations, the Apple Stores have, according to an article in The New York Times, been responsible for \"[turning] the boring computer sales floor into a sleek playroom filled with gadgets\". The Apple Stores have also been credited with raising the company's brand equity, with Scott Galloway, Professor of Marketing at New York University Stern School of Business, stating that the Stores are the \"temple to the brand which is this unbelievable experience", "-26.884207576629706" ], [ "2, CamCard, TinyDeal.com, among others. Apple confirmed the attack and stated to be working with the developers to make sure they were using the proper version of Xcode to rebuild the apps.\nIn October 2015, Apple also confirmed having removed applications from the App Store due to the privacy concerns. They commented that applications could be used to compromise SSL/TLS security solutions.", "-26.85077995553729" ], [ "Maps.\nThe Calendar app has enhancements such as being able to add Facebook events, and an estimate for the travel time of an event\nThe Safari browser has a significantly enhanced JavaScript performance which Apple claims is faster than Chrome and Firefox. A Top Sites view allows the user to quickly access the most viewed sites by default. However, the user can pin or remove websites from the view. The sidebar now allows the user to view their bookmarks, reading list and shared links. Safari can also auto-generate random passwords and remember them through iCloud Keychain. Removed functionality The Open Transport API", "-26.843872787751025" ], [ "the fact that on average Apple Inc. products were more expensive than other PC products.\n\nIn response to a query about the devotion of loyal Apple consumers, Jonathan Ive responded:\nWhat people are responding to is much bigger than the object. They are responding to something rare—a group of people who do more than simply make something work, they make the very best products they possibly can. It's a demonstration against thoughtlessness and carelessness. Headquarters Apple Inc.'s world corporate headquarters are located in the middle of Silicon Valley, at 1–6 Infinite Loop, Cupertino, California. This Apple campus has six buildings that total", "-26.833923570346087" ], [ "Apple's software development tools, and made its way into the compiled app through a modified framework. Despite Apple's review process, WeChat and other infected apps were approved and distributed through the App Store. Even though some sources claimed that the malware was capable of prompting the user for their account credentials, opening URLs and reading the device's clipboard, Apple responded that the malware was not capable of doing \"anything malicious\" or transmitting any personally identifiable information beyond \"apps and general system information\" and that it had no information that suggested that this had happened. Some commentators considered this to be", "-26.786429246218177" ], [ "though Apple has never referred to it as such, sometimes describing it—in the words of Steve Jobs—as \"the third kind of notebook.\" The entry level model had a MSRP of $999, costing significantly more than the average netbook, as much as three or four times more.\nIn 2011 tablet sales overtook netbooks for the first time, and in 2012 netbook sales fell by 25 percent, year-on-year. The sustained decline since 2010 had been most pronounced in the United States and in Western Europe, while Latin America was still showing some modest growth. In December 2011, Dell announced that it was exiting", "-26.785935454128776" ], [ "do many things, and integrate with many services – even though it was being built by a startup with limited funds and people. After Apple bought Siri, the giant company seemed to treat it as a backwater, restricting it to doing only a few, slowly increasing number of tasks, like telling you the weather, sports scores, movie and restaurant listings, and controlling the device's functions. Its unhappy founders have left Apple to build a new AI service called Viv. And, on too many occasions, Siri either gets things wrong, doesn't know the answer, or can't verbalize it. Instead, it shows", "-26.762273073429242" ], [ "to get the latest Safari update from Apple.\" Apple also released a new version of Apple Software Update that puts new software in its own section, though still selected for installation by default. By late 2008, Apple Software Update no longer selected new installation items in the new software section by default. Security updates for Snow Leopard and Windows platforms Software security firm Sophos detailed how Snow Leopard and Windows users were not supported by the Safari 6 release at the time, while there were over 121 vulnerabilities left unpatched on those platforms. Since then, Snow Leopard has had only", "-26.74261240029591" ], [ "user to disable social media \"like\" and \"share\" buttons. Maps Apple Maps had started to be rebuilt from the ground up by relying on first-party map data instead of using map data provided by third parties. This allows for more accurate directions and predictions on the fastest routes. The new maps were rolled out in sections and Apple expected to have the entire US completed by the end of 2019. As of April 2019, Arizona, California, Hawaii and New Mexico are the only states to have completely first-party map data. Rainbow flag emoji After a rainbow flag emoji with an", "-26.73767228712677" ], [ "Google On July 20, 2012, Sparrow and Google jointly announced that Sparrow had been purchased by Google and the company's employees would be added to their Gmail team. Due to this, they also announced that development of both of Sparrow's apps would be ended except for critical bug fixes.\nThe purchase and subsequent discontinuation prompted criticism from some tech sites, who were uncertain about the future of the apps. Sean Gallagher of Ars Technica wrote he was concerned for the app's future given Google's previous history of buying out and subsequently abandoning development on other startups such as reMail, Meebo and", "-26.707520226656925" ], [ "but was most impressed by the new multitasking features for the iPad, referring to Split Screen as a \"lovely little feature\". He did, however, criticize the low number of decent-looking articles in Apple News, writing that \"you'll notice a discrepancy in how some articles are handled -- most are just formatted text on a white background with the outlet's logo up top\" and also noted the limited number of locations in Apple Maps that, at launch, supported mass transit directions. Matt Swider of TechRadar wrote that Siri and Proactivity lists were \"robust\", and enjoyed that notifications were sorted chronologically rather", "-26.697354338306468" ], [ "as Apple's general control and lockdown of the platform itself. Particularly at issue is the ability for Apple to remotely disable or delete apps at will.\nSome in the tech community have expressed concern that the locked-down iOS represents a growing trend in Apple's approach to computing, particularly Apple's shift away from machines that hobbyists can \"tinker with\" and note the potential for such restrictions to stifle software innovation.\nFormer Facebook developer Joe Hewitt protested against Apple's control over its hardware as a \"horrible precedent\" but praised iOS's sandboxing of apps. Kernel The iOS kernel is the XNU kernel of Darwin. The", "-26.691460745510994" ], [ "for the Macintosh, and Microsoft's Internet Explorer would be the default web browser on Macintosh computers. Despite heckling from the audience, Jobs explained why the partnership was favorable to Apple:\nThe era of setting this up as a competition between Apple and Microsoft is over, as far as I'm concerned. This is about getting Apple healthy, and this is about Apple being able to make incredibly great contributions to the industry to get healthy and prosper again.\n— Steve Jobs, MacWorld Boston 1997 – Steve Jobs returns – Bill Gates appears on-screen, Mac History (6 August 1997), Christoph Dernbach\nJobs later gave keynote addresses", "-26.604969480715226" ], [ "(through 2013), Vincent Vizzaccaro (EVP – Marketing and Strategic Alliances, Net Applications, 2002–present) has stated that Microsoft and Apple are among the company's clients. The company has also admitted that their statistics are skewed. These admissions and the fact the company doesn't make their data sources or processing methods public, has led some to criticize the company, questioning their impartiality and the reliability of their statistics.", "-26.57575056051064" ], [ "more than 250,000 customers, and hundreds of independent developers offered software and peripherals; at least ten databases and ten word processors were available, while the PC had no databases and one word processor. Because of VisiCalc, businesses purchased 90% of Apple IIs. The company's customers gained a reputation for devotion and loyalty. BYTE in 1984 stated that\nThere are two kinds of people in the world: people who say Apple isn't just a company, it's a cause; and people who say Apple isn't a cause, it's just a company. Both groups are right. Nature has suspended the principle of noncontradiction where", "-26.521685055980925" ], [ "and TechCrunch. Additionally, Quartz reported in April 2014 that a \"sneaky new privacy change\" would have an effect on the majority of iOS users. The privacy change, an update to the Gmail iOS app that \"now supports sign-in across Google iOS apps, including Maps, Drive, YouTube and Chrome\", meant that Google would be able to identify users' actions across its different apps. Potential misuse In 2005 the Australian Nuclear Science and Technology Organization (ANSTO) complained about the potential for terrorists to use the satellite images in planning attacks, with specific reference to the Lucas Heights nuclear reactor; however, the Australian", "-26.501305280078668" ], [ "ITT 2020 Differences with the Apple II The most significant difference between the ITT 2020 and the Apple II is the Hi-res graphics resolution. ITT increased the horizontal resolution from the 280 pixels the Apple II used, to 360 pixels. The vertical resolution however, remained the same. This made many Apple II programs incompatible with this computer.\nThe higher resolution was a necessary consequence of the higher frequency of the PAL color subcarrier. In order to provide enough bits to the video shift register to generate the higher PAL subcarrier frequency, 9 bits per memory location were needed, rather than the", "-26.48281369707547" ], [ "port by adding 65,536 to the port number. This vulnerability was also found in Arora, iCab, OmniWeb, and Stainless. Although Apple fixed the glitch for desktop versions of Safari in March, the company left the glitch unfixed in mobile versions of the browser. Goatse Security claimed that a hacker could exploit the mobile Safari flaw in order to gain access and cause harm to the Apple iPad. AT&T/iPad email address leak In June 2010, Goatse Security uncovered a vulnerability within the AT&T website. AT&T was the only provider of 3G service for Apple's iPad in the United States at the", "-26.462404293968575" ], [ "the moment had not joined Apple) e-book sales having an increase of 41%. Two studies showed that the Publishers who moved to agency model sold over 10% fewer units at major retailers. In contrast, other publishers' sales increased 5.4% in the same period. In January 2011 Random House also moved to the agency model and raised the prices of its e-books, and then experienced a decline in its e-book sales. This allowed Random House to join the iBookstore. Apple's arguments Apple asserted that it is entitled to a verdict in its favor since the evidence does not \"tend to exclude\"", "-26.43870728602633" ], [ "less and less common. AppleTalk support was finally removed from the MacOS in Mac OS X v10.6 in 2009.\nHowever, the loss of AppleTalk did not reduce the desire for networking solutions that combined its ease-of-use with IP routing. Apple has led development of many such efforts, from the introduction of the AirPort router to the development of the Zero configuration networking system and their implementation of it, Bonjour. Addressing An AppleTalk address was a four-byte quantity. This consisted of a two-byte network number, a one-byte node number, and a one-byte socket number. Of these, only the network number required any", "-26.40039474715013" ], [ "Apple's App Store support page was updated to reflect that 52% of iOS devices were running iOS 11, a slower migration rate than for the release of iOS 10 the year prior, which saw 60% user adoption by October 2016. The number increased to 59% of devices by December 2017. Design inconsistencies and software bugs In September 2017, Jesus Diaz of Fast Company criticized design details in iOS 11 and Apple's built-in apps not adhering to Apple's user interface guidelines. Headers not being aligned properly between different apps, elements not being centered, and different colors and sizing caused Diaz to", "-26.37430764862802" ], [ "but the tradeoff is simply more vertical space to read a web page. The unusual aspect ratio was probably an easier decision for Google to make, because web pages comprise the entire operating system, but I wish every laptop offered a 3:2 screen. That won't happen, of course, which is only more fodder for my wanting a Pixel. Reception From its February 2013 launch, the Chromebook Pixel received a high degree of tech media attention, drawing immediate comparisons to the similarly priced Windows machines and the MacBook Air. Forbes magazine compared the Chromebook Pixel to similar priced MacBooks unfavourably. The", "-26.36696321898853" ], [ "and therefore lower information density, and combines press releases, news items, and photos. Its \"Apple Leadership\" overview of company executives was also refreshed, adding a simpler layout with a prominent header image and two-column text fields. 9to5Mac noted the design similarities to several of Apple's redesigned apps in iOS 10, particularly its Apple Music and News software.\nIn June 2017, Apple announced the HomePod, its smart speaker aimed to compete against Sonos Google Home and Amazon Echo. Towards the end of the year, TechCrunch reported that Apple was acquiring Shazam, a company specializing in music, TV, film and advertising recognition. The", "-26.36092531052418" ], [ "reduce the price, Google and Samsung also reduced the memory and screen resolution of the device. An advantage of using the ARM processor, however, was that the Chromebook didn't require a fan. Acer followed quickly after with the C7 Chromebook, priced even lower ($199), but containing an Intel Celeron processor. One notable way which Samsung reduced the cost of the C7 was to use a laptop hard disk rather than a solid state drive.\nIn April 2012, Google made the first update to Chrome OS's user interface since the operating system had launched, introducing a hardware-accelerated window manager called \"Aura\" along", "-26.347188358515268" ], [ "is done with the same hardware configuration.\" SPEC acknowledges that an apple-to-apples comparison cannot be made in cases such as the one done by Tom's Hardware, calling such studies \"invalid comparisons.\" However, the Tom's Hardware report conceded that the SPECviewperf tests \"suffered heavily from the lack of support for the OpenGL graphics library under Windows Vista\". For this reason the report recommended against replacing Windows XP with Vista until manufacturers made these drivers available.\nThe report also concluded in tests involving real world applications Vista performed considerably slower, noting \"We are disappointed that CPU-intensive applications such as video transcoding with XviD", "-26.3319523545797" ], [ "the future, and a lack of Wi-Fi network selection ability. He praised the screen-recording functionality, calling it \"super neat\". Bohn severely criticized the notifications view, writing that he has a \"very serious disagreement\" with Apple on how to manage it, elaborating that he prefers to use that screen as much as possible while stating that \"Apple's philosophy is that I'm trying way too hard\" to control speedy notifications. Bohn liked the new Files app, new drag-and-drop functionality on the home screen enabling users to drag multiple apps at once, and significantly praised multitasking on iPad. Writing that \"Multitasking on the", "-26.30396419862518" ], [ "the market wants\", indeed reported in November that \"Rather than risk investing time and money in programs that work only on the Apple IIGS, a number of software developers have simply upgraded old Apple II programs\", and that the \"most interesting program available specifically for the IIGS at this time is LearningWays' Explore-a-Story, which was released simultaneously for the good old 128K Apple IIe and IIc\". The magazine concluded, \"The moral is simple: Good hardware, even innovative hardware, won't give birth to good, new software overnight.\"\nNibble was more positive, calling the price \"fantastic\" for \"Steve Wozniak's dream machine\". It praised", "-26.301918587996624" ], [ "the technology of the company BroadMap. HopStop and Embark both specialized in mapping public transportation, WifiSlam specialized in interior maps, Locationary provided accurate company data for mapping services, and BroadMap managed, sorted, and analyzed map data.\nDuring WWDC in June 2013, Apple announced the new version of Apple Maps in iOS 7. This new version had a new look and icon. A number of new functions were also implemented, including full-screen mode, night mode, real-time traffic information, navigation for pedestrians, and the Frequent Locations feature. The latter feature, which can be switched on and off, was introduced to record the most", "-26.30063227005303" ], [ "images for the Apple News service. It has received criticism for being poorly behaved and not being fault tolerant; resulting in high loads on websites.\nThe Apple News version distributed with iOS 9 made it hard to differentiate traffic originating from within the app from traffic originating from other apps. Apple News version 2, introduced in iOS 10, began identifying itself using its own User-Agent string, making it possible to measure the reach of Apple News using web analytics solutions. Traffic analytics was previously only available to paying publisher partners through iAds.\nIn WWDC 2018, Apple announced that the News app would", "-26.279866660246626" ], [ "there is a multi-language spell-checker which recognises many regional accents of different languages.\niOS 6 features several new and/or updated apps, which includes Apple Maps and Passbook. Apple's built-in Maps app, which replaced the former Maps app powered by Google Maps, had been universally derided and lacked many features present in competing maps apps. It uses Apple's new vector-based engine that eliminates lag, making for smoother zooming. New to Maps is turn-by-turn navigation spoken directions, 3D views in some major cities and real-time traffic. iOS 6 is able to retrieve documents such as boarding passes, admission tickets, coupons and loyalty cards", "-26.258360721112695" ], [ "Maps, and Search into one overall program, and \"allows partners to better sell, service and innovate across the Google for Work and Education suite of products and platforms\". Reception In an August 2011 review, PC World's Tony Bradley wrote that \"the value of a rival platform such as Google Apps hinges on how compatible it is with Microsoft Office formatting conventions and file types\", praising Google for having \"gone to great lengths to improve fidelity with Microsoft Office, but it hasn't gone far enough\", criticizing \"many features\" for being reformatted, including \"tables of contents, footnotes, or inserted images\". Bradley praised", "-26.253032337641343" ], [ "nonfunctional Apple logo in the center of the menu bar, but the menu was restored in Mac OS X 10.0. The quick file access feature implemented in System 7 was removed, although a third-party utility, Unsanity's FruitMenu, restored the Apple menu to its classic functionality until it stopped working with the advent of OS 10.6 (Snow Leopard). \nThe Apple menu is now dedicated to managing features of the Macintosh computer, with commands to get system information, update software, launch the Mac App Store, open System Preferences, set Dock preferences, set the location (network configuration), view recent items (applications, documents and", "-26.227722129726317" ], [ "affect Google's profits: \"Google is going to pay a heavy price for its move, which is why it deserves praise for refusing to censor its service in China.\" However, at least as of March 23, 2010, \"The Great Firewall\" continues to censor search results from the Hong Kong portal, www.google.com.hk (as it does with the US portal, www.google.com) for controversial terms such as \"Falun gong\" and \"the June 4 incident\" (Tiananmen Square incident). Turkey Google has been involved in censorship of Google Maps satellite imagery countrywide affecting Android and iOS apps using .com, .tr, and .tld automatically. Desktop users can", "-26.21652649214957" ], [ "Apple IIe History Apple Computer planned to discontinue the Apple II series after the introduction of the Apple III in 1980; the company intended to clearly establish market segmentation by designing the Apple III to appeal to the business market, leaving the Apple II for home and education users. Management believed that \"once the Apple III was out, the Apple II would stop selling in six months\", cofounder Steve Wozniak later said.\nBy the time IBM released the rival IBM PC in 1981, the Apple II's technology was already four years old. In September 1981 InfoWorld reported—below the PC's announcement—that Apple", "-26.212608855799772" ], [ "person who could answer most customer support questions about the computer, the company offered Apple I owners discounts and trade-ins for Apple IIs to persuade them to return their computers. These recovered boards were then destroyed by Apple, contributing to their rarity today. Serial numbers Both Steve Jobs and Steve Wozniak have stated that Apple did not assign serial numbers to the Apple l. Several boards have been found with numbered stickers affixed to them, which appear to be inspection stickers from the PCB manufacturer/assembler. A batch of boards is known to have numbers hand-written in black permanent marker on", "-26.211266279395204" ], [ "in the Apple Proxy Statement for 1996.\nAmelio cited several problems at Apple including a shortage of cash and liquidity, low-quality products, lack of a viable operating system strategy, undisciplined corporate culture, and fragmentation in trying to do too much and in too many directions. To address these problems Amelio cut costs, reduced Apple's work force by one third, discontinued the Copland operating system project, and oversaw the development of Mac OS 8.\nTo replace Copland and fulfill the need for a next generation operating system Amelio started negotiations to buy BeOS from Be Inc. but negotiations stalled when Be CEO Jean-Louis", "-26.19997143978253" ], [ "AppleWin Supported disk images AppleWin supports ProDOS and DOS 3.3 disk image formats as well as copy-protected programs copied with \"nibble copiers\" to a disk image.\nSpecifically, AppleWin recognizes .BIN, .DO, .DSK, .NIB, .PO and .WOZ filename extensions as Apple II disk image files along with reading disk images from compressed (.zip / .gzip) files. Disk images may also be optionally \"write protected\" if they are mounted as \"Read Only.\"", "-26.181891425541835" ], [ "browse, reporting our every stop and action to marketing firms that, in turn, collect an astonishingly complete profile of online behavior,\" said Leibowitz.\nUnder Leibowitz, the Commission settled in August 2010 with Intel to restore competition and innovation that was lost as a result of Intel's alleged anticompetitive actions. In May 2010, the FTC closed its high-profile investigation of Google's proposed acquisition of AdMob, after a long investigation, concluding that it was unlikely to harm competition in the emerging mobile advertising market, citing Apple's move to launch a competing mobile ad network.\nAs a Commissioner, Leibowitz was also involved in various Internet", "-26.174773713064496" ], [ "\"nightmare\" for Apple's software engineers and described it as a significant lapse in Apple's ability to protect its more than 1 billion devices. ZDNet's Adrian Kingsley-Hughes wrote that \"it's hard to not come away from the last week with the feeling that Apple is slipping\". Kingsley-Hughes also concluded his piece by referencing an earlier article, in which he wrote that \"As much as I don't want to bring up the tired old 'Apple wouldn't have done this under Steve Jobs's watch' trope, a lot of what's happening at Apple lately is different from what they came to expect under Jobs.", "-26.164528958004666" ], [ "Reception Compute!'s reviewer wrote in 1980 \"I have looked at other text editors for the Apple, some of which were overloaded with features. Given the hardware limitations of the Apple II, I feel that Apple Writer is a very useful document creation tool\", and stated that he wrote the review with Apple Writer. II Computing listed it third on the magazine's list of top Apple II software as of late 1985, based on sales and market-share data.", "-26.13911569758784" ], [ "an incorrect Wall Street Journal that said I was leaving Apple because I didn't like things there. Actually, I had told the Wall Street Journal writer that I wasn't leaving Apple because of things that I didn't like and that I wasn't even leaving, keeping my small salary forever as a loyal employee. I just wanted a small startup experience and a chance to design a smaller product again, a universal remote control.\" In May 2015, Wozniak once again commented on the film, stating that Pirates of Silicon Valley is an example of a good Hollywood dramatization of himself,", "-26.13386688969331" ], [ "you a web search result, even when you're not in a position to read it.\"\nIn October 2016, Bloomberg reported that Apple had plans to unify the teams behind its various cloud-based services, including a single campus and reorganized cloud computing resources aimed at improving the processing of Siri's queries, although another report from The Verge, in June 2017, once again called Siri's voice recognition \"bad.\"\nIn June 2017, The Wall Street Journal published an extensive report on the lack of innovation with Siri following competitors' advancement in the field of voice assistants. Noting that Apple workers' anxiety levels \"went up a", "-26.12649346177932" ], [ "in advertising, graphic design, prepress, and printing were Apple computers. 64% of internet websites were created on a Macintosh. Apple was the largest education company in the world. Apple sold 60% of all computers in education. They sold over $2 billion in annual revenues. Steve said Apple's core assets were the Apple brand and Mac OS that had yet to be fully exploited. He also said Mac OS was still the best thing in the world and that Apple is about this operating system. It had over 20 million active users, thousands of developers, and was a $1.5 billion software", "-26.108304871813743" ], [ "reviewer noted the high price tag of the Chromebook Pixel came with distinct limitations caused by Chrome OS.\nA review on CNET noted the high technical specs of the Chromebook Pixel. However the review also noted, \"Web-based Chrome OS requires you to be online to do most tasks; Web apps can't yet compare to most Windows or Mac software, especially for media-centric activities like video.\" Similarly, PC Magazine's review said that \"the Chromebook Pixel is essentially a thin client notebook with a brilliant screen.\"\nEngadget's review was impressed with the build quality and attention to detail, especially for Google's first attempt at", "-26.10432307544943" ], [ "the 10,000 software packages available for the Apple II series.) The new ROM firmware allowed Applesoft BASIC to recognize lowercase characters and work better with an 80-column display, and fixed several bugs from the IIe ROM. In terms of video, the text display added 32 unique character symbols called \"MouseText\" which, when placed side by side, could display simple icons, windows and menus to create a graphical user interface completely out of text, similar in concept to IBM code page 437 or PETSCII's box-drawing characters. A year later, the Apple IIe would benefit from these improvements in the form of", "-26.0572399062803" ], [ "the Netscape 2.0 browser, or anything comparable to Java and VRML support. The rendering of text on a TV screen makes reading difficult, since at the time the composite video output was the more commonly available connection to television sets. The US$599 price was too high, especially during late 1996 when the Bandai Pippin was originally released. Unfulfilled roadmap Apple intended to grow the Pippin platform alongside the rest of the Macintosh line. In an Apple developer publication, Apple's CEO Gil Amelio announced the Pippin 1997 Reference Platform, and suggested that the platform would include the latest Macintosh technologies, including", "-26.053459437796846" ], [ "\"Apple’s retail stores have taken traffic, control and profits away from Verizon as well as electronics retailers, such as Best Buy, that once looked at wireless phones as a lucrative profit source\". CNET has reported that the \"Apple retail experience hurts Best Buy\" and noted \"Buy a MacBook at the Apple Store and it's hard to go back to the Best Buy Windows laptop buying experience\". The publication also wrote that \"Apple salespeople are generally more knowledgeable, the products themselves are generally higher quality, and the stores are more appealing, aesthetically and practically.\"\nIn October 2009, reports surfaced that Steve Jobs", "-26.046090426993032" ], [ "Android operating system.\nIn October 2009, Google replaced Tele Atlas as their primary supplier of geospatial data in the US version of Maps and used their own data. 2011–2015 On April 19, 2011, Map Maker was added to the American version of Google Maps, allowing any viewer to edit and add changes to Google Maps. This provides Google with local map updates almost in real time instead of waiting for digital map data companies to release more infrequent updates.\nOn January 31, 2012, Google, due to offering its Maps for free, was found guilty of abusing the dominant position of its Google", "-26.012960831343662" ] ]

[ "**Source - [This]( URL_0 ) #24 Hour Mark > The consequences of sleep deprivation at 24 hours is comparable to the cognitive impairment of someone with a blood-alcohol content of 0.10 percent, according to a 2010 study in the International Journal of Occupational Medicine and Environmental Health. #36 Hours > Now your health begins to be at risk. High levels of inflammatory markers are in the bloodstream, said Cralle, which can eventually lead to cardiovascular disease and high blood pressure. Additionally, hormones are affected — your emotions can be all over the place. #48 Hours > After two days of no sleep the body begins compensating by shutting down for microsleeps, episodes that last from half a second to half a minute and are usually followed by a period of disorientation. “The person experiencing a microsleep falls asleep regardless of the activity they are engaged in,” she said. Microsleeps are similar to blackouts, and a person experiencing them is not consciously aware that they're occurring. #72 Hours > Expect significant deficits in concentration, motivation, perception, and other higher mental processes after many sleepless hours, Cralle said. “Even simple conversations can be a chore,” noted Kelley. This is when the mind is ripe for hallucinations. Kelley recalled a time he was on guard duty and repeatedly saw someone standing with a rifle in the woods, ready to sneak into camp. Upon closer inspection, he determined he was actually looking at a branch and shadows. EDIT: Text added for the lazy :)", "I started writing about my experience staying up for 90ish hours, but I lost focus on what was important here, which is probably how it FELT... scroll down to the next marker if you don't care about why or how I did it. = Not really an explanation, but, a first-hand story of someone who HAS stayed up for a stupid amount of time: When I was 16 years old, I stayed up for 90 hours straight playing a mix of Quake 2 and Baldur's Gate. I wanted to stay up for 100 hours, straight. This was 13 years ago so I don't recall everything about it anymore. I got up at around 2pm (this was during summer vacation) and I was in weird sleep schedule mode already from staying up until 5-6AM playing games online, and then crashing and getting up in the middle of the afternoon... As long as I had finished school with good grades, nobody gave a rats ass about what I did on my vacation time. *Specially* if it was inside the apartment, where in theory is \"safe\". I'd stayed up for an entire day before (24 hours) and it didn't feel like too much of a hassle... it wasn't unusual for me to do that during vacation, actually... I'd get up progressively later into the day, until I found myself sleeping around noon, waking up at around 8-9pm, and then just staying up until next day's 8-9pm and get my sleep cycle back on track. 30ish hours weren't too terrible either. I'd pulled that off before (wake up around 1-2pm, stay up until 8-9pm of the next day, sleep and be back on cycle). I thought I had experience with this stuff, and I wanted to see how far I could push it. That's where the 100 hours came from. Why? Because I was young and stupid and I just wanted to be able to say I did it. ...so where was I? Right, I woke up at around 2pm, and this is when I started counting, and I was sure I was going to do it. Just lounged around the house for the most part. Internet connection wasn't that great during the day because the lines in my neighborhood were prone to being overloaded during the day while everyone was awake, but it played very smoothly during the night after everyone went to sleep. It was playable during the day, it just wasn't the *OMG* experience it was at night. I remember the afternoons and nights being the easiest part of staying awake. Because there was so much to do. There was always stuff around the house, friends to talk to, things to keep my mind busy and active... and I found that, that was the secret to staying up. Staying mentally active. The most difficult times honestly were from around 6AM to 10AM, if that makes sense. Because it was just SO DEAD... nobody online to play with on my usual servers... servers in other timezones weren't an option because they were really bad, connection wise. My friends were all asleep and they wouldn't be awake for hours. No movement going around my house either. It made sense to me why this is the hour I usually peaced out and slept. So that slice of the day... from 6AM to 10AM... ish, that was the real bitch. But I got the first day done, and now my apartment was bristling with family going around, people coming... and what am I even talking about You guys don't care about what I did to stay up. You guys care about what I felt. Sorry for losing focus. = I remember distinctly that the first day was OK. Other than that feeling of being slightly tired, there's nothing that I can really remember about it. You know that feeling behind the back of your eyes. The second day, that feeling was constant, and much higher in intensity. The less active I was, the more it hit me. I found myself having to will through the dead hours of the morning. I never left my computer chair because I was sure I would fall asleep if I decided to lay on my bed and read something. So I just browsed the internet... random things... anything. The 48-72 period is when things started getting interesting. I was permanently tired. I felt physically tired, even though I had done nothing to warrant feeling physically drained... I didn't DO anything physically involving in all of this. It was all TV and videogames. But I felt super tired.. Like I'd just finished playing soccer for an entire afternoon with my friends. My eyelids felt like they hung from about a third down of where they normally would... my body wanted to shut my eyes and just make me sleep. I only stayed up during the dead hours of the morning for this period by PACING around the apartment. I just walked from the kitchen to the living room... to the balcony... back to my room... I did this until people started getting up. Then I went back to my room, I didn't want people asking questions about how long I'd been up for. the 72-90 period is when things got downright scary. I now had a headache. Persistant. Throbbing. It didn't start out too terribly and I didn't care much about it at first. But it got progressively worse over a short amount of time. I took some meds and thought I would be alright. I took a tylenol, and I remember it being one of those extra strenght tablets, and I went straight into the bathroom for a scalding hot shower. That's always been my 'miracle cure' for a headache... take meds + stupid hot water on my head til I don't feel anything... by the time the effect from the shower is gone, the meds have kicked in... and i'm fine. It did jack shit. Which caused me to take ANOTHER extra strength pill. (Looking back... I'm sure my liver is not happy with me to this day for this) My eyes hurt. My head felt like it was going to explode. My body felt like it had lead hanging off every limb. Everything felt heavy, everything was hard to do. Then it was around 5 AM. My computer needed a reebot. It'd been asking for one for longer than I could remember... and I decided... why not. It took forever to do this, it would be a way to kill time. Things were slowing down considerably by now online anyway. So I started the reboot process, it would take at least 5 mins for this thing to be fully back up and responsive. I laid down on my bed and stared at the ceiling while I watched the monitor change the intensity of light and color, from the corner of my eyes. Then I looked to my left, where my alarm clock was: 5:30 AM. I stared back at the ceiling and kept paying attention to the monitor lights coming from the corner of my eyes. I remember thinking \"It's still doing it?\" So I looked back at the clock to see how long it'd been 5:15 PM. **WHAT. THE. FUCK** I jumped up from the bed, because there this didn't make any fucking sense. I had just looked at the fucking thing, it was 5:30 AM, and 30-45 seconds later it was saying 5 something **PM** ?? The alarm must've been malfunctioning and I told myself \"just go check the one in the kitchen\" But then it hit me. The light from outside. Bright as day. Because... It was, you know, the middle of the day. Half a day. 12 hours. And I hadn't even FELT it. I didn't even think I lost consciousness because all my thoughts were still in order. I clearly remembered my thought train. I was waiting on the computer to boot back up. I was annoyed it was taking too long, so I went to check the clock again and somehow 12 hours had passed. But the sun was up. Everyone was up and saying hey to me and asking if I'd slept well... Come to think of it, my bedroom door was closed and I had to open it to get out, and I had left it open because I was always going back and forth from and to the kitchen for a snack, or a drink... I have no recollection of those hours. And as soon as the adrenaline lowered from the \"WTF!!!!\" feeling, I felt my body go heavy again, just not quite as bad... the headache was faint, but still there... I'd fallen asleep. I fell short of the goal, so I might as well just go back to sleep. So I did. My mother came and woke me worried if I was alright. I looked at the clock at it said 8 something PM. I remember being pissed at her because she'd just seen me when I came out of my room at 6pm, so wtf was her problem. \"THAT WAS YESTERDAY\" ... I'd slept for over a day. Now, at age 29, I can't even make it 24 hours without feeling like I want to die and be released from the nightmare. I read the top comment here, and people listing hallucinating. I never saw anything that wasn't really there. I don't think I hallucinated at all. But I had the worst headache of my life. And looking back on it, I don't even want to know what that headache meant, but there's no way it was a good sign.", "I was once awake for about 40 hours and I can't remember ANYTHING from that time except the fact that I was awake for about 40 hours. Never again.", "Well I've been up for about 30 hours now and got about 7 left then I go to work for 10 hours. In the military operating with almost no sleep is normal and with training and mental discipline a lot of side effects can be prevented. Not saying It doesn't suck but I can function near normal level without sleep for a while. The worst times are 2 am to 6 am because nothing is going on and the sun isn't out yet. When the sun comes up l will feel refreshed and ready to go.", "Your body uses the rest period in many ways. During the day the brain swells slightly making it more difficult to get rid of waste products which makes your brain less effective. Sleeping reduces activity. Allows the swelling to subside and clears out the waste products that have built up. Other parts of your body have similar issues. You keep using them, some effect prevents the removal of waste products, and impairment increases until you rest.", "If you want to see effects of sleep deprivation, there is a Twitch streamer that goes by the name koibu0 who frequently does no sleep marathons. IIRC his previous record was around 120 hrs. He's starting an attempt at 144 hours this week.", "Anecdote: I've had several stints of 3+ days worth of sleep deprivation. None of them were particularly rewarding. Some people claim you will get headaches. I didn't. I actually didn't experience any deterioration of my normal form aside from the cognitive impairment and the intense feeling of fatigue. Before you reach 24h, you'll battle an extreme sleepiness. If you overcome this, you will most likely feel renewed. I don't know why that is, but I'd wager it is melatonin-related. **24h-48h:** you will start feeling *something*. A sort of distant tiredness. You don't feel the kind of tired that you usually do, but you do know that something isn't right. At the end of this period, you'll approach another steep wall of sleepiness, but it will be easier to conquer than the last one. **48h-72h:** if you made it this far, you're going to be a lot more tired than in the previous period. Literally everything feels like an almost insurmountable chore -- even mental tasks. And the tasks that you do get to, you're going to do them so much slower than usual. If it's a puzzle of some kind, or a problem that needs a clever solution, chances are you're not going to be able to solve it. It feels like your brain is so stuck that you don't even properly comprehend the question. On the off-chance that you get through it, you'll have spent probably 10 times as long as it normally would have taken you, maybe more. Someone else mentioned microsleeps, but I can't attest to that. I have no memory of any microsleeps... **72h-96h:** if you haven't already had hallucinations, you're gonna start having them here, almost guaranteed. The tiredness isn't so bad anymore. If you think about it, you will feel like you could probably go like this for a couple of more days. It's not so hard anymore. The permanent fatigue you've been feeling is still there, but it's kind of muted compared to your perception of it earlier. You don't feel it as a tiredness, it's sort of become a feature of reality that is being contrasted to how reality used to be. It's detached from you, in a way. **96h+:** at this point, hallucinations were really amping up for me here. Holy tripping balls. The tiredness will probably not bother you anymore, even though you can clearly feel the cognitive tax it has on you. But at the same time, you get a strange feeling that you're doing okay all things taken into account. You might get an odd notion that you can conquer the need to sleep *at all*. But that changes when you slowly become aware of the fact that you can't tell hallucination from reality anymore. You're so tired that your consciousness is shutting down so frequently that, even as you're standing there, you can't explain why you're there or where you just were. You ask people questions about a conversation you had with them not 10 minutes ago, only to learn that you haven't actually spoken to them all day ... meaning that the 30 minute conversation you remember was a hallucination from start to end. But you don't remember \"waking up\" from the hallucination, begging the questions: when did it start? And when did it end? Are you just now hallucinating about having a hallucination? You have no way of knowing, because you just realized that the previous hallucination that you were just now made aware of bore no unnatural markings; nothing strange happened, nothing to separate it from how you would have expected such a situation to go down in real life. When I reached this point, I got too scared to go on. Hallucinating shadows in windows and in the cracks of doors is one thing, but not being able to know whether series of events that span larger periods of time are real or not was too much for me. I don't know if they're even called hallucinations at this point. It felt like an involuntary participation in Inception, except I had no control over when I was inside a dreamworld and when I was returned to reality. The scariest part was that these kinds of hallucinations blended together so seamlessly. I would go from what felt like hour-long bouts of hallucinating life-spanning events, like walking places and seeing things and talking to people, into the next event, to \"waking up\" and realizing that I'd made it all up. But how then did I get from where I was to where I am now? Who knows what I actualy did during the period of time that my brain wrongly remembers as reality? The ironic thing is that it took me 2 hours to fall asleep. I wasn't tired or sleepy at all when I went to bed, but I had that really eerie stomach-sense that something was pretty far off mark and had the wisdom to force myself to staying in bed. I don't know what would have happened if I'd done another day, and I don't think I want to know either.", "I stayed up for 98 hours once during finals week (I don't recommend it) the biggest things I noticed were the physical impairment and the digestive issues. it was like I was super drunk:lack of motor skills, difficulty walking straight, slurring words. At 30 hours I found it difficult to eat, by 48 hours I had stopped eating all together (I believe it has something to do with how your body processes sugar). Also when walking it felt like I was floating, almost surreal because I was so out of it.", "Once stayed awake for 72 hours playing Morrowind. Saw my lamp float across my room. Don't want to experience that again.", "Ok, so what happens when you take Modafinil and then stay awake for 24 hours? I know someone who does that.", "Are you one of the Fallout 4 players?", "It's different for everyone. Insomnia is the bane of my existence, so I've gone three or four nights without sleep and been able to function fine, probably because I'm used to it. My friends who sleep well go without sleep for one night and they're a disaster waiting to happen.", "Your serotonin, good feeling begin to release less often, Your circadian rhythm is out the window. You get into a depression mode (especially when you work at night) (due to lack of communications with others, you feel lost of touch). Its not fun. You sabotage your relationship, sleep deprivations will make you hallucinate, go crazy, do weird shit, say weird shit. You cannot see everything clearly, you cannot think straight, but since im used to it, my career does not affect me much. I sleep in my office, I make sure I communicate with my boss and HR the term of my employment. My 90 days review, yearl review, and a raise, all exceeding expectations. I make sure I get my job done right, they make sure I get my sleep.", "Anybody get annoyed when people brag about how little sleep they get? I mean, we've all probably done it in University/College, and the first time it can be sort of fun. I got giddy when I stayed up too long. But there are people who just regularly don't sleep enough because they're too busy or can't be bothered, then they act like it's some sort of accomplishment. \"I only sleep 4 hours a night! Too much to do!\" Congratulations, you have no time management and don't care about your health. (I know some people legitimately need less sleep than others. I think they don't tend to brag about not getting sleep, they'll just tell you they don't need as much sleep. But there are people who are like \"I got up at 5am for work and then partied all night and got up at 4 am to work out. I just have too much in my schedule to bother with sleep.\")", "Paramedic. Longest I made it was over 72 hours because I worked a 72 hour shift. Most medics work 24 hours shifts some pickup over time and work 48 hours shifts pretty much on the regular. You usually get in naps. But this time it just worked out that I didn't get a second of sleep. By the end I thought I was going to die. My body couldn't control its temperature. I felt feverish. Hot flashes, then freezing. Upset stomach. Difficulty focusing. Blurry vision. Headache of course. There was just a constant humming in my ears or high pitched noises. I wanted to sleep so bad. I love sleep. It's my favorite. I was so cranky. Never again. It was hell. I was supposed to take a test in a class after the shift was over and I went to my car and just went to sleep instead.", "Can I die after 48 hours of no sleep?", "I'll try to keep it ELI5. There's been a lot of study within the last 10-15 years regarding sleep deprivation. Many studies examine 30+ hours, with some going beyond the 50-hour mark. Some findings - - there are some deprivation-resilient participants. Some people can just cope with sleep deprivation better. Let's just say they're cut from a different cloth. Nothing bad, just resist the negative effects longer. - Most studies are done in a clinical setting. Field testing is rare, since you can't control for external variables (I assume). - Most studies confirm the hypothesis that global (overall) brain activity and functioning is decreases with sleep deprivation (versus baseline) - Working memory filtering is decreased, although overall working memory shows no change. - Dopamine increases after 24 hours, which increases wakefulness and fights the drive to sleep. Ever been so tired that you wake up again, and get a second wind? Dopamine, bitches. - Nerve injury increases after 24-hour deprivation due to lower melatonin levels. I can continue, but I'll tl;dr - No sleep is bad. We were made to balance wake and sleep. Our body resets and restores when we sleep. For more info, you can read the \"Journal of Sleep and Sleep Disorders Research\" as these were pulled from this source.", "Anybody else start to feel slightly euphoric and horny after staying up for 24-36 hours?", "3rd shifter here i wouldn't be able to have a regular sleep schedule without melatonin. thank you based melatonin", "For me, after 24 hours without sleep I am hyper productive and feel very aware/alert/anxious. After 48 hours I get bad eye strain, digestive problems, continuous headache, emotional. After 72 hours I become very very introverted and can't handle much social interaction like conversations and major depression sets in. After 96 hours photos and images start to move around and my surroundings glitch like a video game, memory severely impaired. I can't remember what it was like from 96 hours to 120 hours. I can say though, at the end of all of this I was taken into a psychiatric hospital.", "I was on a 30+- hours sleep deprivation and i was just so tired that i hallucinated for a moment. I was looking at a picture of someone laughing but i was actually seeing him move his mouth, wich is impossible. No good.", "I have narcolepsy and this has been likened to a normal person being deprived of sleep for 48-72 hours. I have been falling asleep randomly for a long time. It's embarrassing and dangerous!", "Your nervous system transmits messages using chemicals called neurotransmitters. The longer you're awake, some of them aren't replenished as quickly as they're used. Also, your neurons become less sensitive if they don't get a break, like your ears when you go to a rock concert. Between these two effects your nervous system functions less well the longer you're awake. Your gut is sensitive to one of those neurotransmitters, serotonin. Your body pumps out extra to regulate your tired nerves, upsetting your gut.", "I once stayed up for about 48 hours was I was 16. I kept on hearing my parents calling me for dinner and when I asked them where dinner was they had no clue. I also thought i saw something in my room on several occasions. It was kinda horrible", "Was awake for over 72 hours trying to win a car. The hallucinations kicked in around 48-50 hours and I saw everything from the parking lot becoming a field, then a jungle, to toward the end of it I thought I was Goku and was trying to destroy the other guy left with a kamahmaha. I slept for 13 straight hours after that.", "In my case, what happens is that my brain literally shuts down. I fall asleep like a kitten. Just can't stay awake any longer. I've tried. Can't do it.", "Is it safe to say that people who claim to not have slept for a week are full of shit?", "I experience similar stuff every time I pull an all nighter as well. I once haven't slept for the whole week (Sunday-Sunday) and ended up in a hospital. Doctors said it was serious. I was sick then as well and took medicines that helped but their said effect were symptoms of insomnia so I could barely sleep. After 3 days I was SO tired I wanted to only lie in my bed forever, but it was like my brain already got used to being awake and shut down 'sleep' mode. No matter how hard I'd try I couldn't fall asleep. Now, I was working at the time on a project and I was running out of time so at first having 'more time' to work seemed great, it was only after first night that I realized that 'feeling like you don't need sleep' meant only sleep itself, not energy and rest that came with it. I stopped taking my medicines after 4 days of non-sleeping yet I still couldn't fall asleep. The following weekend ment a huge event 6h away by a bus - I always fall asleep on buses, not this time tho. I had what some would call hallucinations and it felt like I was watching the whole world in slow motion from behind a soundproof glass. It felt like a movie and I was freaked out. I also lost my voice completely but I'm not sure if tgat's not due to my medicines for a sore throat (even if it never happened before). When I got back on Sunday I called for my mum to pick me up as I wasn't sure if I will be able to make home on my own - I passsed out as soon as I stood up from a bus' chair after few hours of journey and woke up in hospital. Now, my lack of sleep was partially due to the medicines I was taking but I wonder what's up with me not being able to fall asleep even if I was tired as hell. It happenes to me every time since that accident when I pull an all nighter more than two nights in a row (I try to be responsible and not do that but shit happens). Any thoughts? Does it just work like that?", "I actually have something relevant to post! About a year ago, I was hospitalized for psychiatric issues and placed in a psych ward for about a week and a half. The person who admitted me suspected that I was suffering from schizophrenia/schizoaffective (turned out to be bipolar), and so I was roomed with someone who had full blown schizophrenia... It's very VERY hard to sleep when the person next to you a. isn't asleep either and b. is talking about his love for Jesus all night in an angry voice. Lo and behold, I did not achieve complete sleep for a WEEEEK. The effects were very weird, and it's difficult to describe it in terms of bad or good (at least from my specific experience). At first, I was exhausted, had difficulty staying awake, and felt a pretty heavy body load. Eating was hard, and I was all around irritable and unpleasant. However, the longer I was deprived of sleep, the trippier things got. I began to get very minor hallucinations (texture breathing, vivid lights/colors, misinterpreting things out of the corner of my eye, etc), and I felt what I can only describe as manic. My speech was rapid and awkward, I actually felt pretty good, and, paradoxically, I was having massive issues going to sleep. I've taken hallucinogens before, and it was like being on a small dose of a dissociative mixed with Ritalin. Noooot fun. Just an inability to fully join reality with a massively uncomfortable hint of excess energy. Subjective effects aside, I was getting my vitals taken everyday by the nurses there, and my blood pressure and heart rate were incredibly high; I was getting heart flutters every half hour or so. The only medicine that was able to finally sedate me was Doxepin, a tricyclic antidepressant, and it is an insane difference going from a week of no sleep to normality. It's like going to bed with psychosis and waking up just fine. So, yeah, I guess this isn't really a medical explanation, but hopefully this anecdote will help shed some light on your curiosity! tl;dr Didn't sleep for a week (thanks schizophrenia), felt crappy, then crazy, and finally crashed into the blissful embrace of sleep", "For a few weeks when I turned 19 I would be out partying everyday during the summer. I had read somewhere of taking 6 power naps a day , 20 minutes each session, and you would be perfectly fine. The first couple days were rough, I would hear things and started seeing things that weren't there. I got use to it and after a couple of weeks I shut down. I went for a \"power nap\" around 4 pm woke up 18 hours later with a fever of 104+ and a rash all over my body. I was hospitalized for a week with the fever and the doctors had no clue what it was, never told them what i had been doing. I had a fever of 102 when I was sent home and that lasted another couple of days.", "I stayed up for just under 50 hours after a day/evening of doing copious amounts of MDMA and cocaine with some friends. It was strange because I felt exhausted and wanted to go to sleep, but I physically couldn't fall asleep. The effects of the drugs had long since worn off, but I still couldn't keep my eyes closed. It was miserable. Eventually, I climbed into bed and just forced myself to stay there until I fell asleep. I don't remember passing out, but I woke up a good 12 hours later. I was having mild visual/audio hallucinations and kept trailing off mid sentence and completely forgetting what I was saying to someone. I can tell you that sleep deprivation is a hell of a drug in itself.", "Why could I stay up for 36-40 hours no problem at a Teen but now fuck that. I found out the hard way this past summer. Im 25 now. figured Ive done it before I can do it again im still young. I stayed up all night to drop off my sister at the airport at 5am. then got a ride to work. around 9am I had been up for 29 hours and my body started to shut down. Could not even look at the computer. Work was really cool about it and let me sleep in the car for a hour or so.", "When I was 14 or 15 I managed to clock in almost 7 days of no sleep, just up constantly playing video games and drinking energy drinks. Started to hallucinate a lot, mostly when it was dark though. I also got *very* sick after this little experiment and ended up sleeping for almost 16 hours. Good Times.", "While microsleeps usually start to happen at 48 hours into the deprivatory period (something which narcoleptics experience on a daily basis) - ive heard that the effects of deprivation on the body can vary greatly from person to person, especially when using drugs for narcoleptic or other sleep related diseases like [Modafinil]( URL_0 )", "On the spiritual side, its said when you stay up more than 24 hours, you become more prone to experience the \"other world\" or spirits. I think this is tied to the fact that when you're that exhausted, your mind isn't functioning right which can lead to voices or even hallucinations", "Are any of these symptoms seen in people who aren't staying up for multiple days at a time, but rather consistently not getting enough sleep? For example, sleeping 3 or 4 hours a night for a week or two?", "Reading this thread just reminded me of fatal familial insomnia, the condition where you literally cannot fall asleep until you die. What a scary way to go out...", "You run out of potato chips, coke and your DM usually sends 100 Kobolds after you in a five foot wide dungeon hallway.", "I recently stayed awake for roughly 95 hours none of this happened to me. Had one hell of weekend tho.", "Everyone's talking about hallucinating after 72 hours but I start seeing shadow-people around hour 30", "In the Army we would train for this, not that anybody can really be trained to operate well on no sleep. It was more about discovering your own personal limit and also seeing what your platoon-mates looked like when they were pushed past theirs, so you can recognize the symptoms. After two weeks of getting little to no sleep I can remember our platoon and another platoon were set up in kind of an 'L' shape with my platoon in trucks in the woods and the other platoon dismounted on a ridge line off to the left. I was completely convinced that we were facing the wrong way and needed to turn 90 degrees to the left which would have had us orientated right on our sister platoon. The night after that they had us in place before it even got dark because they didn't want us wrecking the trucks, and the orders were wait for this attack that never ended up happening. We had three guys in my truck counting me and we were supposed to have 2 up one down for an hour at a time. It was one up two down for as long as you could make it before we made it through half the night. In the end I can remember trying to wake my truck commander a sgt with over 10 years in. It was his turn to be up and I was sitting on a gunners strap right over him trying to wake him and it was like I couldn't him past whatever dream he was in. I would talk to him and without opening his eyes he would start berating me for not following his ground guide instructions, and I would just stop talking to him and he would be back asleep, and I'd talk to him and he'd be somewhere else that time. After 15 min of that I was starting to lose my shit, my anger giving me a burst of energy. It was darker than dark outside, but I knew where the trucks were on either side of me. If I could just make it about 150 feet I would be to the next position and I would find someone awake. I made it less than ten feet before a force observer guy stopped me, these are people who stand around and watch while you fake fight and tell you who got shot where and stuff like that so you can practice putting on bandages and cas evac. He was like, where ya going? I'm like, to see my platoon sgt. he's like, why? Im like, dont worry about it (didnt want to get my truck in trouble for being asleep) Then my fucking XO walks up and pretty much tells me to go back to the truck, and either wake the next guy or stay up as long as I can those were the choices, but not to be walking around because A) I was abandoning everyone on my truck while being completely incapacitated and B) I was actually going the wrong direction by 90 degrees.(again) After that I just remember being too pissed off to think straight and talking all kinds of angry shit to the sleeping forms of my truck-mates and being completely decided to hit the first person who answered my insults even if it was my sgt. I know at some point I said fuck it and decided to go to sleep, but being too mad to just fall asleep by drifting off the same way I had been fighting for a week, and then worrying to the point of almost panic that I had given myself insomnia and maybe I would never sleep again. Then I am waking up with my helmet resting on the turret ass still on the gunners strap. Sun is way up and everyone is either asleep or looking around like they had just been roofied. A few officers who had been there to watch what happened were just like eat or go back to sleep. That was when I realised the whole point of the training had been the sleep deprivation. I remember feeling very confused about whether I had succeeded or failed. I got out of my truck and threw my poncho liner over some tall grass where the sun was shining down through the trees and just plopped down and got the best sleep I've ever had. PS: Over a decade and less than one war later when I can't sleep I play though this memory in my head and by the time I get to the end part I almost always have fallen asleep. Edit: PPS: Also would like to point out that it really wasn't until the last three days we went to almost 0 sleep, but the weeks leading up to it was like a slow gradient up to that point where you're slowly getting less sleep and more stuff to do so by the time to no sleep stuff is happening you were already at the brink. I always tell people to picture a wet t-shirt each time you ring it out a little less water comes out but you can always squeeze out just one more drop. Also to anyone out there suffering from insomnia it's a real problem than many times needs a real solution, and the depression it can quickly bring into your life can be a huge barrier to seeking help or making positive changes. I have had myself convinced that it was all a lifestyle I was choosing and therefore in control of. Not trying to be preachy bu not being able to admit you're fucked up is a dangerous game.", "Finally something I can help with! This isn't a scientific explanation or anything but it's a real life experience I had when I was 15 years old. This might sound weird but it's the complete truth and I remember it like it was yesterday. I was an avid 15 year old video game player who played video games almost non stop. I decided one day to just have an all nighter and I played video games until like 3 in the afternoon that day. I hadn't slept much the last day so I was already tired. I get a call from my friends to go to the movies with them. I show up and we go to the movies and I start drifting away as I'm trying to stay awake. It was weird and I had never experienced anything like it. As soon as the movies over and I was passing out the entire time we were in the movies. I have my dad come pick me up and take me home. It had been just about 24 hours since I last slept now. I get home and go to eat dinner. I eat my dinner up in my room and I'm about to just collapse because I'm so tired. I walk into the bathroom to use the bathroom and place my food down to go take it downstairs when I'm done. Apparently I didn't realize but I had my Xbox controller and headset on during all of this. I walk downstairs and lay on my couch where my family is watching TV with my headset on my head and xbox controller in my hand. I fall asleep for maybe 50 seconds to be woken up by my dad. He tells me to go upstairs and go to bed. I proceed to go to bed and probably 30 or 40 minutes later my door is being banged on and my dad starts yelling at me that I better not be doing drugs because I spilled my spaghetti all over the sink in the kitchen and passed out talking to people when my controller was turned off. The only way I can describe it is that it was like being incredibly high/drunk and not in a good way. I forgot everything at the time and was falling asleep uncontrollably", "The average \"human\" requires (recommended) 8 hours of sleep for numerous reasons. 1. Your brain needs to \"refresh.\" Your Thalamus responds to no sleep by almost putting itself in a \"shutdown state\" which will leave you clueless, possible hallucinations, seeing shit you don't want to see, and weird eye headaches. 2. Your heart. Your heart responds by sporadically pumping too much or too little blood which then starves your Oxygen levels, and most likely a lot of other things that you need to live. 3. Your Immune system. Let's say you have a filter on a pool...this filter is designed to take the bacteria/nasty shit in the pool (kids pooping and leaves and whatnot.) After a while in ANY pool, you have to \"change\" this filter right? This can be metaphorically compared to the human immune system. The body regulates itself by fighting off diseases all the way down to the random \"bug\" flying in the air you might catch from a co-worker. This obviously is BAD because once your immune system starts acting up the other parts of your body compensate by over-working or under-working in response. 4. Your body temperature. See above statement for further understanding. 5. Your digestive system. Ever notice after your up for a long time you have to take MASSIVE diarrhea dump or piss every 10 minutes? Or FEEL like you have to and nothing comes out? Yeah... not good. 6. The most important. Your \"Circadian Rhythm\" goes out of WACK. This rhythm I am sure you have all heard in high school classes and whatnot. This is your body's sleep cycle. When you sleep your entire body refreshes itself by purging old shit and bringing in new to be general as possible. That's why if you are a gamer who doesn't sleep until 1AM every night you feel like you can PASS OUT at 6pm after work. It's not because you worked hard, it's because your body is telling itself it's time for bed. That's where this giant level of sleepiness comes n day in and day out. I know this was ALL very general statements...but I tried to ELY5....", "I used to do that in college all the time, what with being in three or four committees, studying hard to maintain a 5 percentile grade and all that. I didn't notice small things like you mention, but over time I did start accumulating a serious amount of problems. Bear in mind, this happens over a year of sleeping three to four hours a night, and having a pretty stressful lifestyle. I was tired all the time. I felt like I had walked through a desert and back, and had no desire to party, study or exercise. I did all these things because I had to, since I was on so many extracurricular activities, but I was not the brightest bulb. Which leads me to the second point: I made a huge amount of errors in decisions I took about that time. Studying was easy, because it was mostly about memorizing some stuff, but I was constantly late for classes, I would forget assignments which I would then finish in five minutes before class, I would set wrong policies on our committees meetings and make constant strategic errors in fundraising and the like. I was a mess. The decisions and the meta-thinking was not the only chewed-up thing going around. I was eating badly, and thus I gained some weight, I think, but mostly, I lost the desire to get up and exercise. After college I was finally able to get up everyday and go out running at 5am. While coin college I would simply go to bed at 2am, and get up again at 6am to get a shower, grab books and run pout the door. No, didn't eat breakfast, why? tldr: One all-nighter might leave you tired, but a pattern of bad sleeping habits will render you into a thoughtless slob.", "I have an somewhat odd experience to add to the discussion... During finals week in college, I had just discovered Adderall, and I had five finals in four days. I hadn't exactly been going to class on a regular basis, so I decided with the help of the amphetamines I would just cram cram cram. Anyhow, I made it the 50 hour mark before I started experiencing auditory hallucinations, mainly in the from of people constantly saying my name, even when I was completely alone and in the shower. Anyhow, at the 80 hour mark I finished my last exam and crashed literally sitting up on my front porch, with the temperature hovering around 10 degrees outside. My roomates eventually dragged me inside, (they were aware of the situation and were actually kind of rooting me on) and I slept for 22 hours straight. On top of my roomates claiming that in my sleep I was screaming and kicking like a maniac, when I finally woke, I had ZERO recollection of the final 15 or 20 hours of my no-sleep week. As in, I was convinced I missed my final final. I ended up e-mailing the professor, and I was so out confused that he legitimately suggested I go to student health services for a checkup. Anyhow, I got an 80 on the last final, which I basically time traveled through, but I learned my lesson. Aside from the auditory hallucinations and the memory loss, I had my first and only full blown panic attack a few days later, and I am convinced the Adderall/sleeplessness was directly responsible. TLDR: Stayed up 80 hours on speed and briefly lost my mind.", "I am an internal medicine resident, and on certain rotations (MICU, general floors of some of our affiliates, CCU) we have to stay up for 27 hours every 3-4 days (depending on the rotation). Sometimes we can take a nap here and there (makes a HUGE difference), but most of the time we have to stay up the entire 27 hours. These are the things that I feel during the final 3-4 hours: -I feel like I have a cold. Scratchy throat, stuffy nose, general fatigue, sometimes even a slight subjective fever. -I feel a little bit drunk, and cannot think very clearly. I forget common words. -My legs hurt, like really badly. This is contributed to by the fact that I am generally constantly on my feet during the 27 hour call, and the fact that I have to stand up for a few hours right at the end for rounds. -I am very hungry, but sometimes food makes me nauseous. -I am extremely sleepy. Sometimes I am able to go home and just sleep for 8 hours without interruption, sometimes I find it extremely difficult to fall asleep and keep waking up even though I want to sleep really badly. I think this has a lot to do with coffee timing, sunlight, hunger, etc. -My eyes burn, and I feel like I want to squint constantly. Usually I don't fully recover until I have gotten 2 sleep \"sessions\". IE: I get out of work by 11am, sleep until 7-8pm, wake up for a couple of hours, then sleep again from 10pm-5am to get up for work.", "My longest stint was 4 days, would not recommend. Had four exams each the day after the next. It started the night before the first, I stayed up all night studying. Took my test around 11am, went home, studied all day and night until the next exam. I slacked off all semester and had a lot to make up for. Went through at least a third of my month supply of Adderall, popping em as I felt myself getting tired. The hallucinations are no joke. By the third day I was looking at doodles on the side of my notes, where I had drawn birds that looked like \"m\"'s, and if I was trying to read my notes I would see them flapping on the page in my peripherals. My college was 30 minutes away by 70 mph highway, and the microsleeps are indeed terrifying. I would be driving home or to school and then... bam, next thing I know I'm waking up after having drifted into the other lane or towards the concrete divider. If you've ever been put under for surgery, its exactly like that, except you don't know you're going under until you wake up. I could've killed myself in an accident or somebody else, and I will never do it again and highly recommend any readers to avoid it either - at the very least, avoid operating heavy machinery or anything that puts others in danger. Highly recommend adderall tho that shit A+++", "Well in my retarded years through a drug fuelled bender, the longest period I managed without sleep was 9 days. I was consuming large quantities of amphetamines. I passed out on the last 9th night. When I awoke in the morning I had complete amnesia, I could not remember my name, who the people were around me, I couldn't even remember which state I was in. This was quite frightening, lucky it didn't last too long and my memory got jump started. My brother took me to hospital as he said I looked like death itself. The entertaining part of that was the doctor did not believe I had not slept in 9 days, his opinion was that I should be dead if I was telling the truth. Anyway he took blood samples and came back and said he believed me, I had pretty much destroyed my body and was required to spend 4 days in hospital recovering. Meth not even once lol.", "google droning if you don't know what it was. we were planning to start this mission a day away, so we would always stay up late as hell the night before and sleep through the day so we would be ready for the night operation. So me and a few buddies finally bed down. I shit you not I hear someone come in the tent at like 2am, it is about 30 mins after I have laid down. I fucking knew it. change of plans, we are moving out NOW. FML. fast forward 24 hours later. I have been awake at least 36 hours. We are on patrol. we have been out in the sun doing patrols all day and carrying explosives everywhere to blow up this massive tree line. anyways I wake up walking into a tree. I do not remember the last hour of walking along in this village. fucking creepy.", "Stayed up for 5 days my sophomore year in college because I had 5 papers and 2 exams for finals week, and obviously, because I'm an idiot, I procrastinated until the day before my finals started. Up to day 2 was fine, I'd done it before. Day 3 is when it really starts to suck ass, and day 4 is when the hallucinations and random unintentional microsleep starts messing with you. Kept thinking there was a shadow in the library behind me or lurking in the corners and saw black and red dots of light dancing in front of my eyes constantly. I also kept hearing my name being called out, but I was the only one on that floor of the library. It was pretty damn terrible,because no matter how bad it got, I still had 25 page research papers due the in the next few hours. Never again...", "Used to be truck driver. Was driving back from a \"local\" delivery run where we came back when the truck was empty, not before. Probably broke every law related to transport that ever existed in New York State. We were out 24 hours on this run, so probably had been awake for 30+ hours. Heading back out of the city to the shop, I was driving, and I hallucinated a flatbed trailer parked perpendicular across the highway. We were going 60mph+ (100kph?) and the only thing that prevented me from locking up the airbrakes was a complete lack of reaction time due to fatigue. As far as I was concerned, that trailer was there, solid, real, no doubt in my mind, I was 100% convinced. Shit...makes me clench up and sweat just thinking about it.", "I fell asleep behind the wheel earlier this month after being awake for about 24hrs.. from 6am to 6am, which is when the accident happened. So, please, don't make the mistake to not pull over when you fell even the slightest moment of closing your eyes. A lot of people do it, and when you wake up seconds later you get an adrenalin \"shot\" which wakes you up.. don't trust it.. it will happen again and it could be just a few seconds too late that time. I am alright and there was no one else involved besides some redwoods. I am a very lucky guy. Broken nose and a few stiches on my face... But reading this.. yeah, its just as bad as drinking and driving.", "I stayed up for 3 straight days playing World of Warcraft when BC first came out, from Friday to Sunday. On Sunday I realized I had a paper due that Monday that I hadn't started, so I figured I'd use my final morning (Monday morning, that is) to write the paper. I wrote the entire paper, and while reading/revising it, I micro-slept and ctrl+A'd, then deleted the full contents of the paper, saved the Word document, exited Word, and opened World of Warcraft. As soon as I was semi-conscious again I realized what I did and cried myself to sleep. I slept a full 14 hours. Didn't go to class, took an F on the paper. Never again.", "One summer in high school I had a manic episode where i only slept about 16 hours in 5 days and my longest stint of wakefulness was 50+ hours with only 2 hours of sleep the night before. I would play games or fuck around in town at night. Sometimes hearing whispers and seeing shadows of people who weren't there. I had decided somewhere that I would stay up as long as I felt good because i had been depressed or so long. Sleep deprivation: 3/10 interesting if you like seeing shit in dark corners, would not recommend Manic states: 11/10 profusely recomend", "Don't know if anybody can answer this but once when I was in high school I took some pills to get high. I took them around 6 p.m. And they hit me at 10p.m. when I was asleep. As soon as they hit I was wide awake. I couldn't sleep for about 3 days and I didn't even feel tired. Is there a way the pills could've inhibited this \"microsleep\" that everyone keeps talking about? After I did manage to sleep i slept for probably 36hours so that falls in line with what everyone else has been saying.", "For a General Surgery resident like myself, I start my second work day after the 24 hours shift for the next 12 hours. Based on my own personal experience, at some point you don't feel tired anymore you just kind of \"float\" through the rest of your work day. In more than 80% of cases I hardly remember what happens after that point after I wake up the next day. All I know is that I feel extremely fatigued, but you power through it because you have to do this thing 9 times a month.", "I've stayed up for 3 days before. It's not fun. I actually felt like I was going insane. I could be crying one second and laughing the next. I wanted to die. I was a zombie. I was viewing the world with eyes half shut. I had extreme tunnel vision. My stomach was in knots. My heart felt like it was going to explode. Just thinking about a soft pillow would make me instantly nod out for a second. I don't recommend it to anyone.", "When I was at university I tried to stay up for 72 hours because I'd heard that's the point at which you're considered legally insane. I'd pulled 24-48 hours regularly, so +1 day shouldn't have been that hard. I made it to 60 hours before. I was seeing shadowy shapes flitting around in my peripheral vision, and I got creeped the hell out and decided I'd better rest.", "I stayed up for about 28 hours once, about a year ago. I got up on the east coast at 4am to go to Denver, where I met friends and partied until 4am Denver time. I was exhausted leading up to about the 23/24 hour mark. At about that point, I got a noticeable second wind and ended up being the last one awake.", "Holy crap! I have an awesome table in a leadership manual printed by the Canadian forces on this. Unfortunately its at home, and Im not, Ill try to remember to post it in a few days, it details what levels of awareness you can be expected to maintain on what level of sleep for what period.", "This makes me think of all of those all nighters during road trips where I'd drive for 18-24 hours. Sometimes even in the winter time.... I was, for all intensive purposes, driving intoxicated for the most dangerous stretches. I never realized how dangerous sleep deprivation really is. I'm just glad I smartened up years ago.", "Why do I get a boner when I'm really tired? not trying to be funny here, just whenever I get a shitty night's sleep and am tired at work the next day, when I start yawning I noticed I have a perma-erection", "When you are tired your body de-prioritized non essential tasks. Same thing if you run a marathon, all the energy goes to your legs for a while and next thing you know you have a disaster brewing in your guts.", "It was summer time, i was only getting about 10-11 hours of sleep out of 5 days a week. For like 3 weeks maybe. I can tell you its definitley like being drunk.", "fun fact: Back in the day, in order to save money, hospital administrators would regularly put interns (the LEAST experienced and qualified doctors in the hospital) regularly on 24 - 18 hour shifts.", "How much sleep can you get within each 24 hour period and still have the same effects as not sleeping at all? Anything less than a single REM cycle?", "Does anyone happen to know what occurs if you do this exact same thing but sleep for one or two 1 hour periods a day?", "Don't know if this has been posted yet, but a site I frequent just released this and the timing is spot on. URL_0 ", "When I went to basic at good ole Ft. Benning I arrived on a Monday and didn't sleep until Thursday. Reception nightmares.", "Every time I stay up more than a day I get tiny white sores on the tip of my tongue. Any explanation?", "'every time I pull am all nighter I get weird digestive issues' same with me, but it's most likely the MDMA.", "30 days until graduation. I did not need to read this thread. My left eye has been twitching for a month...", "For some reason I always feel hyper-aware after the 24 hour mark. Probably just an illusion.", "How are soldiers affected after days of continuous combat?" ]

[ [ "40 minutes, it is reportedly possible to experience itching in various parts of the body (a phenomenon also reported to be common during the early stages of meditation). The last 20 minutes often end with a transition from beta or alpha brain waves to theta, which typically occur briefly before sleep and again at waking. In a float tank, the theta state can last for several minutes without the subject losing consciousness. Some use the extended theta state as a tool for enhanced creativity and problem solving. Spas sometimes provide commercial float tanks for use in relaxation. Flotation therapy has", "-29.2810591122834" ], [ "Nuss procedure Recovery Recovery time is generally four to five days as an in-patient, depending on the patient age, activity level, co-morbidities and post-operative complications (if any), followed by time at home to overcome the pain and to let the bar settle into place. Sleep will be hampered because of the pain, discomfort and inability to sleep on either side of the body. Breathing can be difficult because of the stiffness of the bar and post-operative pain, but this generally improves within a few weeks to a month. Patients younger than fifteen often require only two to four weeks at", "-29.12092145672068" ], [ "the patient's disease. During the final hours, patients usually will reject food and water and will also sleep more, choosing not to interact with those around them. Their bodies may behave more irregularly, with changes in breathing, sometimes with longer pauses between breaths, irregular heart rate, low blood pressure, and coldness in the extremities. It is important to note, however, that symptoms will vary per patient.", "-29.01747854691348" ], [ "death for considerable periods. Blood circulation can be stopped in the entire body below the heart for at least 30 minutes, with injury to the spinal cord being a limiting factor. Detached limbs may be successfully reattached after 6 hours of no blood circulation at warm temperatures. Bone, tendon, and skin can survive as long as 8 to 12 hours.\nThe brain, however, appears to accumulate ischemic injury faster than any other organ. Without special treatment after circulation is restarted, full recovery of the brain after more than 3 minutes of clinical death at normal body temperature is rare. ", "-28.985297365987208" ], [ "which heartbeat and all brain activity cease.\nAt normal body temperature of 37°C only several minutes of stopped blood circulation causes changes within the brain leading to permanent damage after circulation is restored. Reducing body temperature extends the time interval that such stoppage can be survived. At a brain temperature of 14 °C, blood circulation can be safely stopped for 30 to 40 minutes. There is an increased incidence of brain injury at times longer than 40 minutes, but sometimes circulatory arrest for up to 60 minutes is used if life-saving surgery requires it. Infants tolerate longer periods of DHCA than adults.\nApplications", "-27.311900252939445" ], [ "over in bed can cause skin to tear away from behind the ears, and the sufferer may wake up with up to 30 blisters each morning.\nThere is no treatment bar the lancing and draining of these blisters to stop their growth. Sufferers of the severest form die prematurely of skin cancer (their life expectancy is usually reduced by 30–40 years); in some, death occurs in infancy. Each day sufferers face a battle against fluid loss and infections due to open wounds. Blistering can also affect inner body linings, such as the mouth and throat. Sufferers of the severest forms have", "-27.16683691221988" ], [ "but it typically lasts for 1–3 days, after which the body adjusts to the new environment. Longer-term exposure to weightlessness results in muscle atrophy and deterioration of the skeleton, or spaceflight osteopenia. These effects can be minimized through a regimen of exercise. Other effects include fluid redistribution, slowing of the cardiovascular system, decreased production of red blood cells, balance disorders, and a weakening of the immune system. Lesser symptoms include loss of body mass, nasal congestion, sleep disturbance, and puffiness of the face.\nFor long-duration space travel, radiation can pose an acute health hazard.\nExposure to high-energy, ionizing cosmic rays can result", "-27.00990893560811" ], [ "significant sun exposure. It is popularly claimed that one can become inebriated at night, regain sobriety by the next day, and then undergo inebriation again in the morning without consuming any more, merely by being exposed to the sun again.", "-26.948175596247893" ], [ "can be elevated several fold while exercising. It is estimated that without lymphatic flow, the average resting person would die within 24 hours. As a growth medium In 1907 the zoologist Ross Granville Harrison demonstrated the growth of frog nerve cell processes in a medium of clotted lymph. It is made up of lymph nodes and vessels.\nIn 1913, E. Steinhardt, C. Israeli, and R. A. Lambert grew vaccinia virus in fragments of tissue culture from guinea pig corneal grown in lymph.", "-26.791675944637973" ], [ "the basic metabolic functions of storing carbohydrates and regulating hormones. Reduction of sleep from eight hours to four hours produces changes in glucose tolerance and endocrine function. Researchers from the University of Chicago Medical Center followed 11 healthy young men for 16 consecutive nights. The first 3 nights, the young men slept for the normal 8 hours. The next 6 nights, they slept for 4 hours. The next 7 nights, they spent 12 hours in bed. They all had the same diet. They found that there were changes in glucose metabolism that resemble that of type 2 diabetes patients. When", "-26.659733600274194" ], [ "By increasing physical activity, it is possible to manage body weight, reduce blood pressure, and relieve stress.\nThe Center for Disease Control recommends 30 minutes of physical activity a day.\nInstead of 30 minutes a day at one time, short bursts of physical activity for 8–10 minutes three times a day are also suitable. Exercising this way can reduce the risk of getting heart disease or coronary ischemia, if it is performed at moderate intensity.", "-26.60631622121582" ], [ "whose production depends on daylight, become exhausted over the winter, making it especially easy for the \"sleep hormone\" melatonin to have its effect. When the days become longer in springtime, the body readjusts its hormone levels, and more endorphin, testosterone and estrogen are released. This changeover puts a heavy strain on the body, which responds with a feeling of tiredness.\nIn addition, temperatures usually fluctuate greatly in springtime. When temperatures rise, a person's blood pressure drops, since the blood vessels expand. The expansion of blood vessels is called vasodilation. Food also plays a role. In winter one tends to consume more", "-26.447239826258738" ], [ "not subside in two weeks, additional treatment may be required. \nPrevention of back strain is possible by adopting proper body mechanics while sitting, standing and lifting. Cessation of smoking, maintaining a healthy diet, exercise and normal weight is also good for preventing back strain. Temporary pain relief may be achieved through application of a menthol-based pain relief cream.", "-26.169440089724958" ], [ "young men slept for the normal 8 hours. The next 6 nights, they slept for 4 hours. The next 7 nights, they spent 12 hours in bed. They all had the same diet. They found that there were changes in glucose metabolism that resemble that of type 2 diabetes patients. When the participants were tested after sleep deprivation, they took 40% longer than normal to regulate blood sugar levels after a high-carbohydrate meals. The secretion of insulin and the body's response to insulin decrease by 30%. Sleep deprivation also alters the productions of hormones, lowering the secretion of thyroid stimulating", "-26.021620184212225" ], [ "cycling after approximately 10 minutes. This is attributed to the combination of increased blood flow and the ability of the body to find alternative sources of energy, like fatty acids and proteins. In the long term, patients may exhibit renal failure due to the myoglobinuria, and with age, patients may exhibit progressively increasing weakness and substantial muscle loss.\nPatients may present at emergency rooms with severe fixed contractures of the muscles and often severe pain. These require urgent assessment for rhabdomyolysis as in about 30% of cases this leads to acute renal failure. Left untreated, this can be life-threatening. In", "-26.006559835281223" ], [ "years. Therefore, HES should not be administered for longer than 24 hours.", "-25.971601226658095" ], [ "rest. There is also a risk of abnormal repair or chronic inflammation resulting from a failure to rest. In general, the period of rest should be long enough that the patient is able to use the affected limb with the majority of function restored and pain essentially gone. Ice Ice is excellent at reducing the inflammatory response and pain associated with heat generated by increased blood flow and/or blood loss. A good method is apply ice for 20 minutes of each hour. Other recommendations are an alternation of ice and no-ice for 15–20 minutes each, for a 48-hour period. To", "-25.863765619928017" ], [ "that the length of time the brain could survive stopped blood circulation could be extended from 3 minutes to 10 minutes by cooling to 30 °C before circulation was stopped. He found that this time could be extended to 15 to 24 minutes at temperatures below 20 °C. He further found that at a temperature of 5 °C, groundhogs could endure two hours of stopped blood circulation without ill effects. This research was motivated by a desire to stop the heart from beating long enough to do surgery on the heart while it remained still. Since heart-lung machines, also known as cardiopulmonary", "-25.724335094593698" ], [ "[Hua Tuo]'s medicine could make a person intoxicated to the point of unconsciousness so that he could endure being cut open and could fully recuperate, causing the damaged portions to grow back together again. However, once the abdomen, back, intestines, or stomach have been cut open and dissected, how can they again be infused with vital breath? Being in such a condition, how could they be brought back to life again? If [Hua Tuo] could do this, then whoever was subjected to the punishment of dismemberment could be brought back to life again and there would no longer be any", "-25.658906250959262" ], [ "amount of total sleep. In other words, if at the end of a phase of deep sleep, the organism's thermal indicators fall outside of a certain range, it will not enter paradoxical sleep lest deregulation allow temperature to drift further from the desirable value. This mechanism can be 'fooled' by artificially warming the brain. Muscle REM atonia, an almost complete paralysis of the body, is accomplished through the inhibition of motor neurons. When the body shifts into REM sleep, motor neurons throughout the body undergo a process called hyperpolarization: their already-negative membrane potential decreases by another 2–10 millivolts, thereby raising", "-25.619869396112335" ], [ "last for 30 minutes to two hours, and are often but not always gone by the morning. Typically, the pains appear once or twice each week, but it can be more frequent or less frequent.\nThe pains are not in the same place as an injury, including overuse injuries such as shin splints, and the child does not limp while walking. Diagnosis This diagnosis is normally made by considering the information presented by the child and family members, and by doing a physical exam to make sure that the child seems to be otherwise healthy. When the child has", "-25.605771573726088" ], [ "One may also exhibit a fever, since the body is working hard to transfer the nutrients in the muscles and fat to the blood. Treatment While catabolysis can be deadly over time, if the person is given medical treatment early enough, the effects of catabolysis can be reversed. However, the person may require intravenous nutrition, a blood transfusion, and/or oxygen replenishment. After that, it may be a few weeks to a few months before the person's muscle mass and fat deposits can build themselves up again; there is a possibility that they may never build back up, depending", "-25.471516922698356" ], [ "may last from one day to more than a week.\nGastroenteritis caused by viruses may last one to two days. Most people recover easily from a short episode of vomiting and diarrhea by drinking clear fluids to replace the fluid that was lost and then gradually progressing to a normal diet. But for others, especially infants and the elderly, the loss of bodily fluid with gastroenteritis can cause dehydration, which can be a life-threatening illness unless it is treated and fluids in the body are replaced.", "-25.445604394757538" ], [ "begun to heal (usually 6–8 weeks post injury). Sleeping in a prone position with the hip on the affected side flexed and externally rotated can be a cure in some individuals. Incidence The exact incidence of these entities is unknown: some believe it is the most common cause of chronic groin pain in athletes, while others argue that it is only rare.", "-25.407693312023184" ], [ "in a vein without prior inflammation of the wall of the vein. It is associated with prolonged bed rest, surgery, pregnancy, and other conditions in which blood flow becomes sluggish or the blood coagulates more readily than normal. The affected area, usually the leg, may become swollen and tender. The danger is that the clot may become dislodged and travel to the lungs (a pulmonary embolism). Technique Complete bed rest refers to discouraging the person in treatment from sitting up for any reason, including daily activities like drinking water.\nPlacing the head of a bed lower than the foot is sometimes", "-25.392549300566316" ], [ "into the center's rehabilitation room, where it was discovered that he had pulmonary edema, which had nearly killed him; however, he was able to eat by the next day and gradually got better. He was unable to walk for the remainder of December, though by the end of January he had regained this ability and, during February and March, he improved enough to be able to walk up and down stairs. However, his condition then took a turn for the worse, and he died on the night of April 9 at an estimated fifteen years and one month old. He", "-25.319467553810682" ], [ "CD 23, causing increased production of IgE. After exercise, the conditions will fade within one to three minutes. In most sufferers of EIB, this is followed by a refractory period, of generally less than four hours, during which if exercise is repeated, the bronchoconstriction is less emphasised. This is probably caused by the release of prostaglandins.\nThe underlying cause of this type of bronchoconstriction appear to be the large volume of cool, dry air inhaled during strenuous exercise. The condition appears to improve when the air inhaled is more fully humidified and closer to body temperature.\nThis specific condition, in the", "-25.311920981544972" ], [ "their quality of life decreased as a result of compensatory sweating.\" Total body perspiration in response to heat has been reported to increase after sympathectomy. The original sweating problem may recur due to nerve regeneration, sometimes as early as 6 months after the procedure.\nOther possible side-effects include Horner's Syndrome (about 1%), gustatory sweating (less than 25%) and excessive dryness of the palms (sandpaper hands). Some patients have experienced cardiac sympathetic denervation, which can result in a 10% decrease in heart rate both at rest and during exercise, resulting in decreased exercise tolerance.\nPercutaneous sympathectomy is a minimally invasive procedure similar to", "-25.280839784973068" ], [ "perhaps her sense of well-being; there is no medical requirement for regular periods, as long as they occur sufficiently often.\nIf a regular menstrual cycle is not desired, then therapy for an irregular cycle is not necessarily required. Most experts say that, if a menstrual bleed occurs at least every three months, then the endometrium (womb lining) is being shed sufficiently often to prevent an increased risk of endometrial abnormalities or cancer. If menstruation occurs less often or not at all, some form of progestogen replacement is recommended. An alternative is oral progestogen taken at intervals (e.g., every three months)", "-25.265732958709123" ], [ "to physical problems. Since 1999, I have had a condition whereby I temporarily lose consciousness from time to time. It is not serious, but after consulting the best specialists in the field I was advised to stop riding for a while, to take the time to relax and undergo the necessary tests.\" He stated that he did not intend to retire and that this was simply a necessary break from the sport for medical reasons.\nOn May 5 2002 however, the now thirty-two year old Crivillé held an emotional press conferece on the second day of official qualifying for the 2002", "-25.216815436491743" ], [ "73% lower). People doing heavy exercise may lose two and half times as much fluid in sweat as urine. This can have profound physiological effects. Cycling for 2 hours in the heat (35 °C) with minimal fluid intake causes body mass decline by 3 to 5%, blood volume likewise by 3 to 6%, body temperature to rise constantly, and in comparison with proper fluid intake, higher heart rates, lower stroke volumes and cardiac outputs, reduced skin blood flow, and higher systemic vascular resistance. These effects are largely eliminated by replacing 50 to 80% of the fluid lost in sweat. Brain At", "-25.214897348487284" ], [ "he decided to have six weeks of complete rest. He had been checked over by many doctors, and an examination by Professor Tom O’Donnell on 27 August confirmed that he had an enlarged heart gravely weakened by embolisms, and which was not pumping regularly enough to get sufficient oxygen into his bloodstream; one lung was two-thirds incapacitated by the clot; and his stomach was very sore as his liver was swollen with retained fluid. He went into the Home of Compassion Hospital, Island Bay, Wellington on 28 August. He was photographed going in the boilerhouse door to avoid the media", "-25.168343783778255" ], [ "a few days. The pain may be limited and sporadic at first, but may worsen to a constant pain which can become very severe when body position is changed (e.g., when standing up, rolling over, and so forth). Depending upon the exact location of the abscess, there can also be excruciating pain during bowel movements, though this is not always the case. This condition may occur in isolation, but is frequently indicative of another underlying disorder, such as Crohn's disease. Complications If left untreated, an anal fistula will almost certainly form, connecting the rectum to the skin. This requires more", "-25.133826792773107" ], [ "imbalanced during sleep and fail to give the signal to inhale, causing the individual to miss one or more cycles of breathing. The neurological feedback mechanism that monitors blood levels of carbon dioxide and in turn stimulates respiration fails to react quickly enough to maintain an even respiratory rate, allowing the entire respiratory system to cycle between apnea and hyperpnea, even for a brief time following an awakening during a breathing pause. The sleeper stops breathing for up to two minutes and then starts again. There is no effort made to breathe during the pause in breathing:", "-25.097417450568173" ], [ "depending on the individual.\nThe average time for complete recovery is about two weeks, although it can sometimes take longer if the patient has pre-existing medical conditions such as anemia.", "-25.083535424566435" ], [ "their performance degraded almost immediately and become ineffective within several hours. A dose of 5.3 Gy to 8.3 Gy is considered lethal within months to half of male adults but not immediately incapacitating. Personnel exposed to this amount of radiation have their cognitive performance degraded in two to three hours. Depending on how physically demanding the tasks they must perform are, and remain in this disabled state at least two days. However, at that point they experience a recovery period and can perform non-demanding tasks for about six days, after which they relapse for about four weeks. At this time", "-25.074267756805057" ], [ "taken up by the cartilage matrices, with osteoarthritic cartilage showing a stronger preference for taking it up. It reaches its peak levels in the joints at 48 hours, and lasts up to 96 hours, before leaving and being excreted by the kidneys.", "-25.034171943552792" ], [ "time was up by more than 50% from reported waiting times in 5 Ontario hospitals from 1985-1990 (a median of 9.5 weeks, or about 2 months and 0.5 weeks), which was considered acceptable by most patients. Waiting times for knee replacements are much longer in Nova Scotia, ranging from 88 days (almost 3 months) to 350 days (about 11.5 months), with the hospitals in the middle range averaging 199 to 223 days (about 6 months 2.5 weeks to about 7 months 1.5 weeks). Some patients wait significantly shorter times, while the longest waits can be a good deal longer than the average. In contrast, Denmark", "-24.940394202189054" ], [ "in the body are damaged first, usually the limbs. As the disease progresses most patients are unable to walk or use their arms and eventually develop difficulty speaking, swallowing and breathing. Most patients retain cognitive function and sensory neurons are generally unaffected. Patients are often diagnosed after the age of 40 and the median survival time from onset to death is around 3–4 years. In the final stages, patients can lose voluntary control of eye muscles and often die of respiratory failure or pneumonia as a result of degeneration of the motor neurons and muscles required for breathing. Currently there", "-24.910042599451117" ], [ "death Certain surgeries for cerebral aneurysms or aortic arch defects require that blood circulation be stopped while repairs are performed. This deliberate temporary induction of clinical death is called circulatory arrest. It is typically performed by lowering body temperature to between 18 °C and 20 °C (64 and 68 °F) and stopping the heart and lungs. This state is called deep hypothermic circulatory arrest. At such low temperatures most patients can tolerate the clinically dead state for up to 30 minutes without incurring significant brain injury.\nLonger durations are possible at lower temperatures, but the usefulness of longer procedures has not been", "-24.886141779716127" ], [ "in a cold sweat, with anginous\nattacks in the precordial region, and a feeling of \"going\noff.\" I did not call for medical aid, as I thought the symptoms\ndeclining. I felt better, but my lower limbs were as cold as ice, and the calf muscles kept tense and\njerking. There was no opisthotonos, only a slight stiffness \nat the back of the neck. Half an hour later, as I could\njudge, I took the same quantity of bromide of potassium\nand chloral, and a little time after I lost consciousness and\nfell into a \" profound sleep,\" awaking in the morning with \nno unpleasant symptoms, no", "-24.865321257850155" ], [ "presentation. As his course progressed, physicians attempted to induce a coma with the use of sedatives. Nevertheless his brain still failed to shut down completely. Corke died in 1993, a month after his 42nd birthday, when he had been completely sleep-deprived for 6 months. Unnamed patient of Schenkein & Montagna, 2001 One person was able to exceed the average survival time by nearly one year with various strategies, including vitamin therapy and meditation, using different stimulants and hypnotics, and even complete sensory deprivation in an attempt to induce sleep at night and increase alertness during the day. He managed to", "-24.824634610446992" ], [ "changed bodies during the several months of healing due to the pain and limitations.", "-24.790915461431723" ], [ "lie down and could be very uncomfortable for 30–45 minutes. Diarrhea may then follow Nutritional effects After surgery, patients feel fullness after ingesting only a small volume of food, followed soon thereafter by a sense of satiety and loss of appetite. Total food intake is markedly reduced. Due to the reduced size of the newly created stomach pouch, and reduced food intake, adequate nutrition demands that the patient follow the surgeon's instructions for food consumption, including the number of meals to be taken daily, adequate protein intake, and the use of vitamin and mineral supplements. Calcium supplements, iron supplements, protein", "-24.790383900981396" ], [ " Another preventative measure one can take is to be on bed rest and abstain from stressful and strenuous procedures for the first 10 days after an extended hypoxic event. Expectation and recognition will also lead to an earlier and more accurate and appropriate use of health care services. Prognosis Those patients who survive initial hospitalization are likely to recover from Grinker's Myelinopathy, but may take up to a year or longer. Age seems to be a factor in the time for recovery, as one study indicated that the mean age of patients who recovered within one year", "-24.78085733752232" ], [ "cool his brain and body to 90 degrees in order to reduce any possible brain damage.\nAfter two days, Wylie woke up from his coma and was released from the hospital nine days later. He has made a full recovery but continues to wear an implantable cardioverter-defibrillator pacemaker. He had no symptoms of heart disease except for experiencing a few dizzy spells a few days before the incident. Doctors gave Wylie a clean bill of health, saying he had no heart or brain damage.", "-24.74623248295393" ], [ "with intermediate levels of the hormone after 4.5 hours sleep (0.77 ± 0.04 ng mL(−1)).\nFeelings of hunger as well as plasma ghrelin levels are already elevated after one night of SD, whereas morning serum leptin concentrations remain unaffected. Thus, the results provide further evidence for a disturbing influence of sleep loss on endocrine regulation of energy homeostasis, which in the long run may result in weight gain and obesity. To help facilitate abusive control Sleep deprivation can be used to disorientate abuse victims to help set them up for abusive control. Interrogation Sleep deprivation can be used as a means of", "-24.73366948615876" ], [ " This disorder occurs in individuals who fail to get sufficient sleep for at least three months. In this case, the patient has chronic sleep deprivation although he or she is not necessarily aware of it. This situation is becoming more prevalent in western society due to the modern demands and expectations placed upon the individual.\nMany medications can also lead to secondary hypersomnia. Therefore, a patient's complete medication list should be carefully reviewed for sleepiness or fatigue as side effects. In these cases, careful withdrawal from the possibly offending medication(s) is needed; then, medication substitution can be", "-24.72615813362063" ], [ "without any treatment at all, and is therefore not only uninformative, it may actually be misleading. The injury is considered largely self-limiting and spontaneous recovery is usually on the order of a few days or a week to six weeks or longer if left untreated. Stretching Most practitioners agree that spasm, strain, or pain in any muscle can often be treated by regular stretching exercise of that muscle, no matter the cause of the pain. Stretching is recommended every two to three waking hours. Anterior and posterior movement of the hip joint capsule may help optimize the patient's stretching capacity.", "-24.703843136376236" ], [ "It takes a much longer time to heal and in some cases takes several months.", "-24.694714696524898" ], [ "0.29(SEM) liters/minute compared to 7.66 +/- 0.34 liters/minute when awake. Rib cage and abdominal muscle contributions Intercostal muscle activity decreases in REM sleep and contribution of rib cage to respiration decreases during REM sleep. This is due to REM related supraspinal inhibition of alpha motoneuron drive and specific depression of fusimotor function. Diaphraghmatic activity correspondingly increases during REM sleep. Although paradoxical thoracoabdominal movements are not observed, the thoracic and abdominal displacements are not exactly in phase. This decrease in intercostal muscle activity is primarily responsible for hypoventilation that occurs in patients with borderline pulmonary function. Upper airway function Upper airway", "-24.667236366076395" ], [ "pulmonary disease; AIDS, liver disease, etc.), deinnervation, intrinsic muscle disease or medications (such as glucocorticoids). Immobility Disuse is a common cause of muscle atrophy and can be local (due to injury or casting) or general (bed-rest). The rate of muscle atrophy from disuse (10-42 days) is approximately 0.5–0.6% of total muscle mass per day although there is considerable variation between people. The elderly are the most vulnerable to dramatic muscle loss with immobility. Much of the established research has investigated prolonged disuse (>10 days), in which the muscle is compromised primarily by declines in muscle protein synthesis rates rather", "-24.656710719456896" ], [ "long as individual follows up with weekly checkups. Proper hydration prior to performing physical activity and performing exercise in cool, dry environments may reduce the chances of developing a reoccurring episode of ER. Lastly, it is imperative for urine and blood values to be monitored along with careful observation for redevelopment of any signs or symptoms.\nThe recovery program focuses on progressively conditioning/reconditioning the individual and improving functional mobility. However, special considerations prior to participating in rehabilitation program include the individual’s 1) extent of muscle injury, if any 2) level of fitness before incident and 3) weight training experience. These", "-24.649083837866783" ], [ "and from beginning to end often takes three years. A single body lifting operation can require seven to 10 hours under general anesthesia, blood transfusions and often, another surgeon to assist. Possible risks include infections and reactions and complications due to being under anesthesia for longer than six hours. The person may also experience seroma, a buildup of fluid; dehiscence (wound separation) and deep vein thrombosis (blood clots forming in the legs.) Rare complications include lymphatic injury and major wound dehiscence. The hospital stay for the procedure can require from one to four days while recovery can require about", "-24.647084943775553" ], [ "slept between six and a half and seven and a half hours per night. Even sleeping only 4.5 hours per night is associated with very little increase in mortality. Thus, mild to moderate insomnia for most people is associated with increased longevity and severe insomnia is associated only with a very small effect on mortality. It is unclear why sleeping longer than 7.5 hours is associated with excess mortality. Epidemiology Between 10% and 30% of adults have insomnia at any given point in time and up to half of people have insomnia in a given year. About 6% of people", "-24.604230705481314" ], [ "weeks, an employee who is insured in the statutory health insurance (Gesetzliche Krankenversicherung) receives about 70% of their last salary, paid by the insurance. According to § 48 SGB V (social code 5) the health insurance pays for a maximum of 78 weeks in case of a specific illness within a period of 3 years. In case another illness appears during the time when the employee is already on sick leave then the new diagnosed illness will have no effect on the maximum duration of the payment. Only if the patient returns to work and falls sick again with a", "-24.539145149843534" ], [ "first day of the next is 21 to 45 days in young women, and 21 to 31 days in adults (an average of 28 days). Bleeding usually lasts around 2 to 7 days. Menstruation stops occurring after menopause, which usually occurs between 45 and 55 years of age. Periods also stop during pregnancy and typically do not resume during the initial months of breastfeeding.\nUp to 80% of women report having some symptoms prior to menstruation. Common signs and symptoms include acne, tender breasts, bloating, feeling tired, irritability, and mood changes. These may interfere with normal life, therefore qualifying as premenstrual", "-24.525729352841154" ], [ "persist after rest, it may be coronary ischemia, or what is called, \"angina\". Some people characterize the pain they feel as though an elephant is sitting on their chest.\nOther typical symptoms include diaphoresis which is sweaty palms, and clammy skin, nausea or vomiting, or shortness of breath. Chest pain radiating down the left arm is also a symptom of coronary ischemia and the pain can also be radiating directly to the back in some instances. Atypical Most atypical symptoms are seen in women, diabetics, and the elderly more than anyone else.\nThese type of symptoms include stomach pain, and simply fatigue.", "-24.51999294036068" ], [ "a rapport with the medical staff. Although there is heavy importance of a primary care taker, secondary care takers can play a supporting role to temporarily relieve the primary care taker's burden of tasks. Prognosis Comas can last from several days to several weeks. In more severe cases a coma may last for over five weeks, while some have lasted as long as several years. After this time, some patients gradually come out of the coma, some progress to a vegetative state, and others die. Some patients who have entered a vegetative state go on to regain a degree of", "-24.51507644704543" ], [ "AKTIP (therapeutic institute) Erratic Boulder award in the category of teams 2016 In the awards report its representatives also cite the statement of the head of AKTIP Jarmila Klímová that the human body is set for 400 years of life. “If we really lived only by biological hours, we could be at rest between 380 and 460 years, because this age is set up for our body ... And why do we live only 60 or 80 years? No, because the most important influence outside of ourselves, which fundamentally affects the length and quality of life, we do not accept.”", "-24.49969643173972" ], [ "after a while, the body \"remodels\" the joint, either expanding the distal clavicle or causing it to atrophy. There may also be the potential that surgical repair may be less painful in the long run.\nOnce the pain has eased, range-of-motion exercises can be started followed by a strength training program. The strength training will include strengthening of the rotator cuff, and shoulder blade muscles. With most cases the pain goes away after three weeks. Although full recovery can take up to six weeks for type II and up to twelve weeks for type III.\nThose who do have a separated shoulder", "-24.485163634526543" ], [ "whether the exercise was carried out in a single session or broken up. The study also found that as the energy expended increased, the risk of heart disease decreased. Those who remained very active into midlife stood a much better chance of surviving than moderately exercising and inactive alumni.\nThe College Alumni Health Study’s preliminary findings suggested that men burning 2,000 or more calories a week significantly lowered their risk of death from heart disease compared to more sedentary peers. Paffenbarger found that, among the 640 men in the study who had died of cardiovascular disease, the death rate for the", "-24.483822480542585" ], [ "patients experience symptoms such as syncope (fainting), seizures, recurrent palpitations, lightheadedness, or dizziness regularly but not often enough to be captured by a 24-hour or 30-day external monitor. Because of the ILR's long battery life (up to 3 years), the heart can be monitored for an extended period. \nNew devices are able to store a total of 60 minutes of recordings on their memory. Thirty minutes is reserved for automatic storage of arrhythmias according preprogrammed criteria. The remaining 30 minutes can be divided into a selectable number of slots for storage of manually triggered retrograde recordings as an answer to", "-24.449813301558606" ], [ "contributing factor in medical errors. One study found that being awake for over 24 hours caused medical interns to double or triple the number of preventable medical errors, including those that resulted in injury or death. The risk of car crash after these shifts increased by 168%, and the risk of near miss by 460%. Interns admitted falling asleep during lectures, during rounds, and even during surgeries. Night shifts are associated with worse surgeon performance during laparoscopic surgeries.\nPractitioner risk factors include fatigue,\ndepression, and burnout.\nFactors related to the clinical setting include diverse patients, unfamiliar settings, time pressures, and increased patient-to-nurse staffing", "-24.43954495037906" ], [ "a higher level of cardiac fitness.\nHeart rates that do not drop by more than 12 bpm one minute after stopping exercise are associated with an increased risk of death. Investigators of the Lipid Research Clinics Prevalence Study, which included 5,000 subjects, found that patients with an abnormal HRrecovery (defined as a decrease of 42 beats per minutes or less at two minutes post-exercise) had a mortality rate 2.5 times greater than patients with a normal recovery. Another study by Nishime et al. and featuring 9,454 patients followed for a median period of 5.2 years found a four-fold increase in mortality", "-24.42543270252645" ], [ "the abdomen together and rub on an ointment. After a period of about four or five days, there would be no more pain. The patient would gradually regain full consciousness and within a month he would return to normal.\nHua Tuo's biography in the Houhanshu explains this mafeisan \"cannabis boiling powder\" decoction was dissolved in jiu (酒; literally \"alcoholic beverage; wine\"). His prescription for mafeisan anaesthetic liquor was lost or destroyed, along with all of his writings. The Book of Sui lists five medical books attributed to Hua Tuo and his disciples, but none are extant.\n\nThe subsequent portion of Hua Tuo's", "-24.402399310376495" ], [ "days after recovery, and consists of symptoms of meningitis or encephalitis. Pathological findings during the first stage consist of leukopenia and thrombocytopenia. During the second phase, typical findings include elevated protein levels, increased leukocyte count, or a decrease in glucose levels of the cerebrospinal fluid).\nOccasionally, a patient improves for a few days, then relapses with aseptic meningitis, or very rarely, meningoencephalitis.\nPatients with meningitis may have a stiff neck, fever, headache, myalgia, nausea and malaise. In some occasions, meningitis occurs without a prodromal syndrome. Meningoencephalitis is characterized by more profound neurological signs such as confusion, drowsiness, sensory abnormalities and", "-24.391991068725474" ], [ "diet allows for complete and permanent regrowth of scalp and other body hair in many people, but in others there are remissions and recurrences. This improvement is probably due to the normalization of the immune response as a result of gluten withdrawal from the diet. Prognosis In most cases which begin with a small number of patches of hair loss, hair grows back after a few months to a year. In cases with a greater number of patches, hair can either grow back or progress to alopecia areata totalis or, in rare cases, alopecia areata universalis.\nThere is no loss of", "-24.39050293317996" ], [ "by someone, there is no gas or the tube slips out of the bag, there is a high risk of severe hypoxia of the central nervous system\" (in survivors).\nBrain cells are very sensitive to reduced oxygen levels. Once deprived of oxygen they will begin to die off within five minutes.\nIf hypoxia results in coma, the length of unconsciousness is often indicative of long-term damage. In some cases coma can give the brain an opportunity to heal and regenerate, but, in general, the longer a coma, the greater the likelihood that the person will remain in a vegetative state until death.", "-24.389686212409288" ], [ "heart rate and respiration rate decrease; judgment becomes impaired as drowsiness supervenes, becoming steadily deeper until the individual loses consciousness; without medical intervention, death by hypothermia quickly follows. Occasionally, however, convulsions may set in towards the end, and death is caused by asphyxia.\nIn experiments on cats performed by Sutherland Simpson and Percy T. Herring, the animals were unable to survive when rectal temperature fell below 16 °C. At this low temperature, respiration became increasingly feeble; heart-impulse usually continued after respiration had ceased, the beats becoming very irregular, appearing to cease, then beginning again. Death appeared to be mainly due to asphyxia,", "-24.365213210810907" ], [ "of clinicians, researchers, teaching faculty and an independent patient advocate. Based on the 2003 \"Canadian\" definition by Carruthers et al., chronic fatigue is no longer required and the six-month waiting period before diagnosis has been dropped. The main symptom is \"post-exertional neuroimmune exhaustion\" (PENE) i.e. low stamina, rapid fatigability, symptom exacerbation, and variable onset with prolonged recovery; which is also accompanied by symptoms from neurological, immune/gastro-intestinal/genitourinary, and energy metabolism/transport impairment categories, and at least a 50% reduction in activity which is described as \"mild\". Diagnostic complications and suggested improvements The National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence (NICE) in England", "-24.329182029265212" ], [ "hormone and increasing blood levels of cortisol. Sleeping more to promote weight loss A regular sleep schedule can contribute to weight loss. While sleeping more than an average of 6.5 hours per night may have beneficial effects on weight, sleeping over 8.5 hours per night has been shown to contribute negatively to weight. Getting adequate sleep may also reduce snacking that occurs throughout the course of the day due to feeling lethargic.\nAccording to a recent study at Brigham Young University, a regular sleep schedule can make an almost immediate difference on the body's ability to metabolize fat cells. In this", "-24.321916849468835" ], [ "days or even weeks. Gradually, the body compensates for the respiratory alkalosis by renal excretion of bicarbonate, allowing adequate respiration to provide oxygen without risking alkalosis. It takes about four days at any given altitude and can be enhanced by drugs such as acetazolamide. Eventually, the body undergoes physiological changes such as lower lactate production (because reduced glucose breakdown decreases the amount of lactate formed), decreased plasma volume, increased hematocrit (polycythemia), increased RBC mass, a higher concentration of capillaries in skeletal muscle tissue, increased myoglobin, increased mitochondria, increased aerobic enzyme concentration, increase in 2,3-BPG, hypoxic pulmonary vasoconstriction, and right ventricular", "-24.321408381365472" ], [ "moved to a recovery area where he/she will be monitored.\nFor patients who had a catheterization at the femoral artery or vein (and even some of those with a radial insertion site), in general recovery is fairly quick, as the only damage is at the insertion site. The patient will probably feel fine within 8 to 12 hours after the procedure, but may feel a small pinch at the insertion site. After a short period of general rest, the patient may resume some minor activity such as gentle, short, slow walks after the first 24 hours. If stairs", "-24.272020079777576" ], [ "good enough to walk around. Most likely around the second or third day.\n\nC. The lung drain tube is usually removed last or once the flow has slowed greatly or completely stopped.\n\nD. IV's are removed usually on the 4th or 5th day. Once the patient is able to take pain medication orally Recovery and outcome After being discharged from the hospital the patient will be required to wear a back brace for the first three months after surgery. After nine months to a year a patient will be able to resume all normal activity. Unlike other spinal fusions, with a minimally", "-24.255213168711634" ], [ "in a weight loss programm, combined with active lifestyle counselling. This intervention seemed to be beneficial for patients with mild obrustrive sleep apnea. The positive effects were maintained at 1-year follow-up Sleep deprivation and type 2 diabetes Baseline levels of insulin do not signal muscle and fat cells to absorb glucose. When glucose levels are elevated, the pancreas responds by releasing insulin. Blood sugar will then rapidly drop. This can progress to type 2 diabetes.\nSleep loss can affect the basic metabolic functions of storing carbohydrates and regulating hormones. Reduction of sleep from eight hours to four hours produces changes in", "-24.23856498557143" ], [ "hours if untreated. Without treatment, the patient will enter a coma and then die. In some cases, patients have died within a few hours, and a few have survived for two days. Descriptions of fatal cases often involve climbers who continue ascending while suffering from the condition's symptoms.\nRecovery varies between days and weeks, but most recover in a few days. After the condition is successfully treated, it is possible for climbers to reascend. Dexamethesone should be discontinued, but continual acetazolamide is recommended. In one study, it took patients between one week and one month to display a normal CT scan", "-24.205650919568143" ], [ "of recovery during which there is confusion, referred to as the postictal period before a normal level of consciousness returns. It usually lasts 3 to 15 minutes but may last for hours. Other common symptoms include feeling tired, headache, difficulty speaking, and abnormal behavior. Psychosis after a seizure is relatively common, occurring in 6–10% of people. Often people do not remember what happened during this time. Localized weakness, known as Todd's paralysis, may also occur after a focal seizure. When it occurs it typically lasts for seconds to minutes but may rarely last for a day or two. Psychosocial Epilepsy", "-24.196342509665556" ], [ "this is usually due to excessive exposure to cold air or water, but it can be deliberately induced as a medical treatment. Symptoms usually appear when the body's core temperature drops by 1–2 °C (1.8–3.6 °F) below normal temperature. Basal body temperature Basal body temperature is the lowest temperature attained by the body during rest (usually during sleep). It is generally measured immediately after awakening and before any physical activity has been undertaken, although the temperature measured at that time is somewhat higher than the true basal body temperature. In women, temperature differs at various points in the menstrual cycle,", "-24.187120516558934" ], [ "Procedure Wake therapy involves one to three rounds which consist of complete sleep avoidance for the night and entire day after, then the cycles are separated with nights of recovery sleep (a full night's sleep). The treatment lasts between two and five days, depending on the number of rounds done. Relapse into depression typically occurs immediately after any amount of sleep. The intervention is done in a hospital or sleep center in order to make sure the program is done properly and full effects are established.", "-24.14926352421753" ], [ "than 10 years or who underwent a high elevation of the sternum.\nFor six weeks, physical activity should be limited (i.e. no running or strenuous physical activity, and lifting is limited to ten pounds or less). Walking for exercise and breathing exercises aid in recovery. It is sometimes suggested that weight-training should be limited or eliminated for up to three months. It is also recommended that any sports where contact may occur should be avoided. However, aerobic sports are, in fact, encouraged, as results after bar removal are best maintained in patients who have stimulated their cardiopulmonary systems while the bar", "-24.093836169398855" ], [ "Sickness, or any other payment). This waiting period, known as the exclusion period is generally six weeks however can be up to ten weeks in which you will have to survive on your own, without any government benefits. This waiting/exclusion period is not backdated, so any payment approved by Centrelink will start only once the exclusion period is exhausted. Carer Payment A Carer Payment is made to those providing a level of care to someone who is ill, injured or has a disability. A medical certificate and other supporting documentation is required. Centrelink does not offer any related services for", "-24.076322765322402" ], [ "cardiac arrest. Cold incapacitation is the next stage, and generally occurs within 5 to 15 minutes in cold water. Blood flow to the extremities is reduced by vasoconstriction as the body attempts to reduce heat loss from the vital organs of the core. This accelerates the cooling of the periphery, and reduces the functionality of the muscles and nerves. The duration of exposure to produce hypothermia varies with health, body mass and water temperature. It generally takes in the order of 30 minutes for an unprotected person in water to become hypothermic. Adaptations of aquatic mammals Diving mammals have", "-24.015879589307588" ], [ "outside the body generally has a life expectancy which is considered to depend on pH, temperature, presence of air and other factors, and is unpredictable but smaller than the life expectancy inside the human body. For instance, sperm donors who collect the sample outside the clinic are advised to have handed in the sample no more than one hour from collection, and to keep it, if not at body temperature, then at least at room temperature.\nIn a non-harmful environment outside the body, such as in a sterile glass container the number of motile sperm decreases by approximately 5-10% per hour.", "-23.98948980960995" ], [ "maintain itself. During non-REM sleep, metabolic rate and brain temperature are lowered to deal with damages that may have occurred during time of wakefulness. Normal metabolism After eating, the pancreas releases insulin. Insulin signals muscle and fat cells to absorb glucose from food. As a result, blood glucose levels return to normal. Sleep deprivation and Type 2 diabetes Insulin-Resistant Metabolism\nBaseline levels of insulin do not signal muscle and fat cells to absorb glucose. When glucose levels are elevated, the pancreas responds by releasing insulin. Blood sugar will then rapidly drop. This can progress to type 2 diabetes.\nSleep loss can affect", "-23.98687181493733" ], [ "months later in January, after traveling to visit her family, Krieger began experiencing shortness of breath and checked into the hospital as a precaution. As a result of her broken leg and subsequent plane rides, she had developed blood clots in her legs that traveled up to her lungs and caused a pulmonary embolism, affecting her blood flow and triggering six mini-heart attacks. The doctor informed her that if she had gone to sleep that night, there was a high probability that she would not have woken up. She was required to do a series of self-injections of enoxaparin for", "-23.973357973009115" ], [ "hand, has been found to both improve sleep quality as well as general mental health. Dependence and withdrawal management Nonbenzodiazepines should not be discontinued abruptly if taken for more than a few weeks due to the risk of rebound withdrawal effects and acute withdrawal reactions, which may resemble those seen during benzodiazepine withdrawal. Treatment usually entails gradually reducing the dosage over a period of weeks or several months depending on the individual, dosage, and length of time the drug has been taken. If this approach fails, a crossover to a benzodiazepine equivalent dose of a long-acting benzodiazepine (such as chlordiazepoxide", "-23.94143514492316" ], [ "of spontaneous circulation (ROSC) but no return of consciousness improves outcomes. This procedure is called targeted temperature management (previously known as therapeutic hypothermia). People are typically cooled for a 24-hour period, with a target temperature of 32–36 °C (90–97 °F). There are a number of methods used to lower the body temperature, such as applying ice packs or cold-water circulating pads directly to the body, or infusing cold saline. This is followed by gradual rewarming over the next 12 to 24 hrs.\nRecent meta-analysis found that the use of therapeutic hypothermia after out-of-hospital cardiac arrest is associated with improved survival rates and", "-23.926353593487875" ], [ "irritability), somatic symptoms (lethargy, joint pain, overeating), or cognitive symptoms (concentration difficulties, forgetfulness) that begin several days before the onset of menses, start to improve within a few days after the onset of menses, and then become minimal or absent within approximately 1 week following the onset of menses. The temporal relationship of the symptoms and luteal and menstrual phases of the cycle may be confirmed by a prospective symptom diary. The symptoms are severe enough to cause significant distress or significant impairment in personal, family, social, educational, occupational or other important areas of functioning and do not represent the", "-23.877251978148706" ], [ "tend to worsen over the years in intensity, frequency and duration. Initially, episodes last for a few seconds but can eventually progress to several minutes. The throat contraction can make breathing difficult causing stridor (not wheezing) and the patient have reported losing consciousness. Like hemifacial spasm, HeLPS is one of the very few movement disorders that can occur while sleeping. The unpredictable but inevitable choking episodes typically cause significant anxiety for the patient and may lead to a psychiatric misdiagnosis. The choking episodes can lead to intubation in the emergency room and rarely to elective tracheostomy. In between episodes, patients", "-23.861982755945064" ], [ "hospital. He underwent a tracheotomy on 27 February; however, his condition deteriorated and three weeks later both his legs were amputated below the knees after he contracted an infection and developed gangrene. His condition worsened again during 15 March and he died in his sleep the following day.", "-23.861859291617293" ], [ "expelled. In the next phase, also termed the expulsive phase, intense pressure is formed in the stomach brought about by enormous shifts in both the diaphragm and the abdomen. These shifts are, in essence, vigorous contractions of these muscles that last for extended periods of time—much longer than a normal period of muscular contraction. The pressure is then suddenly released when the upper esophageal sphincter relaxes resulting in the expulsion of gastric contents. Individuals who do not regularly exercise their abdominal muscles may experience pain in those muscles for a few days. The relief of pressure and the release of", "-23.85320909167058" ], [ "and stays overnight or for an indeterminate time, usually several days or weeks, though in some extreme cases, such as with coma or persistent vegetative state, patients can stay in hospitals for years, sometimes until death. Treatment provided in this fashion is called inpatient care. The admission to the hospital involves the production of an admission note. The leaving of the hospital is officially termed discharge, and involves a corresponding discharge note.\nMisdiagnosis is the leading cause of medical error in outpatient facilities. Ever since the National Institute of Medicine’s groundbreaking 1999 report, “To Err is Human”, found up to 98,000", "-23.84983929459122" ], [ "rises rapidly after wakening, reaching a peak within 30–45 minutes. It then gradually falls over the day, rising again in late afternoon. Cortisol levels then fall in late evening, reaching a trough during the middle of the night. This corresponds to the rest-activity cycle of the organism. An abnormally flattened circadian cortisol cycle has been linked with chronic fatigue syndrome, insomnia and burnout.\nThe HPA axis has a central role in regulating many homeostatic systems in the body, including the metabolic system, cardiovascular system, immune system, reproductive system and central nervous system. The HPA axis integrates physical and psychosocial influences in", "-23.83602136268746" ], [ "As oxygen levels in the blood drop, the patient then comes out of deep sleep in order to resume breathing. When several of these episodes occur per hour, sleep apnea rises to a level of seriousness that may require treatment.\nDiagnosing sleep apnea usually requires a professional sleep study performed in a sleep clinic, because the episodes of wakefulness caused by the disorder are extremely brief and patients usually do not remember experiencing them. Instead, many patients simply feel tired after getting several hours of sleep and have no idea why. Major risk factors for sleep apnea include chronic fatigue, old", "-23.814159046007262" ], [ "millimoles per liter (108 mg/dL), it is advisable that they take some long-acting carbohydrate before retiring to bed to prevent night-time hypoglycemia. Night sweats, headaches, restless sleep, and nightmares can be a sign of nocturnal hypoglycemia, and patients should consult their doctor for adjustments to their insulin routine if they find that this is the case. Counterintuitively, another possible sign of nocturnal hypoglycemia is morning hyperglycemia, which actually occurs in response to blood sugar getting too low at night. This is called the Somogyi effect.\nIn relation to type 2 diabetes, eating most food earlier in the day may be associated with", "-23.7956564904307" ], [ "the conclusion that I mentally medicate a human who has broken his leg is very true – but I adjust the fracture and dress the wound. And then – I give him a massage, make exercises with him, give a daily bath to the leg with water at 45 °C for half an hour and I take care that he does neither gorge nor booze, and every now and then I ask him: Why did you break your leg, you yourself ?\"\nWith such and other methods the German physician Georg Groddeck, who practised in Baden-Baden and was the pathfinder of psychosomatic medicine,", "-23.789257983880816" ], [ "aging most rapidly decreasing the half-life to just a few minutes.\nAChE is an enzyme involved with neurotransmission. Because of the severe decrease of the half-life of this enzyme, neurotransmission is abolished in a matter of minutes. Metabolism Once taken up in the human body, soman not only inhibits AChE, but it is also a substrate for other esterases. Reaction of soman with these esterases allows for the detoxication of the compound. No metabolic toxification reactions are known for soman.\nSoman can be hydrolyzed by a so-called A-esterase, more specific a diisopropylfluorophosphatase. This esterase, also called somanase, reacts with the anhydride bond", "-23.77033171686344" ], [ "should be preset by the number of repetitions or amount of time. The duration is determined by the patient using trial and error, with the goal of stopping before becoming tired. Research has shown that gradual, guided physical activity can be helpful (although not a cure) for those with CFS/ME. Support and opposition Some prominent health organisations support the usefulness of GET for chronic fatigue syndrome (UK's NHS, and the Royal Australian College of General Practitioners).\nThe patient group, ME Association's position statement states that GET causes adverse reactions in a significant percentage of patients.", "-23.755180948995985" ], [ "a person could be determined by calculating when the person's VO₂max value drops below the basal metabolic rate necessary to sustain life, which is approximately 3 ml per kg per minute. On the basis of this hypothesis, athletes with a VO₂max value between 50 and 60 at age 20 would be expected \"to live for 100 to 125 years, provided they maintained their physical activity so that their rate of decline in VO₂max remained constant\".\nLongitudinal variations of physiological indices, such as complete blood counts (CBC), along individual aging trajectories revealed a linear increase of the organism state fluctuations range with age.", "-23.74872652866179" ] ]

[ "Film distributors want to have meticulous control over the contents, price, and release dates of their DVDs in various regions of the world. This helps them maximize profits.", "So you own a big movie studio, and you've got a hot new movie coming out that's going to shatter all box-office records. As much as you'd like to, you can't release it all over the world at the same time. It's impossible for a number of reasons: * There are probably 50,000+ movie theaters around the world that will show the film, but you only printed 3,000 copies of the film (because film is expensive to print and even more expensive to store and transport) * The stars of your movie need to promote it--interviews, autograph sessions and whatnot--and they can't be on 4 different continents at once. * Your movie has to be localized--translated, dubbed or subbed, edited for content to fit with local laws and so on--and that takes time. * There are other big events or movies occurring at different times around the world, and you don't want your movie to have to compete for viewers' attention--or you want to take advantage of a national holiday--so you pick the best release dates you can for each region. Bottom line, it might take as long as nine months for your film to complete its theatrical release cycle around the world. So your film releases in March in the US. By May, theaters in the US have stopped showing it, so you get ready to release it on DVD in July, while it's still relatively fresh in people's minds. But in South Africa, it won't hit theaters until December. How do you stop South Africans from importing the DVD from the US, instead of waiting until December to watch the movie in theaters there? Region codes. There's also regional pricing differences to consider. In America, where everyone is fat and happy, people can afford to pay $30 for a DVD. But in Brazil, $30 is way too much for any average citizen to reasonably afford; so you might sell it there for $5. But what's to stop an American from importing the DVD from Brazil for $5, instead of paying $30 at home? Region codes.", "Region encoded media allows the distributor more control over pricing and release dates, so in one word, money." ]

[ [ "in that particular region, such as NTSC and PAL, although from early 1990s PAL machines increasingly offered NTSC playback. DVDs are less restricted in this sense, and region coding allows movie studios to better control the global release dates of DVDs.\nAlso, the copyright in a title may be held by different entities in different territories. Region coding enables copyright holders to (attempt to) prevent a DVD from a region from which they do not derive royalties from being played on a DVD player inside their region. Region coding attempts to dissuade importing of DVDs from one region into another. Standalone", "-30.62238405563403" ], [ "DVD+R DL Dual-layer recording Dual-layer recording allows DVD-R and DVD+R discs to store significantly more data, up to 8.5 gigabytes per disc, compared with 4.7 gigabytes for single-layer discs. DVD-R DL was developed for the DVD Forum by Pioneer Corporation, while DVD+R DL was developed for the DVD+RW Alliance by Philips and Mitsubishi Kagaku Media (MKM).\nA dual-layer disc differs from its usual DVD counterpart by employing a second physical layer within the disc itself. The drive with dual-layer capability accesses the second layer by shining the laser through the first semi-transparent layer. The layer change can exhibit a noticeable pause", "-29.977831900774618" ], [ "also featured a branching storyline. DVD games A DVD game (sometimes called DVDi, \"DVD interactive\") is a standalone game that can be played on a set-top DVD player. The game takes advantage of technology built into the DVD format to create an interactive gaming environment compatible with most DVD players without requiring additional hardware. DVD TV games were first developed in the late 1990s. They were poorly received and understood as an entertainment medium. However, DVD-based game consoles like the PlayStation 2 popularized DVD-based gaming, and also functioned as a DVD video player. In addition, the format has been", "-29.892932035087142" ], [ "the proportions of the video. If an anamorphic DVD video is played on standard 4:3 television without adjustment, the image will look horizontally squeezed. Packaging Although currently there is no labeling standard, DVDs with content originally produced in an aspect ratio wider than 1.33:1 are typically labeled \"Anamorphic Widescreen\", \"Enhanced for 16:9 televisions\", \"Enhanced for widescreen televisions\", or similar. If not so labeled, the DVD is intended for a 4:3 display (\"fullscreen\"), and will be letterboxed or panned and scanned.\nThere has been no clear standardization for companies to follow regarding the advertisement of anamorphically enhanced widescreen DVDs. Some companies,", "-29.8081960931886" ], [ "scenario for DVD movies) while offering only a negligible benefit in capacity. Additionally, without a non-data side, they proved harder to handle and store. Dual-layer discs Dual-layer discs also employ a second recorded layer, however both are readable from the same side (and unreadable from the other). These DVD-9 discs (Type C in ISO) nearly double the capacity of DVD-5 discs to a nominal 8.5 GB, but fall below the overall capacity of DVD-10 discs due to differences in the physical data structure of the additional recorded layer. However, the advantage of not needing to flip the disc to access", "-29.704710369871464" ], [ "DVD-R DL Dual layer recording Dual Layer recording allows DVD-R and DVD+R discs to store significantly more data, up to 8.5 GB, per disc, compared with 4.7 GB for single-layer discs. DVD-R DL was developed for the DVD Forum by Pioneer Corporation, DVD+R DL (formally known as Double Layer) was developed for the DVD+RW Alliance by Philips and Mitsubishi Kagaku Media (MKM).\nA Dual Layer disc differs from its usual DVD counterpart by employing a second physical layer within the disc itself. The drive with Dual Layer capability accesses the second layer by shining the laser through the first semi-transparent layer.", "-29.499321821233025" ], [ "exposed to a rapidly changing magnetic field of sufficient strength, DVDs and other optical discs are not affected by magnetic fields. Even though DVDs do not have the problems of tapes, such as breakage of the tape or the cassette mechanism, DVDs can still be damaged by scratches. Another factor for movie rental stores is that DVDs are smaller and take less space to store. DVDs offer a number of advantages for the viewer: DVDs can support both standard 4x3 and widescreen 16x9 screen aspect ratios and DVDs can provide twice the video resolution of VHS. As well, a viewer", "-29.479430669161957" ], [ "Comparison of popular optical data-storage systems Coverage DVD has three variants, known as \"+\", \"-\" and \"RAM\". For the purposes of this article, DVD+ and DVD- are considered together as \"DVD\"; they share many of the same characteristics. Differences are noted below.\nDVD-RAM, which did not gain wide penetration of the consumer market, is discussed briefly in the same section but otherwise excluded from the article.\nROM formats are excluded; they perform rather like write-once \"R\" formats, without the capacity to write to the disc. Likewise other niche formats are excluded, such as GD-ROM (used by some Sega game consoles) and Ultra", "-29.40353934239829" ], [ "5D DVD Advantages over current discs 5D DVDs use a writing system that uses extremely tiny particles on which data is written, with multiple layers that are read by three different colors of laser (rather than only one, as is the case with DVDs and Blu-ray discs). According to the developers, this could result in discs with a capacity of 10 terabytes, approximately 2000 times the capacity of a standard DVD, compared to Holographic Versatile Disc technology, which has an estimated maximum disc capacity of 6 terabytes. The similarity of disc writing would also make it easier to make 5D", "-29.392750418027845" ], [ "data of a single-layer disc—8.5 and 4.7 gigabyte capacities, respectively. The additional capacity comes at a cost: DVD±DLs have slower write speeds as compared to DVD±R. DVD-R DL was developed for the DVD Forum by Pioneer Corporation; DVD+R DL was developed for the DVD+RW Alliance by Mitsubishi Kagaku Media (MKM) and Philips.\nRecordable DVD discs supporting dual-layer technology are backward-compatible with some hardware developed before the recordable medium. Many current DVD recorders support dual-layer technology, and while the costs became comparable to single-layer burners over time, blank dual-layer media has remained more expensive than single-layer media. DVD drives and players DVD", "-29.337683749035932" ], [ "CD. There is also a hybrid HD DVD format which contains both DVD and HD DVD versions of the same movie on a single disc, providing a smooth transition for the studios in terms of publishing movies, and allowing consumers with only DVD players to still use the discs. DVD replication companies can continue using their current production equipment with only minor alterations when changing over to the format of HD DVD replication. Due to the structure of the single-lens optical head, both red and blue laser diodes can be used in smaller, more compact HD DVD players. General purpose", "-29.317418955266476" ], [ "DTS 96/24 5.1-channel, audio track.\nSince the DVD-Audio format is a member of the DVD family, a single disc can have multiple layers, and even two sides that contain audio and video material. A common configuration is a single-sided DVD with content in both the DVD-Video (VIDEO_TS) and DVD-Audio (AUDIO_TS) directories. The high-resolution, Packed PCM audio encoded using MLP is only playable by DVD players containing DVD-Audio decoding capability. DVD-Video content, which can include LPCM, Dolby or DTS material, and even video, makes the disc compatible with all DVD players. Other disc configurations may consist of double layer DVDs (DVD-9) or two-sided", "-29.270299721276388" ], [ "it, a basic DVD disc—known as DVD-5 in the DVD Books, while called Type A in the ISO standard—contains a single data layer readable from only one side. However, the DVD format also includes specifications for three types of discs with additional recorded layers, expanding disc data capacity beyond the 4.7 GB of DVD-5 while maintaining the same physical disc size. Double-sided discs Borrowing from the LaserDisc format, the DVD standard includes DVD-10 discs (Type B in ISO) with two recorded data layers such that only one layer is accessible from either side of the disc. This doubles the total", "-29.019686009851284" ], [ "DVD formats Recordable format compatibility DVD drives from 2004 onward should be able to read either of the competing recordable formats; older drives may read DVD+R discs better. As of 2007, DVD drives typically allow writing to both DVD-R[W] and DVD+R[W] discs, making the difference largely irrelevant to the average consumer. Application formats VR Mode, also known as Video Recording mode, is a new format that allows editing and deleting of titles and has defect management. This mode is used by the DVD-RAM and DVD-RW formats. Because it is newer than DVD Video mode, it can only be played", "-29.007112001010682" ], [ "DVD-RAM for random access on optical media using phase-change principals. It would hold 20 gigabytes per layer instead of 15 gigabytes for HD DVD-R, due to differences in recording methods used, yielding a higher density disc. DVD / HD DVD hybrid discs There are two types of hybrid formats which contain standard DVD-Video format video for playback in regular DVD players, and HD DVD video for playback in high definition on HD DVD players. The Combo disc is a dual sided disc with one side DVD and the other HD DVD, each of which can have up to two layers.", "-28.936984483269043" ], [ "by adjusting the temperature of the laser. Rewritable CDs and DVDs usually use aluminium reflective layers, because the phase changing film degrades faster than aluminium oxidizes.\nBlu-ray Discs/HD DVDs represent a new generation of optical media. Both disc types use unique blue-violet laser beams to read data, and are not compatible with equipment for other formats. Blu-ray Discs and HD DVDs are incompatible, and were engaged in a format war until Toshiba announced its discontinuation of the HD DVD format on February 19. 2008. The structure of HD DVDs is similar to normal DVDs, with the data layer protected by layers", "-28.72845093486103" ], [ "Regional lockout Disc regions The DVD, Blu-ray Disc, and UMD media formats all support the use of region coding; DVDs use eight region codes (Region 7 is reserved for future use; Region 8 is used for \"international venues\", such as airplanes and cruise ships), and Blu-ray Discs use three region codes corresponding to different areas of the world. Currently, most Blu-ray discs have been released region-free.\nOn computers, the DVD region can usually be changed five times. Windows uses three region counters: its own one, the one of the DVD drive, and the one of the player software (occasionally, the player", "-28.55851250885462" ], [ "back in more recent DVD players that support it.\nVideo mode is the standard DVD video mode format used by DVD movies. Because the DVD Video format was invented before DVDs were recordable it doesn't allow editing of the disc, doesn't support defect management and is therefore not as robust. Space from deleted titles may not be fully reclaimed until the disc is completely erased. It is compatible with most DVD players. It is used on DVD-RW and DVD-R discs, but has never used for DVD-RAM. Most (but not all) recorders that use DVD-RW will offer the choice of VR mode", "-28.512077048493666" ], [ "even less on some networks), beginning in the early 21st century.\nThe usage of \"season\" and \"series\" differ for DVD and Blu-ray releases in both Australia and the UK. In Australia, many locally produced shows are termed differently on home video releases. For example, a set of the television drama series Packed to the Rafters or Wentworth is referred to as \"season\" (\"The Complete First Season\", etc.), whereas drama series such as Tangle are known as a \"series\" (\"Series 1\", etc.). However, British-produced shows such as Mrs. Brown's Boys are referred to as \"season\" in Australia for the DVD and Blu-ray", "-28.511235121259233" ], [ "DVD TV Format Unlike many trivia shows and movies with a \"pop-up\" format, DVD_TV is configured with respect for both action and picture. DVD_TV movies are always presented in their original theatrical aspect ratio, so the 4:3 televised version allows room for text to run in the black letterbox area, as opposed to interfering with picture. Trivia is organized to appear during relevant scenes in the movie, and is written and timed to play in a measured, conversational, and sometimes irreverent manner.\nThe exhaustive research done for DVD_TV allows for an in-depth look at each film's production story, historical background, and", "-28.465570465661585" ], [ "considerably; encoding in lower bit-rates also allows a TV series to be squeezed onto fewer discs. There is no region coding in such cases.\nThere are also two additional region codes, region 7, which is reserved, and region 8, which is used exclusively for passenger transport such as airlines and cruise ships. Programming interface A virtual machine implemented by the DVD player runs bytecode contained on the DVD. This is used to control playback and display special effects on the menus. The instruction set is called the Virtual Machine (VM) DVD command set. There are 16 general parameter registers (GPRM) to", "-28.38510470231995" ], [ "who wants to skip ahead to the end of a movie can do so much faster with a DVD than with a VHS tape (which has to be rewound). DVDs can have interactive menus, multiple language tracks, audio commentaries, Closed Captioning and subtitling (with the option of turning the subtitles on or off, or selecting subtitles in several languages). Moreover, a DVD can be played on a computer.\nDue to these advantages, by the mid-2000s, DVDs were the dominant form of prerecorded video movies in both the rental film and new movie markets. In the late 1990s and early 2000s, though,", "-28.277038365311455" ], [ "DVDs used to be indicated as WS.DVDRip.\nDVDMux differs from DVDRips as they tend to use the x264 codec for video, AAC or AC3 codec for audio and multiplex it on a .mp4/.mkv file. DVD-R DVD-R refers to a final retail version of a film in DVD format, generally a complete copy from the original DVD. If the original DVD is released in the DVD-9 format, however, extras might be removed and/or the video reencoded to make the image fit the less expensive for burning and quicker to download DVD-5 format. DVD-R releases often accompany DVD-Rips. DVD-R rips are larger in", "-28.275575569365174" ], [ "for CD), accounting in part for DVD's increased storage capacity.\nIn comparison, Blu-ray Disc, the successor to the DVD format, uses a wavelength of\n405 nm (violet), and one dual-layer disc has a 50 GB storage capacity. DVD-Video DVD-Video is a standard for distributing video/audio content on DVD media. The format went on sale in Japan on November 1, 1996, in the United States on March 24, 1997 to line up with the 69th Academy Awards that day; in Canada, Central America, and Indonesia later in 1997, and in Europe, Asia, Australia, and Africa in 1998. DVD-Video became the dominant form of home video", "-28.24785006896127" ], [ "resulting in equivalent levels of audio and visual quality, but differ in other aspects such as interactive capabilities, internet integration, usage control and enforcement, and in which features were mandatory for players. The storage size also varies: A dual-layer HD DVD holds a maximum of 30 GB of data, while a dual-layer Blu-ray Disc carries 50 GB. Development Even after finalizing the HD DVD standard, engineers continued developing the technology. A 51 GB triple-layer spec was approved at the DVD Forums 40th Steering Committee Meeting (held on November 15, 2007). No movies had been scheduled for this disc type, and Toshiba", "-28.247232880908996" ], [ "discs.\nDVD recordable discs supporting this technology are backward compatible with some existing DVD players and DVD-ROM drives. Many current DVD recorders support dual-layer technology, and the price is now comparable to that of single-layer drives, though the blank media remains more expensive. The recording speeds reached by dual-layer media are still well below those of single-layer media.\nThere are two modes for dual layer orientation. With parallel track path (PTP), used on DVD-ROM, both layers start at the inside diameter (ID) and end at the outside diameter (OD) with the lead-out. With Opposite Track Path (OTP), used on DVD-Video, the lower", "-28.245313877938315" ], [ "and public lending of DVD copies of their work. DVD-Audio DVD-Audio is a format for delivering high fidelity audio content on a DVD. It offers many channel configuration options (from mono to 5.1 surround sound) at various sampling frequencies (up to 24-bits/192 kHz versus CDDA's 16-bits/44.1 kHz). Compared with the CD format, the much higher-capacity DVD format enables the inclusion of considerably more music (with respect to total running time and quantity of songs) or far higher audio quality (reflected by higher sampling rates, greater sample resolution and additional channels for spatial sound reproduction).\nDVD-Audio briefly formed a niche market, probably due to", "-28.240129919722676" ], [ "DVD±R DVD±R (also DVD+/-R, or \"DVD plus/dash R\") is not a separate DVD format, but rather is a shorthand term for a DVD drive that can accept both of the common recordable DVD formats (i.e. DVD-R and DVD+R). Likewise, DVD±RW (also written as DVD±R/W, DVD±R/RW, DVD±R/±RW, DVD+/-RW, and other arbitrary ways) handles both common rewritable disc types (i.e. DVD-RW and DVD+RW, but not usually DVD-RAM).", "-28.166824265310424" ], [ "playback are intended. The commercial DVD player specification dictates that a player must only play discs that contain its region code. In theory, this allows the motion picture studios to control the various aspects of a release (including content, date and price) on a region-by-region basis, or ensure the success of \"staggered\" or delayed cinema releases from country to country. For example, the British movie 28 Days Later was released on DVD in Europe several months prior to the film's release in North American movie theaters. Regional coding kept the European DVD unplayable for most North American consumers, thereby ensuring", "-28.090545076003764" ], [ "to Moura the intention was to make a DVD completely different from the market, putting everything that a disk has capacity. The images were taken in high definition, which allowed them to reach the disc with quality seven times higher than normal DVDs.\nThe user can enjoy three screen formats: full screen (Pan and scan), with Letterboxing, and Widescreen. The options are available not only to the movie but also to all the extras. The director of the DVD, Brent Hieat, said some scenes have already been recorded for multi-angle viewing. \"By the way, the whole movie can be seen like", "-28.065532807493582" ], [ "manifests itself in various compression artifacts. To maintain quality the main title and the extras may be released on several discs, or the extras may be omitted completely like in the \"Superbit\" line of DVDs. Restrictions DVD-Video has four complementary systems designed to restrict the DVD user in various ways: Macrovision, Content Scramble System (CSS), region codes, and disabled user operations (UOPs). There are also anti-ripping techniques intended to foil ripping software. Content Scramble System Many DVD-Video titles use Content Scramble System (CSS) encryption, which is intended to discourage people from copying the disc. Usually, users need to install software", "-28.00623252769583" ], [ "Silverline Records, OgreOgress productions, Tacet and Teldec) have released or are continuing to release albums on DVD-Audio, but the number is minimal compared to standard CDs. New high-definition titles have been released in standard DVD-Video format (which can contain two-channel Linear PCM audio data ranging from 48 kHz/16-bit to 96 kHz/24-bit), \"HDAD\", which includes a DVD-Video format recording on one side and DVD-Audio on the other, CD/DVD packages, which can include the album on both CD and DVD-Audio, or DualDisc, which can contain DVD-Audio content on the DVD side. In addition, some titles that had been initially released as a standalone DVD-Audio", "-27.97524002561113" ], [ "Mbit/s vs 4-5 Mbit/s) as that of standard DVDs, which helps minimize artifacts caused by video compression and allow the image to be pre-filtered less prior to compression, which results in more detail. Superbit should not be confused with either Blu-ray or HD DVD discs, both of which are different media formats of much higher bit rate and resolution, and are incompatible with standard DVD video players.\nTo maximize space for the main feature, static menus are used and commentary tracks are removed. To further improve the size and therefore quality of the film on the disc, Superbit discs contained a", "-27.865743949543685" ], [ "DVD+VR The DVD+VR standard defines a logical format for DVD-Video compliant recording on optical discs. It is intended to be used on DVD+R and DVD+RW media. Most DVD video recorders in the market that support these two types of media also use the DVD+VR format for recording video on them. It is possible to use the DVD+VR format with DVD-R and DVD-RW discs and some recorders exist which do this. The versatility of such recorders is usually limited to eliminate the need for the recorder to store large amounts of video as the disc is rewritten. Technical format", "-27.85729898311547" ], [ "some Paramount and Warner titles, and for many Blu-ray titles a Linear PCM track for the primary language. On the other hand, most titles released on the HD DVD format include Dolby Digital Plus tracks for each language in the region, and some also include a Dolby TrueHD track for the primary language. Interactivity Both Blu-ray Disc and HD DVD have two main options for interactivity (on-screen menus, bonus features, etc.).\nHD DVD's Standard Content is a minor change from standard DVD's subpicture technology, while Blu-ray's BDMV is completely new. This makes transitioning from standard DVD to Standard Content HD DVD", "-27.84374396567" ], [ "discs (DVD-10, DVD-14 or DVD-18). Some labels have released two-sided DVD titles that contain DVD-Audio content on one side and DVD-Video content on the other, the Classic Records HDAD being one such example.\nUnofficial playback of DVD-Audio on a PC is possible through freeware audio player foobar2000 for Windows using an open source plug-in extension called DVDADecoder. VLC media player has DVD-Audio support Cyberlink's PowerDVD Version 8 provides an official method of playing DVD-Audio discs. This feature was dropped from version 9 onwards. Creative also provide a dedicated DVD-Audio player with some of its Soundblaster Audigy and X-Fi cards. Sound quality", "-27.836885862401687" ], [ "while the DVD was altered. What this is instead, perhaps, is a difference in processing. The VHS transfer is \"open matte\", showing top and bottom picture information that would usually be cropped in theatrical showings. In this case, it made the scenes with the boy more revealing. In contrast, the DVD is matted widescreen, reflecting the theatrical intent of being more restrained about the boy's nudity.", "-27.775363285909407" ], [ "however: DVD-R predominating for stand-alone DVD recorders and players, and (for computers) most DVD devices being engineered as dual format, to be compatible with both. As of 2007 DVD is the de facto standard for pre-recorded movies, and popular storage of data beyond the capacity of CD.\nWith the development of high definition television, and the popularization of broadband and digital storage of movies, a further format development took place, again giving rise to two camps: HD DVD and Blu-ray, based upon a switch from red to blue-violet laser and tighter engineering tolerances. As of 2007 both have significant releases in", "-27.748695748930913" ], [ "distributed across the DVD. DVD Shrink can automatically re-compress video, to as little as 39% of its original size, depending on the aspect ratio of the original DVD (with a corresponding loss in quality) to allow it to fit on a standard DVD±R(W), a Dual-Layer DVD+R, or any user-defined custom size. When \"Deep Analysis\" and \"Adaptive Error Compensation\" options are selected, the quality of the resulting DVD is improved. These options are more time-consuming because DVD Shrink runs through the DVD once doing the analysis, and then again doing the transcoding. The transcoder in DVD Shrink was unusual at the", "-27.731054295582" ], [ "DVD-Video size, is the conventional case for DVD-Audio, and as of mid-2006, the case format for all albums released by the Universal Music Group in Europe.\nMany alternatives to the standard jewel case may also be found, including larger DVD-style cases with a more book-like shape. It is not uncommon to find CDs housed in custom cases, tins and boxes of varying shapes and sizes. Slipcases and other envelope-type designs are also occasionally used.\nSome DualDiscs are packaged in jewel cases of a somewhat different design from the CD version; the inside edge is rounded instead of flat, and the physical position", "-27.72519238613313" ], [ "the audience to see how the director envisioned the main title without the constraints which are placed on a theatrical release.\nOther extras that can be included on DVDs are motion menus, still pictures, up to 32 selectable subtitles, seamless branching for multiple storylines, up to 9 camera angles, and DVD-ROM / data files that can be accessed on a computer.\nExtra features require additional storage space, which often means encoding the main title with lower than possible data rate to fit both the main title and the extras on one disc. Lower data rate may decrease visual and sound quality, which", "-27.695212640581303" ], [ "less. For example, an 8.5 GB DVD can hold about 90 minutes of 1080p video encoded with VC-1 or AVC at an average bitrate of 12 Mbit/s, which corresponds with the average length of Hollywood feature-films. If quality is compromised slightly, and good compression techniques are used, most feature films could be encoded with 3× DVD. Due to its much greater resolution, HD-Video also has significantly more redundant information than DVD which newer compression standards can encode more efficiently.\nIt is technically possible for consumers to create HD DVD compatible discs using low cost DVD-R or DVD+R media. At least one", "-27.629720018419903" ], [ "is selected, to fit it onto the selected size of DVD. If Special Features are also selected, their compression may be manually selected at the minimum possible using the Custom Ratio option, to give disk space to the Main Title.\nIn \"Full Disk\" mode, DVD Shrink allows the user to make a functionally identical backup copy without changes; alternatively random audio/subtitle streams can be deselected. Sections of the DVD, such as unwanted messages or logos/titles, can be replaced with still images, saving disk space for the Main Title. The compression can be automatic or manual, which allows selection of greatest compression", "-27.60830181039637" ], [ "format (Schlafes Bruder, Showgirls, Mikrokosmos).\nVideo was stretched vertically to fill the whole 4/3 picture of a Laserdisc (and add more information where black bars would be at the top and bottom) then either un-squeezed horizontally on a 16:9 TV set or using an anamorphic lens on a 4:3 video projector. DVD Video A DVD labeled as \"Widescreen Anamorphic\" contains video that has the same frame size in pixels as traditional fullscreen video, but uses wider pixels. The shape of the pixels is called pixel aspect ratio and is encoded in the video stream for a DVD player to correctly identify", "-27.51501018750423" ], [ "cards. Types of hubs The structural differences between a CD and a DVD have led many manufacturers to study different hub designs for keeping the DVD (or the DVDs, in multi-disc cases) in place: unlike CDs, which are made from one layer of plastic material, DVDs have two layers, which are thinner (so that together they reach the same thickness of a CD) and not bonded all the way to the center. As a result, a DVD hub is weaker than a CD's, and may be damaged if stored in a case which is designed for CDs only.\nIn addition to", "-27.5122556508868" ], [ "DVD Etymology The Oxford English Dictionary comments that, \"In 1995 rival manufacturers of the product initially named digital video disc agreed that, in order to emphasize the flexibility of the format for multimedia applications, the preferred abbreviation DVD would be understood to denote digital versatile disc.\" The OED also states that in 1995, \"The companies said the official name of the format will simply be DVD. Toshiba had been using the name ‘digital video disc’, but that was switched to ‘digital versatile disc’ after computer companies complained that it left out their applications.\"\n\"Digital versatile disc\" is the explanation provided in", "-27.477989124832675" ], [ "among other reasons. Toshiba ended production of their HD DVD players and discontinued promotion of the format, while the HD DVD movie release schedule concluded by June 2008.\nAfter HD DVD was discontinued, Blu-ray became the de facto high-definition optical disc format. However, sales figures suggest that DVD is in no immediate danger of disappearing. All standard DVDs will play on existing Blu-ray players, making the switch to Blu-ray much easier than the switch from VHS to DVD. Moreover, some labels are cutting back on Blu-ray Disc releases in favor of DVD-Video, claiming that low sales do not justify the more", "-27.414133458165452" ], [ "strong performance in the rental market (e.g., cult films).\nVHS became the leading consumer tape format for home movies after the \"videotape format war\", though its follow-ups S-VHS, W-VHS and D-VHS never caught up in popularity. In early 2000's in the prerecorded video market, VHS began to be displaced by DVD. The DVD format has several advantages over VHS tape. A DVD is much better able to take repeated viewings than VHS tape, which can crack or break, which makes DVDs a better format from a rental store's perspective. As well, whereas a VHS tape can be erased if it is", "-27.30965410999488" ], [ "time of its release in that it employs compressed domain video processing technology to avoid a full decode and re-encode of the video stream. This boosts performance significantly as only part of the video stream is decoded and scraped.\nDVD Shrink operates in two main modes, \"Reauthor\" and \"Full Disk\".\nIn \"Reauthor\" mode, the interface allows the user to choose specifically which DVD elements (Main Title, Menus, audio tracks and subtitles, and Special Features) to retain on the \"shrunken\" DVD; the Menu clips are stored in folders and some of them are playable. The compression is automatic if the Main Title only", "-27.280342336860485" ], [ "These \"limited editions\" usually contain the best DVD edition possible of a film with special items in a box set, sometimes containing items available only in the limited edition. Items marked thus are often (but not always) released for a shorter time and in lower quantity than common editions, often with a running number (e.g. \"13055 of 20000\") printed on the products to boost the rarity feel, as the company implies not to manufacture more. It is also common to have such items packaged with unique designs.\nWith the success of DVDs, special editions of films themselves (instead of just special", "-27.253050198967685" ], [ "all SDTV resolutions supported by DVD-Video, and HDTV formats: 720p, 1080i, and 1080p. All studio-released movie titles have featured video in a 1080-line format, with companion supplements in 480i or 480p. The vast majority of releases were encoded with VC-1, and most of the remaining titles encoded with H.264/MPEG-4 AVC. Digital rights management If a publisher wishes to restrict use of its HD DVD content, it may use the Advanced Access Content System (AACS) although this is not required for normal disc playback. AACS is a standard for content distribution and digital rights management. It is developed by AACS", "-27.24932897166582" ], [ "disc is updated every time it is used. Due to DVD-Video not being able to take advantage of defect management and the extra overhead of background finalising after each edit or recording, the +VR mode has always been the least reliable, and the editing features may be missing on some DVD recorders to make it more robust.\nBecause Video Mode and VR mode are Forum standards, they are only used when recording to DVD approved formats i.e. DVD-RAM/DVD-RW/DVD-R discs. DVD+RW isn't approved by the DVD Forum and manufacturers can't get a license for it to use the above modes, leading Philips", "-27.248650753172114" ], [ "DVD card A DVD card, also called Business Card DVD, is a DVD with the size and shape of a business card. Much like a traditional DVD, is an optical based media whose primary function is DVD-video playback and data storage. In recent years, the DVD card format has been used in the retail market to distribute sports and entertainment titles. However, leveraging its affinity with business, loyalty and payment cards, the DVD Card has also been used for promotional and marketing purposes.\nA DVD card contains data accessible by a computer, DVD player, PlayStation, Xbox, and most other devices that", "-27.237731084867846" ], [ "the de facto standard for audio recordings, although its place for other multimedia recordings and optical data storage has largely been superseded by DVD.\nDVD (initially an acronym of \"Digital Video Disc\", then backronymed as \"Digital Versatile Disc\" and officially just \"DVD\") was the mass market successor to CD. DVD was rolled out in 1996, again initially for video and audio. DVD recordable formats developed some time later: DRD- in late 1997 and DVD+ in 2002. Although DVD was initially intended to prevent a format war in fact one did arise between these two formats. It was resolved with both surviving", "-27.18225112138316" ], [ "the time that they had no plans to use DVD in their gaming systems.) Game consoles such as the PlayStation 2, Xbox, and Xbox 360 use DVDs as their source medium for games and other software. Contemporary games for Windows were also distributed on DVD. Specifications The DVD specifications created and updated by the DVD Forum are published as so-called DVD Books (e.g. DVD-ROM Book, DVD-Audio Book, DVD-Video Book, DVD-R Book, DVD-RW Book, DVD-RAM Book, DVD-AR Book, DVD-VR Book, etc.).\nSome specifications for mechanical, physical and optical characteristics of DVD optical discs can be downloaded as freely available standards from the", "-27.081261532905046" ], [ "R5 refers to DVD Region 5. In an effort to compete with copyright infringement in these areas, the movie industry chose to create a new format for DVD releases that could be produced more quickly and less expensively than traditional DVD releases. R5 releases differ from normal releases in that they often lack both the image post-processing and special features that are common on DVD releases. This allows the film to be released for sale at the same time that DVD screeners are released. Since these screeners are the chief source of high-quality pre-DVD release unauthorized film copies (in comparison", "-27.010032610676717" ], [ "Windows 7) in Vista supported only closed caption channels 1 and 2 (not 3 or 4). Apple's DVD Player does not have the ability to read and decode Line 21 caption data which are recorded on a DVD made from an over-the-air broadcast. It can display some movie DVD captions.\nIn addition to Line 21 closed captions, video DVDs may also carry subtitles, which generally rendered from the EIA-608 captions as a bitmap overlay that can be turned on and off via a set top DVD player or DVD player software, just like the textual captions. This type of captioning is", "-26.973867666441947" ], [ "DVD standard.\nSome hardware players will also play DVD-ROMs or CD-ROMs containing \"raw\" MPEG video files; these are \"unauthored\" and lack the file and header structure that defines DVD-Video. Standard DVD-Video files contain extra information (such as the number of video tracks, chapters and links to extra features) that DVD players use to navigate the disc.\nThe maximum chapters allowed per title is 99 and the maximum titles allowed per DVD is 99. File system Almost all DVD-Video discs use the UDF bridge format, which is a combination of the DVD MicroUDF (a subset of UDF 1.02) and ISO 9660 file systems.\nThe", "-26.969454239850165" ], [ "episodes in the Region 1 DVD are cut to fit about 30 minute runtime. For example, the biggest cut is from the S2E7 \"The Green Eyed Monster\" episode, which is cut from 40:45 UK/R2 runtime to 30:05 Region 1 runtime. The Region 1 release has English closed captions. The UK Region 2 does not have any subtitles.", "-26.95542366441805" ], [ "in some DVD players, up to several seconds. This caused more than just a few viewers to worry that their dual-layer discs were damaged or defective, with the end result that studios began listing a standard message explaining the dual-layer pausing effect on all dual-layer disc packaging.\nDVD recordable discs supporting this technology are backward compatible with some existing DVD players and DVD-ROM drives. Many current DVD recorders support dual-layer technology, and the price is now comparable to that of single-layer drives, though the blank media remain more expensive. The recording speeds reached by dual-layer media are still well below those", "-26.952643494179938" ], [ "nominal capacity of a DVD-10 disc to 9.4 GB, but each side is locked to 4.7 GB. Like DVD-5 discs, DVD-10 discs are defined as single-layer (SL) discs.\nDouble-sided discs identify the sides as A and B. The disc structure lacks the dummy layer where identifying labels are printed on single-sided discs, so information such as title and side are printed on one or both sides of the non-data clamping zone at the center of the disc.\nDVD-10 discs fell out of favor because, unlike dual-layer discs, they require users to manually flip them to access the complete content (a relatively egregious", "-26.874455140554346" ], [ "Advanced Content is based on web technologies such as HTML, XML, CSS, SMIL, and ECMAScript (JavaScript), so authoring in Advanced Content should be a fairly easy transition for web developers. No existing DVD authoring experience is required. In comparison, Blu-ray Disc content is authored using either a scripting environment (BDMV) or a Java-based platform (BD-J). DVD video discs use pre-rendered MPEG segments, selectable subtitle pictures, and simple programmatic navigation which is considerably more limited. Compatibility Backward compatibility is available with all HD DVD players, allowing users to have a single player to play all types of HD DVD, DVD and", "-26.800565112615004" ], [ "DVD player will produce a picture that is visually indistinguishable from other units; differences in image quality between players only becomes easily apparent on larger televisions, and substantial leaps in image quality are generally only obtained with expensive, high-end players that allow for post-processing of the MPEG-2 stream during playback. \nIn contrast, LaserDisc playback quality is highly dependent on hardware quality, and major variances in picture quality appear between different makers and models of LD players, even when tested on a low to mid-range television. The obvious benefits of using high quality equipment has helped keep demand for some players", "-26.78591898549348" ], [ "software has no region counter of its own, but uses that of Windows). After the fifth region change, the system is locked to that region. In modern DVD drives (type RPC-2), the region lock is saved to its hardware, so that even reinstalling Windows or using the drive with a different computer will not unlock the drive again.\nUnlike DVD regions, Blu-ray regions are verified only by the player software, not by the computer system or the drive. The region code is stored in a file or the registry, and there are hacks to reset the region counter of the player", "-26.74643850364373" ], [ "or Total HD) at CES 2007. THD hybrid discs were to support both HD DVD and Blu-ray Disc, with HD DVD on one side (up to two layers) and Blu-ray Disc on the other side (up to two layers). In November 2007, Warner Bros. cancelled THD's development. 3× DVD The HD DVD format also applies to current red laser DVDs; this type of disc is called \"3× DVD\", as it is capable of three times the bandwidth of regular DVD-Video.\n3× DVDs are physically identical to normal DVDs. Although 3× DVDs provide the same high definition content, their playback time is", "-26.73047562263673" ], [ "overview The DVD+VR format basically defines how to record video in a DVD-Video compliant manner to an optical disc. The resulting disc should, after finalization, play back on any DVD Video player that can physically read the media. The DVD-Video standard was never intended to be used for recording though, and in order to achieve the goal of making a DVD Video recorder, some tricks are needed when recording the disc. \nFor example: For the DVD video format, a recording is stored in an MPEG program stream, containing DVD-Video specific packets for navigation purposes—such as fast forward and fast reverse.", "-26.72032192943152" ], [ "Although often the CD size is dictated by the length of the movie or video. One movie typically uses two CDs, although length may force the release to be a 3 or 4 CD release. The source of these theatrical releases is typically analog, such as CAM, telecine or telesync releases (movies recorded by a camera in theatres, often with external audio sources). VCDs from other sources such as DVD, VHS, TV, Pay-Per-View specials, Porn or Anime may also be released in the .mpg or .asf format. DVD and VHS rips are only allowed if there was no screener released", "-26.712732522762963" ], [ "DVD video format was first introduced in Japan in 1996, later in 1997 in the U.S. as limited test run, then across Europe and the other continents from late 1998 onwards. Blu-ray Disc Blu-ray Disc, yet again primarily developed by Philips and Sony, utilizes blue-violet coloured diodes to create an even shorter wavelength beam than CD or DVD. Because of this, the capacity is much more than that of CD or DVD, being 25 GB single-layered or 50 GB dual-layered.", "-26.703099176229443" ], [ "that were exclusive to Blu-ray in the United States such as Sony's xXx, Fox's Fantastic Four: Rise of the Silver Surfer and The Prestige, were released on HD DVD in other countries due to different distribution agreements; for example, The Prestige was released outside the U.S. by once format-neutral studio Warner Bros. Pictures. Since HD DVDs had no region coding, there are no restrictions playing foreign-bought HD DVDs in an HD DVD player.", "-26.69248514814535" ], [ "displaying NTSC video (at the very least, in black and white), means that consumers in these regions have a huge choice of discs. Contrary to popular belief, this practice is not illegal and in some countries that strongly support free trade it is encouraged.\nA normal DVD player can only play region-coded discs designated for the player's own particular region. However, a code-free or region-free DVD player is capable of playing DVDs from any of the six regions around the world.\nThe CSS license prohibits manufacturing of DVD players that are not set to a single region by default. While the same", "-26.540180846583098" ], [ "TWG also collaborated with the Optical Storage Technology Association (OSTA) on the use of their implementation of the ISO-13346 file system (known as Universal Disk Format) for use on the new DVDs.\nThe format launched on November 1, 1996 in Japan, mostly only with music video releases. The first major releases from Warner Home Video arrived on December 20, 1996; with four titles being available. Adoption Movie and home entertainment distributors adopted the DVD format to replace the ubiquitous VHS tape as the primary consumer digital video distribution format. They embraced DVD as it produced higher quality video and sound, provided", "-26.53277459302626" ], [ "a 10% increase in minimum mark (digital 0 or 1) length on the disc, with a corresponding 10% increase in rotation speed and 10% reduction in gross recordable capacity, accounting for the lower capacity of a single-sided dual-layer DVD at 8.5 billion bytes, versus a double-sized, single-layer DVD at 9.4 billion (for 12 cm discs). Detail differences in formatting and file structure mean the \"usable\" data area capacity does not change by exactly this much, but for all intents a DVD-R DL has effectively 20/11ths the capacity of a DVD-R SL, and the same holds for +R, commercially pressed, and 8 cm", "-26.51078806561418" ], [ "DVD-VR The DVD-VR standard defines a logical format for video recording on DVD-R, DVD-RW, and DVD-RAM style media, including the dual layer versions of these media. As opposed to media recorded with the DVD+VR recording standard, the resulting media are not DVD-Video compliant, and do not play back in some DVD-Video players. Most DVD video recorders in the market that support DVD-R, DVD-RW, or DVD-RAM media record to these media in DVD-VR mode, as well as in a DVD-Video compliant mode. It is possible to use the DVD-VR format with DVD+R and DVD+RW media, but no examples are known", "-26.51041418715613" ], [ "Non-UK releases Remastered episodes have found their way onto DVD in continental Europe as the official series releases. Localised releases in Poland, France, Belgium, the Netherlands and Luxembourg all contain the remastered episodes. The remastered episodes were also released in Japan in their shorter NHK broadcast edits featuring significant edits, different title and credit sequences and Japanese dubbing. The Japanese version of remastered pilot episode \"The End\" was included as a bonus feature on the English language DVD release of Series I.\nThe US Netflix streaming release (though not the discs) also used the remastered episodes for the first three seasons", "-26.507978448891663" ], [ "video display where both support 4:3 and 16:9 display formats, the PAL television standard provides for signaling pulses that will automatically switch the display from one format to the other. Digital component video Digital component video makes use of single cables with signal lines/connector pins dedicated to digital signals, transmitting digital color space values allowing higher resolutions such as 480p, 576i, 576p, 720p, 1080i, and 1080p.\nRGB component video has largely been replaced by modern digital formats, such as DisplayPort or Digital Visual Interface (DVI) digital connections, while home theater systems increasingly favor High-Definition Multimedia Interface (HDMI), which support higher resolutions,", "-26.498103339996305" ], [ "two formats will become the leading carrier for high-definition content to consumers. This situation was similar to the VHS/Betamax format war in consumer video recorders in the late 1980s. The manufacturers of HD DVD, Toshiba, announced in February 2008 that they were ceasing production of their HD DVD players indefinitely, citing low demand for HD DVD and the growing use of Blu-ray, which had become popular due to its inclusion as part of the PlayStation 3 among other things.\nThere are now some DVD players that will output enhanced or high-definition signals from standard-definition DVDs. This upconversion process can improve the", "-26.480194269403" ], [ "than one format; e.g., DVD±R(W) (DVD plus-dash recordable and rewritable) is used to refer to drives that can write/rewrite both plus and dash formats, but not necessarily DVD-RAM. Drives marked, \"DVD Multi Recorder\" support DVD±R(W) and DVD-RAM. Sizes DVD recordable media are sold in two standard sizes, a regular 12 cm size for home recording and computer usage, and a small 8 cm size (sometimes known as a miniDVD) for use in compact camcorders. The smaller Mini DVD-RW, for example, holds 1.46 GB. Longevity According to a study published in 2008 by the Preservation Research and Testing Division of the U.S.", "-26.409788928576745" ], [ "use proprietary hardware.\nExceptions to the rule include the Steven Soderbergh film Bubble, which was released in 2006 to theaters, cable television, and DVD only a few days apart. Netflix has released some of its films, such as Roma and The Irishman, in limited theatrical release followed by streaming availability after less than 30 days. TV programs Many television programs are now also available in complete seasons on DVD. It has become popular practice for discontinued TV shows to be released to DVD one season at a time every few months and active shows to be released on DVD after the", "-26.39995020860806" ], [ "are very similar to regular DVD Video media. Both in finalized and in unfinalized form the disc contains a UDF file system, bridged with ISO 9660. For unfinalized DVD+R discs, this is hidden to the eye: the space for the file system and DVD Video data remains reserved and unrecorded at the start of the disc, until the disc is finalized.", "-26.351241428463254" ], [ "the \"dash\" formats use different writing specifications. Most DVD hardware plays both kinds of discs, though older models can have trouble with the \"plus\" variants.\nSome early DVD players would cause damage to DVD±R/RW/DL when attempting to read them.\nThe form of the spiral groove that makes up the structure of a recordable DVD encodes unalterable identification data known as Media Identification Code (MID). The MID contains data such as the manufacturer and model, byte capacity, allowed data rates (also known as speed), etc.. Dual-layer recording Dual-layer recording (occasionally called double-layer recording) allows DVD-R and DVD+R discs to store nearly double the", "-26.348243600783462" ], [ "DVD+RWs, on the other hand, store data in one long spiral track and require special packet reading/writing software to read and write data discs. Like magneto-optical (MO) technologies, DVD-RAM has numerous rectangles on the disc surface that define the boundaries of data sectors. However, DVD-RAM is not MO but a phase transition medium, similar to CD-RW, DVD-RW, or DVD+RW. Compatibility Many operating systems like the classic Mac OS (from Mac OS 8.6 up), macOS, Linux, and Microsoft Windows XP can use DVD-RAM directly, while earlier versions of Windows require separate device drivers or the program InCD.\nWindows XP Home and Professional", "-26.321842747274786" ], [ "DVD and Region 2 DVD in both Australia and Europe since 2005.\nOn August 16, 2004, DVD was released by Universal Studios at the UK in Region 2.", "-26.31823691597674" ], [ "of that season and the beginning of the next.\nSome television programs that are released on DVD (particularly those that have been out of production for several years) may not have all of the seasons released, either due to poor overall sales or prohibitive costs for obtaining rights to music used in the program; one such incidence is Perfect Strangers, which has seldom been in wide syndication since the late 1990s primarily due to lack of demand, which had only a DVD set of the first and second seasons released due to the expensiveness of relicensing songs used in later seasons", "-26.305304897774477" ], [ "with readable surfaces on both sides of the disc. HD DVDs were able to store 15 GB with a single-layer and 30 GB with a dual-layer. Blu-ray discs, which won the HDTV optical format war by defeating HD DVDs, can hold 25 GB for single-layer, 50 GB for dual-layer and up to 128 GB for quad-layer discs. Optical storage include CDs and DVDs. History In 1985, the New York Times said about optical storage, \"the rumor refuses to die.\" \nThe 1978-introduced LaserDisc and 1982-introduced audio/music CD had made a data-storing optical media format, introduced in 1984 at a trade show,", "-26.300701118314464" ], [ "R5 release is generally comparable to a DVD Screener release, except without the added scrolling text and black and white scenes that serve to distinguish screeners from commercial DVD releases. R5 quality can be somewhat better than transfers produced by movie bootleggers because the transfer is performed using professional-grade film scanning equipment.", "-26.231320635066368" ], [ "though not identical, packaging is used for commercial Blu-ray Disc titles and was used for HD DVD titles. However, the dimensions of the cases are somewhat different, about 19 mm shorter. The individual cases are color-coded, with blue being used for Blu-ray and red for HD DVD, and the format displayed prominently on a stripe above the cover art. Empty cases and do-it-yourself In addition to the industrial usages reported above, empty keep cases are available at retail stores, which can serve for instance as a replacement for broken cases or for DVDs containing personal video recordings or data. Common brands", "-26.184523493167944" ], [ "the AudioCD file type. This is normally set to \"Play\" and commonly calls cdplayer.exe.\nIf the DVD is a Movie DVD then Explorer calls the default action registered for the DVD file type. Movie DVDs are recognised by the existence of the file \\video_ts\\video_ts.ifo. The action for DVD is also normally set to \"Play\" and commonly calls dvdplay.exe.\nThe fact that the check for Audio CDs and Movie DVDs is done before AutoRun has implications for disabling the automatic playing of these types of media. Disabling AutoRun via the Registry or Group Policy or looking for QueryCancelAutoPlay messages within an application does", "-26.173318381421268" ], [ "time and image complexity. By the end of LaserDisc's run, DVDs were living up to their potential as a superior format.\nDVDs use compressed audio formats such as Dolby Digital and DTS for multichannel sound. Most LaserDiscs were encoded with stereo (often Dolby Surround) CD quality audio 16bit/44.1 kHz tracks as well as analog audio tracks.\nDTS-encoded LaserDiscs have DTS soundtracks of 1,235 kbit/s instead of the reduced bitrate of 768 kbit/s commonly employed on DVDs with optional DTS audio. Advantages LaserDisc players can provide a great degree of control over the playback process. Unlike many DVD players, the transport mechanism always obeys commands from the", "-26.16013398609357" ], [ "significantly diminish the release of films on the DVD format in the films' original aspect ratios and with supplementary material. Some early demos were also noted to have unique instances of artifacting on the discs that were not present on standard DVDs. Many people in various technology and entertainment communities were afraid that there would be DIVX exclusive releases, and that the then-fledgling DVD format would suffer as a result. DreamWorks, 20th Century Fox, and Paramount Pictures, for instance, initially released their films exclusively on the DIVX format (something that DIVX did not originally intend to happen), as did Disney", "-26.127388876164332" ], [ "net anime\" (ONA).\nThe home distribution of anime releases were popularized in the 1980s with the VHS and LaserDisc formats. The VHS NTSC video format used in both Japan and the United States is credited as aiding the rising popularity of anime in the 1990s. The Laser Disc and VHS formats were transcended by the DVD format which offered the unique advantages; including multiple subtitling and dubbing tracks on the same disc. The DVD format also has its drawbacks in the its usage of region coding; adopted by the industry to solve licensing, piracy and export problems and restricted region indicated", "-26.11777346493909" ], [ "DVD release A Region 2 DVD boxset was released in 2004, in both English and German editions (both versions manufactured in Austria).\nSingle DVD releases are also available, which contain English and German episodes. The German episodes have English subtitles and the English episodes have German subtitles.", "-26.115239309147" ], [ "that fit on 700 MiB CDs. One movie typically uses two CDs, although length may force the release to be a 3 or 4 CD release. Content source is sometimes analog, such as Cam, Telecine or telesync releases. Also R5, DVDSCR or retail DVD is used as SVCD source. The advantage of SVCD is that it can be played on any standalone DVD player, but when DivX-capable players are taking over the market and more bandwidth becomes available to download DVDRs, SVCD became obsolete. Around 2007, the stream of SVCD releases from the scene died out. Standard definition video Standard", "-26.096203566659824" ], [ "license prohibits manufacturers from including prominent interfaces to change the region setting it does not clearly prevent them from including \"hidden\" menus that enable the player's region to be changed; as such, many high-end models in the U.S. include password-protected or otherwise hidden methods to enable multi-region playback. Conversely in the UK and Ireland many cheap DVD players are multi-region while more expensive systems, including the majority of home cinema systems, are preset to play only region 2 discs.\nIn China, DVD-Videos for television series are usually released in MPEG-1 video, with MP2 audio. By forgoing Dolby standards, manufacturers cut costs", "-26.081894401155296" ], [ "a hybrid double-sided disc with one dual-layer side, one single-layer side, and a total nominal capacity of 12.3 GB. DVD-14 has no counterpart in ISO.\nBoth of these additional disc types are extremely rare due to their complicated and expensive manufacturing.\n Note: The above sections regarding disc types pertain to 12 cm discs. The same disc types exist for 8 cm discs: ISO standards still regard these discs as Types A–D, while the DVD Book assigns them distinct disc types. DVD-14 has no analogous 8 cm type. The comparative data for 8 cm discs is provided further down. DVD recordable and", "-26.078830628539436" ], [ "read both — most hybrid drives that handle both formats are labeled DVD±R and Super Multi (which includes DVD-RAM support) and are very popular. DVD+R and DVD+RW (DVD “plus”) Developed by Philips and Sony with their DVD+RW Alliance. The \"plus\" format uses a more reliable bi-phase modulation technique to provide 'sector' address information. It was introduced after the \"-\" format.\nThe DVD+R format was developed by a coalition of corporations—now known as the DVD+RW Alliance—in mid-2002 (though most of the initial advocacy was from Sony). The DVD Forum initially did not approve of the DVD+R format and claimed that the", "-26.07335509196855" ], [ "$24.75. No exchanges were offered to customers outside the United States. Technical specifications The current specification books for HD DVD are listed at the DVD FLLC website. File systems As with previous optical disc formats, HD DVD supports several file systems, such as ISO 9660 and Universal Disk Format (UDF). All HD DVD titles use UDF version 2.5 as the file system. In this file system, multiplexed audio and video streams are stored in EVO container format. Audio The HD DVD format supports encoding in up to 24-bit/192 kHz for two channels, or up to eight channels of up to 24-bit/96 kHz", "-26.07274432421491" ], [ "Examples include ISO9660 disc images (CD/DVD images, commonly called \"ISOs\"), and installer volumes for Mac OS X (DMGs). As these volumes are files which reside within another volume, they certainly are not partitions. Nomenclature of volumes In Linux systems, volumes are usually handled by the Logical Volume Manager or the Enterprise Volume Management System and manipulated using mount(8). In NT-based versions of Microsoft Windows, volumes are handled by the kernel and managed using the Disk Management MMC snap-in or the Diskpart command line tool. Unix-like operating systems In Unix-like operating systems, volumes other than the boot volume have a mount-point", "-26.04005723813316" ], [ "able to drop a disc into the family DVD player; however, DVD capability, due to the limitations of the format, is largely limited to consumer-level equipment targeted at people who are not likely to spend any great amount of effort video editing their video footage. High definition (HD) Panasonic launched DVCPRO HD in 2000, expanding the DV codec to support high definition (HD). The format was intended for professional camcorders, and used full-size DVCPRO cassettes. In 2003 Sony, JVC, Canon and Sharp introduced HDV as the first affordable HD video format, due to its use of inexpensive MiniDV cassettes. Tapeless", "-26.034456118155504" ], [ "layer transition pause because after refocusing, the laser remains in place rather than losing additional time traversing the remaining disc diameter.\nDVD-9 was the first commercially successful implementation of such technology. Additional types DVD-18 discs (Type D in ISO) effectively combines the DVD-9 and DVD-10 disc types by containing four recorded data layers (allocated as two sets of layers 0 and 1) such that only one layer set is accessible from either side of the disc. These discs provide a total nominal capacity of 17.0 GB, with 8.5 GB per side.\nThe DVD Book also permits an additional disc type called DVD-14:", "-26.033843600322143" ], [ "region-free (region 0) DVD in New Zealand.\nFor some reason the video format chosen for the DVD was NTSC, while the original production material would have been produced for PAL transmission as that is the standard in use throughout New Zealand and Australia. This makes the DVD unplayable for people with certain older TV sets unable to display NTSC.\nPicture quality is described on the DVD cover as \"subject to quality of dated production source.\" Audio is mono, but is of an acceptable quality. Remake In 2009 Under the Mountain was adapted into a New Zealand feature film directed by Jonathan King.", "-26.02780274313409" ] ]

[ "I think most people here are forgetting that lotteries are not pure mathematical constructs. It is a game built by, and manipulated by people. Yes, the Gambler's Fallacy suggests that all thing are equal in an equal game, but the game is rarely equal. Firstly, saying that the odds are the same assumes that each lottery ball is built evenly. It is very possible some balls weigh more than others, changing how likely they are of being picked. In this example, it is possible that the No.3 ball is the lightest ball, and more likely to fly to top and be picked. Also, it's possible that when they put the balls in the machine, they do so numerical order. This might make lower numbers more likely to surface than the higher numbers. Secondly, some lotteries are fixed. Intentionally using balls of different weights and sizes make more numbers more likely to appear. In some draws, people heat the key balls up so that someone picked them by hand could identify them. For whatever reason, No. 3 could intentionally chosen more often, maybe because the mob boss' son was born in March. The classic example of the Gambler's fallacy took place in Monte Carlo when the ball landed on black 26 times in a row. A lot people lost money because they kept betting on red, think falsely that there is no way that a ball would land on the same spot for as long as it did. Myself, I would have bet on black, because at that point, I would suspect that the mechanism helping the ball land on black was jammed or something, causing the ball the land on black over and over again. For those that doubt me, [something like this happened in a casino in Montreal]( URL_0 ). To summarize, the casino reset their Keno machines every morning, so their sequence of numbers repeated each day. Somebody figured this out and won $600,000", "Nope. What you're looking at here is called the Gambler's Fallacy. Past games do not affect the chances of future games. The only thing I can think of is if they were using the exact same system every draw for that time period (like the same set of ping-pong balls or the same computer) then it could be showing a bias due to something like a bad random number generator or irregularities in the balls. But lotteries generally audit their equipment and change equipment to prevent exactly this.", "If you think the game is broken or fixed, then that site could be used to help benefit from that. If the lottery isn't broken or fixed, that site is a public random number generator. With lottery, the problem with public random number generators is that shared wins are split. If multiple people guess correctly, you win less than if you were correct alone. This statistics site is therefore problematic as it instructs everyone equally to play same numbers, so if those numbers came up, you'd win less than if you had won alone. So basically, the question you have to ask yourself is, how likely do you think it is that the lottery machine is broken? And if it is broken, how do you capitalize on that while keeping in mind that popular numbers mean pot is split. And if it isn't broken, well, all you have to do is avoid those popular numbers. Given how small the variance is between numbers, if I played lottery, I would specifically avoid both most common and most uncommon numbers on that list. Even if there was something going on, the effect is way smaller than the expected loss in winnings because you have to share the pot.", "It depends whether lottery are in fact truly random or if they are weighted somehow by whatever mechanism is used to draw the lottery. In dice terms, whether the die are fair and balanced, or \"loaded\". As much as we'd like to think they are fair, they may or may not be, and it depends on how well the equipment is audited.", "I actually did this experiment In Computer Science class I had to do a semester-long project, and I had just discovered that I could get a complete archive of the lottery results just by asking for it, so I combined the two... because I wanted to win the Lottery. I spent the whole semester writing a program to analyse the historical data for trends, to generate thousands of entries for each draw based on those trends to see what would have happened if I had used my 'system', and finally to pick random numbers based on a seed created by extracting random 24-digit sections of PI. It was all pointless. There were no statistically significant trends... and even using non-significant trends there was zero difference between the 'system' numbers, and the random numbers.", "It would be interesting to model this. Assume that the winning numbers are generated by a mixture of a fair process and a biased process. Also assume that Others are observing and overweighting past winning numbers--you have to share winnings with them if you pick the same numbers. You might be able to estimate the sharing effect by looking at how many people win each past drawing.", "Well mathematically the chance of a number drawn is allways the same. If you feel it will work then bet on it but its a luck game." ]

[ [ "the odds on finding a prize-winning card based on statistics, by tracking the amount of prize money won and cards sold to calculate accurate current odds. There have been a number of instances where a series of cards are still available although all major prizes have been won. Some lotteries make this information available to all free of charge to help promote their games Hypothetically, large early payouts may exceed ultimate sales before expiration of the game card series. However, the low odds of winning – typically from less than 1 in 5 to about 1 in", "-31.294220860756468" ], [ "a bet that can recoup his losses if he is successful, such as betting $10 on 3 single numbers (35:1 odds each).", "-30.853767202817835" ], [ "simple system of betting on heads every 3rd, 7th, or 21st toss, etc., does not change the odds of winning in the long run. As a mathematical consequence of computability theory, more complicated betting strategies (such as a martingale) also cannot alter the odds in the long run.\nVon Mises' mathematical demonstration defines an infinite sequence of zeros and ones as a random sequence if it is not biased by having the frequency stability property. With this property, the frequency of zeroes in the sequence stabilizes at 1/2, and every possible subsequence selected by any systematic method is likewise", "-30.44658808350721" ], [ "Draws take place on Tuesdays and Fridays on E.tv at 21:00.\nAfter 28 November 2015, odds were changed as more possibilities to win were introduced. An example of the recent additions were, if the player matched only the Powerball, he or she would win money, while before, that ticket would not win anything. In addition, the number of main balls was raised from 45 to 50.\nThe record prize for any Lottery game in South Africa was in PowerBall at R102,016,595. This prize was won in the Free State but never collected. The highest claimed prize was also from PowerBall at R91,068,427", "-30.31500977789983" ], [ "probability of winning the first prize is noted to be 1 in 13,983,816, and the odds of winning any of the prizes is noted to be 1 in 54, which is lower than other lotteries in other parts of the world. Allocation of bets In addition to the 54% deduction of the bets made to form the Prize Fund, proceeds from the total amount of bets made are also allocated to various taxes and causes. Lottery duty 25% of the total amount of bets made are paid out to the Government of Hong Kong in the form of a lottery", "-30.220808106358163" ], [ "or reduced until it wins or loses. However, the odds taken behind a Come bet can be turned \"Off\" (not working), removed or reduced anytime before the bet loses. In Las Vegas generally odds bets are required to be the table minimum. In Atlantic City and Pennsylvania, the combine odds and pass bet must be table minimum so players can bet the minimum single unit depending on the point. If the point is a 4 or 10 players can bet as little as $1 if the table minimum is low such as $5, $10 or $15 minimums. If the player", "-30.0421140298713" ], [ "£25 on a £100 stake. In either case, having won, the bettor always receives the original stake back; so if the odds are 4/1 the bettor receives a total of £500 (£400 plus the original £100). Odds of 1/1 are known as evens or even money.\nThe numerator and denominator of fractional odds are always integers, thus if the bookmaker's payout was to be £1.25 for every £1 stake, this would be equivalent to £5 for every £4 staked, and the odds would therefore be expressed as 5/4. However, not all fractional odds are traditionally read using the lowest common denominator.", "-30.035018904251046" ], [ "certain winner. Her probability of drawing one of those cards is therefore 4/47 (8.5%), which when converted to odds is 10.75:1. Since the pot lays 10:1 (9.1%), Alice will on average lose money by calling if there is no future betting. However, Alice expects her opponent to call her additional $1 bet on the final betting round if she makes her draw. Alice will fold if she misses her draw and thus lose no additional bets. Alice's implied pot is therefore $11 ($10 plus the expected $1 call to her additional $1 bet), so her implied pot odds are 11:1", "-30.001813064096496" ], [ "value to be correct, a player must have a positive expectation, that is, he will win more than one bet for every bet he puts in the pot. Note that pot odds do not matter in this situation, because the factor here is whether it is more profitable to raise or call, rather than to call or fold. Betting for value can apply to both made hand and drawing hand situations, although in the latter situation it is less often correct, as the drawing hand's chances of winning are generally lower. Many made hands will win the", "-29.7412800003367" ], [ "a shorter period there is a very small chance of a big win, but otherwise an average return of less than 45%; a numerical experiment using 10,000 random sets of numbers each week for 3 years found that, had the tickets been bought, the rate of return would have been less than 30%.\nIn their book \"Scenarios for Risk Management and Global Investment Strategies\", academics Rachel E S Ziemba and William T Ziemba say with regard to 6/49 lotteries, \"Random numbers have an expected loss of about 55%. However, six-tuples of unpopular numbers have an edge with expected returns exceeding their", "-29.67200012638932" ], [ "or 9 is the point, or 6-to-5 if 6 or 8 is the point. Unlike the pass line bet itself, the pass line odds bet can be turned \"Off\" (not working), removed or reduced anytime before it loses. In Las Vegas, generally odds bets are required to be the table minimum. In Atlantic City and Pennsylvania, the combine odds and pass bet must be table minimum so players can bet the minimum single unit on odds depending on the point. If the point is a 4 or 10 players can bet as little as $1 on odds if the table", "-29.541834278497845" ], [ "desired and win less than table minimum. Like the Don't Pass bet the odds can be removed or reduced. Unlike the don't pass bet itself, the don't pass odds can be turned \"Off\" (not working). In Las Vegas generally odds bets are required to be the table minimum. In Atlantic City and Pennsylvania, the combine lay odds and Don't Pass bet must be table minimum so players may bet as little as the minimum two units on odds depending on the point. If the point is a 4 or 10 players can bet as little as $2 if the table", "-29.531911710015265" ], [ "of winning over the long run, given a limit of the size of bets or a limit in the size of one's bankroll or line of credit, is proven by the optional stopping theorem. Alternative mathematical analysis The previous analysis calculates expected value, but we can ask another question: what is the chance that one can play a casino game using the martingale strategy, and avoid the losing streak long enough to double one's bankroll.\nAs before, this depends on the likelihood of losing 6 roulette spins in a row assuming we are betting red/black or even/odd. Many gamblers believe that", "-29.524896263959818" ], [ "point is 4 or 10; four times on points of 5 or 9; or five times on points of 6 or 8. This rule simplifies the calculation of winnings: a maximum pass odds bet on a 3–4–5× table will always be paid at six times the pass line bet regardless of the point.\nAs odds bets are paid at true odds, in contrast with the pass line which is always even money, taking odds on a minimum pass line bet lessens the house advantage compared with betting the same total amount on the pass line only. A maximum odds bet on", "-29.50176335510332" ], [ "if the odds of drawing a winning card are numerically lower than the pot odds, the call has a negative expectation, and the expectation is to win less money on average than it costs to call the bet. Implied pot odds Implied pot odds, or simply implied odds, are calculated the same way as pot odds, but take into consideration estimated future betting. Implied odds are calculated in situations where the player expects to fold in the following round if the draw is missed, thereby losing no additional bets, but expects to gain additional bets when the draw is made.", "-29.501004711564747" ], [ "to the total number of possible outcomes. Odds against When the probability that the event will not happen is greater than the probability that it will, then the odds are \"against\" that event happening. Odds of 6 to 1, for example, are therefore sometimes said to be \"6 to 1 against\". To a gambler, \"odds against\" means that the amount he or she will win is greater than the amount staked. Odds on \"Odds on\" is the opposite of \"odds against\". It means that the event is more likely to happen than not. This is sometimes expressed with the smaller", "-29.479091778339352" ], [ "may only lay the 4, 5, 6, 8, 9 or 10 and may lay multiple numbers if desired. Just like the buy bet lay bets pay true odds, but because the lay bet is the opposite of the buy bet, the payout is reversed. Therefore, players get 1 to 2 for the numbers 4 and 10, 2 to 3 for the numbers 5 and 9, and 5 to 6 for the numbers 6 and 8. A 5% commission (vigorish, vig, juice) is charged up front on the possible winning amount. For example: A $40 Lay Bet on the 4 would", "-29.389210670386092" ], [ "number first (1 to 2) but more often using the word \"on\" (\"2 to 1 on\"), meaning that the event is twice as likely to happen as not. Note that the gambler who bets at \"odds on\" and wins will still be in profit, as his stake will be returned. For example, on a $2 bet, the gambler will be given $1 plus the returned stake of $2, yielding a $1 profit. Even odds \"Even odds\" occur when the probability of an event happening is exactly the same as it not happening. In common parlance, this is a \"50-50 chance\".", "-29.347008408105467" ], [ "is no 5-of-5 winner. Matching 5, 4, or 3 numbers wins a parimutuel cash prize; matching 2 numbers wins a free Take 5 play. Overall odds of winning (including the free play) are 1 in 9; odds of winning cash, 1 in 100; odds of winning the top prize are 1 in 575,757. According to TV and radio ads, there had been an average of about 100,000 winners daily.\nThe Lottery has, for promotional purposes, added a \"bonus ball\" to Take 5. In these drawings, there are eight prize levels; such drawings allow winning with just one number, plus the bonus", "-29.241675540572032" ], [ "a particular event may be fixed but are more likely to fluctuate in order to take account of the size of wagers placed by the bettors in the run-up to the actual event (e.g. a horse race). This article explains the mathematics of making a book in the (simpler) case of the former event. For the second method, see Parimutuel betting.\nIt is important to understand the relationship between fractional and decimal odds. Fractional odds are those written ( or ) mean a winning bettor will receive their money back plus units for every units they bet.", "-28.92526536321384" ], [ "odds plus one. Thus even odds 1/1 are quoted in decimal odds as 2.00. The 4/1 fractional odds discussed above are quoted as 5.00, while the 1/4 odds are quoted as 1.25. This is considered to be ideal for parlay betting, because the odds to be paid out are simply the product of the odds for each outcome wagered on. Decimal odds are also favoured by betting exchanges because they are the easiest to work with for trading, as they reflect the inverse of the probability of an outcome. For example, a quoted odds of 5.00 equals", "-28.891856670328707" ], [ "the chances of losing 6 in a row are remote, and that with a patient adherence to the strategy they will slowly increase their bankroll.\nIn reality, the odds of a streak of 6 losses in a row are much higher than many people intuitively believe. Psychological studies have shown that since people know that the odds of losing 6 times in a row out of 6 plays are low, they incorrectly assume that in a longer string of plays the odds are also very low. When people are asked to invent data representing 200 coin tosses, they often do not", "-28.885299777437467" ], [ "of 4.0.\nThe decimal odds of a multiple bet is often calculated by multiplying the decimal odds of the individual bets, the idea being that if the events are independent then the implied probability should be the product of the implied probabilities of the individual bets. In the above case with fractional odds of 5-6, the decimal odds are ​¹¹⁄₆. So the decimal odds of the double bet is ​¹¹⁄₆×​¹¹⁄₆=1.833...×1.833...=3.3611..., or fractional odds of 2.3611-1. This represents an implied probability of 29.752% (1/3.3611) and multiplying by 4 (for each of the four equally likely combinations of outcomes) gives a total book", "-28.878492766292766" ], [ "is behind now but is likely to win if a certain card is drawn) pot odds are used to determine the expected value of that hand when the player is faced with a bet.\nThe expected value of a call is determined by comparing the pot odds to the odds of drawing a card that wins the pot. When the odds of drawing a card that wins the pot are numerically higher than the pot odds, the call has a positive expectation; on average, a portion of the pot that is greater than the cost of the call is won. Conversely,", "-28.875797147746198" ], [ "for some people. Strategies which take into account the changing odds that exist in some games (e.g. card counting and handicapping), can alter long-term results.\nThis is formally stated by game theorist Richard Arnold Epstein in The Theory of Gambling and Statistical Logic as:\nTheorem 1: If a gambler risks a finite capital over many plays in a game with constant single-trial probability of winning, losing, and tying, then any and all betting systems lead ultimately to the same value of mathematical expectation of gain per unit amount wagered.", "-28.86627597291954" ], [ "in roulette by seeking out rigged wheels (not difficult to find at that time) and betting opposite the largest bets. Prediction methods Whereas betting systems are essentially an attempt to beat the fact that a geometric series with initial value of 0.95 (American roulette) or 0.97 (European roulette) will inevitably over time tend to zero, engineers instead attempt to overcome the house edge through predicting the mechanical performance of the wheel, most notably by Joseph Jagger at Monte Carlo in 1873. These schemes work by determining that the ball is more likely to fall at certain numbers. If effective, they", "-28.831339846074115" ], [ "not reinserted, the next draw is less likely to be an ace and more likely to be of another rank. The probability of drawing another ace, assuming that it was the first card drawn and that there are no jokers, has decreased from (7.69%) to (5.88%), while the probability for each other rank has increased from (7.69%) to (7.84%). This effect allows card counting systems to work in games such as blackjack. Bias In most illustrations of the gambler's fallacy and the reverse gambler's fallacy, the trial (e.g. flipping a coin) is assumed to be fair.", "-28.802827134619292" ], [ "exactly the same as the amount received from using the computer software available to bookmakers to calculate total winnings. Algebraic interpretation Returns on any bet may be considered to be calculated as 'stake unit' × 'odds multiplier'. The overall 'odds multiplier' is a combined decimal odds value and is the result of all the individual bets that make up a full cover bet, including singles if needed. E.g. if a successful £10 Yankee returned £461.35 then the overall 'odds multiplier' (OM) is 46.135.\nIf a, b, c, d... represent the decimal odds, i.e. (fractional odds + 1), then an OM can", "-28.68038576102117" ], [ "come bet will be lost or doubled and the don't come odds returned.\nWinning don't come bets are paid the same as winning don't pass bets: even money for the original bet and true odds for the odds lay. Unlike come bets, the odds laid behind points established by don't come bets are always working including come out rolls unless the player specifies otherwise. Place Players can bet any point number (4, 5, 6, 8, 9, 10) by placing their wager in the come area and telling the dealer how much and on what number(s), \"30 on the 6\", \"5 on", "-28.570684769540094" ], [ "the odds better for the house, two cards were typically removed from the deck: the ten of spades and the jack of hearts, which doubles the odds against winning a royal flush. The drums could also be rearranged to further reduce a player's chance of winning.\nDue to the vast number of possible wins with the original poker card-based game, it proved practically impossible to come up with a way to make a machine capable of making an automatic payout for all possible winning combinations. Somewhere between 1887 and 1895, Charles Fey of San Francisco, California, U.S., devised a much", "-28.54571893735556" ], [ "the Pass line and Come cannot be turned \"Off\", removed or reduced, but odds bet behind can be turned \"Off\", removed or reduced. The odds bet is generally required to be the table minimum. Player cannot put bet the Don't Pass or Don't Come. Put betting may give a larger house edge over place betting unless the casino offers high odds.\nPut bets are generally allowed in Las Vegas, but not allowed in Atlantic City and Pennsylvania.\nPut bets are better than place bets (to win) when betting more than 5-times odds over the flat bet portion of the put bet. ", "-28.530872975767124" ], [ "bet itself, the don't come odds can be turned \"Off\" (not working), removed or reduced if desired. In Las Vegas, players generally must lay at least table minimum on odds if desired and win less than table minimum; in Atlantic City and Pennsylvania a player's combined bet must be at least table minimum, so depending on the point number players may lay as little as 2 minimum units (e.g. if the point is 4 or 10). If the player requests the don't come odds be not working (\"Off\") and the shooter hits the don't come point or sevens-out, the don't", "-28.40073452622164" ], [ "to be at a table which not only allows put bets, but also high-times odds, to take this advantage. Hard way This bet can only be placed on the numbers 4, 6, 8, and 10. In order for this bet to win, the chosen number must be rolled the \"hard way\" (as doubles) before a 7 or any other non-double combination (\"easy way\") totaling that number is rolled. For example, a player who bets a hard 6 can only win by seeing a 3–3 roll come up before any 7 or any easy roll totaling 6 (4–2 or 5–1); otherwise,", "-28.355204140068963" ], [ "the right odds can be time consuming and may require a high level of numeracy and betting knowledge. Where there is a potential for loss this is more akin to advantage play gambling. Industry reactions Matched betting is legal and a spokesperson for William Hill has indicated that the betting industry does not have a problem with this use of free bets.\nMost bookmakers have people on their staff looking for bettors 'taking too much value', something which tends to happen with matched betting. They will place restrictions on the accounts of bettors who may be taking advantage of promotions too", "-28.331098854192533" ], [ "true chances (as imagined by the bookmaker) that the event will or will not occur, but are the amount that the bookmaker will pay out on a winning bet, together with the required stake. In formulating the odds to display the bookmaker will have included a profit margin which effectively means that the payout to a successful bettor is less than that represented by the true chance of the event occurring. This profit is known as the 'over-round' on the 'book' (the 'book' refers to the old-fashioned ledger in which wagers were recorded, and is the derivation of the term", "-28.300859747629147" ], [ "in terms of decimals, is calculated by B₁ × B₂ × ... × Bᵢ × 100 − 100. E.g. the previously mentioned fourfold consisting of individual books of 120% (1.20) gives an overround of 1.20 × 1.20 × 1.20 × 1.20 × 100 − 100 = 107.36%. Settling winning bets In settling winning bets either decimal odds are used or one is added to the fractional odds: this is to include the stake in the return. The place part of each-way bets is calculated separately from the win part; the method is identical but the odds are reduced by whatever", "-28.2971832617186" ], [ "of an event and agree to \"fair odds\", also known as evens. They are going to make the wager between each other without using the services of a bookmaker. Each person agrees to risk $100 for the chance to win $100. The person who loses receives nothing and the winner receives both stakes. Rather than pay vigorish to someone who will guarantee that the winner will be paid, they both assume the opportunity cost in the event the backer of the losing side refuses to pay the winner at the event's conclusion.\nBy contrast, when using a sportsbook with the odds", "-28.293268943787552" ], [ "no more bets are placed this round. Or, if the initial stake is $100, six players choose to fade $10 each, and no one else wishes to bet, then the banker pockets the unfaded portion of the bank ($40) and plays for only the stakes that were covered.\nAfter all the bets are settled according to the roll of the dice (explained below), if the same player maintains control of the bank, he may add as much money as he wishes to his stake, or let the bank stand at whatever amount remains after all the bets are settled. A new", "-28.239858311600983" ], [ "(for an American Roulette wheel) twenty individual results that result in a loss for that player. The player has an 18/38 chance of success betting any of the above propositions, which is around 47.37%.\nTheoretically, because the player is cancelling out two numbers on the list for every win and adding only one number for every loss, the player needs to have his proposition come at least 33.34% to eventually complete the list. For example, if the list starts with seven numbers and the player wins five times and loses three (62.5% winning percentage) the list is completed and the player", "-28.18304624830489" ], [ "or 8 is the point. Typically the maximum lay bet will be expressed such that a player may win up to an amount equal to the maximum odds multiple at the table. If a player lays maximum odds with a point of 4 or 10 on a table offering five-times odds, he would be able to lay a maximum of ten times the amount of his Don't Pass bet. At 5x odds table, the maximum amount the combined bet can win will always be 6x the amount of the Don't Pass bet. Players can bet table minimum odds if", "-28.16563789115753" ], [ "Although Newton correctly calculated the odds of each bet, he provided a separate intuitive explanation to Pepys. He imagined that B and C toss their dice in groups of six, and said that A was most favorable because it required a 6 in only one toss, while B and C required a 6 in each of their tosses. This explanation assumes that a group does not produce more than one 6, so it does not actually correspond to the original problem. Generalizations A natural generalization of the problem is to consider n non-necessarily fair dice, with p the probability that", "-28.165144898579456" ], [ "the basic draft order based on their regular season point totals. The odds of winning the lottery are weighted on a descending scale that gives the greatest chance of winning to the team with the lowest point total (18.5%), and the worst chance to the team with the highest point total (1.0%).\nThe prize for winning the draft lottery is to be upgraded to pick first in the first round of the draft, with each team that preceded the winner in the basic draft order bumped one pick lower. For example, if the team with the 5th worst point total wins", "-28.156397126149386" ], [ "winners in multiple bets: compare offering a 25% bonus on the correct choice of four winners from four selections in a Yankee, for example, when the potential overround on a simple fourfold of races with individual books of 120% is over 107% (a book of 207%). This is why bookmakers offer bets such as Lucky 15, Lucky 31 and Lucky 63; offering double the odds for one winner and increasing percentage bonuses for two, three and more winners.\nIn general, for any accumulator bet from two to i selections, the combined percentage overround of books of B₁, B₂, ..., Bᵢ given", "-27.909858609142248" ], [ "card were the same. The winning numbers were: 2, 11, 23, 28, 35 and 39. The bonus was number 15, however, his predictions did not include the bonus ball.\nOn Friday 11 September at 21:00, a second show aired, which stated three possibilities for winning the lottery. The first, faking a winning ticket, was quickly dismissed, and the majority of the programme described Brown's use of automatic writing and crowd psychology to appear to predict the numbers ahead of time. Through a series of experiments and attempts at explaining complex psychology, while avoiding the underlying maths, Brown suggested that he may", "-27.862327586626634" ], [ "of the screen can be seen saying: \"Actual odds of winning, one in 380,000,000\". During the peak of the lottery fever in Springfield, news anchor Kent Brockman announces on television that people hoping to get tips on how to win the jackpot have borrowed every available copy of Shirley Jackson's book The Lottery at the local library. One of them is Homer, who throws the book into the fireplace after Kent reveals that \"Of course, the book does not contain any hints on how to win the lottery. It is, rather, a chilling tale of conformity gone mad.\" In her", "-27.847105730033945" ], [ "choose their own numbers on which to place a bet. Initially, it instead ran by means of the sale of serially-numbered tickets, and at another point, the numbers drawn ran from 1 to 75.\nBy the early 20th century, the game was associated with poor and working-class communities, as it could be played for as little as a penny. Also, unlike state lotteries, bookies could extend credit to the bettors and policy winners could avoid paying income tax. Different policy banks would offer different rates, although a payoff of 600 to 1 was typical. Since the odds of winning were 999:1", "-27.8018023664481" ], [ "the six drawn numbers, with prizes increasing for matching more of the drawn numbers. The players who match all six drawn numbers win equal shares of the jackpot; the chance of doing so is 1 in 45,057,474. Similarly, if four or five balls are matched, the relevant prize is divided equally between all who match that many balls.\nIf no player matches all six numbers, the jackpot is added to that of the next Lotto draw—a rollover. This accumulation was limited to three consecutive draws until 10 February 2011, when it was increased to four. Rollovers are frequent, with for example", "-27.732797629880224" ], [ "the farther away from a .500 winning percentage is the result of the corresponding Pythagorean formula, which is the same effect that a decreased role of chance creates. The fact that accurate formulas for variable exponents yield larger exponents as the total runs per game increases is thus in agreement with an understanding of the role that chance plays in sports.\nIn his 1981 Baseball Abstract, James explicitly developed another of his formulas, called the log5 formula (which has since proven to be empirically accurate), using the notion of 2 teams having a face-to-face winning percentage against each other in", "-27.67000007048773" ], [ "or losing. For example, if a game is played by wagering on the number that would result from the roll of one die, true odds would be 5 times the amount wagered since there is a 1/6 probability of any single number appearing. However, the casino may only pay 4 times the amount wagered for a winning wager.\nThe house edge (HE) or vigorish is defined as the casino profit expressed as a percentage of the player's original bet. In games such as Blackjack or Spanish 21, the final bet may be several times the original bet, if the player doubles", "-27.62906342127826" ], [ "whereby if no winner is able to match all 7 winning numbers, the jackpot is paid out to the next winning tier where a winner is available. It was this clause that set the previous jackpot record of 27,545,857.50 Euros in August 2012, as a German player who correctly matched the 5 main numbers, but only one of the Euronumbers (out of two), walked away with the jackpot in the second prize tier.\nFor the groups except the first one, the winning amounts are calculated nationally, and they can vary by country based on number of winners, lottery tax and other", "-27.62775291595608" ], [ "is in setting the odds low enough so as to have a positive expected value of profit while keeping the odds high enough to attract customers, and at the same time attracting enough bets for each outcome to reduce his risk exposure.\nA study on soccer betting found that the probability for the home team to win was generally about 3.4% less than the value calculated from the odds (for example, 46.6% for even odds). It was about 3.7% less for wins by the visitors, and 5.7% less for draws.\nMaking a profit in gambling involves predicting the relationship of the true", "-27.619354285183363" ], [ "(1:1), betting 10 units would return 20 units for profit of 10 units. A successful gamble paying out at 4:1 would return 50 units for a profit of 40 units. So this wager is \"better than evens\" from the gambler's perspective because it pays out more than one for one. If an event is more likely to occur than an even chance, then the odds will be \"worse than evens\", and the bookmaker will pay out less than one for one.\nHowever, in popular parlance surrounding uncertain events, the expression \"better than evens\" usually implies a greater than 50-percent chance of", "-27.6146761123091" ], [ "are not necessarily known in advance (as in Example 2 above) so that the application of the odds-algorithm is not directly possible. In this case each step can use sequential estimates of the odds. This is meaningful, if the number of unknown parameters is not large compared with the number n of observations. The question of optimality is then more complicated, however, and requires additional studies. Generalizations of the odds-algorithm allow for different rewards for failing to stop\nand wrong stops as well as replacing independence assumptions by weaker ones (Ferguson (2008)). Variations Bruss & Paindaveine 2000 discussed a problem", "-27.571994200639892" ], [ "a minimum pass line bet often gives the lowest house edge available in any game in the casino. However, the odds bet cannot be made independently, so the house retains an edge on the pass line bet itself. Don't pass odds If a player is playing don't pass instead of pass, they may also lay odds by placing chips behind the don't pass line. If a 7 comes before the point is rolled, the odds pay at true odds of 1-to-2 if 4 or 10 is the point, 2-to-3 if 5 or 9 is the point, or 5-to-6 if 6", "-27.55002986783802" ], [ "the casino for a win is based on the roulette wheel having 36 outcomes and the payout for a bet is given by .\nFor example, betting on 1-12 there are 12 numbers that define a win, , the payout is , so the better wins 3 times their bet.\nThe average return on a player's bet is given by \nFor the average return is always lower than 1 so on average a player will lose money.\nWith 1 green number the average return is , that is, after a bet the player will on average have of their original", "-27.52907468669582" ], [ "overround.\nThere are four possible outcomes from combining the results from both matches: the winning pair of players could be AC, AD, BC or BD. As each of the outcomes for this example has been deliberately chosen to ensure that they are equally likely it can be deduced that the probability of each outcome occurring is ​¹⁄₄ or 0.25 and that the fractional odds against each one occurring is 3-1. A bet of 100 units (for simplicity) on any of the four combinations would produce a return of 100 × (3/1 + 1) = 400 units if successful, reflecting decimal odds", "-27.48269581826753" ], [ "Eurojackpot Jackpot behaviour Compared to other lotteries like the EuroMillions and the German Lotto 6 aus 49, the Eurojackpot is designed to pay out more frequently (1:95 million odds versus over 1:139 million for the EuroMillions and the German Lotto). As a result, it is not anticipated that the lottery will grow to the same record-breaking sizes achieved by the EuroMillions, as it will most likely be won instead.\nUp to January 31, 2013 the Eurojackpot lottery had a 'rolldown' clause: in case the jackpot is not won for 12 consecutive draws, the 13th draw will be subject to a rolldown", "-27.35050886699173" ], [ "way that the payouts are made for winning bets are self-policed by the players. Pass odds If a 4, 5, 6, 8, 9, or 10 is thrown on the come-out roll (i.e., if a point is established), most casinos allow pass line players to take odds by placing up to some predetermined multiple of the pass line bet, behind the pass line. This additional bet wins if the point is rolled again before a 7 is rolled (the point is made) and pays at the true odds of 2-to-1 if 4 or 10 is the point, 3-to-2 if 5", "-27.237595101236366" ], [ "the place factor is for the particular event (see Accumulator below for detailed example). All bets are taken as 'win' bets unless 'each-way' is specifically stated. All show use of fractional odds: replace (fractional odds + 1) by decimal odds if decimal odds known. Non-runners are treated as winners with fractional odds of zero (decimal odds of 1). Fractions of pence in total winnings are invariably rounded down by bookmakers to the nearest penny below. Calculations below for multiple-bet wagers result in totals being shown for the separate categories (e.g. doubles, trebles etc.), and therefore overall returns may not be", "-27.15342591123772" ], [ "choice of numbers for lottery players, behind only the arithmetic sequences 1–2–3–4–5–6 and 7–14–21–28–35–42. The issue came to attention after a Mega Millions drawing for a near-record US$380,000,000 jackpot on January 4, 2011, drew a series of numbers in which the three lowest numbers (4–8–15) and the mega ball (42) matched four of the six numbers. The No. 42 is also the \"Mega Number\" in Hurley's \"Mega Lotto\" ticket. The players who played the combination won $150 each (or $118 in California). Influence Lost has been cited as a key influence on several of its contemporaries. The ABC series FlashForward", "-27.096467776096688" ], [ "For example, a player wants a $30 bet on the six. Looking at two possible bets: 1) Place the six, or 2) Put the six with odds. A $30 place bet on the six pays $35 if it wins. A $30 put bet would be a $5 flat line bet plus $25 (5-times) in odds, and also would pay $35 if it wins. Now, with a $60 bet on the six, the place bet wins $70, where the put bet ($5 + $55 in odds) would pay $71. The player needs", "-27.07022179791238" ], [ "and may indeed win very large sums of money, but the losses (which, depending on the design of the betting system, may occur quite rarely) will outweigh the wins. Certain systems, such as the Martingale, described below, are extremely risky, because the worst-case scenario (which is mathematically certain to happen, at some point) may see the player chasing losses with ever-bigger bets until he runs out of money.\nThe American mathematician Patrick Billingsley said that no betting system can convert a subfair game into a profitable enterprise.\nAt least in the 1930s, some professional gamblers were able to consistently gain an edge", "-27.050975942984223" ], [ "where the relative probabilities of outcomes varied. For example, on a coin toss or a match race between two evenly matched horses, it is reasonable for two people to wager level stakes. However, in more variable situations, such as a multi-runner horse race or a football match between two unequally matched sides, betting \"at odds\" provides a perspective on the relative likelihoods of the possible outcomes.\nIn the modern era, most fixed odds betting takes place between a betting organisation, such as a bookmaker, and an individual, rather than between individuals. Different traditions have grown up in how to express odds", "-27.011079028074164" ], [ "drawn (the powerball), leaving 258/43 = 6 ways of achieving it. Therefore, the odds of getting a score of 5 and the powerball are .\nOf the 258 combinations that match 5 of the main 6 balls, in 42/43 of them the remaining number will not match the powerball, giving odds of for obtaining a score of 5 without matching the powerball.\nUsing the same principle, the odds of getting a score of 2 and the powerball are for the score of 2 multiplied by the probability of one of the remaining four numbers matching the bonus ball, which is", "-26.985183503114968" ], [ "player's advantage. If the bet is removed, the player can no longer lay odds behind the don't come point and cannot restore or increase the same don't come bet. Players must wait until next roll as long as a pass line point has been established (players cannot bet don't come on come out rolls) before they can make a new don't come bet. Las Vegas casinos which allow put betting allows players to move the Don't Come directly to any Come point as a put, however this is not allowed in Atlantic City or Pennsylvania. Unlike the don't come", "-26.982326923985966" ], [ "plus a final betting round before everyone shows their hole cards. As in traditional poker, the person who starts each round is the one with the best hand \"showing\", that is, from just all the face-up cards. Odds (natural deck) Hand Combinations Odds (6 of 6)\n All 20358520 1.00000000 \n High card ", "-26.918584187934812" ], [ "odds multiplied by the Bayes factor or likelihood, which is, by definition, the probability of the new piece of information (host opens door 3) under each of the hypotheses considered (location of the car). Now, since the player initially chose door 1, the chance that the host opens door 3 is 50% if the car is behind door 1, 100% if the car is behind door 2, 0% if the car is behind door 3. Thus the Bayes factor consists of the ratios  : 1 : 0 or equivalently 1 : 2 : 0, while the prior odds were 1 : 1 : 1. Thus,", "-26.911981933546485" ], [ "However, for the sake of clarity and the smooth flow of play, this issue should always be decided before play begins. \n(Players trying to decide which way to go on this issue ought to keep in mind that the odds against two \"Mexicos\" in a row are 212 to 4 (or 53 to 1; roughly a 1.85% likelihood), and against three in a row are 1288 to 8 (or 161 to 1; roughly a 0.61% likelihood). These are long, but certainly not astronomical, odds. For the sake of context: The odds of rolling three \"hardway\" sixes or eights in a", "-26.911314409066108" ], [ "always a plausible result since it is based on the actual strength of the teams. Middling is an example of line arbitrage. Special offers Using special offers provided by bookmakers it is possible for a skilled bettor to put the odds in their favour. Special offers may include; cashback on specific events, enhanced odds and comp points. To profit from these specials, a skilled bettor will use betting, laying and dutching to create their own book on an event that may not guarantee profit but will still put the odds in their favour instead of the bookmaker(s) involved. Sign", "-26.88723866696091" ], [ "Martingale (betting system) Intuitive analysis The fundamental reason why all martingale-type betting systems fail is that no amount of information about the results of past bets can be used to predict the results of a future bet with accuracy better than chance. In mathematical terminology, this corresponds to the assumption that the win-loss outcomes of each bet are independent and identically distributed random variables, an assumption which is valid in many realistic situations. It follows from this assumption that the expected value of a series of bets is equal to the sum, over all bets that could potentially occur in", "-26.87488743546419" ], [ "expected for this to occur.\nIt should be mentioned that the Labouchère System is meant to be applied to even money Roulette propositions such as Even/Odd, Red/Black or 1-18/19-36. When any of these bets are made in the game of Roulette, a spin resulting in a \"0\" or \"00\" results in a loss, so even though the payout is even money, the odds are clearly not 50/50. The Labouchère System attempts to offset these odds.\nIf a player were to play any one of the above propositions, there are eighteen individual results which result in a win for that player and", "-26.861222268256824" ], [ "Alice expects no further bets or calls from her opponent. If her opponent has a superior hand, Alice expects the opponent to bet another $10 on the end. Therefore, if Alice wins, she only expects to win the $30 currently in the pot, but if she loses, she expects to lose $20 ($10 call on the turn plus $10 call on the river). Because she is risking $20 to win $30, Alice's reverse implied pot odds are 1.5-to-1 ($30/$20) or 40 percent (1/(1.5+1)). For calling to have a positive expectation, Alice must believe the probability of her opponent having a", "-26.830878770182608" ], [ "million chance of winning $10 million; in the other, you have a one in 10,000 chance of winning $10,000. It is more reasonable to choose the second game; but most people would choose the first. For this reason, jackpots in lotteries are growing.\nDobelli has described the U.S. Food Act of 1958 as a \"classic example\" of neglect of probability. The law – which prohibited carcinogenic substances in food, no matter how low the probability that they would in fact result in cancer – led to the substitution of those substances by ingredients that, while not causing cancer, stood a far", "-26.82329172822938" ], [ "the skew of the next roll. Analysis shows this type of game is biased towards the don't pass and don't come bets. A player betting don't pass and don't come every roll and laying 10x odds receives a 2% profit on the initial don't pass / don't come bet each roll. Using a counting system allows the player to attain a similar return at lower variance.\nTo replicate the original dice odds exactly without dice or possibility of card-counting, another scheme uses two shuffle machines with just one deck of Ace through 6 each. Each machine selects one of", "-26.82251120309229" ], [ "not favor either basket. After each ball was drawn, participants in one group were asked to state out loud their judgments of the probability that the balls were being drawn from one or the other basket. These participants tended to grow more confident with each successive draw—whether they initially thought the basket with 60% black balls or the one with 60% red balls was the more likely source, their estimate of the probability increased. Another group of participants were asked to state probability estimates only at the end of a sequence of drawn balls, rather than after each ball. They", "-26.81832661991939" ], [ "winning the match would now be 30% (explanation below). Therefore, the take threshold for both players is 30% or greater chance of winning the game, regardless of gammons. Additionally, it is important to double while the opponent can still take; should a player's advantage on the board exceed 70% winning chances he will have \"lost his market\", allowing his opponent to drop the double and continue the match at 30% winning odds. It is an error not to double if there is any possibility of losing one's market; however it is not an error to double even if no market", "-26.749843425757717" ], [ "of gambling due to their low cost and the opportunity to win instantly, as opposed to waiting for a drawing like many lotteries. There is a trend towards more expensive scratchcards (20-50 USD) that have prizes in the millions of dollars. However, many such \"instant\" tickets sold in the US, especially in Massachusetts and New York, do not pay top prizes \"instantly,\" but rather over many years, with no cash option.\nThe popularity of lottery scratchcards has been increasing at a greater rate than any other form of lottery. Predictability In the 21st century there have been attempts to increase", "-26.74781393597368" ], [ "a least $6. If the gambler bets $ on a play of the game, then with probability 0.4 she wins the game, recoup the initial bet, and she increases her capital position by $; with probability 0.6, she loses the bet amount $; all plays are pairwise independent. On any play of the game, the gambler may not bet more money than she has available at the beginning of that play.\nStochastic dynamic programming can be employed to model this problem and determine a betting strategy that, for instance, maximizes the gambler's probability of attaining a wealth of at least $6", "-26.736804422689602" ], [ "4/43. Since , the probability of obtaining the score of 2 and the bonus ball is , approximate decimal odds of 1 in 81.2.\nThe general formula for matching balls in a choose lottery with one bonus ball from the pool of balls is: \nThe general formula for matching balls in a choose lottery with zero bonus ball from the pool of balls is:\nThe general formula for matching balls in a choose lottery with one bonus ball from a separate pool of balls is:\nThe general formula for matching", "-26.732705785543658" ], [ "players A and B both players are assessed to have an equal chance of winning. The situation is the same in Match 2 between players C and D. In a fair book in each of their matches, i.e. each has a book of 100%, all players would be offered at odds of Evens (1-1). However, a bookmaker would probably offer odds of 5-6 (for example) on each of the two possible outcomes in each event (each tennis match). This results in a book for each of the tennis matches of 109.09...%, calculated by 100 × (​⁶⁄₁₁ + ​⁶⁄₁₁) i.e. 9.09%", "-26.689674086490413" ], [ " is the probability of winning, and is the probability of losing. Furthermore, if we flat bet at 10 units per round instead of 1 unit, the range of possible outcomes increases 10 fold. Therefore, SD for Roulette even-money bet is equal to , where is the flat bet per round, is the number of rounds, , and .\nAfter enough large number of rounds the theoretical distribution of the total win converges to the normal distribution, giving a good possibility to forecast the possible win or loss. For example, after 100 rounds at $1 per round, the", "-26.632262221130077" ], [ "losses means that the cost of the last bet is relatively trivial compared to what has already been spent. Betters refrain from making bets that would not recoup their losses if successful. Example John and Bob go to the casino to play roulette. After two hours of playing their wives tell them that they must leave after one more spin. John is up $200. Bob is down $320. The end-of-the-day betting effect says that John is more likely to make a low risk bet, such as betting on red or black (1:1 odds), while Bob is more likely to make", "-26.62905710547784" ], [ "et al found that players had rapidly adapted to avoid high numbers, above the Nash cut-off, when these did not win. Similarly a marked initial excess of very low numbers also disappeared, as players became more aware of the pattern of typical winning numbers. However, the range of numbers backed by most players did not extend quite as high as the Nash equilibrium would predict. This appears to be a self-perpetuating feature, since if players do not back the numbers at the higher end of the Nash range, such numbers are less likely to win, and therefore", "-26.619070413027657" ], [ "become true. Binary betting Binary betting displays odds as an index from 0 to 100 where the bet settles at 100 if the event happens and 0 if it does not. An amount is wagered per point on the index. The event can be bought or sold, making it possible to profit both from the event occurring or not occurring. Features A central feature of financial betting is the fixed risk nature which allows market participants to limit the risk to a known amount. When one opens a bet (long or short) they know beforehand what risk they are taking.", "-26.60043940274045" ], [ "a reference to Lost.\nThe storyline involving Hurley's usage of the numbers 4 8 15 16 23 42 in a lottery has led to the sequence becoming a popular choice for lottery players. This issue came to particular attention when a record Mega Millions jackpot drawing on January 4, 2011 matched four of the six numbers (three plus the mega ball), resulting in several thousand people who played the numbers winning at least $150 each.", "-26.591442960401764" ], [ "up, even-odds bets are put \"in prison\", or kept on to await the result of the next spin. Distracted by Rosie, he had not taken out his winnings after Black turned up, so it all stayed on Black. Black came up seven more times. Bingo cannot take out his winnings, or else Rosie will see he has been gambling. He tries to make a face at the croupier to signal that he wants his money pushed aside, but the croupier misinterprets him and lets it all ride (meaning Bingo's money will continue to be bet double-or-nothing on Black).\nThough Bingo is", "-26.555819209330366" ], [ "odds are sold as odds suggestions to bookmakers for matches the bookmakers are unable to create their own odds for. Similarly, Sportradar provides information to bookmakers about when matches start and finish so they do not allow money being placed on matches that are finished. A subset of Sportradar's collected data goes through an extensive quality assurance process specialised for bet clearing.\nSportradar also provides market monitoring, which allows bookmakers to compare their odds with the rest of the market. Bookmakers have to provide their own odds to make use of this service, thus making their own odds a part of", "-26.549247056580498" ], [ "cards are out, a player holding a busted drawing hand decides that the only way to win the pot is to make a pure bluff. If the player bets the size of the pot on a pure bluff, the bluff will have a positive expectation if the probability of being called is less than 50%. Note, however, that the opponent may also consider the pot odds when deciding whether to call. In this example, the opponent will be facing 2-to-1 pot odds for the call. The opponent will have a positive expectation for calling the bluff if the opponent believes", "-26.53174794316874" ], [ "bet per roll, this does not exclude a player from laying odds on an already established Don't Come points. Players may bet both the Don't Come and Come on the same roll if desired.\nThe player may lay odds on a don't come bet, just like a don't pass bet; in this case, the dealer (not the player) places the odds bet on top of the bet in the box, because of limited space, slightly offset to signify that it is an odds bet and not part of the original don't come bet. Lay odds behind a Don't Come are subject", "-26.512010233360343" ], [ "Impossibility of a gambling system The principle of the impossibility of a gambling system is a concept in probability. It states that in a random sequence, the methodical selection of subsequences does not change the probability of specific elements. The first mathematical demonstration is attributed to Richard von Mises (who used the term collective rather than sequence).\nThe principle states that no method for forming a subsequence of a random sequence (the gambling system) improves the odds for a specific event. For instance, a sequence of fair coin tosses produces equal and independent 50/50 chances for heads and tails. A", "-26.493467405671254" ], [ "that another player may be bluffing. The effect of adding the requirement of a big bet to the final two rounds of seven-card stud betting is that the game becomes one more of skill than of luck.", "-26.480919982583146" ], [ "of selecting the last successes. \nTamaki 2010 proved a multiplicative odds theorem which deals with a problem of stopping at any of the last successes.\nA tight lower bound of win probability is obtained by Matsui & Ano 2014.\nMatsui & Ano 2017 discussed a problem of selecting out of the last successes and obtained a tight lower bound of win probability. When the problem is equivalent to Bruss' odds problem. If the problem is equivalent to that in Bruss & Paindaveine 2000. A problem discussed by Tamaki 2010 is obtained by", "-26.479203847353347" ], [ "Chance Chance means that the result be uncertain, indefinite or doubtful.\nAlthough the role of chance makes a scheme a lottery, unique bid auctions may avoid lottery classification if chance plays only an incidental role when skill is the overriding factor. The legal question becomes whether \"chance predominates and is the one outstanding feature\". \"The exercise of any skill, greater than a mere scintilla, which, looking at the scheme as a whole, has contributed to the successful result, will be sufficient to take the case out of the (English) Act.\" An example where a scheme was permitted to run despite the", "-26.471077572612558" ], [ "in the event the opponent already has him beat. \nAssuming a $20 pot and one opponent, if Bob bets $10 (half the pot), when his opponent acts, the pot will be $30 and it will cost $10 to call. The opponent's pot odds will be 3-to-1, or 25 percent. If the opponent is on a flush draw (9/46, approximately 19.565 percent or 4.11-to-1 odds against with one card to come), the pot is not offering adequate pot odds for the opponent to call unless the opponent thinks they can induce additional final round betting from Bob if the opponent completes", "-26.446540757082403" ], [ "integer, to enable comparisons of different ratios. For example, the ratio 4∶5 can be written as 1∶1.25 (dividing both sides by 4) Alternatively, it can be written as 0.8∶1 (dividing both sides by 5).\nWhere the context makes the meaning clear, a ratio in this form is sometimes written without the 1 and the ratio symbol (∶), though, mathematically, this makes it a factor or multiplier. Odds Odds (as in gambling) are expressed as a ratio. For example, odds of \"7 to 3 against\" (7∶3) mean that there are seven chances that the event will not happen to every three", "-26.433680994414317" ], [ "the odds and went on to win the season over Willem by a jury vote of 4-3.", "-26.383624701746157" ], [ "the opportunity to place bets on the outcome of 14 different lotteries from around the world: 49’s, Daily Millions, Euro Millions, Irish, UK, French, Australian, German, New York, Canadian, Greek, Hong Kong, Spanish & Polish.\nCustomers can place single or multiple bets on up to 5 numbers in all 14 lotteries as well as view the latest results.", "-26.382147788099246" ], [ "on where along the curve our decision lies.\nExample: Participants are indifferent between receiving a lottery ticket offering a 1% chance at $200 and receiving $10 for sure. Additionally, people are indifferent between receiving a lottery ticket offering a 99% chance at $200 and receiving $188 for sure. \nIn line with diminishing sensitivity, the first hundredth of probability is worth $10, and the last hundredth is worth $12, but the 98 intermediate hundredths are worth only $178, or about $1.80 per hundredth. PT captures this pattern of differentially weighting (objective) probabilities subjectively with an S-shaped weighting function. Framing effects A framing", "-26.34902050322853" ], [ "the green 0 and the 00 means that statistically the bettor will lose more than 50% of the time. There are variations of the game that offer en prison on 37 number tables so if a 0 is rolled, the bettor neither wins or loses but his or her bet rides again on the next roll; if the bet-upon event occurs on the second spin, the even-money wager is returned to the bettor. There still is not a 50-50 chance of winning, but a lot closer, since the house edge is reduced by almost 50%.\nIn blackjack, even money bet is", "-26.34585466090357" ], [ "the number played repeats a digit). A $1.00 wager on an \"Exact\" number wins $500 if said number is drawn; odds are 1 in 1,000). Carolina Pick 4 Began on April 17, 2009, Carolina Pick 4 also is twice daily (prior to February 27, 2011, it was drawn once nightly). Otherwise, it is similar to Carolina Pick 3, except it draws four digits. A \"Combo\" wager is a $4, $6, $12, or $24 bet depending on whether any digit repeats. A $1 \"Exact\" wager wins $5,000 if said number is drawn; odds are 1 in 10,000. Carolina Cash 5 Began", "-26.318942878046073" ] ]

[ "You can see the Coriolis effect happen IRL by using a Merry-Go-Round at your local playground. You need 2 people and a tennis ball. Get the merry go round going, both of you get on and throw the ball back and forth. It's pretty impossible to catch.", "Imagine you are throwing a baseball at the wall in your room: you aim for a spot on the wall and hit it. Now imagine that your entire room is rotating... The ball has inertia so it will not want to change direction and wants to keep moving in the same direction. Because the room is rotating, the ball's path will be deflected from the target on the wall. This same logic can be applied to the rotation of the earth. You can google it for more information but I think that is the best I can do for now", "In long range shooting, it's the effect of the earth's rotation on the flight path of the bullet. The bullet continues in a straight path, but looks like it curved to one side.", "Think about a ballerina or an ice-skater spinning with her arms stretched out. Her whole body makes a complete turn all at once, but her outstretched arms have a bigger circle to travel in the same amount of time, so they're moving faster. When she pulls her arms in, they don't have as far to go, but they still have the energy (inertia) from when they were stretched out, so her whole body spins faster than before. Now, imagine for a moment that you're at the center of a spinning space station shaped like a wheel with spokes. Like [this one]( URL_0 ). The rim is a bigger circle than the center, but it has to all spin at once, so the rim will be moving faster. If you climbed a ladder in one of the \"spokes\" connecting the hub to the rim, you'll feel a slight pull to the left or right depending on which way the wheel was spinning. Since you're coming from the center, you're not moving as fast as the area \"above\" you, so that's why you feel like you're being \"pulled\" a bit sideways. The station itself is pulling you to bring you up to speed as you climb. And it's the same way on a sphere. The Earth spins all at once, so if you draw an imaginary line through the center of the Earth (its axis), the equator is moving the fastest, since it's furthest from the center of rotation, like the rim of the disc, or the ballerina's outstretched arms. So if you take a cloud at the equator, and shove it North, it has more inertia than its surroundings, so it will tend to drift a bit to the left (or west). Take another cloud that's North of the equator and shove it south, and it will tend to drift a bit to the right/east. If you get enough energy into a storm system that it keeps pushing clouds north and south, it'll tend to spin counter-clockwise in the northern hemisphere, and clockwise in the southern hemisphere.", "Don't know much about this effect, but in case anyone is wondering, this effect doesn't change how sinks drain. URL_0 " ]

[ [ "and atmosphere, including Rossby waves and Kelvin waves. It is also instrumental in the so-called Ekman dynamics in the ocean, and in the establishment of the large-scale ocean flow pattern called the Sverdrup balance. Eötvös effect The practical impact of the \"Coriolis effect\" is mostly caused by the horizontal acceleration component produced by horizontal motion.\nThere are other components of the Coriolis effect. Westward-travelling objects are deflected downwards (feel heavier), while Eastward-travelling objects are deflected upwards (feel lighter). This is known as the Eötvös effect. This aspect of the Coriolis effect is greatest near the equator. The force produced by this", "-35.023815060303605" ], [ "Coriolis force In physics, the Coriolis force is an inertial or fictitious force that acts on objects that are in motion within a frame of reference that rotates with respect to an inertial frame. In a reference frame with clockwise rotation, the force acts to the left of the motion of the object. In one with anticlockwise (or counterclockwise) rotation, the force acts to the right. Deflection of an object due to the Coriolis force is called the Coriolis effect. Though recognized previously by others, the mathematical expression for the Coriolis force appeared in an 1835 paper by French scientist", "-34.64920876741235" ], [ "Eötvös effect. Coriolis drift is not an aerodynamic effect; it is a consequence of the rotation of the Earth.\nThe magnitude of the Coriolis effect is small. For small arms, the magnitude of the Coriolis effect is generally insignificant (for high powered rifles in the order of about 10 cm (3.9 in) at 1,000 m (1,094 yd)), but for ballistic projectiles with long flight times, such as extreme long-range rifle projectiles, artillery, and rockets like intercontinental ballistic missiles, it is a significant factor in calculating the trajectory. The magnitude of the drift depends on the firing and target location, azimuth of firing, projectile velocity and", "-34.543642453616485" ], [ "Coriolis force A minimum distance of 500 km (310 mi) from the equator (about 4.5 degrees from the equator) is normally needed for tropical cyclogenesis. The Coriolis force imparts rotation on the flow and arises as winds begin to flow in toward the lower pressure created by the pre-existing disturbance. In areas with a very small or non-existent Coriolis force (e.g. near the Equator), the only significant atmospheric forces in play are the pressure gradient force (the pressure difference that causes winds to blow from high to low pressure) and a smaller friction force; these two alone would not cause the", "-33.29080769720895" ], [ "was understood. Causes The Coriolis force exists only when one uses a rotating reference frame. In the rotating frame it behaves exactly like a real force (that is to say, it causes acceleration and has real effects). However, the Coriolis force is a consequence of inertia, and is not attributable to an identifiable originating body, as is the case for electromagnetic or nuclear forces, for example. From an analytical viewpoint, to use Newton's second law in a rotating system, the Coriolis force is mathematically necessary, but it disappears in a non-accelerating, inertial frame of reference. For example, consider two children", "-33.15671532244596" ], [ "already considered in category one. The effect was known in the early 20th century as the \"acceleration of Coriolis\", and by 1920 as \"Coriolis force\".\nIn 1856, William Ferrel proposed the existence of a circulation cell in the mid-latitudes with air being deflected by the Coriolis force to create the prevailing westerly winds.\nThe understanding of the kinematics of how exactly the rotation of the Earth affects airflow was partial at first. Late in the 19th century, the full extent of the large scale interaction of pressure-gradient force and deflecting force that in the end causes air masses to move along isobars", "-33.02988198553794" ], [ "Coriolis frequency Explanation Consider a body (for example a fixed volume of atmosphere) moving along at a given latitude at velocity in the earth's rotating reference frame. In the local reference frame of the body, the vertical direction is parallel to the radial vector pointing from the center of the earth to the location of the body and the horizontal direction is perpendicular to this vertical direction and in the meridional direction. The Coriolis force (proportional to ), however, is perpendicular to the plane containing both the earth's angular velocity vector (where ) and the", "-32.93876242393162" ], [ "to low pressure, as they would in a non-rotating system, winds and currents tend to flow to the right of this direction north of the equator and to the left of this direction south of it. This effect is responsible for the rotation of large cyclones (see Coriolis effects in meteorology).\nFor an intuitive explanation of the origin of the Coriolis force, consider an object, constrained to follow the Earth's surface and moving northward in the northern hemisphere. Viewed from outer space, the object does not appear to go due north, but has an eastward motion (it rotates around toward the", "-32.41239155101357" ], [ "Neupert effect The Neupert Effect refers to an empirical tendency for high-energy ('hard') X-ray emission to coincide temporally with the rate of rise of lower-energy ('soft') X-ray emission of a solar flare. \nHere 'hard' and 'soft' mean above and below an energy of about 10 keV to solar physicists, though in non-solar X-ray astronomy one typically sets this boundary at a lower energy.\nThis effect gets its name from NASA solar physicist and spectroscopist Werner Neupert, who first documented a related correlation (the integral form) between microwave (gyrosynchrotron) and soft X-ray emissions in 1968. The standard interpretation is that the accumulated", "-31.867170282668667" ], [ "Photoacoustic Doppler effect The photoacoustic Doppler effect, as its name implies, is one specific kind of Doppler effect, which occurs when an intensely modulated light wave induces a photoacoustic wave on moving particles with a specific frequency. The observed frequency shift is a good indicator of the velocity of the illuminated moving particles. A potential biomedical application is measuring blood flow.\nSpecifically, when an intensity modulated light wave is exerted on a localized medium, the resulting heat can induce an alternating and localized pressure change. This periodic pressure change generates an acoustic wave with a specific frequency. Among various factors that", "-31.816736236869474" ], [ "traced ground path of a freely moving body in ballistic flight traveling from one point to another therefore bends the opposite way, clockwise, which is conventionally labeled as \"right,\" where it will be if the direction of motion is considered \"ahead,\" and \"down\" is defined naturally. Meteorology Perhaps the most important impact of the Coriolis effect is in the large-scale dynamics of the oceans and the atmosphere. In meteorology and oceanography, it is convenient to postulate a rotating frame of reference wherein the Earth is stationary. In accommodation of that provisional postulation, the centrifugal and Coriolis forces are introduced. Their", "-31.668098921007186" ], [ "made him a laureate of the U.S. Gravity Research Foundation for his 1959 memoir on gravity. The veracity of the Allais effect remains controversial among the scientific community, as its testing has frequently met with inconsistent or ambiguous results over more than five decades of observation. Anomalous results Romanian physicist Gheorghe Jeverdan et al. observed the Allais effect and the so-called Jeverdan-Rusu-Antonescu effect or Jeverdan effect (i.e. the change in the oscillation period of a pendulum during an eclipse) while monitoring a Foucault pendulum during the solar eclipse of February 15, 1961. The authors made two hypotheses regarding their observation:", "-31.293650400373735" ], [ "These results derive from the Coriolis effect; that article explains in detail the physics, and provides an animation of a model to aid understanding. Formation High-pressure areas form due to downward motion through the troposphere, the atmospheric layer where weather occurs. Preferred areas within a synoptic flow pattern in higher levels of the troposphere are beneath the western side of troughs.\nOn weather maps, these areas show converging winds (isotachs), also known as convergence, near or above the level of non-divergence, which is near the 500 hPa pressure surface about midway up through the troposphere, and about half the atmospheric", "-31.157023044885136" ], [ "Opposition surge The opposition surge (sometimes known as the opposition effect, opposition spike or Seeliger effect) is the brightening of a rough surface, or an object with many particles, when illuminated from directly behind the observer. The term is most widely used in astronomy, where generally it refers to the sudden noticeable increase in the brightness of a celestial body such as a planet, moon, or comet as its phase angle of observation approaches zero. It is so named because the reflected light from the Moon and Mars appear significantly brighter than predicted by simple Lambertian reflectance when at astronomical", "-31.023757266098983" ], [ "from the mutual orientation of the Coriolis force and unit vector n, whereas the second follows from the square root.\nThe important cases of cyclonic and anticyclonic circulations are discussed next. Pressure lows and cyclones For regular cyclones (air circulation around pressure lows), the pressure force is inward (positive term) and the Coriolis force outward (negative term) irrespective of the hemisphere.\nThe cross-trajectory momentum equation is\n.\nDividing both sides by |f|V, one recognizes that\n,\nwhereby the cyclonic gradient speed V is smaller than the corresponding geostrophic, less accurate estimate, and naturally approaches it as the radius of curvature grows (as the inertial velocity goes", "-30.86087312885502" ], [ "the equator. Vertical (Eötvös) effect The Eötvös effect changes the perceived gravitational pull on a moving object based on the relationship between the direction and velocity of movement and the direction of the Earth's rotation.\nThe Eötvös effect is largest at the equator and decreases to zero at the poles. It causes eastward-traveling projectiles to deflect upward, and westward-traveling projectiles to deflect downward. The effect is less pronounced for trajectories in other directions, and is zero for trajectories aimed due north or south. In the case of large changes of momentum, such as a spacecraft being launched into Earth orbit, the", "-30.85301145684207" ], [ "water in the ocean. Such motions are constrained by the surface of the Earth, so only the horizontal component of the Coriolis force is generally important. This force causes moving objects on the surface of the Earth to be deflected to the right (with respect to the direction of travel) in the Northern Hemisphere and to the left in the Southern Hemisphere. The horizontal deflection effect is greater near the poles, since the effective rotation rate about a local vertical axis is largest there, and decreases to zero at the equator. Rather than flowing directly from areas of high pressure", "-30.640575918005197" ], [ "by showing that the aberration angle was given by simple vector addition of the Earth's orbital velocity and the velocity of the corpuscles of light, just as vertically falling raindrops strike a moving object at an angle. Knowing the Earth's velocity and the aberration angle, this enabled him to estimate the speed of light.\nExplaining stellar aberration in the context of an aether-based theory of light was regarded as more problematic. As the aberration relied on relative velocities, and the measured velocity was dependent on the motion of the Earth, the aether had to be remaining stationary with respect to", "-30.574225380900316" ], [ "Jocelyn Bell turned this assumption on its head, when she noticed a signal which was soon recognized as emanating from a new class of object, the pulsar. Thus \"it was an investigation of interplanetary scintillation that led to the discovery of pulsars, even though the discovery was a by-product rather than the purpose of the investigation.\" Cause Scintillation occurs as a result of variations in the refractive index of the medium through which waves are traveling. The solar wind is a plasma, composed primarily of electrons and lone protons, and the variations in the index of refraction are caused by", "-30.498652235706686" ], [ "the sensing of Coriolis forces in the similar manner as with the halteres in flies. In both flies and moths, a collection of mechanosensors at the base of the appendage are sensitive to deviations at the beat frequency, correlating to rotation in the pitch and roll planes, and at twice the beat frequency, correlating to rotation in the yaw plane. Lagrangian point stability In astronomy, Lagrangian points are five positions in the orbital plane of two large orbiting bodies where a small object affected only by gravity can maintain a stable position relative to the two large bodies. The first", "-30.103678120925906" ], [ "body's own velocity in the rotating reference frame . Thus, the Coriolis force is always at an angle with the local vertical direction. The local horizontal direction of the Coriolis force is thus . This force acts to move the body along longitudes or in the meridional directions.", "-29.89038562317728" ], [ "Gravitational redshift In Einstein's general theory of relativity, the gravitational redshift\nis the phenomenon that clocks in a gravitational field tick slower when observed by a distant observer. More specifically the term refers to the shift of wavelength of a photon to longer wavelength (the red side in an optical spectrum) when observed from a point in a lower gravitational field. In the latter case the 'clock' is the frequency of the photon and a lower frequency is the same as a longer (\"redder\") wavelength. \nThe gravitational redshift is a simple consequence of\nEinstein's equivalence principle (\"all bodies fall with the", "-29.827988624412683" ], [ "named the Davie Seamount. Retroflection The findings of the Agulhas Current Project showed that a key to understanding the current's dynamics was the way it turns back on itself, a phenomenon Bang described as \"retroflection\", more commonly used to describe the way the mammalian intestine or uterus can curve back on itself. The term has since become common parlance among oceanographers. Good Hope Jet Following studies of the Southern Benguela system off South Africa's west coast, Bang and Andrews anticipated and subsequently discovered the strong equatorward shelf edge frontal jet off the Cape Peninsula—an intrusion of Agulhas Current water—which they", "-29.57337932655355" ], [ "weak low-level circulation. With low wind shear and diffluence aloft, the JTWC remarked the system had a fair chance of developing.\nWhile the system was organizing, the center crossed the equator to reach about 0.5° S, thus becoming an anticyclonic circulation in the southern hemisphere. This was unusual, as the Coriolis effect is nonexistent along the equator—the Coriolis effect refers to planetary vorticity, which provides the spin in a cyclone. The JTWC later assessed the system as remaining in the northern hemisphere, reaching as far south as 0.7° N, or about 80 km (50 mi) from the equator. After the circulation organized further beneath the", "-29.47470485919621" ], [ "Coriolis effect the surface water gets pulled 90° to the right of the wind current, therefore causing the water to converge along the coast boundary, leading to Ekman pumping. In the open ocean we see Ekman pumping occur with gyres. Specifically, in the subtropics, between 20°N and 50°N, there is Ekman pumping as the Tradewinds shift to the Westerlies causing a pile up of surface water.", "-29.450780290848343" ], [ "that an aggregate measurement of all rivers would lead to a correlation with the Baer–Babinet law, the Coriolis force is orders of magnitude weaker than the local forces on the river channel from its flow. Therefore, this is unlikely to be important in any given river. Albert Einstein wrote a paper in 1926 explaining the true causes of the phenomenon (see tea leaf paradox).", "-29.431962488542922" ], [ "shifts; gravitational redshifts (due to light exiting a gravitational field); and cosmological expansion (where space itself stretches). This article concerns itself only with Doppler shifts. Transverse Doppler effect Suppose that a source and a receiver are both approaching each other in uniform inertial motion along paths that do not collide. The transverse Doppler effect (TDE) may refer to (a) the nominal blueshift predicted by special relativity that occurs when the emitter and receiver are at their points of closest approach; or (b) the nominal redshift predicted by special relativity when the receiver sees the emitter as being at its closest", "-29.395791498565814" ], [ "ion and a non-polar molecule interacting. Like a dipole–induced dipole force, the charge of the ion causes distortion of the electron cloud on the non-polar molecule. Van der Waals forces The van der Waals forces arise from interaction between uncharged atoms or molecules, leading not only to such phenomena as the cohesion of condensed phases and physical adsorption of gases, but also to a universal force of attraction between macroscopic bodies. London dispersion force (fluctuating dipole–induced dipole interaction) The third and dominant contribution is the dispersion or London force (fluctuating dipole–induced dipole), which arises due to the non-zero instantaneous dipole", "-29.36082707234891" ], [ "article discussing the Coriolis Effect for further details.\nThe motion of ballistics with changing latitude is not helpful to understanding the change with latitude of the observed rotation time of the pendulum. (This discussion point is different from what is stated in the reference book.) There is only one point of connection to the Earth for the swinging pendulum and that point of connection doesn't move in relation to the Earth. Because the plane of the pendulum swing is free to swing in relation to the rotation of the structure of the connection point, the rotation of the Earth is observable", "-29.35352980242169" ], [ "the strong Antarctic Circumpolar Current. In the northern hemisphere the land masses prevent this and the ocean circulation is broken into smaller gyres in the Atlantic and Pacific basins. Coriolis effect The Coriolis effect results in a deflection of fluid flows (to the right in the Northern Hemisphere and left in the Southern Hemisphere). This has profound effects on the flow of the oceans. In particular it means the flow goes around high and low pressure systems, permitting them to persist for long periods of time. As a result, tiny variations in pressure can produce measurable currents. A slope of", "-29.31938414183969" ], [ "Larmor precession Applications A 1935 paper published by Lev Landau and Evgeny Lifshitz predicted the existence of ferromagnetic resonance of the Larmor precession, which was independently verified in experiments by J. H. E. Griffiths (UK) and E. K. Zavoiskij (USSR) in 1946.\nLarmor precession is important in nuclear magnetic resonance, magnetic resonance imaging, electron paramagnetic resonance, and muon spin resonance. It is also important for the alignment of cosmic dust grains, which is a cause of the polarization of starlight.\nTo calculate the spin of a particle in a magnetic field, one must also take into account Thomas precession. Precession direction The", "-29.305185250239447" ], [ "of parallax depends on the distance of the object from the observer, whereas aberration does not. Aberration is also related to light-time correction and relativistic beaming, although it is often considered separately from these effects.\nAberration is historically significant because of its role in the development of the theories of light, electromagnetism and, ultimately, the theory of special relativity. It was first observed in the late 1600s by astronomers searching for stellar parallax in order to confirm the heliocentric model of the Solar System. However, it was not understood at the time to be a different phenomenon.\nIn 1727, James Bradley", "-29.241912864804362" ], [ "Nordtvedt effect In theoretical astrophysics, the Nordtvedt effect refers to the relative motion between the Earth and the Moon which would be observed if the gravitational self-energy of a body contributed differently to its gravitational mass than to its inertial mass. If observed, the Nordtvedt effect would violate the strong equivalence principle, which indicates that an object's movement in a gravitational field does not depend on its mass or composition.\nThe effect is named after Dr. Kenneth L. Nordtvedt, who first demonstrated that some theories of gravity suggest that massive bodies should fall at different rates, depending upon their gravitational self-energy.\nNordtvedt", "-29.213414164289134" ], [ "temporarily deforms the Earth's magnetic field, changing the direction of compass needles and inducing large electrical ground currents in Earth itself; this is called a geomagnetic storm and it is a global phenomenon. CME impacts can induce magnetic reconnection in Earth's magnetotail (the midnight side of the magnetosphere); this launches protons and electrons downward toward Earth's atmosphere, where they form the aurora. Diameter Data mostly from the Michelson Doppler Imager instrument on SOHO, show changes in solar diameter to be about 0.001%, much less than the effect of magnetic activity changes. Flares A solar flare is a sudden flash of", "-29.21204541318002" ], [ "Aberration (astronomy) In astronomy, aberration (also referred to as astronomical aberration, stellar aberration, or velocity aberration) is a phenomenon which produces an apparent motion of celestial objects about their true positions, dependent on the velocity of the observer. \nAberration causes objects to appear to be displaced towards the direction of motion of the observer compared to when the observer is stationary. The change in angle is typically very small — of the order of v/c where c is the speed of light and v the velocity of the observer. In the case of \"stellar\" or \"annual\" aberration, the apparent position", "-29.192429136368446" ], [ "Kerr effect The Kerr effect, also called the quadratic electro-optic (QEO) effect, is a change in the refractive index of a material in response to an applied electric field. The Kerr effect is distinct from the Pockels effect in that the induced index change is directly proportional to the square of the electric field instead of varying linearly with it. All materials show a Kerr effect, but certain liquids display it more strongly than others. The Kerr effect was discovered in 1875 by John Kerr, a Scottish physicist.\nTwo special cases of the Kerr effect are normally considered, these being the", "-29.141823164070956" ], [ "\nThough not obvious from this example, which considers northward motion, the horizontal deflection occurs equally for objects moving eastward or westward (or in any other direction).\nThe theory that the effect influences draining water to rotate clockwise in the northern hemisphere and anti-clockwise in the southern hemisphere has been repeatedly disproven by modern-day scientists. History Italian scientist Giovanni Battista Riccioli and his assistant Francesco Maria Grimaldi described the effect in connection with artillery in the 1651 Almagestum Novum, writing that rotation of the Earth should cause a cannonball fired to the north to deflect to the east. In 1674 Claude François", "-29.0790276225016" ], [ "down the Zoeppritz equations. Due to its physical origin, AVO can also be known as amplitude versus angle (AVA), but AVO is the more commonly used term because the offset is what a geophysicist can vary in order to change the angle of incidence. (See diagram) Zoeppritz equations In 1919, Karl Bernhard Zoeppritz derived four equations that determine the amplitudes of reflected and refracted waves at a planar interface for an incident P-wave as a function of the angle of incidence and six independent elastic parameters. These equations have 4 unknowns and can be solved but they do", "-29.064259499282343" ], [ "during an eclipse, the Moon exerts a screening effect on the gravitational attraction of the Sun so that the attraction of the Earth is indirectly increased, a phenomenon that could also be studied with tides. If the hypothesis of the screening effect is wrong, another explanation could be that the variation of the Earth's gravity might be considered as a result of the diffraction of gravitational waves. Erwin Saxl and Mildred Allen similarly reported strong anomalous changes in the period of a torsion pendulum during the solar eclipse of March 7, 1970 and concluded that \"gravitational theory needs to be", "-29.000564965681406" ], [ "Gaspard-Gustave de Coriolis, in connection with the theory of water wheels. Early in the 20th century, the term Coriolis force began to be used in connection with meteorology.\nNewton's laws of motion describe the motion of an object in an inertial (non-accelerating) frame of reference. When Newton's laws are transformed to a rotating frame of reference, the Coriolis and centrifugal accelerations appear. When applied to massive objects, the respective forces are proportional to the masses of them. The Coriolis force is proportional to the rotation rate and the centrifugal force is proportional to the square of the rotation rate. The Coriolis", "-28.973343559075147" ], [ "the other half is opposed to the direction of revolution. He reasoned that by sometimes matching and sometimes counteracting the motion of orbit, positive and negative acceleration is generated that influences bodies of water to rock back and forth, creating the tides. Though these opposing acceleration cannot be observed, large bodies of water containing points of location far away enough to experience significantly different vectors of acceleration would necessarily contour into waves. Criticism Galileo's theory of the tides could not account for one of the two daily occurrences of high tide observed along most coastlines. He countered that the totality", "-28.913490027302032" ], [ "explain the high albedos at radar wavelengths. Water droplets On Earth, water droplets can also create bright spots around the antisolar point in various situations. For more details, see Heiligenschein and Glory (optical phenomenon). Throughout the Solar System The existence of the opposition surge was described in 1956 by Tom Gehrels during his study of the reflected light from an asteroid. Gehrels' later studies showed that the same effect could be shown in the moon's brightness. He coined the term \"opposition effect\" for the phenomenon, but the more intuitive \"opposition surge\" is now more widely used.\nSince Gehrels' early studies,", "-28.899869022148778" ], [ "and the critical angle was the angle of incidence at which the normal velocity of the approaching corpuscle was just enough to reach the far side of the force field; at more oblique incidence, the corpuscle would be turned back. Newton gave what amounts to a formula for the critical angle, albeit in words: \"as the Sines are which measure the Refraction, so is the Sine of Incidence at which the total Reflexion begins, to the Radius of the Circle\".\nNewton went beyond Huygens in two ways. First, not surprisingly, Newton pointed out the relationship between TIR and dispersion: when a", "-28.850057503324933" ], [ "can use the Lorentz transformations with β = 0.666 to relate Ursula's measurements with his own. Doppler effect The Doppler effect is the change in frequency or wavelength of a wave for a receiver and source in relative motion. For simplicity, we consider here two basic scenarios: (1) The motions of the source and/or receiver are exactly along the line connecting them (longitudinal Doppler effect), and (2) the motions are at right angles to the said line (transverse Doppler effect). We are ignoring scenarios where they move along intermediate angles. Extending momentum to four dimensions In classical mechanics, the state of motion", "-28.742580698482925" ], [ ".\nHowever, in this case isobars are not defined in the first place.\nWe cannot draw any anticipation about the trajectory from the arrangement of the pressure field.\nIn the cross-stream momentum equation, after omitting the pressure force, the centripetal acceleration is the Coriolis force per unit mass.\nThe sign ambiguity disappears, because the bending is solely determined by the Coriolis force that sets unchallenged the side of curvature – so this force has always a positive sign.\nThe inertial rotation will be clockwise (anticlockwise) in the northern (southern) hemisphere.\nThe momentum equation\n,\ngives us the inertial speed\n.\nThe inertial speed's equation only helps determine either the speed", "-28.732815346906136" ], [ "deforms the Earth's magnetic field, changing the direction of compass needles and inducing large electrical ground currents in Earth itself; this is called a geomagnetic storm and it is a global phenomenon. CME impacts can induce magnetic reconnection in Earth's magnetotail (the midnight side of the magnetosphere); this launches protons and electrons downward toward Earth's atmosphere, where they form the aurora.\nCMEs are not the only cause of space weather. Different patches on the Sun are known to give rise to slightly different speeds and densities of wind depending on local conditions. In isolation, each of these different wind streams would", "-28.724822444899473" ], [ "by planetary-scale Rossby waves gives rise to sudden stratospheric warmings and the deposition by gravity waves gives rise to the quasi-biennial oscillation.\nIn the mathematical description of atmospheric waves, spherical harmonics are used. When considering a section of a wave along a latitude circle, this is equivalent to a sinusoidal shape.", "-28.683412248268723" ], [ "approach. The transverse Doppler effect is one of the main novel predictions of the special theory of relativity.\nWhether a scientific report describes TDE as being a redshift or blueshift depends on the particulars of the experimental arrangement being related. For example, Einstein's original description of the TDE in 1907 described an experimenter looking at the center (nearest point) of a beam of \"canal rays\" (a beam of positive ions that is created by certain types of gas-discharge tubes). According to special relativity, the moving ions' emitted frequency would be reduced by the Lorentz factor, so that the received frequency would", "-28.67523044286463" ], [ "that the Coriolis effect is not significant. The primary flow is circular around the vertical axis of the tornado or dust devil. As with all vortex flow, the speed of the flow is fastest at the core of the vortex. In accordance with Bernoulli's principle where the wind speed is fastest the air pressure is lowest; and where the wind speed is slowest the air pressure is highest. Consequently, near the center of the tornado or dust devil the air pressure is low. There is a pressure gradient toward the center of the vortex. This gradient,", "-28.644909287912014" ], [ "not agree with observations. It was Lindzen, in his 1966 paper, On the theory of the diurnal tide, who showed that the solution set of Hough functions given by Bernhard Haurwitz to Laplace's tidal equation was incomplete: modes with negative equivalent depths had been omitted. Lindzen went on to calculate the thermal response of the diurnal tide to ozone and water vapor absorption in detail and showed that when his theoretical developments were included, the surface pressure oscillation was predicted with approximately the magnitude and phase observed, as were most of the features of the diurnal wind oscillations in the", "-28.617650744054117" ], [ "covariance Most students who have taken a course in electromagnetism have encountered the Coulomb potential. It basically states that two charged particles attract or repel each other by a force which varies according to the inverse square of their separation. This is fairly unambiguous for particles at rest, but if one or the other is following an arbitrary trajectory the question arises whether one should compute the force using the instantaneous positions of the particles or the so-called retarded positions. The latter recognizes that information cannot propagate instantaneously, rather it propagates at the speed of light. ", "-28.596734916965943" ], [ "almost in the same line as the source of illumination. The effect is usually only visible for a very small range of phase angles near zero. For bodies whose reflectance properties have been quantitatively studied, details of the opposition effect – its strength and angular extent – are described by two of the Hapke parameters. In the case of planetary rings (such as Saturn's), an opposition surge is due to the uncovering of shadows on the ring particles. This explanation was first proposed by Hugo von Seeliger in 1887. Coherent backscatter A theory for an additional effect that increases", "-28.537270713888574" ], [ "F-plane In geophysical fluid dynamics, the f-plane approximation is an approximation where the Coriolis parameter, denoted f, is set to a constant value.\nThis approximation is frequently used for the analysis of highly idealized tropical cyclones. Using a constant Coriolis parameter prevents the formation of beta gyres which are largely responsible for the North-westward direction of most tropical cyclones. Rossby waves also depend on variations in f, and do not occur in the f-plane approximation.\nIn reality, the Coriolis parameter varies with latitude, and so the f-plane approximation is not appropriate when considering flows over large lengthscales. The f-plane approximation is also", "-28.52744609992442" ], [ "as of December 2005, may have come from the active binary II Peg. Its observation by Swift suggested the presence of hard X-rays in the well-established Neupert effect as seen in solar flares.", "-28.51608791849867" ], [ "there is a learned CNS anticipation of Coriolis effects, mediated by generation of an appropriate efference copy that can be compared to re-afferent information. Gaze stability It has been proposed that efference copy has an important role in maintaining gaze stability with active head movement by augmenting the vestibulo-ocular reflex (aVOR) during dynamic visual acuity testing. Grip force Efference copy within an internal model allows us to grip objects in parallel to a given load. In other words, the subject is able to properly grip any load that they are provided because the internal model provides such a good prediction", "-28.503034242079593" ], [ "The first observation of the gravitational redshift was the measurement of the shift in the spectral lines from the white dwarf star Sirius B by Adams in 1925, discussed above, and follow-on measurements of other white dwarfs. Because of the difficulty of the astrophysical measurement, however, experimental verification using a known terrestrial source was preferable.\nExperimental verification of gravitational redshift using terrestrial sources took several decades, because it is difficult to find clocks (to measure time dilation) or sources of electromagnetic radiation (to measure redshift) with a frequency that is known well enough that the effect can be accurately measured.", "-28.476382468241354" ], [ "hand, a probabilistic interpretation simply means that causes raise the probability of their effects. In this sense, changes in meteorological readings associated with a storm do cause that storm, since they raise its probability. (However, simply looking at a barometer does not change the probability of the storm, for a more detailed analysis, see: ).\nThe looseness of the definition of probabilistic causation begs the question if events which are traditionally classified as effects (e.g. a wet piece of paper after spilling water on it) can actually make a difference to the probability of their causes. In a world without CM,", "-28.455359417857835" ], [ "around the high pressure is clockwise in the northern hemisphere and counterclockwise in the southern hemisphere, due to the Coriolis effect. The high pressure in the center is due to the westerly winds on the northern side of the gyre and easterly trade winds on the southern side. These cause frictional surface currents towards the latitude at the center of the gyre.\nThis build-up of water in the center creates flow towards the equator in the upper 1,000 to 2,000 m (3,300 to 6,600 ft) of the ocean, through rather complex dynamics. This flow is returned towards the pole in an intensified western", "-28.42145674250787" ], [ "The Centipede's Dilemma \"The Centipede's Dilemma\" is a short poem that has lent its name to a psychological effect called the centipede effect or centipede syndrome. The centipede effect occurs when a normally automatic or unconscious activity is disrupted by consciousness of it or reflection on it. For example, a golfer thinking too closely about her swing or someone thinking too much about how he knots his tie may find his performance of the task impaired. The effect is also known as hyper-reflection or Humphrey's law after the English psychologist George Humphrey (1889–1966), who propounded it in 1923. As he", "-28.36727883630374" ], [ "as directly related to the magnitude of the Coriolis effect. The examples show that the Earth turns underneath the plane of the pendulum swing and how this change in relationship can be interpreted at different latitudes by evaluating the surface velocity components underneath the swing of the pendulum. Polar pendulum For a pendulum swing at the North Pole it is shown that the surface velocity vectors of the Earth underneath one side of the pendulum swing are directed in opposition to the velocity vectors underneath the other side of the swing (see Figure 1). The Earth's rotation can then be", "-28.36132626440667" ], [ "Since the time of Laplace (1799), scientists had been puzzled as to why pressure variations measured at the Earth's surface associated with the semi-diurnal solar tide dominate those of the diurnal tide in amplitude, when intuitively one would expect the diurnal (daily) passage of the sun to dominate. Lord Kelvin (1882) had proposed the so-called \"resonance\" theory, wherein the semi-diurnal tide would be \"selected\" over the diurnal oscillation if the atmosphere was somehow able to oscillate freely at a period of very close to 12 hours, in the same way that overtones are selected on a vibrating string. By the", "-28.349739980913" ], [ "known as \"beta drift\". This motion is due to the superposition of a vortex, such as a tropical cyclone, onto an environment in which the Coriolis force varies with latitude, such as on a sphere or beta plane. It is induced indirectly by the storm itself, the result of a feedback between the cyclonic flow of the storm and its environment.\nPhysically, the cyclonic circulation of the storm advects environmental air poleward east of center and equatorial west of center. Because air must conserve its angular momentum, this flow configuration induces a cyclonic gyre equatorward and westward of the storm center", "-28.324993953161794" ], [ "publication Cosmos. French scientist Armand Sabatier published 26 October 1860 a process of obtaining direct positives (referencing Count Schouwaloff and Poitevin), but according to the description, this process did not seem to have any connection with the Sabattier effect as no mentioning was made of any exposure of the collodion plates after development had started. The name of the author was erroneously spelled with double \"t\" and thus the effect is hence known as the Sabattier effect in most literature. Sabatier described correctly the phenomenon in 1862. However, Sabatier could not find an explanation for the phenomenon.\nThe effect was", "-28.30968709561421" ], [ "of the Eötvös effect to explain the small differences they measured. These were due to the additional accelerative forces due to the motion of the ships in relation to the Earth, an effect that was demonstrated on an additional run carried out on the Black Sea in 1908.\nIn the 1930s a former student of Eötvös, János Renner (1889–1976), further improved the results to between 1 in 2 to 5 billion. Robert H. Dicke with P. G. Roll and R. Krotkov re-ran the experiment much later using improved apparatus and further improved the accuracy to 1 in 100 billion. They also", "-28.309463990706718" ], [ "relative importance is determined by the applicable Rossby numbers. Tornadoes have high Rossby numbers, so, while tornado-associated centrifugal forces are quite substantial, Coriolis forces associated with tornadoes are for practical purposes negligible.\nBecause surface ocean currents are driven by the movement of wind over the water's surface, the Coriolis force also affects the movement of ocean currents and cyclones as well. Many of the ocean's largest currents circulate around warm, high-pressure areas called gyres. Though the circulation is not as significant as that in the air, the deflection caused by the Coriolis effect is what creates the spiralling pattern in these", "-28.295281599625014" ], [ "unit area normal to the rays, incident on the Earth's upper atmosphere. The solar constant is a conventional measure of mean TSI at a distance of one Astronomical Unit (AU).\nInsolation is a function of distance from the Sun, the solar cycle, and cross-cycle changes. Irradiance on Earth is most intense at points directly facing (normal to) the Sun. Proton event A solar proton event (SPE), or \"proton storm\", occurs when particles (mostly protons) emitted by the Sun become accelerated either close to the Sun during a flare or in interplanetary space by CME shocks. The events can include other", "-28.27834226813866" ], [ "increases with altitude. Although its solar excitation is half of that of mode (1, -2), its amplitude on the ground is larger by a factor of two. This indicates the effect of suppression of external waves, in this case by a factor of four. Semidiurnal Lunar Tides The dominant migrating lunar tide is the (2, 2) mode depending on lunar local time. Its maximum pressure amplitude near the ground is 6 Pa, which is far below the meteorological noise. Therefore, it is not simple to detect such a small signal. Because it is an internal waves, its amplitude increases with altitude, reaching", "-28.21132885276893" ], [ "that Galileo erred in choosing two different frames of reference: the tide is the motion of water relative to the Earth, but annual revolution is the motion of the Earth, and its water, relative to the Sun. Annual revolution results in a force that accelerates the Earth-water system but does not accelerate the water relative to the Earth, in the same way that an observer standing on Earth's surface does not feel the gravitational attraction of the Sun because the observer and Earth are moving together around the Sun. Retrospect The discourse does not include gravitational forces in its theory", "-28.181235946794914" ], [ "by Charney . These equations are valid in the case of low Rossby number, signifying only a small contribution from inertial forces. Assumed dominance of the Coriolis and pressure-gradient forces facilitates the reduction of the primitive equations to a single equation for potential vorticity in five variables . LOVECLIM features a horizontal resolution of 5.6° and uses the quasi geostrophic atmosphere model ECBilt. It includes a vegetation feedback module by Brovkin et al. (1997). The model exhibits some significant limitations that are fundamentally linked to its design. The model predicts an Equilibrium Climate Sensitivity of 1.9°C, at the lower end", "-28.177649647492217" ], [ "flow to the right of this direction north of the equator, and to the left of this direction south of the equator. This effect is responsible for the rotation of large cyclones (see Coriolis effects in meteorology). Euler force In classical mechanics, the Euler acceleration (named for Leonhard Euler), also known as azimuthal acceleration or transverse acceleration is an acceleration that appears when a non-uniformly rotating reference frame is used for analysis of motion and there is variation in the angular velocity of the reference frame's axis. This article is restricted to a frame of reference that rotates about", "-28.124549948843196" ], [ "the corollaries here reappear also.)\nCorollary 1 then points out that the centripetal force is proportional to V²/R, where V is the orbital speed and R the circular radius.\nCorollary 2 shows that, putting this in another way, the centripetal force is proportional to (1/P²) * R where P is the orbital period.\nCorollary 3 shows that if P² is proportional to R, then the centripetal force would be independent of R.\nCorollary 4 shows that if P² is proportional to R², then the centripetal force would be proportional to 1/R.\nCorollary 5 shows that if P² is proportional to R³, then the centripetal force", "-28.120339207642246" ], [ "1912 by Victor Hess. He measured a difference in ionisation at different heights (using the Eiffel tower and a Hess-manned hot air balloon), an indication of the atmospheric thinning (so spreading) of a single ray. Influence of the Sun was ruled out by measuring during an eclipse. Many scientists researched the phenomenon, sometimes independently, and in 1937 Pierre Auger could conclude in detail that it was a single ray that interacted with air nuclei, causing an electron and photon air shower. At the same time, the third particle muon was discovered (behaving like a very heavy electron). Surface detector (SD)", "-28.091796608350705" ], [ "considered, but rejected, by Isaac Newton as a practical demonstration of his theory of gravitation. However, a team of scientists, notably Nevil Maskelyne, the Astronomer Royal, was convinced that the effect would be detectable and undertook to conduct the experiment. The deflection angle depended on the relative densities and volumes of the Earth and the mountain: if the density and volume of Schiehallion could be ascertained, then so could the density of the Earth. Once this was known, it would in turn yield approximate values for those of the other planets, their moons, and the Sun, previously known only in", "-28.073939468187746" ], [ "tides by describing the tide-generating forces and Bernoulli gave a description of the static reaction of the waters on Earth to the tidal potential, the dynamic theory of tides, developed by Pierre-Simon Laplace in 1775, describes the ocean's real reaction to tidal forces. Laplace's theory of ocean tides took into account friction, resonance and natural periods of ocean basins. It predicted the large amphidromic systems in the world's ocean basins and explains the oceanic tides that are actually observed. The equilibrium theory, based on the gravitational gradient from the Sun and Moon but ignoring the Earth's rotation, the effects of", "-28.058910270570777" ], [ "Alphen effect (dHvA) and the Shubnikov–de Haas effect (SdH). The former is an oscillation in magnetic susceptibility and the latter in resistivity. The oscillations are periodic versus and occur because of the quantization of energy levels in the plane perpendicular to a magnetic field, a phenomenon first predicted by Lev Landau. The new states are called Landau levels and are separated by an energy where is called the cyclotron frequency, is the electronic charge, is the electron effective mass and is the speed of light. In a famous result, Lars Onsager proved that the", "-28.045039077318506" ], [ "Einstein then developed the theory of special relativity in 1905, which provides the modern account of aberration. Fresnel's aether drag In 1818, Augustin Fresnel developed a modified explanation to account for the water telescope and for other aberration phenomena. He explained that the aether is generally at rest in the Sun's frame of reference, but objects partially drag the aether along with them as they move. That is, the aether in an object of index of refraction moving at velocity is partially dragged with a velocity bringing the light along with it. This factor is known as", "-27.99309880677538" ], [ "field will produce, according to general relativity, effects like those of Newtonian gravitation. (It does not depend on the existence of gravitons, mentioned above, or any similar force-carrying particles.)\nSuddenly displacing one of two gravitoelectrically interacting particles would, after a delay corresponding to lightspeed, cause the other to feel the displaced particle's absence: accelerations due to the change in quadrupole moment of star systems, like the Hulse–Taylor binary, have removed much energy (almost 2% of the energy of our own Sun's output) as gravitational waves, which would theoretically travel at the speed of light.\nTwo gravitoelectrically interacting particle ensembles, e.g., two planets", "-27.987605754693504" ], [ "William Herschel (1738–1822), shows he observed dichromatism with a solution of ferrous sulphate and tincture of nutgall in 1801 when working on an early solar telescope, but he did not recognise the effect.", "-27.967675466803485" ], [ "that do not exist in a non-accelerating or inertial reference frame.\nIn popular (non-technical) usage of the term \"Coriolis effect\", the rotating reference frame implied is almost always the Earth. Because the Earth spins, Earth-bound observers need to account for the Coriolis force to correctly analyze the motion of objects. The Earth completes one rotation per day, so for motions of everyday objects the Coriolis force is usually quite small compared to other forces; its effects generally become noticeable only for motions occurring over large distances and long periods of time, such as large-scale movement of air in the atmosphere or", "-27.916335956397234" ], [ "dispersion force is the only intermolecular force, and is responsible for their existence in liquid and solid states. For polar molecules, this force is one part of the van der Waals force, along with forces between the permanent molecular dipole moments.\nLondon was the first theoretical physicist to make the fundamental, and at the time controversial, suggestion that superfluidity is intrinsically related to the Einstein condensation of bosons, a phenomenon now known as Bose–Einstein condensation. Bose recognized that the statistics of massless photons could also be applied to massive particles; he did not contribute to the theory of the condensation of", "-27.911978708289098" ], [ "Redshift History The history of the subject began with the development in the 19th century of wave mechanics and the exploration of phenomena associated with the Doppler effect. The effect is named after Christian Doppler, who offered the first known physical explanation for the phenomenon in 1842. The hypothesis was tested and confirmed for sound waves by the Dutch scientist Christophorus Buys Ballot in 1845. Doppler correctly predicted that the phenomenon should apply to all waves, and in particular suggested that the varying colors of stars could be attributed to their motion with respect to the Earth. Before this was", "-27.899372185755055" ], [ "Quasi-geostrophic equations Origin Atmospheric and oceanographic flows take place over horizontal length scales which are very large compared to their vertical length scale, and so they can be described using the shallow water equations. The Rossby number is a dimensionless number which characterises the strength of inertia compared to the strength of the Coriolis force. The quasi-geostrophic equations are approximations to the shallow water equations in the limit of small Rossby number, so that inertial forces are an order of magnitude smaller than the Coriolis and pressure forces. If the Rossby number is equal to zero then we recover geostrophic", "-27.887684244138654" ], [ "Anticrepuscular rays Anticrepuscular rays, or antisolar rays, are meteorological optical phenomena similar to crepuscular rays, but appear opposite of the Sun in the sky. Anticrepuscular rays are essentially parallel, but appear to converge toward the antisolar point, the vanishing point, due to a visual illusion from linear perspective.\nAnticrepuscular rays are most frequently visible around sunrise or sunset. This is because the atmospheric light scattering that makes them visible (backscattering) is larger for low angles to the horizon than most other angles. Anticrepuscular rays are dimmer than crepuscular rays because backscattering is less than forward scattering. \nAnticrepuscular rays can be", "-27.872577498754254" ], [ "non-equilibrium pole tide which Wunsch has suggested is due to a resonance connected with the excitation of barotropic Rossby waves, but O'Connor and colleagues suggest it is actually wind-forced instead. Usage The long-period tides are very useful for geophysicists, who use them to calculate the elastic Love number and to understand low frequency and large-scale oceanic motions.", "-27.865376326357364" ], [ "Some of the important categories of diffraction relate to the interference that accompanies division of the wavefront, so Feynman's observation to some extent reflects the difficulty that we may have in distinguishing division of amplitude and division of wavefront. Departures from linearity In most realistic physical situations, the equation governing the wave is only approximately linear. In these situations, the superposition principle only approximately holds. As a rule, the accuracy of the approximation tends to improve as the amplitude of the wave gets smaller. For examples of phenomena that arise when the superposition principle does not exactly hold, see the", "-27.840581241944165" ], [ "the Doppler effect, which is known by the French as the Doppler-Fizeau Effect. Fizeau contributed towards understanding its effect with light rather than sound, and in doing so, corrected many of Doppler's persistent errors. He also developed the formal mathematical theorem underlying the principles of this effect. In 1848, he discovered the frequency shift of a wave when the source and receiver are moving relative to each other, therefore being the first to predict blue shifts and red shifts of light waves.\nDoppler continued working as a professor at the Prague Polytechnic, publishing over 50 articles on mathematics, physics and", "-27.82450928923936" ], [ "field of electrohydrodynamics (EHD). Brown also believed the Biefeld–Brown effect could produce an anti-gravity force, referred to as \"electrogravitics\" based on it being an electricity/gravity phenomenon. However, there is little evidence that supports Brown's claim on the effect's anti-gravity properties. Effect analysis The effect is generally believed to rely on corona discharge, which allows air molecules to become ionized near sharp points and edges. Usually, two electrodes are used with a high voltage between them, ranging from a few kilovolts and up to megavolt levels, where one electrode is small or sharp, and the other larger and smoother. The most", "-27.811517151421867" ], [ "equatorial plane and the true vertical at a point on the surface. The true vertical, the direction of a plumb line, is also the direction of the gravity acceleration, the resultant of the gravitational acceleration (mass-based) and the centrifugal acceleration at that latitude. Astronomic latitude is calculated from angles measured between the zenith and stars whose declination is accurately known.\nIn general the true vertical at a point on the surface does not exactly coincide with either the normal to the reference ellipsoid or the normal to the geoid. The angle between the astronomic and geodetic normals is usually a few", "-27.796967079862952" ], [ "deflection angle is just the gradient of the potential and the convergence is half the Laplacian of the potential:\nThe deflection potential can also be written as a scaled projection of the Newtonian gravitational potential of the lens Lensing Jacobian The Jacobian between the unlensed and lensed coordinate systems is\nwhere is the Kronecker delta. Because the matrix of second derivatives must be symmetric, the Jacobian can be decomposed into a diagonal term involving the convergence and a trace-free term involving the shear \nwhere is the angle between and the x-axis. The term involving the convergence", "-27.795224959379993" ], [ "red end of the spectrum. This shift, which the free-falling observer considers to be a kinematical Doppler shift, is thought of by the laboratory observer as a gravitational redshift. Such an effect was verified in the 1959 Pound–Rebka experiment. In a case such as this, where the gravitational field is uniform, the change in wavelength is given by\nwhere is the change in height. Since this prediction arises directly from the equivalence principle, it does not require any of the mathematical apparatus of general relativity, and its verification does not specifically support general relativity over any other theory that incorporates", "-27.794426273467252" ], [ "(specifically, the theory predicts a \"sidereal tide\", induced by the gravitational field of the Milky Way, which is hundreds of times stronger than the solar and lunar tides) which immediately nullified this theory. As mentioned previously, the interpretation of the theory used by Will has been criticized by Fowler, who has also argued that different tidal predictions can be obtained by a more realistic model of the galaxy. Also Reinhardt and Rosenblum criticised such statements.\nIn 1989, a new interpretation of Whitehead's theory was proposed that eliminated the unobserved sidereal tide effects. However, the new interpretation predicted a new, unobserved,", "-27.767642645689193" ], [ "the same Doppler factor as frequency.\nThis result provides one of the pieces of evidence that serves to distinguish the Big Bang theory from alternative theories proposed to explain the cosmological redshift. Experimental verification Since the transverse Doppler effect is one of the main novel predictions of the special theory of relativity, the detection and precise quantification of this effect has been an important goal of experiments attempting to validate special relativity. Ives and Stilwell-type measurements Einstein (1907) had initially suggested that the TDE might be measured by observing a beam of \"canal rays\" at right angles to the beam. Attempts", "-27.75587649544468" ], [ "Antisolar point The antisolar point is the abstract point on the celestial sphere directly opposite the Sun from an observer's perspective. This means that the antisolar point lies above the horizon when the Sun is below it, and vice versa. On a sunny day, the antisolar point can be easily found; it is located within the shadow of the observer's head. Like the zenith and nadir, the antisolar point is not fixed in three-dimensional space, but is defined relative to the observer. Each observer has an antisolar point that moves as the observer changes position.\nThe antisolar point forms the geometric", "-27.735473575943615" ], [ "the dipole moments and of the inversion. Within synergetics it has turned out that is a quite typical equation describing effects of self-organization. [...] This equation tells us that the amplitude of the dipoles, which is proportional to A, is instantaneously given by the field amplitude B(t) (and by the fluctuating force). This is probably the simplest example of a principle which has turned out to be of fundamental importance in synergetics and which is called the slaving principle.\" (Light: Waves, Photons, and Atoms , vol. 2; Laser light dynamics - chapter 13)", "-27.728561517920753" ], [ "field caused by the relative rotation of the outside universe. In that view, the (outward) motion is instead a consequence of its gravitational mass.\nThis dual description is used to unify the ideas of inertial and gravitational mass under general theories of relativity, and to explain why an object's inertial mass and gravitational mass are proportional in classical theory. In these descriptions, the distinction is purely a matter of convenience; inertial and gravitational mass are different ways of describing the same behaviour. Is it real? Support for the idea that the Coriolis field is a real physical effect and not just", "-27.72080135269789" ], [ "evidence of the presence of the thermal recoil that accounts up only to 10–20 percent of the overall effect. If the origin of the Pioneer effect is cosmological, it gives a direct access to measuring the numerical value of the Hubble constant independently of observations of the cosmic microwave background radiation or supernova explosions in distant galaxies (Supernova Cosmology Project). Meetings and conferences about the anomaly A meeting was held at the University of Bremen in 2004 to discuss the Pioneer anomaly.\nThe Pioneer Explorer Collaboration was formed to study the Pioneer Anomaly and has hosted three meetings (2005, 2007, and", "-27.68928110518027" ], [ "Aureole effect The aureole effect or water aureole is an optical phenomenon similar to Heiligenschein, creating sparkling light and dark rays radiating from the shadow of the viewer's head. This effect is seen only over a rippling water surface. The waves act as lenses to focus and defocus sunlight: focused sunlight produces the lighter rays, while defocused sunlight produces the darker rays. Suspended particles in the water help make the aureole effect more pronounced. The effect extends a greater angular distance from the viewer's shadow when the viewer is higher above the water, and can sometimes be seen from a", "-27.68225920505938" ], [ "in linear acceleration in the horizontal plane, while the saccule detects gravity changes in the vertical plane. However, the inertial forces resulting from linear accelerations cannot be distinguished from the force of gravity (according to the equivalence principle of general relativity they are the same thing) therefore, gravity can also produce stimulation of the utricle and saccule. A response of this type will occur during a vertical take-off in a helicopter or following the sudden opening of a parachute after a free fall. Non-visible horizon Anyone in an aircraft that is making a coordinated turn, no matter how steep, will", "-27.653714576619677" ], [ "million chance that a statistical fluctuation would cause the apparent resonance. Under this standard, the Oops-Leon \"discovery\" might have gone unpublished.", "-27.652410331444116" ], [ "from a celestial body besides Earth. Einstein ring As electromagnetic rays are somewhat bent by gravitation, when they pass by a heavy mass they are bent. Thus, the heavy mass acts as a form of gravitational lens. If the light source, the diffracting mass and the observer stand in a line, one sees what is termed as an Einstein ring. Tidal variation Syzygy causes the bimonthly phenomena of spring and neap tides. At the new and full moon, the Sun and Moon are in syzygy. Their tidal forces act to reinforce each other, and the ocean both rises higher and", "-27.58776340204713" ] ]

[ "For upper classes, someone would stay up all night with the purpose of waking people up in the morning. They would wake up servants who would in turn wake up their masters. The waker-uppers would go to bed and be woken up in the evening by other servants.", "Depends on how long ago you are talking about... The concept of being \"on time\" and having any precision when discussing time is largely a post-industrial revolution phenomenon. Before that, people didn't wake up \"on time\", they woke up whenever they woke up, usually depending on more vague and relative markers such as \"sunup\" or \"mid morning\". I recommend reading \"In Praise of Slowness\" for a very interesting discussion of humans changing relationship to the concept of time.", "I actually know something! Knocker uppers. They were literally people who walked around villages in the morning banging on shutters of those who paid to have themselves woken up. URL_0 ", "Some people would put metal items in candles that had a flat burning rate. Once the candle melted enough the items would drop waking the sleeper.", "The human body is made in a way that it can detect patterns, and will strive to follow those patterns. It also reacts to light, and how much of it (and of what type) there is. The first is the reason why you may feel odd after changing your clock for Daylight Savings. Your body is used to doing things on a schedule an hour before/after the new one. I'm pretty sure it takes around 3 weeks for your body to fully adjust. The second is the reason why it's easier to stay up at night if you have your lights on or are playing games on your phone. Light, until very recently, meant day, especially if it was of certian colors, so that's what our bodies evolved to react to.", "\"On time\" was less important/precise before alarm clocks. You had largely agrarian societies, so you'd wake up with the sun and the rooster crowing as it was time to feed the animals. Early to rise also meant early to bed; people generally went to bed earlier and staying up was less convenient before electric lighting. On top of that, you also had town criers and church bells.", "I remember there was a post here about people drinking 2 cups of water before bed and they would always wake up within 6 hours or something for work." ]

[ [ "these mobile phones feature the ability for the user to set the alarm's ringtone, and in some cases music can be downloaded to the phone and then chosen to play for waking. Next-generation alarms Scientific studies on sleep having shown that sleep stage at awakening is an important factor in amplifying sleep inertia. Alarm clocks involving sleep stage monitoring appeared on the market in 2005. The alarm clocks use sensing technologies such as EEG electrodes and accelerometers to wake people from sleep.Dawn simulators are another technology meant to mediate these effects.\nSleepers can become accustomed to the sound of their alarm", "-29.52620776864933" ], [ "waking himself up. He tries a better alarm clock than his older one, which didn't work, a wind-up clock. He put it under his bed so he would have to get out of bed to find it. But with the clock ticking loudly under his bed, he feels like he is on top of a bomb and therefore gets no sleep. As a result, Greg accidentally sets off the fire alarm at school in his sleep-deprived state. The entire school has to evacuate, and the fire brigade is called. After everyone goes back in, the head teacher says that whoever", "-29.51515744592325" ], [ "small clock is often shown in a corner of computer displays, mobile phones and many MP3 players.\nThe primary purpose of a clock is to display the time. Clocks may also have the facility to make a loud alert signal at a specified time, typically to waken a sleeper at a preset time; they are referred to as alarm clocks. The alarm may start at a low volume and become louder, or have the facility to be switched off for a few minutes then resume. Alarm clocks with visible indicators are sometimes used to indicate to children too young to read", "-29.17475002654828" ], [ "is moved earlier. Non-clinical sleep and wake-up uses A dawn simulator can be used as an alarm clock. Light enters through the eyelids triggering the body to begin its wake-up cycle, including the release of cortisol, so that by the time the light is at full brightness, sleepers wake up on their own, without the need for an alarm.", "-29.117958290851675" ], [ "WakeMate The WakeMate was an electronic device with sensors intended to be used to monitor the sleep state of the user using actigraphy. It would connect to the user's mobile phone via Bluetooth to record sleep data and to signal the phone to wake them in the lightest phase of sleep within the 20-minute window prior the desired alarm time. It also had a suite of online tools to help people maximize the efficiency of their sleep and improve their sleep quality.\nThe WakeMate project was delayed multiple times, which caused some backers in the project to pull out before the", "-27.7702357066446" ], [ "incorporated into clocks, they were analogous to the dials on sundials, and, like a sundial, the clocks themselves had only one hand.\nA possible explanation for the shift from having the first hour being the one after dawn, to having the hour after noon being designated as 1 pm (post meridiem), is that these clocks would likely regularly be reset at local high noon each day. This, of course, results in midnight becoming 12 o'clock.\nPeter Henlein, a locksmith and burgher of Nuremberg, Germany, invented a spring-powered clock around 1510. It had only one hand, had no glass cover, and was rather imprecise", "-27.296421328210272" ], [ "the 1940s and another design was also invented by Paul L. Schroth Sr. Clock radio A clock radio is an alarm clock and radio receiver integrated in one device. The clock may turn on the radio at a designated time to wake the user, and usually includes a buzzer alarm. Typically, clock radios are placed on the bedside stand. Some models offer dual alarm for awakening at different times and \"snooze\", usually a large button on the top that silences the alarm and sets it to resume sounding a few minutes later. Some clock radios also have a \"sleep\" timer,", "-27.011035226169042" ], [ "heater timer), plugged into a wall outlet with equipment plugged into the timer instead of directly into the power point; or built into equipment.\n A sleep timer is a function on many modern televisions and other electronic devices that shuts off the power after a preset amount of time. The setting is usually made either from the remote control of the device or the device's menu. They are intended to allow viewers to watch as they fall asleep.\nThe mechanism may be mechanical (e.g., clockwork; rarely used nowadays), electromechanical (e.g., a slowly rotating geared motor that mechanically operates switches) or electronic,", "-26.563754609553143" ], [ "AM/FM radios) have a feature which sets the time automatically using signals from atomic clock-synced time signal radio stations such as WWV, making the clock accurate and immune to time reset due to power interruptions. Computer alarms Alarm clock software programs have been developed for personal computers. There are Web-based alarm clocks, some of which may allow a virtually unlimited number of alarm times (i.e. Personal information manager) and personalized tones. Mobile phone alarms Many modern mobile phones feature built-in alarm clocks that do not need the phone to be switched on for the alarm to ring off. Some of", "-26.49770340518444" ], [ "rumors that other talking clocks may have been produced afterward, it is not until around 1910 that another talking clock was introduced, when Bernhard Hiller created a clock that used a belt with a recording on it to announce the time. However, these belts were often broken by the hand-tightening required, and all attempts to reproduce the celluloid ribbon have so far failed.\nIn 1933, the first practical use of talking clocks was seen when Ernest Esclangon created a talking telephone time service in Paris, France. On its first day, February 14, 1933, more than 140,000 calls were received. London began", "-26.475377345457673" ], [ "same intrusive presentation as alerts for imminent threats to public safety that affect a larger population. Gurney thus argued that in such a situation, those who were not awake could learn the details of the alert in the morning instead. He also acknowledged similar opinions presented by Philip Cross in an editorial for its sister publication, the Financial Post; Cross felt that AMBER Alerts on phones should be optional as in the U.S., comparing the disruption of sleep caused by late-night alerts to health effects associated with daylight saving time, and noting that the public would be \"more likely to", "-26.165223457850516" ], [ "ringing church bells and firing cannons at sunrise. Despite common misconception, Franklin did not actually propose DST; 18th-century Europe did not even keep precise schedules. However, this changed as rail transport and communication networks required a standardization of time unknown in Franklin's day.\nIn 1810, the Spanish National Assembly Cortes of Cádiz issued a regulation that moved certain meeting times forward by one hour from May 1 to September 30 in recognition of seasonal changes, but it did not actually change the clocks. It also acknowledged that private businesses were in the practice of changing their opening hours to suit daylight", "-26.070388971362263" ], [ "that clocks were a few seconds slow. Most television channels no longer sign off at night, eliminating the need for closedown clocks. BBC One stopped using a clock at Easter 2002 when it changed its idents from the Balloon to the Rhythm and Movement series. One notable exception is the Welsh-language channel S4C, which used a clock until 2007 at closedown and before news bulletins. In 2015, however, Channel 4 reinstated clock idents as part of the channel's relaunch. These idents are used before news programmes.\nFrance's public broadcasters have historically used clocks. One of the more famous examples was the", "-25.860202231211588" ], [ "tradition, while others now have members rely on their own alarm clocks.", "-25.776412470835567" ], [ "the next day.\nDuring the night, a fire broke out in the house and the bulldog was the first to be awakened. The old dog became alarmed and ran from room to room tugging at the sheets of the bed to wake the students and the owner. Once the owner and the students had assembled outside, they were horrified to discover that one boy was still in the house. By this time, the house was almost completely full of smoke. Before the boys had time to react, they saw the bulldog run back into the burning house. Moments later, the final", "-25.66332606022479" ], [ "with a waking bell at 6:45 am. After a prisoner count, they moved into the yard until 7:30, when they collected breakfast and headed back to their cells. The 8:00 bell signaled a parade, and then the start of work, which lasted until 11:15. They ate a meal, locked in their cells until 12:20 pm, followed by some time in the yards. At 1:00 there was another parade, and another session of work which lasted to 4:15. Another meal was collected, and prisoners were locked away in their cells overnight. The lights stayed on until 9:30 pm. On the weekends the routine featured", "-25.52852411592903" ], [ "variety of means, including gravity, springs, and various forms of electrical power, and regulated by a variety of means such as a pendulum.\nAlarm clocks first appeared in ancient Greece around 250 BC with a water clock that would set off a whistle. This idea was later mechanized by Levi Hutchins and Seth E. Thomas.\nA chronometer is a portable timekeeper that meets certain precision standards. Initially, the term was used to refer to the marine chronometer, a timepiece used to determine longitude by means of celestial navigation, a precision firstly achieved by John Harrison. More recently, the term has also been", "-25.443772699742112" ], [ "on in a week view, create new alarms, and turn off and on existing alarms. Stopwatch The stopwatch section allows the user the ability to time events and see how long they take. The app also allows the user to pause, reset, or use the stopwatch's lap feature. Timer The timer section allows the user to set a timer to count down to a specific time. When the timer reaches zero, an alarm will be sounded. Bedtime In iOS 10 and later versions, there is a Bedtime feature which allows the user to get better sleep. This is done by", "-25.392660602519754" ], [ "which turns the radio on for a set amount of time (usually around one hour). This is useful for people who like to fall asleep while listening to the radio.\nNewer clock radios are available with other music sources such as iPod, iPhone, and/or audio CD. When the alarm is triggered, it can play a set radio station or the music from a selected music source to awaken the sleeper. Some models come with a dock for iPod/iPhone that also charges the device while it is docked. They can play AM/FM radio, iPod/iPhone or CD like a typical music player as", "-25.37075969853322" ], [ "1481. In 1497, Simone Campanato moulded the great bell (h. 1,56 m., diameter m. 1,27), which was put on the top of the tower where it was alternatively beaten by the Due Mori (Two Moors), two bronze statues (h. 2,60) handling a hammer.\nUser-settable mechanical alarm clocks date back at least to 15th-century Europe. These early alarm clocks had a ring of holes in the clock dial and were set by placing a pin in the appropriate hole.\nThe first American alarm clock was created by Levi Hutchins, of New Hampshire, in 1787. This device he made only for himself however, and it", "-25.325291229702998" ], [ "found a natural home as an assistive technology for people who are blind or visually impaired. There are over 150 tabletop clocks and 50 types of watches that talk. Manufacturers of such clocks include Sharp, Panasonic, RadioShack, and Reizen. In addition, one manufacturer purportedly produced a clock that would announce the time upon detecting a user's whistling signal. Branding/Advertising Many companies have used talking clocks as a novelty item to promote their brand. In 1987, the H. J. Heinz Company released a clock with the figure of \"Mr. Aristocrat\", a tomato with a motif similar to Mr. Peanut. At", "-25.32472641795175" ], [ "get the phone book from the living room, which usually only takes a minute or two. However, when Rusty (who was talking the whole time) gets back into the living room, three hours have passed. Lisa lets Andrea have her room for the night and she sleeps on the couch in the living room. But the loud ticking from the clock keeps Lisa awake all night. Finally, near 3:00 am, she asks Andrea if she can sleep with her. Andrea says yes and tells Lisa to get her pillow from the living room. But when Lisa gets her pillow, the", "-25.318272928576334" ], [ "The clock has Westminster Chimes, which sound on the quarter-hour, and can be heard from the Queen St Mall and, at times, in the surrounding suburbs. The time keeping is controlled by a master clock imported from England. The dials, hands and slave mechanisms were designed and built in Brisbane by Synchonome. Above the clocks is an observation platform, open to the public and accessible by lift between 10:15 am and 4:45 pm seven days a week, free. For many years this afforded extensive views of Brisbane, but since the relaxation of height limits for surrounding buildings in the late 1960s, the", "-25.2666149957804" ], [ "all told the same time within a very small tolerance; the broadcasting of time announcements over radio and television enabled all the households in their audience to get in synch with the clocks at the network.\nThe mass production of clocks and watches further tightened time discipline in the Western world; before these machines were made, and made to be more accurate, it would be pointless to complain about someone's being fifteen, or five, minutes late. For many employees, the time clock was the clock that told the time that mattered: it was the clock that recorded their hours of", "-25.142275628546486" ], [ "minutes before nine o'clock I blew again. Then all of the boys would run for their rooms. At nine o'clock the second call was given, when all lights were turned out and we were supposed to be in bed. Later on I learned the mess call, and eventually could blow all the calls of the regular army.\" The Carlisle Indian band of brass instruments performed at football games, world expositions and presidential inaugural parades. On May 24, 1883, Standing Bear led the first \"real American\" band to cross the Brooklyn Bridge at its grand opening ceremony. George", "-25.085691130894702" ], [ "to GMT. On the other hand, not all railway companies convinced the local dignitaries to bring their clocks on public buildings in line without stern resistance. Although by 1844 the Bristol and Exeter Railway was running to London Time, the public clocks at both Exeter and Bristol operated to local time but showed London Time by a second minute hand, 14 and 10 minutes ahead, respectively, of its companion. In Exeter this situation arose due to the reluctance of the Dean of Exeter Cathedral to concede to the demands of the railway company, the cathedral clock being the principal timekeeper", "-25.05701672498253" ], [ "smallest shadow. Noon marks The simplest sundials do not give the hours, but rather note the exact moment of 12:00 noon. In centuries past, such dials were used to correct mechanical clocks, which were sometimes so inaccurate as to lose or gain significant time in a single day.\nIn some U.S. colonial-era houses, a noon-mark can often be found carved into a floor or windowsill. Such marks indicate local noon, and provide a simple and accurate time reference for households that do not possess accurate clocks. In modern times, in some Asian countries, post offices set their clocks from", "-25.029949070114526" ], [ "the Ram’s Head at Disley, and the Wheatsheaf at Alconbury (Hill). People travelled with their own bed-sheets, merely renting a bed at an inn in preference to sleeping in “damp house sheets”. At Leicester the diarist's bed was “sheeted, contrary to [his] orders”. A rushlight would faintly illuminate his bedroom during the hours of darkness.\nByng rose early in the morning and sometimes breakfasted as late as nine. Broadly speaking, dinner (lunch) was at two o’clock. However, it could be called for as late as four. Supper could be at any time between seven and nine o'clock. At both meals there", "-24.94757021513942" ], [ "a master clock in large buildings to control numerous slave clocks. Most telephone exchanges used such a clock to control timed events such as were needed to control the setup and charging of telephone calls by issuing pulses of varying durations such as every second, six seconds and so on.", "-24.90451170712913" ], [ "on duty at the rear of the house. In a separate cottage, two of Nasutions aides were asleep, a young army lieutenant Pierre Tendean, and assistant police commissioner Hamdan Mansjur.\nBefore the alarm could be raised, Arief's squad had jumped the fence and overpowered the sleepy guards in the sentry box and guard room. Others entered from around the side of the house and covered it from the rear. About fifteen soldiers broke into the house. Both Nasution and his wife were bothered by mosquitoes and were awake. Neither heard the guards being overpowered but Mrs Nasution heard a door being", "-24.863472369965166" ], [ "a fashion similar to a grandfather clock, and each morning would be wound up by the janitor. It sent battery powered signals to other clocks in the building. Although the building was wired for electricity shortly after its construction, the clock mechanism remains in place and can be seen in the fifth floor Archives.\"\n\"The original main floor included a reception room and the office for the City Messenger. His office contained an elaborate array of communication devices, 50 speaking tubes, 50 electric bells and 50 annunciators which connected to all departments. Next to the Messenger's Office was an ornate reception", "-24.831671370960976" ], [ "Go companion app.\nSiesta range\nPure's range of bedside alarm clock radios, which enable users to wake up to the sound of digital radio or a simple tone alarm. Siesta models automatically set the time from the radio signal, meaning the device's clock is always accurate.\nOther\nOther models are the portable, colour screen Elan E3 digital radio and the pocket-sized Move 2500 personal radio.", "-24.802007945341757" ], [ "gate.\nShepherd was later appointed to oversee the construction of a telegraph network for the Indian Government in 1853. Transmitting Greenwich time The master clock, at first called the Normal Clock or Master Clock, but later known as the Mean Solar Standard Clock, sent pulses every second to sympathetic or slave clocks in the Chronometer Room, the Dwelling House (Flamsteed House), and at the gate (the Gate Clock). A pulse was sent to the time ball at 13:00. The signals were also transmitted along cables from Greenwich to London Bridge. From London Bridge a time signal was distributed at less frequent", "-24.776417974557262" ], [ "well (without being triggered by the alarm function). A few popular models offer \"nature sounds\" like rain, forest, wind, sea, waterfall etc., in place of the buzzer.\nClock radios are powered by AC power from the wall socket. In the event of a power interruption, older electronic digital models used to reset the time to midnight (00:00) and lose alarm settings. This would cause failure to trigger the alarm even if the power is restored. Many newer clock radios feature a battery backup to maintain the time and alarm settings. Some advanced radio clocks (not to be confused with clocks with", "-24.73854164185468" ], [ "radio or one of the pre-set alarm noises. The noises always begin with a rocket blast-off noise as someone says \"3...2...1... .\" The alarms available are a bugle call, a cuckoo clock sound, a spring bounce sound, the Nickelodeon Theme (Nick, Nick, Nick, Nick, N-Nick, Nick, Nick, Nickelodeon!), or the radio. A second version of the clock featured 8 noises, adding on a marching band sound, train whistle, \"Wake up!\" repeated, and a Rooster Call. The clock display is green. It features one circular speaker on the left side of the clock. The radio antenna included is simply a flexible", "-24.73155933211092" ], [ "sleeping conditions are ideal or not via Red, Green or Yellow lights. Custom \"Smart Alarms\" are built into the Sense application and play up to 30 minutes before a user's requested wakeup time via the bedside Sense device. Sense can also play sounds such as rainfall and white noise to help the user fall asleep. Sense came in two colours: White and Charcoal.\nThe design of the bedside Sense device was inspired by that of the Beijing National Stadium, where the 2008 Summer Olympics were held.\nSense gives the user a score every night based on the conditions of the bedroom and", "-24.728573268599575" ], [ "large, and their use limited to those who were professionally interested in precise timekeeping.) The invention of the clock The English word clock comes from an Old French word for \"bell,\" for the striking feature of early clocks was a greater concern than their dials. Shakespeare's Sonnet XII begins, \"When I do count the clock that tells the time.\" Even after the introduction of the clock face, clocks were costly, and found mostly in the homes of aristocrats. The vast majority of urban dwellers had to rely on clock towers, and outside the sight of their dials", "-24.641082006215584" ], [ "rarely rang at exactly the same time. The first mechanical clock in Paris appeared in 1300, and in 1341, a clock was recorded at the Sainte-Chapelle. It was not until 1370, under Charles V, who was particularly concerned by precise time, that a mechanical clock was installed on a tower of the Palace, which sounded the hours. Similar clocks were installed at the other royal residences, the hôtel Saint-Paul in the Marais and the Château of Vincennes. This was the first time that the city had an official time of day. By 1418, the churches of Saint-Paul and Saint-Eustache also", "-24.57593866589741" ], [ "account\".\nA small bell located behind the clock dial chimes the quarter-hours. On the hour, this is followed by the striking of the Peter Bell in the tower above.\nIn 1759 the smaller upper dial was added with a single hand to indicate the minutes.\nThe clock-room is behind the dial on the north wall of the transept, and still houses the clock mechanism. Access is via a doorway visible in the stone wall directly beneath the clock. Legend suggests that the round hole cut in the bottom of the door was for the cathedral cat to gain entry to keep the", "-24.57068107376108" ], [ "touch. The study of timekeeping is known as horology. Etymology The word clock derives from the medieval Latin word for \"bell\"; clogga, and has cognates in many European languages. Clocks spread to England from the Low Countries, so the English word came from the Middle Low German and Middle Dutch Klocke. Sundials The apparent position of the Sun in the sky moves over the course of each day, reflecting the rotation of the Earth. Shadows cast by stationary objects move correspondingly, so their positions can be used to indicate the time of day. A sundial shows the time by", "-24.46915406532935" ], [ "clock tower that carried the Hospital bell, which was cast in Leicester, England (Ng 2001a, p. 24). \"Each of the four sides of the clock tower had a clock face and was even illuminated in the hours of darkness. The bell was rung three times daily at 5:00 am, noon and 4:30 pm to announce mealtimes, and chimed to herald festive occasions, to mark the change of work shifts and to alert staff of patients absconding from wards\" (Ng 2001a, p. 24). The importance of the bell diminished with time and in the 1950s, it served only as a fire alarm (Ng 2001a, p. 24).", "-24.465915881606634" ], [ "Shepherd Gate Clock The Shepherd Gate Clock is mounted on the wall outside the gate of the Royal Greenwich Observatory building in Greenwich, Greater London. The clock, an early example of an electric clock, was a slave mechanism controlled by electric pulses transmitted by a master clock inside the main building. The network of master and slave clocks was constructed and installed by Charles Shepherd in 1852. The clock by the gate was probably the first to display Greenwich Mean Time to the public, and is unusual in using the 24-hour analog dial. Origins The original idea for the clock", "-24.45617052714806" ], [ "over the quarter-hourly chiming of the clock. Complaints about the chimes during the night were initially received in the summer of that year, which North Hertfordshire District Council (NHDC) was legally obliged to investigate. In December, the council ruled that the chimes are \"prejudicial to health\" and have to be silenced between 11 pm and 6 am. Complying with the ruling has meant turning off the chimes altogether, although the parish council has asked the diocese in St Albans if it can install a timing mechanism that will restrict the chimes to the legally appointed hours, and has launched an appeal to", "-24.41834457637742" ], [ "reset the length of day and night in order to account for the changing lengths of day and night throughout the year. This clock also featured a number of automata including falcons and musicians who automatically played music when moved by levers operated by a hidden camshaft attached to a water wheel.\nIn Europe, there were the clocks constructed by Richard of Wallingford in St Albans by 1336, and by Giovanni de Dondi in Padua from 1348 to 1364. They no longer exist, but detailed descriptions of their design and construction survive, and modern reproductions have been made. They illustrate how", "-24.402619911474176" ], [ "Time signal A time signal is a visible, audible, mechanical, or electronic signal used as a reference to determine the time of day. \nChurch bells or voices announcing hours of prayer gave way to automatically operated chimes on public clocks; however, audible signals (even signal guns) have limited range. Busy seaports used a visual signal, the dropping of a ball, to allow mariners to check the chronometers used for navigation. The advent of electrical telegraphs allowed widespread and precise distribution of time signals from central observatories. Railways were among the first customers for time signals, which allowed synchronization of their", "-24.371925104758702" ], [ "a culture that did not value clock-watching) and sometimes enforced by the Coalition military - as nightfall. Somewhat ironically, it had been the combat squads that had been late leaving their base (possibly due to a passing shower). Interdiction As Hussein Hassan took a right-hand curve down Mansour Boulevard towards the dispersed squad from about '100 yards,' someone called out: \"We have a car coming!\" An officer then used his headset to tell the soldiers to \"Stop that car!\" There was an immediate short burst of gunfire which, according to an internal United States military report, was aimed at the", "-24.28986767900642" ], [ "to the mechanism generated minute, half minute and sometimes one second electrical pulses which were fed to the slave clocks on pairs of wires. The devices driven could be wall clocks, employee time clocks, tower clocks and occasionally clock chiming mechanisms. Some master clocks were set up to control the frequency of a generating authority's mains output; others, in the UK, were arranged to synchronise themselves with the Greenwich Time Signal pips.", "-24.194643136113882" ], [ "begin the day at midnight, some starting at dawn instead, others at dusk (both being more obvious).\nSince a sundial has only one \"hand,\" a minute probably only meant \"a short time.\" It took centuries for technology to make measurements precise enough for minutes (and later seconds) to become fixed meaningful units—longer still for milliseconds, nanoseconds, and further subdivisions.\nWhen the water clock was invented, time could also be measured at night—though there was significant variation in flow rate and less accuracy and precision. With water clocks, and also candle clocks, modifications were made to have them make sounds on", "-24.14966712059686" ], [ "puts it on the fireplace mantle, stating that it's \"what our house has been missing\". Once it's on the mantle, however, things take a turn for the worse. It turns out the clock's ticking is incredibly loud, even so it can be heard upstairs. Unknown to the family, the clock attaches itself to the mantle, preventing it from being moved. But the strangest of all, Rusty goes downstairs in the middle of the night and turns on the living room light switch. Every time he flips the switch, the living room is replaced with an ancient-looking torture chamber. This happens", "-24.10176911373128" ], [ "It was installed on the previous church in 1671, perhaps commissioned to celebrate its escape from destruction by the Great Fire of 1666. It was the first public clock in London to have a minute hand. The figures of the two giants strike the hours and quarters, and turn their heads. There are numerous literary references to the clock, including in Thomas Hughes' Tom Brown's Schooldays, Oliver Goldsmith’s The Vicar of Wakefield, both David Copperfield and Barnaby Rudge by Charles Dickens, The Warden by Anthony Trollope, the penny dreadful serial The String of Pearls (in which the character", "-24.03177912055071" ], [ "breakfast show The Strawberry Alarm Clock on the Dublin-based radio station FM104 on 30 October 2013.", "-23.9904695758014" ], [ "sciences and technology that could inflict irrevocable harm to humanity.\nThe Clock's original setting in 1947 was seven minutes to midnight. It has been set backward and forward 23 times since then, the smallest-ever number of minutes to midnight being two (in 1953 and 2018) and the largest seventeen (in 1991). The most recent officially announced setting—2 minutes to midnight—was made in January 2018, which was left unchanged in 2019 due to the twin threats of nuclear weapons and climate change, and the problem of those threats being \"exacerbated this past year by the increased use of information warfare to undermine", "-23.97563007867575" ], [ "seen by caretaker James Cypress in the 1950s, and museum superintendent Alric H. Clay claimed that in the 1960s spirits would often turn on the lights and open The Octagon's doors late at night. A gambler shot to death in the house's third-floor bedroom in the late 19th century has sometimes been seen still in the bed he died in, and ghostly footmen have been seen at the front door waiting to receive guests. He was said to have rung a bell shortly before his death and that the ring of the bell often heard in the house is from", "-23.947222731570946" ], [ "clocks of the Tsesarskaya Tower in 1628, and also \"small clocks at the gates [or: small pocket watches, as per Zabelin; meaning is unclear]\".\nWhen Mikhail Fyodorovich wished to see clocks on the Spassky Tower with more difficult mechanics as before, Galloway agreed and, because of the clocks' placement, also recommended to overbuild a high tower with a thatched roof over the gates, which was done from 1624 to 1625. When the work was finished and the bells controlled the clocks' time, Galloway received on 29 January 1626 from the Tsar and His father, Patriarch Philaret Nikitich, salary of one silver", "-23.922476151114097" ], [ "before the outbreak of the war.\nDuring World War I, the British Royal Navy adopted the 24-hour clock in 1915, and the Allied armed forces followed soon after, with the British Army switching officially in 1918. The Canadian armed forces first started to use the 24-hour clock in late 1917. In 1920, the United States Navy was the first United States organization to adopt the system; the United States Army, however, did not officially adopt the 24-hour clock until World War II, on July 1, 1942.\nThe use of the 24-hour clock in the United Kingdom has grown steadily since the beginning", "-23.920060311094858" ], [ "From Morning to Midnight From Morning to Midnight is an expressionist play written by German Georg Kaiser in 1912. Plot summary The entire course of the play takes place over a single day. The plot begins with a young bank employee (referred to as 'Clerk') mistakenly believing that an alluring customer ('The Italian Woman') wants to elope with him. Acting on this belief, he steals 60,000 marks – worth £900,000 in 2013 prices, assuming that the marks referred to are those of 1912 Germany – from his bank, and absconds to visit the woman at her hotel.\nUpon the Italian woman", "-23.919656014695647" ], [ "Three O'Clock in the Morning History Julián Robledo, an Argentine composer born in Spain, published the music for “Three O’Clock in the Morning” in New Orleans in 1919. In 1920 the song was also published in England and Germany, and lyrics were added in 1921 by Dorothy Terriss (the pen name of Theodora Morse). The song opens with chimes playing Westminster Quarters followed by three strikes of the chimes to indicate three o'clock. The lyrics then begin: It's three o'clock in the morning, we've danced the whole night through.\nThis “Waltz Song with Chimes” created a sensation when it was performed", "-23.91710101852368" ], [ "the adjustments are finished, the bottom left button can be pressed once to return the watch to normal mode.\nThe watch display shows the day of the week, day of the month, hour, minute, seconds, and the signs PM in the afternoon – or 24H (24-hour clock) – at all times, the alarm signal status (bar of vertical lines), and the hourly signal status (double beep on the hour, shown as a bell) are present when activated in the alarm mode.\nIn stopwatch mode, minutes, seconds, and hundredths of a second are shown. Usage in terrorism According to secret documents issued to", "-23.91319495101925" ], [ "for closing and, as soon as the clock struck eight, Shaw would present himself before his guests and proclaim in a loud voice \"Eight o'clock gentlemen, eight o'clock!\" accompanying the announcement with the suggestive cracking of a horsewhip. This would normally soon clear the house but, if the cracking of the whip failed, his maid, Molly Owen, was ordered to use the contents of her mop bucket to \"expedite the movement of the loiterer\". When one Colonel Stanley was elected Member of Parliament for the county he took his friends to Shaw's, and when \"Eight o'clock\" was announced as usual,", "-23.824654040727182" ], [ "clocks, factory sirens, school bells and occasionally clock chiming mechanisms. Some types, such as the Synchronome, had optional extra mechanisms to compare the time of the clock with a standard received from the GPO time service which relayed the time signal from the Greenwich Observatory, which allowed small weights to be added or removed from the pendulum without interruption. Small weights could also be added or removed manually in the absence of this mechanism again without interruption.\nThe British Post Office (GPO) used such master clocks in their electromechanical telephone exchanges to generate the call timing pulses necessary to charge telephone", "-23.762831222935347" ], [ "Morning's at Seven Morning's at Seven is a play by Paul Osborn. Its plot focuses on four aging sisters living in a small Midwestern town in 1928, and it deals with ramifications within the family when two of them begin to question their lives and decide to make some changes before it’s too late.\nThe original Broadway production, directed by Joshua Logan, opened on November 30, 1939, at the Longacre Theatre, where it ran for 44 performances. Director Logan chose to set it in 1938, which at the end of the Depression and the beginning of World War II seemed to", "-23.72153161647293" ], [ "Us.\nWell folks as you can see for yourself the way this clock over here is behaving: time is an affliction. Now this might be cause for alarm on a portion of you that's from a certain experience I tend to proclaim: the eons are closing. Now what does this mean precisely to the layman?\nSimply this: Momentarily the need for the construction of the new light will no longer exist. Of course some of you will think, \"Who is he to fell me from this light?\" But in all seriousness, ladies and gentlemen, a quick glance at the erratic behavior of", "-23.719299193980987" ], [ "breakfast television/morning show (between 2:00 a.m. and 6:00 a.m.). During this time slot, most people who are at home are asleep, and most of the few of those who are awake are either at work, away from the television, trying to fall asleep, or just returning home from a bar and too intoxicated to pay attention, leaving only insomniacs, intentionally nocturnal people, and irregular shift workers as potential audiences. Because of the small number of people in those categories, the overnight shift was historically ignored as a revenue opportunity, although increases in irregular shifts have made overnight programming more viable than it", "-23.6921536867103" ], [ "Casio AE-1000W Specifications The AE-1000W has a ​¹⁄₁₀₀ second stopwatch which can count up to 24 hours (23:59'59.99\") and has an elapsed time, split time and final time recording. The watch has an hourly chime mode and five daily alarms (also written on the face of the watch) for recurring events along with a one time alarm which can be switched off using any button. The alarms sound for 10 seconds.\nOther functions of the watch include a ​¹⁄₁₀ second timer mode which can count from a second to up to 24 hours and a world time mode which displays the coordinated time", "-23.669987701578066" ], [ "to me in the early morning, and I could not sleep or lose these early hours. When traveling abroad, my exploration and study of cathedrals and most of the remarkable churches in Rome and in various cities of Europe have been made in the early morning. Such places were always open, and it was the most quiet time to visit them, and I have been able to get into many a nook and corner of old churches that I could not have been able to peer into when there were crowds of other visitors there also.\"\nAt the age of thirteen,", "-23.63742233411176" ], [ "intervals by telegraph wires to clocks and receivers in London, Edinburgh, Glasgow, Dublin, Belfast and many other cities. From 1866 time signals were also sent to US Harvard University via the new transatlantic submarine cable.\nAiry's report to the Observatory's Board of Visitors in 1853 explained the function of the Shepherd master clock:\nThis clock keeps in motion a sympathetic galvanic clock in the Chronometer room, which, therefore, is sensibly correct; and thus the chronometers are compared with a clock which requires no numerical correction. \nThe same Normal Clock maintains in sympathetic movement the large clock at the entrance-gate, two other clocks", "-23.591196285793558" ], [ "and 1979. Advertisements from this period often emphasized that thermostats could be set lower at night when children slept in blanket sleepers.", "-23.571177802659804" ], [ "indicating the time. Before 1941, the bells were rung manually by a custodian worker each hour. The clock was electrified in 1941 and now rings on its own.", "-23.56856855726801" ], [ "on 24 May 2006, the clock stopped for the first time in 28 years, with the display inactive at 7:28 for about one day.", "-23.548930704127997" ], [ "the middle of the day for morning types but only four hours before bedtime for evening types.", "-23.54811038824846" ], [ "for exit. When the dawn came about, there was loud shouting to the people to get inside the fort gates after which they were closed. This was for the protection of the people. \nEvery evening, loud shout warnings were given near these gates after which they were closed. Large stone slabs were kept on top of the wall of the fort which would fall on any intruder who would try to climb it up. During night time, the young warriors equipped with swords, spears, bows and arrows used to guard the entire fort.\nMany wars were fought in Thembang, but one", "-23.528120278352844" ], [ "and visible time signals One sort of public time signal is a striking clock. These clocks are only as good as the clockwork that activates them, but they have improved substantially since the first clocks from the 14th century. Until modern times, a public clock such as Big Ben was the only time standard the general public needed.\nAccurate knowledge of time of day is essential for navigation, and ships carried the most accurate marine chronometers available, although they did not keep perfect time. A number of accurate audible or visible time signals were established in many seaport cities", "-23.50936997134704" ], [ "repeatedly being late to class, a warning bell now sounds when its one minute before classtime. This was 3 months after the new tardy system was activated, where students go to a tardy center and get a pass. Teachers were required to close their door at the bell.", "-23.49512664845679" ], [ "In it he proposed that the clocks should be advanced by 80 minutes in four incremental steps during April and reversed the same way during September. The evenings would then remain light for longer, increasing daylight recreation time and also saving £2.5 million in lighting costs. He suggested that the clocks should be advanced by 20 minutes at a time at 2 am on successive Sundays in April and be reversed in September.\nThrough vigorous campaigning, by 1908 Willett had managed to gain the support of a member of parliament (MP), Robert Pearce, who made several unsuccessful attempts to get it", "-23.440051300800405" ], [ "Goddamnit Artwork and title The album cover has 3 red alarm clocks, each set at 6:00, representing 666. \"I used to set my alarm clock when I was a bike messenger to 6 o'clock in the morning, and when the alarm clock would go off, the first word out of my mouth was always 'Goddamnit!'\", says Matt Skiba.", "-23.42564712508465" ], [ "ringing the front doorbell.’ However, instead of going to the front door, I went to the staircase and turned the light switch on and off, on and off … That particular switch, working on a hidden battery concocted by Papa, was connected to a buzzer in the room where Uncle Frits, aunt Kitty, and Anne lived. The doorbell kept ringing. My mind saw the Jews vanishing behind the double wall in the attic. I opened the front door. The German soldier ran to the kitchen door and he turned the key to let his pal in.\n— --“The Righteous Among the Nations:", "-23.423904273455264" ], [ "the night time. Originally players had the option of manually turning off the light when the pet fell asleep (it would turn on the light by itself when it awoke). In order to raise a healthy pet, players were encouraged but not required to turn off the lights when the pet fell asleep. In recent versions, the pet turns off the light on its own when it went to sleep. Recent versions also allow waking the pet for a short time once it has fallen asleep. V5 had the three children look outside on the window when they wake up", "-23.41494018031517" ], [ "as well as Arabic Quran. Clock A variety and array of clocks greet the visitor in the clock room. There are ancient sundials in the form of obelisks to huge and modern clocks of the twentieth century. Others in the range vary from miniature clocks which need a magnifying glass to imbibe their beauty and complexity to stately grandfather clocks from as far away as France, Germany, Italy, Switzerland and Britain including the musical clock Salar Jung bought from Cook and Kelvey of England. Every hour, a timekeeper emerges from the upper deck of the clock to strike a gong", "-23.393034822132904" ], [ "activities. \"Before the Bell\" is also offered for families that need to drop their children off earlier in the morning.", "-23.392140112133347" ], [ "Speaking clock A speaking clock or talking clock is a live or recorded human voice service, usually accessed by telephone, that gives the correct time. The first telephone speaking clock service was introduced in France, in association with the Paris Observatory, on 14 February 1933.\nThe format of the service is similar to that of radio time signal services. At set intervals (e.g. ten seconds) a voice announces (for example) \"At the third stroke, the time will be twelve forty-six and ten seconds...\", with three beeps following. Some countries have sponsored time announcements and include the sponsor's name in the message.", "-23.335689959756564" ], [ "earlier than announced. At the same time, he came to the foyer, locking the door behind him. Later that night, when it was dark, the boys went to fetch more bedclothes from the mother's room, located behind the kitchen. When the son asked why the kitchen was dark, \"why won't you turn on the lights?\", his father said the lamp was broken. They walked through the kitchen in the narrow streak of light coming from the doorways of the foyer and the mother's room. However, the boys saw that all the miscellaneous junk that had accumulated on top of the", "-23.28663464143756" ], [ "returning.\nThe woman goes to bed, leaving the lamp on her bedside table on and the door leading to the lit hallway ajar. She hears creaking sounds and looks towards the doorway. The hallway light turns off. Scared, she hears footsteps approaching the bedroom and hides under the blanket. After a few seconds of silence, she peeks out. The door opens wider by itself, which terrifies the woman.\nThe lamp flickers. From under the blanket, the woman looks towards the power strip it’s plugged in to. She nervously reaches out, locates the plug, and pushes it in more firmly. The flickering stops.", "-23.268797526397975" ], [ "beginning of news programs at noon (since 2016), 7 pm (since 1988) and 10 pm (since 1994). Clocks are also broadcast on New Year's Eve every year at 10 seconds before midnight to announce the beginning of the New Year since 1984.\nIn Hong Kong, clock idents were used in between programmes, especially news bulletins, although they were not used during closedowns or start-ups.\nIn Southeast Asia, clock idents are broadcast on a few channels in almost all countries, including Thailand, Malaysia, Singapore, Brunei and Vietnam.\nIn Malaysia, RTM broadcast clocks on sign-on and sign-off, but clocks were cancelled in 2009. Clocks on Radio Televisyen", "-23.24019780260278" ], [ "order clocks without minute hands.\nBut the clocks were still aligned with the local noonday sun. Following the invention of the locomotive in 1830, time had to be synchronized across vast distances in order to organize the train schedules. This eventually led to the development of time zones, and, thus, global isochronous time. These time changes were not accepted everywhere right away, because many people's lives were still tied closely to the length of the daytime. With the invention in 1879 of the light bulb, that changed too.\nThe isochronous clock changed lives. Appointments are rarely \"within the hour,\"", "-23.223000891681295" ], [ "he goes to investigate\". Thomas Hardy's Far from the Madding Crowd (1874) 'This supreme instance of Troy's goodness fell upon Gabriel's ears like the thirteenth stroke of a crazy clock' (Chapter XXIX, Particulars of a twilight walk) Why don't 24-hour clocks strike thirteen? Most countries around the world use the 24-hour system for technical purposes and in documents such as timetables; the United States is an exception, although US military bodies do use the 24-hour clock. Most digital clocks can be set to show the time as, for example, 13:00, and this is frequently done. However, typical analogue clock design", "-23.217461033375002" ], [ "night\" was completed in the entrance hall of the Mustansiriya Madrasah in Baghdad.\nFrom the 14th century, some clock towers in Western Europe were also capable of chiming at a fixed time every day; the earliest of these was described by the Florentine writer Dante Alighieri in 1319. The most famous original striking clock tower still standing is possibly the one in St Mark's Clocktower in St Mark's Square, Venice. The St Mark's Clock was assembled in 1493, by the famous clockmaker Gian Carlo Rainieri from Reggio Emilia, where his father Gian Paolo Rainieri had already constructed another famous device in", "-23.21375057689147" ], [ "standard prime meridian. The Canadian Pacific Railway (CPR) began to use it in 1886, prior to its official adoption by European countries. The 24-hour notation is shorter, removes the potential for confusing the first and second halves of the day especially visible at midnight (00:00 or 24:00, 12:00 a.m.) and noon (12:00, 12:00 p.m.), and is language-neutral. English speakers use both the 24- and 12-hour clocks, while French speakers use the 24-hour clock universally.", "-23.21123560142587" ], [ "have broadcast a clock ident sign on 5 pm since 1977, 12 pm since 1986 until 2007, 8 am since 2007 until 2009, 5:30 am since 2009 until 2012 and 5 am since 2012.\nIn the Philippines, channels do not display analogue clocks during closedown. DZRH News Television, ABS-CBN News Channel, DZMM TeleRadyo, PTV, GMA Network, Life TV and formerly RPN and Knowledge Channel all use digital clocks at the bottom of the screen. In the Visayas and Mindanao, there are also clock idents.\nIn Thailand, Channel 3 used to air an analogue clock ident before their news programs in 1986-1995 after Channel 3 cancelled", "-23.196399085223675" ], [ "everyday speech (e.g. 1:06 a.m.), even when reading from a 24-hour display, similar to the use of the 24-hour clock in the United Kingdom.", "-23.196317189605907" ], [ "it can wake them up at the most appropriate time before the alarm goes off.\nWhen the Aura was presented at IFA 2015, the sensor was optional. It became the Aura Connected Alarm Clock without sensor and the Aura Total Sleep System with sensor.\nThe device received an update in 2015 which allows integration with Spotify premium for users to stream their own music. Activité Withings Activité is an activity tracking watch with three models, ranging from stylish to sporty: Activité Sapphire (2014), Activité Steel (2015), and Activité Pop (2015). Activité was the first smartwatch to resemble a traditional wristwatch. The watch", "-23.16614824431599" ], [ "of the 24 hours of each day starts at noon. The clock was changed in the 20th century to indicate Greenwich Mean Time, in which the counting of the 24 hours of each day starts at midnight. Currently, the Gate Clock continues to show Greenwich Mean Time, and it does not show summer time. The clock is now controlled by a quartz mechanism inside the main building. The master clocks are still on display, but are not functional.\nThe Timeball Museum in Deal contains another slave clock once connected to the Greenwich master clock.\nOn 15 October 1940, during the World War", "-23.154965488756716" ], [ "used for official and technical purposes throughout most of the world, there is a time that could be called \"13 o'clock\". However, the 24-hour system only came into widespread use in the 20th century, and most analogue clocks (including virtually all chiming or striking clocks) still work on the 12-hour system. A striking clock rings a bell once for each hour of the time. One ring is 1 o'clock, two rings is 2 o'clock, three rings is 3 o'clock, etc. Traditional clocks that strike a bell only mark 12 hours. After the twelfth hour with the twelve rings of the bell then", "-23.12975658738287" ], [ "cycle of daylight and darkness. It is based in Greenwich, England and termed Greenwich Mean Time.\nObservatories had been selling exact time since the 1850s and transmitting the noon time signal via telegraph lines to customers, usually nearby cities and railroads. The signals were transmitted to sounders as second ticks and pauses that culminated in a noon time signal. The subscriber's clock could then be manually adjusted to exactly noon. For providing this exact time service there was a monthly or yearly charge. Observatories were affiliated with colleges or universities with the exception of the United States Naval Observatory (USNO), which", "-23.123175691463985" ], [ "Time On Target Origins A technique called Time on Target was developed by the British Army in North Africa at the end of 1941 and early 1942 particularly for counter-battery fire and other concentrations; it proved very popular. It relied on BBC time signals to enable officers to synchronize their watches to the second because this avoided the need to use military radio networks and the possibility of losing surprise, and furthermore for the need for additional field telephone networks in the desert.\nIt had been found during World War I that most of the casualties in an artillery bombardment occur", "-23.115440562018193" ], [ "Daylight saving time in Africa  Egypt The British first instituted daylight saving time in Egypt during the Second World War, specifically between 1940 and 1945. The practice was stopped after the war, but resumed 12 years later, in 1957.\nEgypt normally observed daylight saving time between the last Friday in April and the last Thursday in September when the clocks were three hours ahead of Greenwich Mean Time (UTC+3). The change occurred one second after 23:59:59 on Thursday to become 1:00:00 on the last Friday in April shortening the day to 23 hours. Summer time ended one second after 23:59:59 to", "-23.088022712792736" ], [ "Turret clock Water clocks Water clocks are reported as early as 4000 B.C. and were used in the ancient world, but these were domestic clocks. Beginning in the Middle Ages around 1000 A.D. striking water clocks were invented, which rang bells on the canonical hours for the purpose of calling the community to prayer. Installed in clock towers in cathedrals, monasteries and town squares so they could be heard at long distances, these were the first turret clocks. By the 13th century towns in Europe competed with each other to build the most elaborate, beautiful clocks. ", "-23.069119833788136" ], [ "time signal service was $200 (equivalent to $5,003 today) per year. Another telegraph wire connected the observatory to the Fire Department at Providence City Hall which was used to signal the accurate time by fire alarm bells at noon and 8:30 p.m. every day. In 1916 the transit instrument observations were discontinued due to a US government order to dismantle the radio set during World War I. The clocks were instead calibrated using radio time signals from the United States Naval Observatory. The transit observations resumed from 1916 to 1917. Calibration by radio continued after the war ended. Clocks in", "-23.04853448828362" ], [ "Morningside, Edinburgh Landmark structures Morningside landmarks include the Morningside Clock, originally in the middle of the roadway as the clock for Morningside Station (part of the suburban railway line);but unfortunately they had to move the road over a couple of meters (after people kept on crashing into the clock) the elaborately decorated Canny Man's pub (formerly The Volunteer's Arms) on the corner of Canaan Lane; and the Bore Stane, an ancient monument, adjacent to the former Parish Church in which the Royal Standard of James IV was pitched for the muster of the Scottish Army on the Burgh Muir before", "-23.034569166396977" ], [ "and made camp. At midnight they were alarmed by cries in the dark, which stopped after several musket shot. They convinced themselves it was a pack of wolves. When they roused at 5 the next morning, some took their armor down to the shallop and returned to hear the same cries; then there began a hail of arrows. Standish fired off his flintlock, but since only a couple men had their arms, he ordered them to wait on firing their matchlocks until they could see the attackers. When the men were able to regroup, their repeated fire at the trees", "-23.032537241713726" ], [ "from the portico, and is a figure with a Chinese boy and tea chest and a child with flowers. On the corners of the spire are four seven-foot angels. Clock and bells The clocks have mottos carved over them, such as \"Delay not to do well\". The clocks were wound by hand for a century, updated in 1920 and electrified in 1963. The bells have not rung at night since 1918 when Dame Nellie Melba complained that they disturbed her at Halifax's Princess Hotel. Interior Inside there is a branching staircase; one wall painting is by Daniel Maclise who had", "-23.02020347637881" ] ]

[ "The earth is actually still heating itself. We're not just a bunch of rock, the core and mantle actually have atoms breaking down, releasing heat. We are effectively sat on a nuclear reactor set to slow. Early earth was hotter, and has lost a LOT of heat over time, but the amount we have left isn't just here form the start, our planet is effectively burning fuel to keep active.", "Put a hot pocket in the microwave for 5 minutes. That shit takes forever to cool down. The earth is a giant hot pocket.", "Turns out thousands of miles of rock are great for insulation.", "1. Leftover heat from when the rock were smashed together by gravity - ~~As MCMXCII points out, the rate of heat loss is likely to be quiet small.~~ Looked it up, heat loss is about 44.2 TW. 2. Nuclear decay - isotopes undergoing ~~fission~~ nuclear decay releasing more heat. Rate of heating is about 30 TW [See here for more info.]( URL_0 )", "For perspective, white dwarfs are stars that stopped producing their own heat and energy. They're just sitting there, cooling down. It's estimated it would take them 1,000,000,000,000,000 (1 quadrillion) years to cool down." ]

[ [ "on whether the inner core is a solid or is a plasma with the density of a solid. This is an area of active research.\nIn early stages of Earth's formation about 4.6 billion years ago, melting would have caused denser substances to sink toward the center in a process called planetary differentiation (see also the iron catastrophe), while less-dense materials would have migrated to the crust. The core is thus believed to largely be composed of iron (80%), along with nickel and one or more light elements, whereas other dense elements, such as lead and uranium, either are too", "-40.07428767010788" ], [ "fluxes from the youngest rock at mid-ocean ridge spreading centers (zones of mantle upwelling), as observed in the global map of Earth heat flow. Primordial heat Primordial heat is the heat lost by the Earth as it continues to cool from its original formation, and this is in contrast to its still actively-produced radiogenic heat. The Earth core's heat flow—heat leaving the core and flowing into the overlying mantle—is thought to be due to primordial heat, and is estimated at 5–15 TW. Estimates of mantle primordial heat loss range between 7 and 15 TW, which is calculated as the remainder of heat", "-38.3193650971516" ], [ "Earth began to form, producing the layered structure of Earth and setting up the formation of Earth's magnetic field. J.A. Jacobs was the first to suggest that Earth's inner core—a solid center distinct from the liquid outer core—is freezing and growing out of the liquid outer core due to the gradual cooling of Earth's interior (about 100 degrees Celsius per billion years). Hadean and Archean Eons The first eon in Earth's history, the Hadean, begins with the Earth's formation and is followed by the Archean eon at 3.8 Ga. The oldest rocks found on Earth date to about 4.0 Ga,", "-37.36100355311646" ], [ "is estimated to be approximately 5,700 K (5,430 °C) or 9806 °F, which is about the temperature at the surface of the Sun. Discovery The Earth was discovered to have a solid inner core distinct from its molten outer core in 1936, by the Danish seismologist Inge Lehmann, who deduced its presence by studying seismograms from earthquakes in New Zealand. She observed that the seismic waves reflect off the boundary of the inner core and can be detected by sensitive seismographs on the Earth's surface. She inferred a radius of 1400 km for the inner core, not very far from the currently accepted", "-37.0972050355922" ], [ "assumption that the Earth's surface radiated like a black body. Those calculations had implied that, even if it started at red heat, the Earth would have dropped to its present temperature in a few tens of millions of years. Armed with the knowledge of a new heat source, scientists realized that the Earth would be much older, and that its core was still sufficiently hot to be liquid.\nBy 1915, after having published a first article in 1912, Alfred Wegener was making serious arguments for the idea of continental drift in the first edition of The Origin of Continents and Oceans.", "-36.78236999560613" ], [ "of up to 1000 AU in diameter in star-forming regions such as the Orion Nebula—and are rather cool, reaching a surface temperature of only about 1000 kelvins at their hottest.\nWithin 50 million years, the temperature and pressure at the core of the Sun became so great that its hydrogen began to fuse, creating an internal source of energy that countered gravitational contraction until hydrostatic equilibrium was achieved. This marked the Sun's entry into the prime phase of its life, known as the main sequence. Main-sequence stars derive energy from the fusion of hydrogen into helium in their cores. The Sun remains a", "-36.605066171847284" ], [ "temperature is 6,001 K, making it slightly hotter than the Sun, although it is younger, at an estimated age of 3.8 billion years, thus begun nuclear fusion in its core not long after the Archean eon started 4.031 ± 0.003 billion years ago. HAT-P-32A is metal-poor; its measured metallicity is [Fe/H] = -0.16, which means that it has 69% the iron content of the Sun. The star's surface gravity is determined to be 4.22, while its luminosity suggests that it emits 2.43 times the amount of energy that the Sun emits. These parameters are adopted given the condition that the", "-36.454537609475665" ], [ "years later. Initially molten, the outer layer of the Earth cooled, resulting in the solid crust. Outgassing and volcanic activity produced the primordial atmosphere. Condensing water vapor, most or all of which came from ice delivered by comets, produced the oceans and other water sources. The highly energetic chemistry is believed to have produced a self-replicating molecule around 4 billion years ago.\nContinents formed, then broke up and reformed as the surface of Earth reshaped over hundreds of millions of years, occasionally combining to make a supercontinent. Roughly 750 million years ago, the earliest known supercontinent Rodinia, began to break apart. The continents", "-36.32133835970308" ], [ "coupled with a greater concentration of heat-producing elements, led to the Earth being 200 K hotter in the Archean than it is today. Assuming seafloor spreading generated oceanic lithosphere in the Archean, higher temperatures led to greater melting of mantle material rising at oceanic spreading centres. This in turn produced thicker oceanic crust and thicker regions of underlying depleted lithospheric mantle. As such, the density of the lithosphere was reduced due to both differentiation of the crust from the mantle and the ensuing relative depletion of the residual mantle in Fe and Al. These expected properties have led to suggestions", "-36.295147054537665" ], [ "started to coalesce at the same time but the Earth, having much stronger gravity than the early Moon, attracted almost all the iron particles in the area.\nUntil 2001, the oldest rocks found on Earth were about 3.8 billion years old, leading scientists to estimate that the Earth's surface had been molten until then. Accordingly, they named this part of Earth's history the Hadean. However, analysis of zircons formed 4.4 Ga indicates that Earth's crust solidified about 100 million years after the planet's formation and that the planet quickly acquired oceans and an atmosphere, which may have been capable of supporting", "-36.03061185433762" ], [ "were much more common. Internal heating as a result of gravitational sorting between the core and the mantle would have caused a great deal of mantle convection, with the probable result of many more smaller and more active tectonic plates than now exist.\nThe time periods between such devastating environmental events give time windows for the possible origin of life in the early environments. If the deep marine hydrothermal setting was the site for the origin of life, then abiogenesis could have happened as early as 4.0 to 4.2 Ga. If the site was at the surface of the Earth, abiogenesis could", "-35.94529264126322" ], [ "zircon with age as great as 4.3 billion years has been found in the Narryer Gneiss Terrane.\nThe average age of the current Earth's continental crust has been estimated to be about 2.0 billion years. Most crustal rocks formed before 2.5 billion years ago are located in cratons. Such old continental crust and the underlying mantle asthenosphere are less dense than elsewhere in Earth and so are not readily destroyed by subduction. Formation of new continental crust is linked to periods of intense orogeny; these periods coincide with the formation of the supercontinents such as Rodinia, Pangaea and Gondwana. The crust forms", "-35.72433175169863" ], [ "from the original formation of the planet (20%) and from radioactive decay of minerals (80%). The geothermal gradient, which is the difference in temperature between the core of the planet and its surface, drives a continuous conduction of thermal energy in the form of heat from the core to the surface. The adjective geothermal originates from the Greek roots γη (ge), meaning earth, and θερμος (thermos), meaning hot.\nEarth's internal heat is thermal energy generated from radioactive decay and continual heat loss from Earth's formation. Temperatures at the core-mantle boundary may reach over 4000 °C (7,200 °F). The high temperature and pressure", "-35.72325005722814" ], [ "Internal heating Small celestial objects In the early history of the Solar System, radioactive isotopes having a half-life on the order of a few million years (such as aluminium-26 and iron-60) were sufficiently abundant to produce enough heat to cause internal melting of some moons and even some asteroids, such as Vesta noted above. After these radioactive isotopes had decayed to insignificant levels, the heat generated by longer-lived radioactive isotopes (such as potassium-40, thorium-232, and uranium-235 and uranium-238) was insufficient to keep these bodies molten unless they had an alternative source of internal heating, such as tidal heating. Thus, Earth's", "-35.70024038551492" ], [ "of formation of the inner core, which would then be 0.5 billion years old.", "-35.56880295611336" ], [ "during the Archean and Proterozoic eons; the Sun's luminosity increases 6% every billion years. As a result, the Earth began to receive more heat from the Sun in the Proterozoic eon. However, the Earth did not get warmer. Instead, the geological record suggests it cooled dramatically during the early Proterozoic. Glacial deposits found in South Africa date back to 2.2 Ga, at which time, based on paleomagnetic evidence, they must have been located near the equator. Thus, this glaciation, known as the Huronian glaciation, may have been global. Some scientists suggest this was so severe that the Earth was frozen over", "-35.52272700253525" ], [ "a hot 100 °C (212 °F) reducing environment, and the pH of about 5.8 rose rapidly towards neutral. This has been supported by the dating of 4.404 Ga-old zircon crystals from metamorphosed quartzite of Mount Narryer in the Western Australia Jack Hills of the Pilbara, which are evidence that oceans and continental crust existed within 150 Ma of Earth's formation. Despite the likely increased volcanism and existence of many smaller tectonic \"platelets,\" it has been suggested that between 4.4 and 4.3 Ga (billion years), the Earth was a water world, with little if any continental crust, an extremely turbulent atmosphere and a hydrosphere subject", "-35.437040410794" ], [ "and the dynamics and structure of the mantle difficult to unravel. There is evidence that the processes of plate tectonics were not active in the Earth before 3.2 billion years ago, and that early Earth's internal heat loss could have been dominated by advection via heat-pipe volcanism. Terrestrial bodies with lower heat flows, such as the Moon and Mars, conduct their internal heat through a single lithospheric plate, and higher heat flows, such as on Jupiter's moon Io, result in advective heat transport via enhanced volcanism, while the active plate tectonics of Earth occur with an intermediate heat flow and", "-35.20087907847483" ], [ "Earth's outer core Earth's outer core is a fluid layer about 2,400 km (1,500 mi) thick and composed of mostly iron and nickel that lies above Earth's solid inner core and below its mantle. Its outer boundary lies 2,890 km (1,800 mi) beneath Earth's surface. The transition between the inner core and outer core is located approximately 5,150 km (3,200 mi) beneath the Earth's surface. Unlike the inner (or solid) core, the outer core is liquid.", "-35.13906547899751" ], [ "largely completed within 10–20 million years. The solar wind of the newly formed T Tauri star cleared out most of the material in the disk that had not already condensed into larger bodies. The same process is expected to produce accretion disks around virtually all newly forming stars in the universe, some of which yield planets.\nThe proto-Earth grew by accretion until its interior was hot enough to melt the heavy, siderophile metals. Having higher densities than the silicates, these metals sank. This so-called iron catastrophe resulted in the separation of a primitive mantle and a (metallic) core only 10 million years after the", "-35.07793642109027" ], [ "other) in order to release the heat underneath. More of the heat in the Earth is lost through plate tectonics, by mantle upwelling associated with mid-ocean ridges. The final major mode of heat loss is by conduction through the lithosphere, the majority of which occurs in the oceans due to the crust there being much thinner and younger than under the continents.\nThe heat of the Earth is replenished by radioactive decay at a rate of 30 TW. The global geothermal flow rates are more than twice the rate of human energy consumption from all primary sources. Global data on heat-flow", "-35.00460883337655" ], [ "covers a range from about 4.4 to about 4.1 billion years.\nA September 2008 study of zircons found that Australian Hadean rock holds minerals pointing to the existence of plate tectonics as early as 4 billion years.\nIf this is true, the time when Earth finished its transition from having a hot, molten surface and atmosphere full of carbon dioxide, to being very much like it is today, can be roughly dated to about 4.0 billion years ago. The actions of plate tectonics and the oceans trapped vast amounts of carbon dioxide, thereby reducing the greenhouse effect and leading to a much", "-34.86885620164685" ], [ "Earth's inner core Earth's inner core is the innermost geologic layer of the Earth. It is primarily a solid ball with a radius of about 1,220 kilometres (760 miles), which is about 20% of the Earth's radius or 70% of the Moon's radius.\nThere are no samples of the Earth's core available for direct measurement, as there are for the Earth's mantle. Information about the Earth's core mostly comes from analysis of seismic waves and the magnetic field. The inner core is believed to be composed of an iron–nickel alloy with some other elements. The temperature at the inner core's surface", "-34.77133479807526" ], [ "Geological history of Earth Hadean Eon During Hadean time (4.6–4 Ga), the Solar System was forming, probably within a large cloud of gas and dust around the sun, called an accretion disc from which Earth formed 4,500 million years ago.\nThe Hadean Eon is not formally recognized, but it essentially marks the era before we have adequate record of significant solid rocks. The oldest dated zircons date from about 4,400 million years ago.\nEarth was initially molten due to extreme volcanism and frequent collisions with other bodies. Eventually, the outer layer of the planet cooled to form a solid crust when water began accumulating", "-34.732023486925755" ], [ "1% due to volcanic activity, earthquakes, and mountain building. Thus, about 99% of Earth's internal heat loss at the surface is by conduction through the crust, and mantle convection is the dominant control on heat transport from deep within the Earth. Most of the heat flow from the thicker continental crust is attributed to internal radiogenic sources, in contrast the thinner oceanic crust has only 2% internal radiogenic heat. The remaining heat flow at the surface would be due to basal heating of the crust from mantle convection. Heat fluxes are negatively correlated with rock age, with the highest heat", "-34.50010057684267" ], [ "Thermal history of the Earth Overview Observations that can be used to infer the temperature of Earth's interior range from the oldest rocks on Earth to modern seismic images of the inner core size. Ancient volcanic rocks can be associated with a depth and temperature of melting through their geochemical composition. Using this technique and some geological inferences about the conditions under which the rock is preserved, the temperature of the mantle can be inferred. The mantle itself is fully convective, so that the temperature in the mantle is basically constant with depth outside the top and", "-34.49389282998163" ], [ "of around 250 K (−23 °C) was reached at a depth of about 60 kilometres (37 mi). After the end of formation, the subsurface layer cooled, while the interior of Titania heated due to decay of radioactive elements present in its rocks. The cooling near-surface layer contracted, while the interior expanded. This caused strong extensional stresses in the moon's crust leading to cracking. Some of the present-day canyons may be a result of this. The process lasted for about 200 million years, implying that any endogenous activity ceased billions of years ago.\nThe initial accretional heating together with continued decay of radioactive elements were probably", "-34.478760142250394" ], [ "model, the closure of the Pacific Ocean would be complete in about 350 million years. This marks the completion of the current supercontinent cycle, wherein the continents split apart and then rejoin each other about every 400–500 million years. Once the supercontinent is built, plate tectonics may enter a period of inactivity as the rate of subduction drops by an order of magnitude. This period of stability could cause an increase in the mantle temperature at the rate of 30–100 °C (54–180 °F) every 100 million years, which is the minimum lifetime of past supercontinents. As a consequence, volcanic activity may increase. Supercontinent The formation", "-34.29412380079157" ], [ "dense materials. Current models of its interior imply a core with a radius of about 1,794 ± 65 kilometers (1,115 ± 40 mi), consisting primarily of iron and nickel with about 16–17% sulfur. This iron(II) sulfide core is thought to be twice as rich in lighter elements as Earth's. The core is surrounded by a silicate mantle that formed many of the tectonic and volcanic features on the planet, but it appears to be dormant. Besides silicon and oxygen, the most abundant elements in the Martian crust are iron, magnesium, aluminum, calcium, and potassium. The average thickness of the planet's crust is about 50 km (31 mi),", "-34.273770164872985" ], [ "Earth's crust Formation and evolution Earth formed approximately 4.6 billion years ago from a disk of dust and gas orbiting the newly formed Sun. It formed via accretion, where planetesimals and other smaller rocky bodies collided and stuck, gradually growing into a planet. This process generated an enormous amount of heat, which caused early Earth to melt completely. As planetary accretion slowed, Earth began to cool, forming its first crust, called a primary or primordial crust. This crust was likely repeatedly destroyed by large impacts, then reformed from the magma ocean left by the impact. None of Earth's primary crust", "-34.21790434558352" ], [ "Earth acquired a magnetic field about 3.4 Ga that has undergone a series of geomagnetic reversals on the order of millions of years. The surface temperature is in constant fluctuation, falling in glaciations and Snowball Earth events due to ice-albedo feedback, rising and melting due to volcanic outgassing, and stabilizing due to silicate weathering feedback.\nAnd the Earth is not the only one that changed - the luminosity of the sun has increased over time. Because rocks record a history of relatively constant temperatures since Earth's beginnings, there must have been more greenhouse gasses to keep the temperatures up in the", "-34.124542757694144" ], [ "140 km (90 mi) wide on the southern portion of the Superior Province.\nThe Slave province and portions of the Nain province were also affected. Between about 2,000 and 1,700 million years ago these combined with the Sask and Wyoming cratons to form the first supercontinent, the Kenorland supercontinent. Overview Through most of the Archean Eon, the Earth had a heat production at least twice that of the present, which caused tectonic processes to be more active. As a result, plates and continents were smaller. No broad blocks as old as 3 Ga are found in Precambrian shields. Toward the end of the Archean, however,", "-34.107824708276894" ], [ "release into the atmosphere, creating a greenhouse effect that will heat the planet until it achieves conditions parallel to Earth today, providing a potential future abode for life. By 3.5 billion years from now, Earth's surface conditions will be similar to those of Venus today.\nAround 5.4 billion years from now, the core of the Sun will become hot enough to trigger hydrogen fusion in its surrounding shell. This will cause the outer layers of the star to expand greatly, and the star will enter a phase of its life in which it is called a red giant. Within 7.5 billion years, the Sun", "-34.10643624162185" ], [ "the Sun's main-sequence life. At this time, the core of the Sun will contract with hydrogen fusion occurring along a shell surrounding the inert helium, and the energy output will be much greater than at present. The outer layers of the Sun will expand to roughly 260 times its current diameter, and the Sun will become a red giant. Because of its vastly increased surface area, the surface of the Sun will be considerably cooler (2,600 K at its coolest) than it is on the main sequence. The expanding Sun is expected to vaporize Mercury and render Earth uninhabitable. Eventually,", "-34.09835625567939" ], [ "the Sun was only about 75% as bright as it is today. Such a weak star would not have been able to sustain liquid water on Earth's surface, and thus life should not have been able to develop. However, the geological record demonstrates that Earth has remained at a fairly constant temperature throughout its history, and that the young Earth was somewhat warmer than it is today. One theory among scientists is that the atmosphere of the young Earth contained much larger quantities of greenhouse gases (such as carbon dioxide, methane) than are present today, which trapped enough heat to", "-34.09305078739999" ], [ "concentrated, resulting in volcanism and the flooding of large areas with basalt. Rifts will form and the supercontinent will split up once more. The planet may then experience a warming period, as occurred during the Cretaceous period. Solidification of the outer core The iron-rich core region of the Earth is divided into a 1,220 km (760 mi) radius solid inner core and a 3,480 km (2,160 mi) radius liquid outer core. The rotation of the Earth creates convective eddies in the outer core region that cause it to function as a dynamo. This generates a magnetosphere about the Earth that deflects particles from the", "-34.07828134256124" ], [ "than major extension. However, they are now recognized as consistent with this model in explaining how the interior of Earth loses heat. Characteristics Back-arc basins are typically very long (several hundreds to thousands of kilometers) and relatively narrow (a few hundred kilometers). The restricted width of back-arc basins is probably because magmatic activity depends on water and induced mantle convection and these are both concentrated near the subduction zone. Spreading rates vary from very slow spreading (Mariana Trough), a few centimeters per year, to very fast (Lau Basin), 15 cm/year. These ridges erupt basalts that are similar to those erupted from", "-34.077767384267645" ], [ "completely differentiated by mass. Some of the progenitor bodies may even have undergone periods of explosive volcanism and formed magma oceans. However, because of the relatively small size of the bodies, the period of melting was necessarily brief (compared to the much larger planets), and had generally ended about 4.5 billion years ago, in the first tens of millions of years of formation. In August 2007, a study of zircon crystals in an Antarctic meteorite believed to have originated from Vesta suggested that it, and by extension the rest of the asteroid belt, had formed rather quickly, within 10 million years of", "-33.99632365544676" ], [ "Earth contained liquid water, which reduced the cooling temperature of crustal materials. Potentially, Ti-in-zircon thermometry of Earth's oldest zircons can show the progressive heat loss from a magmatic Hadean Earth to the onset of plate tectonics as the planet's crust began to cool and underwent plastic deformation. This will provide previously unknown evidence for the conditions in early Earth and allow testing of ideas of how the planet evolved through the Hadean and Archean eons.\nTitanium in zircon geothermometry can be used in zircons found in metamorphic rocks to estimate the pressure and temperatures conditions during metamorphism. This helps identify the", "-33.93474532326218" ], [ "Cone, the hotspot's present centre, is a comparatively young 0.34 million years of age or less. Radiocarbon dating of peat directly above and below a tephra layer extending 4 km (2.5 mi) from Nazko Cone suggest that the latest eruption occurred approximately 7,200 years ago.\nGeophysicists believe that hotspots originate at one or two major boundaries deep in the Earth, either a shallow interface in the lower mantle between an upper convecting layer and a lower non-convecting layer, or a deeper D″ (\"D double-prime\") layer, approximately 200 km (120 mi) thick and immediately above the core-mantle boundary. A mantle plume would initiate at the interface when the", "-33.83081438243971" ], [ "Solar activity and climate Patterns of solar irradiance and solar variation has been a main driver of climate change over the millennia to gigayears of the geologic time scale, but its role in the recent warming has been found to be insignificant. Geologic time Earth formed around 4.54 billion years ago by accretion from the solar nebula. Volcanic outgassing probably created the primordial atmosphere, which contained almost no oxygen and would have been toxic to humans and most modern life. Much of the Earth was molten because of frequent collisions with other bodies which led to extreme volcanism. Over time,", "-33.78505049731757" ], [ "139-83 Ma some of which have been overprinted by later magmatism. If these first volcanic activities were generated by the Galápagos hotspot, it would make it the oldest still active hotspot on Earth.", "-33.76898723116028" ], [ "of the Earth to uphold his principles of evolution. He assumed the rate of erosion was around one inch per century and calculated the age of the Weald at around 300 million years. Were that true, he reasoned, the Earth itself must be much older. In 1862, William Thomson (later Lord Kelvin) published a paper \"On the age of the sun's heat\", in which – unaware of the process of solar fusion – he calculated the Sun had been burning for less than a million years, and put the outside limit of the age of the Earth at 200 million", "-33.74805631331401" ], [ "hypothesized that the Eocene hothouse world was caused by runaway global warming from released methane clathrates deep in the oceans. The clathrates were buried beneath mud that was disturbed as the oceans warmed. Methane (CH₄) has ten to twenty times the greenhouse gas effect of carbon dioxide (CO₂). Flora At the beginning of the Eocene, the high temperatures and warm oceans created a moist, balmy environment, with forests spreading throughout the Earth from pole to pole. Apart from the driest deserts, Earth must have been entirely covered in forests.\nPolar forests were quite extensive. Fossils and even preserved remains of trees", "-33.719482527594664" ], [ "proposed. Deeper understanding of Earth history The geological history of the Hadean eon of early earth is poorly known due to the lack of rock record older than 4.02 Ga (giga-annum or billion years). Most scientists accept that the plate recycling mechanism has melted almost all pieces of Earth's crust. However, some tiny parts of the crust have not been melted, as some rare Hadean zircon grains included in much younger host rock were discovered. The examination of Hadean detrital or inherited grains of zircon can give evidence of geophysical conditions of the early earth. Scientific contribution Since there is no", "-33.713914349878905" ], [ "As determined from these cooling ages, these basement rocks were uplifted from depths of 25 to 10 km (15.5 to 6.2 mi) between 1750 and 1660 Ma. Then, they were uplifted from a depth of 10 km (6.2 mi) to the Earth's surface between 1300 and 1250 Ma. Thus, the surface on which the Unkar Group accumulated, is about 1250 Ma old, and the Unkar Group that buried it, is younger.\nThe maximum age of the Unkar Group is also established by uranium-lead (U-Pb) dating of zircons from an ash bed from the Bass Formation in the basal Unkar Group of 1254 Ma near river", "-33.57594309328124" ], [ "Chemical and physical models give estimated ranges of 15–41 TW and 12–30 TW for radiogenic heat and primordial heat, respectively.\nThe structure of the Earth is a rigid outer crust that is composed of thicker continental crust and thinner oceanic crust, solid but plastically flowing mantle, a liquid outer core, and a solid inner core. The fluidity of a material is proportional to temperature; thus, the solid mantle can still flow on long time scales, as a function of its temperature and therefore as a function of the flow of Earth's internal heat. The mantle convects in response to heat escaping from Earth's", "-33.37501206307206" ], [ "km. The lower mantle may have never been completely melted because its melting temperature rises at a rate of 1 Kelvin/km. It still remains uncertain whether a single stage long-lasting magma ocean took place, or rather several episodes of rapid-cooling magma oceans during periodic impact events. Experiments suggest that viscosity of the magma ocean was low, thereby implying turbulent convective flow that rapidly dissipates heat. If true, the magma ocean can only have existed for a few thousands years.\nIron droplets in the magma ocean existed in a variety of sizes depending on the size of the bodies impacting the Earth.", "-33.367455038705884" ], [ "tectonics is the primordial heat left over from the planet's formation as well as the radioactive decay of uranium, thorium, and potassium in Earth's crust and mantle. Core The average density of Earth is\n5.515 g/cm³. Because the average density of surface material is only around 3.0 g/cm³, we must conclude that denser materials exist within Earth's core.\nThis result has been known since the Schiehallion experiment, performed in the 1770s.\nCharles Hutton in his 1778 report concluded that the mean density of the Earth must be about that of surface rock, concluding that the interior of the Earth must be metallic. Hutton", "-33.35548346384894" ], [ "into the mantle. This constant process of creating new ocean crust and destroying old ocean crust means that the oldest ocean crust on Earth today is only about 200 million years old. \nIn contrast, the bulk of the continental crust is much older. The oldest continental crustal rocks on Earth have ages in the range from about 3.7 to 4.28  billion years and have been found in the Narryer Gneiss Terrane in Western Australia, in the Acasta Gneiss in the Northwest Territories on the Canadian Shield, and on other cratonic regions such as those on the Fennoscandian Shield. Some", "-33.34921714529628" ], [ "third phase produced minor folding but caused major metamorphic recrystallization, resulting in the emplacement of granite at the core of the thermal dome. This phase occurred at lower pressure because of erosional unloading, but the temperatures were more extreme, ranging up to about 700 °C (1,300 °F). With deformation complete, the thermal dome decayed; minor mineralogical changes occurred during this decay phase. The region has since been effectively stable.\nGeochronology of several Archean rock units establishes a sequence of events, approximately 75 million years in duration, leading to the formation of a new crustal segment. The oldest rocks, at 2,650 million years old,", "-33.340754677448786" ], [ "other geological evidence he concluded that Earth was much older than assumed by Lord Kelvin (ca 100 million years) at the time. His speculations about the source of energy for such a long-lived Sun were prescient, involving the ability of the Sun to somehow extract energy from the inner structures of the atom.\nChamberlin was awarded the inaugural Penrose Gold Medal of the Society of Economic Geologists in 1924, and the inaugural Penrose Medal of the Geological Society of America in 1927. He was president of the Geological Society of America in 1894.\nChamberlin remained active professionally up until his death in", "-33.29542522892007" ], [ "two billion years for all other phases of the Sun's pre-remnant life combined. Solar wind from the Sun created the heliosphere and swept away the remaining gas and dust from the protoplanetary disc into interstellar space, ending the planetary formation process. The Sun is growing brighter; early in its main-sequence life its brightness was 70% that of what it is today.\nThe Solar System will remain roughly as we know it today until the hydrogen in the core of the Sun has been entirely converted to helium, which will occur roughly 5 billion years from now. This will mark the end of", "-33.27544942009263" ], [ "in the Sun and outer planets is similar to that in the universe. Due to solar heating, the elements of Earth and the inner rocky planets of the Solar System have undergone an additional depletion of volatile hydrogen, helium, neon, nitrogen, and carbon (which volatilizes as methane). The crust, mantle, and core of the Earth show evidence of chemical segregation plus some sequestration by density. Lighter silicates of aluminum are found in the crust, with more magnesium silicate in the mantle, while metallic iron and nickel compose the core. The abundance of elements in specialized environments, such as atmospheres, or", "-33.261416657594964" ], [ "natural forces, the Earth's temperature has been fluctuating for millions of years, long before humans arrived. However, it is the additional carbon dioxide, leading to an increase in the greenhouse effect, which must also be taken into account. When fossil fuels are burnt, such as coal, fuel oil or natural gas, the carbon emissions combine with oxygen to further thicken the Earth's atmospheric 'blanket' and thus warm the planet. An analysis of ice cores can provide information from thousands of years ago. Comparisons of carbon dioxide levels show that those of today are far beyond anything seen in the past.", "-33.24310505014728" ], [ "Hadean the Late Heavy Bombardment occurred (approximately 4,100 to 3,800 million years ago) during which a large number of impact craters are believed to have formed on the Moon, and by inference on Earth, Mercury, Venus and Mars as well. Archean Eon The Earth of the early Archean (4,000 to 2,500 million years ago) may have had a different tectonic style. During this time, the Earth's crust cooled enough that rocks and continental plates began to form. Some scientists think because the Earth was hotter, that plate tectonic activity was more vigorous than it is today, resulting in a much greater rate of recycling", "-33.23774912185036" ], [ "the core will be hot enough for helium fusion; the Sun will burn helium for a fraction of the time it burned hydrogen in the core. The Sun is not massive enough to commence the fusion of heavier elements, and nuclear reactions in the core will dwindle. Its outer layers will move away into space, leaving a white dwarf, an extraordinarily dense object, half the original mass of the Sun but only the size of Earth. The ejected outer layers will form what is known as a planetary nebula, returning some of the material that formed the Sun—but now enriched", "-33.22261533801793" ], [ "him to conclude that the Earth's interior consists of a mantle of silicates, surrounding a core of iron.\nIn 1906 Richard Dixon Oldham identified the separate arrival of P-waves, S-waves and surface waves on seismograms and found the first clear evidence that the Earth has a central core.\nIn 1910, after studying the April 1906 San Francisco earthquake, Harry Fielding Reid put forward the \"elastic rebound theory\" which remains the foundation for modern tectonic studies. The development of this theory depended on the considerable progress of earlier independent streams of work on the behaviour of elastic materials and in mathematics.\nIn", "-33.202091965067666" ], [ "of the first continents grew large enough to withstand the crustal recycling processes. The long-term tectonic stability of those cratons is why we find continental crust ranging up to a few billion years in age. It is believed that 43% of modern continental crust was formed in the Proterozoic, 39% formed in the Archean, and only 18% in the Phanerozoic. Studies by Condie 2000 and Rino et al. 2004 suggest that crust production happened episodically. By isotopically calculating the ages of Proterozoic granitoids it was determined that there were several episodes of rapid increase in continental crust production.", "-33.19809852412436" ], [ "Berger and Loutre (2002) argue that “with or without human perturbations, the current warm climate may last another 50,000 years. The reason is a minimum in the eccentricity of Earth's orbit around the Sun.” Also, Archer and Ganopolski (2005) report that probable future CO₂ emissions may be enough to suppress the glacial cycle for the next 500 kyr.\nNote in the graphic, the strong 100,000 year periodicity of the cycles, and the striking asymmetry of the curves. This asymmetry is believed to result from complex interactions of feedback mechanisms. It has been observed that \nice ages deepen by progressive steps, but", "-33.19228304331773" ], [ "is also commonly accepted that during the Precambrian, the Earth went through several supercontinent breakup and rebuilding cycles (Wilson cycle). In the late Proterozoic (most recent), the dominant supercontinent was Rodinia (~1000–750 Ma). It consisted of a series of continents attached to a central craton that forms the core of the North American Continent called Laurentia. An example of an orogeny (mountain building processes) associated with the construction of Rodinia is the Grenville orogeny located in Eastern North America. Rodinia formed after the breakup of the supercontinent Columbia and prior to the assemblage of the supercontinent Gondwana (~500 Ma). The defining", "-33.18742853097501" ], [ "is clear that studying its past and present nature is essential to developing our understanding of the Earth as a dynamic system. The case against Archean subduction Those who favour non-existent subduction in the Archean point to the well-established model that the Archean Earth was significantly hotter than it is today, which would have affected lithospheric density in such a way as to perhaps prohibit subduction. The higher temperatures of the Archean Earth can be attributed to the release of tremendous amounts of energy from the accretion of solar system material and subsequent differentiation into core and mantle. This energy,", "-33.14367477678752" ], [ "was centered on the equator and reached from 60° N to 60° S. Time period 1.2-1 bya to 800-850 mya, Proterozoic Eon - end of Precambrian. Formation It was the first supercontinent to form on Earth, all the continental crust on Earth came together and formed one giant land mass. This land mass was surrounded by an even larger ocean, known as Mirovia. There were about four smaller continents that collided and came together to form Rodinia. This event is called the Grenville Orogeny. This caused there to be mountain building along the areas of were continents collided. This is", "-33.088554385874886" ], [ "plate tectonics requires explanation. One hypothesis is that Venus underwent some sort of global resurfacing about 300–500 million years ago that erased the evidence of older craters.\nOne possible explanation for this event is that it is part of a cyclic process on Venus. On Earth, plate tectonics allows heat to escape from the mantle by advection, the transport of mantle material to the surface and the return of old crust to the mantle. But Venus has no evidence of plate tectonics, so this theory states that the interior of the planet heats up (due to the decay of radioactive elements)", "-33.048538225892116" ], [ "strong upper mantles, and is incompatible with the popularly assumed hot, active mantles. (The very different correlation on Earth shows that topography of similar dimensions here floats isostatically on truly hot, weak mantle.) Purported Venusian and Martian volcanoes, including Olympus Mons, do not resemble Earth's endogenic volcanoes, and instead are roughly circular, and commonly gentle-sided, products of vast masses of spreading melts from single events. They appear to be impact-melt constructs, mostly older than 3.9 b.y. by lunar analogy. Earth records a similar history of impact melting in its zircons from the Hadean eon, 4.5-4.0 b.y. ago.\nBoth Venus and Mars", "-33.04464652269962" ], [ "energy output, but the resulting age estimate was only 20 million years, well short of the time span of at least 300 million years suggested by some geological discoveries of that time. In 1890 Joseph Lockyer, who discovered helium in the solar spectrum, proposed a meteoritic hypothesis for the formation and evolution of the Sun.\nNot until 1904 was a documented solution offered. Ernest Rutherford suggested that the Sun's output could be maintained by an internal source of heat, and suggested radioactive decay as the source. However, it would be Albert Einstein who would provide the essential clue to the source", "-33.03229511997779" ], [ "the last 2,000 years.\nBy the end of the 21st century, temperatures may increase to a level not experienced since the mid-Pliocene, around 3 million years ago. At that time, models suggest that mean global temperatures were about 2–3 °C warmer than pre-industrial temperatures. In the early Pliocene era, the global temperature was only 1-2 °C warmer than now, but sea level was 15–25 meters higher. Physical impacts A broad range of evidence shows that the climate system has warmed. Evidence of global warming is shown in the graphs (below right) from the US National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). Some of the", "-33.01859990824596" ], [ "age of 2.5 billion years, at the boundary of the Archean and Proterozoic. Metamorphic and igneous rocks formed 1.7 billion years ago underlie Clark County and the populous areas around Las Vegas. The region was part of the supercontinent Rodinia one billion years ago, situated at the equator. \nThe continent rifted apart between 700 and 600 million years ago. No continental rocks exist in western Nevada from more than 700 million years ago, because the western part of the region was rifted away, becoming part of current day Siberia. Paleozoic (541-251 million years ago) After the breakup of Rodinia, southern", "-32.97270107513759" ], [ "of melting of thermally buoyant, rising conduits of hot rock in the mantle, called mantle plumes. Mantle plume conduits may drift slowly, but Earth’s tectonic plates drift more rapidly relative to mantle plumes. As a result, the relative motion of Earth’s tectonic plates over mantle plumes produces age-progressive chains of volcanic islands and seamounts with the youngest, active volcanoes located above the axis of the mantle plume while older, inactive volcanoes are located progressively farther away from the plume conduit (see Figure 1). Hotspot chains can record tens of millions of years of continuous volcanic history; for example, the oldest", "-32.96433991022059" ], [ "Sims (1991). “Core formation during early accretion of the Earth.” Science, 252, 926-933. doi: 10.1126/science.252.5008.926.\nSims, K.W.W., H.E. Newsom, and E.S. Gladney (1990). “Chemical fractionation during formation of the Earth’s core and continental crust: Clues from As, Sb, W and Mo.” In Origin of the Earth, J. Jones and H.E. Newsom (eds.), New York: Oxford University Press; Houston. Lunar and Planetary Institute. ISBN 0-19-506619-7.\nNewsom, H.E., K.W.W. Sims, P.D. Noll, W.L. Jaeger, S.A. Maehr, and T.B. Bassera (1996). “The depletion of W in the bulk-silicate Earth: constraints on core formation.” Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, 60, 7, 1155-1169. doi: 10.1016/0016-7037(96)00029-4. Development Of", "-32.95517628756352" ], [ "oceanic crust during that period. These more magnesium-rich rocks metamorphose into greenschist at conditions when modern oceanic crust rocks metamorphose into blueschist. The ancient magnesium-rich rocks means that Earth's mantle was once hotter, but not that subduction conditions were hotter. Previously, lack of pre-Neoproterozoic blueschist was thought to indicate a different type of subduction. Both lines of evidence refutes previous conceptions of modern-style subduction having been initiated in the Neoproterozoic Era 1.0 Ga ago. Volcanic activity Volcanoes that occur above subduction zones, such as Mount St. Helens, Mount Etna and Mount Fuji, lie at approximately one hundred kilometers from the", "-32.89985332376091" ], [ "of 3,000 M☉. This cluster began to break apart between 135 million and 535 million years after formation. Several simulations of our young Sun interacting with close-passing stars over the first 100 million years of its life produce anomalous orbits observed in the outer Solar System, such as detached objects.\nBecause of the conservation of angular momentum, the nebula spun faster as it collapsed. As the material within the nebula condensed, the atoms within it began to collide with increasing frequency, converting their kinetic energy into heat. The centre, where most of the mass collected, became increasingly hotter than the surrounding disc.", "-32.86249328608392" ], [ "size over about half a billion years. It will then expand more rapidly over about half a billion years until it is over two hundred times larger than today and a couple of thousand times more luminous. This then starts the red-giant-branch phase where the Sun will spend around a billion years and lose around a third of its mass.\nAfter the red-giant branch the Sun has approximately 120 million years of active life left, but much happens. First, the core, full of degenerate helium ignites violently in the helium flash, where it is estimated that 6% of the core, itself", "-32.84507020369347" ], [ "back to the Earth’s surface. Later in 1859, John Tyndall discovered that water vapor and CO₂ trap heat waves given by the sun. In 1896, Svante Arrhenius tried to prove that it would take thousands of years for the industrial production of CO₂ to raise the Earth’s temperature 5-6°C. But this idea was met with much skepticism throughout the early 20th century because it was oversimplified. In the mid 20th century, it was concluded that there was a 10% increase in carbon dioxide in the atmosphere over the 19th century, which resulted in slight warming. It was at this", "-32.842357320856536" ], [ "heat and light pressure, are composed of elements with high melting points. Objects farther from the Sun are composed largely of materials with lower melting points. The boundary in the Solar System beyond which those volatile substances could condense is known as the frost line, and it lies at roughly 5 AU from the Sun.\nThe objects of the inner Solar System are composed mostly of rock, the collective name for compounds with high melting points, such as silicates, iron or nickel, that remained solid under almost all conditions in the protoplanetary nebula. Jupiter and Saturn are composed mainly of gases,", "-32.81765509942488" ], [ "of soot or similar particulate carbon. Orbital forcing The presence of later (smaller) warming events of a global scale, such as the Elmo horizon (aka ETM2), has led to the hypothesis that the events repeat on a regular basis, driven by maxima in the 400,000 and 100,000 year eccentricity cycles in the Earth's orbit. The current warming period is expected to last another 50,000 years due to a minimum in the eccentricity of the Earth's orbit. Orbital increase in insolation (and thus temperature) would force the system over a threshold and unleash positive feedbacks. Ocean circulation The large scale patterns", "-32.80354765216907" ], [ "No other geochemical analysis has been conducted\n/\nEastern BrazilThe age of the rock is 4.22Ga and Th/U ratios of 0.8 and high U contents (up to 1400ppm)\nFelsic magmatic origin Proposed mechanisms for forming Hadean Jack Hills zircons Plate tectonic theory is widely accepted for the generation of crust. However, it's still an unknown how the early Earth was formed. With the Hadean rock record, most of the scientists concluded that the belief of a hellish early Earth devoid of ocean is wrong. Scientists have constructed different models to explain the thermal history in early history including continental growth model, Icelandic rhyolites,", "-32.75265208288329" ], [ "estimating when the groups that feature in the Cambrian explosion first evolved, and estimates produced by different techniques may vary by a factor of two. History of life Earth formed about 4,570 million years ago and, after a collision that formed the Moon about 40 million years later, may have cooled quickly enough to have oceans and an atmosphere about 4,440 million years ago. There is evidence on the Moon of a Late Heavy Bombardment by asteroids from 4,000 to 3,800 million years ago. If, as seems likely, such a bombardment struck Earth at the same time, the first atmosphere and oceans may have", "-32.723432555110776" ], [ "together into a supercontinent called Pangaea, which included most of the Earth's land area. Climate The early Cambrian climate was probably moderate at first, becoming warmer over the course of the Cambrian, as the second-greatest sustained sea level rise in the Phanerozoic got underway. However, as if to offset this trend, Gondwana moved south, so that, in Ordovician time, most of West Gondwana (Africa and South America) lay directly over the South Pole. The early Paleozoic climate was also strongly zonal, with the result that the \"climate\", in an abstract sense, became warmer, but the living space of most organisms", "-32.720483044264256" ], [ "a temperature of 125 °F (52 °C). Looking to the history of the Earth, Foote theorized that \"An atmosphere of that gas would give to our earth a high temperature; and if, as some suppose, at one period of its history, the air had mixed with it a larger proportion than at present, an increased temperature from its own action, as well as from increased weight, must have necessarily resulted.\" \nFoote illustrated her findings in a paper entitled, Circumstances affecting the heat of sun's rays, which was accepted at the eighth annual American Association for the Advancement of Science meeting on August", "-32.71803019152139" ], [ "Hadean zircon Hadean zircon is the oldest-surviving crustal material from the Earth's earliest geological time period, the Hadean eon, about 4 billion years ago. Zircon is a mineral that is commonly used for radiometric dating because it is highly resistant to chemical changes and appears in the form of small crystals or grains in most igneous and metamorphic host rocks.\nHadean zircon has very low abundance around the globe because of recycling of material by plate tectonics. When the rock at the surface is buried deep in the Earth it is heated and can recrystallise or melt. In the Jack Hills,", "-32.694141585205216" ], [ "temperatures. In the seas, crystalline or \"glassy\" foraminifera predominated, a key indicator of higher temperatures. The CTM began during the Cenomanian/Turonian transition and was associated with a major disruption in global climate as well as global anoxia during Oceanic Anoxic Event 2 (OAE-2). The CTM was the most extreme disruption of the carbon cycle in the past 100 million years. Geological Causes From 250 to 150 Ma, Pangaea covered the Earth's surface, forming one super continent and one gargantuan ocean. During the breakup of Pangaea from 150 to 130 Ma, the Atlantic Ocean began to form the \"Atlantic Gateway\".", "-32.68173662229674" ], [ "the setting for the fictional planet Tatooine. Basement and Pahrump Group Little is known about the history of the oldest exposed rocks in the area due to extensive metamorphism (alteration of rock by heat and pressure). Radiometric dating gives an age of 1,700 million years for the metamorphism during the Proterozoic. About 1,400 million years ago a mass of granite now in the Panamint Range intruded this complex. Uplift later exposed these rocks to nearly 500 million years of erosion.\nThe Proterozoic sedimentary formations of the Pahrump Group were deposited on these basement rocks. This occurred following uplift and erosion of any earlier sediments", "-32.67450868830201" ], [ "million years ago on the Pacific Plate and is now extinct; its estimated age is placed in a range between 88.5 and 86.2 million years. It was located in the Southern Hemisphere as it formed. Some secondary volcanic cones may be much younger, of Miocene age. The formation of Ioah and the other Magellan Seamounts has been explained by a hotspot that would now be located close to the Rarotonga hotspot, Samoa hotspot and Society hotspot were it still active. Compositionally, volcanic rocks from Ioah resemble these of the Rarotonga hotspot.\nDuring the Aptian-Cenomanian, limestones and volcanic rocks formed sediments", "-32.67293016589247" ], [ "the extinction of life, 2.8 billion years from now it is also expected that Earth biosignatures will disappear, to be replaced by signatures caused by non-biological processes. Red giant stage Once the Sun changes from burning hydrogen within its core to burning hydrogen in a shell around its core, the core will start to contract and the outer envelope will expand. The total luminosity will steadily increase over the following billion years until it reaches 2,730 times the Sun's current luminosity at the age of 12.167 billion years. Most of Earth's atmosphere will be lost to space and its surface", "-32.62096298960387" ], [ "and metals, a high water ice and volatiles content (with less mechanical strength) in cooler regions of the Solar System, or primarily ices with a low rock/metal content even farther from the Sun. This continuum is thought to record the varying chemistries of the early Solar System, with refractories surviving in warm regions, and volatiles driven outward by the young Sun.\nThe cores of planets are inaccessible, studied indirectly by seismometry, gravimetry, and in some cases magnetometry. However, iron and stony-iron meteorites are likely fragments from the cores of parent bodies which have partially or completely differentiated, then shattered. These meteorites", "-32.61361240390397" ], [ "very generally colder and more glaciated than the last 500 million years. This is thought to be the result of solar radiation approximately 20% lower than today. Solar luminosity was 30% dimmer when the Earth formed 4.5 billion years ago, and it is expected to increase in luminosity approximately 10% per billion years in the future.\nOn very long time scales, the evolution of the sun is also an important factor in determining Earth's climate. According to standard solar theories, the sun will gradually have increased in brightness as a natural part of its evolution after having started with", "-32.585416431189515" ], [ "from its sources within the Earth to the surface. Total heat loss from the Earth is estimated at 44.2 TW (4.42 × 10¹³ Watts). Mean heat flow is 65 mW/m² over continental crust and 101 mW/m² over oceanic crust. This is 0.087 watt/square meter on average (0.03 percent of solar power absorbed by the Earth), but is much more concentrated in areas where the lithosphere is thin, such as along mid-ocean ridges (where new oceanic lithosphere is created) and near mantle plumes.\nThe Earth's crust effectively acts as a thick insulating blanket which must be pierced by fluid conduits (of magma, water or", "-32.55928200534254" ], [ "the Late Ordovician, from 460 to 450 Ma, volcanoes along the margin of the Iapetus Ocean spewed massive amounts of carbon dioxide, a greenhouse gas, into the atmosphere, turning the planet into a hothouse.\nInitially, sea levels were high, but as Gondwana moved south, ice accumulated into glaciers and sea levels dropped. At first, low-lying sea beds increased diversity, but later glaciation led to mass extinctions as the seas drained and continental shelves became dry land. During the Ordovician, in fact during the Tremadocian, marine transgressions worldwide were the greatest for which evidence is preserved.\nThese volcanic island arcs eventually collided with", "-32.44020968853147" ], [ "of a stable continental configuration enabling environmental and climate stability during this time period. However, it is also stated in the literature that in spite of the amalgamation of the supercontinents Columbia and Rodinia, relatively stable climatological conditions during the Boring Billion are consistent with a balance between weathering intensity, mantle temperatures and solar insolation throughout much of this time period.\nA mechanism put forward to explain low tectonic variability is related to the temperature of the asthenosphere, which may have been too hot to sustain modern plate tectonics in the early stages of the Earth's evolution. Instead of vigorous plate", "-32.42794368963223" ], [ "core, which makes up 31.5% of the mass of the Earth, has approximate composition Fe₂₅Ni₂Co0.1S₃; the mantle makes up 68.1% of the Earth's mass and is composed mostly of denser oxides and silicates, an example being olivine, (Mg,Fe)₂SiO₄; while the lighter siliceous minerals such as aluminosilicates rise to the surface and form the crust, making up 0.4% of the Earth's mass.\nThe crystallisation of igneous rocks from magma depends on a number of factors; among them are the chemical composition of the magma, the cooling rate, and some properties of the individual minerals to be formed, such as lattice energy, melting", "-32.4182932213007" ], [ "any certainty any volcanic rocks as old as 35 million years, but remnants of the ancient arc's internal plumbing system persist in the form of plutons, which are the crystallized magma chambers that once fed the early Cascade volcanoes. The greatest mass of exposed Cascade Arc plumbing is the Chilliwack batholith, which makes up much of the northern part of North Cascades National Park and adjacent parts of British Columbia beyond. Individual plutons range in age from about 35 million years old to 2.5 million years old. The older rocks invaded by all this magma were affected by the heat.\nAround the plutons of", "-32.412590650463244" ], [ "were clustered near the Yellowstone Plateau, and that the farther west they went, the older the lavas.\nAlthough scientists are still gathering evidence, a probable explanation is that a hot spot, an extremely hot plume of deep mantle material, is rising to the surface beneath the Columbia Plateau Province. Geologists know that beneath Hawaii and Iceland, a temperature instability develops (for reasons not yet well understood) at the boundary between the core and mantle. The concentrated heat triggers a plume hundreds of kilometers in diameter that ascends directly through to the surface of the Earth.\nThe track of this hot spot starts", "-32.397319865835016" ], [ "be used as a tool to infer significant tectonic events in the past. In Earth's history, the abundance of magmatic age peaks during periods of supercontinent assembly. This is because supercontinent provides a major crustal envelop selectively preserve the felsic magmatic rocks, resulting from partial melts. Thus, many detrital zircons originate from these igneous provence, resulting similar age peak records. For instance, the peak at about 0.6–0.7 Ga and 2.7 Ga (Figure 6) may correlate the break-up of Rodinia and supercontinent Kenorland respectively.", "-32.39225780122797" ], [ "years the Sun is expected to be 33% more luminous. The hydrogen fuel at the core will finally be exhausted in five billion years, when the Sun will be 67% more luminous than at present. Thereafter the Sun will continue to burn hydrogen in a shell surrounding its core, until the luminosity reaches 121% above the present value. This marks the end of the Sun's main sequence lifetime, and thereafter it will pass through the subgiant stage and evolve into a red giant.\nBy this time, the collision of the Milky Way and Andromeda galaxies should be underway. Although this could", "-32.3888078314485" ], [ "was melted and remelted by hot spots and recycled in subduction zones.\nThere were no large continents in the early Archean, and small protocontinents were probably the norm in the Mesoarchean because they were prevented from coalescing into larger units by the high rate of geologic activity. These felsic protocontinents (cratons) probably formed at hot spots from a variety of sources: mafic magma melting more felsic rocks, partial melting of mafic rock, and from the metamorphic alteration of felsic sedimentary rocks. Although the first continents formed during the Archean, rock of this age makes up only 7% of the world's current", "-32.35965909893275" ], [ "Physical impacts of climate change Global warming Global surface temperatures have increased about 0.74 °C (plus or minus 0.18 °C) since the late-19th century, and the linear trend for the past 50 years of 0.13 °C (plus or minus 0.03 °C) per decade is nearly twice that for the past 100 years. The warming has not been globally uniform. Some areas have, in fact, cooled slightly over the last century. The recent warmth has been greatest over North America and Eurasia between 40 and 70°N. Lastly, seven of the eight warmest years on record have occurred since 2001 and the 10 warmest years have", "-32.35332083690446" ], [ "of evidence—many of which come from laboratory simulations of deep Earth conditions—have indicated mechanisms for the element's movement down into the lower mantle, as well as the forms that carbon takes at the extreme temperatures and pressures of this layer. Furthermore, techniques like seismology have led to greater understanding of the potential presence of carbon in the Earth's core. Studies of the composition of basaltic magma and the flux of carbon dioxide out of volcanoes reveals that the amount of carbon in the mantle is greater than that on the Earth's surface by a factor of one thousand. Lower mantle", "-32.35143431225151" ], [ "the Sun's minus the very volatile elements like hydrogen and noble gases.\nThe Earth is believed to have formed by the gravitational collapse of material like meteorites.\nImportant effects on Earth in the first Hadian Era include strong solar winds during the T-Tauri stage of the Sun. The Moon forming impact caused major changes to the surface. Juvenile volatiles outgased from the early molten surface of the Earth. These included carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide. The emissions probably did not include methane, but the Earth was probably free of molecular oxygen. The Late Heavy Bombardment was between 4.0 and 3.8 billion years", "-32.28908332978608" ], [ "industrial CO2 emission is not severe enough to cause a change in earth's climate and that climate change is entirely impacted by the sun. Dark Winter also makes note that global climate cooling would begin approximately 3–14 years past Casey's initial discovery.\nAccording to Casey, the earth is currently going through an interglacial warm period, a rare time of reprieve from an otherwise cold earth. This period of warmth essentially serves as Casey's explanation for the exponential growth of human civilization in the past few millennia. Moreover, Casey makes note that this period of warmth and prosperity, according to his calculation,", "-32.268238530632516" ] ]

[ "Because bacteria love moist, delicious meat. So if you leave a steak or some hamburger in the fridge for more than a few days, they'll have time to eat and grow all over your food. But bacteria need moisture in them to survive, and dry, salted beef doesn't have much. And even more importantly, the salt will actually pull water *out* of bacteria cells, shriveling them up and killing them. Which is why salting has been one of our best preservation methods for thousands of years.", "When you dry age beef, you are doing it in conditions that prevent many different types of bacteria from reproducing. In the fridge, none of the bad bacteria are actually killed, so they just slowly multiply. If you were to remove the beef from the store packaging, dip it in boiling water for a few seconds, salt the outside, then put it into the fridge uncovered with good air circulation, it will last much longer.", "Dry gang is done in an environment that is optimized for aging, while a fridge is not. Also rotted meat is trimmed from aged meat -- that and water loss is why aged meat is so expensive per pound. In addition to the storage space needed, you lose about 30-50% of the meat's weight from start to final steak." ]

[ [ "not sold by most supermarkets in the U.S. today, because it takes time and there is a significant loss of weight during the aging process. Dry-aging can take from 15 to 28 days, and typically up to a third or more of the weight is lost as moisture. This type of beef is served in higher-priced steakhouses and by select restaurants. \nDry-aging can be done at home under refrigeration by three means: open air, with the presence of salt blocks, and with the use of a moisture permeable drybag to protect the meat while it is aging. Since the mid-2010s,", "-32.24633158190409" ], [ "the higher grades of meat can be dry aged, as the process requires meat with a large, evenly distributed fat content. Because of this, dry-aged beef is seldom available outside of steak restaurants and upscale butcher shops or groceries. The key effect of dry aging is the concentration and saturation of the natural flavour, as well as the tenderization of the meat texture.\nThe process changes beef by two means. Firstly, moisture is evaporated from the muscle. The resulting process of desiccation creates a greater concentration of beef flavour and taste. Secondly, the beef's natural enzymes break down the connective tissue", "-31.450961875510984" ], [ "Beef aging Dry-aged beef Dry-aged beef is beef that has been hung or placed on a rack to dry for several weeks. After the animal is slaughtered and cleaned, it is hung as a full or half carcass. Primal (large distinct sections) or sub primal cuts, such as strip loins, rib eyes, and sirloin, are placed in a refrigerator unit, also known as a \"hot box\". This process involves considerable expense, as the beef must be stored near freezing temperatures. Subprimal cuts can be dry aged on racks either in specially climate-controlled coolers or within a moisture-permeable drybag. Moreover, only", "-31.210041447659023" ], [ "the beef is similar on all dimensions to the traditional open air dry-aged results.\nHistorically, it was common to store mutton or beef joints at room temperature for extended periods; even after the invention of refrigeration hanging sides of beef in large coolers for a few weeks as part of the processing was standard. Wet-aged beef Wet-aged beef is beef that has typically been aged in a vacuum-sealed bag to retain its moisture. This is the dominant mode of aging beef in the U.S. and UK today. It is popular with producers, wholesalers and retailers because it takes less time: typically", "-30.756737844407326" ], [ "ground beef does not make that ground beef any less safe to consume\". Industry response Manufacturer Beef Products Inc. (BPI) and meat industry organizations addressed public concerns by stating that the additive, though processed, is \"lean beef\" that simply was not able to be reclaimed through traditional slaughterhouse practices until newer technologies became available approximately 20 years ago. With regard to concerns over the use of ammonium hydroxide, BPI noted that its use as an anti-microbial agent is approved by the Food and Drug Administration. The use of ammonium hydroxide is included on the FDA's list of GRAS (generally recognized", "-30.045929346990306" ], [ "only a few days and there is no moisture loss, so any given piece of meat sold by weight will have a higher value than a dry aged piece where moisture loss is desired for taste at the expense of final weight. The beef is usually kept for a period of 4 to 10 days in wet aging. Modified-atmosphere packaging (MAP) is usually employed for the vacuum packaging of meat; typically between 60 and 80 percent oxygen to retain its appetizing color, with red meat such as beef needing a higher oxygen level than less vividly colored meat such as", "-28.888299807731528" ], [ "not comply with this minimum standard.\" Corporate policies Over 60 major food companies have policies to eliminate their use.\nSmithfield Foods, the largest pork producer in the United States, said in January 2007 that it will phase out gestation crates from its 187 piggeries over the next ten years because of concerns from its customers. In 2009 the company stated it would no longer be able to phase them out in ten years due to recent low sales, but reversed the decision in 2011 after intense pressure from the Humane Society of the United States.\nIn February 2012 McDonald's announced that it", "-27.739838934270665" ], [ "normal cooking oil. The sources of this oil are restaurant fryers, sewers and leftover or used oil that is sold by restaurants. A newer version of gutter oil uses discarded animal parts, animal fat, internal organs, and expired or otherwise low quality meat which is then cooked in large vats in order to extract the oil. Expired meat sold to global brands Shanghai Husi Food Co. Ltd. supplied products containing expired meat to McDonald's, KFC, Pizza Hut, Starbucks, and Burger King. The products were sold in numerous countries including Japan.\nPizza Hut's and KFC's parent Yum! Brands, Inc. apologized to", "-27.14725865619289" ], [ "finely textured beef is added to ground beef as a filler or to reduce the overall fat content of ground beef. In March 2012 about 70% of ground beef sold in US supermarkets contained the product. Source areas for the product from cattle may include the most contaminated portions, such as near the hide.\nThe recovered beef material is extruded through long tubes that are thinner than a pencil, during which time at the Beef Products, Inc. (BPI) processing plant, the meat is exposed to gaseous ammonia. At Cargill Meat Solutions, citric acid is used to kill bacteria such as E.", "-27.104455642518587" ], [ "may be sold after they have been weaned to be matured elsewhere, such as at a feedlot, or may be raised to near-slaughter weight and sold at the age of 1–2 years. Older cows and bulls, if kept, may also be sold to slaughter after their reproductive years have ended.\nCow–calf operations generally raise their stock primarily on pasture and other forms of roughage rather than grain feeds, though they may provide vitamin and mineral supplementation. For this reason, they require more land than other cattle operations, such as feedlots, veal and dairy cattle production, or breeding operations", "-26.967474151286297" ], [ "not be called ground beef, since it is not nutritionally equivalent to regular ground beef.\nIn 2007, the USDA determined the disinfection process was so effective that it would be exempt from \"routine testing of meat used in hamburger sold to the general public\".\nA December 2009 investigative piece published by The New York Times questioned the safety of the meat treated by this process, pointing to occasions in which process adjustments were not effective. This article included the first public use of the term \"pink slime\" as a pejorative. In January 2010, The New York Times published an editorial reiterating the", "-26.966002285131253" ], [ "have expressed concerns about plant closures that occurred after the product received significant news media coverage. Production and content Finely textured meat is produced by heating boneless beef trimmings to 107–109 °F (42–43 °C), removing the melted fat by centrifugal force using a centrifuge, and flash freezing the remaining product to 15 °F (−9 °C) in 90 seconds in a roller press freezer. The roller press freezer is a type of freezer that was invented in 1971 by BPI CEO Eldon Roth that can \"freeze packages of meat in two minutes\" and began to be used at Beef Products Inc. in 1981. The lean", "-26.81953032501042" ], [ "Similarly, the Consumer Federation of America said the plant closures were \"unfortunate\" and expressed concern that the product might be replaced in ground beef with \"something that has not been processed to assure the same level of safety\". U.S. consumers have expressed concerns that ground beef which contains the product is not labeled as such, and that consumers are currently unable to make informed purchasing decisions due to this lack of product labeling. Senator Bob Menendez of New Jersey called upon the USDA to institute mandatory labeling guidelines for ground beef sold in supermarkets, so consumers can make informed purchasing", "-26.675622299226234" ], [ "the ban was retained.\nIn February 2012, the Central News Agency reported that large quantities of beef imported from the US were being rejected every month due to residual ractopamine having been detected during inspection. Developments In November 2009, limitations were relaxed to allow beef with bones still attached to be imported. The new rules also permitted the import of ground beef and internal organs, but it was intentionally made difficult or impossible through technical regulations. The change sparked a backlash in public opinion, and a bill was passed in the Legislative Yuan in January 2010 reinstating the ban on ground", "-26.43354585795896" ], [ "Beef Products History Beef Products Inc. was established in 1981 by its current CEO Eldon Roth.\nIn 2007, after the USDA reviewed BPI's processing technique, the company was exempted from routine testing of hamburger meat.\nIn December 2009, The New York Times reported that as early as 2003, school lunch officials and other customers had complained that the product tasted and smelled like ammonia, after which the company devised a plan to make a less alkaline version. The USDA determined that at least some of BPI's product was no longer receiving \"the full lethality treatment.\" NYT reported that BPI's products had tested", "-26.42524357684306" ], [ "purchasers of ground beef, and looked at ways to establish periodic evaluations of the Federal Purchase Ground Beef Program. The report found that although the safety requirements could be strengthened using scientific concepts, the prevention of future outbreaks of food-borne disease will depend on eliminating contamination during production and ensuring meat is properly cooked before it is served.", "-26.419780110707507" ], [ "the U.S. Additionally, some connoisseurs claim that U.S. beef contains the ideal amount of fat for gyūtan dishes and refuse to use Australian beef.", "-26.269118905096548" ], [ "government's policy is to ban import of beef from older cattle \"under any circumstances, either through renegotiations between governments or self-regulation by importers.\"\nU.S. bone-in beef from cattle slaughtered and processed according to Korea's new import regulations, the Quality System Assessment (QSA), is now sold in Korea, but US beef is still not available in major supermarkets due to the perceived health risk.\nThe Seoul Southern District Court ordered MBC to air a correction by the popular MBC current affairs program \"PD Notebook,\" saying that the report was partially wrong and exaggerated the threat of mad cow disease. The public anger towards", "-26.226013888895977" ], [ "product from cattle more than 30 months old now is prohibited from being used for food, and such product from younger cattle and from other\nlivestock species also is prohibited if it contains CNS material.\nThe USDA's AMR guidelines restrict the processing of the parts of cattle that may contain central nervous tissue from AMR systems in cattle over 30 months of age. However, non-CNS tissue meat can be processed and is considered meat, as are the muscle cuts. Although some sources claim AMR systems use ammonia (or anhydrous ammonia, ammonia hydroxide, etc.) to treat the meat, this appears to be due", "-26.18346506569651" ], [ "including one in Garden City, Kansas, lost more than $400 million in sales, and laid off 700 workers. Production decreased to less than 2 million pounds in 2013. Cargill also significantly cut production of finely textured beef and in April 2012 \"warned [that] the public's resistance to the filler could lead to higher hamburger prices this barbecue season\". About 80% of sales of the product evaporated \"overnight\" in 2012, per the president of Cargill Beef. Cargill stopped production in Vernon, California, and laid off about 50 workers as well as slowing production at other plants including a beef-processing plant in", "-26.0620747867506" ], [ "freezers can also be stocked with processed, quick-cook foods that are less healthy.) Refrigeration in transit makes it possible to enjoy food from distant places.\nDairy products, meats, fish, poultry and vegetables can be kept refrigerated in the same space within the kitchen (although raw meat should be kept separate from other food for reasons of hygiene).\nFreezers allow people to buy food in bulk and eat it at leisure, and bulk purchases save money. Ice cream, a popular commodity of the 20th century, could previously only be obtained by traveling to where the product was made and eating it on the", "-26.055654438445345" ], [ "sheep, cows and goats. Furthermore, butchering an ungulate carcass with the skin intact and unsterilized considerably raises the risks for induction of fecal coliform bacteria such as E. coli or Salmonella into the meat and is thus banned in the UK by law. This risk is heightened because the smokies are generally produced in covert (and often grossly unsanitary) butchering facilities and handled without proper sanitary procedures. Furthermore, the goats and sheep used are traditionally old, worn-out or lame animals bought inexpensively from milk and wool farms and are not intended for human consumption.\nSince the process of producing a smokie", "-25.966281019595044" ], [ "based upon the inspected quality of the meat after slaughter. Beef grading Countries regulate the marketing and sale of beef by observing criteria post-slaughter and classifying the observed quality of the meat. This classification, sometimes optional, can suggest a market demand for a particular animal's attributes and therefore the price owed to the producer. Aging and tenderization To improve tenderness of beef, it is often aged (i.e., stored refrigerated) to allow endogenous proteolytic enzymes to weaken structural and myofibrillar proteins. Wet aging is accomplished using vacuum packaging to reduce spoilage and yield loss. Dry aging involves hanging primals (usually ribs", "-25.951136608957313" ], [ "Diane, Bordelaise, mushroom, Hollandaise, au poivre (peppercorn), or Béarnaise. Other vegetables such as peas or a green salad can also be served. Various types of mustard are sometimes offered as a condiment. United States In the United States, a restaurant that specializes in beef steaks is known as a steakhouse. The more expensive steakhouses serve the highest grades of beef in the USA, and can offer beef dry-aged for flavor for long multi-week periods, as opposed to typical un-aged supermarket beef. The combination of well-aged beef and very high-heat grills and broilers produce a steak difficult to emulate in a", "-25.934922711458057" ], [ "the additive is not for direct consumer sale. Lean finely textured beef can constitute up to 15% of ground beef without additional labeling, and it can be added to other meat products such as beef-based processed meats.\nBecause of ammonium hydroxide use in its processing, the lean finely textured beef by BPI is not permitted in Canada. Health Canada stated that: \"Ammonia is not permitted in Canada to be used in ground beef or meats during their production\" and may not be imported, as the Canadian Food and Drugs Act requires that imported meat products meet the same standards and requirements", "-25.88109738129424" ], [ "by President Obama during the President's State of the Union address. Beef advocacy In March 2012, Vilsack joined three midwest governors in a campaign to defend the use of a processed beef product made from trimmings left after beef carcasses are butchered, dubbed \"pink slime\" by its critics. He said that \"it's safe, it contains less fat and historically it's been less expensive\" and that it should be available to consumers and school districts that want to buy it. Global warming At a Drake University forum on climate change April 22, 2014 Vilsack stated \"agriculture tends to take the brunt", "-25.71542958560167" ], [ "to a high enough temperature to kill all growth, but meat can be re-contaminated during any step of the food production process, especially if workers handle both raw and cooked products. The risk of disease from a ready-to-eat (RTE) product such as chicken nuggets is significantly higher due to the fact that many consumers do not re-cook them, believing them to be safe. E. coli, Salmonella and Shigella have all been found in RTE products. A study of working practices in shops selling raw meats (including butcher’s shops, supermarkets and general stores) published in the Journal of Hygiene, found pathogens", "-25.706134085805388" ], [ "from the United States. The ban was lifted in April 2005, and reapplied to beef in June 2005 when a second case of BSE was discovered. This ban was conditionally lifted in January 2006, with imports limited to deboned beef from cattle under 30 months old. Controversy over ractopamine In October 2006, ractopamine was banned in Taiwan along with other beta-adrenergic agonists. In August 2007, the Department of Health announced that it was setting a limit on the level of residual ractopamine in meat products, effectively replacing the ban. This proved controversial, spurring protests from pig farmers in Taiwan, and", "-25.655208078795113" ], [ "meatpacking industry, which he tags as the most dangerous job in America. Moreover, the meat produced by slaughterhouses has become increasingly more hazardous since the centralization of the industry due to the way cattle are raised, slaughtered, and processed, providing an ideal setting for E coli to spread. Additionally, working conditions continue to grow worse. In the final chapter, Schlosser considers how fast food has matured as an American cultural export following the Cold War and how the collapse of Soviet Communism allowed the mass spread of American goods and services, especially fast food. As a result, the rest of", "-25.618440459147678" ], [ "beef is sold through Lasater Grassland Beef, which sells grass-fed beef from both the Chico Basin and the Lasater Ranch. The cattle are raised with no exposure to antibodies, pesticides, or hormones nor are they fed animal bi-products. The beef is kept fresh by dry-aging for about two weeks and then by flash freezing. This is an older way to preserve meat. Horses The quarter horses used to herd cows on the Chico Basin Ranch are raised and trained on the ranch. The twenty-five horses that are ridden by guests are trained to be ridden with a western saddle and", "-25.560003981285263" ], [ "meat (fish, chicken, beef, pork).\nFresh sukuma wiki leaves can be stored for up to 10 days if refrigerated to just above freezing (1 °C) at high humidity (>95%). In domestic refrigerators, fresh colewort can be stored for about three days. Once cooked, they can be frozen and stored for greater lengths of time.", "-25.46969503723085" ], [ "in the muscle, which leads to more tender beef.\nThe process of dry-aging usually also promotes growth of certain fungal (mold) species on the external surface of the meat. This does not cause spoilage, but rather forms an external \"crust\" on the meat's surface, which is trimmed off when the meat is prepared for cooking. These fungal species complement the natural enzymes in the beef by helping to tenderize and increase the flavor of the meat. The genus Thamnidium, in particular, is known to produce collagenolytic enzymes which greatly contribute to the tenderness and flavor of dry-aged meat.\nDry-aged beef is typically", "-25.464135558355338" ], [ "States Department of Agriculture, \"canned foods are safe indefinitely as long as they are not exposed to freezing temperatures, or temperatures above 90 °F (32.2° C). If the cans look okay, they are safe to use. Discard cans that are dented, rusted, or swollen. High-acid canned foods (tomatoes, fruits) will keep their best quality for 12 to 18 months; low-acid canned foods (meats, vegetables) for 2 to 5 years\". 80 °F (27 °C).\n\"Sell by date\" is a less ambiguous term for what is often referred to as an \"expiration date\". Most food is still edible after the expiration date. A product that", "-25.41783038061112" ], [ "to dispose of oil is to put it in a sealed non-recyclable container and discard it with regular garbage. Placing the container of oil in the refrigerator to harden also makes disposal easier and less messy. Recycling Cooking oil can be recycled. It can be used as animal feed, directly as fuel, and to produce biodiesel, soap, and other industrial products.\nIn the recycling industry, used cooking oil recovered from restaurants and food-processing industries (typically from deep fryers or griddles) is called recycled vegetable oil (RVO), used vegetable oil (UVO), waste vegetable oil (WVO), or yellow grease.\nYellow grease is used to", "-25.384735122090206" ], [ "from Irish beef products, despite the extremely high dioxin levels, was insignificant. It was noted that the official announcement made no reference to the dioxin levels being 100 to 400 times the legal limit. In a statement the FSAI recommended \"that cattle which are locked down from these 21 farms should now be slaughtered and not allowed enter the food chain\". There is to be no public recall of Irish beef. The European Commission is being kept informed.\nHowever, 3,000 animals from these herds have been slaughtered and have already entered the food chain since September. The UK's Food Standards Agency", "-25.371412924840115" ], [ "would move forward to sourcing its beef from cows that have not been treated with antibiotics. The chain did not announce a timeframe for the switch, but that it would move forward at an expedited pace. Part of the reason for the switch was that California passed a series of laws to ban the use of antibiotics in non-medical, prophylactic treatments. Additionally, several groups of consumer advocacy NGOs, led by CalPIRG, had been pressuring a number of restaurant chains to stop using meat raised with low-dose antibiotics. Secret menu variations The bulk of the secret menu revolves around the burgers.", "-25.35009760147659" ], [ "would begin working with suppliers to phase out the use of gestation crates in response to pressure from the Humane Society of the United States and other animal advocates. McDonald's purchases around one percent of all pork in the United States.", "-25.348366505179" ], [ "States,\" said Yasuaki Yamaura to CBS News. In June, 2006, he also noted to Reuters: \"Safety inspection by Japan at U.S. meatpacking plants is merely nominal and superficial...\" \nUS beef imports in Japan were stopped from the United States in December 2003. In December 2005, Japan once again allowed imports of U.S. beef, but reinstated the ban in January 2006 after a technical violation of the U.S.-Japan beef import agreement. In order to protect Japanese consumers from mad cow disease, only meat from cattle that is less than 21 months old is accepted; and spinal cords, vertebrae, brains and bone", "-25.338108289113734" ], [ "chuck steak cut into thin slices. Fast food restaurants more typically use ground beef to form burger patties. It also markets its meat as \"fresh, never frozen\" and the beef is transported in 10 pounds (4.5 kg) portions from distribution sites to restaurants each morning. There, employees divide the beef into loosely-packed meatballs by hand. The burger meatball contains a bouillon-like flavoring and it is also seasoned with a proprietary blend that includes kosher salt, black pepper, and garlic, shortly before cooking. Meanwhile, the burger buns are made using a compression toaster and butter wheel so that they do not become", "-25.316506234897133" ], [ "concerns and restore consumer confidence. Following the USDA announcement to allow choices in purchasing decisions for ground beef, several school districts stated that they would opt out of serving ground beef with LFTB. By June 2012, 47 out of 50 U.S. states declined to purchase any of the product for the 2012–2013 school year while South Dakota Department of Education, Nebraska, and Iowa chose to continue buying it.\nOn April 2, 2012, AFA Foods, a ground-beef processor manufacturer of finely textured beef owned by Yucaipa Companies filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy citing \"ongoing media attention\" that has \"dramatically reduced the demand", "-25.25553631299408" ], [ "consumers, as it contributes to flavor and tenderness. The animal may gain an additional 400 pounds (180 kg) during its approximate 200 days in the feedlot. Once cattle are fattened up to their finished weight, the fed cattle are transported to a slaughterhouse. Waste recycling Increasing numbers of cattle feedlots are utilizing out-wintering pads made of timber residue bedding in their operations. Nutrients are retained in the waste timber and livestock effluent and can be recycled within the farm system after use. History The beef industry today is highly dependent upon technology, but this has not always been true. In", "-25.185659456066787" ], [ "and seafood. Other unsafe practices such as drinking unpasteurized milk or untreated water can increase odds of infection. Because T. gondii is typically transmitted through cysts that reside in the tissues of infected animals, meat that is not properly prepared can present an increased risk of infection. Freezing meat for several days at subzero temperatures (0 °F or −18 °C) before cooking eliminates tissue cysts, which can rarely survive these temperatures. During cooking, whole cuts of red meat should be cooked to an internal temperature of 145 °F (63 °C). Medium rare meat is generally cooked between 130 and 140 °F (55 and 60 °C),", "-25.102349798602518" ], [ "necessary and close them as soon as possible. Storage times for refrigerated food The United States Department of Agriculture, Food Safety and Inspection Service publishes recommended storage times for refrigerated food. Storing oils and fats Oils and fats can begin to go rancid quickly when not stored safely. Rancid cooking oils and fats do not often smell rancid until well after they have spoiled. Oxygen, light and heat all contribute to cooking oils becoming rancid. The higher the level of polyunsaturated fat that an oil contains, the faster it spoils. The percentage of polyunsaturated fat in some common cooking oils", "-25.09592901408905" ], [ "2012 Australia's largest supermarket chain, Coles, announced that as of January 1, 2013, they will stop selling company branded pork and eggs from animals kept in factory farms. The nation's other dominant supermarket chain, Woolworths, has already begun phasing out factory farmed animal products. All of Woolworth's house brand eggs are now cage-free, and by mid-2013 all of their pork will come from farmers who operate stall-free farms. Controversies and criticisms Advocates of factory farming claim that factory farming has led to the betterment of housing, nutrition, and disease control over the last twenty years, while opponents claim that it", "-25.056072292034514" ], [ "expected external and seam fat the animal will contain. These two factors contribute to the greatest waste in an animal and best way to reduce economic loss. Fat thickness EPDs can help producers reduce this loss, by using animals with mid range EPDs, so as not to have too little or too much fat.\nMarbling EPDs are also important in the beef industry for predicting palatability in a beef carcass. They show the estimated USDA Quality grading System and marbling score an animal would receive if it were slaughtered. This EDP is different in that it is measured in units of", "-25.05357037106296" ], [ "its production to meet the demand.\nIn 2012, after a series of ABC News reports, concern amongst the public led McDonald's, Burger King, Taco Bell, Wal-Mart, Safeway, and several other grocery stores to abandon the product. Company officials suspended production at three of its four plants. The United States Department of Agriculture issued a statement supporting the product's safety, and the company launched a public relations offensive with the help of governors Rick Perry, Terry Branstad, and Sam Brownback, who joined ABC News on a tour of the remaining plant.\nBeef Products Inc. closed its facilities in Amarillo, Texas; Garden City, Kansas;", "-25.031102716224268" ], [ "as they contained meat. Ross Young's conducted an investigation into possible external tampering. While the Hull factory also produced Ross Young's steak and kidney pies, the products were never produced together. McCartney's continued endorsement of the range was given on the condition of intensive investigations and Ross Young's guarantees. Burger recalls (1995–1996) In October 1995, the beefless burgers were recalled after containing more fat than advertised. This occurred after the Food Commission survey, ITV's current affairs programme (The Big Story) noted their 20 - 23 percent fat content through independent laboratory testing. This contrasted with the packaging's claim of 11.2", "-24.97842644836419" ], [ "to feed, water and protection from relevant environmental conditions. One obvious issue for humanely housing cattle is temperature extremes. Heat stress can decrease fertility and milk production in cattle. Providing shade is a very common method for reducing heat stress. Barns may also incorporate fans or tunnel ventilation into the architecture of the barn structure. Overly cold conditions, while rarely deadly for cattle, cause increases in maintenance energy requirements and thus increased feed intake and decreased milk production. During the winter months, where temperatures are low enough, dairy cattle are often kept inside barns which are warmed by their collective", "-24.961845228710445" ], [ "of a wide range of industrial and consumer goods such as livestock feed and pet food, soaps, pharmaceuticals, lubricants, plastics, personal care products, and even crayons.”\nAlthough some authors have found health problems associated with the consumption of 4D meat by certain species in its raw form, or found it potentially hazardous, FDA considers it fit for animal consumption:\n\"Pet food consisting of material from diseased animals or animals which have died otherwise than by slaughter, which is in violation of 402(a)(5) will not ordinarily be actionable, if it is not otherwise in violation of the law. It will be considered fit", "-24.954908630345017" ], [ "traditional farming because it appears to contribute to overproduction that drives down prices. Through \"forward contracts\" and \"marketing agreements\", meatpackers are able to set the price of livestock long before they are ready for production. These strategies often cause farmers to lose money, as half of all U.S. family farming operations did in 2007.\nIn 1967, there were one million pig farms in America; as of 2002, there were 114,000.\nMany of the nation's livestock producers would like to market livestock directly to consumers but with limited USDA inspected slaughter facilities, livestock grown locally can not typically be slaughtered and processed locally.", "-24.931901956617367" ], [ "Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry swiftly overturned the decision and placed a 'two year stop' on all fresh and chilled beef products destined for Australia from BSE known countries of origin, thereby relaxing fears held by Australians that contaminated US beef would find its way onto Australian supermarket shelves after a long absence.\nSoybean meal is cheap and plentiful in the United States. As a result, the use of animal byproduct feeds was never common, as it was in Europe. However, U.S. regulations only partially prohibit the use of animal byproducts in feed. In 1997, regulations prohibited the feeding of mammalian byproducts", "-24.926701415213756" ], [ "first used in 2002 by a Food Safety Inspection Service worker.\nIn 2002, it patented a process that turns materials that had previously gone for pet food or oil into products for human consumption. In this process, beef trimmings are warmed, put through a centrifuge to remove fat, then treated with ammonia to increase pH and kill bacteria.\nThe product is found as a lean meat source which has been added to ground beef, constituting up to 25 percent of the final product. This process is approved by the U.S. Department of Agriculture and Food and Drug Administration.\nCarol Tucker Foreman, director of", "-24.917466285825867" ], [ "meat. This is why, for example, it is typically safe for humans to consume steak that is cooked \"rare\" in such a way that the interior of the cut remains red in colour - the searing of the exterior of the meat is enough to kill any bacteria on the surface. However, when meat is ground, bacterial contamination from the surface can be distributed throughout the meat. If ground beef is not well cooked all the way through, there is a significant chance that enough pathogenic bacteria will survive to cause illness. Moreover, the warming will speed the reproduction of", "-24.917258034984116" ], [ "several weeks if kept in a reusable plastic container. To maximize preservation if canning, the fat should top the meat by at least one inch. The cooking fat acts as both a seal and preservative and results in a very rich taste. Skipping the salt curing stage greatly reduces the shelf life of the confit.\nConfit is also sold in cans, which can be kept for several years. The flavourful fat from the confit may also be used in many other ways, as a frying medium for sautéed vegetables (e.g., green beans and garlic, wild or cultivated mushrooms), savory toasts, scrambled", "-24.851492418092676" ], [ "Australia markets its fat-injected beef product under the brand name Meltique, though its halal products use canola oil instead of fat, due to concerns about cross-contamination with pork tallow.\nThe United States Department of Agriculture requires that when fats and oils are added to red meat products such as roast beef and steaks, the product indicate this prominently, for example as part of the product name or as a product name qualifier. Additionally, products that appear to be of a higher quality as a result of fat injections must include a statement to indicate this, such as \"injected with beef fat\",", "-24.785501618287526" ], [ "important criterion, and for this typical dish's beef it is recommended to use no more than one day after defrosting, and traditionally should not be aged more than one day after slaughtering. Regular Korean yukhoe customers are often patrons of trusted restaurants or butcher's shops which have well-known, high-quality beef distributors.\nSince 2004, the Korean Government has run the Beef Traceability System. This system requires ID numbers with the age of the beef animal of origin, supplier, distributor, the beef's grade, and butchering date and originating butchery. Most of the good beef restaurants in Korea list their beef's information on the", "-24.782687648170395" ], [ "in beef, but a spokesperson from Beef Products Inc. at the time said there was no need for any additional labeling, asking \"What should we label it? It's 100 percent beef, what do you want us to label it? I'm not prepared to say it's anything other than beef, because it's 100 percent beef\".\nOther consumer advocacy groups, notably the National Consumers League, expressed dismay at the popular reaction against the product, and especially the plant closures \"because of business the company has lost to very serious misinformation, widely disseminated by the media, about its product, lean finely textured beef (LFTB)\".", "-24.747274028835818" ], [ "per cent from December to January. Alberta's economy continued to shrink because of the collapse of the oil and gas sector. The petroleum and coal product manufacturing industry is now third— behind food and chemicals. Biotechnology Several companies and services in the biotech sector are clustered around the University of Alberta, for example ColdFX. Food processing Owing to the strength of agriculture, food processing was once a major part of the economies of Edmonton and Calgary, but this sector has increasingly moved to smaller centres such as Brooks, the home of XL Foods, responsible for one third of Canada's beef", "-24.692843499724404" ], [ "and can be cut off in the desired amount for cooking. Using either of these techniques, the herbs should be used within a year. Meat Unpreserved meat has only a relatively short life in storage. Perishable meats should be refrigerated, frozen, dried promptly or cured. Storage of fresh meats is a complex discipline that affects the costs, storage life and eating quality of the meat, and the appropriate techniques vary with the kind of meat and the particular requirements. For example, dry ageing techniques are sometimes used to tenderize gourmet meats by hanging them in carefully controlled environments for up", "-24.662813755334355" ], [ "into food for non-ruminant animals. The carcass itself was allowed to continue on for further processing into human food at other facilities. On 23 December 2003 when tests proved positive for BSE, a recall was made. The contaminated meat had not entered the commercial market. Offspring of the cow were destroyed. South Korea, Japan, Singapore, Malaysia and Taiwan banned imports of US beef.\nThe head of the US FDA at the time was Ann M. Veneman, a former lobbyist for the food industry.\nJapan is allowed \"imports of beef and beef products aged 20 months or younger\" as a \"'scientifically sound and", "-24.58230051177088" ], [ "the animal from exercising, as this was thought to make the meat turn redder and tougher. Modern veal production facilities as utilized in the US allow sufficient room for the calf to lie down, stand, stretch, and groom themselves. All milk fed veal calves are raised in group pens after 10 weeks of age in the US. Abnormal gut development Some systems of veal production rear calves that are denied access to any solid feed and are fed a liquid milk replacer. They may also be deprived of bedding to prevent them from eating it. This dietary", "-24.53565455894568" ], [ "deep frying results in the loss of nutritional value in deep-fried foods.\nCooking oil that has been used for too long may in addition cause blood pressure elevation and vascular hypertrophy.\nTrans fats are used in shortenings for deep-frying in restaurants, as they can be used for longer than most conventional oils before becoming rancid. In the early 21st century, non-hydrogenated vegetable oils that have lifespans exceeding that of the frying shortenings became available. As fast-food chains routinely use different fats in different locations, trans fat levels in fast food can have large variations.\nSome studies have found that deep frying in olive", "-24.52636113409244" ], [ "comparable cuts of beef. However, like beef, leaner cuts can be tougher as well. Venison burgers are typically so lean as to require the addition of fat in the form of bacon, beef, olive oil, or cheese, to achieve parity with hamburger cooking time, texture, and taste. Organ meats (offal) of deer can also be eaten. Traditionally, they are called umbles (originally the Middle English noumbles). This is supposedly the origins of the phrase \"humble pie\", meaning a pie made from the organs of the deer.\nVenison is widely considered by modern nutritionists to be a very healthful meat for human", "-24.518343086412642" ], [ "to limit bacterial growth during the critical period where the meat is not yet dry. To accomplish drying quickly without the use of high temperature, which would cook the meat, the meat must be sliced or pressed thin.\nIn industrial settings, large low-temperature drying ovens with many heater elements and fans make use of exhaust ports to remove the moisture-laden air. The combination of fast-moving air and low heat dries the meat to the desired moisture content within a few hours. The raw, marinated jerky strips are placed on racks of nylon-coated metal screens which have been sprayed with a light", "-24.488000423880294" ], [ "cattle are a source of lean beef, which is lower in fat, cholesterol and calories, but less tender than most beef. The miniature version could potentially be used for beef production, with lower feed demands, but higher processing costs. Currently, however, they have not been bred for meat production.", "-24.460601165308617" ], [ "not true of cattle, and smoked or salted beef was not popular in any case.\nAfter obtaining the slaughtered steer, the meat would be distributed among the members of the cooperative, providing them with a steak, a roast, and a boiling joint each week. By slaughtering each animal in sequence, the cooperative ensured that all members received fresh meat throughout the summer. Distributions were weighed, so that each member received a fair share of the meat.\nBeef rings died out for several reasons, including technological advances in refrigeration, greater economic prosperity for farmers, greater independence, and the ability of farmers to buy", "-24.46029134694254" ], [ "of beef which is shameful for us. The government should ban export of beef and we must protect cows by all means. Some political leaders opposed the law banning cow slaughter just to appease Muslims and other minority groups. Providing beef in the name of cheap source of protein to minority and depriving the majority from milk is against both the democratic and Indian values. Milk is a rich source of protein, and to ensure availability of milk it is essential to put a blanket ban on cow slaughter across the country.\"\nHe said in February 2016 that the RSS claimed", "-24.419980910490267" ], [ "the price of beef to all-time highs in June 2014, according to the Bureau of Labor Statistics. Additionally, increasing competition from McDonald's, Wendy's and other chains in the fast food industry drove Burger King to boost sales by introducing new products along similar lines. Two major competitors had been revamping their menus with products such as variations on the McDouble from McDonald's and sandwiches based on pretzel-style buns from Wendy's.\nThe third reason the product was brought back was because of a new approach the company was taking regarding LTO products; instead of putting out large numbers of products that may", "-24.40776943275705" ], [ "beef, pork, and lamb, \"Fearless Franks\" hot dogs (beef or pork, cured and uncured), pastrami, corned beef brisket (uncooked), ham, bacon, guanciale, pancetta, salame, stew meat and bones, and pig feet. \"Uncured\" processed meat is preserved with a similar process involving celery juice, a natural source of nitrites. Partner farms Niman Ranch claims that their livestock are \"humanely raised according to the strictest animal handling protocols.\" The company sold Niman's original cattle feedlot in 2008 because it was not financially viable. The company works closely with over 750 family farmers and ranchers across the country. Each must agree", "-24.395375173306093" ], [ "(artificial insemination, dehorning, ear tagging, nose ringing, restraint, tail docking) done to them, exposure to extreme heat and cold during transport to slaughterhouses (which can also legally occur without food or water), pre-slaughter starvation to reduce fecal matter contamination, and killing in slaughterhouses. Environmental impact The Canadian dairy industry is responsible for 20% of total green house gas (GHG) emissions generated in Canada by livestock agriculture, which is made up of the dairy, poultry, swine and beef industry. 90% of the GHG emissions caused by Canadian dairy farming occurs as a result of events on the farm, whereas only 10%", "-24.394105982180918" ], [ "additive. Kroger Co. and Supervalu Inc. have stopped using the additive.\nCargill started using a label stating \"Contains Finely Textured Beef\" from 2014. Production of finely textured beef increased modestly, as beef prices rose by 27% over two years in 2014 and \"retailers [sought] cheaper trimmings to include in hamburger meat and processors find new products to put it in\". Senior management of Cargill claimed almost full recovery as sales tripled. BPI regained 40 customers that are mostly processors and patty-makers who distribute to retailers and the USDA since March 2012. It does not label its product. Regulation In the US,", "-24.374222372774966" ], [ "reestablishment. Stunning methods can play a large role in meat quality. Current research suggests that a two phase gas chamber may be best for minimizing stress. During summer time or in hot countries, the truck design should be taken into consideration, and passive ventilation and water shower before leaving the farm can have a positive effect and reduce the occurrence of PSE by up to 66.3%, which can be done by costless modifications. Abbatoir chilling conditions Quickly chilling pork and poultry meat, in order to bring the muscle temperature down to an acceptable level, will reduce myofibril glycolysis and stop", "-24.367384320459678" ], [ "restaurants; company officials cited animal welfare problems at one of the suppliers, found during a regular audit, as the reason. Subsequently, a false rumor spread online claiming it was done to appease Muslims who consider pork to be unclean, leading to some protests on social media. The company still uses antibiotic-free and hormone-free steak in its restaurants, despite being briefly forced to \"serve beef that is not naturally raised\" during the summer of 2013, posting an in-store notice each time that occurred. Roberto Ferdman of The Washington Post opined that Chipotle's stated mission to sell \"food with integrity\" may be", "-24.332196947420016" ], [ "and enforce regulations, if deemed necessary, to provide for their humane treatment.\nDifferent jurisdictions have different rules about what can be done with a downer cow. In some jurisdictions the cow may be slaughtered without question. In others, downer cattle may not be slaughtered even if the cause is a physical injury. In the United States, meat inspection is usually an interstate commerce issue, and is regulated by the Federal Meat Inspection Act. Now all livestock auction barns are not allowed to take sick or downer cows because of the rulings that originated with the BSE \"mad cow\" crisis. Canada In", "-24.326866862596944" ], [ "have indicated that beef contained no \"pink slime\". Per BPI, the finished product is 94% to 97% lean beef (with a fat content of 3% to 6%) has a nutritional value comparable to 90% lean ground beef, is very high in protein, low in fat, and contains iron, zinc and B vitamins. U.S. beef that contains up to 15% of the product can be labeled as \"ground beef\". Up to 2005, filler could make up to 25% of ground meat. In an Associated Press review, food editor and cookbook author J.M. Hirsh compared the taste of two burgers: one supposedly", "-24.297961114207283" ], [ "mercury poisoning. The long latency period before developing symptoms and cattle's greater tolerance of mercury poisoning also contributed to the mistaken impression the surplus seed grain was safe to eat.\nIn October 2007, Cargill announced the recall of nearly 850,000 frozen beef patties produced at its packing plant in Butler, Wisconsin that were suspected of being contaminated with E. coli. The beef was sold mainly at Walmart and Sam's Club stores.\nIn March 2009, the Australian Quarantine and Inspection Service (AQIS) temporarily suspended Cargill Australia's license to export meat to Japan and the US after E. coli was detected in Cargill's export", "-24.296029246295802" ], [ "to brown a pack of fresh mince? And if this is about time-saving, why on earth would you want to go round three supermarkets to buy the ingredients? It is slightly mad.\nA variety of comments from the public were collected from the BBC website, including one person asking \"Just how time-poor is her new audience supposed to be to have to resort to muck that belongs in a chav's larder?\" Also, nutritionists criticised the levels of salt in some of the recipes, but agreed that tinned meat contains similar levels of protein to fresh versions and also keep the original", "-24.243062001478393" ], [ "22, 2007, all 11 locations were shut down for a day do to a possible E. coli contamination as their supplier, Abbott's Meat, had recalled a number of meat products and received meat from a temporary supplier. Due to the new student housing and 24-hour food service, Sodexo, that goes along the housing, the University Center location closed April 21, 2008. Dortch Enterprises ownership An initial attempt to sell the chain to key employees fell through after issues with the bank. As his son was uninterested in 2010, the Thomas family sold the nine location chain to Dortch Enterprises, which", "-24.219304738537176" ], [ "in plastic packages and cups for fresh premium markets, or placed in large plastic tubs for sauce and soup processors. Fruits and vegetables are usually refrigerated at the earliest possible moment, and even so have a shelf life of two weeks or less.\nIn the United States, livestock is usually transported live, slaughtered at a major distribution point, hung and transported for two days to a week in refrigerated rail cars, and then butchered and sold locally. Before refrigerated rail cars, meat had to be transported live, and this placed its cost so high that only farmers and the", "-24.203310508280993" ], [ "months. Newborn calves are separated from their mothers quickly, usually within three days, as the mother/calf bond intensifies over time and delayed separation can cause extreme stress on both cow and calf.\nDomestic cows can live to 20 years; however, those raised for dairy rarely live that long, as the average cow is removed from the dairy herd around age six and marketed for beef. In 2014, approximately 9.5% of the cattle slaughtered in the U.S. were culled dairy cows: cows that can no longer be seen as an economic asset to the dairy farm. These animals may be sold", "-24.19598596706055" ], [ "has worked with animal welfare expert, Dr. Temple Grandin, since the mid-1990s to help ensure animals in the supply chain are properly cared for. McDonald's is currently in discussion with its pork suppliers to explore ways to phase out gestation stalls for pigs and is working with producers and suppliers to develop traceability systems to prove that the meat it buys is not from farms that use gestation stalls.\nMcDonald’s became a member of the Global Roundtable for Sustainable Beef (GRSB) in 2012. The group is working to advance the sustainable production of beef through the commitment of stakeholders in the", "-24.186731704277918" ], [ "and Canada) use sow stalls, but some nations (e.g. the UK) and US States such as Florida and Arizona) have banned them.\nIntensive piggeries are generally large warehouse-like buildings. Indoor pig systems allow the pig's condition to be monitored, ensuring minimum fatalities and increased productivity. Buildings are ventilated and their temperature regulated. Most domestic pig varieties are susceptible to heat stress, and all pigs lack sweat glands and cannot cool themselves. Pigs have a limited tolerance to high temperatures and heat stress can lead to death. Maintaining a more specific temperature within the pig-tolerance range also maximizes growth and growth to", "-24.17868761360296" ], [ "between processed meat consumption and mortality, due to cardiovascular diseases and cancer. Similarly, a prospective study in United States following half a million people concluded a similar association with death and increased processed meat consumption. The World Cancer Research Fund International guidelines on cancer prevention recommend avoiding all processed meats. Safety The US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention advises that those over 50 reheat lunch meats to \"steaming hot\" 165 °F (74 °C) and use them within four days.", "-24.16617415403016" ], [ "in November 2018. Furthermore, three more new locations in the Kansas City area are expected to open in 2019. Sandwiches Lion's Choice specializes in roast beef sandwiches. The beef is cooked medium (though customers may order well-done or rare), sliced thin, and seasoned. The beef is then put on a buttered and toasted bun, with cheese added if requested by the customer. The company describes the meat as \"roasted beef\" because of the amount of time the meat is prepared. The roast beef sandwich comes in three sizes: Original, Large (50% more beef than Original on a steak bun) and", "-24.160016808309592" ], [ "a ready market for beef. By the end of the decade there was an oversupply. Following the drought of 1884-1886 cattle were driven overland to southern markets, but droving costs led to a huge reduction in profitability. There was a need to establish a processing industry in north Queensland to supply meat for an export market. Frozen meat proved to be the solution.\nAustralian experimentation with meat-freezing works and the fitting out of refrigerated ships to carry frozen meat to Britain was initiated in Sydney and Melbourne, with mixed results. Refinements in processing and shipping led to a successful shipment in", "-24.137026854150463" ], [ "the repairs in question in order that it might continue to operate its plant. Not only was there danger of fire from the oil and fumes, but the presence of the oil led the Federal meat inspectors to declare the basement an unsuitable place for the purpose for which it had been used for a quarter of a century. The expenditure served only to permit petitioner to continue the use of the plant, and particularly the basement, for its normal operations.\nDeductible Expense vs. Capital Improvement\nThe IRS, courts, and taxpayers have historically found it difficult to draw a discernible line between", "-24.134540339931846" ], [ "to 21 days, while game animals of various kinds may be hung after shooting. Details depend on personal tastes and local traditions. Modern techniques of preparing meat for storage vary with the type of meat and special requirements of tenderness, flavour, hygiene, and economy.\nSemi-dried meats like salamis and country style hams are processed first with salt, smoke, sugar, acid, or other \"cures\" then hung in cool dry storage for extended periods, sometimes exceeding a year. Some of the materials added during the curing of meats serve to reduce the risks of food poisoning from anaerobic bacteria such as species of", "-24.125583994202316" ], [ "is a beef product that is often eaten raw in the Middle East and Mediterranean countries. It is made from the hindquarter of beef cattle. Pastirma is a type of intermediate moisture food and can be stored for several months in humid climates. The meat is salted and dried to reduce water activity and increase microbial safety. Additionally, nitrites are added for preservation. The final product has 5% salt and a moisture content between 30-35%. Pet food Semi-moist pet food such as chewy dog treats and soft cat treats are shelf-stable, soft and do not have a high moisture content.", "-24.09358172956854" ], [ "Organic beef Organic vs. Natural With the arrival of the organic label, many assumed that the terms “organic” and “natural” were interchangeable, failing to understand the strict regulations required to raise certified organic beef. The USDA defines “natural” beef as minimally-processed beef without additives. Natural beef producers may choose not to use antibiotics or growth-promoting hormones, but there is no third-party verification system required by the USDA. Beef from feedlots can be labeled natural, according to the USDA’s definition.\nThe U.S. Department of Agriculture allows any fresh meat to be described as \"natural\" if it includes no artificial flavoring, coloring, preservative", "-24.082727808854543" ], [ "of depriving bacteria of suitable conditions in which to thrive. All of these approaches can all extend a food's shelf life without unacceptably changing its taste or texture.\nFor some foods alternative ingredients can be used. Common oils and fats become rancid relatively quickly if not refrigerated; replacing them with hydrogenated oils delays the onset of rancidity, increasing shelf life. This is a common approach in industrial food production, but recent concerns about health hazards associated with trans fats have led to their strict control in several jurisdictions. Even where trans fats are not prohibited, in many places there are new", "-24.08116486873587" ], [ "a worldwide ban on British beef exports and by April 1996 the British government responded with a plan to slaughter all cattle over the age of 30 months. In 2000 there seemed to be no more cases in humans.\nThis BSE or mad cow disease outbreak was blamed for collapse of Spillers sales of stock food because so many cattle had been slaughtered. For Dalgety an EU ban on export of beef products was the most expensive result and there was also a contamination scare in their Dutch pet food factory. Dealing with BSE distracted managers so that Quaker Oats", "-24.058289197389968" ], [ "in 1981. Sales were mediocre, however, and it was removed in 1985 as McDonald's executives determined that pork is not eaten frequently enough in the United States to stay on the menu. \nAfter several years, it returned for a promotion. It is more popular in Germany and Luxembourg, where it remains a permanent item. McRib was also brought back occasionally in 1989, 1990 (together with the \"BBQ in a Bag\" promotion), 1991, 1992 (with the Western Omelette McMuffin as part of a Western promotion), and 1993.\nIn summer 1994, McDonald's brought back McRib nationally, as a tie in with the theatrical", "-24.03883414401207" ], [ "has passed its shelf life might still be safe, but quality is no longer guaranteed. In most food stores, waste is minimized by using stock rotation, which involves moving products with the earliest sell by date from the warehouse to the sales area, and then to the front of the shelf, so that most shoppers will pick them up first and thus they are likely to be sold before the end of their shelf life. This is important, as consumers enjoy fresher goods, and furthermore some stores can be fined for selling out of date products; most if not all", "-24.022560653975233" ], [ "the carcass broken down into smaller (but still unfinished) pieces to make them easier to handle. Working conditions Retail meat cutters traditionally work indoors, in large, refrigerated rooms, with temperatures ranging between 2 and –4 degrees Celsius. These environments are kept sanitary, and are washed every day with powerful antibacterial cleaners. In larger retail outlets or plant-facilities, working environments are generally equipped with power tools such as band saws and circular slicers. Meat cutters are also generally required to be in good physical shape; the duties of a meat cutter include standing for long periods of time, regularly lifting over", "-24.01982669637073" ], [ "It has traditionally been considered less problematic to eat dairy products before meat, on the assumption that dairy products leave neither fatty residue in the throat, nor fragments between the teeth. Many 20th century Orthodox rabbis say that washing the mouth out between eating dairy and meat is sufficient. Some argue that there should also be recitation of a closing blessing before the meat is eaten, and others view this as unnecessary. Ashkenazi Jews following kabbalistic traditions, based on the Zohar, additionally ensure that about half an hour passes after consuming dairy produce before eating meat.\nSome rabbis of the Middle", "-24.006447713123634" ], [ "applied and enforced by USDA in meat and poultry plants. For a number of years, poultry producers have been permitted to either rinse off or cut away such contamination, but beef producers have only been permitted to trim it with a knife—which they argue costs them money in lost product weight and imposes a requirement that poultry producers do not have to meet. The policy jargon for this debate is \"wash versus trim\". USDA early in 1997 clarified its zero tolerance rule for poultry; a year earlier it gave beef plants permission to use a new high-temperature vacuuming method to", "-23.998301905754488" ], [ "Advanced meat recovery Regulation in the United States In the United States, USDA regulations stipulate that AMR machinery cannot grind, crush, or pulverize bones to remove edible meat tissue, and bones must emerge intact. The meat produced in this manner can contain no more than 150(±30) milligrams of calcium per 200 grams product, as calcium in such high concentrations in the product would be indicative of bone being mixed with the meat. Products that exceed the calcium content limit must instead be labeled \"mechanically separated beef or pork\" in the ingredients statement.\nIn 1994, the Food Safety and Inspection Service (FSIS)", "-23.988736940082163" ], [ "breakfast. U.S. standards of identity (for packaged product) United States Department of Agriculture standards for processed, packaged \"Salisbury steak\" require a minimum content of 65% meat, of which up to 25% can be pork, except if de-fatted beef or pork is used, the limit is 12% combined. No more than 30% may be fat. Meat byproducts are not permitted; however, beef heart meat is allowed. Extender (bread crumbs, flour, oat flakes, etc.) content is limited to 12%, except isolated soy protein at 6.8% is considered equivalent to 12% of the others. The remainder consists of seasonings, fungi or vegetables", "-23.97306718234904" ], [ "for all ground beef products\". On April 3, 2012, U.S. cattle futures on the Chicago Mercantile Exchange were at a 3.5-month low, which was partially attributed to the \"pink slime\" controversy. Livestock traders stated that: \"It has put a dent in demand. It is bullish for live cattle over the long-term, but short-term it is certainly negative\". Government response Following the suspension of operations at three out of four BPI plants, members of the media and leaders were invited by Iowa Governor Terry Branstad to tour the BPI facility that remained open in South Sioux City, Nebraska. The founders of", "-23.958122245327104" ], [ "inspections throughout the network of ICA stores.\nAfter the food safety irregularities were revealed, sales of ground meat fell by up to 50% at some ICA stores. At the same time, a survey showed that 50% of the consumers have no trust in the food safety in the retail market.", "-23.938525593141094" ] ]

[ "Your body does have internal regulation mechanisms, I'm not a doctor and there are plenty who are who can talk more intelligently about the circadian rhythm of the body etc. The other component is psychological. What's happening is an example of confirmation bias. You've woken up a few times almost on the clock (relative to the total number of days you've ever slept in your life). Though this number is astronomical low, you only remember the times you did wake up on the minute. You bias yourself to count those times and subconsciously ignore the other times and thus you feel as though you have an ability to wake up on time. This also happens when people think that they can catch when people are looking at them. You sometimes do and sometimes don't, but the times you don't are not out of the ordinary so you forget them. Thus you only remember catching them and get a false sense of confirmation.", "Do you have a set schedule, like you wake up at the same time every day?", "I think it's pretty funny the top response is essentially saying you aren't experiencing the very subject of your query. It could be a variety of things, because your brain isn't completely 'off' just because you're asleep. We have a sense of time in addition to the five main senses, and it would be more beneficial to complete your current sleep cycle instead of being jarred awake by the alarm. When following a regular schedule this also occurs more often, especially if you're reaction to the alarm is frequently described as a deep hatred. Waking up at 6am every day, I experienced the same situation of getting up immediately before back when my alarm was ridiculously annoying. It felt a lot better pre-emptively shutting it off than having it interrupt my restful slumber.", "I will posit that in light sleep you are aware of what is going on around you (e.g. if baby cries you will wake up) However you are constantly forgetting what you are sensing within seconds, so that when you wake you have no memories of the sleep. However if you are awoken by the alarm, you will have a memory of the seconds before the alarm, as the awakening stops the forgetting process, and so you feel you are already awake before the alarm (even though you are not) I hope this makes some sort of sense", "I can tell myself to wake up at a certain time and I will wake up at that time. I think \"Wake up at six\" when I lay down and I will wake up at six. Might be along those lines for you also.", "May somebody stop saying \"our bodies have an inbuilt clock\" and rather give a bit more precise argument or answer on the issue. Please.", "Coincidence mixed with how long a sleep cycle is. A sleep cycle is roughly 70-90 minutes. At the end of each sleep cycle it's much easier to wake up. It's often why you feel so alert after waking up from a dream, dreams take place in the 1st stage REM and 4th stage rem (the first and last stages of a sleep cycle). Example Time: Ok so you go to bed at 10 and have an alarm set at 7. I'll call the 20 min leeway at the end of sleep cycles the Wakeup Zone (WZ). This is where your body is doing all sorts of fun stuff with histamine to regulate your sleep pattern and also where you're most likely to wakeup because its at the tail end of a sleep cycle. (Fun fact: OTA sleep drugs are just high doses of allergy meds (anti-histamines) to prevent you from waking up more often through the night.) Cycle 1. 10:00 - 11:30pm (11:10pm - 11:30pm WZ) Cycle 2. 11:30 - 1:00pm (12:40am - 1:00am WZ) Cycle 3. 1:00am - 2:30am (2:10am - 2:30am WZ) Cycle 4. 2:30am - 4:00am (3:40am - 4:00am WZ) Cycle 5. 4:00am - 5:30am (5:10am - 5:30am WZ) Cycle 6. 5:30am - 7:00am (6:40am - 7:00am WZ) Chances are you aren't really fully rested during cycles 1-4 so the likelihood of spontaneously waking up in the WZ is lower. Between 5-6 however, chances are much greater. Couple that with coincidence and you have the anomaly you describe. You only notice the time because you have an alarm set for it. In that last sleep cycle you're odds of waking up 1 minute before the alarm is 1/20. Note: This is heavily simplified, WZ is not a scientific term an its a bit more complicated than this. But at a high-level its pretty close. Source: Engineer that worked on devices/algorithms that use EEG measure activity in your brain during these periods.", "The cerebellum actually contains mechanisms for rather precise timing, and several systems allow the circadian rhythm to be maintained. For example, some optic nerves route directly to the limbic system rather than the visual cortex. So background light levels can trigger wake-up. This is part of the reason why you might wake up the same time every sunny day but later on overcast days. Similar conditioning can occur with temperature, auditory input, etc. The other answers are surprising in how much they have no fucking clue what they're talking about. It's amazing.", "Because that's the one time you remember. It's a bias - there are plenty of times when you're sort-of, almost half-awake, but you forget about those because you go back to deeper sleep. But when that happens right before your alarm goes off, you get fully woken up by the alarm. And then, you remember \"waking up\" right before the alarm. This gets more likely the more regular your schedule is.", "I wake up several times every night, look at my clock, then go back to bed. I usually wake up a few minutes before my alarm goes off but it's bound to happen because of how often I wake up anyway. I can't imagine going to bed and not waking up until my alarm goes off. Maybe you wake up a lot and only remember the last time?", "Just today I had my alarm set for 8:00. Woke up scared that my alarm didn't go off or that I had slept through it. Since I had to be somewhere. Looked at phone. 7:59" ]

[ [ "awake time in the first ninety-minute sleep cycle, 8% in the second, 10% in the third, 12% in the fourth, and 13–14% in the fifth. Most of this awake time occurred shortly after REM sleep.\nToday, many humans wake up with an alarm clock; however, people can also reliably wake themselves up at a specific time with no need for an alarm. Many sleep quite differently on workdays versus days off, a pattern which can lead to chronic circadian desynchronization. Many people regularly look at television and other screens before going to bed, a factor which may exacerbate disruption of the", "-32.53114542126423" ], [ "clock if it has been used for a period of time, making it less effective. Due to progressive alarm clocks' complex waking procedure, they can deter this adaptation due to the body needing to adapt to more stimuli than just a simple sound alert. Alarm signals for impaired hearing The deaf and hard of hearing are often unable to perceive auditory alarms when asleep. They may use specialized alarms, including alarms with flashing lights instead of or in addition to noise. Alarms which can connect to vibrating devices (small ones inserted into pillows, or larger ones placed under bedposts to", "-30.891082440713944" ], [ "a screen), corresponding with decreased activity in arousal-related brain regions over time (thalamus, midbrain, and the posterior cingulate cortex).\nAnother study examined the activation patterns of 5 people who woke up from microsleeps in a simulated driving experiment. It was found that upon awakening the visual area, frontal cortex, limbic lobe were activated (in the intense activation phase) and the frontal cortex, temporal cortex, primary motor area, and insula were activated (in the post abrupt awakening phase). Therefore, the study concluded that decision-making was not activated immediately upon waking up from a MS episode, likely increasing risk of injury in intense", "-29.7835103594698" ], [ "choice. Additionally, it is possible for people to make precommitment action. A precommitment action is an action meant to lead to a self-controlled action at a later period in time. When a person sets an alarm clock, they are making a precommitted response to wake up early in the morning. Hence, that person is more likely to exercise the self-controlled decision to wake up, rather than to fall back in bed for a little more sleep.\nCassandra B. Whyte studied locus of control and academic performance and determined that internals tend to achieve at a higher level.", "-28.084651866098284" ], [ "about 12 hours apart—for example, at 2:00 a.m. and 2:00 p.m. At those two times, the body clock is activated. At about 2 p.m. (14:00), it overrides the homeostatic buildup of sleep debt, allowing several more hours of wakefulness. At about 2 a.m. (02:00), with the daily sleep debt paid off, it is activated again to ensure a few more hours of sleep. Genetics It is hypothesized that a considerable amount of sleep-related behavior, such as when and how long a person needs to sleep, is regulated by genetics. Researchers have discovered some evidence that seems to support this assumption. Monozygotic (identical)", "-27.943801940135018" ], [ "for wakefulness.\nUntil the 1940s, some scientists felt like wakefulness simply required an adequate level of sensory input rather than a specific process inside the brain. In a 1949 experiment with a cat, Moruzzi and Magoun proved that stimulation of a certain brain region (near the intersection of the pons and midbrain) created a state of alertness. This stimulated area of the brain became known as the reticular activating system or reticular formation. In their experiments, Moruzzi and Magoun also transected the cat's reticular formation without disrupting any of the sensory nerves; the cat was rendered comatose. The experiment shifted science's", "-27.696623606345383" ], [ "involving the first and second cranial nerves (serving sight and smell) which are not tested when diagnosing brainstem death but which were described in cats in 1935 and 1938. In humans, light flashes have been observed to disturb the sleep-like EEG activity persisting after the loss of all brainstem reflexes and of spontaneous respiration.\nThere is also concern about the permanence of consciousness loss, based on studies in cats, dogs and monkeys which recovered consciousness days or weeks after being rendered comatose by brainstem ablation and on human studies of brainstem stroke syndrome raising thoughts about the \"plasticity\" of the nervous", "-27.175484056700952" ], [ "wakefulness, and sometimes occurs between periods of deeper sleep and periods of REM. The muscles are active, and the eyes roll slowly, opening and closing moderately. The brain transitions from alpha waves having a frequency of 8–13 Hz (common in the awake state) to theta waves having a frequency of 4–7 Hz. Sudden twitches and hypnic jerks, also known as positive myoclonus, may be associated with the onset of sleep during N1. Some people may also experience hypnagogic hallucinations during this stage. During Non-REM1, humans lose some muscle tone and most conscious awareness of the external environment. NREM 2 NREM Stage 2", "-27.060407189565012" ], [ "refers to the human 24-hour cycle of sleep and wakefulness. This cycle is driven by light. The human body must photoentrain or synchronize itself with light in order to make this happen. The rod cells are the photoreceptor cells in the retina capable of sensing light. However, they are not what sets the biological clock. The photosensitive retinal ganglion cells contain a pigment called melanopsin. This photopigment is depolarized in the presence of light, unlike the rods which are hyperpolarized. Melanopsin encodes the day-night cycle to the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) via the retinohypothalamic tract. The SCN evokes a response from", "-26.926581152016297" ], [ "sorted by time of day, by category (after waking up, before exercise, etc.), and also see visualizations of their pulse waveforms Sleep Time Azumio released a smart alarm clock and sleep analysis tool, Sleep Time, on March 28, 2012. By using the accelerometer in mobile phones, the application uses movement-analysis algorithms to measure the user's level of body movement and correlates that with a specific phase of the sleep cycle (Light sleep and Deep sleep). Recognizing when a user is in a light phase of sleep, Sleep Time alarms incrementally over a set time period to allow for a gradual", "-26.72382278763689" ], [ "reached.\nThe majority of sleep neurons are located in the ventrolateral preoptic area (vlPOA). These sleep neurons are silent until an individual shows a transition from waking to sleep. The sleep neurons in the preoptic area receive inhibitory inputs from some of the same regions they inhibit, including the tubermammillary nucleus, raphe nuclei, and locus coeruleus. Thus, they are inhibited by histamine, serotonin, and norepinepherine. This mutual inhibition may provide the basis for establishing periods of sleep and waking. A reciprocal inhibition also characterizes an electronic circuit known as the flip-flop. A flip-flop can assume one", "-26.662269361375365" ], [ "relay center from the sensory neurons in the eyes to the visual cortex, is found in the thalamus and has thalamocortical oscillatory properties, forming a feedback loop between the thalamus and the visual cortex. Sensory input can be seen to modulate the oscillatory patterns of thalamocortical activity while awake. In the case of vision, stimulation from light sources can be seen to cause direct changes in the amplitude of the thalamocortical oscillations as measured by EEG. Sleep Gamma wave thalamocortical oscillation is prominent during REM sleep, similar to the awakened, active brain. Contrary to the conscious state, however, it appears", "-26.62681237963261" ], [ "is profoundly influenced by changes in light, since these are its main clues about what time it is. Exposure to even small amounts of light during the night can suppress melatonin secretion, and increase body temperature and wakefulness. Short pulses of light, at the right moment in the circadian cycle, can significantly 'reset' the internal clock. Blue light, in particular, exerts the strongest effect, leading to concerns that electronic media use before bed may interfere with sleep.\nModern humans often find themselves desynchronized from their internal circadian clock, due to the requirements of work (especially night shifts), long-distance travel, and the", "-26.53623669425724" ], [ "stage 1 is entered, marked by the presence of some theta activity, which indicates that the firing of neurons in the neocortex is becoming more synchronized, as well as alpha wave activity (smooth electrical activity of 8–12 Hz recorded from the brain, generally associated with a state of relaxation). This stage is a transition between sleep and wakefulness. An individual's eyelids will from time to time slowly open and close and their eyes will roll upward and downward. Before one reaches sound sleep, stage 2 is entered. The EEG during this phase is normally irregular, but contains", "-26.238463942194358" ], [ "urine, setting off an auditory signal with the intention of causing the individual to wake, cease voiding, and arise to void. Parents are advised to wake their child when the alarm is activated—otherwise, children are prone to turn it off and go back to sleep.\nIt is highly suggested that during treatment the alarm should be worn every night. The treatment effect and response are not immediate and treatment should be continued for 2–3 months or until the child is dry for 14 consecutive nights (whichever comes first). There may be cultural differences in its acceptability, as it may be", "-26.150459348165896" ], [ "awakenings in at least a few nights per week due to their cell phones' ringers. Among those with the cell phone ringers on, being awakened by their cell phone was correlated to difficulty sustaining sleep.\nAccording to the article, \"Interrupted Sleep: College Students Sleeping with Technology\" by Elizabeth B. Dowdell and Brianne Q. Clayton, sleep-deprived college students performed significantly worse than peers who had adequate sleep on the cognitive task work and that the sleep-deprived students were not aware of the extent to which sleep deprivation negatively affects their ability to complete cognitive tasks. Insufficient sleep while in college may be", "-26.09983697241114" ], [ "in the midbrain, and discovery of the reticular activating system, which are visual cues received through our eyes and to our brain that begin the waking process, that waking consciousness depends sleep. Following these studies, it became clear that activity levels and quality of consciousness were functions of brain activation and deactivation. Input-output gating (I) It has been shown that the internal activation of the brain is associated with the inhibition of both external sensory input and motor output. This implies that the brain is actively kept offline during REM, and the brainstem guarantees the coordination of factors I and", "-26.069646477582864" ], [ "sleep (usually eight hours). Observations are made of the time taken to reach various stages of sleep (sleep onset latency). This test measures the degree of daytime sleepiness and also detects how soon REM sleep begins. Again, people with narcolepsy fall asleep rapidly and enter REM sleep early. Occasionally, a multiple sleep latency test can result in a false-negative for a narcoleptic.\nThe system which regulates sleep, arousal, and transitions between these states in humans is composed of three interconnected subsystems: the orexin projections from the lateral hypothalamus, the reticular activating system, and the ventrolateral preoptic nucleus. In narcoleptic individuals, these", "-25.910128744028043" ], [ "with similarly placed interruptions to ascending auditory and somatic pathways exhibited normal sleeping and wakefulness, and could be awakened with somatic stimuli. Because these external stimuli would be blocked by the interruptions, this indicated that the ascending transmission must travel through the newly discovered ARAS.\nFinally, Magoun recorded potentials within the medial portion of the brain stem and discovered that auditory stimuli directly fired portions of the reticular activating system. Furthermore, single-shock stimulation of the sciatic nerve also activated the medial reticular formation, hypothalamus, and thalamus. Excitation of the ARAS did not depend on further signal propagation through the cerebellar circuits,", "-25.906085810784134" ], [ "for sleep could be to restore signal strength in synapses that are activated while awake to a \"baseline\" level, weakening unnecessary connections that to better facilitate learning and memory functions again the next day; this means the brain is forgetting some of the things we learn each day. Endocrine function The secretion of many hormones is affected by sleep-wake cycles. For example, melatonin, a hormonal timekeeper, is considered a strongly circadian hormone, whose secretion increases at dim light and peaks during nocturnal sleep, diminishing with bright light to the eyes. In some organisms melatonin secretion depends on sleep, but in", "-25.894770836574025" ], [ "awake, too much time is spent sleeping, or a combination of both. Uninterruptible sleep An uninterruptible sleep state is a sleep state that won't handle a signal right away. It will wake only as a result of a waited-upon resource becoming available or after a time-out occurs during that wait (if specified when put to sleep). It is mostly used by device drivers waiting for disk or network IO (input/output).\nWhen the process is sleeping uninterruptibly, signals accumulated during the sleep will be noticed when the process returns from the system call or trap.\nIn Unix-like systems the command 'ps -l' uses", "-25.877087657834636" ], [ "a sharp decrease in the temperature of the extremities may independently reverse sleep inertia symptoms. Noise is thought to increase attentiveness upon awakening. A drop in temperature of the extremities may prevent heat loss, facilitating the return of core body temperature to homeostatic daytime levels.", "-25.853787420433946" ], [ "are most awake during the early evening hours, while other primates' days begin at dawn and end at sundown. Many of these behavioral changes can be attributed to the control of fire and its impact on daylight extension. The cooking hypothesis The cooking hypothesis proposes the idea that the ability to cook allowed for the brain size of hominids to increase over time. This idea was first presented by Frederich Engels in the article The Part Played by Labour in the Transition from Ape to Man and latter recapitulated in the book Catching Fire: How Cooking Made Us Human by", "-25.840585294594348" ], [ "trouble internalizing and/or externalizing problems according to the study done by Justin Parent. Some research suggests that the light from electronic screens can affect the circadian rhythm of children and disrupt alertness. These same studies found that for young children ages 3–7, the amount of sleep disturbances greatly increases after six hours of screen time, and for children 8–12 the amount of sleep disturbances greatly increased after the 10-hour mark. After four or six hours of daily screen time, sleep duration drops for adolescents.\nSome research suggests that screen time close to bedtime prevents children from getting adequate sleep. Research", "-25.764408769318834" ], [ "to show that the readiness potential has nothing to do with consciousness at all. Recent research on the Event Related Potential also shows that conscious experience does not occur until the late phase of the potential (P3 or later) that occurs 300 milliseconds or more after the event. In Bregman's auditory continuity illusion, where a pure tone is followed by broadband noise and the noise is followed by the same pure tone it seems as if the tone occurs throughout the period of noise. This also suggests a delay for processing data before conscious experience occurs. Popular science author Tor", "-25.7392684064107" ], [ "Bedwetting alarm A bedwetting alarm is a behavioral treatment for nocturnal enuresis. History The enuresis alarm methodology originated from French and German physicians in the first decade of the 20th century. Meinhard von Pfaundler, a German pediatrician made the discovery accidentally, with the original intention to create an alarm device that would notify nursing staff when a child had bed wetting and needed to be changed, showing the device to have a significant therapeutic advantages after a certain time of use. Despite early success, the treatment was not developed until the 1930s by two independent groups of psychologists: Orval Mowrer", "-25.734641116534476" ], [ " A delay, caused by light exposure before sleeping, means that the individual will tend to wake up later on the following day(s).\nThe hormones cortisol and melatonin are effected by the signals light sends through the body's nervous system. These hormones help regulate blood sugar to give the body the appropriate amount of energy that is required throughout the day. Cortisol levels are high upon waking and gradual decrease over the course of the day, melatonin levels are high when the body is entering and exiting a sleeping status and are very low over the course of waking hours. The", "-25.681942616589367" ], [ "sleep in humans and other animals already in slow-wave sleep. Carbachol, which mimics the effect of acetylcholine on neurons, has a similar influence. In waking humans, the same injections produce paradoxical sleep only if the monoamine neurotransmitters have already been depleted.\nTwo other neurotransmitters, orexin and gamma-Aminobutyric acid (GABA), seem to promote wakefulness, diminish during deep sleep, and inhibit paradoxical sleep.\nUnlike the abrupt transitions in electrical patterns, the chemical changes in the brain show continuous periodic oscillation. Models of REM regulation According to the activation-synthesis hypothesis proposed by Robert McCarley and Allan Hobson in 1975–1977, control over REM sleep involves pathways", "-25.6683505845358" ], [ "in the hypothalamus, brainstem, and midbrain that are involved in implementing sleep-wake cycles. An important component of the system is the reticular formation, a group of neuron-clusters scattered diffusely through the core of the lower brain. Reticular neurons send signals to the thalamus, which in turn sends activity-level-controlling signals to every part of the cortex. Damage to the reticular formation can produce a permanent state of coma.\nSleep involves great changes in brain activity. Until the 1950s it was generally believed that the brain essentially shuts off during sleep, but this is now known to be far from true; activity continues,", "-25.603850000654347" ], [ "organism transitions between sleep and wakefulness. The key questions here are to identify which parts of the brain are involved in sleep onset and what their mechanisms of action are. In humans and most animals sleep and wakefulness seems to follow an electronic flip-flop model i.e. both states are stable, but the intermediate states are not. Of course, unlike in the flip-flop, in the case of sleep, there seems to be a timer ticking away from the minute of waking so that after a certain period one must sleep, and in such a case even waking becomes an unstable state.", "-25.597364840221417" ], [ "target stimulus from the standard stimuli.\nDetection of these targets reliably evokes transient activity in prefrontal cortical regions. Measuring hemodynamic brain activity in the prefrontal cortex using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) revealed that the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex is associated with dynamic changes in the mapping of stimuli to responses (e.g. response strategies), independently of any changes in behavior.\nSince P300 has been shown to be an attention-dependent cognitive component in wakefulness, one might suppose that it would be absent during sleep; a time in which information processing of external stimuli is commonly thought to be inhibited. Research to date indicates that", "-25.555999410687946" ], [ "writers. Superimposed on this basic rhythm is a secondary one of light sleep in the early afternoon.\nThe brain exhibits high levels of the pituitary hormone prolactin during the period of nighttime wakefulness, which may contribute to the feeling of peace that many people associate with it.\nThe modern assumption that consolidated sleep with no awakenings is the normal and correct way for human adults to sleep, may lead people to consult their doctors fearing they have maintenance insomnia or other sleep disorders. If Ekirch's hypothesis is correct, their concerns might best be addressed by reassurance that their sleep conforms to historically", "-25.444794146111235" ], [ "Hippocampal replay Hippocampal replay is a phenomenon observed in rats, mice, cats, rabbits, songbirds and monkeys.\nDuring sleep or awake rest, replay refers to the re-occurrence of a sequence of cell activations that also occurred during activity, but the replay has a much faster time scale. It may be in the same order, or in reverse. Cases were also found where a sequence of activations occurs before the actual activity, but it is still the same sequence. This is called preplay.\nThe phenomenon has mostly been observed in the hippocampus, a brain region associated with memory and spatial navigation. Specifically, the cells", "-25.426996312409756" ], [ "and Willie Mae Mowrer (1938) and John Morgan and Frances Witmer (1939). Mowrer used a modified Pfaundler alarm device with 30 children (ages 3–13 years) showing empirical success of the bell and pad method as a treatment for nocturnal enuresis, with the maximum time required to accomplish the treatment not exceeding two months. Treatment process The individual places the sensor (usually located in briefs or underwear) and turns the alarm device on (there are various types of alarms) before going to sleep. The enuresis alarm is triggered when a sensor in the sheets or night clothes becomes wet with", "-25.41243814630434" ], [ "Wakefulness Wakefulness is a daily recurring brain state and state of consciousness in which an individual is conscious and engages in coherent cognitive and behavioral responses to the external world. Being awake is the opposite of the state of being asleep in which most external inputs to the brain are excluded from neural processing. Effects upon the brain The longer the brain has been awake, the greater the synchronous firing rates of cerebral cortex neurons. After sustained periods of sleep, both the speed and synchronicity of the neurons firing are shown to decrease.\nAnother effect of wakefulness is the reduction of", "-25.410012537133298" ], [ "from the circadian clock, this tells the body it needs to sleep. A person who regularly awakens at an early hour will generally not be able to sleep much later than his or her normal waking time, even if moderately sleep-deprived. The timing is correct when the following two circadian markers occur after the middle of the sleep episode and before awakening: maximum concentration of the hormone melatonin, and minimum core body temperature. Ideal duration Human sleep needs vary by age and amongst individuals; sleep is considered to be adequate when there is no daytime sleepiness or dysfunction. Moreover,", "-25.391593628679402" ], [ "that sensory input may be blocked or gated from interfering with the intrinsic activity of the brain during REM. Measures of bulk electrical signalling in the brain by MEG show no impact of auditory stimuli on the gamma wave patterns; measurements on conscious subjects show a distinct modulation due to the auditory input. In this way, the thalamocortical system acts to gate the brain from external stimuli during REM.\nNon-rapid eye movement (NREM) sleep differs from REM in that gamma activity is no longer prominent, stepping aside for lower frequency oscillations. While electrical activity at gamma frequencies can occasionally be detected", "-25.372783098169748" ], [ "to note that in in vitro, mGluR must be activated on these neurons to allow a small Ik leak, as seen in in vivo situations. Functions Slow-wave sleep is necessary for survival. Some animals, such as dolphins and birds, have the ability to sleep with only one hemisphere of the brain, leaving the other hemisphere awake to carry out normal functions and to remain alert. Neural control of slow-wave sleep Several neurotransmitters are involved in sleep and waking patterns: acetylcholine, norepinephrine, serotonin, histamine, and orexin. Neocortical neurons fire spontaneously during slow-wave sleep, thus they seem to play a role during", "-25.27319740774692" ], [ "the cortex to co-ordinate their activity. Ascending reticular activating system The ascending reticular activating system consists of a set of neural subsystems that project from various thalamic nuclei and a number of dopaminergic, noradrenergic, serotonergic, histaminergic, cholinergic, and glutamatergic brain nuclei. When awake, it receives all kinds of non-specific sensory information and relays them to the cortex. It also modulates fight or flight responses and is hence linked to the motor system. During sleep onset, it acts via two pathways: a cholinergic pathway that projects to the cortex via the thalamus and a set of monoaminergic pathways that projects to", "-25.271149564316147" ], [ "brain area directly above the optic chiasm, is presently considered the most important nexus for this process; however, secondary clock systems have been found throughout the body.\nAn organism whose circadian clock exhibits a regular rhythm corresponding to outside signals is said to be entrained; an entrained rhythm persists even if the outside signals suddenly disappear. If an entrained human is isolated in a bunker with constant light or darkness, he or she will continue to experience rhythmic increases and decreases of body temperature and melatonin, on a period which slightly exceeds 24 hours. Scientists refer to such conditions as free-running", "-25.17636397467868" ], [ "Local sleep Local sleep is a neurological phenomenon where brain activity in an organism that is otherwise awake enters a state which closely resembles that of sleep. In an Electroencephalogram, these patterns generally resemble NREM slow-wave sleep, and oscillate between 'on' and 'off' periods in the same way that would be expected during an actual sleeping state.\nLocal sleep can be induced by sustained and intense periods of activation of a particular brain region, especially when coupled with sleep deprivation (a condition colloquially called \"sleep drunk\"), although certain cortical regions of mice have been demonstrated to enter local sleep for very", "-25.135357724589994" ], [ "the end of a REM phase or sometimes in the middle of REM. Internal circadian indicators, along with successful reduction of homeostatic sleep need, typically bring about awakening and the end of the sleep cycle. Awakening involves heightened electrical activation in the brain, beginning with the thalamus and spreading throughout the cortex.\nDuring a night's sleep, a small amount of time is usually spent in a waking state. As measured by electroencephalography, young females are awake for 0–1% of the larger sleeping period; young males are awake for 0–2%. In adults, wakefulness increases, especially in later cycles. One study found 3%", "-25.126983241760172" ], [ "questions in chronobiology and found that a singularity behavior (i.e. temporal stopping of circadian clocks) is caused by desynchronization of multiple cellular circadian oscillators, and that temperature-insensitive biochemical reactions underlie temperature compensation of mammalian circadian clocks. He also invented molecular-timetable methods to detect the circadian time of the body by measuring a snapshot information of circadian clocks. For sleep/wake cycles, he found that Ca2+ and CaMKII-dependent hyperpolarization pathways underlie sleep homeostasis, and that muscarinic receptors, M1 and M3, as essential genes for REM sleep. To accelerate these studies, he also invented whole-brain and whole-body clearing and imaging", "-25.10679417137726" ], [ "to higher-order sensory areas that are dedicated to the same modality. Eventually, via a way-station in the thalamus, the signals are sent to the cerebral cortex, where they are processed to extract the relevant features, and integrated with signals coming from other sensory systems. Arousal Many animals alternate between sleeping and waking in a daily cycle. Arousal and alertness are also modulated on a finer time scale by a network of brain areas.\nA key component of the arousal system is the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN), a tiny part of the hypothalamus located directly above the point at which the optic nerves", "-25.031618497741874" ], [ "was tested after staying awake all night, and one group was tested after staying awake all day. Those that slept performed twice as well on the insight problems than those who stayed awake. In the brain Differences in brain activation in the left and right hemisphere seem to be indicative of insight versus non-insight solutions. Using RAT’s that were either presented to the left or right visual field, it was shown that participants having solved the problem with insight were more likely to have been shown the RAT on the left visual field, indicating right hemisphere processing. This provides evidence", "-24.938711859373143" ], [ "a night's sleep. The first REM episode occurs about 70 minutes after falling asleep. Cycles of about 90 minutes each follow, with each cycle including a larger proportion of REM sleep. (The increased REM sleep later in the night is connected with the circadian rhythm and occurs even in people who didn't sleep in the first part of the night.)\nIn the weeks after a human baby is born, as its nervous system matures, neural patterns in sleep begin to show a rhythm of REM and non-REM sleep. (In faster-developing mammals this process occurs in utero.) Infants spend more time in", "-24.91059906766168" ], [ "carrying a phone for between one month and one year. It has been suggested that, when anticipating a phone call, the cerebral cortex may misinterpret other sensory input (such as muscle contractions, pressure from clothing, or music) as a phone vibration or ring tone. This may be understood as a human signal detection issue, with potentially significant influences from psychological attributes. Factors such as experiences, expectations, and psychological states influence the threshold for signal detection. Some phantom vibration experiences may be a type of pareidolia and can therefore be examined as a psychological phenomenon influenced by individual variances in personality,", "-24.899982227711007" ], [ "immediate attempt to quickly enter REM stages and long-term effects on motor coordination and habitual motor habits, eventually leading to the death of the animal. It has also been shown that homeothermic animals might require sleep to maintain body weight and temperature. Waking The waking consciousness is the awareness of the world, our bodies, and ourselves. This includes humans experiencing the awareness of being aware of ourselves, an intrinsic ability to humans. It's the ability to look in a mirror and know that you are looking at yourself, and not just another human being. Being awake allows the distinction", "-24.88786308519775" ], [ "sleep, is distinct from both somniloquy and obstructive sleep apnea. The sound is produced during exhalation as opposed to snoring which occurs during inhalation. It is usually not noticed by the person producing the sound but can be extremely disturbing to sleep partners, although once aware of it, sufferers tend to be woken up by their own groaning as well. Bed partners generally report hearing the person take a deep breath, hold it, then slowly exhale; often with a high-pitched squeak or groaning sound. Sleep-Related Painful Erections Painful erections appear only during the sleep. This condition is present during", "-24.858096402545925" ], [ "Alarm fatigue Alarm fatigue or alert fatigue occurs when one is exposed to a large number of frequent alarms (alerts) and consequently becomes desensitized to them. Desensitization can lead to longer response times or missing important alarms. Alarm fatigue occurs in many industries, including construction and mining (where backup alarms sound so frequently that they often become senseless background noise), healthcare (where electronic monitors tracking clinical information such as vital signs and blood glucose sound alarms so frequently, and often for such minor reasons, that they lose the urgency and attention-grabbing power which they are intended to have), and", "-24.842323827033397" ], [ "that controls the sleep-wake cycle of the circadian rhythm. Reducing the amount of melatonin produced makes it harder to fall and stay asleep. In a 2011 poll conducted by the National Sleep Foundation, it reported that approximately 90% of Americans used technology in the hour before bed. The poll noted that young adults and teenagers were more likely to use cell phones, computers, and video game consoles. Additionally, the authors of the poll found that technology use was connected to sleep patterns. 22% of participants reported going to sleep with cell phone ringers on in their bedroom and 10% reported", "-24.811983405816136" ], [ "of a person’s life. It’s suggested that idiopathic insomnia is a neurochemical problem in a part of the brain that controls the sleep-wake cycle, resulting in either under-active sleep signals or over-active wake signals. Sleep state misperception is diagnosed when people get enough sleep but inaccurately perceive that their sleep is insufficient.\nSecondary insomnia, or comorbid insomnia, occurs concurrently with other medical, neurological, psychological and psychiatric conditions. Causation is not necessarily implied.\nSleep is known to be cumulative. This means that the fatigue and sleep one lost as a result, for example, staying awake all night, would be carried over to", "-24.76630554737858" ], [ "REM sleep in several mammals (the rat, the hedgehog, the rabbit, and the rhesus monkey) is followed by a brief awakening. This does not occur for either cats or humans, although humans are more likely to wake from REM sleep than from NREM sleep. Snyder hypothesized that REM sleep activates an animal periodically, to scan the environment for possible predators. This hypothesis does not explain the muscle paralysis of REM sleep; however, a logical analysis might suggest that the muscle paralysis exists to prevent the animal from fully waking up unnecessarily, and allowing it to return easily to deeper sleep.\nJim", "-24.757933796805446" ], [ "asked not to wake up an hour early but 3–4 hours early, while waking up \"normally\" may already be an unrecognized challenge imposed by the environment.\nThe bias toward early morning can also adversely affect adolescents in particular. Teenagers tend to require at least 9 full hours of sleep each night, and changes to the endocrine system during puberty shift the natural wake time later in the morning. Enforcing early start times despite this can have negative effects on mood, academic performance, and social skills.", "-24.701870876015164" ], [ "and food intake. The circadian rhythm is controlled by two main cell groups in the hypothalamus. The anterior hypothalamus includes the suprachiasmatic nucleus and the ventrolateral preoptic nucleus which through gene expression cycles, generates a roughly 24 hour circadian clock. In the circadian day an ultradian rhythm takes control of the sleeping pattern. Sleep is an essential requirement for the body and brain and allows the closing down and resting of the body's systems. There are also findings that suggest that the daily build-up of toxins in the brain are removed during sleep. Whilst awake the brain consumes a fifth", "-24.696879770141095" ], [ "Sleep onset Sleep onset is the transition from wakefulness into sleep. Sleep onset usually transmits into non-rapid eye movement sleep (NREM sleep) but under certain circumstances (e.g. narcolepsy) it is possible to transit from wakefulness directly into rapid eye movement sleep (REM sleep). History During the 1920s an obscure disorder that caused encephalitis and attacked the part of the brain that regulates sleep influenced Europe and North America. Although the virus that caused this disorder was never identified, the psychiatrist and neurologist Constantin von Economo decided to study this disease and identified a key component in the sleep-wake regulation. He", "-24.671992411953397" ], [ "to stimulation, functional connectivity is much attenuated from its level during wakefulness. Thus, during deep sleep, \"brain areas do not talk to each other\".\nFunctional neuroimaging draws on data from many areas other than cognitive neuroscience and social neuroscience, including other biological sciences (such as neuroanatomy and neurophysiology), physics and maths, to further develop and refine the technology. Critique and careful interpretation Functional neuroimaging studies have to be carefully designed and interpreted with care.\nStatistical analysis (often using a technique called statistical parametric mapping) is often needed so that the different sources of activation within the brain can be distinguished from one", "-24.64846630221291" ], [ "and decreased cognitive ability during periods of extended working hours and wakefulness as well as due to sleep loss caused by circadian rhythm disruption and environmental factors. Microsleeps Microsleeps occur when a person has a significant sleep deprivation. Microsleeps usually last for a few seconds and happen most frequently when a person is trying to stay awake when they are feeling sleepy. The person usually falls into microsleep while doing a monotonous task like driving, reading a book, or staring at a computer. Microsleeps are similar to blackouts and a person experiencing them is not consciously aware that they are", "-24.60878704400966" ], [ "the morning. The reliance on technology, specifically in the bedroom, which should be associated with sleep, created the difficulty with separating waking and sleeping activities. When measuring the amount of sleep during the week compared to the weekend, students with four or more technological devices in their bedroom had significantly less sleep compared to those with three or fewer devices. Since many students do not utilize sleep mode or do not disturb or silence their phones at night, each notification and alert from their phones disrupts their sleep in terms of sleep quality and duration of sleep. Caffeine A study", "-24.593548743927386" ], [ "originals in their sleep – set off in pursuit of Matthew's group. The Pods emit a shrill scream when they discover a human being among them. Jack and Nancy create a distraction, allowing Matthew and Elizabeth to escape back into the city. Matthew and Elizabeth take refuge in the health department, where they take a large dose of speed, keeping them awake for several more hours. They are soon captured by Jack and Kibner, who were previously duplicated, and injected with sedatives whilst being informed of their intentions for survivability, though their previous dose of speed enables them to escape", "-24.57962866825983" ], [ "Alertness Alertness is the state of active attention by high sensory awareness such as being watchful and prompt to meet danger or emergency, or being quick to perceive and act. It is related to psychology as well as to physiology. A lack of alertness is a symptom of a number of conditions, including narcolepsy, attention deficit disorder, chronic fatigue syndrome, depression, Addison's disease, or sleep deprivation. Pronounced lack of alertness can be graded as an altered level of consciousness. The word is formed from \"alert\", which comes from the Italian \"all'erta\" (on the watch, literally, on the height; 1618) Physiological", "-24.57442733098287" ], [ "and sphincter contraction (UR) to wake up, stop urinating, and travel to the bathroom. After continued pairing of the alarm sound (US) with the feeling of a full bladder (NS), the previous NS of feeling a full bladder becomes the CS and elicits the waking response (CR) of waking up to go use the bathroom and urinate. Operant conditioning In the operant conditioning paradigm the alarm sound serves as a noxious stimuli added to the environment, effectively implementing a positive punishment procedure whenever the individual activates the alarm by urinating. This eventually causes an avoidance response from the individual, maintain", "-24.560662742733257" ], [ "in animals, including in pathological states and responses to drugs. Orexin neurons in the posterior lateral hypothalamus potentiate neurons in the ascending arousal system and help stabilize the brain in the waking state (and consolidated wakefulness, which builds up homeostatic sleep drive, helps stabilize the brain during later sleep). The loss of orexin neurons in the disorder narcolepsy destabilizes the wake-sleep switch, resulting in overwhelming sleep episodes during the waking day, as well as more frequent awakenings from sleep at night. Circadian rhythm There is a strong circadian rhythm of sleep in mammals. The “master clock” for circadian rhythms", "-24.558823456871323" ], [ "Before I Wake (2016 film) Plot A frightened man with a gun enters a child's room nervously. He looks around as if expecting something to reveal itself in the shadows, when a sudden commotion makes him pull the trigger. The gunfire awakens the child and the man breaks down in tears. Later, Jessie and Mark Hobson take in a foster child, eight-year-old Cody Morgan, after their young son Sean dies from accidentally drowning in the bathtub. \nOn his first night, they are amazed as multicolored butterflies flutter across the living room, emitting a strong glow. Mark tries to capture a", "-24.44834926754993" ], [ "every night, a phase lasting about 90 minutes. This is when most dreaming occurs. Overall, REM sleep usually accounts for up to two hours of sleep time and most people can remember their dreams only if woken directly from REM sleep.\nIt is known from laboratory studies of brain waves that, just before entering REM sleep and while in it, powerful electrical signals pass through the brain. On electroencephalogram recordings, these appear as spikes and are known as PGO spikes, after the initials of names of the structures of the brain they pass through. These same spikes occur during waking, when", "-24.404065945069306" ], [ "takes place mostly during slow-wave sleep, during which body temperature, heart rate, and brain oxygen consumption decrease. The brain, especially, requires sleep for restoration, whereas in the rest of the body these processes can take place during quiescent waking. In both cases, the reduced rate of metabolism enables countervailing restorative processes.\nWhile awake, metabolism generates reactive oxygen species, which are damaging to cells. During sleep, metabolic rates decrease and reactive oxygen species generation is reduced allowing restorative processes to take over. The sleeping brain has been shown to remove metabolic waste products at a faster rate than during an awake state.", "-24.393386511772405" ], [ "reorganise associative hierarchies, in which information from the hippocampus would be reinterpreted in relation to previous semantic representations or nodes.\" Timing In the ultradian sleep cycle an organism alternates between deep sleep (slow, large, synchronized brain waves) and paradoxical sleep (faster, desynchronized waves). Sleep happens in the context of the larger circadian rhythm, which influences sleepiness and physiological factors based on timekeepers within the body. Sleep can be distributed throughout the day or clustered during one part of the rhythm: in nocturnal animals, during the day, and in diurnal animals, at night. The organism returns to homeostatic regulation almost immediately", "-24.389476963784546" ], [ "the sleep-wake cycle several hours later during the adolescent years. This same shift to a delayed phase in the release of melatonin during puberty has also been seen in other mammals.\nThe shifted circadian rhythms associated with puberty make it difficult, if not impossible, for many teenagers—who may have to rise at 5 or 6 a.m. to get ready and commute to school in time for 7 a.m. school bells—to get sufficient sleep on school nights. Even discounting for the distractions of homework and extracurricular demands and electronics, most adolescents find it difficult to fall asleep before about 11 p.m. or", "-24.364971636096016" ], [ "brief amounts of time without any immediate trigger. Unlike microsleep however, these brief periods of local sleep occur while the animal is still entirely conscious and functioning, although abilities associated with the specific brain region in local sleep tend to decline substantially. For instance, local sleep in brain regions associated with movement can lead to lapses in coordination, and more generally cognitive functioning seems to be somewhat impaired by local sleep of cortical regions, with mice undergoing cortical sleep exhibiting far less awareness of their surroundings and having delayed or inappropriate reactions to stimuli.\nWhile the function of local sleep is", "-24.311330171884038" ], [ "Arousal Neurophysiology Wakefulness is regulated by the ascending reticular activating system, which is composed of five major neurotransmitter systems – the acetylcholine, norepinephrine, dopamine, histamine, and serotonin systems – that originate in the brainstem and form connections which extend throughout the cerebral cortex. When stimulated, these systems produce cortical activity and alertness.\nThe noradrenergic system is a bundle of axons that originate in the locus coeruleus and ascends up into the neocortex, limbic system, and basal forebrain. Most of the neurons are projected to the posterior cortex which is important with sensory information, and alertness. The activation of the locus coeruleus", "-24.29907510461635" ], [ "REM sleep, and the existence of similar PGO waves is thus inferred.) These waves occur in clusters about every 6 seconds for 1–2 minutes during the transition from deep to paradoxical sleep. They exhibit their highest amplitude upon moving into the visual cortex and are a cause of the \"rapid eye movements\" in paradoxical sleep. Other muscles may also contract under the influence of these waves. Forebrain Research in the 1990s using positron emission tomography (PET) confirmed the role of the brain stem and suggested that, within the forebrain, the limbic and paralimbic systems showed more activation than other areas.", "-24.257302482263185" ], [ "asleep and has a string tied to its trigger. As Jerry is reeled up, he pulls the string to the gun's trigger, firing the gun and waking Tom up, who is surprised to think he shot at himself in his sleep. Panicking at this, he attempts to get rid of the gun, setting it off and creating a long scar on his head. Unable to figure it out, he just goes back to sleep. But as he does, the mice pull off their next trick. They drill a hole through the ceiling and lower a noose on Tom. Tom wakes", "-24.164112408907386" ], [ "as the body attempts to reset its internal sleep clock. Bright light therapy, which is often used to help early morning wakers reset their natural sleep cycle, can also be used with sleep restriction therapy to reinforce a new wake schedule. Although applying this technique with consistency is difficult, it can have a positive effect on insomnia in motivated patients.\nParadoxical intention is a cognitive reframing technique where the insomniac, instead of attempting to fall asleep at night, makes every effort to stay awake (i.e. essentially stops trying to fall asleep). One theory that may explain the effectiveness of this method", "-24.143482466461137" ], [ "reports of dreamers upon waking, have all been used to study this phase of sleep. Electrical activity in the brain REM sleep is \"paradoxical\" because of its similarities to wakefulness. Although the body is paralyzed, the brain acts somewhat awake, with cerebral neurons firing with the same overall intensity as in wakefulness. Electroencephalography during REM deep sleep reveal fast, low amplitude, desynchronized neural oscillation (brainwaves) that resemble the pattern seen during wakefulness which differ from the slow δ (delta) waves pattern of NREM deep sleep. An important element of this contrast is the θ (theta) rhythm in the hippocampus that", "-24.140227777155815" ], [ "Dawn phenomenon The dawn phenomenon, sometimes called the dawn effect, is an early-morning (usually between 2 a.m. and 8 a.m.) increase in blood sugar (glucose) which occurs to some extent in all humans, more relevant to people with diabetes. It is different from chronic Somogyi rebound in that dawn phenomenon is not associated with nocturnal hypoglycemia. It is thought to occur due to temporal elevation in serum cortisol, epinephrine and norepinephrine associated with transition from sleeping to wakefulness.\nThe dawn phenomenon is a normal physiological response and does not require medication adjustment in most diabetics. In most of the cases, there", "-24.131635210476816" ], [ "an individual's sleep-wake pattern is based on a period of time of slightly more than 24 hours, their circadian rhythm can become progressively delayed.\nSleep inversion may be a symptom of elevated blood ammonia levels. Diagnosis In order to diagnose circadian rhythm sleep disorder, patients are often asked for records of their sleep and wake times in order to determine if a diagnosis is warranted. Interviews and direct observation in a sleep lab may also be utilized. A diagnosis requires a pattern of sleep disruption caused by a mismatch between a person's circadian sleep-wake pattern and the pattern required by that", "-24.129164220386883" ], [ "Activation-synthesis hypothesis Introduction With the advancement of brain imaging technology, the sleep-waking cycle can be studied as never before. The brain can be objectively quantified and identified as being in either one of three states: awake, REM sleep, and NREM sleep due to these advanced methods of measurement. It has been shown that global deactivation of the brain from waking state to NREM sleep occurs, and a subsequent reactivation during REM sleep, to a degree greater than during waking. Consciousness and its substates, primary consciousness and secondary consciousness, play a part in identifying the state of the brain.", "-24.11980654427316" ], [ "Sleep paralysis Signs and symptoms The central symptom of sleep paralysis is being unable to move during awakening.\nImagined sounds such as humming, hissing, static, zapping and buzzing noises are reported during sleep paralysis. Other sounds such as voices, whispers and roars are also experienced. These symptoms are usually accompanied by intense emotions such as fear and panic. People also have sensations of being dragged out of bed or of flying, numbness, and feelings of electric tingles or vibrations running through their body.\nSleep paralysis may include hypnagogic hallucinations, such as a supernatural creature suffocating or terrifying the individual, accompanied by a", "-24.112341365442262" ], [ "sleep situations and do not map to specific physiological definitions.\nMore recently, the problem of definition has been addressed by observing overall brain activity in the form of characteristic EEG patterns. Each stage of sleep and wakefulness has a characteristic pattern of EEG which can be used to identify the stage of sleep. Waking is usually characterized by beta (12–30 Hz) and gamma (25–100 Hz) depending on whether there was a peaceful or stressful activity. The onset of sleep involves slowing down of this frequency to the drowsiness of alpha (8–12 Hz) and finally to theta (4–10 Hz) of Stage 1 NREM sleep. This frequency", "-24.1121959015436" ], [ "nocturnal rodents than in humans. Enforced longer cycles Studies by Nathaniel Kleitman in 1938 and by Derk-Jan Dijk and Charles Czeisler in the 1990s put human subjects on enforced 28-hour sleep–wake cycles, in constant dim light and with other time cues suppressed, for over a month. Because normal people cannot entrain to a 28-hour day in dim light if at all, this is referred to as a forced desynchrony protocol. Sleep and wake episodes are uncoupled from the endogenous circadian period of about 24.18 hours and researchers are allowed to assess the effects of circadian phase on aspects of sleep", "-24.077983337454498" ], [ "random intervals. Failure to press the button in response to the stimulus (light) is recorded as an error, attributable to the microsleeps that occur as a product of sleep deprivation.\nCrucially, individuals' subjective evaluations of their fatigue often do not predict actual performance on the PVT. While totally sleep-deprived individuals are usually aware of the degree of their impairment, lapses from chronic (lesser) sleep deprivation can build up over time so that they are equal in number and severity to the lapses occurring from total (acute) sleep deprivation. Chronically sleep-deprived people, however, continue to rate themselves considerably less impaired than totally", "-24.067800755845383" ], [ "a clock in the background can be heard chiming. One can easily count 11 chimes from the moment Kailash is walking towards Dhaniram's house, till Dhaniram opens the door (chiming stops after that). So the action starts at 11.00 pm.\nThe police surgeon's (Forensic expert's) report says that Dhaniram died between 11.30 pm and 12.00 midnight (on the night of 30th).\nKaalia is caught descending the pipe hurriedly at 00.08 am on 1 July.", "-24.033592269410292" ], [ "Idiopathic hypersomnia Signs and symptoms Those who suffer from idiopathic hypersomnia have recurring episodes of excessive daytime sleepiness (EDS). Sleep is usually deep, with significant difficulty arousing from sleep, even with use of several alarm clocks. In fact, patients with IH often must develop elaborate rituals to wake, as alarm clocks and even physical attempts by friends/family to wake them may fail. Despite getting more hours of sleep than typically required by the human body, patients awake unrefreshed and may also suffer sleep inertia, known more descriptively in its severe form as sleep drunkenness (significant disorientation upon awakening). Daytime", "-24.018543942918768" ], [ "be made available at short intervals so as to avoid entrainment to mealtimes. Subjects are thus forced to live by their internal circadian \"clocks\". Background The individual's or animal's circadian phase can be known only by the monitoring of some kind of output of the circadian system, the internal \"body clock\". The researcher can precisely determine, for example, the daily cycles of gene-activity, body temperature, blood pressure, hormone secretion and/or sleep and activity/alertness. Alertness in humans can be determined by many kinds of verbal and non-verbal tests; activity in animals by observation, for example of wheel-running in rodents.\nWhen animals or", "-24.018133079545805" ], [ "The withdrawal of orexin and GABA may cause the absence of the other excitatory neurotransmitters; researchers in recent years increasingly include GABA regulation in their models. Eye movements Most of the eye movements in “rapid eye movement” sleep are in fact less rapid than those normally exhibited by waking humans. They are also shorter in duration and more likely to loop back to their starting point. About seven of such loops take place over one minute of REM sleep. In slow-wave sleep the eyes can drift apart; however, the eyes of the paradoxical sleeper move in tandem. These eye", "-23.954691002625623" ], [ "by the primary consciousness, and the person can slowly develop increased secondary consciousness throughout their life as their protoconscious template is further expanded, developed, and creates more vivid ideas and representations of secondary consciousness. Activation (A) Large parts of the brain that are activated and sending signals during waking are inactive during NREM sleep and become reactivated during REM sleep. It is based on the fact that the brain and its neural circuitry is plastic and self-regulating, especially in its own activation and inactivation. This was observed by two experiments: development of sleepiness after dopamine neuron destruction in substantia nigra", "-23.925562657532282" ], [ "advances have led to the manufacture of monitors of awareness. Typically these monitor the EEG, which represents the electrical activity of the cerebral cortex, which is active when awake but quiescent when anesthetized (or in natural sleep). The monitors usually process the EEG signal down to a single number, where 100 corresponds to a patient who is fully alert, and zero corresponds to electrical silence. General anesthesia is usually signified by a number between 60 and 40 (this varies with the specific system used). There are several monitors now commercially available. These newer technologies include the bispectral index (BIS), EEG", "-23.87076736124527" ], [ "Rapid eye movement sleep Rapid eye movement sleep (REM sleep or REMS) is a unique phase of sleep in mammals and birds, distinguishable by random/rapid movement of the eyes, accompanied with low muscle tone throughout the body, and the propensity of the sleeper to dream vividly.\nThe REM phase is also known as paradoxical sleep (PS) and sometimes desynchronized sleep because of physiological similarities to waking states, including rapid, low-voltage desynchronized brain waves. Electrical and chemical activity regulating this phase seems to originate in the brain stem and is characterized most notably by an abundance of the neurotransmitter acetylcholine, combined with", "-23.84421003749594" ], [ "Woke Woke (/ˈwoʊk/) as a political term of African American origin refers to a perceived awareness of issues concerning social justice and racial justice. It is derived from the African-American Vernacular English expression \"stay woke\", whose grammatical aspect refers to a continuing awareness of these issues. \nBy the late 2010s, woke had been adopted as a more generic slang term and has been the subject of memes and ironic usage. Its widespread use since 2014 is a result of the Black Lives Matter movement. Precedents for usage Oxford Dictionaries records early politically conscious usage in 1962 in the article \"If", "-23.82866439539066" ], [ "bedside table lamps and televisions being unplugged, shampoo bottles rolling across the floor or flying across the room. The sound of doors opening/closing while the room is otherwise vacant are common. Guests have found electronics such as cell phones and camcorders dead center beneath the bed. Front Desk staff, particularly the graveyard shift, have reported hearing coughing and sneezing from the hotel's laundry room, seeing shadows in the same area of whom they believe to be Claude Harvey, the hospital's maintenance man who was found dead on April 3, 1935, pinned beneath the Otis elevator, presumably murdered. They", "-23.82209679481457" ], [ "individual nuclei that compose the reticular formation.\nMoruzzi and Magoun first investigated the neural components regulating the brain's sleep-wake mechanisms in 1949. Physiologists had proposed that some structure deep within the brain controlled mental wakefulness and alertness. It had been thought that wakefulness depended only on the direct reception of afferent (sensory) stimuli at the cerebral cortex.\nThe direct electrical stimulation of the brain could simulate electrocortical relays. Magoun used this principle to demonstrate, on two separate areas of the brainstem of a cat, how to produce wakefulness from sleep. First the ascending somatic and auditory paths; second, a series of \"ascending", "-23.81911377090728" ], [ "brain shows a mixture of rhythmic and nonrhythmic activity, which may vary according to behavioral state. In mammals, the cerebral cortex tends to show large slow delta waves during sleep, faster alpha waves when the animal is awake but inattentive, and chaotic-looking irregular activity when the animal is actively engaged in a task. During an epileptic seizure, the brain's inhibitory control mechanisms fail to function and electrical activity rises to pathological levels, producing EEG traces that show large wave and spike patterns not seen in a healthy brain. Relating these population-level patterns to the computational functions of individual neurons is", "-23.815855953784194" ], [ "but in mammals, all of these \"tissue clocks\" are kept in synchrony by signals that emanate from a master timekeeper in a tiny part of the brain called the suprachiasmatic nucleus. Mirror neurons A mirror neuron is a neuron that fires both when an animal acts and when the animal observes the same action performed by another. Thus, the neuron \"mirrors\" the behavior of the other, as though the observer were itself acting. Such neurons have been directly observed in primate species. Birds have been shown to have imitative resonance behaviors and neurological evidence suggests the presence of some form", "-23.77344386954792" ], [ "are trying to protect themselves and/or escape from a possible threat of bodily injury. Although people may seem to be awake during a night terror, they will appear confused, be inconsolable and/or unresponsive to attempts to communicate with them, and may not recognize others familiar to them. Occasionally, when a person with a night terror is awakened, they will lash out at the one awakening them, which can be dangerous to that individual. Most people who experience this do not remember the incident the next day, although brief dream images or hallucinations may occur and be recalled. Sleepwalking is also", "-23.769714193767868" ], [ "frontal lobe epilepsy (ADNFLE) is the best understood form of frontal lobe epilepsy but is often misdiagnosed as sleep apnea. Both disorders are characterized by awakening during the night which leads to daytime sleepiness. Some symptoms of sleep apnea overlap with those of ADNFLE, such as sudden awakening accompanied by a feeling of choking and on occasion motor activity which makes diagnosis difficult based on symptoms alone. Video surveillance as well as EEG is occasionally needed to differentiate between the two disorders. It has been reported that sleep apnea might be associated with epilepsy which would account for some of", "-23.7653797067469" ], [ "to sleep, an unseen person enters the apartment. Mina sits up in bed and watches the person enter the bedroom. The screen then cuts to black as a gunshot rings out. Jude is next seen running into the police station, frantically asking where his son is. The baby is unharmed, but Jude breaks down in tears. It turns out that Jude's mother shot and killed Mina because she recognized that Mina was a danger to her grandson, and that Mina would have eventually starved the baby if she lived. In her prison cell, she expresses regret for her actions, but", "-23.763382211327553" ], [ "circadian cycle. Scientific studies on sleep have shown that sleep stage at awakening is an important factor in amplifying sleep inertia. Timing Sleep timing is controlled by the circadian clock (Process C), sleep–wake homeostasis (Process S), and to some extent by individual will. Circadian clock Sleep timing depends greatly on hormonal signals from the circadian clock, or Process C, a complex neurochemical system which uses signals from an organism's environment to recreate an internal day–night rhythm. Process C counteracts the homeostatic drive for sleep during the day (in diurnal animals) and augments it at night. The suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN), a", "-23.75596445123665" ], [ "or 9 a.m. is incompatible with the biological clocks of teenagers and young adults. In 1993, a team led by Mary Carskadon, PhD, of Brown University showed that changes in circadian biology during puberty drive a \"sleep-phase delay,\" a shift in the sleep-wake patterns of adolescents that leads them to fall asleep and wake up later than younger and older people. Subsequent studies have confirmed these findings, explored the impact of school start times on the sleep needs and patterns of adolescents., and demonstrated a \"phase shift\" in the release of melatonin at puberty, which appears to be involved in shifting", "-23.735864806862082" ], [ "was discovered by Kornhuber & Deecke in 1965, is an instance of unconscious electrical activity within the motor cortex, quantified by the use of EEG, that occurs moments before a motion is performed by a person: it is considered a signal that the brain is \"getting ready\" to perform the motion. The study found evidence that these actions can be vetoed even after the BP is detected (i. e. after it can be seen that the brain has started preparing for the action). The researchers maintain that this is evidence for the existence of at least some degree of free", "-23.730095242033713" ], [ "these complex partial seizures include staring, oral automatisms, unspecified automatic behavior, involuntary motor movements and/or head turning.\nFurthermore, many patients have subtle nighttime behavioral changes, such as stretching, rubbing, and turning resembling a nighttime awakening. However, electroencephalography (EEG) studies during these events show abnormal electrical seizure activity, indicating that nocturnal behavioral events are actually subtle nocturnal seizures or non-convulsive status epilepticus. Many of these patients experience their seizures only during sleep. They can have seemingly bizarre features as they originate from the frontal lobe of the brain. Often, individuals with ring chromosome 20 syndrome are initially found to have complex", "-23.728805392456707" ] ]

[ "In a nuclear fission reaction, heavy elements split to released energy. So, 1. Fat Man and Little Boy ~~each had about 60ish kilograms~~ had 10 Kg and 60ish kg respectively of Plutonium or Uranium, Chernobyl had tons of Uranium. 2. Fat Man and Little Boy were both very inefficient. The nuclear fuel within the bombs and the reactors is not dangerously radioactive, the byproducts of the fission reaction are. Both Fat Man and Little Boy only converted a tiny part of their fuel (if I remember correctly, about a kilogram each). A nuclear reactor tends to be far more efficient because it converts constantly rather than a single moment as what happens in a fission bomb, and this combined with the massive amount of nuclear fuel released a massive amount of these fission byproducts. 3. Chernobyl was not a nuclear explosion, it was a steam explosion which flung around radioactive fallout. A nuclear explosion is far bigger and flings it far further, wider, and thinner coverage.", "In a nutshell: the radioactive material used in the bombs dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki was used up in making a big explosion. There wasn't *that* much left over after the explosion. With Chernobyl, the explosion was caused by excess steam build up etc., not through nuclear fission. This resulted in \"unconsumed\" radioactive material being thrown all over the place as a result of a non-nuclear explosion. Think of it as: a) you can light a firework and watch it go bang (Hiroshima/Nagasaki) or; b) you can grab a handful of gunpowder and throw it around (Chernobyl).", "Hiroshima and Nagasaki - The bombs exploded spreading **radiation** (high speed particles, basically) around. The actual **radioactive material** however, was almost all used up in the explosion (that's the idea). Radiation is very dangerous short term, but once it's been absorbed or reflected up into space, it's gone. Most of the deaths weren't caused by radiation, but by the force of the explosion. Nuclear bombs aren't designed to kill you with radiation, they're designed to be really big explosions... the radiation is really a side effect. Something like 80% of the radiation was released in 24 hours, over 95% within a few days. If you'd stood at the centre of the explosion (on the ground, called the hypocenter) a day after the explosion you would have only received 1/1000th (0.1%) of the dose of someone who had been there during the explosion. Note also that these were quite small explosions - 15 kiloton. I wouldn't have wanted to be there at the time, but it wasn't actually that much radiation in the first place. Chernobyl - Chernobyl wasn't really an explosion as much as a leak. More importantly, it wasn't **radiation** that got out, it was **radioactive material**. Radioactive material can last for thousands of years, and releases radiation. Basically, then, Chernobyl threw a whole load of tiny radiation sources over a large area. Something like 500x as much radioactive material was released by Chernobyl than was released during the bombing of Nagasaki. That's a lot! Most importantly, where the fuel in the bombs was used up and the radiation went away, at Chernobyl the radioactive material keeps releasing more radiation. Let's think of it like hayfever for a minute, as an ELI5 example - Hiroshima was one really big plant releasing lots pollen on one day and making everyone sneeze for a day, then the plant dying. It's nasty, but short term and a one-off event. Chernobyl was someone going around for a few months putting thousands of smaller plants all over a large area, and the plants carry on releasing pollen every day for thousands of years. It's not as nasty up front, but goes on for a lot longer.", "Another thing is how much radioactive material there is. Fatman had 6.2kg of plutonium. Littleboy had 64kg of U235. Chernobyl reactor housed 180-190 tons", "Both Hiroshima and Nagasaki bombs were detonated in the air above the city. An air detonation causes more initial casualties but does not contaminate the ground as bad as a ground detonation. Chernobyl had a reactor core open that was spewing radiation for months until the concrete sarcophagus was made." ]

[ [ "of Manchuria if he joined the invasion. On May 10–11, 1945, the Target Committee at Los Alamos, led by Oppenheimer, recommended Kyoto, Hiroshima, Yokohama, and Kokura as possible targets. Concerns about Kyoto's cultural heritage led to it being replaced by Nagasaki.\nOn August 6, 1945, a uranium-based weapon, Little Boy, was detonated above the Japanese city of Hiroshima, and three days later, a plutonium-based weapon, Fat Man, was detonated above the Japanese city of Nagasaki. To date, Hiroshima and Nagasaki remain the only two instances of nuclear weapons being used in combat. The atomic raids killed at least one hundred thousand", "-32.87650929315714" ], [ "nuclear explosions, having been observed frequently in large forest fires and following incendiary raids during World War II. Despite fires destroying a large area of the city of Nagasaki, no true firestorm occurred in the city, even though a higher yielding weapon was used. Many factors explain this seeming contradiction, including a different time of bombing than Hiroshima, terrain, and crucially, a lower fuel loading/fuel density in the city than that of Hiroshima.\nNagasaki probably did not furnish sufficient fuel for the development of a fire storm as compared to the many buildings on the flat terrain at Hiroshima.\nAs thermal radiation", "-32.68617257726146" ], [ "on Hiroshima, 4.5 square miles (12 km²) of the city was destroyed by blast, fire, and firestorm effects. Similarly, Major Cortez F. Enloe, a surgeon in the USAAF who worked with the United States Strategic Bombing Survey (USSBS), said that the 21-kiloton nuclear bomb dropped on Nagasaki did not do as much fire damage as the extended \nconventional airstrikes on Hamburg.\nAmerican historian Gabriel Kolko also echoed this sentiment:\nDuring November 1944 American B-29's began their first incendiary bomb raids on Tokyo, and on 9 March 1945, wave upon wave dropped masses of small incendiaries containing an early version of napalm on the", "-32.28562378179049" ], [ "Hiroshima and Nagasaki. A total of 350,000 civilians died in the incendiary raids on 67 Japanese cities. Because the United States Army Air Forces wanted to use its fission bombs on previously undamaged cities in order to have accurate data on nuclear-caused damage, Kokura, Hiroshima, Nagasaki, and Niigata were preserved from conventional bombing raids. Otherwise, they would all have been firebombed. Intensive conventional bombing would have continued or increased prior to an invasion. The submarine blockade and the United States Army Air Forces's mining operation, Operation Starvation, had effectively cut off Japan's imports. A complementary operation against Japan's railways was", "-31.804394027247326" ], [ "and viewership. Cultural references The atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki are identified as the cause of Japanese whaling. The two Japanese cities were destroyed by atomic weapons during the final stages of World War II under orders by U.S. President Harry Truman, which killed about 220,000 people. In \"Whale Whores\", the Japanese are presented with a doctored picture of the Enola Gay, the B-29 Superfortress bomber that dropped the atomic bomb on Hiroshima. The picture shows a dolphin and a whale piloting the plane to bomb the city. The Miami Dolphins, a National Football League professional football team, are", "-31.78341517006629" ], [ "a larger event than the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki combined. Thousands of homes, industries, roads and transportation structures, schools, hospitals, power plants and other infrastructure were completely destroyed, or severely damaged during 29 months of constant bombing and fires. Siege commemoration Economic and human losses caused incalculable damage to the city's historic sites and cultural landmarks, with much of the damage still visible today. Some ruins are preserved to commemorate those who gave their lives to save the city. As of 2007, there were still empty spaces in St. Petersburg suburbs where buildings had stood before the siege.", "-31.584197890988435" ], [ "of US Secretary of War Henry L. Stimson owing to Kyoto's cultural value; the city had also been excluded from the urban firebombing raids on the same grounds. On 26 July the United States, Britain and China issued the Potsdam Declaration, which demanded Japan's surrender after warning that the country would be devastated if the war continued. The Japanese government rejected the Allied demands on 28 July.\nHiroshima was attacked on 6 August. At 8:15 am local time the B-29 Enola Gay, piloted by Tibbets, dropped the \"Little Boy\" atomic bomb over the center of the city. The resulting explosion killed tens", "-31.521921969018877" ], [ "disaster.\nThese local studies were the best available resources in containing the effects of Chernobyl, yet the researchers themselves recommended a more cohesive effort between the neighboring countries to better anticipate and control future radioecological issues, especially considering the ongoing terrorism threats of the time and the potential use of a \"dirty bomb.\" Japan faced similar issues when the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster occurred, as its government also experienced difficulty organizing collective research efforts.\nAn international radioecology conference was held for the first time in 2007 in Bergen, Norway. European scientists from various countries had been pushing for joint efforts to combat", "-30.859263572117925" ], [ "resulting in the destruction of 44% of the city.\nThe failure to drop the Fat Man at the precise bomb aim point caused the atomic blast to be confined to the Urakami Valley. As a consequence, a major portion of the city was protected by the intervening hills, but even so, the bomb was dropped over the city's industrial valley midway between the Mitsubishi Steel and Arms Works in the south and the Mitsubishi-Urakami Ordnance Works in the north. An estimated 35,000 people were killed and 60,000 injured during the bombing at Nagasaki. Of those killed, 23,200–28,200 were Japanese munitions workers,", "-30.69899543593783" ], [ "refuge in Nagasaki. The 2006 documentary Twice Survived: The Doubly Atomic Bombed of Hiroshima and Nagasaki documented 165 nijū hibakusha (lit. double explosion-affected people), nine of whom claimed to be in the blast zone in both cities. On March 24, 2009, the Japanese government officially recognized Tsutomu Yamaguchi as a double hibakusha. He was confirmed to be 3 km (1.9 mi) from ground zero in Hiroshima on a business trip when the bomb was detonated. He was seriously burnt on his left side and spent the night in Hiroshima. He arrived at his home city of Nagasaki on August 8, the day", "-30.60775287648721" ], [ "Chernobylite Chernobylite is a technogenic compound, a crystalline zirconium silicate with a high (up to 10%) content of uranium as a solid solution. \nIt was discovered in the corium produced in the Chernobyl disaster, a lava-like glassy material formed in the nuclear meltdown of reactor core 4. \nChernobylite is highly radioactive due to its high uranium content and contamination by fission products.", "-30.600263843662106" ], [ "No More Hiroshima No More Hiroshima is a 1984 National Film Board of Canada documentary about two survivors of the 1945 atomic bomb attack on Hiroshima, who are among a small group of Japanese who risk ostracism in their country by identifying themselves as hibakusha: survivors of the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. The 26-minute documentary by Martin Duckworth follows the survivors on their mission to New York City as part of the Japanese peace movement at the second United Nations Special Session on Disarmament held in June, 1982. This 26 minute film received the Genie Award for Best", "-30.523841849528253" ], [ "Ōgaki, among others, were all destroyed during air raids. Hiroshima Castle is notable for having been destroyed in the atomic bomb blast on August 6, 1945. It was also on the grounds of Hiroshima Castle that news of the atomic bombing was first transmitted to Tokyo. When the atomic bomb detonated, a team of volunteer high school girls had just taken their shift on a radio in a small fortified bunker in the main courtyard of Hiroshima Castle. The girls transmitted the message that the city had been destroyed, to the confused disbelief of the officers", "-30.450415804909426" ], [ "Chernobyl. Chernobyl was a design flaw-caused power excursion causing a steam explosion resulting in a graphite fire, uncontained, which lofted radioactive smoke high into the atmosphere; TMI was a slow, undetected leak that lowered the water level around the nuclear fuel, resulting in over a third of it shattering when refilled rapidly with coolant. Unlike Chernobyl, TMI-2's reactor vessel did not fail and contained almost all of the radioactive material. Containment at TMI did not fail. A small quantity of radioactive gases from the leak were vented into the atmosphere through specially designed filters under operator control. A government report", "-30.385908766398643" ], [ "war. After the war, the remains of the Maifeld were buried with rubble from bombed buildings and turned into a park with rolling hills, which was christened Hiroshima-Nagasaki-Park in August 2004 as a memorial to the victims of the nuclear bombs of 1945. An inconspicuous memorial to the victims of the Nazi regime is situated on one of the hills.\nOn the night of 30–31 May 1942, Cologne was the target for the first 1,000 bomber raid of the war. Between 469 and 486 people, around 90% of them civilians, were reported killed, more than 5,000 were injured, and more than", "-30.318012498377357" ], [ "hibakusha in 1956 with the goals of pressuring the Japanese government to improve support of the victims and lobbying governments for the abolition of nuclear weapons.\nSome estimates are that 140,000 people in Hiroshima (38.9% of the population) and 70,000 people in Nagasaki (28.0% of the population) died in 1945, but how many died immediately as a result of exposure to the blast, heat, or due to radiation, is unknown. One Atomic Bomb Casualty Commission (ABCC) report discusses 6,882 people examined in Hiroshima, and 6,621 people examined in Nagasaki, who were largely within 2000 meters from the hypocenter, who suffered injuries", "-30.271277842060954" ], [ "destruction is lawful. Thus, in the judgement of the Court, because of the immense power of the atom bombs, and the distance from enemy land forces, the atomic bombings of both Hiroshima and Nagasaki \"was an illegal act of hostilities under international law as it existed at that time, as an indiscriminate bombardment of undefended cities\".\nNot all governments and scholars of international law agree with the analysis and conclusions of the Shimoda review, because it was not based on positive international humanitarian law. Colonel Javier Guisández Gómez, at the International Institute of Humanitarian Law in San Remo, points out:\nIn examining", "-30.267453069754993" ], [ "It was a firebombing of Tokyo on the night of 9–10 March 1945, which created a conflagration and killed 100,000 people and destroyed 16 square miles of the city, far more damage and deaths than either the atomic bombing of Hiroshima or of Nagasaki.", "-30.161069708436116" ], [ "Chernobyl (miniseries) Premise Chernobyl dramatizes the story of the April 1986 nuclear plant disaster which occurred in the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic, Soviet Union, telling the stories of the people who caused the disaster and those who responded to it. The series depicts some of the lesser known stories of the disaster, including the efforts of the firefighters who were the first responders on the scene, volunteers, and teams of miners tasked with digging a critical tunnel under Reactor 4.\nThe miniseries is based in large part on the recollections of Pripyat locals, as told by Belarusian Nobel laureate Svetlana Alexievich", "-30.14599849807564" ], [ "Chernobyl History Chernobyl was originally part of the land of Kievan Rus′. The first known mention of Chernobyl is from an 1193 charter, which describes it as a hunting-lodge of Knyaz Rurik Rostislavich. In the 13th century, it was a crown village of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. The village was granted to Filon Kmita, a captain of the royal cavalry, as a fiefdom in 1566. The province where Chernobyl is located was transferred to the Kingdom of Poland in 1569, and later annexed by the Russian Empire in 1793. Prior to the 20th century, Chernobyl was inhabited by Ukrainian", "-30.0399914538375" ], [ "twice the amount expelled in the Chernobyl disaster in each instance\".\nBrown says that most of this radioactive contamination over the years at Hanford and Mayak were part of normal operations, but unforeseen accidents did occur and plant management kept this secret, as the pollution continued unabated. Even today, as pollution threats to health and the environment persist, the government keeps knowledge about the associated risks from the public. Manual for Survival: A Chernobyl Guide to the Future Based on a decade of archival and on-the-ground research, Manual for Survival is a gripping exposé of the consequences of nuclear radiation in", "-29.961709710667492" ], [ "nuclear accident in Chernobyl, Ukraine. Chernobyl is near Pripyat, Ukraine and also the country of Belarus. Chernobyl is now a ghost town. They had a malfunction with their nuclear power plant, and now there is still a hot zone there. This hot zone actually has a name, the Chernobyl Exclusion Zone. Violence Violence can induce a hot zone, as occupants are subject to attacks, crossfire, or even direct fire targeted at them specifically. The most identifiable violent hot zones are in war zones, such as the war in Afghanistan. Soldiers are constantly fighting with other soldiers and insurgents to attempt", "-29.949478319380432" ], [ "by the famine that resulted from Stalin's policies. The Polish and German community of Chernobyl was deported to Kazakhstan in 1936, during the Frontier Clearances.\nDuring World War II, Chernobyl was occupied by the German Army from 25 August 1941 to 17 November 1943. The Jewish community was murdered during the Nazi occupation of 1941–44.\nTwenty years later, the area was chosen as the site of the first nuclear power station to be built on Ukrainian soil. The Duga over-the-horizon radar array, several miles outside of Chernobyl, was the origin of the Russian Woodpecker; it was designed as part of an anti-ballistic", "-29.88160341704497" ], [ "of the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, the Chernobyl disaster, accidental, occupational, and medical exposure to ionizing radiation.", "-29.866200661635958" ], [ "Debate over the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki The debate over the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki concerns the ethical, legal, and military controversies surrounding the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki on 6 August and 9 August 1945 at the close of World War II (1939–45). The Soviet Union declared war on Japan an hour before 9 August and invaded Manchuria at one minute past midnight; Japan surrendered on 15 August.\nOn 26 July 1945, United States President Harry S. Truman, United Kingdom Prime Minister Winston Churchill, and Chairman of the Chinese Nationalist Government Chiang Kai-shek issued the", "-29.639395620761206" ], [ "58% of the Mitsubishi Arms Plant was damaged, and about 78% of the Mitsubishi Steel Works. The Mitsubishi Electric Works suffered only 10% structural damage as it was on the border of the main destruction zone. The Nagasaki Arsenal was destroyed in the blast. Although many fires likewise burnt following the bombing, in contrast to Hiroshima where sufficient fuel density was available, no firestorm developed in Nagasaki as the damaged areas did not furnish enough fuel to generate the phenomenon. Instead, the ambient wind at the time pushed the fire spread along the valley.\nAs in Hiroshima, the bombing badly dislocated", "-29.61743635707535" ], [ "of targets during deliberations; Nagasaki was bombed instead.\nIn 1950, construction of Niigata Station was completed, extending the downtown area from Bandai Bridge. A devastating fire in 1955 destroyed much of the downtown area, but eventually the city recovered. In 1964, the old canals that flowed throughout the city were filled in to make way for more roads.\nOn June 16, 1964, at 13:23 Japan Standard Time an earthquake of 7.5 Richter scale struck the city, killing 29 people and causing large-scale property damage, with 1,960 totally destroyed buildings, 6,640 partially destroyed buildings, and 15,298 severely inundated by liquefaction.\nIn 1965, the Agano", "-29.596574782859534" ], [ "intellectuals in Hiroshima established an unofficial body called International Peoples' Tribunal on the Dropping of Atomic Bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki. On 16 July 2007, it delivered its verdict, stating:\nThe Tribunal finds that the nature of damage caused by the atomic bombs can be described as indiscriminate extermination of all life forms or inflicting unnecessary pain to the survivors.\nAbout the legality and the morality of the action, the unofficial tribunal found:\nThe ... use of nuclear weapons in Hiroshima and Nagasaki was illegal in the light of the principles and rules of International Humanitarian Law applicable in armed conflicts, since the bombing", "-29.552954094397137" ], [ "Cultural impact of the Chernobyl disaster This article is about the cultural impact of the Chernobyl disaster, the world's largest nuclear accident, which occurred on April 26, 1986.", "-29.548634813938406" ], [ "missile early warning radar network. With the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991, Chernobyl remained part of Ukraine. Chernobyl nuclear reactor disaster On 26 April 1986, one of the reactors at the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant exploded after unsanctioned experiments on the reactor by plant operators were done improperly. The resulting loss of control was due to design flaws of the RBMK reactor, which made it unstable when operated at low power, and prone to thermal runaway where increases in temperature increase reactor power output.\nChernobyl city was evacuated 9 days after the disaster. The level of contamination with caesium-137", "-29.529434306488838" ], [ "city was a firestorm hazard, the same fire ferocity and building damage produced at Hiroshima by one 16-kiloton nuclear bomb from a single B-29 bomber could have been produced instead by the conventional use of about 1.2 kilotons of incendiary bombs from 220 B-29s distributed over the city.\nWhile the firestorms of Dresden and Hiroshima and the mass fires of Tokyo and Nagasaki occurred within mere months in 1945, the more intense and conventionally lit Hamburg firestorm occurred in 1943. Despite the separation in time, ferocity and area burned, leading modelers of the hypothesis state that these five fires potentially placed", "-29.519067708635703" ], [ "the bombardment of Kobe on 4 February 1945, then peaked early with the most destructive bombing raid in human history (even when the later Silverplate-flown nuclear attacks on Hiroshima and Nagasaki are considered) on the night of 9–10 March 1945 on Tokyo. From then on, the raids intensified, being launched regularly until the end of the war. The attacks succeeded in devastating most large Japanese cities (with the exception of Kyoto and several others), and they gravely damaged Japan's war industries. Although less publicly appreciated, the mining of Japanese ports and shipping routes (Operation Starvation) carried out by B-29s from", "-29.499130860192963" ], [ "Nagasaki National Peace Memorial Hall for the Atomic Bomb Victims The Nagasaki National Peace Memorial Hall for the Atomic Bomb Victims (国立長崎原爆死没者追悼平和祈念館 Kokuritsu Nagasaki Genbaku Shibotsusha Tsuitō Heiwa Kinenkan) is a commemorative monument in Nagasaki, Japan, situated next to its Atomic Bomb Museum. The Peace Park is nearby.\nLike its counterpart in Hiroshima, the hall was constructed as a place to remember and pray for those who died in the 1945 atomic bombing, with photos, memoirs and personal accounts of the event. It also offers information on international co-operation and exchange activities concerning medical treatment for sufferers of nuclear accidents. Overview", "-29.4962270982287" ], [ "Nagasaki Atomic Bomb Museum History of the Museum The museum at the Nagasaki Peace Park replaced the Nagasaki International Culture Hall, where artifacts related to the bombing of Nagasaki were originally exhibited. These artifacts are now supplemented with photographs depicting daily life in Nagasaki before the atomic bomb was dropped, the devastation produced by the bomb, and the history of nuclear arms development. History covered in the museum The Nagasaki Atomic Bomb Museum covers the history of the bombing of Nagasaki, Japan. It portrays scenes of World War II, the dropping of the atomic bomb, the reconstruction of Nagasaki, and", "-29.456433332292363" ], [ "sticks, stones and high-powered slingshots. The plant began operations in October 1986 and is scheduled to close in 2018. Chernobyl disaster The Chernobyl disaster in 1986 was a pivotal event for Germany's anti-nuclear movement. After the radioactive fallout cloud covered large parts of the country, Germans went to great lengths to deal with the contamination. Contaminated crops were destroyed, firemen dressed in protective gear cleaned cars as they crossed the border from other countries, and sand in playground sandboxes was replaced.\nFollowing Chernobyl, the Green Party strived \"for the immediate shut-down of all nuclear facilities\". The SPD pushed for a", "-29.421240948460763" ], [ "from the Chernobyl disaster. Approximately 15 PBq of caesium-137 was released, compared with approximately 85 PBq of caesium-137 at Chernobyl, indicating the release of 26.5 kilograms (58 lb) of caesium-137.\nUnlike Chernobyl, all Japanese reactors were in concrete containment vessels, which limited the release of strontium-90, americium-241, and plutonium, which were among the radioisotopes released by the earlier incident.\nSome 500 PBq of iodine-131 were released, compared to approximately 1,760 PBq at Chernobyl. Iodine-131 has a half-life of 8.02 days, decaying into a stable nuclide. After ten half lives (80.2 days), 99.9% has decayed to xenon-131, a stable isotope. Aftermath Although there were no deaths from radiation", "-29.347276130356477" ], [ "that was previously owned by the national government and used for military purposes. In 1949, a design was selected for the Hiroshima Peace Memorial Park. Hiroshima Prefectural Industrial Promotion Hall, the closest surviving building to the location of the bomb's detonation, was designated the Hiroshima Peace Memorial. The Hiroshima Peace Memorial Museum was opened in 1955 in the Peace Park. Hiroshima also contains a Peace Pagoda, built in 1966 by Nipponzan-Myōhōji.\nNagasaki was also rebuilt after the war, but was dramatically changed in the process. The pace of reconstruction was initially slow, and the first simple emergency dwellings were not provided", "-29.345409075051066" ], [ "died from the bombing, and as many as thirteen may have died. The eight confirmed deaths included a British POW, Royal Air Force Corporal Ronald Shaw, and seven Dutch POWs. One American POW, Joe Kieyoomia, was in Nagasaki at the time of the bombing but survived, reportedly having been shielded from the effects of the bomb by the concrete walls of his cell. There were 24 Australian POWs in Nagasaki, all of whom survived.\nThe radius of total destruction was about 1 mi (1.6 km), followed by fires across the northern portion of the city to 2 mi (3.2 km) south of the bomb. About", "-29.302885513709043" ], [ "and separate plutonium for nuclear weapons, and decided on an area just north of then-tiny Richland. The government built temporary quarters for the more than 45,000 workers and built permanent homes and infrastructure for other personnel in Richland. The city had an overnight population explosion, yet virtually no one knew what the purpose of Hanford was until the destruction of Nagasaki on August 9, 1945, by an atomic weapon containing Hanford-produced plutonium. After World War II Hanford continued work on creating material for nuclear weapons during the Cold War. After the fall of the USSR in 1991, Hanford, the site", "-29.22357015795933" ], [ "of old-fashioned Japanese construction, consisting of timber or timber-framed buildings with timber walls (with or without plaster) and tile roofs. Many of the smaller industries and business establishments were also situated in buildings of timber or other materials not designed to withstand explosions. Nagasaki had been permitted to grow for many years without conforming to any definite city zoning plan; residences were erected adjacent to factory buildings and to each other almost as closely as possible throughout the entire industrial valley. On the day of the bombing, an estimated 263,000 people were in Nagasaki, including 240,000 Japanese residents, 10,000 Korean", "-29.222799560744534" ], [ "the reactor (further away than they were found from Chernobyl), and the amount of radiation in many of them is the amount that caused areas to be declared no-man's-land for Chernobyl.\nIn off-the-record-interviews with Japanese newspapers like the Tokyo Shimbun, former Japanese prime minister Naoto Kan said that there were moments he believed the disaster could have surpassed Chernobyl, many times. At first TEPCO denied that fuel-cores were melted, after all cooling functions were lost. Trade minister Banri Kaieda mentioned that TEPCO seriously considered pulling away all staff members from the plant and leaving it abandoned. Kan could not accept this:", "-29.20168566137727" ], [ "legitimate military targets, and others say that Hiroshima could be considered a legitimate military target while Nagasaki was comparatively undefended. Hiroshima has been argued as not a legitimate target because the major industrial plants were just outside the target area. It has also been argued as a legitimate target because Hiroshima was the headquarters of the regional Second General Army and Fifth Division with 40,000 combatants stationed in the city. Both cities were protected by anti-aircraft guns, which is an argument against the definition of \"undefended\".\nThe Hague Conventions prohibited poison weapons. The radioactivity of the atomic bombings has been described", "-29.18228436589561" ], [ "director of the Nuclear Studies Institute at American University, wrote of President Truman: \"He knew he was beginning the process of annihilation of the species.\" Kuznick said the atomic bombing of Japan \"was not just a war crime; it was a crime against humanity.\"\nTakashi Hiraoka, mayor of Hiroshima, upholding nuclear disarmament, said in a hearing to The Hague International Court of Justice (ICJ): \"It is clear that the use of nuclear weapons, which cause indiscriminate mass murder that leaves [effects on] survivors for decades, is a violation of international law\". Iccho Itoh, the mayor of Nagasaki, declared in the same", "-29.155955276306486" ], [ "buildings (including the 2nd General Army and Fifth Division headquarters). Three days later, on 9 August, the U.S. attacked Nagasaki using a plutonium implosion-design bomb, Fat Man, with the explosion equivalent to about 20 kilotons of TNT, destroying 60% of the city and killing approximately 35,000 people, among them 23,200–28,200 Japanese munitions workers, 2,000 Korean slave laborers, and 150 Japanese combatants.\nOn 1 January 1947, the Atomic Energy Act of 1946 (known as the McMahon Act) took effect, and the Manhattan Project was officially turned over to the United States Atomic Energy Commission.\nOn 15 August 1947, the Manhattan District was abolished.", "-29.018829230684787" ], [ "the city was obscured by clouds and smoke from the neighboring city of Yahata, which had been firebombed the day before. As a result, the bomb was dropped on the secondary target, Nagasaki. Studying the damage caused by the nuclear explosions contributed to Fujita's understanding of downbursts and microbursts as \"starbursts\" of wind hitting the Earth's surface and spreading out.", "-28.975587087741587" ], [ "city of Hiroshima. Exploding with a yield equivalent to 12,500 tonnes of TNT, the blast and thermal wave of the bomb destroyed nearly 50,000 buildings (including the headquarters of the 2nd General Army and Fifth Division) and killed approximately 75,000 people, among them 20,000 Japanese soldiers and 20,000 Korean slave laborers. Detonation of the Fat Man device exploded over the Japanese industrial city of Nagasaki three days later after Hiroshima, destroying 60% of the city and killing approximately 35,000 people, among them 23,200-28,200 Japanese munitions workers, 2,000 Korean slave laborers, and 150 Japanese soldiers. The two bombings remains the only events", "-28.946539155258506" ], [ "as a fuel depot.\nNine kilometres from central Hiroshima, when the atom bomb was dropped on Hiroshima on 6 August 1945, the island was unscathed by the initial blast. Therefore, for the following three weeks the island became the destination of victims of the atomic bombing. In those weeks about 10,000 people were shipped to the island, to an emergency field hospital set-up there temporarily. The emergency field hospital operated from August 6 to August 25. Most of these were never to leave the island alive as thousands perished. The Hiroshima City War Victims Ninoshima Tower was erected on the island", "-28.79947867192095" ], [ "Dai-ichi was more much advanced than that at Chernobyl, he claimed there could be \"nuclear explosion\" rather than (as reported) a hydrogen explosion, if fuel elements had melted down and collected at the bottom of the vessel. He also asserted that radiation levels measured at a reactor north of Fukushima Dai-ichi (i.e. Onagawa) indicated that \"up to 100 kilometers away, we are getting concentrations of plutonium, cesium and iodine\" (sic – presumably radionuclides thereof) released from Fukushima Dai-ichi, making the releases comparable in his opinion to Chernobyl, in terms of human health impact. In response to Fells' characterisation", "-28.757852397393435" ], [ "concentrated in a comparatively small area, and where defence installations against air raids were very strong, that when the destruction of non-military objectives is small in proportion to the large military interests, or necessity, such destruction is lawful. Thus, in the judgement of the Court, because of the immense power of the atom bombs and the distance from enemy (Allied) land forces, the atomic bombings of both Hiroshima and Nagasaki \"was an illegal act of hostilities under international law as it existed at that time, as an indiscriminate bombardment of undefended cities\". Aftermath One of the main arguments of the", "-28.73983380665595" ], [ "of the uranium-235 and plutonium-239 atomic bombs that were released and exploded over Hiroshima and Nagasaki, Japan in August 1945, immediately killing an estimated thirty percent of Hiroshima's civilian and military population, and resulting in an estimated total of 293,000 fatalities in the two cities, from both the immediate blast and long-term radiation exposure.\nThe Belgian Congo became, after the Second World War, one of the first of Canada's commercial partners in Africa, the first trade post outside the British Commonwealth, with a trade commissioner posted in Leopoldville in 1948, ranking it among Canada's top dozen trading partners; in the mid-1950s", "-28.737924937187927" ], [ "of the Russian nationalist Black Hundreds. When the Twersky Dynasty left Chernobyl in 1920, it ceased to exist as a centre of Hasidism.\nChernobyl had a population of 10,800 in 1898, including 7,200 Jews. Chernobyl was occupied in World War I; Ukrainians and Bolsheviks fought over the city in the ensuing Civil War. In the Polish–Soviet War of 1919–20, Chernobyl was taken first by the Polish Army and then by cavalry of the Red Army. From 1921 onwards, it was officially incorporated into the Ukrainian SSR.\nBetween 1929 and 1933, Chernobyl suffered from killings during Stalin's collectivization campaign. It was also affected", "-28.716742233636978" ], [ "140,000 people in Hiroshima (39% of the population) and 70,000 people in Nagasaki (28% of the population) died in 1945, though the number which died immediately as a result of exposure to the blast, heat, or due to radiation, is unknown. One Atomic Bomb Casualty Commission report discusses 6,882 people examined in Hiroshima, and 6,621 people examined in Nagasaki, who were largely within 2000 meters from the hypocenter, who suffered injuries from the blast and heat but died from complications frequently compounded by acute radiation syndrome (ARS), all within about 20–30 days. The most well known of these was Midori", "-28.6376656046923" ], [ "surviving Nagasaki police to organize relief efforts than in Hiroshima. Unfortunately, the general population was not warned of the heat/blast danger following an atomic flash because of the bomb's unknown nature. Many people in Hiroshima and Nagasaki died while searching the skies for the source of the brilliant flash.\nRecent scientific analysis has largely supported the general idea of sheltering indoors in response to a nuclear explosion. Staying indoors can offer protection both from the initial blast as well as the following radioactive fallout that accumulates during the aftermath. Additionally, such a response would leave roads clear for emergency", "-28.637269904196728" ], [ "city's population....Soon small fires spread, connected, grew into a vast firestorm that sucked the oxygen out of the lower atmosphere. The bomb raid was a 'success' for the Americans; they killed 125,000 Japanese in one attack. The Allies bombed Hamburg and Dresden in the same manner, and Nagoya, Osaka, Kobe, and Tokyo again on May 24....in fact the atomic bomb used against Hiroshima was less lethal than massive fire bombing....Only its technique was novel—nothing more....There was another difficulty posed by mass conventional bombing, and that was its very success, a success that made the two modes of human destruction qualitatively", "-28.630625909761875" ], [ "as at Hiroshima, due in part to a southwest wind that pushed the fires away from the city.\nAs the map shows, the Hiroshima firestorm jumped natural firebreaks (river channels), as well as prepared firebreaks. The spread of fire stopped only when it reached the edge of the blast-damaged area, encountering less available fuel.\nAccurate casualty figures are impossible to determine, because many victims were cremated by the firestorm, along with all record of their existence. The Manhattan Project report on Hiroshima estimated that 60% of immediate deaths were caused by fire, but with the caveat that \"many persons near the center", "-28.612965285181417" ], [ "detonation, these fires had merged into a firestorm, pulling in surface air from all directions to feed an inferno which consumed everything flammable.\nThe Hiroshima firestorm was roughly 3.2 kilometres (2.0 mi) in diameter, corresponding closely to the severe blast damage zone. (See the USSBS map, right.) Blast-damaged buildings provided fuel for the fire. Structural lumber and furniture were splintered and scattered about. Debris-choked roads obstructed fire fighters. Broken gas pipes fueled the fire, and broken water pipes rendered hydrants useless. At Nagasaki, the fires failed to merge into a single firestorm, and the fire-damaged area was only one fourth as great", "-28.58830422328174" ], [ "the Bosnian War. Hiroshima, Japan In 1996, the Hiroshima Peace Memorial was acknowledged as a Unesco World Heritage Site. Originally completed in 1905, the building was known at the time of the Hiroshima atomic bomb explosion on August 6, 1945 as the Hiroshima Prefectural Industrial Promotion Hall. Although suffering considerable damage, it was the closest structure to the hypocenter of the explosion to withstand the blast without being leveled to the ground. It has been preserved in the condition it was in after the bombing to serve as a symbol of hope for world peace and nuclear", "-28.566168870805996" ], [ "mostly believed to be related to usage errors (dosimeters left outside or exposed to X-ray luggage screening). Disposal of radioactive ash Due to objections from concerned residents it became more and more difficult to dispose of the ashes of burned household garbage in and around Tokyo. The ashes of waste facilities in the Tohoku, Kanto and Kōshin'etsu regions were proven to be contaminated with radioactive caesium. According to the guidelines of the Ministry of Environment, ashes radiating 8,000 becquerels per kilogram or lower could be buried. Ashes with caesium levels between 8,000 and 100,000 becquerels should be secured, and buried", "-28.450110394798685" ], [ "in a controversial affair.\nFollowing the 1986 Chernobyl disaster, radiation levels were much higher than originally thought, and some farmers in the eastern part of France had to plow under tainted lettuce and cabbage crops. French authorities at the time of the Chernobyl disaster were \"criticised for a lack of transparency, with many interpreting officials' declarations as saying that radioactive pollution had not crossed the border from Germany into France\". 2000s In January 2004, up to 15,000 anti-nuclear protesters marched in Paris against a new generation of nuclear reactors, the European Pressurised Reactor (EPR). Also in 2004, an anti-nuclear protester, Sebastien", "-28.419609689881327" ], [ "(8 percent).\nThe Chernobyl disaster was a nuclear accident that occurred on 26 April 1986 at the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant in Ukraine. \nAn explosion and fire released large quantities of radioactive contamination into the atmosphere, which spread over much of Western USSR and Europe. \nIt is considered the worst nuclear power plant accident in history, and is one of only two classified as a level 7 event on the International Nuclear Event Scale (the other being the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster). The battle to contain the contamination and avert a greater catastrophe ultimately involved over 500,000 workers and cost an estimated", "-28.3851107253613" ], [ "Chernobyl: Consequences of the Catastrophe for People and the Environment Authors The primary author, the late biologist Alexey V. Yablokov, was a member of the Russian Academy of Science, and was deputy chair of the commission of ecology of the USSR' Parliament (1989-1991), councillor on ecology and public health to the President of the Russian Federation (1991-1993) and chair of the state commission on dumping of radioactive wastes in seas surrounding the Russian Federation (1992-1993). He is also a co-founder of Greenpeace Russia. From 1977 to 1987, the late Prof. Vassily B. Nesterenko was the director of the Institute of", "-28.353629769088002" ], [ "Hiroshima Peace Memorial Museum Museum content According to the introduction in the Hiroshima Peace Memorial Museum's English guide: \n\"The Peace Memorial Museum collects and displays belongings left by the victims, photos, and other materials that convey the horror of that event, supplemented by exhibits that describe Hiroshima before and after the bombings and others that present the current status of the nuclear age. Each of the items displayed embodies the grief, anger, or pain of real people. Having now recovered from the A-bomb calamity, Hiroshima's deepest wish is the elimination of all nuclear weapons and the realization of a genuinely", "-28.35334036144195" ], [ "zero of the nuclear attack on Hiroshima, Shukkei-en suffered extensive damage, and then became a refuge for victims of the war. After renovations, it reopened in 1951.", "-28.278250419534743" ], [ "Bombing of Kobe in World War II Background Kobe was the sixth-largest city in Japan at the time, with a population of roughly 1 million. The houses were mostly built with wood and thus highly flammable, suitable for starting and sustaining large fires. Second, it was Japan's largest port, home to the largest concentration of shipbuilding and marine-engine manufacturing. Kobe was also an important city for transportation and business. National highways ran through the city, especially through the congested business section, and Kobe contained business facilities for steel, machinery, rubber, railway equipment, and ordnance. Lastly, Kobe's low water supply, consisting", "-28.270547320193145" ], [ "of the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant on day one of the accident and the ground zero sites of U.S. atomic bombings in Japan (6 hours after detonation) are now relatively safe because the radioactivity has decayed to a low level.\nMany of the fission products decay through very short-lived isotopes to form stable isotopes, but a considerable number of the radioisotopes have half-lives longer than a day.\nThe radioactivity in the fission product mixture is initially mostly caused by short lived isotopes such as Iodine-131 and ¹⁴⁰Ba; after about four months ¹⁴¹Ce, ⁹⁵Zr/⁹⁵Nb and ⁸⁹Sr take the largest share, while after about", "-28.264096854807576" ], [ "confinement over the 4th Chernobyl Unit. The exhibition was held in the framework of the 25th session of the Committee on Sustainable Energy of the United Nations Economic Commission for Europe\n\"Chernobyl exploded not in Ukraine. It exploded on the Planet Earth. There are no limits for radiation, there is no salvation from it. Each nuclear power plant in the world is a red button. No one knows when it is pressed again. How many fates should be sacrificed to make understandable for us that our salvation is in the transition to energy of solar, wind, biomass. Renewable energy is a", "-28.24659549712669" ], [ "move into the city of Hiroshima. On August 6, 1945, the city was devastated by the atomic bomb attack. Shōda's home at that time was only two kilometers from ground zero. By February of the next year her father had died of intestinal cancer and later her son also fell ill.\nFollowing Japan's surrender, Shōda started writing traditional tanka poetry on the theme of the atomic bombing. She had difficulty publishing both because of the subject and because of her relative lack of experience. In 1946 she succeeded in publishing 39 of her poems in the journal Fuschichō. In 1947, evading", "-28.223993716390396" ], [ "first plutonium core went in a special C-54. A joint targeting committee of the Manhattan District and USAAF was established to determine which cities in Japan should be targets, and recommended Kokura, Hiroshima, Niigata, and Kyoto. At this point, Secretary of War Henry L. Stimson intervened, announcing that he would be making the targeting decision, and that he would not authorize the bombing of Kyoto on the grounds of its historical and religious significance. Groves therefore asked Arnold to remove Kyoto not just from the list of nuclear targets, but from targets for conventional bombing as well. One of Kyoto's", "-28.188388173246494" ], [ "Hiroshima shortly after the nuclear bombings by Mr. Tatsuo Yamamoto (1916 – 2004), from the town of Hoshino. This flame was later merged with a flame started in Nagasaki. In 1968 members of the Tokyo's ‘Shitamachi People Association’ put forward the idea of lighting the flame at the precinct of Tosho-gu shrine in Tokyo's Ueno Park. In April 1989, an “Association for the Flame of Hiroshima and Nagasaki Lit at Ueno Toshogu” was founded and tens of thousands of people took part in the fundraising for over one year. The construction of the monument was completed on July 21,", "-28.18120243609883" ], [ "had reached a peak of over 381,000 earlier in the war but prior to the atomic bombing, the population had steadily decreased because of a systematic evacuation ordered by the Japanese government. At the time of the attack, the population was approximately 340,000–350,000. Residents wondered why Hiroshima had been spared destruction by firebombing. Some speculated that the city was to be saved for U.S. occupation headquarters, others thought perhaps their relatives in Hawaii and California had petitioned the U.S. government to avoid bombing Hiroshima. More realistic city officials had ordered buildings torn down to create long, straight firebreaks. These continued", "-28.154610383498948" ], [ "plants at Hanford and Mayak, over a period of four decades, “both released more than 200 million curies of radioactive isotopes into the surrounding environment -- twice the amount expelled in the Chernobyl disaster in each instance”.\nMost of this radioactive contamination over the years at Hanford and Mayak were part of normal operations, but unforeseen accidents did occur and plant management kept this secret, as the pollution continued unabated. Even today, as pollution threats to health and the environment persist, the government keeps knowledge about the associated risks from the public. Bomb detonations About 3.5 tons of plutonium have been", "-28.14287239235273" ], [ "the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki still fresh in the Japanese consciousness, public sentiment was strongly against the use, and even presence on Japanese soil, of nuclear weapons. This sentiment was evidenced by the widely reported accidental irradiation of the Daigo Fukuryu Maru from a U.S. hydrogen bomb test in 1954. News of the incident aroused public fears over radiation and outcry against atomic and nuclear weapons testing.\nOn 28 July 1955, the U.S. announced its intention to equip military bases in Japan with Honest Johns, conventional missiles which could also be fitted with atomic warheads. The Eisenhower Administration and", "-28.137156350538135" ], [ "calls it \"hypocrisy\", and claims that the long-term consequences of nuclear radiation would be played down by the authorities and the suffering of the victims is still tabooized. Title The German language title Als die Sonne vom Himmel fiel literally means When the sun fell from the heaven, and is referring to the atomic bombing of Hiroshima. For the worldwide distribution, the title The Day The Sun Fell is used. Background On 6 August 1945, some 70,000–80,000 people, or around 30% of the population of Hiroshima, were killed by the blast and resultant firestorm, and another 70,000 injured. According to", "-28.136112731473986" ], [ "bombers during this period. According to Curatola and historian James J. Weingartner, both firebombing and nuclear attacks were partially the result of a dehumanization of the enemy, with the latter saying, \"[T]he widespread image of the Japanese as sub-human constituted an emotional context which provided another justification for decisions which resulted in the death of hundreds of thousands\" across Japan. On the second day after the Nagasaki bomb, President Harry S. Truman stated: \"The only language they seem to understand is the one we have been using to bombard them. When you have to deal with a beast you have", "-28.112345859175548" ], [ "and only combat use of nuclear weaponry. These two bombs killed approximately 120,000 people in a matter of minutes, and as many as a result of nuclear radiation in the following weeks, months and years. The bombs killed as many as 140,000 people in Hiroshima and 80,000 in Nagasaki by the end of 1945.\nAt the Yalta agreement, the US, the UK, and the USSR had agreed that the USSR would enter the war on Japan within three months of the defeat of Germany in Europe. This Soviet–Japanese War led to the fall of Japan's Manchurian occupation, Soviet occupation of South", "-28.101183941558702" ], [ "in the soil and concrete. Chernobyl Because plutonium oxide is very involatile, most of the plutonium in the reactor was not released during the fire. However that which was released can be measured. V.I. Yoschenko et al. reported that grass and forest fires can make the caesium, strontium and plutonium become mobile in the air again. Fukushima The ongoing crisis at this site includes Spent Fuel Pools on the upper floors, exposed to the elements with complex MOX and plutonium products. The Japanese Government Taskforce has asked for submissions to the International Research Institute for Nuclear Decommissioning in regards to", "-28.092462533742946" ], [ "to Nagasaki and Hiroshima in September 1945. On October 24, 1945, a U.S. military policeman stopped a Nippon Eigasha cameraman from continuing to film in Nagasaki. All Nippon Eigasha's reels were confiscated by the American authorities, but they were requested by the Japanese government, and declassified. The public release of film footage of the city post-attack, and some research about the effects of the attack, was restricted during the occupation of Japan, but the Hiroshima-based magazine, Chugoku Bunka, in its first issue published on March 10, 1946, devoted itself to detailing the damage from the bombing.\nThe book Hiroshima, written by", "-28.090618595539127" ], [ "the time of the bombing but survived, reportedly having been shielded from the effects of the bomb by the concrete walls of his cell. Double survivors People who suffered the effects of both bombings are known as nijū hibakusha in Japan.\nA documentary called Twice Survived: The Doubly Atomic Bombed of Hiroshima and Nagasaki was produced in 2006. The producers found 165 people who were victims of both bombings, and the production was screened at the United Nations.\nOn March 24, 2009, the Japanese government officially recognized Tsutomu Yamaguchi (1916–2010) as a double hibakusha. Tsutomu Yamaguchi was confirmed to be 3 kilometers from", "-28.089780958282063" ], [ "the Irpin city council. Chernobyl zone The north-western end of the oblast is a part of the Chernobyl Exclusion Zone due to the radioactive contamination caused by the Chernobyl nuclear reactor accident. The largest cities within zone are Chernobyl and Prypiat, which are now abandoned (see ghost towns). The city of Slavutych was built outside of the zone to host evacuated residents of Prypyat and personnel of the zone installations. Demographics Kiev Oblast's largest nationality group are Ukrainians (1,684,800 people, or 92.5%), followed by Russians, Jews, Belarusians, Poles, and others. The current estimated population (excluding Kiev) is around 1.72 million (as", "-28.08905489119934" ], [ "these areas with the central station was not rebuilt either.\nIn the destroyed residential areas many houses were rebuilt across the street and therefore do not form connected blocks anymore. The hills of the Öjendorfer Park are formed by the debris of destroyed houses.\nIn January 1946, Major Cortez F. Enloe, a surgeon in the USAAF who worked on the United States Strategic Bombing Survey (USSBS), said that the fire effects of the atomic bomb dropped on Nagasaki \"were not nearly as bad as the effects of the R.A.F. raids on Hamburg on July 27th 1943\". He estimated that more than 40,000", "-28.075683269067667" ], [ "Chernobyl (Hasidic dynasty) Chernobyl (Yiddish: טשערנאָביל‎) is a Hasidic dynasty that was founded by Grand Rabbi Menachem Nachum Twersky, known by the name of his work as the Meor Einayim. The dynasty is named after the northern Ukrainian town of Chernobyl, where Rabbi Nachum served as the maggid (lit. [communal] preacher). The attribution of Chernobyl Hasidism continued from the second generation of Hasidic Judaism to the present day. Chernobyl is considered one of the famous courtyards of the Hasidic movement. The lineage has existed since its establishment and to this day in a row, although not always with the name Chernobyl.", "-28.05663689849098" ], [ "Chornobyl Raion Geography The Chernobyl Raion was located in the northern portion of Kiev Oblast, at the time an administrative portion of the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic. To the raion's east, it bordered upon the Kiev Reservoir; to its south, the Vyshhorod Raion; to its southwest, the Ivankiv Raion; and to its west, the Poliske Raion, significant portions of which also suffered due to the Chernobyl disaster.\nToday, the territory of the former raion is administratively part of the Ivankiv Raion. Prior to its liquidation, the Chernobyl Raion had an area of 2,000 km² (770 sq mi) and a population of 44,000. The Pripyat", "-27.968976178024604" ], [ "and the two atomic bombs dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki in August 1945, as Japan's fragile housing and cottage industry made themselves easily vulnerable to attack, thus completely destroying Japanese industrial production (see Air Raids on Japan). It was less evident that it held true for the bombing of Germany. During the war, German industrial production actually increased, despite a sustained Allied bombing campaign.\nAs the German Luftwaffe's main task was to support the army, it never developed a successful heavy bomber. The prime proponent of strategic bombing, Luftwaffe Chief of Staff General Walther Wever, died in an air crash in", "-27.92232905549463" ], [ "bomb dropped on Hiroshima reached a height of six kilometers (middle troposphere) within a few minutes and then dissipated due to winds, while the individual fires within the city took almost three hours to form into a firestorm and produce a pyrocumulus cloud, a cloud that is assumed to have reached upper tropospheric heights, as over its multiple hours of burning, the firestorm released an estimated 1000 times the energy of the bomb.\nAs the incendiary effects of a nuclear explosion do not present any especially characteristic features, it is estimated by those with Strategic bombing experience that as the", "-27.90787601871125" ], [ "and the Mitsubishi-Urakami Ordnance Works in the north. 53 seconds after its release, the bomb exploded at 11:02 a.m. at an approximate altitude of 1,800 feet.\nLess than a second after the detonation, the north of the city was destroyed and 35,000 people were killed. Among the deaths were 6,200 out of the 7,500 employees of the Mitsubishi Munitions plant, and 24,000 others (including 2,000 Koreans) who worked in other war plants and factories in the city, as well as 150 Japanese soldiers. The industrial damage in Nagasaki was high, leaving 68–80% of the non-dock industrial production destroyed. It was the second", "-27.893976757435667" ], [ "Urakami district, which was a traditionally rustic and isolated suburb. However, the population soared after the 1920s when the district was chosen as the site for munitions factories. An industrial zone was quickly created. Additionally, the Urakami district was home to the Nagasaki Medical College. When the bomb was dropped at 11:02 A.M. on August 9, 1945, the 20 neighborhoods within a one-kilometer radius of the hypocenter were completely destroyed by the heat flash and blast winds generated by the explosion. They were then reduced to ashes by the fires which followed. Within 2 km of the hypocenter, roughly 80% of", "-27.86163760688214" ], [ "evidence, however, it is clear that the two atomic bombs ... alone were not decisive in inducing Japan to surrender. Despite their destructive power, the atomic bombs were not sufficient to change the direction of Japanese diplomacy. The Soviet invasion was. Without the Soviet entry in the war, the Japanese would have continued to fight until numerous atomic bombs, a successful allied invasion of the home islands, or continued aerial bombardments, combined with a naval blockade, rendered them incapable of doing so.\nWard Wilson wrote that \"after Nagasaki was bombed only four major cities remained which could readily have been hit with", "-27.85508178244345" ], [ "they would have done had they remained standing. The noncombustible debris produced by the blast frequently covered and prevented the burning of combustible material.\nFire experts suggest that unlike Hiroshima, due to the nature of modern U.S. city design and construction, a firestorm in modern times is unlikely after a nuclear detonation. This does not exclude fires from being started, but means that these fires will not form into a firestorm, due largely to the differences between modern building materials and those used in World War II era Hiroshima.\nThere are two types of eye injuries from the thermal radiation of a weapon:\nFlash", "-27.814299501478672" ], [ "Hiroshima: Out of the Ashes Synopsis The story follows the bombing and aftermath of the Nuclear bomb drop on the city of Hiroshima, told from several different perspectives. Release Hiroshima: Out of the Ashes was released on DVD on April 24, 2007.", "-27.771329545372282" ], [ "residents, 2,500 conscripted Korean workers, 9,000 Japanese soldiers, 600 conscripted Chinese workers, and 400 Allied prisoners of war in a camp to the north of Nagasaki. Events on the ground Although the bomb was more powerful than the one used on Hiroshima, its effects were confined by hillsides to the narrow Urakami Valley. Of 7,500 Japanese employees who worked inside the Mitsubishi Munitions plant, including \"mobilized\" students and regular workers, 6,200 were killed. Some 17,000–22,000 others who worked in other war plants and factories in the city died as well. Casualty estimates for immediate deaths vary widely, ranging from 22,000", "-27.714954892671813" ], [ "Hiroshima was less lethal than massive fire bombing. The war had so brutalized the American leaders that burning vast numbers of civilians no longer posed a real predicament by the spring of 1945. Given the anticipated power of the atomic bomb, which was far less than that of fire bombing, no one expected small quantities of it to end the war. Only its technique was novel—nothing more. By June 1945 the mass destruction of civilians via strategic bombing did impress Stimson as something of a moral problem, but the thought no sooner arose than he forgot it, and in no", "-27.69238636782393" ], [ "to minimize the risks during takeoff. The bomb detonated at an altitude of 1,750 feet (530 m) with a blast that was later estimated to be the equivalent of 13 kilotons of TNT. An area of approximately 4.7 square miles (12 km²) was destroyed. Japanese officials determined that 69% of Hiroshima's buildings were destroyed and another 6–7% damaged. About 70,000 to 80,000 people, of whom 20,000 were Japanese combatants and 20,000 were Korean slave laborers, or some 30% of the population of Hiroshima, were killed immediately, and another 70,000 injured.\nOn the morning of 9 August 1945, a second B-29 (Bockscar), piloted by", "-27.689622204139596" ], [ "elements have been released into the air via steam; and into the water leaking into groundwater or the ocean. The expert who prepared a frequently cited Austrian Meteorological Service report asserted that the \"Chernobyl accident emitted much more radioactivity and a wider diversity of radioactive elements than Fukushima Daiichi has so far, but it was iodine and caesium that caused most of the health risk – especially outside the immediate area of the Chernobyl plant.\" Iodine-131 has a half-life of 8 days while caesium-137 has a half-life of over 30 years. The IAEA has developed a method that weighs the \"radiological", "-27.675144039676525" ], [ "Chernobyl: The Final Warning Plot Based on a true account of events, the plot interweaves the stories of a fireman at the nuclear power plant, his pregnant wife, the government officials whose policies helped and hindered rescue efforts and America's Dr. Robert Gale (Jon Voight), who led the international medical team that helped treat survivors of the disaster. Robert Gale published the original account of his experiences under the same title in 1988 with Thomas Hauser; it was adapted by Ernest Kinoy for the screenplay.", "-27.64008501680655" ], [ "contaminated by the Chernobyl incident, specifically the surroundings of Bryansk and border regions with Belarus and Ukraine. Due to this, soil and plant particles contaminated by radioactive material could be released into the air and spread over wider areas. The Russian government indicated that there had been no discernible increase in radiation, even though Greenpeace accuses the government of denial. France's Institut de radioprotection et de sûreté nucléaire (Radioprotection and Nuclear Safety Institute) issued its own analysis on 12 August, and concluded that there was no health risk at the time, but that marginally elevated levels of radiation may be", "-27.63724528660532" ], [ "report puts this figure at 200,000 or more. According to WHO, by mid-2005, only about 50 deaths could be directly associated with the disaster. Public opinion after Chernobyl As the west began to learn about the Chernobyl incident, fear and anxiety about nuclear energy swelled in U.S. public opinion. Even as early as 1975, anti-nuclear movement coalitions were making strides in reducing the power of the nuclear industry. The coalitions were able to instill fear in the population over the many errors in the daily operations of nuclear energy plants, causing them to be constantly shut down, and exposing the", "-27.61415965562628" ], [ "Chernobyl disaster involved a runaway chain reaction but the result was a low-powered steam explosion from the relatively small release of heat, as compared with a bomb. However, the reactor complex was destroyed by the heat, as well as by ordinary burning of the graphite exposed to air. Such steam explosions would be typical of the very diffuse assembly of materials in a nuclear reactor, even under the worst conditions.\nIn addition, other steps can be taken for safety. For example, power plants licensed in the United States require a negative void coefficient of reactivity (this means that if water is", "-27.551871424540877" ], [ "due to its visual resemblance and the nuclear reactor design used at both Chernobyl and Ignalina (RBMK nuclear power reactor). In early June 2018, production moved to Ukraine to shoot minor final scenes. The filming of Chernobyl took 16 weeks. Music The musical score was composed by Icelandic composer Hildur Guðnadóttir. The score incorporated some sound recordings from an actual nuclear power plant. Historical accuracy The series was exhaustively researched, but some liberties were taken for dramatic purposes, such as Legasov being present at the trial. The epilogue acknowledges that the character of Ulana Khomyuk is fictional, a composite of", "-27.53456869540969" ], [ "and took off for the southwest. After flying for about three hours, while still nearly 160 km (100 mi) from Hiroshima, he and his pilot saw a great cloud of smoke from the bomb. After circling the city to survey the damage they landed south of the city, where the staff officer, after reporting to Tokyo, began to organize relief measures. Tokyo's first indication that the city had been destroyed by a new type of bomb came from President Truman's announcement of the strike, sixteen hours later. Nagasaki during World War II The city of Nagasaki had been one of the largest", "-27.53199122764636" ], [ "the bombing, 171,000 were rendered homeless.\nFollowing the attack, a statement from President Truman was broadcast to announce that the United States had used an atomic bomb against Hiroshima and that further air attacks would be conducted on Japan's industrial facilities and transportation network. The statement included a threat that if Japan did not surrender under the terms specified in the Potsdam Declaration it would be subjected to \"a rain of ruin from the air, the like of which has never been seen on this earth\". Two days later, daylight incendiary raids were conducted against the cities of Yawata and Fukuyama;", "-27.527273653133307" ] ]

[ "One I can finally answer! A lot of misinformation already in this thread about why the delay happens... I work for a major credit card company and it's my job to find a way to get payments done faster. The major hold up is the amount of time it takes to process so many transactions and the methods that we use (here in the US it's ACH - Automated Clearing House and Direct Credit) aren't the best. Any payment made via ACH has to clear the Federal Reserve System as well and their process only runs once per day. Direct Credit methods should be better since they eliminate that step, but the difference in communication tools, the times at when the banks run their \"processing streams,\" and the sheer volume of transfers all clog up the direct credit system. TL;DR - 2 methods to get payments. 1 has to go through the government and the other is like two people trying to have a conversation by writing letters back and forth in a foreign language at different times. Edit1: I can't go into details about how we and/or banks are fixing this because it's all proprietary stuff, but be assured that it's getting better. I'm really good at what I do and I'm not some greedy person looking to help my company capitalize on \"float\" capital like so many people are saying below. I'm pushing my company to give up float and they agree. We are now trying to get banks on board and they are coming around to our new solutions. I promise, it'll be faster and faster as time goes on.", "I've worked as a software developer for a bank before and this bank could not perform instant transactions between banks because of technical reasons. the database was ancient and was designed to copy the idea of a night and day horseman that physically carried transactions between banks after.closing and before opening. possibly back in the day not all banks were electronic so they had to be compatible. A fast horse was used to synch data between branches and try and avoid double spending etc. this archaic model is really really really ingrained in the database and systems today --Edit It might also be worth pointing out there didn't appear to any 'standard' protocol for banks to talk to each other with or confirm transactions. Eg features like standardised two phase commit (Which would be required to keep two separate databases in sync properly) xml, soap or whatever The closest thing they had to a 'standard' format was basically a fixed width ugly text file thing that got FTPed about or posted via HTTP Put unencrypted. Bunches of them were basically concatenated together and then processed into either the 'night' database or the 'day' database depending on whether it was the close of business or start of business.", "You should listen to the Planet Money podcast episode about this very subject, they do a decent job of explaining why it takes so long to transfer money to/from a bank in the US: URL_0 ", "It's the bank making a profit off of the transaction, for the day or so between you making the transaction and the reciever getting it, the bank has that money and does not owe you interest for it.", "Here in Europe, banks hold on to your money for a few days and use it to do their own \"business\". This was shown in a court case by someone who was pissed off that his bills did not get paid on time even thoug he he took the necessary steps on time. The banks then admitted they held on to the transferred money on an \"own\" account so they could profit off of it, by using it as their own. Since then, a legal limit of 7 days has been installed, at least in the Netherlands. If your payment has not arrived after that time and late claims against you are filed, you can force the bank to pay those.", "To answer the sub-question first, yes they should be near instantaneous. In Europe we now have a FPS (Faster Payment System) which is near instant, and you'll find it between all the big English banks, and all online payments are super fast. At my firm we still use BACS, which is a 3 day system. The three days are: The bank sends money to BACS, BACS processes the money, then BACS sends the money to the other bank. So I imagine your bank is using the old (probably cheaper) system.", "There is an excellent, detailed explanation here: URL_0 The computing paradigm in the banking world is batch processing. A transaction queue is built up during the day, then processed by a mainframe after each business day - and not necessarily in chronological order. (This is so ingrained in US banking that there are actually consumer protection laws around the order in which transactions must be processed in the batch.) This is partly because Online (live) Transaction Processing at large scale is a Hard Problem, one that companies like Google and Facebook have been breaking ground on in the past decade. We can do it pretty well now, but it's different when you're working with money. Credit card transactions are merely promises - you can correct a bad credit card transaction by simply canceling the promise. With money, once it's transferred, it's irreversibly gone. (Otherwise what the recipient has is not actually \"liquid.\") It's incredibly hard (read: expensive) to build a system which that's instantaneous, reliable enough to be trusted with irreversible transfers, and performant enough to handle every single transfer of value in the US in a timely fashion. Batch processing is solved. IBM will sell you solutions around that paradigm which are nearly infallible; mainframes are *rock solid.* There is a stable and trusted ecosystem here, we know it works at scale, and we can do it cheaply. The delays between settlements allow a large enough window that we can spot and correct problems in pending transactions before any money is actually gone, so the risks are acceptably low. The engineering burden is relatively low because unlike a live system where you have to be fast and right all of the time with no exceptions ever, if something goes wrong in the batch it can be fixed before morning. (Incidentially, batch processing time in the US is during the workday in India and a lot of IT consulting firms take advantage of this fact.) ACH (\"direct deposit\") is based on batch processing system and takes three days because you have 1) sending bank's batch, 2) ACH's batch and 3) receiving bank's batch before money is available for the receiver to spend. It's cheaper for the banks so it's how money usually moves. Instantaneous payments do exist through a service called FedWire - central banks (through the construct of sovereignty) are held to be infallible, so everyone trusts the Federal Reserve to be 100% reliable. If the First Bank of South Bumfuck, North Dakota to Citi to pay me $1,000,000, Citi would wait until the bank actually moved $1,000,000 to Citi before letting me walk away with a suitcase full of cash because that bank might not even *have* $1,000,000. But the federal government is good for all of its promises, so the First Bank tells the Federal Reserve to tell Citi to pay me - knowing that if it fucked up, the United States of America will make it pay. Citi knows that the federal government will make good on First Bank's promise even if it doesn't. So it is reasonable for Citi to let me walk away with the money immediately. FedWire is live but expensive to operate, so its transaction fees are prohibitive for small-time users. I can technically make a wire transfer from my bank account which would clear instantly, but it'd cost $25. It's just riskier and more difficult for everyone involved so this kind of makes sense. Incidentally FedWire, ACH, and the Fed's other functions along these lines explain why the federal government has a right to regulate banks: it promises others that they are stable and correct, so it takes steps to make sure that this is so. It can also create money this way - normally when it tells a bank \"you now have $100m\" it holds someone else responsible for handing over $100m, but it can choose not to. Because it *is* the clearing-house, *is* the entity designed to prevent double-spends, it gets to double-spend. Bitcoin is (supposed to be) equally reliable without involving any such authority, making it very popular with people who don't like authority or are uncomfortable with the idea of an infallible, all-powerful entity forcing everyone to play fair but exempting itself from its own rules. (I don't have the economics background to have a strong view here, but you can see why some people are opposed to central banking.)", "Well - when Wachovia ran my accounts they could process e-payments often in less than 24 hrs. Now WellFargo 3-5 Days - yes it's all bullshit: 1) By floating the cash ( it is out of your account but not delivered) the back can use this cash for commerce or actually show free cash on their balance sheet. 2) Managing expectation & up selling \"speed\" - for some accounts you are able to pay a fee and get fast processing. Of course - the faster transaction cost them nothing extra - so they are throttling the transaction to be able to charge for \" premium\" features. 3) By slowing down the transactions they know they create situations where you \"need\" to use the premium content. In today's world (IMO)- it is all about product and market position, finding ways to generate revenue...all while banks and financial institutions make record profits.", "I experienced the joy of delayed international bank transfers this week in attempting to send $500. US dollars to my daughter in Australia. The money was taken out of my account over a week ago but not a penny has yet shown up in hers. I could have sent it by steamship or covered wagon and it would have gotten there faster!", "Here is a pod cast the explains how bank transfers work. URL_0 the podcast was made by the guys at planet money. they break down econ topics into easy to understand and fun to listen to shows. What elpechos said is pretty spot on, and the podcast explains that old outdated system in detail.", "Federal regulations are honestly the main reason why.", "They don't in Iceland, they are instant. We have a central clearing house called RB that all the banks process their transactions through. RB also issues bills (claims) to individuals and allows you to pay them via simple bank transactions. This is only for domestic transactions though, international transactions, if you are allowed, take the usual amount of time (3 days).", "This is super interesting to me because I deposited a $1000 check and they say it will take 12 days to clear. They gave me $200 and are holding the rest until the 18th. I deposited on the 6th." ]

[ [ "from the sender's account immediately upon initiating the transfer. As long as both sender and recipient bank are participating institutions, the funds are sent and received instantly. However in some cases, for example two people with different banking institutions, transfers may take anywhere between near instant, or up to a few hours for the receiving party to get their emailed notice.\nHowever, like any online banking mode of payment, e-Transfers are vulnerable to phishing. Many Canadians in areas where the Big Five banks have little presence or who do not bank online are penalized by a surcharge when receiving e-Transfers. Unlike", "-32.38229844649322" ], [ "Credit Transfer (SCT) allows for the transfer of funds from one bank account to another. SEPA clearing rules require that payments made before the cutoff point on a working day, be credited to the recipients account within one working day. SEPA Instant Credit Transfer SEPA Instant Credit Transfer (SCT Inst), also called SEPA Instant Payment, provides for instant crediting of a payees (less than ten seconds, initially, with a maximum of twenty seconds in exceptional circumstances).\nThis scheme was launched in November 2017, and was at that time operational for end customers in eight euro zone countries, and is expected soon", "-31.287719088373706" ], [ "the Automated Clearing House network.\nA bank transfer (also known as a wire transfer or credit transfer) is a method of transferring money from one person or institution (entity) to another. A wire transfer can be made from one bank account to another bank account or through a transfer of cash at a cash office. A bank wire transfer is often the most expedient method for transferring funds between bank accounts. The transfer messages are sent via a secure system (such as SWIFT or Fedwire) utilizing IBAN and BIC codes. Online bank transfer systems in Europe are popular alternative payment", "-31.250976031820755" ], [ "in the United States, although an ACH Transfer or direct deposit is the US electronic version of the giro transfer.\nOnline Banking ePayments (OBeP) are similar to giro transfers, but are designed specifically for use with online commerce. With OBeP, during the online checkout process, the merchant redirects the consumer to their financial institution’s online banking site where they login and authorize charges. After charges are authorized, the financial institution redirects the consumer back to the merchant site. With some services, like Trustly, the merchant can embed an iframe on their site so that the consumer doesn't have to leave", "-30.47941055468982" ], [ "a real giro, an e-Transfer requires intervention from the recipient for every single transaction unless the recipient has signed up for Direct Deposit. An e-Transfer goes stale much faster than a cheque (after 30 days, the e-Transfer is automatically cancelled and the sender is notified by e-mail to retrieve the funds).", "-30.13794181335834" ], [ "supported credit, debit or transit card is selected as a user's Express Transit card, the user can simply hold their device near the reader on a supported transit gate to complete payment.\nOn iPhone XS and iPhone XS Max, Express Transit cards can be used even if the device has powered off due to a drained battery, this feature can last for five hours after the device has powered off.\nExpress Mode is also available for contactless student ID cards stored in the Wallet app. Peer-to-Peer (P2P) Payments Apple Cash (formerly Apple Pay Cash) is a feature that allows the transfer of", "-30.10966149441083" ], [ "with transferring US$500 million from an account belonging to the central bank to a bank account in the UK. Authorities in the UK froze this amount as it was a suspicious transaction and the money can now be returned to the central bank.", "-29.865817723766668" ], [ "the internet, funds will not show up on the clipper card until it has been scanned at an internet-enabled (or recently synchronized) device. Buses and other vehicles without internet access will have to return to a service station in order to synchronize with Clipper’s servers. During synchronization, the payment collection device will upload to the server data about any fares collected, and will download information about new account balances. Riders who scan their card at a recently synchronized payment collection device will have their card updated to reflect their true account balance.\nThe waiting period between synchronizations may cause some cards", "-29.6286892106873" ], [ "transfer is successful, the transfer document is sent to the recipient, together with an updated statement of account being credited. The remitter is also sent an updated statement. In the case of large utilities receiving thousands of transactions per day, statements would be sent electronically and incorporate a reference number uniquely identifying the remittance for reconciliation purposes. Reason for establishment in the UK In 1959 a Committee set up to investigate the \"Working of the Monetary System in the United Kingdom\" recommended the introduction of a Giro System, and if the main banks did not do this, the possibility of", "-29.58834377292078" ], [ "in queues there. However, there are usually limits on the value of funds that can be transferred electronically on any day, making it necessary to use a cheque to effect such transfers when those limits are being reached. Telephone banking Telephone banking provides access to banking transactions over the telephone. In many cases telephone banking opening times are considerably longer than branch times. Mail banking A financial institution may allow its customers to deposit cheques into their account by mail. Mail banking can be used by customers of virtual banks (as they may not offer branches or ATMs that accept", "-29.551581347594038" ], [ "until the merchant submits the batch of transactions, and the banking system transfers the funds. Process When a merchant swipes a customer's credit card, the credit card terminal connects to the merchant's acquirer, or credit card processor, which verifies that the customer's account is valid and that sufficient funds are available to cover the transaction's cost. At this step, the funds are \"held\" and deducted from the customer's credit limit (or available bank balance, in the case of a debit card), but are not yet transferred to the merchant. At the time of the merchant's choosing, the merchant instructs the", "-29.50414188299328" ], [ "imposed by the banking institution associated with the account being used. For example, transfers from a Wells Fargo funding account are limited to $2,500 per day and $4,000 in a 30-day period, and lower limits apply when using the Zelle mobile app rather than the bank's self-operated services. Transfers from a Chase checking account are limited to $2,000 per day and $16,000 per calendar month.\nPayments made using Zelle cannot be canceled (unless an attempt was made to send a payment to someone who has not enrolled in the service). The Zelle service is intended for payments to those the payer", "-29.42476165894186" ], [ "transfer system are tempting as targets as a transfer, once made, is difficult or impossible to reverse. As these networks are used by banks to settle accounts with each other, rapid or overnight wire transfer of large amounts of money are commonplace; while banks have put checks and balances in place, there is the risk that insiders may attempt to use fraudulent or forged documents which claim to request a bank depositor's money be wired to another bank, often an offshore account in some distant foreign country.\nThere is a very high risk of fraud when dealing with unknown or uninsured", "-29.38486101361923" ], [ "the new bank account. This means that there is no loss of service for any period for the customer.\nThe service is backed by the Current Account Switch Guarantee, which promises to reimburse account holders if they incur any fees or charges as a result of the switchover. Other managed services The Cash ISA Transfer Service, which was launched in October 2012, offers a quicker and easier transfer process while reducing paper flow and increasing efficiency and the Biller Update Service, launched in June 2013.", "-29.309183650650084" ], [ "numbers must be given for the accounts to be debited as well as for the account to which funds are to be transferred. Electronic transactions are processed under the Bulk Electronic Clearing System (BECS) (also known as CS2) drawn up by AusPayNet. The requirement for two-sided BSBs is eased in transactions involving payment cards, such as credit cards or debit cards, and in BPAY transactions, in which one side of the transfer is an account which includes the BSB electronically linked to the card and BPAY biller. International transactions For incoming international transfers, SWIFT codes are used in addition to", "-29.29430283885449" ], [ "are being sent from or to one of these entities, it must block the transfer and freeze the funds.\nSWIFT or IBAN wire transfers are not completely free of vulnerabilities. Every intermediary bank that handles a wire transaction can take a fee directly out of the wire payload (the assets being transferred) without the account holder's knowledge or consent. In many places, there is no legislation or technical means to protect customers from this practice. If bank S is the sending bank (or brokerage), and bank R is the receiving bank (or brokerage), and banks I1, I2 and I3 are intermediary", "-29.226852445397526" ], [ "current account market.\nOnce a current account has been opened with a new bank or building society, the Current Account Switch Service will transfer all the activity relating to the old account to the new one. That includes moving incoming and outgoing payments, and transferring the account balance, as well as closing the old account. An important feature of the service is that although the process happens over seven working days, the transfer of account happens on the final day. This means that customers continue to use the old bank account until the agreed switch day and from then on use", "-29.20385256758891" ], [ "Interac e-Transfer Participating institutions Most Canadians who use online banking can send funds. These include personal deposit account holders with the big five banks, Desjardins, Tangerine, National Bank, President's Choice Financial, and many credit unions and other institutions, as well as some small-business account holders. In 2015, 105 million money transfers were sent using the platform totaling over CA$44 billion in value.\nAny personal account holder in Canada can receive funds. Benefits and disadvantages Unlike a cheque, the funds from an e-Transfer are not frozen in the recipient's account. An e-Transfer cannot bounce, as the funds are guaranteed, having been debited", "-29.03402051946614" ], [ "participating bank, credit card billing.\nIn India, a new direct bank transfer system has emerged called as Unified Payments Interface (BHIM UPI). This system enables users to transfer money to other users and businesses in real-time directly from their bank accounts. Users download BHIM UPI supporting app on their Android or iOS device, verify their mobile number by sending one outgoing SMS to app provider, link their bank accounts basis mobile number and generate a banking PIN for secure transactions. Fund transfer can then be initiated to other users or businesses. Settlement of funds happen in real-time, i.e. money is debited", "-28.933376751025207" ], [ "(such as name and address rather than a code), or human-readable instructions \"Please credit urgently\") or simply falls outside of rules for which the bank allows automatic processing (for example, payments of large value or in exotic currencies).\nTraditionally, making payments involves many departments in a bank. Both initiating a payment to be sent and processing a received payment may take days. In the past, payments were initiated through numerous \"human-friendly\" (aka paper-based) means, such as a human through a paper order, over the phone, or via fax. The payment order was input into the bank's payment system, then confirmed", "-28.84433628350962" ], [ "transfer (which is independent of the amount withdrawn). Let denote the number of withdrawals made during the period and assume merely for the sake of convenience that the initial withdrawal of money also incurs this cost. Money held at the bank pays a nominal interest rate, , which is received at the end of the period. For simplicity, it is also assumed that the individual spends her entire paycheck over the course of the period (there is no saving from period to period).\nAs a result the total cost of money management is equal to the cost of withdrawals, ,", "-28.832522261305712" ], [ "the customer's account; funds are not actually withdrawn until the transaction is reconciled and hard-posted to the customer's account, usually a few days later. However, the previoce applies to all kinds of transaction types, at least when using a card issued by a European bank. This is in contrast to a typical credit card transaction, in which, after a few days delay before the transaction is posted to the account, there is a further period of maybe a month before the consumer makes repayment.\nBecause of this, in the case of an intentional or unintentional error by the merchant or bank,", "-28.71657274813333" ], [ "transfer for domestic transfers or a SWIFT transfer for international transfers.\nThe term is also used to describe other electronic funds transfer methods and, incorrectly, low cost everyday payment methods such as BACS (Bankers' Automated Clearing Services) payments, Faster Payments Service and SEPA credit transfers. Although the United Kingdom is part of SEPA with the consequent low costs of intra-SEPA payments, most UK banks charge for SEPA credit transfers as if they were telegraphic transfers, unlike banks in other non-Eurozone SEPA countries such as Switzerland and Sweden where SEPA credit transfers are charged at similar low fees to domestic payments.", "-28.65242272033356" ], [ "is a three-tiered discount schedule, which results in actual transaction fees costing between $0.034 and $0.82 per transaction depending on transaction volume.\nMore recently with the advancement in mobile technologies, many alternative modes of electronic funds transfers have emerged. These alternative modes are changing the way people make payments in that fewer and fewer people are using traditional banking methods to transfer money. Rather than transfer money from bank to bank, they are opting to transfer the funds directly to the other party via a mobile application. With fewer people using traditional banks, and fewer people transferring money from bank to", "-28.633754790818784" ], [ "methods, where the bank transfer is authorized by the consumer who logs onto his bank website and authorizes the funds transfer for payment to a merchant.\nA digital wallet is an online stored value service where funds are preloaded and made available using the providers online services. Popular providers include Skrill, NETELLER, PayPal.\nA giro transfer is a bank transfer payment, whereby order is given by the payer to his or her bank, which transfers funds into the payee's bank account; the receiving bank then notifies the payee. Giro is often used by post offices as well. The term is little used", "-28.58617601217702" ], [ "rather than change it back if they are expecting to return to where it is used. Companies that frequently send employees abroad may essentially act as their own exchange by reimbursing their employees in the local currency and holding the foreign currency. If exchange rates are relatively stable, the fees charged by a bureau may exceed any likely fluctuation and it also makes the company’s accountancy easier.\nIn the alternate, some prefer to buy their currency before they travel, either just for a sense of security against credit card fraud typically achieved by tampered card readers or hackers, or because they", "-28.519204156822525" ], [ "cannot be tagged on, a cash fare must be purchased. Electronic transfers AutoLoad allows a user to establish a direct debit authority or provide credit card information to automatically reload the card with a pre-set amount, once the low-value threshold of $6 for standard users and $3 for concession users is reached.\nLoading a SmartRider automatically via Autoload is the only way users can achieve similar levels of fare savings in comparison to the previous MultiRider system.\nAlternatively, passengers can manually transfer funds from their bank account using BPay, either via phone or internet. It takes 3-5 working days depending on your", "-28.508923844209676" ], [ "a payment has been made. Banks use the CHIPS or Fedwire system to actually effect the payment.\nDomestic bank-to-bank transfers are conducted through the Fedwire system, which uses the Federal Reserve System and its assignment of ABA routing transit number, which uniquely identify each bank.", "-28.470710878260434" ], [ "an American checking account is that they earn considerable interest, sometimes comparable to a savings account, and there is generally no charge for withdrawals at cashpoints (ATMs), other than charges by third party owners of such machines. Branch access Customers may need to attend a bank branch for a wide range of banking transactions including cash withdrawals and financial advice. There may be restrictions on cash withdrawals, even at a branch. For example, withdrawals of cash above a threshold figure may require notice.\nMany transactions that previously could only be performed at a branch can now be done in others ways,", "-28.439102116564754" ], [ "been documented in Europe. SEPA credit transfers can be recalled within 10 working days of settlement by the payer's bank. The lax handling of SEPA SCT Recall requests by some banks has allowed some payers to fraudulently recall bank transfers after having received goods or services from the payee. Physical products An online merchant that sells physical products cannot fully protect themselves. The only way to have concrete protection is to take an imprint of the card (and even with card readers/makers this can easily be duped), along with photo ID. That signature, in addition to information gathered online,", "-28.309280078217853" ], [ "which only shows transactions through BHIM. Transaction fees and limits Currently, there is no charge for transactions from ₹1 to ₹100,000. Some banks might, however, levy a nominal fee for UPI or IMPS transfers.\nThe minimum transaction amount is ₹1, and the maximum number of transactions per day is 10. If the 10-transactions-per-day limit has been reached, the user needs to wait for 24 hours from the last transaction before making another transaction.\nCurrently, the fund transfer limit has been set to a maximum of ₹20,000 per transaction and a maximum of ₹40,000 in a 24-hour period.\nIndian banks have proposed transaction charges", "-28.212413061293773" ], [ "best in the next business day. \nThe settlement time depends on the payment method chosen by the customer, while for instant payment systems, the funds are transferred within seconds or minutes.", "-28.1802207553701" ], [ "can be used for free cash withdrawals with such a Visa card. This is however not the case of the ATMs of IC Cash, that as of July 2016 charges €6.50 without informing their foreign customers. Some banks like the ING-DiBa have started requiring their customers to withdraw at least €50 on their own and partner ATMs. This regulation was put in place because banks pay a fixed amount for a withdrawal from an ATM unattached to the amount the customer withdraws. An exception where the regulation does not kick in is if the customer's balance is below the €50", "-28.10641310547362" ], [ "banking providers. In its first year, transactions through TransferWise amounted to €10 million. In May 2017, the company announced its customers were sending over £1 billion every month using the service.\nIn May 2016, TransferWise's claim \"you save up to 90% against banks\" was considered as misleading by the Advertising Standards Authority. According to independent comparison site Monito.com, Transferwise was actually on average 83% cheaper than the big four UK banks on major currency \"routes\", but could be up to 90% cheaper in some occasions. In April 2017, an internal memo from Santander showed how much the bank was making from", "-28.03471966831421" ], [ "be moved rapidly to the SSP. As a result, the Eurosystem agreed on a maximum transition period of four years for moving the settlement of these payments to the SSP.\nThe Information and Control Module (ICM) allows direct users to access information and manage parameters linked to balances and payments online. Via the ICM, users have access to the Payments Module and the Static Data Management function. Users of the ICM are able to choose what information they receive and when. Urgent messages (e.g. system broadcasts from central banks and warnings concerning payments with a debit time indicator) are automatically displayed", "-28.022357054578606" ], [ "Fee\" for each item cleared after the regulation has been exceeded, and converts the account to a checking account if the activity persists.\nThe regulation was amended in 2009 to allow greater freedom for the depositor: beforehand, the limit was six withdrawals per month if the funds remained within the same institution (e.g., transfer to checking), but was only three drafts where the funds left the institution (e.g., check, ACH Network, or card based purchase).", "-27.952373805339448" ], [ "sent through a form from the payer to the payee, but in the internet bank it is also possible to request it. Autogiro should not be confused with the electronic billing system E-faktura although some banks let the payer instruct the bank to automatically pay received electronic bills on their due date without the customer having to log in to the internet bank and authorize the payment. Turkey In Turkey, direct debits are widely used, for utility and credit card payments, as well as commercial transactions. However, whereas in other countries the payee instructs his/her bank to make a collection,", "-27.925744087900966" ], [ "€127 billion in the two months following the successful review as market jitters calmed. The decision also raised the limit on \"old cash\" withdrawals to €840 per two weeks instead of €420 per week. Finally, and in addition to first-year university students moving away from home to study and who already had previously been given permission to open bank accounts, Erasmus students and pensioners living abroad were also given permission to open new bank accounts in Greek banks. Still, the limit on cash for individuals travelling abroad remained at €2000. Effects of capital controls on card transactions The effects of", "-27.811711620743154" ], [ "been dispensed through ATMs. Some ATMs may be stocked and wholly owned by outside companies, which can further complicate this problem.\nBill validation technology can be used by ATM providers to help ensure the authenticity of the cash before it is stocked in the machine; those with cash recycling capabilities include this capability.\nIn India, whenever a transaction fails with an ATM due to network or technical issue and if the amount does not get dispensed in spite of account being debited then the banks are supposed to return the debited amount to the customer within 7 working days from the day", "-27.791335161891766" ], [ "in 2015 developments such as open banking made it easier for third parties to access bank transaction data and introduced standard API and security models. United Kingdom In the United Kingdom, all banks and building societies are required by law to provide a paper bank statement to customers. However, this does not apply in cases where the customer has a passbook, is a customer of an online only bank or has elected not to receive paper statements. United States Banks in the United States are only required to send a statement for a checking account if one transaction has been", "-27.790607470931718" ], [ "suppliers, and 16,000 cash machines that charge for withdrawals. Iran The Shetab Banking System is an electronic banking clearance and automated payments system used in Iran. The system was introduced in 2002 with the intention of creating a uniform backbone for the Iranian banking system to handle ATM, POS and other card-based transactions. There are no charges for money withdrawal in this network. Transferring money between two accounts in a same bank is free but between different banks costs from 5,000 to 9,000 (for amounts of 50,000 to 30,000,000) per day, and checking the account balance costs IRR 1,000 for", "-27.74536634690594" ], [ "such as use of ATMs, online, mobile and telephone banking. Cheques Cheques were the traditional method of making withdrawals from a transaction account. Automated teller machines Automated teller machines (ATMs) enable customers of a financial institution to perform financial transactions without attending a branch. This enables, for example, cash to be withdrawn from an account outside normal branch trading hours. However, ATMs usually have quite low limits for cash withdrawals, and there may be daily limits to cash withdrawals other than at a branch. Mobile banking With the introduction of mobile banking a customer to perform banking transactions and payments,", "-27.743602617105353" ], [ "and balances using their own passbooks at Automated Teller Machines. Electronic statements With the wider access to the Internet and online banking starting in the late 1990s, bank statements (also known as electronic statements or e-statements) could be viewed online, and downloaded or printed by the customer. To reduce the cost of postage and the generation of paper bank statements, some financial institutions encourage their customers to receive bank statements electronically, for example by charging a fee for paper statements. This may be as attachments to emails or, as a security measure, as a reminder that a new statement is", "-27.733395724993898" ], [ "in Canada, the Hong Kong Customs and Excise Department in China and the Financial Conduct Authority (FCA) in the UK. International prepaid cards International prepaid cards are an alternative way for transferring funds. Companies can provide a debit card for worldwide employees' payments. The recipients don’t need to have a bank account and can use the card in places that a debit card is accepted at point-of-sale or online and may withdraw funds in local currency at an ATM. United States of America Banks in the United States use SWIFT to send messages to notify banks in other countries that", "-27.702862685953733" ], [ "Online Real-time Exchange (or Environment) (CORE). This meant that all the bank's branches could access applications from centralized data centers. Deposits made were reflected immediately on the bank's servers, and the customer could withdraw the deposited money from any of the bank's branches. Software Advancements in Internet and information technology reduced manual work in banks and increasing efficiency. Computer software is developed to perform core operations of banking like recording of transactions, passbook maintenance, interest calculations on loans and deposits, customer records, balance of payments and withdrawal. This software is installed at different branches of bank and then interconnected", "-27.693834549048916" ], [ "Transaction processing Description Transaction processing is designed to maintain a system's Integrity (typically a database or some modern filesystems) in a known, consistent state, by ensuring that interdependent operations on the system are either all completed successfully or all canceled successfully.\nFor example, consider a typical banking transaction that involves moving $700 from a customer's savings account to a customer's checking account. This transaction involves at least two separate operations in computer terms: debiting the savings account by $700, and crediting the checking account by $700. If one operation succeeds but the other does not, the books of the", "-27.681391706253635" ], [ "card, the merchant would have to call their bank, who in turn had to call the credit card company, which then had to have an employee manually look up the customer's name and credit balance. This system was computerized in 1973 under the leadership of Dee Hock, the first CEO of Visa, allowing transaction time to decrease substantially to less than one minute. However, until always-connected payment terminals became ubiquitous at the beginning of the 21st century, it was common for a merchant to accept a charge, especially below a threshold value or from a known and trusted customer,", "-27.658133534365334" ], [ "Faster Payment System Faster Payment System (FPS; Chinese: 快速支付系統, more commonly known as 轉數快) is a real-time gross settlement payment system in Hong Kong that connects traditional banks and electronic payment and digital wallet operators. Users are able to perform instant money transfer or make payment to merchants by using the recipient's phone number, e-mail or QR code that contains the user's numeric identifier. Using the \"traditional way\" of full name and account number to make interbank transfer is also allowed.\nThe system was implemented by the Hong Kong Monetary Authority and operated by Hong Kong Interbank Clearing Limited (HKICL). It", "-27.651475266902708" ], [ "for payment. Some providers perform this automatically. It is important to close a batch every 24 hours or a higher rate will be assessed by Visa, Discover or MasterCard. The term \"batch header\" originally came from processing pre-electronic terminal era, when each batch of credit card receipts was turned into the merchant's local bank for deposit. The batch header was a mini report summarizing those receipts bundled within. Customer service fee The customer service fee (also known as a maintenance fee) can be charged by some providers to pay for the cost of customer service. Also referred to as a", "-27.63288979441859" ], [ "and it enables up to $400 in daily ATM withdrawals, though transactions at non-Money-Pass ATMs come with at least $2.50 in withdrawal fees.\nIn addition, the service offers a reload function, which, when enabled, takes money from a user's linked checking account in $10 increments if their Venmo balance drops too low to cover a purchase. Customers could be subject to fees or other consequences from their bank if they overdraft that account. Card purchases show up in a user's Venmo transaction history, and the card can be canceled from within the app. These features make the card similar to a", "-27.575935712084174" ], [ "fact that 42% of all electronic transactions in the 2008 financial year were NEFT transactions.This transaction is done when account is less than 2 lakh. And it can be done 2-3 times in a day. Settlement timings NEFT transfers are settled in half-hourly batches between 8 AM and 7 PM from Monday to Saturday (except the second and fourth Saturday of each month). No transactions are settled on Sundays and bank holidays. The second and fourth Saturdays of each month are declared as bank holidays for the entire calendar year. Any transaction initiated after a designated settlement time would be", "-27.569782065824256" ], [ "to send money directly from their bank account to the recipient's bank account. Each email address or mobile phone number may only be actively enrolled in Zelle to receive payments at one financial institution. To register at multiple banks, users need to provide different email addresses or mobile phone numbers for each.\nIn addition to being able to transfer money to a recipient, Zelle users can also submit requests for others to send them a payment or to split the cost of a payment with them.\nThere are limits on the dollar amount and frequency of transactions allowed on Zelle that are", "-27.568700368865393" ], [ "banks will charge a fee of RM0.50 to RM1 for every withdrawal until the following month.\nAlso, under the Malaysian Electronic Payment System (MEPS), users can withdraw cash from participating banks for a fee of RM 1 per withdraw. Users can also transfer their fund to another bank via IBFT (Instant Bank Fund Transfer) at a fee of RM 0.30 to RM 0.50 or via IBG (inter-bank giro) at RM 0.10 . Another program called HOUSe by locally incorporated foreign banks in Malaysia also have their own network for cash withdrawals from participating banks. Users of local banks are also considered", "-27.55786382011138" ], [ "alter, cancel, and re-sequence payments in their queues.\nSince no daylight overdraft is offered, in order for banks to avoid having to maintain large balances in their settlement accounts, which accrue no interest, so that payments are processed as soon as possible, interest-free intraday liquidity may be obtained by the banks through repurchase agreements (repos). Intraday repos that are not reversed at the end of the business day are carried into overnight borrowing.\nTo access RTGS system functions, banks must connect to the SWIFT network to initiate/receive payment instructions, and access eMBT provided by HKICL for performing administrative functions to respective", "-27.557813900406472" ], [ "in the community banking industry. At roughly $1 billion in assets, the bank has a mobile app that allows customers to log in with a fingerprint instead of a password, turn on and off their debit cards using the app and pay their bills with their smartphone camera. Soon, the bank will make it possible for new customers to open an account using the mobile app, instead of signing up through online banking or walking into a branch. The first step is to roll out the mobile platform inside a couple of branches, so bank staff can quickly enroll new", "-27.554736427846365" ], [ "number. Money transfers are performed by entering a mobile phone number which is registered in the system. The funds are then transferred to this account, while the amount is deducted from the sender's credit card. There are no fees for private MobilePay accounts. Security The application is protected by a user-selected four-digit PIN code or a fingerprint. The login id is either the CPR-number (national id number), or the NemID, a more secure solution. Requirements Users must have an Android or iPhone smartphone with a Danish phone number, a Danish CPR-number, a Danish bank account with a card, and be", "-27.53953159385128" ], [ "a bank transaction based on the bank account number that the funds are to be transferred to.", "-27.532207259268034" ], [ "or others. However, accounts subject to the rules that permit no more than six preauthorized, automatic, or other transfers per month (of which no more than three may be by check, draft, debit card, or similar order payable directly to third parties) are savings deposits, not transaction accounts.", "-27.53218950529117" ], [ "securities settlement systems. Since ultimately, the Banks need to meet their obligations in Central Bank money held in payment systems that are commonly operated or closely supervised by central banks (e.g. CHAPS, FedWire, Target2, which are also referred to as large value payment systems), it is of great interest to monitor these systems' participants' (mainly banks) liquidity positions.\nThe amount of liquidity held by banks on their accounts can be a lot less (and usually is) than the total value of transferred payments during a day. The total amount of liquidity needed by banks to settle a given set of payments", "-27.51888434769353" ], [ "stop this draining from destroying the banking system, the government froze all bank accounts, initially for 90 days. Only a small amount of cash was allowed for withdrawal on a weekly basis (initially 250 Argentine pesos, then 300), and only from accounts denominated in pesos. No withdrawals were allowed from accounts denominated in U.S. dollars, unless the owner agreed to convert the funds into pesos. Operations using credit cards, debit cards, cheques and other means of payment could be conducted normally, but the lack of cash availability caused numerous problems for the general public and for businesses. Immediate effects The", "-27.497018511639908" ], [ "who so wished could make payments and other business in cash at the bank offices that remained. Today (autumn 2019) very few cash handling bank offices still exist. \nAccording to the bank's head offices, cash was no longer required as withdrawals and deposits were possible (in limited amounts) through machines. But for \"safety\" regulations, the maximum amount a bank bank customer can withdraw is about 5.000 to 10.000 SEK per week. And there's similar \"security rules\" for depositing as well. \nBut this has resulted in severe blows to lots of smaller boutiques and shops, and even to many", "-27.427223011880415" ], [ "digital signatures. Each owner transfers the coin to the next by digitally signing a hash of the previous transaction and the public key of the next owner and adding these to the end of the coin. A payee can verify the signatures to verify the chain of ownership. With this approach, the payee is not able to ascertain that the transaction has not been publicly viewed by people accessing the internet. A common solution is to eliminate the trusted central counter party, or mint, that checks every transaction for double spending by introducing anonymization technology. In block chain technology, the", "-27.419013256090693" ], [ "September 2013 more than five million UK current accounts have been switched, with the service reporting a seven-day switching success rate of 99.4 per cent.\nThe service, which offers consumers, small businesses, trusts and small charities a way of switching current accounts, was created to increase competition, support the entry of new banks in the current account market place and give consumers greater choice when switching from one bank or building society current account to another. It is now offered by 47 high street banks and building societies – up from 33 at launch - giving almost total coverage of the", "-27.414144619135186" ], [ "Payments as a service History Since the 1980s, credit cards and international wire transfer systems like the Society for Worldwide Interbank Financial Telecommunication (SWIFT) were primary methods for making and receiving electronic cross-border payments. Within individual countries, payers and payees have used various electronic systems to make such payments. In the United States, for instance, the Federal Reserve Bank operates the automated clearing house (ACH) system. In most EU countries direct debit is the preferred method of facilitating electronic payments. \nWith the advent of the World Wide Web, it became necessary to provide alternative payment systems. ", "-27.355167838424677" ], [ "or credit union. As long as the account balance is sufficient to cover the amount of the withdrawal, and the withdrawal takes place in accordance with procedures set in place by the financial institution, the funds may be withdrawn on demand. Banknotes The first European banknotes were issued by Stockholms Banco, a predecessor of Sweden's central bank Sveriges Riksbank, in 1661. These replaced the copper-plates being used instead as a means of payment, although in 1664 the bank ran out of coins to redeem notes and ceased operating in the same year.\nInspired by the success of the London goldsmiths, some", "-27.35379877546802" ], [ "if the balance on their current account goes below a certain amount, and, if set, will send weekly mini statements also by SMS. The bank began limited trials of internet banking in July 1997, launching the service fully in August 2000.\nIn July 2001, the bank's Offset Mortgage was launched. In January 2004, the bank launched First Directory, a service whereby additional services were added to current accounts such as free text message banking, annual travel insurance and mobile phone insurance for a fixed monthly charge. \nIn April 2004, the bank launched Internet Banking Plus, a service whereby account information was", "-27.352469999459572" ], [ "15th, 2019 to begin a ACAT transfer, or until August 20th, 2019 to transfer to their bank account.", "-27.34912869456457" ], [ "Sending and receiving money is free, as is adding money to a Wallet Card through a linked bank account. There are limits on how much money users can add to their Wallet Balance, withdraw from the linked account or card, or send and receive to other individuals. These limits are set per transaction and within certain time periods. Previously, a 2.9% fee applied to funds added via debit card, although Google dropped that ability as of May 2, 2016.\nFunds sent from a Wallet balance, debit card, or linked bank account are generally available to the recipient immediately, and if the", "-27.30734561398276" ], [ "alone recorded an average of 132 transactions per second between 12:00 and 13:00. Network failures are rare, but when they occur they cause massive disruption, resulting in major delays and loss of income for businesses.\nDepending on the user's bank, a fee may be charged for use of EFTPOS. Most youth accounts (the minimum age to obtain an Eftpos card from most banks in New Zealand is 13 years) and an increasing number of 'electronic transaction accounts' do not attract fees for electronic transactions, meaning the use of Eftpos by younger generations has become ubiquitous and subsequently cash use has become", "-27.196910379920155" ], [ "by a supervisor. This confirmation ensured an accurate match of input versus order before sending the payment. When multiple banks, countries or currencies were involved, the process often took several hours. When the complexity of the payment was higher, the amount of labor increased and additional human intervention resulted in more risk of errors, longer processing time, and higher costs.\nIn most cases, banks levy charges for non-STP payments or for manual repairs. Alternatively, banks may not charge on a \"per repair\" basis, but rather levy heavier fees for correspondents that provide lower quality (lower STP) payments.", "-27.17060824285727" ], [ "destination account number and also the amount in the web browser.\nAs a reaction to advanced security processes allowing the user to cross-check the transaction data on a secure device there are also combined attacks using malware and social engineering to persuade the user himself to transfer money to the fraudsters on the ground of false claims (like the claim the bank would require a \"test transfer\" or the claim a company had falsely transferred money to the user's account and he should \"send it back\"). Users should therefore never perform bank transfers they have not initiated themselves. Countermeasures There exist", "-27.148520263384853" ], [ "payments platform allows merchants to accept credit and debit card payments on a smartphone or tablet (Storefront) while also enabling them to view reporting, send and receive invoices, accept online payments through a virtual terminal, and manage employees, customers, and inventory. Merchants may accept traditional magstriped credit and debit cards, along with EMV chip cards, and NFC payments like ApplePay – all with next-day funding, access to Payanywhere Inside, a secure, online merchant portal, and live customer and technical support. Business model Payanywhere offers Standard (as low as 1.69% per swipe), Pay-As-You-Go (as low as 2.69% per swipe) and Custom", "-27.02118315507687" ], [ "Metro have introduced electronic versions of the delay certificates on their websites, which would remain there for a week or less. Affected passengers who were unable to or did not collect the certificate could alternatively access and download it into their mobile phones or computers, and print them out if necessary.", "-27.01174752240331" ], [ "the transactions are debited instantly, although it may happen on some occasions that a transaction is processed with some delay (hours, up to one day). These cards do not possess the options that credit cards have.\nIn the late 2000s contactless cards started to be introduced. The first technology to be used was MasterCard PayPass, later joined by Visa's payWave. This payment method is now universal and accepted almost everywhere. In an everyday use this payment method is always called Paypass.\nAlmost all business and stores in Poland accept debit and credit cards.\nIn the mid-2010s Polish banks started to replace unembossed cards", "-26.978332230617525" ], [ "from the mobile banking website by using the phone's Internet browser.\nSMS Banking – SMSes can be sent to pay bills, top up prepaid mobiles and to request for credit card balance, payment and due dates. Citi Alerts The Citi Alerts facility provides free SMS and Email transactional alerts. Registering for Citi Alerts requires logging into Citibank Online – either through a desktop or through a mobile.", "-26.961288070102455" ], [ "consumer option, but people may still have a need for physical cash in certain situations. ATMs help banks cut overhead, especially if they are available at various strategic locations beyond branch offices. Future of Digital Banking The decision for banks to add more digital solutions at all operational levels will have a major impact on their financial stability. While not all banks are in a position to make quick changes to IT infrastructure or the architecture on top of it, banks aiming to be disrupters can move toward broad end-to-end automation can do so over about a six-month time frame.", "-26.954857179429382" ], [ "not expire (except honored citizen cards, which must be renewed every two years). Once a loaded pass expires it can be reloaded with a new one. TriMet has said it projects a card will last 10 years. Apple Pay and Google Pay On May 21, 2019 TriMet announced that Hop could be added to Apple Pay and Google Pay by using the card's app. This allows riders to pay fares using only their iOS or Android device. Hop was the first transit card in North America to launch availability in Apple Wallet and Google Pay. Virtual Hop cards are functionally", "-26.945393092464656" ], [ "bank will ultimately send the funds to cover the cheque. Until the payer's bank actually sends the funds, both payer and payee have the \"same\" money in both of their accounts. Once the payee's bank notifies the payer's bank by presenting the cheques, the \"duplicate\" funds will be removed from the payer's account, and the cheques will be considered to have \"cleared\" the bank.\nIn cheque clearing, banks refer to 'bank float' and 'customer float'. 'Bank float' is the time it takes to clear the item from the time it was deposited to the time the funds were credited to the", "-26.92402852703526" ], [ "banks and their merchants to perform online transactions. Electronic check clearing In May 2012, Benefit started running the nation's check truncation system. Thus, enabling 29 banks in the Kingdom to settle checks the same day.", "-26.91508148306457" ], [ "Limits on cash withdrawals from Current accounts/ Cash credit accounts/ Overdraft accounts were withdrawn later. RBI increased the withdrawal limit from Savings Bank account to ₹50,000 from the earlier ₹24,000 on 20 February 2017 and then on 13 March 2017, it removed all withdrawal limits from savings bank accounts.\nA daily limit on withdrawals from ATMs was also imposed varying from ₹2,000 per day until 14 November, and ₹2,500 per day until 31 December. This limit was increased to ₹4,500 per day from 1 January, and again to ₹10,000 from 16 January 2017. From 17 November, families were allowed to withdraw", "-26.91181742749177" ], [ "withdrawal and any fees charged by the machine on the receipt. Most banks and credit unions will permit routine account-related banking transactions at the bank's own ATM, including deposits, checking the balance of an account, and transferring money between accounts. Some may provide additional services, such as selling postage stamps.\nSome ATM cards can also be used at a branch, as identification for in-person transactions\nThe ability to use an ATM card for in-store EFTPOS purchases or refunds is no longer allowed; however, if the ATM card is also a debit card, it may be used for a pin-based debit transaction, or", "-26.906051207566634" ], [ "direct payments. Formal value transfer systems In the US, financial transactions begin with mutual identification between the customer and the financial institution. Although there are many Internet frauds involving fake financial institutions or criminals masquerading as a financial institution (i.e., phishing), the more difficult requirement is for the prospective customer to show acceptable identification to the bank. For basic relationships, a government-issued identification document, such as a passport or driver's license, usually suffices. For foreign nationals, their country's equivalent may be accepted, although it may be harder to verify.\nGoing beyond the basics becomes much more difficult. Were the relationship one", "-26.857198764337227" ], [ "by public key digital signature schemes. The RSA blind signatures achieved unlinkability between withdrawal and spend transactions. Depending on the payment transactions, one distinguishes between on-line and off-line electronic cash: If the payee has to contact a third party (e.g., the bank or the credit-card company acting as an acquirer) before accepting a payment, the system is called an on-line system. In 1990, Chaum together with Moni Naor proposed the first off-line e-cash system, which was also based on blind signatures. History Chaum started the company DigiCash in 1990 with \"ecash\" as its trademark. He raised $10 million from", "-26.848250701848883" ], [ "the Faster Payments Scheme. Running in parallel with Bacs and CHAPS, launched in 2008 it enables interbank transfers in real time. Since 2008, over three billion Faster Payments transactions have been securely processed by VocaLink. Paym VocaLink provides the underlying technology to Paym, a mobile payment system for the UK developed by the Payments Council. Recipients are identified by their mobile phone number instead of bank details such as sort code and account number. It was launched through participating banks and building societies in April 2014, and once users opt-in will by the end of 2014 support 9 out of", "-26.847714175004512" ], [ "clearing times for phone, Internet and standing order payments. This committed the payments services industry to develop a system able to clear automated payments in no more than half a day – the so-called \"ELLE\" model – resulting in payment being received the same day if made sufficiently early. Implementation groups were given six months to bring forward detailed proposals.\nIn October 2005 the contract to provide the central infrastructure for this new service was awarded by APACS to Immediate Payments Limited, a joint venture company set up by Voca and LINK who have since merged to form Vocalink.\nIn December 2005", "-26.846727000083774" ], [ "(such as BACS) was a subject of controversy in the UK, until immediate transactions became available from the Faster Payments service.\nProblems can arise from delays, e.g. when an exceptional workload at a bank results in the money being cleared too late in a working day to complete related transactions, or inadequate instructions, when a bank is not given sufficient information to know where to credit the money, or in human delay in operating the machines.", "-26.846424913965166" ], [ "cleared, and that new deposits would no longer be credited until the funds transfer was fully completed.\nWired Magazine reported in November 2013 that customers were experiencing delays of weeks to months in withdrawing cash from their accounts. The article said that the company had \"effectively been frozen out of the U.S. banking system because of its regulatory problems\". Withdrawals halted; trading suspended; bitcoin missing (2014) Customer complaints about long delays were mounting as of February 2014, with more than 3,300 posts in a thread about the topic on the Bitcoin Talk online forum.\nOn 7 February 2014, Mt. Gox halted", "-26.83494366519153" ], [ "cash ISA that receives a government bonus if the money is used in paying the deposit on a first home purchase. The usual rule that any number of accounts can be held with the same ISA manager applies and many providers now offer the ability to hold both HTB and other cash ISA accounts with current year money in them. However, only one HTB ISA in total can be held so if it is desired to put current year money into the HTB ISA, all other cash ISA current year money must also be paid into a cash ISA with", "-26.821665131396003" ], [ " Several transactions, called a batch are collected and processed at the same time. The results of each transaction are not immediately available when the transaction is being entered; there is a time delay. Real-time processing \"Real time systems attempt to guarantee an appropriate response to a stimulus or request quickly enough to affect the conditions that caused the stimulus.\"\nEach transaction in realtime processing is unique; it is not part of a group of transactions. Transaction processing A Transaction Processing System (TPS) is a type of information system that collects, stores, modifies and retrieves the data transactions of an", "-26.81852919992525" ], [ "for withdrawals or cashing checks. It can be exchanged indefinitely at the currency museum of Eesti Pank for €6.39.", "-26.79336367007636" ], [ "around 17 million adult Americans do not have bank accounts at all. Certain companies whom a person pays with a cheque will turn it into an Automated Clearing House (ACH) or electronic transaction. Banks try to save time processing cheques by sending them electronically between banks. Cheque clearing is usually done through an electronic cheque broker, such as The Clearing House, Viewpointe LLC or the Federal Reserve Banks. Copies of the cheques are stored at a bank or the broker, for periods up to 99 years, and this is why some cheque archives have grown to 20 petabytes. The access", "-26.765760145615786" ], [ "of money transfers. The two services work very similarly from the user's perspective – e.g., both services use email addresses and mobile phone numbers to identify recipients, but Venmo lacks the direct integration with banking institutions that Zelle has, and Zelle money transfers are typically processed more quickly.\nStarting in January 2018, Venmo began to also offer a more rapid transfer option than its typical 1–3 day transfer service, but Venmo charges a fee for the service, which Zelle-affiliated banks currently do not. The Zelle network itself does not charge a fee to users for money transfers. Banks are allowed to", "-26.757252362323925" ], [ "£30 limit in the United Kingdom and the C$100 limit in Canada), the use of CDCVM can enable merchants to accept transactions higher than these amounts using Apple Pay, providing their terminal software is updated to support the latest network contactless specifications. Express Transit As of iOS 12.3, supported credit and debit cards, as well as some add value transit cards (such as: Shanghai & Beijing transit cards, Suica, MTA and TriMet) can be used to pay for journeys on certain public transit networks without requiring the user to authenticate the payment with Touch ID or Face ID. Once a", "-26.7413022852852" ], [ "rate for CNP, because of the greater risk.\nIt is difficult for a merchant to verify that the actual cardholder is indeed authorizing the purchase. Shipping companies can guarantee delivery to a location, but they are not required to check identification and they are usually not involved in processing payments for the merchandise. A common recent preventive measure for merchants is to allow shipment only to an address approved by the cardholder, and merchant banking systems offer simple methods of verifying this information. Before this and similar countermeasures were introduced, mail order carding was rampant as early as 1992. A carder", "-26.73175267793704" ], [ "money from one user to another via iMessage. When a user receives a payment, the funds are deposited in the recipient's Apple Cash card, where it is available for immediate use at merchants that accept Discover. Alternatively, the user can choose to transfer the balance to a nominated bank account via wire transfer. Apple Cash is only available in the United States. 2013 The service was in preparation for \"a long time\", as Apple acquired startups, hired executives and filed patents related to payments. Apple partnered with American Express, MasterCard and Visa. Their joint project began in January 2013, though", "-26.72705318883527" ], [ "credit card transactions.\nThe advantage of this arrangement is that the operating costs of the digital currency system are greatly reduced by not having to resolve payment disputes. Additionally, it allows digital gold currency transactions to clear instantly, making the funds available immediately to the recipient. By contrast, credit cards, checks, ACH and other reversible payment methods generally have a \"clearing time\" of 72 hours or more. Risks As with all financial media, there are several types of risk inherent to the use of DGCs: management risk, political risk, data security and exchange risk. Management and political risks DGCs, like all", "-26.709874035441317" ], [ "real-time off-setting, the system continuously offsets payments between two or more CHIPS participants. A payment is considered final and irrevocable at the instant CHIPS releases it.\nSince CHIPS’ inception The Clearing House management has implemented a number of credit, systemic and liquidity risk reduction measures to better manage individual participant risk, eliminate daylight overdraft exposure, and virtually eliminate systemic risk. Electronic Payments Network Electronic Payments Network (EPN) is an automated clearing house, i.e. a computerized, batch-processing funds-transfer system that processes domestic consumer and commercial financial transactions among depository institutions. Rather than sending each payment separately, ACH transactions are accumulated and sorted", "-26.700159596512094" ], [ "tax preparation and tax bank product industry in a significant way. By enabling deposits to be made within 72 hours, the new system will render refund anticipation loans obsolete. It is also expected to greatly increase the demand for e-file.\nThe only setback will be for taxpayers who do not have established bank accounts to receive direct deposit. The wait time for checks by mail will still be a minimum of one week.", "-26.694308899210228" ], [ "LankaClear SLIPS The Sri Lanka Interbank Payment System (or SLIPS in short) is the largest account-to-account fund transfer network in Sri Lanka. Created by LankaClear, it enables member banks to carry out same-day transfers of up to Rs. 5 million, in a secure paperless process. Common ATM Switch The Common ATM Switch (or CAS in short), is an interbank ATM network that allows participating banks to use each other's ATMs for free or at a minimal charge. The system was launched in July 2013 with BOC and People's Bank, with the first transaction carried out by the former governor of", "-26.692518288531573" ], [ "foreign based web merchant.\nUnlike traditional credit card transactions, many alternative payments often provide additional security features that protect the merchant from fraud and returned transactions, because the funds availability is verified and payment is made directly from a bank account. The banks guarantee the funds and because there are no chargebacks, merchants are often not required to provide collateral or keep a reserve. Furthermore, accounts are validated in real-time and fraud modules scrub transactions, similar to the approval process with credit cards. Consumer advantages Alternative Payments have, in many areas, become the dominant form of online payment for consumers. Alternative", "-26.68273583892733" ] ]

[ "There are now 3 domains, eukarya, archaea and bacteria. Eukarya covers plants and animals Archaea covers a group of unicellular microorganisms Bacteria covers a large group of unicellular microorganisms that have no nucleus A fourth would have to be something that does not fit into those 3 & I can't imagine what that would be. Do you have a link to a story?", "In biology, organisms are classified in a specific pattern. [Here's an example showing that pattern for a leopard.]( URL_0 ) Each species is grouped a genus, which is grouped in to a family, which is grouped into an order, which is grouped into a class, which is grouped into a phylum, which is grouped into a kingdom, which is grouped into a domain. Confusing, isn't it? Without getting into the details of what each term means, each level of classification answers a general question about the species. For example, is the species a plant or an animal? If it's a plant, it is categorized in the plant kingdom. If it's an animal, it is categorized in the animal kingdom. As you move through the levels, the questions get more specific. A domain is the most general categorization on the list, even more general than asking whether an organism is a plant or an animal. It groups every species into eukarya, bacteria, and archaea. Eukarya includes every species you can see, and even a bunch of microscopic ones. Just think of them as all plants an animals. Bacteria refers to lots of single-cell organisms. Archaea refers to a bunch of single-cell organisms different from bacteria. Archaea live in weird environments, so they're not observed frequently, and the vast majority of people probably haven't heard of them. So, to make a long story short, the domains of life separate bacteria from non-bacteria (along with a 3rd category of little consequence). The mention of large viruses as a 4th domain suggests that perhaps there's a group of virus-like organisms that are so different from anything we've seen before that they would count as their own, giant category of species.", "In biology, we categorize things by how similar they are to each other. If you drew out the categories it'd look like a big family tree. Each level in that tree has a name (for example, \"species\"). The top-level is called a \"domain\", of which there's generally considered 3: bacteria, archaea (like bacteria, but their DNA machinery works differently), and eukaryotes (things that have a nucleus in the cell). Viruses don't fit into any of those and they aren't even considered \"alive\" by some biologist since they're much more like just DNA chunks in a protein wrapper. If a cell is a machine, the virus is a chunk of metal. Sure, you can use it for all sorts of stuff, even jam it into a running machine and have lots of metal bits come flying out, but that doesn't make the chunk of metal a \"machine\", does it? Well, very large viruses blur the line. They don't resemble bacteria, archae, or eukaryotes, but they have the complexity of a living thing, and even do some chemical stuff that you otherwise only see in living things. At some point, the chunk of metal becomes intricate enough, perhaps with some moving parts, that it looks more like a machine than a just a chunk of metal. In this particular case, the virus has genes that don't resemble genes that have been seen elsewhere - hinting that they developed specifically (and independently) for the virus. If it's true that there are viruses that are carrying their own distinct genome and separately evolving it, well that's a good a reason as any to decide it's it's own separate living thing." ]

[ [ "have microscopic juvenile stages. Some microbiologists also classify viruses (and viroids) as microorganisms, but others consider these as nonliving. In July 2016, scientists reported identifying a set of 355 genes from the last universal common ancestor (LUCA) of all life, including microorganisms, living on Earth.\nMarine microorganisms constitute about 70% of the biomass in the sea. They are crucial to nutrient recycling in ecosystems as they act as decomposers. A small proportion of microorganisms are pathogenic, causing disease and even death in plants and animals. As inhabitants of the largest environment on Earth, microbial marine systems drive changes in every global", "-33.19099187583308" ], [ "the first forms of life were thermophiles. Analysis of the genome of the eukaryotic parasite Encephalitozoon cuniculi supports suggestions that the group Microsporidia are not deep branching protists but are in fact members of the fungal kingdom. Genome analysis can even help resolve relationships within species, such as by providing new genetic markers for population genetics studies in the bacteria causing anthrax or tuberculosis. In all these studies, it is the additional data provided by a complete genome sequence that allows one to separate the phylogenetic signal from the noise. This is not to say the tree of life is", "-32.91690846881829" ], [ "origins that pre-date the divergence of life into the three domains.\nOpinions differ on whether viruses are a form of life or organic structures that interact with living organisms. They are considered by some to be a life form, because they carry genetic material, reproduce by creating multiple copies of themselves through self-assembly, and evolve through natural selection. However they lack key characteristics such as a cellular structure generally considered necessary to count as life. Because they possess some but not all such qualities, viruses have been described as replicators and as \"organisms at the edge of life\".\nBacteriophages, often just called", "-32.77251771223382" ], [ "common ancestor into bacteria, archaea and eukaryotes. Viruses are still one of the largest reservoirs of unexplored genetic diversity on Earth. Life sciences and medicine Viruses are important to the study of molecular and cell biology as they provide simple systems that can be used to manipulate and investigate the functions of cells. The study and use of viruses have provided valuable information about aspects of cell biology. For example, viruses have been useful in the study of genetics and helped our understanding of the basic mechanisms of molecular genetics, such as DNA replication, transcription, RNA processing, translation, protein transport,", "-32.76478762735496" ], [ "the taxonomic domains of life, the terms \"Acytota\" or \"Aphanobionta\" are occasionally used as the name of a viral kingdom, domain, or empire. The corresponding cellular life name would be Cytota. Non-cellular organisms and cellular life would be the two top-level subdivisions of life, whereby life as a whole would be known as organisms, Naturae, or Vitae. The taxon Cytota would include three top-level subdivisions of its own, the domains Bacteria, Archaea, and Eukarya.", "-32.68214343604632" ], [ "system. Microbes are responsible for virtually all the photosynthesis that occurs in the ocean, as well as the cycling of carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus and other nutrients and trace elements.\nDespite its diversity, microscopic life in the oceans is still poorly understood. For example, the role of viruses in marine ecosystems has barely been explored even in the beginning of the 21st century. Marine viruses A virus is a small infectious agent that replicates only inside the living cells of other organisms. Viruses can infect all types of life forms, from animals and plants to microorganisms, including bacteria and archaea.\nWhen not inside", "-32.566796791070374" ], [ "Shadow biosphere The hypothesis It has been proposed that the early Earth hosted multiple origins of life, some of which produced chemical variations on life as we know it. Steven A. Benner, Alonso Ricardo, and Matthew A. Carrigan, biochemists at the University of Florida, argued that if organisms based on RNA once existed, they might still be alive today, unnoticed because they do not contain ribosomes, which are usually used to detect living microorganisms. They suggest searching for them in environments that are low in sulfur, environments that are spatially constrained (for example, minerals with pores smaller than one micrometre),", "-32.029046560346615" ], [ "life might evolve elsewhere in the universe. For example, some organisms able to withstand exposure to the vacuum and radiation of outer space include the lichen fungi Rhizocarpon geographicum and Xanthoria elegans, the bacterium Bacillus safensis, Deinococcus radiodurans, Bacillus subtilis, yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae, seeds from Arabidopsis thaliana ('mouse-ear cress'), as well as the invertebrate animal Tardigrade. While tardigrades are not considered true extremophiles, they are considered extremotolerant microorganisms that have contributed to the field of astrobiology. Their extreme radiation tolerance and presence of DNA protection proteins may provide answers as to whether life can survive away from the protection of", "-31.81421136597055" ], [ "is found in humans and in several other organisms. Their phylogenetic novelty could indicate the cellular organisms or viruses from which they evolved. Unclassified microorganisms Up to 99% of all living microorganisms cannot be cultured, so few functional insights exist about the metabolic potential of these organisms.\nSequences that are believed to be derived from unknown microbes are referred to as the ‘Microbial Dark Matter, the ‘Dark Virome’, or ‘Dark Matter Fungi’   Such sequences are not rare.  It has been estimated that in material from humans, between 40 and 90% of viral sequences are from Dark Matter.  Human blood contains", "-31.749981632863637" ], [ "optimizes the chances of survival for the individual organism and its descendants respectively.\nNon-cellular replicating agents, notably viruses, are generally not considered to be organisms because they are incapable of independent reproduction or metabolism. This classification is problematic, though, since some parasites and endosymbionts are also incapable of independent life. Astrobiology studies the possibility of different forms of life on other worlds, including replicating structures made from materials other than DNA. Origins and ultimate fate of the universe Though the Big Bang theory was met with much skepticism when first introduced, it has become well-supported by several independent observations. However, current", "-31.727025544969365" ], [ "trace elements.\nMicroscopic life undersea is incredibly diverse and still poorly understood. For example, the role of viruses in marine ecosystems is barely being explored even in the beginning of the 21st century.\nThe role of phytoplankton is better understood due to their critical position as the most numerous primary producers on Earth. Phytoplankton are categorized into cyanobacteria (also called blue-green algae/bacteria), various types of algae (red, green, brown, and yellow-green), diatoms, dinoflagellates, euglenoids, coccolithophorids, cryptomonads, chrysophytes, chlorophytes, prasinophytes, and silicoflagellates.\nZooplankton tend to be somewhat larger, and not all are microscopic. Many Protozoa are zooplankton, including dinoflagellates, zooflagellates, foraminiferans, and radiolarians. Some", "-31.660112717712764" ], [ "appear. Microorganisms are single-celled organisms that are generally microscopic, and smaller than the human eye can see. They include Bacteria, Fungi, Archaea, and Protista.\nThese life forms are found in almost every location on the Earth where there is liquid water, including in the Earth's interior.\nTheir reproduction is both rapid and profuse. The combination of a high mutation rate and a horizontal gene transfer ability makes them highly adaptable, and able to survive in new environments, including outer space. They form an essential part of the planetary ecosystem. However, some microorganisms are pathogenic and can post health risk to other organisms.", "-31.634137547342107" ], [ "although microscopic and essentially unnoticed by scientists until recently, are the most abundant and diverse biological entities in the ocean. Viruses have an estimated abundance of 10³⁰ in the ocean, or between 1 and 100,000x10⁶ per millilitre. Quantification of marine viruses was originally performed using transmission electron microscopy but has been replaced by epifluorescence or flow cytometry. Distribution Viruses are highly host specific. Studies have shown that marine viruses are more likely to infect cooccurring organisms, those that live in the same region a virus exists in. Therefore, biogeography is an important factor in a virion’s ability to infect.\nThe knowledge", "-31.62268765049521" ], [ "of both nitrifying and nitrogen-fixing bacteria. French-Canadian microbiologist Felix d'Herelle co-discovered bacteriophages and was one of the earliest applied microbiologists. Classification and structure Microorganisms can be found almost anywhere on Earth. Bacteria and archaea are almost always microscopic, while a number of eukaryotes are also microscopic, including most protists, some fungi, as well as some micro-animals and plants. Viruses are generally regarded as not living and therefore not considered as microorganisms, although a subfield of microbiology is virology, the study of viruses. Evolution Single-celled microorganisms were the first forms of life to develop on Earth, approximately 3–4 billion years ago.", "-31.612094014009926" ], [ "be in the form of extremophile microorganisms. According to NASA's 2015 Astrobiology Strategy, \"Life on other worlds is most likely to include microbes, and any complex living system elsewhere is likely to have arisen from and be founded upon microbial life. Important insights on the limits of microbial life can be gleaned from studies of microbes on modern Earth, as well as their ubiquity and ancestral characteristics.\" Researchers found a stunning array of subterranean organisms, mostly microbial, deep underground and estimate that approximately 70 percent of the total number of Earth's bacteria and archaea organisms live within the Earth's crust.", "-31.50543988426216" ], [ "Microbiology Microbiology (from Greek μῑκρος, mīkros, \"small\"; βίος, bios, \"life\"; and -λογία, -logia) is the study of microorganisms, those being unicellular (single cell), multicellular (cell colony), or acellular (lacking cells). Microbiology encompasses numerous sub-disciplines including virology, parasitology, mycology and bacteriology.\nEukaryotic microorganisms possess membrane-bound cell organelles and include fungi and protists, whereas prokaryotic organisms—all of which are microorganisms—are conventionally classified as lacking membrane-bound organelles and include Bacteria and Archaea. Microbiologists traditionally relied on culture, staining, and microscopy. However, less than 1% of the microorganisms present in common environments can be cultured in isolation using current means. Microbiologists often rely on molecular", "-31.397744122681615" ], [ "of Pandoraviruses in different environments. Currently, not much is known about their role in marine ecosystems. Phylogenetic affinities Approximately 93% of Pandoravirus genes are not known from any other microbes, suggesting they may belong to an as of yet undescribed \"fourth domain\" aside from Bacteria, Archaea, and Eukaryotes. Viruses as a whole are not popularly considered to be located within these three domains, although they have been proposed as one in the past by some biologists. Comparison with other giant viruses Other giant viruses such as the Mimivirus, Pithovirus and Megavirus, have much smaller genomes. For example, Mimivirus, considered one", "-31.36962094883347" ], [ "have introduced the term domain for the three main branches of this tree, where domain is a phylogenetic term similar in meaning to biological kingdom. To reconstruct this tree of life, the gene sequence encoding the small subunit of ribosomal RNA (SSU rRNA, 16s rRNA) has proven useful, and the tree (as shown in the picture) relies heavily on information from this single gene.\nThese three domains of life represent the main evolutionary lineages of early cellular life and currently include Bacteria, Archaea (single-celled organisms superficially similar to bacteria), and Eukarya. Eukarya includes only organisms having a well-defined nucleus, such", "-31.319874884036835" ], [ "to 19 different new genera. A comprehensive study of DNA sequences from multiple human samples inferred the existence of 4,930 species of microbes of which 77% were previously unreported.   Health-related findings include a prophage that might be associated with cirrhosis of the liver, and seven novel sequences from children with type-1 diabetes that have characteristics of viruses.  Although they might exist, no organisms that clearly cause human disease have been discovered in the Dark Matter.", "-31.30259313917486" ], [ "life, or organic structures that interact with living organisms. They have been described as \"organisms at the edge of life\", since they resemble organisms in that they possess genes, evolve by natural selection, and reproduce by creating multiple copies of themselves through self-assembly. Although they have genes, they do not have a cellular structure, which is often seen as the basic unit of life. Viruses do not have their own metabolism, and require a host cell to make new products. They therefore cannot naturally reproduce outside a host cell—although bacterial species such as rickettsia and chlamydia are considered living organisms", "-31.29013303364627" ], [ "using phrases such as \"any living structure, such as a plant, animal, fungus or bacterium, capable of growth and reproduction\". Many definitions exclude viruses and possible man-made non-organic life forms, as viruses are dependent on the biochemical machinery of a host cell for reproduction. A superorganism is an organism consisting of many individuals working together as a single functional or social unit.\nThere has been controversy about the best way to define the organism and indeed about whether or not such a definition is necessary. Several contributions are responses to the suggestion that the category of \"organism\" may well not be", "-31.19665517928661" ], [ "point of biospeleology as a scientific discipline. Biospeleology was formalized as a science in 1907 by Emil Racoviţă with his seminal work Essai sur les problèmes biospéologiques (\"Essay on biospeleological problems\"). Organisms Categories Cave organisms fall into three basic classes: Troglobite Troglobites are obligatory cavernicoles, specialized for cave life. Some can leave caves for short periods, and may complete parts of their life cycles above ground, but cannot live their entire lives outside of a cave environment. Examples include chemotrophic bacteria, some species of flatworms, collembola, and cavefish. Troglophile Troglophiles can live part or all of their lives in caves,", "-31.15251151577104" ], [ "Macrobiology Macrobiology is the branch of biology that studies large living organisms (termed Macro organisms) that can be seen by the naked eye. Macrobiology is the opposite of Microbiology. Concepts in Macrobiology Macrocosm and Microcosm\nMacrocosm and Microcosm is an important concept in Macrobiology. It refers to a vision of cosmos where the part reflects the whole (macrocosm) and vice versa. It is a feature \"present in all esoteric schools of thinking\", according to scholar Pierre A. Riffard. It underlies practices such as astrology, alchemy and sacred geometry.", "-31.138911641479353" ], [ "evidently able to infect all other organisms from bacteria and archaea to animals, plants and fungi, it is unclear whether they can themselves be described as living. Viruses can be either RNA or DNA viruses consisting of a single or double strand of genetic material (RNA or DNA respectively), covered in a protein coat and sometimes a lipid envelope. They thus lack all the usual machinery of the cell such as enzymes, relying entirely on the host cell's ability to replicate DNA and synthesise proteins. Most viruses are bacteriophages, infecting bacteria. Evolutionary ecology Parasitism is a major aspect of evolutionary", "-31.057854134589434" ], [ "However, they lack key characteristics (such as cell structure) that are generally considered necessary to count as life. Because they possess some but not all such qualities, viruses have been described as \"organisms at the edge of life\" and as replicators.\nViruses are found wherever there is life and have probably existed since living cells first evolved. The origin of viruses is unclear because they do not form fossils, so molecular techniques have been used to compare the DNA or RNA of viruses and are a useful means of investigating how they arose.\nViruses are now recognised as ancient and as having", "-31.043177920917515" ], [ "despite the same limitation. Accepted forms of life use cell division to reproduce, whereas viruses spontaneously assemble within cells. They differ from autonomous growth of crystals as they inherit genetic mutations while being subject to natural selection. Virus self-assembly within host cells has implications for the study of the origin of life, as it lends further credence to the hypothesis that life could have started as self-assembling organic molecules. Genome size Genome size varies greatly between species. The smallest viral genomes—the ssDNA circoviruses, family Circoviridae—code for only two proteins and have a genome size of only two kilobases; the largest—the", "-31.010401994688436" ], [ "unseen microbiological life was postulated by Jainism which is based on Mahavira’s teachings as early as 6th century BCE. Paul Dundas notes that Mahavira asserted the existence of unseen microbiological creatures living in earth, water, air and fire. Jain scriptures describe nigodas which are sub-microscopic creatures living in large clusters and having a very short life, said to pervade every part of the universe, even in tissues of plants and flesh of animals. The Roman Marcus Terentius Varro made references to microbes when he warned against locating a homestead in the vicinity of swamps \"because there are bred certain minute", "-30.979507563635707" ], [ "caused the diseases tuberculosis, cholera and anthrax.\nMicroorganisms include all unicellular organisms and so are extremely diverse. Of the three domains of life identified by Carl Woese, all of the Archaea and Bacteria are microorganisms. These were previously grouped together in the two domain system as Prokaryotes, the other being the eukaryotes. The third domain Eukaryota includes all multicellular organisms and many unicellular protists and protozoans. Some protists are related to animals and some to green plants. Many of the multicellular organisms are microscopic, namely micro-animals, some fungi and some algae, but these are not discussed here.\nThey live in almost every", "-30.971265990054235" ], [ "more complex structures for others. Most virus species have virions that are too small to be seen with an optical microscope. The average virion is about one one-hundredth the size of the average bacterium.\nThe origins of viruses in the evolutionary history of life are unclear: some may have evolved from plasmids—pieces of DNA that can move between cells—while others may have evolved from bacteria. In evolution, viruses are an important means of horizontal gene transfer, which increases genetic diversity. Viruses are considered by some to be a life form, because they carry genetic material, reproduce, and evolve through natural selection.", "-30.965803378261626" ], [ "Catalogue lists 1.9M extant and extinct species. There are an estimated 14M mainly unpublished species, however this number is not certain as there is a lack of data on the possible number of undescribed insect, nematode, bacteria, fungus and many other species. Catalogue of Life Plus In 2015, an expert panel presented a consensus hierarchical classification of life, including some sectors not yet represented in the published Catalogue. In the same year, the Catalogue of Life, Barcode of Life Data System, Biodiversity Heritage Library, Encyclopedia of Life, and the Global Biodiversity Information Facility met to consider building a single shared", "-30.960556179954438" ], [ "life\" after ocean formation 4.4 billion years ago, and not long after the formation of the Earth 4.54 billion years ago. According to biologist Stephen Blair Hedges, \"If life arose relatively quickly on Earth ... then it could be common in the universe.\" Extent Every part of the planet, from the polar ice caps to the equator, features life of some kind. Recent advances in microbiology have demonstrated that microbes live deep beneath the Earth's terrestrial surface, and that the total mass of microbial life in so-called \"uninhabitable zones\" may, in biomass, exceed all animal and plant life on the", "-30.90725046573789" ], [ "and persistent taxa. As these less abundant species are limited in number, viral infection and ultimately death by lysis is more unlikely as the viruses depend on high concentrations of host organisms to persist. Additionally, being less abundant implies to limited growth, and being on the smaller end of the cell size spectrum. This limits the likelihood of death by ingestion, as grazers prefer larger or more active microbes. It is important to note that just because these taxa are “rare” now does not mean that under previous conditions in our planet’s history they were “rare”. These taxa could be", "-30.892131259141024" ], [ "biology tools such as DNA sequence based identification, for example 16s rRNA gene sequence used for bacteria identification.\nViruses have been variably classified as organisms, as they have been considered either as very simple microorganisms or very complex molecules. Prions, never considered as microorganisms, have been investigated by virologists, however, as the clinical effects traced to them were originally presumed due to chronic viral infections, and virologists took search—discovering \"infectious proteins\".\nThe existence of microorganisms was predicted many centuries before they were first observed, for example by the Jains in India and by Marcus Terentius Varro in ancient Rome. The first recorded", "-30.78488794193254" ], [ "ultimately called as obligatory parasites. Viruses contain genetic materials (either DNA or RNA) which give them the ability to mutate and evolve. It also has a protective coat termed the capsid which is made up of multiple numbers of protein monomers called capsomer. Some viruses have additional structural features such as a lipid envelope over capsid or they may consist of separate head and tail structures. E.g. Bacteriophage. Every year novel viruses emerged with the potential to cause disease and death worldwide. Today, over 5000 species of viruses have been discovered and described.\nViruses spread in many ways. Just as many", "-30.24178967945045" ], [ "can be grown on a defined, artificial medium with additions of reduced sulfur, glycine, pyruvate and vitamins. Genome The genome of P. ubique strain HTCC1062 was completely sequenced in 2005 showing that P. ubique has the smallest genome (1,308,759 bp) of any free living organism encoding only 1,354 open reading frames (1,389 genes total). The only species with smaller genomes are intracellular symbionts and parasites, such as Mycoplasma genitalium or Nanoarchaeum equitans It has the smallest number of open reading frames of any free living organism, and the shortest intergenic spacers, but it still has metabolic pathways for all 20", "-30.199754333123565" ], [ "History For valid publication of a species, bacteria must be isolated, cultured, described, and deposited in a bacteriology culture collection. However, some bacteria require special culture conditions and cannot be maintained in such collections. These include obligately intracellular pathogens and endosymbionts, insect symbionts, and populations from oceans or sludge. In 1994, Murray and Schleifer published a taxonomic note in which they recommended that the new category of indefinite rank (Candidatus) be established for certain putative taxa that could not be described in sufficient detail to warrant establishment of a new taxon. It was also recommended that a Candidatus list should", "-30.18666842552193" ], [ "with local life at the targets. The colonizing microorganisms may out-compete local life for resources, or infect and harm local organisms. However, this probability can be minimized by targeting newly forming planetary systems, accretion discs and star-forming clouds, where local life, and especially advanced life, could not have emerged yet. If there is local life that is fundamentally different, the colonizing microorganisms may not harm it. If there is local organic gene/protein life, it may exchange genes with the colonizing microorganisms, increasing galactic biodiversity.\nAnother objection is that space should be left pristine for scientific studies, a reason for", "-30.106216080559534" ], [ "Non-cellular life Non-cellular life, or acellular life is life that exists without a cellular structure for at least part of its life cycle. Historically, most (descriptive) definitions of life postulated that a living organism must be composed of one or more cells, but this is no longer considered necessary, and modern criteria allow for forms of life based on other structural arrangements.\nThe primary candidates for non-cellular life are viruses. A minority of biologists consider viruses to be living organisms, but most do not. Their primary objection is that no known viruses are capable of autonomous reproduction: they must rely on", "-30.013269798302645" ], [ "environments are likely to support life, a distinction is usually made between simple, unicellular organisms such as bacteria and archaea and complex metazoans (animals). Unicellularity necessarily precedes multicellularity in any hypothetical tree of life, and where single-celled organisms do emerge there is no assurance that greater complexity will then develop. The planetary characteristics listed below are considered crucial for life generally, but in every case multicellular organisms are more picky than unicellular life. Mass Low-mass planets are poor candidates for life for two reasons. First, their lesser gravity makes atmosphere retention difficult. Constituent molecules are more likely to reach escape", "-30.00174677069299" ], [ "every possible alternate explanation before concluding that something is a true biosignature. This includes investigating the minute details that make other planets unique and being able to understand when there is a deviation from the expected non-biological processes present on a planet. In the case of a planet with life, it is possible that these differences can be extremely small or not present at all, adding to the difficulties of discovering a biosignature. Years of scientific studies have culminated in three criteria that a potential biosignature must meet in order to be considered viable for further research: Reliability, survivability, and", "-29.953778042799968" ], [ "biosignatures. Life on other planets could have a common origin with Earth life, since in the early Solar System there was much exchange of material between the planets which could have transferred life as well. If so, it might be based on nucleic acids too (RNA or DNA).\nThe majority of the species isolated are not well understood or characterized and cannot be cultured in labs, and are known only from DNA fragments obtained with swabs. On a contaminated planet, it might be difficult to distinguish the DNA of extraterrestrial life from the DNA of life brought to the planet by", "-29.87698198198632" ], [ "Scientists have found life in an Antarctic Lake Vida that was sealed off from the outside world by a thick sheet of ice several thousands of years ago. The discovery of the ecosystem pushes the boundaries of what life can endure, and may inform the search for alien microbes on other planets, such as Mars, or on icy moons, for instance, Jupiter's moon Europa.", "-29.851474551891442" ], [ "be considered astrobiology's most concrete practical application. It has been proposed that viruses are likely to be encountered on other life-bearing planets, and may be present even if there are no biological cells. Extremophiles Studying extremophiles is useful for understanding the possible origin of life on Earth as well as for finding the most likely candidates for future colonization of other planets. The aim is to detect those organisms that are able to survive space travel conditions and to maintain the proliferating capacity. The best candidates are extremophiles, since they have adapted to survive in different kind of extreme", "-29.725402509851847" ], [ "than multicellular life (see e.g., extremophile). \"On the tree of life, based on analyses of small-subunit ribosomal RNA, visible life consists of barely noticeable twigs. The inverse relationship of size and population recurs higher on the evolutionary ladder—to a first approximation, all multicellular species on Earth are insects\". Insect extinction rates are high—supporting the Holocene extinction hypothesis. Diversity study (botany) The number of morphological attributes that can be scored for diversity study is generally limited and prone to environmental influences; thereby reducing the fine resolution required to ascertain the phylogenetic relationships. DNA based markers- microsatellites otherwise known as simple sequence", "-29.711407587717986" ], [ "flora. Flora, fauna and other forms of life such as fungi are collectively referred to as biota.", "-29.70393764338951" ], [ "with the smallest genome are considered to be phylogenetically the most \"recent\" mollicutes.\nTo maintain their parasitic mode of life the mollicutes have developed rather sophisticated mechanisms to colonize their hosts and resist the host immune system. History of the classification The classification of the Mollicutes has always been difficult. The individuals are tiny, and being parasites, they have to be cultivated on special media. Until now, many species could not be isolated at all. In the beginning, whether they were fungi, viruses, or bacteria was not clear. Also, the resemblance to L-forms was confusing. At first, all members of", "-29.689846008521272" ], [ "drive certain species to extinction; in 2018, researchers proposed a biobank repository of human microbiota. Enterotype An enterotype is a classification of living organisms based on its bacteriological ecosystem in the human gut microbiome not dictated by age, gender, body weight, or national divisions. There are indications that long-term diet influences enterotype. Three human enterotypes have been proposed, but their value has been questioned. Stomach Due to the high acidity of the stomach, most microorganisms cannot survive there. The main bacterial inhabitants of the stomach include: Streptococcus, Staphylococcus, Lactobacillus, Peptostreptococcus, and types of yeast. Helicobacter pylori is a gram-negative spiral", "-29.671165864070645" ], [ "cannot replicate in mammalian cells like other viruses in its family. Viruses such as Nodamura Virus and Flock house virus have been shown to infect mammals and fishes.\nBBV comes from the family of Nodaviridae that contains nine different viruses divided into two different sub groups: Alphanodavirus and Betanodavirus. BBV falls into the Alphanodavirus group along with Nodavirus. These viruses are non-enveloped, with icosahedral geometries, and T=3 symmetry. Their diameter is typically around 30 nm with BBV's being 32.4 nm. The virus genomes are linear and segmented, bipartite, around 21.4kb in length as well.\nAlphanodaviruses life cycles begin with penetration into the host cell.", "-29.663477358641103" ], [ "whose biology is based on the complex interactions of convection cells), and the Silver Ghosts (symbiotic organisms encased in reflective shells). Several stories in the Sequence also deal with humans and posthumans living in extreme conditions, such as at the heart of a neutron star (Flux), in a separate universe with considerably stronger gravity (Raft), and within eusocial hive societies (Coalescent).\nThe Xeelee Sequence deals with many concepts stemming from the fringe of theoretical physics and futurology, such as exotic-matter physics, naked singularities, closed timelike curves, multiple universes, hyperadvanced computing and artificial intelligence, faster-than-light travel, and the upper echelons of the", "-29.609829502005596" ], [ "Microorganism A microorganism, or microbe, is a microscopic organism, which may exist in its single-celled form or in a colony of cells.\nThe possible existence of unseen microbial life was suspected from ancient times, such as in Jain scriptures from 6th century BC India and the 1st century BC book On Agriculture by Marcus Terentius Varro. Microbiology, the scientific study of microorganisms, began with their observation under the microscope in the 1670s by Antonie van Leeuwenhoek. In the 1850s, Louis Pasteur found that microorganisms caused food spoilage, debunking the theory of spontaneous generation. In the 1880s, Robert Koch discovered that microorganisms", "-29.608175014844164" ], [ "as well as sequencing genes that have not undergone extensive lateral gene transfer, such as the rRNA gene. Classification of bacteria is determined by publication in the International Journal of Systematic Bacteriology, and Bergey's Manual of Systematic Bacteriology. The International Committee on Systematic Bacteriology (ICSB) maintains international rules for the naming of bacteria and taxonomic categories and for the ranking of them in the International Code of Nomenclature of Bacteria.\nThe term \"bacteria\" was traditionally applied to all microscopic, single-cell prokaryotes. However, molecular systematics showed prokaryotic life to consist of two separate domains, originally called Eubacteria and Archaebacteria, but now called", "-29.5999174991739" ], [ "of several 100kbp, which together with other Megavirales (e.g. Iridoviridae, Pandoraviridae and Mimiviridae) are named nucleocytoplasmic large DNA viruses. Because of their large genome sizes and various proteins that are encoded, viruses of Phycodnaviridae are challenging the traditional concepts that viruses are small and simple \"organisms at the edge of life\". Phylogenetic analyses of core genes based on gene concatenation, individual phylogenies of the DNA polymerase, and the major capsid protein, indicate the close evolutionary relationships among members of Phycodnaviridae and between Phycodnaviridae and other families of nucleocytoplasmic large DNA viruses. Raphidovirus In Raphidovirus (likely misspelled Rhaphidovirus), there is only", "-29.595318774227053" ], [ "can be. Their function, while primarily encompasses increasing survival during stressful conditions, is not always limited to this. Evolution The ubiquitous nature of these proteins suggests the domain evolved in an ancestral species as well as highlighting the clear biological significance these proteins have in order to still be present the three domains of life. It has been suggested that the USP A domain was part of an ancient protein family. This is due to the similarity in structure between many distantly related organisms. Aravind et al. confirmed these ideas with extensive evolutionary analysis. Aravind suggested that these proteins", "-29.56324244849384" ], [ "parasites. Paul Remlinger (1871–1964) soon showed by filtration experiments that they were much smaller than protozoa, and even smaller than bacteria. Thirty years later, Negri bodies were shown to be accumulations of particles 100–150 nanometres long, now known to be the size of rhabdovirus particles – the virus that causes rabies. 20th and 21st centuries At the turn of the 20th century, evidence for the existence of viruses was obtained from experiments with filters that had pores too small for bacteria to pass through; the term \"filterable virus\" was coined to describe them. Until the 1930s most scientists believed that viruses were", "-29.561903138070193" ], [ "the Open Tree of Life was published, in which information from nearly 500 previously published trees was combined into a single online database, free to browse and download.\nIn 2016, a new tree of life, summarizing the evolution of all known life forms, was published, illustrating the latest genetic findings that the branches were mainly composed of bacteria. The new study incorporated over a thousand newly discovered bacteria and archaea. Horizontal gene transfer The prokaryotes (the two domains of bacteria and archaea) and certain animals such as bdelloid rotifers and the tardigrade have the ability to transfer genetic information between unrelated", "-29.551354234397877" ], [ "Branches of microbiology The branches of microbiology can be classified into pure and applied sciences. Microbiology can be also classified based on taxonomy, in the cases of bacteriology, mycology, protozoology, and phycology. There is considerable overlap between the specific branches of microbiology with each other and with other disciplines, and certain aspects of these branches can extend beyond the traditional scope of microbiology\nIn general the field of microbiology can be divided in the more fundamental branch (pure microbiology) and the applied microbiology (biotechnology). In the more fundamental field the organisms are studied as the subject itself on a deeper (theoretical)", "-29.545262599247508" ], [ "Life history The life history of an organism describes the timing of important events for the typical individual of a species. The life history of the gulper shark shows that vulnerability to harvesting is inherent in its biology. The slow rate of gulper growth and development leads to a life strategy that is more centered on competition with one another than escaping predation, especially from humans. This is demonstrated from even the earliest part of an individual gulper's life history where it consumes other fertilized eggs inside its parent's body.\nA long gestation period, later maturity, and long lifespan all contribute", "-29.534598431549966" ], [ "species are now generally defined as a cluster of viruses that encode replication initiator proteins (called NS1) that have amino acid sequences that are at least 85% identical to those encoded by all other members of the species.\nThere are currently twenty one recognized species of Bocaparvovirus. They are Carnivore bocaparvovirus 1–6, Chiropteran bocaparvovirus 1-4, Pinniped bocaparvovirus 1 and 2, Lagomorph bocaparvovirus 1, Primate bocaparvovirus 1 and 2, and Ungulate bocaparvovirus 1–6. The human bocaviruses belong to the two primate species. The former (pre-2014) \"type species\" of the genus, Bovine bocavirus, is now recognized as the founder virus sequence in a", "-29.505587341467617" ], [ "animals). These domains reflect whether the cells have nuclei or not, as well as differences in the chemical composition of key biomolecules such as ribosomes.\nFurther, each kingdom is broken down recursively until each species is separately classified. The order is:\nDomain; Kingdom; Phylum; Class; Order; Family; Genus; Species.\nOutside of these categories, there are obligate intracellular parasites that are \"on the edge of life\" in terms of metabolic activity, meaning that many scientists do not actually classify such structures as alive, due to their lack of at least one or more of the fundamental functions or characteristics that define life. They are", "-29.462170003156643" ], [ "other cases with such giant viruses, the large particles within Acanthamoebae were not mistaken for bacteria. The authors initially termed them \"endocytobionts\".\nMimivirus, a nucleocytoplasmic large DNA virus with a genome size of about 1.1 megabases, was described in 1992 but not recognized as a virus until 2003. Megavirus, discovered in seawater off the coast of Chile in 2011, has a genome size of approximately 1.2 megabases.\nThe prior discovery of these viruses prompted a search for other types of large amoeba-infecting viruses, which led to the finding of two species; Pandoravirus salinus, found in seawater taken from the coast of Chile,", "-29.42259456194006" ], [ "viral and bacterial species that diverged from humans over 4.29 billion years ago. Homologous domains There is a conserved coding region of 28 amino acids that is repeated six times in the protein-encoding region within LOC101928193 and across its orthologs. This domain begins with a glycine at the amino acid position of 194, 222, 250, 278, 306, and 334 within LOC101928193. The domain is conserved across mammals, cnidarians, fish, bacteria, and amphibians, and even in some species within these taxonomic groups that are not orthologs but share the same domain. The sequence always begins with a polar glycine and a", "-29.41503653547261" ], [ "Microbial cytology Microbial cytology is the study of microscopic and submicroscopic details of microorganisms. Origin of \"Microbial\" 1880-85; < Greek mīkro- micro- small + bíos life). \"Cytology\" 1857; < Cyto-is derived from the Greek \"kytos\" meaning \"hollow, as a cell or container.\" + -logy meaning \"the study of\"). Microbial cytology is analyzed under a microscope for cells which were collected from a part of the body. The main purpose of microbial cytology is to see the structure of the cells, and how they form and operate.", "-29.410133917699568" ], [ "individual microbes will likely lead to more widely applicable personalized approaches. Limitations The limitations of pharmacomicrobiomics primarily arise from the uncertainty associated with metagenomic profiling. Namely, short reads obtained by shotgun sequencing can be difficult to align to reference genomes since many organism have homologous sequences. In addition, 16S rRNA sequencing cannot consistently resolve species identity, a finding that casts doubt on species identities in metagenomic samples. Limitations also arise from differing study designs, as unique approaches to identifying the nature of the xenobiotic-microbiome interactions are often taken. For instance, because pharmacomicrobiomics very broadly denotes the association between xenobiotics and", "-29.358938857738394" ], [ "not yet classified by the International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses, but will be proposed as a member of the Megaviridae, a new family constituted of the large DNA viruses the genome of which is around a million base pairs in length. Members of this new family defined by a number of common specific features (Table 1 and 2) will include various viruses likely to share a common ancestor with Mimivirus and Megavirus, although their present genome size was reduced below 1 Mb. Megavirus also joins a group of large viruses known as nucleocytoplasmic large DNA viruses (NCLDV), although this", "-29.31045934651047" ], [ "the complexity of the organism. The observation that the genomes of several organisms such as that of the onion (~16 billion bases ) and salamander (~32 billion bases ) are much larger than that of the human (~3 billion bases ) but the organisms are no more complex than human provides credence to this split gene theory. Furthermore, the findings that the genomes of several organisms are smaller, although they contain essentially the same number of genes as that of the human, such as those of the C. elegans (genome size ~100 million bases, ~19,000 genes) and Arabidopsis (genome size", "-29.293279986392008" ], [ "RNA genomes, up to 32 kilobases in length, and likely possess replication proofreading mechanisms in the form of a proofreading exoribonuclease, non-structural protein 14, that is otherwise not found in RNA viruses. Taxonomic distribution The (+)ssRNA viruses are classified into 3 orders — the Nidovirales, Picornavirales, and Tymovirales — and 33 families, of which 20 are not assigned to an order. A broad range of hosts can be infected by (+)ssRNA viruses, including bacteria (the Leviviridae), eukaryotic microorganisms, plants, invertebrates, and vertebrates. No examples have been described that infect archaea, whose virome is generally much less well-characterized. Bacteria Among known", "-29.273748539970256" ], [ "named for their initial discovery within the nucleus, and for the presence of phosphate groups (related to phosphoric acid). Although first discovered within the nucleus of eukaryotic cells, nucleic acids are now known to be found in all life forms including within bacteria, archaea, mitochondria, chloroplasts, viruses, and viroids. (There is debate as to whether viruses are living or non-living.) All living cells contain both DNA and RNA (except some cells such as mature red blood cells), while viruses contain either DNA or RNA, but usually not both.\nThe basic component of biological nucleic acids is the nucleotide, each of which", "-29.234857205767184" ], [ "shown to be similar to this for some Bunyaviridae, but it may also take place much more flexibly, defined by their ability to form much smaller oligomers. These include, but are not limited to, dimers, trimers, tetramers, long helices, and more complex structures. NSV Life Cycle and Replication Negative-strand RNA viruses (NSV) can be classified into 21 distinct families. The families consisting of nonsegmented genomes include Rhabdo-, Paramyxo-, Filo- and Borna-. Orthomyxo-, Bunya-, Arenaviridae- contain genomes of six to eight, three, or two negative-sense RNA segments, respectively. Many highly prevalent human pathogens such as the respiratory syncytial virus (RSV), parainfluenza", "-29.23474639496999" ], [ "said to have a narrow host range. Other viruses, such as rabies virus, can infect different species of mammals and are said to have a broad range. The viruses that infect plants are harmless to animals, and most viruses that infect other animals are harmless to humans. The host range of some bacteriophages is limited to a single strain of bacteria and they can be used to trace the source of outbreaks of infections by a method called phage typing. Classification Classification seeks to describe the diversity of viruses by naming and grouping them on the basis of similarities. In", "-29.22218414582312" ], [ "in such extreme environments is ongoing.\nMicrobial life forms thrive even in the Mariana Trench, the deepest spot in the Earth's oceans. Microbes also thrive inside rocks up to 1,900 feet (580 m) below the sea floor under 8,500 feet (2,600 m) of ocean.\nInvestigation of the tenacity and versatility of life on Earth, as well as an understanding of the molecular systems that some organisms utilize to survive such extremes, is important for the search for life beyond Earth. For example, lichen could survive for a month in a simulated Martian environment. Chemical elements All life forms require certain core chemical elements needed", "-29.19290876413288" ], [ "adequate in biology. Non-cellular life Viruses are not typically considered to be organisms because they are incapable of autonomous reproduction, growth or metabolism. This controversy is problematic because some cellular organisms are also incapable of independent survival (but are capable of independent metabolism and procreation) and live as obligatory intracellular parasites. Although viruses have a few enzymes and molecules characteristic of living organisms, they have no metabolism of their own; they cannot synthesize and organize the organic compounds from which they are formed. Naturally, this rules out autonomous reproduction: they can only be passively replicated by the machinery of the", "-29.18891192029696" ], [ "and then alter or kill. In the case of viral identification, a region of dead cells results from viral growth, and is called a \"plaque\". Eukaryotic parasites may also be grown in culture as a means of identifying a particular agent.\nIn the absence of suitable plate culture techniques, some microbes require culture within live animals. Bacteria such as Mycobacterium leprae and Treponema pallidum can be grown in animals, although serological and microscopic techniques make the use of live animals unnecessary. Viruses are also usually identified using alternatives to growth in culture or animals. Some viruses may be grown in embryonated", "-29.16119631496258" ], [ "the planet, or to organize them in a tree-structure, without cross-connections between branches. Eukarya Members of the domain Eukarya—called eukaryotes—have membrane-bound organelles (including a nucleus containing genetic material) and are represented by five kingdoms: Plantae, Protista, Animalia, Chromista, and Fungi. Exclusion of viruses and prions The three-domain system does not include any form of non-cellular life. As of 2011 there was talk about nucleocytoplasmic large DNA viruses possibly being a fourth domain of life, a view supported by researchers in 2012. Stefan Luketa proposed a five-domain system in 2012, adding Prionobiota (acellular and without nucleic acid) and Virobiota (acellular but", "-29.112396806274774" ], [ "of viral species per liter of seawater (Breitbart et al. 2002; Angly et al. 2006). Working with Anca Segall, Mya Brietbart, Rob Edwards, and the SDSU Biomath Group, Rohwer performed the first virome studies of corals, soils, sediments and humans (Breitbart et al. 2003, 2005, 2008). Based on this work, he proposed that viruses, and particularly bacteriophage, are the most diverse biological entities on Earth. Phage Proteomic Tree Virome studies showed that most viral diversity was extreme and almost completely unknown. Rob Edwards and Rohwer proposed that a genome-based taxonomy was need to link the metagenomic data to the existing,", "-29.10506272362545" ], [ "species are multicellular protists, and slime molds have unique life cycles that involve switching between unicellular, colonial, and multicellular forms. The number of species of protists is unknown since only a small proportion has been identified. Protist diversity is high in oceans, deep sea-vents, river sediment and an acidic river, suggesting that many eukaryotic microbial communities may yet be discovered. Fungi The fungi have several unicellular species, such as baker's yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) and fission yeast (Schizosaccharomyces pombe). Some fungi, such as the pathogenic yeast Candida albicans, can undergo phenotypic switching and grow as single cells in some environments, and", "-29.0967996356776" ], [ "number of observations for plants and animals is much greater, members of the fungal kingdom should now be recognized as among the oldest and largest organisms on earth.\" After the Nature paper was published, major media outlets from around the world visited the site where the specimens were found; as a result of this publicity, the individual acquired the common name \"humongous fungus\". There was afterward some scholarly debate as to whether the fungus qualified to be considered in the same category as other large organisms such as the blue whale or the giant redwood.\nThe fungus has since become a", "-29.026348023617174" ], [ "did all modern cells come from a single ancestral cellular organization?\nThe second major direction involves the nature of the global ecosystem. . . . Bacteria are the major organisms on this planet—in numbers, in total mass, in importance to the global balances. Thus, it is microbial ecology that . . . is most in need of development, both in terms of facts needed to understand it, and in terms of the framework in which to interpret them.\nWoese considered biology to have an \"all-important\" role in society. In his view, biology should serve a broader purpose than the pursuit of \"an", "-29.01341333736491" ], [ "nothing is known about their specific biology. This form of biosignature is called an \"agnostic biosignature\" because it is independent of the form of life that produces it. It is widely agreed that all life–no matter how different it is from life on Earth–needs a source of energy to thrive. This must involve some sort of chemical disequilibrium, which can be exploited for metabolism. Geological processes are independent of life, and if scientists are able to constrain the geology well enough on another planet, then they know what the particular geologic equilibrium for that planet should be. A deviation from", "-29.00800208817236" ], [ "this network of reactions. In November 2017, a team at the Scripps Research Institute identified reactions involving the compound diamidophosphate which could have linked the chemical components into short peptide and lipid chains as well as short RNA-like chains of nucleotides. Implications of the RNA world The RNA world hypothesis, if true, has important implications for the definition of life. For most of the time that followed Watson and Crick's elucidation of DNA structure in 1953, life was largely defined in terms of DNA and proteins: DNA and proteins seemed the dominant macromolecules in the living cell, with RNA only", "-28.988715705287177" ], [ "RNA world The RNA world is a hypothetical stage in the evolutionary history of life on Earth, in which self-replicating RNA molecules proliferated before the evolution of DNA and proteins. The term also refers to the hypothesis that posits the existence of this stage.\nAlexander Rich first proposed the concept of the RNA world in 1962, and Walter Gilbert coined the term in 1986. Alternative chemical paths to life have been proposed, and RNA-based life may not have been the first life to exist. Even so, the evidence for an RNA world is strong enough that the hypothesis has gained", "-28.9673132661992" ], [ "as fungi, protists, and all organisms in the plant and animals kingdoms (see figure).\nThe gene most commonly used for constructing phylogenetic relationships in microorganisms is the small subunit ribosomal RNA gene, as its sequences tend to be conserved among members with close phylogenetic distances, yet variable enough that differences can be measured.\n\nThe SSU rRNA as a measure of evolutionary distances was pioneered by Carl Woese when formulating the first modern \"tree of life\", and his results led him to propose the Archaea as a third domain of life. However, recently it has been argued that SSU rRNA genes", "-28.957115936085756" ], [ "or positive-single-strand) and gene number and organisation. Currently there are 5 orders and 47 families of RNA viruses recognised. There are also many unassigned species and genera.\nRelated to but distinct from the RNA viruses are the viroids and the RNA satellite viruses. These are not currently classified as RNA viruses and are described on their own pages.\nA study of several thousand RNA viruses has shown the presence of at least five main taxa: a levivirus and relatives group; a picornavirus supergroup; an alphavirus supergroup plus a flavivirus supergroup; the dsRNA viruses; and the -ve strand viruses. The lentivirus group appears", "-28.947089861962013" ], [ "by side, to stretch to one cm. By contrast bacterial sizes are typically around 1 micrometre (1000 nm) in diameter, and the cells of higher organisms a few tens of micrometres. Some viruses such as megaviruses and pandoraviruses are relatively large. At around 1 micrometer, these viruses, which infect amoebae, were discovered in 2003 and 2013. They are around a thousand times larger than influenza viruses and the discovery of these \"giant\" viruses astonished scientists. Genes Genes are made from DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) and, in many viruses, RNA (ribonucleic acid). The biological information contained in an organism is encoded in", "-28.945713544322643" ], [ "(p. 146) At the scale of complexity, the same applies. \"What we think of as a progressive increase in complexity is a change in the difference between the least and the most complex organism. It is a change in the spread of complexity.\" (p. 146) Life starts in the simplest form that the constraints of chemistry and physics will allow, with bacteria probably close to that limit. \"So life starts at the minimum level of complexity. Since even now nearly everything that is alive is a bacterium, for the most part life has stayed that way.\" (p. 146) But occasionally life builds a", "-28.945277560706018" ], [ "separated from the protist kingdom, giving rise to the, at the same time, superkingdom and kingdom Archezoa. This was known as the Archezoa hypothesis. This superkingdom was opposed to the Metakaryota superkingdom, grouping together the five other eukaryotic kingdoms (Animalia, Protozoa, Fungi, Plantae and Chromista). Viruses There is ongoing debate as to whether viruses can be included in the tree of life. The ten arguments against include the fact that they are obligate intracellular parasites that lack metabolism and are not capable of replication outside of a host cell. Another argument is that their placement in the tree would be", "-28.918023225836805" ], [ "in a simple non-biological system far from thermodynamic equilibrium, and then extending consideration to short, replicating RNA molecules. The underlying order-generating process was concluded to be basically similar for both types of systems. Operator theory Another systemic definition called the operator theory proposes that \"life is a general term for the presence of the typical closures found in organisms; the typical closures are a membrane and an autocatalytic set in the cell\" and that an organism is any system with an organisation that complies with an operator type that is at least as complex as the cell. Life can also", "-28.918020443234127" ], [ "do not contain a nucleus and rarely harbour membrane-bound organelles. Although the term bacteria traditionally included all prokaryotes, the scientific classification changed after the discovery in the 1990s that prokaryotes consist of two very different groups of organisms that evolved from an ancient common ancestor. These evolutionary domains are called Bacteria and Archaea.\nThe ancestors of modern bacteria were unicellular microorganisms that were the first forms of life to appear on Earth, about 4 billion years ago. For about 3 billion years, most organisms were microscopic, and bacteria and archaea were the dominant forms of life. Although bacterial fossils exist, such", "-28.842193772366954" ], [ "the ocean is predicted to have few surviving multi-cellular organisms with only microbes left to dominate marine ecosystems. Groups other than vertebrates Serious concerns also being raised about taxonomic groups that do not receive the same degree of social attention or attract funds as the vertebrates. These include fungal (including lichen-forming species), invertebrate (particularly insect) and plant communities where the vast majority of biodiversity is represented. Conservation of fungi and conservation of insects, in particular, are both of pivotal importance for conservation biology. As mycorrhizal symbionts, and as decomposers and recyclers, fungi are essential for sustainability of forests. The value", "-28.836168750975048" ], [ "research integrates structural biology, genomics and molecular evolution. He is particularly interested in evolution of macromolecular structure. His research group has recently reconstructed the history of the protein world using information in entire genomes, revealed the existence of a 'big bang' of protein domain combinations late in evolution, traced evolution of proteins in biological networks (see the MANET database), uncovered the origin of modern biological networks in pathways of nucleotide metabolism, and revealed important evolutionary reductive tendencies in the structural make up of proteins. Recently, his group used genomic information to propose that viruses are derived from ancient cells and", "-28.778902200778248" ], [ "patients. Branches The branches of microbiology can be classified into applied sciences, or divided according to taxonomy, as is the case with bacteriology, mycology, protozoology, and phycology. There is considerable overlap between the specific branches of microbiology with each other and with other disciplines, and certain aspects of these branches can extend beyond the traditional scope of microbiology A pure research branch of microbiology is termed cellular microbiology. Applications While some fear microbes due to the association of some microbes with various human diseases, many microbes are also responsible for numerous beneficial processes such as industrial fermentation (e.g. the production", "-28.770674282859545" ], [ "faunas offer natural laboratories for studies on dispersal, isolation and evolution. Here, hydrographic and topographic controls on biodiversity and biogeography might be much more readily resolved than in systems where climate and human activity obscure their role. In addition, hydrothermal vents have been suggested to be the habitat of the origin of life. These hypotheses are being used by ChEss researchers in collaboration with NASA to develop programmes to search for life in planets or moons of the outer space.", "-28.738175779522862" ], [ "evolution of life on Earth. Specifically, it asks questions about where microbes live, their local and global abundance, their structural and functional biochemistry, how they have evolved, biomineralization, and their preservation potential and presence in the rock record. In many ways, GMG appears to be equivalent to geobiology, but differs in scope: geobiology focuses on the role of all life, while GMG is strictly microbial. Regardless, it is these tiniest creatures that dominated to history of life integrated over time and seem to have had the most far-reaching effects. Molecular geomicrobiology Molecular geomicrobiology takes a mechanistic approach to understanding biological", "-28.731666532432428" ], [ "Hypothetical types of biochemistry Hypothetical types of biochemistry are forms of biochemistry speculated to be scientifically viable but not proven to exist at this time. The kinds of living organisms currently known on Earth all use carbon compounds for basic structural and metabolic functions, water as a solvent, and DNA or RNA to define and control their form. If life exists on other planets or moons, it may be chemically similar; it is also possible that there are organisms with quite different chemistries—for instance, involving other classes of carbon compounds, compounds of another element, or another solvent in place of", "-28.728311379629304" ], [ "is in the subfamily Spartaeinae, which is thought to be primitive. Molecular phylogeny, a technique that compares the DNA of organisms to construct the tree of life, indicates that Portia is a member of the clade Spartaeinae, that Spartaeinae is basal (quite similar to the ancestors of all jumping spiders), and that the Spartaeus, Phaeacius, and Holcolaetis genera are its closest relatives.", "-28.715069499841775" ], [ "has existed for about 3.7 billion years. All known life forms share fundamental molecular mechanisms, and based on these observations, theories on the origin of life attempt to find a mechanism explaining the formation of a primordial single cell organism from which all life originates. There are many different hypotheses regarding the path that might have been taken from simple organic molecules via pre-cellular life to protocells and metabolism.\nAlthough there is no universal agreement on the definition of life, scientists generally accept that the biological manifestation of life is characterized by organization, metabolism, growth, adaptation, response to stimuli and reproduction.", "-28.703184914411395" ], [ "fungi are also found to be naturally infected with mycoviruses, including AfuPmV-1 of Aspergillus fumigatus and TmPV1 of Talaromyces marneffei (formerly Penicillium marneffei). Origin and evolution Viruses consisting of dsRNA as well as ssRNA are assumed to be very ancient and presumably originated from the \"RNA world\" as both types of RNA viruses infect bacteria as well as eukaryotes. Although the origin of viruses is still not well understood, recently presented data suggest that viruses may have invaded the emerging \"supergroups\" of eukaryotes from an ancestral pool during a very early stage of life on earth. According to Koonin, RNA", "-28.678170384722762" ], [ "out of a simulated “primordial soup”. Another theory is that life originated in a system much like the hydrothermal vents at mid-oceanic spreading centers. In the Fischer-Tropsch synthesis, a variety of hydrocarbons form under vent-like conditions. Other ideas include the “RNA World” hypothesis, which postulates that the first biologic molecule was RNA and the idea that life originated elsewhere in the solar system and was brought to Earth, perhaps via a meteorite. Sub-disciplines and related fields As its name suggests, geobiology is closely related to many other fields of study, and does not have clearly defined boundaries or perfect agreement", "-28.62750990971108" ], [ "Viriome The viriome of a habitat or environment is the total virus content within it. A viriome may relate to the viruses that inhabit a multicellular organism as well as the phages that are residing inside bacteria and archaea.\nThis term exists in contrast to the virome, which more commonly refers to the collection of nucleic acids contained by viruses in a microbiome.", "-28.56924831442302" ], [ "irradiation.\nBeyond investigating viability alone, concerns of whether microorganisms can survive deep space conditions and potentially be transported to other planets, such as Mars, has long been a concern to scientists. To further this understanding, it is necessary to determine if there is a genomic (genetic) adaptation that occurs with survival in this extreme environment. Analysis of RNA could provide valuable insight into the functional effects on surviving microorganisms. For instance, this approach could help identify genes associated with repairing damage to the cell envelope, genome, and core metabolic proteins. The microorganism tested was Bacillus pumilus (strain SAFR-032), a resilient", "-28.51637495981413" ], [ "By using functional libraries, the gene functions of unculturable bacteria can still be studied. Furthermore, these uncultured microbes provide a source for the discovery of novel enzymes with biotechnological applications. Some novel proteins that have been discovered from marine environments include enzymes such as proteases, amylases, lipases, chitinases, deoxyribonucleases and phosphatases. Determining homology in a known species There are situations in which it is imperative to determine if a gene homolog from one source is present in another organism. For example, identification of novel DNA polymerases for polymerase chain reaction (PCR) reactions which synthesize DNA molecules from deoxyribonucleotides. While human", "-28.49036275792605" ] ]

[ "They do. In America, the data is fed through the FAA and then released on a delay (about 2-3 minutes). Europe has recently been installing new hardware into their planes called ADS-B (automatic dependent surveillance-broadcast) which broadcasts its data to receivers set up around the world practically instantly. If you love planes like I do, you will get addicted to this website... URL_0 The US is expected to have all planes equipped with ADS-B equipment by 2020, which will let us bypass the FAA in receiving the data about planes' locations. For more information on ADS-B: URL_1 ", "They likely do. Doesn't help if their communication equipment stops working, which is what many suspect happened to that flight that's currently on the front page.", "It's very rare that it's hard to find a crashed aircraft. When it does happen, it's usually not because we have no idea where it is. It's because it's somewhere inaccessible, like the bottom of the sea, or - as in this case - densely forested areas. (Edit: later news reports suggest the crash was actually over water.) Aircraft are fitted with locator beacons, which send out a signal that rescuers can home towards, and this does exactly the same job as what you're describing, if the location of a crashed aircraft isn't known. But again, it's only of limited help if you can't get to the aircraft because of the nature of its location.", "Okay, so it's pretty clear that you're talking about the Malaysian Airlines incident. Major international airlines, such as Malaysian, already do using ADS-B: URL_0 Furthermore, almost every aircraft in the world has a transponder, which broadcasts certain information about the aircraft, including its type. When the transponder is given a certain Squawk code (i.e. a certain frequency to broadcast) by air traffic control, this now gives ATC information about that specific aircraft on their radar systems, including airspeed, approximate altitude, and direction of flight. Pertaining to the Malaysian incident, it sounds to me as if the electrical systems failed first, which wouldn't explain what happened. Like all aircraft this size, the 777-200ER has backup electrical systems that would continue to work. So something else must have happened. And if THAT happened, the only thing left is the emergency locator beacon, which is related to the \"black box.\" In the case of a crash, this beacon will broadcast for several weeks before its battery dies. Most aircraft (private included) have these beacons, and the 777 should be no different. The way I read the news reports, these systems all functioned perfectly until everything failed over Viet Nam. Now we just need to pray that there was a positive outcome.", "[Aircraft do transmit their location data]( URL_0 ), but in order to do so, they require the use of large and powerful antennas / radios. In response to OP's reply to Havegooda's comment, putting something like that into a blackbox is very difficult as, because you can only use a small antenna, you need a crapton of transmitting power to make up for it. To get that much transmission power, you need to be running very power-hungry electronics, which in turn need batteries. You might think that you would only need to transmit for a few minutes, and while sometimes that may be the case, in mountainous regions or area with bad cloud / dust cover, you may need to be broadcasting for a long time in order to have your signal noticed by passing satellites, or ground or air based communication relays (ground-based antennas or other aircraft equipped with receivers). And so to get a powerful enough battery, you need to be putting volatile substances *inside* your blackbox, which compromises its security / safety features. --- Also, for the majority of aircraft that can power such systems through large antennas / powerful transmitters, you generally don't need a giant GPS transponder to know where the plane went down; just follow it's flight path and look for the hundreds of metres of debris or the smoke plume (obviously water landings are tougher, but they still manage to locate parts of aircraft that crash into oceans).", "Aircraft normally carry ELT's, which stands for Emergency Locator Transmitter. These are devices that are either activated manually by a flight crew member or automatically during a sudden deceleration (crash). Modern ELT's use a satellite network and a frequency band that narrows a possible search area to several square miles. In addition, many of these newer ELT's will also transmit GPS coordinates to the satellite, which very literally takes the Search out of Search and Rescue. Unfortunately, the move to newer ELT's has not been compulsory for all aircraft, and older technology radios are still used in a majority of general aviation aircraft. These radios do not emit useful signals in many incidents, and do not allow for as accurate location determination. The average search time using the older equipment without any other information in the US is over 36 hours. In some cases, victims succombed to exposure hours, days, or even weeks after accidents in remote areas of the country, even with operating ELT's. It is too soon to evaluate still, but indications are that the newer technology improves reliability substantially and reduces search time to a few hours. Only about 15% of general aviation aircraft have the GPS enabled Elt's installed. ADS-B only covers a portion of the aircraft in the air currently. It has far lower adoption than even the new Elt technology. The Faa would like more people to use the system, and has integrated traffic, weather, and other information for free into the network to induce more to adopt the standard. The equipment is quite expensive for general aviation users, however, and has proven to be a real barrier for wider penetration.", "Aircraft do broadcast their coordinates continuously. Its reported to air traffic services as CADS position reports and as ADS-B pseudo-radar. The CADS position reports are short text messages sent periodically by a service. ADS-B is setup to look like a radar source. Planes have to be equipped for that but its in widespread use. There's been a bunch of these added to [greenland] ( URL_0 )", "IIT: Broadcasting signals too often is a waste of data space and cost too much money. Meanwhile Imgur just hit a new milestone of 1 million terabytes of data per day.", "Actualiteit they do. See pic, last known position of the Malaysian plane... URL_0 ", "I really don't get how a plane can still be considered \"missing\" at this point.", "Incidentally, this technology has been around for a long time, but not every airliner uses it because it is not yet federally mandated. Requiring ADS-B is one step as part of [NextGen]( URL_0 ), a massive overhaul of American airspace that will greatly increase efficiency, lower the cost of flights for the airlines, reduce waiting and travel times for passengers, reduce emissions, and save millions of dollars every year for taxpayers. It has been put on the backburner because the airlines and the U.S. Government each want the other party to pay for it.", "The short answer is they do. The problem with locating reckage is that an explosion can happen at 20000 feet, causing the wreckage to be distributed over a HUGE area. That wreckage then mostly sinks, and is moved even further by currents. If you then think how far a plane can go in 2-3 minutes, you've got an idea how just how huge an area the search parties have to look over.", "All airplanes that fly Inter or in the US and UK all have an ELT - Emergency Locator Transmitter - ADS-B is a type of transmitting to make plane more efficient when flying...... BUT in the time of an Accident there is an ELT onboard which transmits on a frequency which ATC monitors and the Stations in the Area..... When it comes to Intl flights every X amount of time they have to broadcast their position because there is no Towers picking up your location.... which is still going to be an Issue with ADS-B, Satellite usage is very expensive and not All Airlines use Satellites all the time... Unless you want your ticket to be 10k :) - I fly a Cessna 421 to the Caribbean and back....Also wikiPedia is not a reliable source....AIRCRAFT OWNERS AND PILOTS ASSOCIATION(AOPA) is your best source for basic information regarding any airline or recreational information for flying.... :) It will also link you to FAR(Federal Aviation Regulations (US)) - I hope this helps", "Airliners are tracked in the US. I believe there are some balckout areas for transatlantic flights.However Most if not all modern airliners are equipped with an ELT which stands for emergency locator transmitter. This device is armed (turned on) as part of the pilots' preflight check list. It should go off when the aircraft crashes and is usually located in the tail of the aircraft. If the tail of the aircraft sinks deep underwater this can have an effect on the range of the transmitter. Most large airlines that fly over great expanses of water are also equipped with a portable ELT. It looks kind of like a walkie talkie and the the unit is held so the antenna is upright. If a crash is sudden and unexpected it may not be possible to retrieve all needed safety equipment in time. Source: I was a flight attendant for 6 years.", "\"Why don't airplanes broadcast their exact GPS\"... except they do,at least modern jets do. They are monitored by GPS, radio,and radar. There's no such thing as a central authority either. Countries take charge of international flights depending or when the flight is departing and arriving. Say for example, a flight from Brazil to France. Part of the flight will be controlled by Brazil, part of it by France. The on-board computer constantly updates the planes location and sends it off to whatever airport is monitoring the flight. Flights also fly by waypoint becons,and this is another way that we know where we are and where they are going.", "I think I understand why you're asking. The plane was reported in the news as \"having lost communication\" because that's a nice, and moderately alarming way of putting it, even though people familiar with the situation likely knew well ahead of time that it was likely the worst case scenario.", "It crashed into the ocean, now if there were survivors that made it to rafts they would have found them as each one is equipped with a emergency locator beacon. I used to be an ALSS tech, every commercial aircraft and ship have them in their survival bags", "They do, you can watch them on flightradar... the problem is that beacons don't only stop broadcasting when planes crash. The wreck might be 100km from where their beacon turned off, and under 1km of water.", "They broadcast speed and location every ten minutes. It's too expensive and frankly unnecessary to broadcast that info constantly. Interview in this piece has the full details URL_0 ", "Can't they just track some of the passengers mobile phones? Or is there absolutely no signal there?", "Oh, shit. URL_0 still shows Malaysia Air 370 over the Gulf of Thailand/South China Sea..." ]

[ [ "cruise altitude. For aircraft that do not have a GPS, the initial position is also required.\nThe pilot uses the FMS to modify the flight plan in flight for a variety of reasons. Significant engineering design minimizes the keystrokes in order to minimize pilot workload in flight and eliminate any confusing information (Hazardously Misleading Information).\nThe FMS also sends the flight plan information for display on the Navigation Display (ND) of the flight deck instruments Electronic Flight Instrument System (EFIS). The flight plan generally appears as a magenta line, with other airports, radio aids and waypoints displayed.\nSpecial flight plans, often for tactical", "-35.39962740437477" ], [ "location, direction and speed are determined from the GPS components, additional tracking capabilities transmit this information to a fleet management software application. Methods for data transmission include both terrestrial and satellite. Satellite tracking communications, while more expensive, are critical if vehicle tracking is to work in remote environments without interruption. Users can see actual, real-time locations of their fleet on a map. This is often used to quickly respond on events in the field. Mechanical diagnostics An advanced fleet management systems (FMS) can connect to the vehicle's onboard computer, and gather data for the user. Data such as", "-34.52768185554305" ], [ "inform and be informed directly by other aircraft pilots of their intentions thereby improving collision avoidance and increasing safety. Third is to allow greater liberty regarding distance flights in regulated airspaces, in which the aircraft radio is normally a legal requirement. Fourth is the universal emergency frequency monitored by all other users and satellites and used in case of emergency or impending emergency. GPS GPS (global positioning system) can be used to aid in navigation. For competitions, it is used to verify the contestant reached the required check-points. Competition Competitions started with \"flying as long as possible\" and spot landings.", "-34.51716092735296" ], [ "not detect land or ocean, but infrared in the atmosphere which can reach certain intensities due to the season and latitude. GPS This sensor is simple in that using one signal many characteristics can be determined. A signal carries satellite identification, position, the duration of the propagated signal and clock information. Using a constellation of 36 GPS satellites, of which only four are needed, navigation, positioning, precise time, orbit, and attitude can be determined. One advantage of GPS is all orbits from Low Earth orbit to Geosynchronous orbit can use GPS for ACS. Overview Another system which is vital", "-33.56522585079074" ], [ "routing relative to location fixes derived from latitude and longitude, or from radionavigation beacons such as VORs. \nTypically, centers have advance notice of a plane's arrival and intentions from its pre-filed flight plan. Oceanic air traffic control Some centers have ICAO-designated responsibility for airspace located over an ocean such as ZNY and ZOA, the majority of which is international airspace. Because substantial volumes of oceanic airspace lie beyond the range of ground-based radars, oceanic airspace controllers have to estimate the position of an airplane from pilot reports and computer models (procedural control), rather than observing the position directly", "-32.96149371776846" ], [ "satellite is augmented to be able to have safe landings in bad visibility conditions. There have now been two new signals made for GPS, the first being made to help in critical conditions in the sky and the other will make GPS more of a robust navigation service. Many aviator services have now made it a required service to use a GPS. Commercial aviation applications include GPS devices that calculate location and feed that information to large multi-input navigational computers for autopilot, course information and correction displays to the pilots, and course tracking and recording devices. Military Military applications include", "-32.51738734461833" ], [ "determine location. If the vehicle systems are not designed with a backup \"IMU\" (Inertial Measurement Unit), lack of GPS availability may adversely affect the system's performance. Extremely heavy cloud cover or severe weather can also adversely impact the ability of the GPS receiver from obtaining the four required satellites. \nSome systems offer an Optical Compatible GPS system with features that also include an Inertial measurement unit (IMU). The price point of some compare to Optical Systems. Therefore, cities that do not have preemption can get a GPS based system for the price of Optical Systems (typically 1/3 the", "-32.44419333321275" ], [ "GPS as its time source, this time can be correlated with GPS log data, to provide an accurate location. This can be added to the Exif metadata in the picture file. Cameras with a GPS receiver built in can directly produce such a geotagged photograph.\nIn some private investigation cases, data loggers are used to keep track of a target vehicle. The private investigator need not follow the target too closely, and always has a backup source of data. Aircraft trackers Aircraft can be tracked either by ADS-B (primarily airliners and General Aviation aircraft with ADS-B-out enabled transponder), or by FLARM", "-32.38830122712534" ], [ "displays or other geographic information system. When satellite navigation (such as GPS) signals are unavailable, geolocation applications can use information from cell towers to triangulate the approximate position, a method that is not as accurate as GPS but has greatly improved in recent years. This is in contrast to earlier radiolocation technologies, for example Direction Finding where a line of bearing to a transmitter is achieved as part of the process.\nInternet and computer geolocation can be performed by associating a geographic location with the Internet Protocol (IP) address, MAC address, RFID, hardware embedded article/production number, embedded software number (such as", "-32.330767484381795" ], [ "are currently 31 satellites making up the GPS network, and their orbits are configured so that a minimum of five satellites are available at any one time for terrestrial users. Four satellites are the minimum required to determine a precise three-dimensional position.\nThe popularity of in-car navigation systems may give the impression that GPS is flawless, but it is subject to a number of fundamental problems. Radio beacons Roadside radio beacons, or bollards, work by transmitting data to a receiver in the car. The beacons constantly transmit data that the car-mounted receiver picks up as it passes each beacon. This data", "-32.10470720662852" ], [ "can be plotted on a map where their intersection reveals the location of the navigator. Commercial AM radio stations can be used for this task due to their long range and high power, but strings of low-power radio beacons were also set up specifically for this task, especially near airports and harbours.\nEarly RDF systems normally used a loop antenna, a small loop of metal wire that is mounted so it can be rotated around a vertical axis. At most angles the loop has a fairly flat reception pattern, but when it is aligned perpendicular to the station the signal received", "-32.0982854187605" ], [ "Instrument landing system, or ILS, relies on radio signals to allow operation in any weather. For an ILS landing to be allowed, the system must be installed on the ground, and a suitably equipped aircraft and appropriately qualified crew are required. Not all airports and runways are suitable for ILS installation, because of terrain conditions (hills in the way of the signal, non-straight landing slope). GPS-assisted landing While the GPS has a very high inherent precision, the reliability is not high enough for landing. GPS signals may be intentionally jammed, or lose integrity. In such cases, it may take the", "-32.096652380249" ], [ "announced on September 16, 1983, that the Global Positioning System (GPS) would be made available for civilian use, free of charge, once completed in order to avert similar navigational errors in the future. Furthermore, the interface of the autopilot used on large airliners was modified to make it more obvious whether it is operating in HEADING mode or INS mode.\nAlvin Snyder, the director of worldwide television for the United States Information Agency, was the producer of the video shown to the U.N. Security Council on September 6, 1983. In an article in The Washington Post on September 1, 1996, he", "-32.005549084744416" ], [ "GPS satellite-based navigation systems continuously reporting their location. Aircraft also receive the broadcast location of others nearby, which improves safety. The system also allows pilots to use more precise and efficient landing paths, saving time and fuel. NextGen is being phased in piece by piece.\nIn June 2018, NASA flew a 36 feet long by 66-foot (11 by 20-meter) demilitarised MQ-9 Predator for the first time through the NAS with no chase aircraft and controlled from Armstrong Flight Research Center, towards unmanned aircraft operations in civil airspace. Airspace classification In the U.S., airspace consists of classes A, B, C, D, E,", "-31.9759892149159" ], [ "in navigation technology, such as GPS and LNAV, errors can and do occur. While typically not dangerous, two aircraft can violate separation requirements. On a busy day, aircraft are spaced approximately 10 minutes apart. With the introduction of TCAS, aircraft traveling along these tracks can monitor the relative position of other aircraft, thereby increasing the safety of all track users.\nSince there is little radar coverage in the middle of the Atlantic, aircraft must report in as they cross various waypoints along each track, their anticipated crossing time of the next waypoint, and the waypoint after that. These reports enable the", "-31.844811452785507" ], [ "are able to use them.\nUsing the Wide Area Augmentation System, instrument-rated pilots now can land at airports where that was previously impossible using just GPS. At an airport where a ground-based Instrument Landing System (ILS) may be out of service, PBN approach procedures serve as a backup. The FAA will seldom, if ever, install a new ILS, opting instead for PBN approach procedures, which save money. The FAA is working to cut costs by reducing the amount of ground-based navigation infrastructure, which will remain as alternative in case of satellite service disruptions.\nIn response to recommendations from the aviation community through", "-31.78290031205688" ], [ "Oceanic Controllers to maintain separation between aircraft. These reports can be made to dispatchers via a satellite communications link (CPDLC) or via high frequency (HF) radios. In the case of HF reports, each aircraft operates using SELCAL (selective calling). The use of SELCAL allows an aircraft crew to be notified of incoming communications even when the aircraft's radio has been muted. Thus, crew members need not devote their attention to continuous radio listening. If the aircraft is equipped with automatic dependent surveillance, (ADS-C & ADS-B), voice position reports on HF are no longer necessary, as automatic reports are downlinked", "-31.7526223778259" ], [ "of satellite communication have been used to inform search and rescue agencies of locations of missing aircraft, notably that of Malaysia Airlines Flight 370 whose position was unknown due to loss of radar contact and other communications. Automated SATCOM transmissions suggested it flew about 1,600 km (1,000 mi) off its designated flight path having flown approximately south-southwest rather than the intended approximately north-northeast.", "-31.70261722372379" ], [ "have a chart in front of them at all times. The crew was not aware that they could check the aircraft location in relation to the centerline with a VDF (VHF direction finder). The crew probably put too much emphasis on the indications displayed by the GPS. The aircraft descended into mountainous terrain without control over the lateral navigation. Despite uncertainty and disagreement in the group, the approach was not abandoned, as the aircraft should have climbed to a safe altitude while the problem was solved. Aftermath On 20 September, the surviving relatives of each decedent received 2 million Russian", "-31.671376523503568" ], [ "night. More accurate radio navigation can be made using pulse timing or phase comparison techniques, which rely on the time-of-flight of the signals. In comparison to angle measurements, these remain fairly steady over time, and most of the effects that change these values are fixed objects like rivers and lakes that can be accounted for on charts.\nTiming systems can reveal the absolute distance to an object, as is the case in radar. The problem in the navigational case is that the receiver has to know when the original signal was sent. In theory, one could synchronize an accurate clock to", "-31.622401807107963" ], [ "GPS, before it can negotiate with the satellite, so a clear view of the sky is necessary to begin with. Once the GPS position is obtained, it does not need to do that again unless it is moved to a different region. Obtaining the initial GPS position can take a few minutes. The terminal then needs a line-of-sight to the geostationary satellite so a user would normally be outside, and have a general idea of what direction the satellite would be (with a compass if necessary). Turning the terminal slowly by hand, it will give some", "-31.62170398919261" ], [ "Due to relatively low purchase, maintenance and calibration cost, NDB's are still used to mark locations of smaller aerodromes and important helicopter landing sites. \nSimilar beacons located in coastal areas are also used for maritime radio navigation, as almost every ship is (was) equipped with a direction finder (Appleyard 1988). Very few maritime radio navigation beacons remain active today (2008) as ships have abandoned navigation via RDF in favor of GPS navigation.\nIn the United Kingdom a radio direction finding service is available on 121.5 MHz and 243.0 MHz to aircraft pilots who are in distress or are experiencing difficulties. The service is", "-31.614334049692843" ], [ "receiver on the aircraft uses this information to correct the GPS signals it receives. This information is used to create an ILS-type display for aircraft approach and landing purposes. Honeywell's CAT I system provides precision approach service within a radius of 23 NM surrounding a single airport. LAAS mitigates GPS threats in the Local Area to a much greater accuracy than WAAS and therefore provides a higher level of service not attainable by WAAS.\nLAAS's VHF uplink signal is currently slated to share the frequency band from 108 MHz to 118 MHz with existing ILS localizer and VOR navigational aids. LAAS", "-31.605730121547822" ], [ "management purposes. Position-based systems GPS is based on a network of satellites that constantly transmit radio signals. GPS receivers pick up these transmissions and compare the signals from several satellites in order to pinpoint the receiver’s location to within a few meters. This is done by comparing the time at which the signal was sent from the satellite to when it was picked up by the receiver. Because the orbital paths of the satellites are known very accurately, the receiver can perform a calculation based on its distance to several of the orbiting satellites and therefore obtain its position. There", "-31.58301371370908" ], [ "United States government allowed the system to be used for civilian purposes. Though the GPS satellite data is free and works anywhere in the world, the GPS device and the associated software must be bought or rented.\nA GPS device can retrieve from the GPS system location and time information in all weather conditions, anywhere on or near the Earth. A GPS reception requires an unobstructed line of sight to four or more GPS satellites, and is subject to poor satellite signal conditions. In exceptionally poor signal conditions, for example in urban areas, satellite signals may exhibit multipath propagation where signals", "-31.546862949617207" ], [ "identified both the correct degree heading marked on the radio's compass rose as well as its 180-degree opposite. While this information provided a baseline from the station to the ship or aircraft, the navigator still needed to know beforehand if he was to the east or west of the station in order to avoid plotting a course 180-degrees in the wrong direction. By taking bearings to two or more broadcast stations and plotting the intersecting bearings, the navigator could locate the relative position of his ship or aircraft.\nLater, RDF sets were equipped with rotatable ferrite loopstick antennas, which", "-31.514688529307023" ], [ "signals sent by the Boeing 777's satellite-communication link... the link operated in a kind of standby mode and sought to establish contact with a satellite or satellites. These transmissions did not include data.\" The following day, satellite operator Inmarsat released a public statement stating that \"routine, automated signals were registered\" on its network; analysis of these \"keep-alive message[s]\" that continued to be sent after air traffic control first lost contact could help pinpoint the aircraft's location.\nAt a press conference on 15 March, Malaysian Prime Minister Najib Razak confirms that satellite communications from Flight 370 continued for several hours after contact", "-31.418577621981967" ], [ "the location of the satellite at any point in time. Use of two carrier frequencies permitted ground receivers to reduce navigation errors caused by ionospheric refraction. The Transit system also provided the first worldwide timekeeping service, allowing clocks everywhere to be synchronised with 50 microsecond accuracy.\nThe Transit satellite broadcast on 150 and 400 MHz. The two frequencies were used to allow the refraction of the satellite radio signals by the ionosphere to be canceled out, thereby improving location accuracy.\nThe critical information that allowed the receiver to compute location was a unique frequency curve caused by the Doppler effect. ", "-31.359632986946963" ], [ "the user's precise time. One signal encodes the satellite's ephemeris data, which is used to accurately calculate the satellite's location at any time. Space weather and other effects causes the orbit to change over time so the ephemeris has to be updated periodically. Other signals send out the time as measured by the satellite's onboard atomic clock. By measuring signal times of arrival (TOAs) from at least four satellites, the user's receiver can re-build an accurate clock signal of its own and allows hyperbolic navigation to be carried out.\nSatellite navigation systems offer better accuracy than any land-based system, are available", "-31.33598219708074" ], [ "selection of which ground station to use which thus guides the choice of satellite. Along with analysing data continuously sent from all ground stations (such as station status and the error rate of signals from each station) the SDU receives information on the aircraft's position and orientation from another onboard system (ADIRU, air data inertial reference unit) which it passes to the BSU (beam-steering unit) to direct the signal beam from the aircraft to the chosen satellite.\nWith the advent of cellphones and the Internet a separate or integrated SDU can be used to offer telephone and Internet services to passengers.\nLogs", "-31.333291142378584" ], [ "checks between all position solutions obtained with various subsets of the visible satellites. The receiver provides an alert to the pilot if the consistency checks fail.\nRAIM availability is an important issue when using such kind of algorithm in safety-critical applications (such as the aeronautical ones); in fact, because of geometry and satellite service maintenance, RAIM is not always available at all, meaning that the receiver's antenna could have sometimes fewer than five satellites in view.\nAvailability is also a performance indicator of the RAIM algorithm. Availability is a function of the geometry of the constellation which is in view and", "-31.32316375069786" ], [ "also transmit location and speed. Without the pressure altitude reporting, the air traffic controller has no display of accurate altitude information, and must rely on the altitude reported by the pilot via radio. Similarly, the traffic collision avoidance system (TCAS) installed on some aircraft needs the altitude information supplied by transponder signals. Ident All mode A, C, and S transponders include an \"IDENT\" switch which activates a special thirteenth bit on the mode A reply known as IDENT, short for \"identify\". When ground-based radar equipment receives the IDENT bit, it results in the aircraft's blip \"blossoming\" on the radar scope.", "-31.307232181250583" ], [ "for maritime and aviation applications, they can also detect pitch and roll of ships. Small, portable GPS receivers with only a single antenna can also determine directions if they are being moved, even if only at walking pace. By accurately determining its position on the Earth at times a few seconds apart, the device can calculate its speed and the true bearing (relative to true north) of its direction of motion. Frequently, it is preferable to measure the direction in which a vehicle is actually moving, rather than its heading, i.e. the direction in which its nose is pointing. These", "-31.28443772450555" ], [ "data card and appear in the maps section as World Maps. Installing the maps does not affect the GPS Voice Navigation if this service is already being provided by the sim card provider. If the text, Street not Digitised Appears, the user can just zoom to current GPS location to enhance map magnification.\nNAVTEQ's website provides users with a Map Reporter function where users can report missing streets, missing features, restriction, points of interest, errors in the spelling of street names for the Nokia 6210 Navigator. Users are encouraged to report variations in the interests of improving navigation.", "-31.245854957727715" ], [ "ground, a means of navigation other than looking outside the window is required. A number of navigational aids are available to pilots, including ground-based systems such as DME/VORs and NDBs as well as the satellite-based GPS/GNSS system. Air traffic control may assist in navigation by assigning pilots specific headings (\"radar vectors\"). The majority of IFR navigation is given by ground- and satellite-based systems, while radar vectors are usually reserved by ATC for sequencing aircraft for a busy approach or transitioning aircraft from takeoff to cruise, among other things. Pilot To fly under IFR, a pilot must have", "-31.22461142623797" ], [ "determine an actual location in space, both performed simple range measurements directly off their screen and sent their separate corrections to the aircraft.\nIn practice, ranges were not sent by voice to the aircraft. Instead, a tone generator produced Morse code dots or dashes under the control of the operators. This was similar to the beam systems like Lorenz, which the UK aircrew were already familiar with using as a blind landing aid in the pre-war period. If the aircraft was too close to the station the operator would play the dot signal, and when they were too far, dashes. The", "-31.191692113148747" ], [ "the claimed position is close to the position from which the message was broadcast. Here the timing of received messages is compared to establish distances from the antenna to the plane.\nThe lack of any authentication within the standard makes it mandatory to validate any received data by use of the primary radar. Because the content of ADS-B messages is not encrypted, it may be read by anybody. Physical layer Two link solutions are used as the physical layer for relaying ADS-B position reports: universal access transceiver, and 1090 MHz extended squitter. Universal Access Transceiver (UAT) A universal access transceiver is a", "-31.17527071828954" ], [ "to frequency errors is such that there remains significant uncertainty in the final location.\" Their analysis used a simplified model of the aircraft's flight dynamics \"to illustrate how the measurements may be transformed into a reasonable flight path\" and note that other investigators used more sophisticated models to determine the underwater search area. Although access to the journal requires a subscription, its publishers \"[felt] this paper and subject are too important, and that it should be shared with the world\" and the paper was released as an Open Access article with a Creative Commons Attribution license.\nSince the October reports, analysis", "-31.14348725779564" ], [ "GPS, LORAN-C or an inertial navigation system and the internal receiver is only used as a backup for position information. Other information broadcast by the AIS, if available, is electronically obtained from shipboard equipment through standard marine data connections. Heading information, position (latitude and longitude), \"speed over ground\", and rate of turn are normally provided by all ships equipped with AIS. Other information, such as destination, and ETA may also be provided.\nAn AIS transceiver normally works in an autonomous and continuous mode, regardless of whether it is operating in the open seas or coastal or inland areas. AIS transceivers", "-31.13881480344571" ], [ "in the presence of some confusing signals is Receiver Autonomous Integrity Monitoring (RAIM). However, RAIM is predicated on the assumption that a majority of the GPS constellation is operating properly, and so it is much less useful when the entire constellation is perturbed by global influences such as geomagnetic storms. Even if RAIM detects a loss of integrity in these cases, it may not be able to provide a useful, reliable signal. Satellite hardware damage Geomagnetic storms and increased solar ultraviolet emission heat Earth's upper atmosphere, causing it to expand. The heated air rises, and the density at the orbit", "-31.12914419992012" ], [ "the accuracy of each GPS satellite's information, aircraft equipped with WAAS are permitted to fly at lower en-route altitudes than was possible with ground-based systems, which were often blocked by terrain of varying elevation. This enables pilots to safely fly at lower altitudes, not having to rely on ground-based systems. For unpressurized aircraft, this conserves oxygen and enhances safety.\nThe above benefits create not only convenience, but also have the potential to generate significant cost savings. The cost to provide the WAAS signal, serving all 5,400 public use airports, is just under US$50 million per year. In comparison, the current", "-31.083191451325547" ], [ "radio controls.\nThree main navigational aids assist pilots with navigation: very high frequency omnidirectional range facilities (VOR), a Loran-C, and a global positioning system (GPS). These can only be used with properly equipped aircraft. Although IFP does not have a VOR on the field, there are three at airports nearby: Kingman VOR/DME (distance measuring equipment) is to the east, Needles VORTAC (military tactical air navigational aids) is to the south, and Goffs VORTAC is to the west. GPS does not need facilities on the ground for navigational guidance because it uses satellites orbiting the earth to triangulate the", "-31.08257446612697" ], [ "other than RF signal strength, which was only a rough estimate at best. Global Positioning System With the advent of widespread Global Positioning System (GPS) applications came the introduction of a GPS-based traffic preemption system, that could also do collision avoidance. Recently some GPS preemption systems have found a way to overcome the nagging problem that \"blinds\" many GPS systems: how to prevent the system from being \"blinded\" by the loss of a GPS signal. In dense cities with tall buildings, GPS receivers may have difficulty obtaining the four required GPS satellite signals, required for trilateration to", "-31.038449800689705" ], [ "which spoof the locations of multiple phantom aircraft to disrupt safe air travel. There is no foolproof means to guarantee integrity, but there are means to monitor for this type of activity. This problem is however similar to the usage of ATCRBS/MSSR where false signals also are potentially dangerous (uncorrelated secondary tracks).\nThere are some concerns about ADS-B dependence on satellite navigation systems to generate state vector information, although the risks can be mitigated by using redundant sources of state vector information; e.g., GPS, GLONASS, Galileo or multilateration.\nThere are some general aviation concerns that ADS-B removes anonymity of the VFR aircraft", "-31.02909338020254" ], [ "(vehicle) and the common TOT using only TOA measurements involving four transmitters. Bancroft's algorithm, as do many, reduces the problem to the solution of a quadratic equation, and yields the three Cartesian coordinates of the receiver as well as the common time of signal transmissions. Other, comparable solutions and extensions were subsequently developed. The latter reference provides the solution for locating an aircraft with known altitude using TOA measurements at 3 receivers.\nWhen there are more TOA measurements than unknown quantities – including the common time/range offset – e.g., 5 or more GPS satellite TOAs, the iterative Gauss–Newton algorithm for", "-31.007777763996273" ], [ "by using a ground control (GPS or similar) to establish the absolute movement of a point. Difficulties A variety of factors govern the choice of images which can be used for interferometry. The simplest is data availability – radar instruments used for interferometry commonly don't operate continuously, acquiring data only when programmed to do so. For future requirements it may be possible to request acquisition of data, but for many areas of the world archived data may be sparse. Data availability is further constrained by baseline criteria. Availability of a suitable DEM may also be a factor for two-pass InSAR;", "-30.988612168701366" ], [ "omnidirectional range, which is a type of short-range radio navigation system that enables aircraft to determine their position and stay on course; the rather small airport which serves mainly domestic flights was not equipped with the more sophisticated instrument landing system. \nAt 01:36 EET, the crew made its last routine contact with ATC – absent of any abnormalities – telling that they \"are inbound\". The air traffic controller acknowledged the message which at the same time constituted the last exchange of words between the crew and the ATC. Shortly after this transmission, the aircraft crashed. Further attempts to contact", "-30.931339695875067" ], [ "data and airport info can also be manipulated on the MFD, SmartDeck provides a “feature in use” annunciation if the user is accessing or modifying information in two places at once.\nWhen airways or instrument approaches are loaded into a flight plan, the CCU will automatically change to the appropriate navigation frequencies as the flight progresses. The system displays the location identifier next to communication frequencies when selected from the database and identifies the Morse code ID for navigation frequencies. A save feature allows up to 30 flight plans with as many as 100 waypoints to be saved on", "-30.892005641188007" ], [ "a constant angle of descent. Installation of an ILS can be costly because of siting criteria and the complexity of the antenna system.\nILS critical areas and ILS sensitive areas are established to avoid hazardous reflections that would affect the radiated signal. The location of these critical areas can prevent aircraft from using certain taxiways leading to delays in takeoffs, increased hold times, and increased separation between aircraft. Identification In addition to the previously mentioned navigational signals, the localizer provides for ILS facility identification by periodically transmitting a 1,020 Hz Morse code identification signal. For example, the ILS for runway 4R at", "-30.88722883744049" ], [ "takeoff and landing, and information regarding pilot in command, etc.\nBecause the FAA does not require an official logbook or official format, many different formats are available to pilots. Some pilots even use digital methods, such as recording this information in Microsoft Excel or a similar spreadsheet, or through online or other digital methods of recording their flights.", "-30.875077216327554" ], [ "Satellite Radio based system utilizing a special receiver and Baron Services weather software. Unlike preexisting cellular based services there was no risk of dead spots, and that meant that even in the most remote areas storm chasers still had a live data feed. The second tool was a new piece of software called GRLevel3. GRLevel3 utilized both free and subscription based raw radar files, displaying the data in a true vector format with GIS layering abilities. Since 2006 a growing number of chasers are using Spotter Network (SN), which uses GPS data to plot real time position of participating spotters", "-30.84160673301085" ], [ "encrypted, so that only the U.S. military can access it. The messages sent from each satellite contain information ranging from the satellite health, the satellite's orbital path, the clock state of the satellite, and the configuration of the entire satellite network. Real-time kinematic positioning Real-time kinematic positioning (RTK) is another approach for a precise GPS-based positioning system. In this approach, determination of range signal can be resolved to a precision of less than 10 centimeters (4 in). This is done by resolving the number of cycles in which the signal is transmitted and received by the receiver. This can be accomplished", "-30.839656413707417" ], [ "ephemeris data requires 18 to 36 seconds before it is received, due to the low data transmission rate. Frequency information For the ranging codes and navigation message to travel from the satellite to the receiver, they must be modulated onto a carrier wave. In the case of the original GPS design, two frequencies are utilized; one at 1575.42 MHz (10.23 MHz × 154) called L1; and a second at 1227.60 MHz (10.23 MHz × 120), called L2.\nThe C/A code is transmitted on the L1 frequency as a 1.023 MHz signal using a bi-phase shift keying (BPSK) modulation technique. The P(Y)-code is transmitted on both the", "-30.8168382649892" ], [ "is referred to as Gps2sms. Some vehicles and vessels are equipped with hardware that is able to automatically send an SMS text message when a particular event happens, such as theft, anchor drift or breakdown. The receiving party (e.g., a tow truck) can store the waypoint in a computer system, draw a map indicating the location, or see it in an automotive navigation system.", "-30.718924470595084" ], [ "GNSS enhancement Background The Global Positioning System (GPS) is the American satellite-based system for positioning and navigation. Receivers on or near the Earth's surface can determine their locations based on signals received from any four or more of the satellites in the network.\nAll GPS satellites broadcast on the same two frequencies, known as L1 (1575.42 MHz) and L2 (1227.60 MHz). The network uses code-division multiple access (CDMA) to allow separate messages from the individual satellites to be distinguished. Two distinct CDMA encodings are used: the coarse/acquisition (C/A) code, which is accessible by the general public, and the precise (P) code, which is", "-30.68315051132231" ], [ "have to manually specify ZIP codes or other location identifiers to use LBS, when they roam into a different location. GPS tracking is a major enabling ingredient, utilizing access to mobile web. Locating methods There are a number of ways in which the location of an object, such as a mobile phone or device, can be determined. Another emerging method for confirming location is IoT and blockchain-based relative object location verification. Self-reported positioning A low cost alternative to using location technology to track the player, is to not track at all. This has been referred to as \"self-reported positioning\". It", "-30.678857138438616" ], [ "pilots or the controller knew that the altitude on the controllers screen was from the data on the plane. \nFaced with a lack of reliable basic flight instrument readings, constant contradictory warnings from the aircraft's flight computer (some of which were valid and some of which were not) and believing that they were at a safe altitude, the crew decided to begin descent for the approach to the airport. Since the flight was at night over water, no visual references were available to convey to the pilots their true altitude or to aid their descent. As a consequence of the", "-30.637010785518214" ], [ "the crew from gaining a visual cue to their location.\nThe bulk of the report was dedicated to the navigational aids at Fornebu. The report underlined that false signals from the radio beacon were an important underlying cause. It noted that the beacon for runway 01 interfered with that for 06 and that up to three false signals could be transmitted. The commission recommended airlines enforce routines which ensured that multiple systems for determining position and bearing always be used, as a single system would never be reliable. It also recommended an extra radio beacon be installed in Drammen to aid", "-30.627974207221996" ], [ "camera. Because of the requirement for wireless service providers in United States to supply more precise location information for 911 calls by September 11, 2012, more and more cell phones have built-in GPS chips. Most smart phones already use a GPS chip along with built-in cameras to allow users to automatically geotag photos. Others may have the GPS chip and camera but do not have internal software needed to embed the GPS information within the picture. A few digital cameras also have built-on or built-in GPS that allow for automatic geotagging.\nDevices use GPS, A-GPS or both. A-GPS can be", "-30.560648057144135" ], [ "location to emergency services. For an additional cost, SPOT can transmit a breadcrumb trail of GPS points, which users can configure to be displayed on a custom web page. Latitude and longitude, but not elevation, are transmitted every 10 minutes.\nIn March 2010, SPOT claimed to have successfully \"helped initiate more than 550 rescues in 51 countries on land and at sea\".\nIn early 2013, a variation of the SPOT Satellite GPS Messenger called SPOT Connect was released. It allows the user to compose a custom message in real time using a smartphone.\nOther GPS devices with satellite communication capability are available, some", "-30.556915137589385" ], [ "end of the 20th century, the advent of satellite-based Global Positioning Systems (GPS) provided yet another means for any individual to determine true north accurately. While GPS Receivers (GPSRs) function best with a clear view of the entire sky, they function day or night, and in all but the most severe weather. The government agencies responsible for the satellites continuously monitor and adjust them to maintain their accurate alignment with the Earth. There are consumer versions of the receivers that are attractively priced. Since there are no periodic access fees, or other licensing charges, they have become widely used. GPSR", "-30.542138313874602" ], [ "its street maps and satellite imagery. However, the WGS-84 positions reported by a browser are depicted at the wrong positions. On the contrary, google.com/maps also uses GCJ-02 data for the street map, but does not shift the satellite imagery layer, which continues to use WGS-84 coordinates, with the benefit that WGS-84 positions can still be overlaid correctly on the satellite image (but not the street map). Google Earth also uses WGS-84 to display the satellite imagery.\nOverlaying GPS tracks on Google.com Maps and any street maps sourced from Google.com via its API, will lead to a similar display offset problem, because", "-30.530927445273846" ], [ "to determine a backscattering object's position using a single receiver. In Doppler radar, the Doppler shift is also taken into account, determining velocity rather than location (though it helps determine future location). Real Time Location Systems RTLS using calibrated RTLS, and TDOA, are commercially available. The widely used Global Positioning System (GPS) is based on TOA of signals from satellites at known positions. International regulation Radiolocation service (short: RLS) is – according to Article 1.48 of the International Telecommunication Union's (ITU) Radio Regulations (RR) – defined as «A radiodetermination service for the purpose of radiolocation.»", "-30.52076224956545" ], [ "in the area where in 2014 MV Haixun 01, operated by the China Maritime Safety Administration, had detected an acoustic signal suspected to originate from an underwater location beacon attached to the plane's black boxes. However, while several detections had been made, none could have been detected when the ship had passed the same location on an opposing heading, and independent analyses of the detections had determined that the signals had not match the performance standards of the underwater location beacons. It had been considered possible but unlikely that the signals could have had originated from a damaged one. The spokesperson", "-30.515735558175948" ], [ "on board which correctly displayed the distance to the Maputo DME beacon.\nThe crew were criticized for failing to perform any checklist items or navigational aid identification, as well as for the distractions and non-essential conversations in the cockpit during the descent into Maputo. As a consequence of not announcing to the other crew members which navigational aids were being used, or the frequencies being set, mistakes could not be corrected by others through \"cross-checking\". Regarding it essential that the relatively large crew in the cockpit work as a well-integrated team, the board concluded that \"demonstrably they had not\".\nThe board found", "-30.482491474598646" ], [ "and has corrections broadcast on the Commercial FM radio band. The third at Sydney airport is currently undergoing testing for precision landing of aircraft (2011), as a backup to the Instrument Landing System at least until 2015. It is called the Ground Based Augmentation System. Corrections to aircraft position are broadcast via the aviation VHF band. Post processing Post-processing is used in Differential GPS to obtain precise positions of unknown points by relating them to known points such as survey markers.\nThe GPS measurements are usually stored in computer memory in the GPS receivers, and are subsequently transferred to a computer", "-30.44538288214244" ], [ "The precision of each traffic event's location is low compared to that of modern smartphone devices. The user's navigation system locates a driver to about 3 metres (10 feet), but only knows, for example, that a crash took place between Exit 3 and Exit 4, northbound on a particular motorway. This limitation requires that traffic events (accidents, congestion, burst water mains, faulty traffic lights, etc.) have to be superimposed onto maps by mapping the reported location to the TMC location table. If the nearest location table point lies at some distance from the exact position of the incident, then the", "-30.42004680188984" ], [ "from 17 signals exchanged between the ground station and the aircraft during a 30-minute period before take-off, when the aircraft's location was known (at Kuala Lumpur International Airport). To establish the accuracy of their calculations, the bias value was used to calculate the distance from the aircraft to the satellite during the time it was on the ground at KLIA, with errors of <1 km-8.85 km (<1 mi-5.5 mi). The distance from the satellite to the aircraft was also calculated while the aircraft was in-flight and at a known location shortly after take-off, showing similar accuracy. The distance between the satellite and aircraft could", "-30.36424276017351" ], [ "navigation message decoding Since the carrier frequency received can vary due to Doppler shift, the points where received PRN sequences begin may not differ from O by an exact integral number of milliseconds. Because of this, carrier frequency tracking along with PRN code tracking are used to determine when the received satellite's PRN code begins. Unlike the earlier computation of offset in which trials of all 1,023 offsets could potentially be required, the tracking to maintain lock usually requires shifting of half a pulse width or less. To perform this tracking, the receiver observes two quantities, phase error and received", "-30.283303293956124" ], [ "It depends on an accurate satellite signal for position data, enhances surveillance services, and continuously broadcasts aircraft position and other data to any aircraft or ground station equipped to receive ADS-B. Pilots and air traffic controllers can for the first time see the same real-time display of air traffic, which substantially improves situational awareness for improved safety.\nThe FAA completed installation of new ground radio infrastructure in 2014, and coverage is available in all 50 states, Guam, Puerto Rico, the Gulf of Mexico, and area off both coasts. ADS-B has been integrated into automation platforms at all en route air traffic", "-30.2795977476635" ], [ "aircraft would keep the same code from take-off until landing even when crossing international boundaries, as it is used at the air traffic control centre to display the aircraft's callsign using a process known as code/callsign conversion. Clearly the same mode A code should not be given to two aircraft at the same time as the controller on the ground could be given the wrong callsign with which to communicate with the aircraft. Mode C The mode C reply provides height increments of 100 feet, which was initially adequate for monitoring aircraft separated by at least 1000 feet. ", "-30.279307238408364" ], [ "aircraft's identification, barometric altitude, and an emergency status code, which is displayed on the radar screen next to the return from the primary radar. It operates at a frequency of 1.03 - 1.09 GHz in the L band with peak power of 160 - 1500 W.\nThe positions of the aircraft are displayed on a screen; at large airports on multiple screens in an operations room at the airport called in the US the Terminal Radar Approach Control (TRACON), monitored by air traffic controllers who direct the traffic by communicating with the aircraft pilots by radio. They are responsible", "-30.27774084842531" ], [ "in the previous section, where 4 receivers (0 ≤ m ≤ 3) lead to 3 non-linear equations in 3 unknown values (x,y,z). The system must then solve for the unknown user (often, vehicle) location in real time. Civilian air traffic control multilateration systems use the Mode C SSR transponder message to find an aircraft's altitude. Three or more receivers at known locations are used to find the other two dimensions—either (x,y) for an airport application, or latitude and longitude for larger areas.\nSteven Bancroft was apparently the first to publish an algebraic solution to the problem of locating a user", "-30.26167422469007" ], [ "process the raw data to extract their transmitted information.\nWhere satellite uplink fails due to antenna damage, it may be possible to intercept the underpowered transmission locally using a satellite uplink receiver. GSM GPS location data can be transmitted via the GSM mobile/cell phone network, using SMS messages or internet protocols over a GPRS session. The EPASTO GPS is dedicated to follow and locate cow. UHF/VHF GPS data may be transmitted via short-range radio signals and decoded using a custom receiver.", "-30.252296444086824" ], [ "and track information to keep its antenna pointed towards the satellite, so it can also be deduced that the aircraft's navigation system was operational.\nSince the aircraft did not respond to a ping at 09:15, it can be concluded that at some point between 08:19 and 09:15, the aircraft lost the ability to communicate with the ground station. Malaysia's Department of Civil Aviation noted this time was \"consistent with the maximum endurance of the aircraft\" and this time is believed to have been the result of the aircraft entering the ocean after fuel starvation. The ATSB is \"confident the seventh handshake", "-30.250873440527357" ], [ "GPS signals Common characteristics The GPS satellites (called space vehicles in the GPS interface specification documents) transmit simultaneously several ranging codes and navigation data using binary phase-shift keying (BPSK).\nOnly a limited number of central frequencies are used; satellites using the same frequency are distinguished by using different ranging codes; in other words, GPS uses code division multiple access. The ranging codes are also called chipping codes (in reference to CDMA/DSSS), pseudorandom noise and pseudorandom binary sequences (in reference to the fact that it is predictable, but statistically it resembles noise).\nSome satellites transmit several BPSK streams at the same frequency in", "-30.250573173630983" ], [ "tracking temporary. \nAnother way to turn the tracking off was to turn Location Services off. This was done by going to Settings > Privacy > Location Services, selecting the app in the list and selecting the \"Never\" option. Tracking could be turned back on by selecting the \"While Using the App\" option. Location services and hence location tracking did not operate when a device was in “Airplane mode”. History Find My Friends was announced on October 4, 2011, and released on October 12, 2011, several hours before the actual release of iOS 5.\nSince the release of iOS 9 (in September", "-30.211152561591007" ], [ "crews home early\". GPS Limitations GPS is extremely versatile in the earthmoving industry but it does have its limitations. GPS satellite signals can only be received in a non obstructed view of the sky with the exception of clouds. If a contractor wanted to perform grade work in preparation for a concrete floor within a building for example, the roof would block the view to the GPS satellites preventing the system from working. Working too close to a structure can also obstruct the machine's view of the sky creating dead zones. High-voltage power-lines can also create", "-30.209019474335946" ], [ "area of view, on earth's surface is expected to be around 103 X 77 km². GPS The GPS payload in Jugnu helps in synchronizing the time of OBC from the time data retrieved from the GPS module. The Orbital Parameters from the GPS is fed into the ADCS system which assists in satellite positioning from time to time. ADCS The Attitude Determination and Control System (ADCS) orients the satellite in a manner such that maximum solar energy is incident on its solar panels. During imaging the satellite must point at a fixed location on earth in order to capture high-quality", "-30.173521040705964" ], [ "and the like, while the navigator has full responsibility for not only tracking the team’s location, but determining route choice as well.", "-30.143926777949673" ], [ "aircraft from the same angle many times. This is particularly prevalent if the aircraft spotter is spotting commercial aircraft, operated by airlines that have a limited fleet.\nSpotters use equipment such as ADS-B decoders to track the movements of aircraft. The two most famous devices used are the AirNav Systems RadarBox and Kinetic Avionics SBS series. Both of them read and process the radar data and show the movements on a computer screen. Most of the decoders also allow the exporting of logs from a certain route or airport. Spotting styles Some spotters will note and compile the markings, a national", "-30.126120237604482" ], [ "physical and mathematical methods are applied to compensate for these problems. Promising direction radio frequency positioning error correction opened by the use of alternative sources of navigational information, such as inertial measurement unit (IMU), monocular camera Simultaneous localization and mapping (SLAM) and WiFi SLAM. Integration of data from various navigation systems with different physical principles can increase the accuracy and robustness of the overall solution. Relation to GPS Global navigation satellite systems (GPS or GNSS) are generally not suitable to establish indoor locations, since microwaves will be attenuated and scattered by roofs, walls and other objects. However, in order to", "-30.104886542758322" ], [ "is computed based on the amplitude of the received signal, the altitude code is decoded, and the signal angle-of-arrival is determined to a resolution of \"quadrants\" (ahead, behind, left, or right) using a directional antenna array. XRX will recognize interrogations from TCAS, Skywatch, and any other \"active\" system, military protocols, and Mode S transmissions. Step 4 The altitude of the aircraft (in the example, 2,500 ft.) is compared to your local altitude (e.g., 1,500 ft.) and the relative altitude is calculated (e.g., 1,000 ft. above you). With relative direction, altitude and range determined, XRX displays this information and stores it in memory. Step", "-30.10442025552038" ], [ "data analyses. An integrated approach of multiple systems can be used to merge satellite data, aerial imagery, and personnel position via Global Positioning System (GPS) into a collective whole for near-realtime use by wireless Incident Command Centers.\nA small, high risk area that features thick vegetation, a strong human presence, or is close to a critical urban area can be monitored using a local sensor network. Detection systems may include wireless sensor networks that act as automated weather systems: detecting temperature, humidity, and smoke. These may be battery-powered, solar-powered, or tree-rechargeable: able to recharge their battery systems using the small electrical", "-30.08217382093426" ], [ "several days, including the day of Flight 370's disappearance, and could be factored into the BFO measurement.\nAdditional factors that affect the BFO are a translation made at the ground station between the reception and processing of the signal (which is monitored and can be factored in) and a fixed bias in the aircraft and satellite oscillators due to drift and ageing (which can be calibrated by measures recorded when the aircraft's location and speed were known). At 2:40 and 6:14, ground-to-aircraft phone calls were made that were unanswered by the cockpit but acknowledged by the SDU. The signals associated with", "-30.070226402545813" ], [ "\"land\", \"stop\", etc.); they are not intended to be used for transmitting messages in Morse code. Aircraft can acknowledge signals by rocking their wings or flashing their landing lights.", "-30.044508758350275" ], [ "received from the satellites. Errors depend on geometric dilution of precision and the sources listed in the table below. Signal arrival time measurement The position calculated by a GPS receiver requires the current time, the position of the satellite and the measured delay of the received signal. The position accuracy is primarily dependent on the satellite position and signal delay.\nTo measure the delay, the receiver compares the bit sequence received from the satellite with an internally generated version. By comparing the rising and trailing edges of the bit transitions, modern electronics can measure signal offset to within about one percent", "-30.027699291473255" ], [ "OpenCellID Applications Data on Cell IDs and their locations can be used to provide location information to mobile devices. Using Cell ID locations to find device location is more power efficient and often faster than using satellite-based navigation systems, although it is less precise because of the lack of known Cell IDs.\nGeolocation, particularly cell-tower/GSM based, is widely used in location-centric apps and devices including people, asset, and fleet tracking applications.\nThe database is also used to determine the strength of available wireless connections and which mobile phone service providers have coverage in specific geographic locations. Data sources The unique location", "-30.022964665464315" ], [ "precautions are necessary to avoid pinpointing individuals based on spatial data. For example, data may need to be aggregated to cover larger areas such as a zip code or county, helping to mask individual identities. Maps can also be constructed at smaller scales so that less detail is revealed. Alternately, key identifying features (such as the road and street network) can be left off the maps to mask exact location, or it may even be advisable to intentionally offset the location markers by some random amount if deemed necessary. \nIt is well established in the literature that", "-30.019210386555642" ], [ "the current location and direction of movement corresponded to a street in the map data. These and other techniques developed by Etak would perhaps now be viewed as very high-end features for a car navigation system. At the time, however, because there was no GPS to provide an approximate absolute location, they were critically important. The move to digital mapping The Navigator enjoyed a brief vogue, selling a few thousand units in a few years, and even finding its way to the dashboard of pop star Michael Jackson. It also appeared in a 1991 feature film \"Nothing But", "-30.01140558748739" ], [ "degree of precision. Less sophisticated systems can use wireless distance measurements to estimate a point of reference in polar coordinates (distance and direction) from another site. Index locating indicates presence at a known location, as with fixed RFID readers and RFID tags. Applications Location-aware systems address the acquisition of coordinates in a grid (for example using distance metrics and lateration algorithms) or at least distances to reference points (for example discriminating presence at a certain choke point on a corridor or in a room of a building). Navigation Navigation and reckoning are key concerns for seafarers, aviators and professional drivers.", "-30.0097675640136" ], [ "Local-area augmentation system The local-area augmentation system (LAAS) is an all-weather aircraft landing system based on real-time differential correction of the GPS signal. Local reference receivers located around the airport send data to a central location at the airport. This data is used to formulate a correction message, which is then transmitted to users via a VHF Data Link. A receiver on an aircraft uses this information to correct GPS signals, which then provides a standard ILS-style display to use while flying a precision approach. The FAA has stopped using the term LAAS and has transitioned to the International Civil", "-29.98069604334887" ], [ "the US Air Force Space Command provides very accurate timing and frequency signals. A GPS receiver works by measuring the relative time delay of signals from a minimum of four, but usually more, GPS satellites, each of which has at least two onboard caesium and as many as two rubidium atomic clocks. The relative times are mathematically transformed into three absolute spatial coordinates and one absolute time coordinate.\nGPS Time (GPST) is a continuous time scale and theoretically accurate to about 14 ns. However, most receivers lose accuracy in the interpretation of the signals and are only accurate to 100 ns.\nThe", "-29.97539641149342" ], [ "the map markers indicating runways, air traffic control tower, taxiways, and hangars overlaid on the video.\nAR can augment the effectiveness of navigation devices. Information can be displayed on an automobile's windshield indicating destination directions and meter, weather, terrain, road conditions and traffic information as well as alerts to potential hazards in their path. Since 2012, a Swiss-based company WayRay has been developing holographic AR navigation systems that use holographic optical elements for projecting all route-related information including directions, important notifications, and points of interest right into the drivers' line of sight and far ahead of the vehicle. Aboard maritime vessels,", "-29.96862458786927" ], [ "a fairly precise á priori knowledge of own position and heading. The AIS positions of vessels are likely to be dependent on a GNSS system – typically GPS - and will thus be susceptible to the same vulnerabilities as the own vessels GNSS receiver.\nAIS AtoN signals – or dedicated Application Specific Messages or information contained in additional chart object information in the S-100 ENC framework – could be used to identify the presence of conspicuous, fixed or floating objects, that are suitable for radar reference. Dedicated messages could provide their position information, including the object shape, source and accuracy", "-29.93276790692471" ], [ "that do not utilize satellite or radio telemetry for real-time monitoring. The major disadvantage is that organism's need to be recaptured in order to obtain data from the device. Light levels that are recorded can be used to determine the latitude and longitude, and thus provide information on the location of organisms. When the organism is in a shaded environment, due to clouds, feathers, or foliage, a problem occurs since the geolocator does not record accurate light levels. GPS receiver GPS technology enables individuals to observe relatively fine-scale movement or migratory patterns in a free-ranging wild animal using the Global", "-29.92164864987717" ], [ "the GPS constellation is a single point of failure, on-board Inertial Navigation System (INS) or ground-based navigation aids are still required for backup.\nRockwell Collins reports it costs more to certify than to develop a system, from 75% engineering and 25% certification in past years.\nIt calls for a global harmonization between certifying authorities to avoid redundant engineering and certification tests rather than recognizing the others approval and validation.\nGroundings of entire classes of aircraft out of equipment safety concerns is unusual, but this has occurred to the de Havilland Comet in 1954 after multiple crashes due to metal fatigue and hull failure,", "-29.910185729851946" ], [ "the time of its release. Standard programs included a Web browser, a calculator, an alarm clock and a calendar. For communication, the device included caller ID (with support for photo caller ID), a speaker phone, a voice memo recorder, a record call feature, address book (with multiple online syncing abilities), T9 Text, and Korean character set support. GPS The device was location aware with its internal GPS. The Ocean was loaded with a version of Google Maps, which displayed turn-by-turn directions; however, the application warned users that it should not be used while driving. Additionally, the Buddy Beacon application allowed", "-29.905963801546022" ], [ "coordinates. This allowed telescope operators to identify satellites, and also to identify and catalog potentially dangerous space debris.\nStarting in 2003 the US Army integrated the SmartCam3D augmented reality system into the Shadow Unmanned Aerial System to aid sensor operators using telescopic cameras to locate people or points of interest. The system combined fixed geographic information including street names, points of interest, airports, and railroads with live video from the camera system. The system offered a \"picture in picture\" mode that allows it to show a synthetic view of the area surrounding the camera's field of view. This helps solve a", "-29.905388633836992" ], [ "description code, plus 3 bits for the event's extent and a few extra bits for the duration/system management was necessary due to pre-existing constraints in the RDS standard. Almost all the other broadcast data bits were already assigned from each 104-bit RDS Group.\nA major design challenge of RDS-TMC was to find a way of describing traffic event locations across an entire state or country. Such a system could not convey precise latitude-longitude data (available 25 years later using GPS in applications such as Waze). Instead, RDS-TMC relies on the use of location tables that point only to significant highway junctions.", "-29.903327155509032" ] ]

[ "No one wants to say it, but I will. African Americans in the United States are descendants of a 14+ generation selective breeding program to build big, strong, humans that would be better farm workers. The effects of this still exist today.", "In really broad terms, it's just socio-economics. If you look back at the history of boxing, for example, you see that the races that excel at a certain time also are the races that are somewhat disadvantaged at that time. It was Italians for a while, then the Irish once the Italians became more accepted by the majority of the country, then Africans after the Irish became more accepted. When you're from a race that is discriminated against, and you're poor, and you don't have much chance of getting a good education, or getting a good job even if you have one, sports is one of the areas where you can compete on a level playing field, so a disproportionate number of those people focus they're efforts in those endeavors.", "It's very hard to become a professional athlete. Most people who try to become professional athletes don't make it. Because of inherent structural forces in America, white people tend to invest less effort in becoming professional athletes because they have other more realistic opportunities to be successful. For example, a white kid whose father is a cardiac surgeon might be a very good basketball player. However, his chances of becoming a basketball player is very low despite his natural ability. However, his chances of becoming a doctor, like his father, are very high. So, at some point, rather than pursue a slim chance of being a professional athlete, he chooses to become a doctor. A black kid might not have the opportunity to become a doctor, so he invests himself entirely into become a professional basketball player.", "To be clear, I have no ill will towards the state of professional sports or the makeup of its players.", "Real reason : It's the best place that many members of minority groups find opportunity. If you grow up in a poor area with bad education you can play football for a living, or create music. These 'break out talent ' type careers attract the disadvantaged Source: working on my sociology bachelor's. So that's what we've been taught.", "Fuck the elephant in the room. Because blacks were bred by white slave owners to be bigger and stronger for 300 years and therefore the United States has these humans that are bred to be the way they are.", "It's fast-twitch muscle fiber. Black people have more, and more dense. It's just that simple. Fast-twitch muscle fibers are indeed the largest and most powerful muscular movers in your body. Unfortunately, they're also neglected in most bodybuilders' programs. It's time to change this! The human body is equipped with a variety of muscle-fiber types. These range on a spectrum from the smaller, endurance-based, slow-twitch fibers to the larger fast-twitch fibers designed for strength and power activities. But you're right that these larger fibers have physique implications as well. Aside from their sheer size, fast-twitch fibers also store a great deal of carbohydrates. For every gram of carbohydrate you store, you also draw about 3 grams of water into the muscle. Thus, bodybuilders who optimize fast-twitch fiber development will obtain a fuller and denser look onstage. The balance of fast-twitch and slow-twitch fibers in your body is determined by genetics, but there's still plenty you can do in your training to maximize growth and strength in the muscles you have. Specifically, consider two variables when trying to activate fast-twitch muscle fibers: the amount of weight you lift and how you manage fatigue during sets." ]

[ [ "black players after the mid-1970s. By 2007, black players made up less than 9% of the major leagues. While this trend is largely attributed to an increased emphasis on the recruitment of players from Latin America (with the number of Hispanic players in the major leagues rising to 29% by 2007), other factors have been cited as well. Hall of Fame player Dave Winfield, for instance, has cited the fact that urban America places less emphasis and provides less resources for youth baseball than in the past. Despite this continued prevalence of Hispanic players, the percentage of black players rose", "-32.5451100259088" ], [ "statistics are in contrast to the general population of the United States, which is about 28% non-white (white including Hispanic whites) although among the demographic that plays in the NFL (men approximately 21 to 35 years of age), the proportion of the American population that is non-white is somewhat greater.\nScout.com national recruiting analyst Greg Biggins said: \"I honestly think it’s harder for a white wide receiver than it is a black quarterback to get recruited at a high level in this day and age,\" Biggins said. \"Unless you have an extreme skill set that jumps out.\"\nIn recent decades the cornerback", "-32.507911252650956" ], [ "In the American League, the first player to break the color barrier was Larry Doby with the Cleveland Indians in 1946. By 1955, there were still two all-Caucasian American League teams, the Detroit Tigers and the Boston Red Sox, compared to just one in the National League. Writer Steve Treder from The Hardball Times noted that the fact that the American League employed fewer African Americans led to a discrepancy in talent, giving the National League the upper hand. Over the time period of racial desegregation in baseball, the American League had better attendance than the National League for most", "-31.26150778926967" ], [ "records and playoff positioning, and league sanctions such as fines and the stripping of draft picks due to neglecting to create a safe environment for players, which in turn can affect teams for years beyond a violent event. Also sporting events in North America are considered to be more of a family-friendly and uniting affair. In other countries around the world, sports matches are sometimes proxies for bitter and long-standing ethnic, political, and religious divisions.\nFurthermore, the much larger geographical footprint of the North American sports leagues mean that even fierce rivals are often based hundreds or even thousands of miles", "-31.120891973325342" ], [ "competition is not as important in American sports as it is in the sporting culture of most other countries, although Olympic ice hockey and basketball tournaments do generate attention. The first international baseball tournament with top-level players, the World Baseball Classic, also generated some positive reviews after its inaugural tournament in 2006.\nThe major professional sports leagues operate drafts once a year, in which each league's teams selected eligible prospects. Eligibility differs from league to league. Baseball and ice hockey operate minor league systems for players who have finished education but are not ready or good enough for the major leagues.", "-30.86729941063095" ], [ "rate of 3:1. Specific groups Wage gaps have been identified for many races within the United States; however, research has found that the size and causes of the wage gap differs by race. For instance, the median black male worker earns 74 percent as much as the median white male worker, while the median Hispanic male worker earns only 63 percent as much. To understand more fully and accurately the subject of the racial wage gap in the United States, it is useful to look at different races individually to understand the causes and outcomes that are unique to them.", "-30.696258075273363" ], [ "Latin American communities and video games Population Video games draw in a large population in the United States. In 2015, there were 155 million Americans regularly playing video games. Furthermore, Latino Americans are one of fastest growing groups. Latinos are the highest percent to define themselves as gamers which is 19 percent more than white with 7 percent. In addition, Latino Americans have more chance to buy a game than non-Latinos. and it is increasing.\nNot only is the Latino American population increasing, Central America and South America are also the second highest increasing market in the world. The gaming market", "-30.633041432360187" ], [ "\"black and Hispanic players are better suited to playing in the sun and heat than white players.\" Baker, defending his beliefs, later said, \"What I meant is that blacks and Latinos take the heat better than most whites, and whites take the cold better than most blacks and Latinos. That's it, pure and simple. Nothing deeper than that.\" Similar comments in 2015, when he suggested his Washington Nationals should field more players of color as \"you've got a better chance of getting some speed with Latin and African-Americans,\" also generated controversy. Baker said of the comments, \"I'm not being racist.", "-30.56066670072323" ], [ "three national series. The program was started during the 2004 season by NASCAR marketing executives in order to attract minority fans and drivers to the historically white and male-dominated sport. The year before, Joe Gibbs Racing, along with former athletes Reggie White and Magic Johnson, had started a similar program. Context Historically, NASCAR and auto racing in general has been dominated by Caucasian male competitors. Several factors have been attributed to the absence of minorities in the sport. One is the costs of auto racing and dependency on sponsorship dollars, with many minority individuals and families lacking the capital to", "-30.54199067546142" ], [ "league's dominant teams of the era, the Detroit Tigers, Baltimore Orioles and Oakland Athletics. Nonetheless, Boston continued to harvest great talent from its farm system, including Carlton Fisk, Dwight Evans, Cecil Cooper, Bill Lee, John Curtis, Lynn McGlothen, Ben Oglivie, Juan Beníquez, Rogelio Moret, Rick Burleson, Jim Rice and Fred Lynn. The team also somewhat overcame its reputation for racial prejudice by increasing the number of African Americans and Latin Americans on its playing roster.\nIn 1975, led by rookies Lynn and Rice, the Red Sox won the AL East title, swept defending world champion Oakland in the ALCS, and battled", "-30.47894554035156" ], [ "Census Bureau data for 2005 reveals that the median income of White females was lower than that of males of all races. In 2005, the median income for White American females was only slightly higher than that of African American females.\nWhite Americans are more likely to live in suburbs and small cities than their black counterparts. Culture From their earliest presence in North America, White Americans have contributed literature, art, cinema, religion, agricultural skills, foods, science and technology, fashion and clothing styles, music, language, legal system, political system, and social and technological innovation to American culture. White American culture derived", "-30.35662131314166" ], [ "other ethnicities One of the most important aspects of this phenomenon is the comparison of Hispanics' health to non-Hispanic African Americans' health. Both the current and historical poverty rates for Hispanic and non-Hispanic African American populations in the United States are consistently starkly higher than that of non-Hispanic White and non-Hispanic Asian Americans. Dr. Hector Flores explains that “You can predict in the African–American population, for example, a high infant-mortality rate, so we would think a [similar] poor minority would have the same health outcomes.” However, he said, the health poor outcomes are not present in the Hispanic population. For", "-30.13436002052913" ], [ "different neighborhoods of vastly different quality.\nDan Immergluck writes that in 2002 small businesses in black neighborhoods still received fewer loans, even after accounting for businesses density, businesses size, industrial mix, neighborhood income, and the credit quality of local businesses. Gregory D. Squires wrote in 2003 that it is clear that race has long affected and continues to affect the policies and practices of the insurance industry. Workers living in American inner cities have a harder time finding jobs than suburban workers.\nThe desire of many whites to avoid having their children attend integrated schools has been a factor in white flight", "-30.027855508669745" ], [ "lighter complexion who are usually native American and or Asian Americans who have more leeway with how they self-identify. The U.S. Census Before 2000 United States Census respondents were only able to select one race when submitting census data. This means that the census contained no statistical information regarding particular racial mixes and their frequency in the U.S. before this time. Demographics The population of biracial and multiracial people in the U.S. is growing. A comparison of data from the 2000 and 2010 United States Census indicates an overall population increase in individuals identifying with two or more races from", "-29.94755289540626" ], [ "allow them to be eliminated as a matter of competition. Reportedly, black players routinely received lower contracts than whites in the NFL, while in the American Football League there was no such distinction based on race. Position segregation was also prevalent at this time. According to several books, such as the autobiography of Vince Lombardi, black players were stacked at \"speed\" positions such as defensive back but excluded from \"intelligent\" positions such as quarterback and center. Walt Frazier, an esteemed high school quarterback who received scholarship offers to play college football, chose to play basketball in college instead, believing he", "-29.774481646949425" ], [ "city or the league chooses to expand with new franchises.\nAll American sports leagues use the same type of schedule. After the regular season, the 10–16 teams with the best records enter a playoff tournament leading to a championship series or game. American sports, except for soccer, have no equivalent to the cup competitions that run concurrently with leagues in European sports. Even in the case of soccer, the cup competition, the Lamar Hunt U.S. Open Cup, draws considerably less attention than the regular season. Also, the only top-level U.S. professional teams that play teams from other organizations in meaningful games", "-29.77321876375936" ], [ "and girls from suburban and rural communities. 1 in 4 ninth-to 12th-grade urban girls have never participated in organized or team sports, compared to about 1 in 6 urban boys (Sabo and Veliz, 2008).\nAge and social class contribute to differences in gender participation. Half of low-income parents agreed that their schools and communities were not meeting the needs of girls as much as those of boys (Hessel, 2000). More African-American and Hispanic parents feel schools and communities are failing their daughters. Boys in immigrant families are more likely to play sports than girls are. Nearly a quarter (23%) of", "-29.66193325871427" ], [ "jobs and a stable career, which is critical for breaking the cycle of poverty and securing a sound economic future. The racial achievement gap can hinder job attainment and social mobility for minority students. The United States Census Bureau reported $62,545 as the median income of White families, $38,409 of Black families, and $39,730 for Hispanic families. And while the median income of Asian families is $75,027, the number of people working in these households is usually greater than that in White American families. The difference in income levels relate highly to educational opportunities between various groups. Students who drop", "-29.455539467089693" ], [ "Catholic or Jewish sports groups. General sports organizations can also exist for the army and other groups, but they usually are medium-sized, as they do not have that much of a budget to work with.\nProfessional sports leagues are usually the highest level of play in sport, specifically if they consist of the best players around the world in a certain sport. Because of this, they usually work with national or international federations, but there is usually a separation between the different federations. Most North American professional leagues usually do not have amateur divisions, as the amateur divisions are mostly run", "-29.437185755057726" ], [ "higher than whites, assuming Pacific Islanders are not counted as a separate race.\nIn 2009, the median income for Asian males was $37,330, compared to the median income for non-Hispanic white males of $36,785. \nIn 2015, Asian American men were the highest earning racial group at $24/hour. Asian American men earned 117% as much as white American men ($21/hour) and have been out earning their white Americans counterparts since about 2000. Similarly, in 2015 Asian American women earned 106% as much as white American women.\nHowever, not all Asian groups in the United States have such high wages; certain Asian groups", "-29.36876245215535" ], [ "teams often taking turns against the black team. Some years the league consisted only of one black team and one white team. At its peak, the league talent level has been estimated to be between AA and AAA. Demise The league finished its run in 1946; the integration of Major League Baseball, increased exhibition contests between black and white players and limiting rules by long-time league opponent Landis helped end its history.", "-29.328400933518424" ], [ "United States can also be found in demographics. For instance, African-Americans account for less than 15 percent of the total population of Michigan, but more than 82 percent of the population of the state's largest city, Detroit — and Detroit, like many cities whose residents are predominantly black, has \"self-segregated schools, dwindling tax bases and decaying public services\". African Americans and law enforcement Even after the end of the crack epidemic, there remained a large disparity in crime rates between black people and whites, with black people accounting for 28% of arrests in 2013; over 50% of homicides and robberies", "-29.250090860237833" ], [ "very popular and serve as those sports' most prominent competitions with levels of media coverage, competition, and fan following comparable to the major professional team sports. Amateur competitions such as college football and college basketball, at the upper echelons, also enjoy strong media coverage and fan followings but are generally recognized as inferior to the major professional leagues in level of play because of the inherent limits of the amateur sports system. Major League Baseball Major League Baseball is the highest level of play of baseball in North America. It consists of the National League (founded in 1876) and the", "-29.241545623284765" ], [ "in the sport, some claim that on paper NASCAR provides a more-balanced playing field than other sports.\nThe first and most notable African American driver in the sport is Wendell Scott, a former bootlegger who broke the color barrier in the 1950s and raced competitively in inferior equipment and with sub-par support, while contending with discrimination and threats from fans and other drivers. Scott's only win at the Cup Series level came at Jacksonville Speedway Park in 1963. The win and the trophy was initially given to Buck Baker, and Scott did not receive official recognition until a month later, when", "-29.204348772764206" ], [ "often considered the worst team in American League history, and its .235 winning percentage is still the lowest ever for a modern-era (since 1900) major league team. The team's 117 losses set a modern era record and at the time was the second most losses behind the Cleveland Spiders' 130 in 1899. As of 2012 that record has been topped only twice, with the 1962 New York Mets breaking that record with 120 losses in their inaugural season and the 2003 Detroit Tigers surpassing it with 119 although those teams played 162 game schedules, not 154 like the Athletics. All", "-29.189202616616967" ], [ "mainstream sports from non-mainstream sports: accessibility, popularity, uniqueness, affordability, star power, player skill, and player similarity. Accessibility, affordability, and similarity are strongly related to niche sports while popularity, player skill as well as accessibility are strongly related to mainstream sports. Meanwhile, fans that are less-identified with a team are drawn to player similarity as they feel they can relate more with players while highly identified fans prefer the star power of players. Affordability also is a distinguishing factor among fans, as less-identified fans place greater importance on price. A practical marketing example of this is the National Lacrosse League mandating", "-29.14567011455074" ], [ "Demographics of Hispanic and Latino Americans The demographics of Hispanic and Latino Americans depict a population that is the second-largest ethnic group in the United States, 52 million people or 16.7% of the national population, of them, 47 Million are American citizens.\nHispanic population is much younger than the rest of the country, less educated, less wealthy, with a very large immigrant component, of no less than two dozen national origins and of every race, with a longer life expectancy than their fellow Americans, and geographically concentrated in the southwestern United States.\nA large proportion of Hispanics that came from Latin", "-29.142690898821456" ], [ "differences remained stark as well, with the highest earning sex-gender demographic of workers aged 25 or older, Asian males (who were roughly tied with white males) earning slightly more than twice as much as the lowest-earning demographic, Hispanic females. As mentioned above, inequality between races and gender persisted at similar education levels. Racial differences were overall more pronounced among male than among female income earners. In 2009, Hispanics were more than twice as likely to be poor than non-Hispanic whites, research indicates. Lower average English ability, low levels of educational attainment, part-time employment, the youthfulness of Hispanic household heads, and", "-29.131233034888282" ], [ "in ancestry. One-third of the population lives under the poverty line, with blacks and other people of color accounting for 70 percent of the poor.\nIn 2015 United States, African Americans, including multiracial people, earned 76.8% as much as white people. By contrast, black and mixed race Brazilians earned on average 58% as much as whites in 2014. The gap in income between blacks and other non-whites is relatively small compared to the large gap between whites and all people of color. Other social factors, such as illiteracy and education levels, show the same patterns of disadvantage for people of color.\nSome", "-29.1265415167436" ], [ "Small market In the terminology of professional sports in North America, teams are often said to be based not in a city but in a media market. The size of the media market is usually a good indication of the potential viability of a major league team. A small market team is likely to struggle to compete financially against teams from larger markets and may therefore also be outbid in the competition for top talent. This has led to calls for revenue sharing, luxury taxes, and / or salary caps in most North American sports leagues in order to ensure", "-29.122157727892045" ], [ "Race and video games Demographics of video game players There are mixed results on the demographics of people who play video games. While one study mentions that African American and Hispanic children make up the majority of video game players, a study by Pew Research Center finds that 73.9% of white children play video games compared to 26.1% of nonwhite children.\nThe Pew Research Center found that 19% of Hispanic respondents and 11% of Black respondents described themselves as \"gamers,\" compared to 7% of Whites. Another report by the Kaiser Family Foundation found that African American and Hispanic youth ages 8–18", "-29.11414473160403" ], [ "individuals of minority races is especially high, with blacks, American Indians, and Latinos experiencing four times higher the unemployment rate of the general population. Such individuals are also more likely to live in poverty, with 34% of blacks and 28% of Latinos living on less than $10,000 dollars a year. Inequality in health Transgender people also risk discrimination, harassment, and victimization in health care settings. More than a fourth of transgender people have encountered segregation by a doctor or have been denied enlistment in a medical coverage because of their sexual orientation. Different studies found that they are less likely", "-29.112988620239776" ], [ "have fared better than others in the United States labor market. East Asians from Hong Kong,Taiwan, China, Japan, and Korea have higher median wages and household income than Southeast Asian refugees from Laos and Vietnam, though all these groups still have median income above non-Hispanic whites. Cambodians and Hmong, on the other hand, do not, though their median income is still quite close to the national average and above that of blacks and Hispanics. Indian Americans currently have the highest median household income of any ethnic group in the United States, while Bhutanese Americans have the lowest.\nPart of the explanation", "-29.03072388167493" ], [ "United States, as it would not do so until 1976, when it absorbed four teams from the American Basketball Association.\nProfessional basketball has the advantages of much smaller rosters than other professional sports, allowing the sport to be viable in smaller cities than other sports. Professional basketball leagues of varying caliber can be found around the world, especially in Europe and South America.dld. 7d Resistance to professionalism Professional athleticism is seen as a contradiction of the central ethos of sport, competition performed for its own sake and pure enjoyment, rather than as a means of earning a living. Consequently, many organisations", "-28.952904514517286" ], [ "performing teams are replaced with teams that do well in lower-level leagues. North America does not have comprehensive governing bodies whose authority extends from the amateur to the highest levels of a given sport. Unlike in other countries, where one may invest in a local lower-level club and through performance see that club rise to major league status, the only three ways a North American city can host a major league sports team are through league expansion, forming/joining a rival league, or most commonly, buying an existing league franchise and moving it.\nA city wishing to get a team in a", "-28.911940966150723" ], [ "19% of Hispanics identifying as gamers, compared to 11% of African-Americans and 7% of whites. The competitive fighting game scene is noted as particularly racially diverse and tolerant. This is attributed to its origin in arcades, where competitors met face to face and the barrier to entry was merely a quarter. Only 4% of those aged 50 and over identified as gamers. Casualization Casualization is a trend in video games towards simpler games appealing to larger audiences, especially women or the elderly. Some developers, hoping to attract a broader audience, simplify or remove aspects of gameplay in established genres and", "-28.868243042379618" ], [ "and Sheffield.\nIn the June 2007 issue of GQ magazine, Sheffield (a Detroit Tiger at the time) was quoted saying that there are more Latin baseball players than African-American players because Latinos are easier to control. \"What I said is that you're going to see more black faces, but there ain't no English going to be coming out. ... (It's about) being able to tell (Latin players) what to do — being able to control them.... Where I'm from, you can't control us.\" He continued \"They have more to lose than we do. You can send them back across the island.", "-28.683651682164054" ], [ "Americans was 8.7 percent with 17 million individuals in poverty, Asian Americans was 10.0 percent with 2 million individuals in poverty, and African Americans was 21.2 percent with 9 million individuals in poverty.\nAmong the largest Hispanic groups during 2015 was: Honduran Americans & Dominican Americans (27%), Guatemalan Americans (26%), Puerto Ricans (24%), Mexican Americans (23%), Salvadoran Americans (20%), Cuban Americans and Venezuelan Americans (17%), Ecuadorian Americans (15%), Nicaraguan Americans (14%), Colombian Americans (13%), Spanish Americans & Argentinian Americans (11%), and Peruvian Americans (10%).\nPoverty affects many underrepresented students as racial/ethnic minorities tend to stay isolated within pockets of low-income communities. This", "-28.677142100641504" ], [ "management and player personnel positions. (Such minorities need not specifically be black; Hispanics of any race and persons of any nonwhite race are also eligible to qualify under the rule.) The league has never had a black franchise owner (it rejected the opportunity to do so twice, first with Rommie Loudd's Orlando Suns expansion bid, and then with Reggie Fowler's bid on the Minnesota Vikings), and only two of the league's owners (Korean-born Kim Pegula of the Buffalo Bills, and Pakistani-American Shahid Khan of the Jacksonville Jaguars) are of non-European descent.\nIn October 2018, George Taliaferro, the first African American selected", "-28.667179169075098" ], [ "Major professional sports teams of the United States and Canada This article is a list of teams that play in one of the six major sports leagues in the United States and Canada: the Canadian Football League (CFL), Major League Baseball (MLB), Major League Soccer (MLS), the National Basketball Association (NBA), the National Football League (NFL), and the National Hockey League (NHL).\nFuture expansion teams whose inaugural seasons are confirmed are also included in this list.", "-28.61993334966246" ], [ "game include a provision excluding black players from both teams' lineups. By the 1897 season, the leagues adopted an agreement that neither they nor their minor-league affiliates would admit black players, establishing a racial barrier in professional baseball for the next half-century.\nA post-season \"World's Championship Series\" had been held in 1884 between the champions of the League (Providence) and the Association (Metropolitan), and the White Stockings and the Browns arranged to continue that new tradition in 1885. This was the first meeting between Chicago and a St. Louis franchise which would eventually join the NL and become known as", "-28.57395519239799" ], [ "Expansion of major sports leagues in the United States and Canada The expansion of major sports leagues in the United States and Canada has occurred throughout the twentieth century for all of the major professional sports leagues in those two countries. United States Professional sports leagues as known today evolved during the decades between the Civil War and World War II, when the railroad was the main means of intercity transportation. As a result, virtually all major league teams were concentrated in the northeastern quarter of the United States, within roughly the radius of a day-long train ride. No MLB", "-28.55274670466315" ], [ "do not exist among boys. Girls of color are doubly hit by both gender and race discrimination in sport (Sabo and Veliz 2008). Many parents are aware that girls are getting fewer opportunities in sports and physical activity than boys are. More African-American and Hispanic parents feel schools and communities are failing their daughters. Also boys in immigrant families are more than likely to play sports than girls to play sports. Nearly a quarter (23%) of children have at least one parent born outside the United States. Compared to boys, girls in immigrant families report lower rates of athletic participation.", "-28.544744706407073" ], [ "Professional sports leagues in the United States Professional sports leagues in the United States include several major leagues as well as other professional and semi-professional leagues. Major leagues The major sports leagues tend to have the greatest fan interest, have national TV contracts, draw high fan attendance, and have teams located throughout the largest metropolitan areas in the United States. Major League Baseball Major League Baseball is the highest level of play of baseball in North America. It consists of the National League (founded in 1876) and the American League (founded in 1901). Cooperation between the two leagues began in", "-28.54000614335655" ], [ "Professional sports in the Western United States Professional sports have existed in the United States since the late 19th century. The NFL, MLB, NBA and NHL have millions of fans across the nation, and are an important part of American culture. Professional sports did not enter into the American West until the mid-twentieth century. However, the expansion of professional sports into the West has helped to increase the popularity of each of the professional leagues and has changed the landscape of professional sports in America. History Prior to World War II, top-level professional sports in the United States", "-28.51486470364034" ], [ "Race and ethnicity in the United States Census Designated Ethnicities: Hispanic or Latino origin The question on Hispanic or Latino origin is separate from the question on race. Hispanic and Latino Americans have ethnic origins in the countries of Latin America and the Iberian Peninsula. Latin American countries are, like the United States, racially diverse. Consequently, no separate racial category exists for Hispanic and Latino Americans, as they do not constitute a race, nor a national group. When responding to the race question on the census form, each person is asked to choose from among the same racial categories", "-28.46419113810407" ], [ "Major professional sports leagues in the United States and Canada The major professional sports leagues in the United States and Canada are the highest professional competitions of team sports in those countries. The four leagues universally included in the definition are Major League Baseball (MLB), National Basketball Association (NBA), National Football League (NFL), and National Hockey League (NHL). Other prominent leagues include Major League Soccer (MLS) and Canadian Football League (CFL).\nMLB, NBA, NFL, and NHL are commonly referred to as the \"Big Four.\" Each of these is the wealthiest professional club competition in its sport worldwide, and along with the", "-28.446751673240215" ], [ "player stats, they are NOT the players' actual statistics. The Translations are an attempt to show how well the player would have performed in a standard league (the American League of 1992), knowing how well he played in his actual league. We know that some leagues are tougher than others; that's why we have the majors, AAA, AA, and so on. We know that some leagues are easier to hit in; we know that some parks favor the pitchers; and we know that these effects are not constant from one year to the next. We can estimate how big a", "-28.395504496991634" ], [ "again. For the next few years, a black player would sporadically pop up on a team: Harold Bradley Sr. played one season with the Chicago Cardinals in 1928, and David Myers played for two New York City-based teams in 1930 and 1931.\nIn contrast, ethnic minorities of other races were fairly common. Thanks to the efforts of the Carlisle Indian School football program, which ended with the school's closure in 1918, there were numerous Native Americans in the NFL through the 1920s and 1930s, most famously Jim Thorpe. The Dayton Triangles also featured the first two Asian-Americans in the NFL, Chinese-Hawaiian", "-28.37975785601884" ], [ "in reverse order. However, all major sports have had a rival league achieve at least some of these goals in the last half of the 20th century. Baseball's proposed Continental League did not play a game but only because Major League Baseball responded to the proposal by adding teams in some of the new league's proposed cities. The American Basketball Association (ABA) and World Hockey Association (WHA) each succeeded in getting some of their franchises accepted into the established leagues, which had both unsuccessfully attempted to cause their upstart rivals to fold outright by adding more teams.\nHowever, the upstart", "-28.338769992624293" ], [ "of other nationalities, and is similar to rules in many European sports leagues' roster limits on non-European players.\nIn each of the two Nippon Professional Baseball leagues, teams with the best winning percentage go on to a stepladder-format playoff (3 vs. 2, winner vs. 1). Occasionally, a team with more total wins has been seeded below a team that had more ties and fewer losses and, therefore, had a better winning percentage. The winners of each league compete in the Japan Series. Strike of 2004 On 18 September 2004, professional baseball players went on a two-day strike, the first strike", "-28.29089123144513" ], [ "more than two years longer than for non-Hispanic whites and almost eight years longer than for African Americans. Healthcare Of the 24 million Americans who lack health insurance, 40% are Hispanics. Factors such as immigration, acculturation and language affect their chances of getting health insurance. Furthermore, working Hispanics are less likely to receive health insurance from their employer in comparison to non-White Hispanics. Insurance from employers is most common source for workers. According to studies, Hispanics are most likely to have jobs in agriculture, domestic services, retail trade in comparison to Non-Hispanic whites and their administrative, and executive positions. Although", "-28.288403430313338" ], [ "example, the age-adjusted mortality rate for Hispanics living in Los Angeles County was 52 percent less than the blacks living in the same county.\nComparison to Non-Hispanic White Americans\nAlthough Hispanic Americans are twice more likely to be living under the poverty line and three times more likely to not have health insurance than Non-Hispanic White Americans, they have a longer life span than them by 3 years. More Hispanics, than any other racial group, are uninsured and are in general less likely to use medical care. The median life span of Hispanic Americans is an average of 81.8 years and Non-Hispanic", "-28.287626396981068" ], [ "Racial issues faced by black quarterbacks History Since the earliest days of professional and college football, the number of black players, let alone quarterbacks, has been on the rise. The first black quarterback to start professionally was Bernie Custis for the Hamilton Tiger-Cats of the Canadian Football League in 1951. The first two in the United States were Marlin Briscoe and James Harris, both of the American Football League, in 1968 and 1969, respectively. The AFL was known to be more tolerant towards black players than the rival National Football League, which had harbored racist tendencies until the 1960s under", "-28.249744504326372" ], [ "English Premier League and the Spanish La Liga they make up the top six sports leagues by revenue in the world. In addition, the sports of these four leagues were all developed in their modern forms in North America, and all except American football have become popular internationally. Because the leagues enjoy a significant place in popular culture in the U.S. and Canada, the best players from these leagues often become cultural icons in both countries. Each Big Four league, as well as Major League Soccer and the Canadian Football League, averages at least 15,000 fans in attendance per game", "-28.229002102278173" ], [ "1990s, with the gap between African Americans and non-Hispanic whites decreasing, differences between the races remain, especially among those with a bachelor's degree or higher. Asian Americans had the highest educational attainment of any race, followed by whites who had a higher percentage of high school graduates but a lower percentage of college graduates. Persons identifying as Hispanic or Latino, without regard to race, had the lowest educational attainment. The gap was the largest between foreign-born Asian Americans, over half (50.1%) of whom had a bachelor's degree or higher and foreign-born Hispanics, 9.8% of whom had a four-year college degree.\nHispanics", "-28.22190088487696" ], [ "African Americans. Hispanic immigrants also have a 20% lower infant mortality rate than that of U.S.-born Hispanics, though the latter population usually has a higher income and education, and are much more likely to have health insurance. Socio-economic factors According to Alder and Estrove (2006), the more socioeconomically advantaged individuals are, the better their health. Access to health insurance and preventative medical services are one of the main reasons for socioeconomic health disparities. Economic hardship within the household can cause distress and affect parenting, causing health problems among children leading to depression, substance abuse, and behavior problems. Low socioeconomic", "-28.206381165015046" ], [ "other racial groups when all Asian ethnic groups are grouped as a whole. Yet, a 2014 report from the Census Bureau reported that 12% of Asian Americans were living below the poverty line, while 10.1% of non-Hispanic White Americans live below the poverty line. A 2017 study of wealth inequality within Asian Americans found a greater gap between wealthy and non-wealthy Asian Americans compared to non-Hispanic white Americans. Once country of birth and other demographic factors are taken into account, a portion of the sub-groups that make up Asian Americans are much more likely than non-Hispanic White Americans to live", "-28.172972167041735" ], [ "and other races.\nBy 2010, the number of Hispanics identifying as white has increased by a wide margin since the year 2000 on the 2010 Census form, of the over 50 million people who identified as Hispanic and Latino Americans a majority 53% identified as \"white\", 36.7% identified as \"Other\" (most of whom are presumed of mixed races such as mestizo or mulatto), 6% identified as \"Two or more races\", 2.5% identified as \"Black\", 1.4% identified as \"American Indian and Alaska Native\", and the remaining 0.5% identified as other races.\nThe media and some Hispanic community leaders in the United States refer", "-28.083286905999557" ], [ "of professional sports teams, including three from the major North American sports leagues. The Cleveland Indians of Major League Baseball play at Progressive Field, Cleveland Browns of the National Football League (NFL) are based at FirstEnergy Stadium, and the Cleveland Cavaliers of the National Basketball Association (NBA) play at Quicken Loans Arena. Quicken Loans Arena is also home to two additional professional franchises, the Cleveland Gladiators of the Arena Football League and the Cleveland Monsters of the American Hockey League. The Monsters are the top minor league affiliate of the Columbus Blue Jackets of the National Hockey League (NHL).\nThere are", "-28.051370840112213" ], [ "representing 12.4% of the population. There were 37,144,530 non-Hispanic blacks, which comprised 12.1% of the population. This number increased to 42 million according to the 2010 United States Census, when including Multiracial African Americans, making up 14% of the total U.S. population. Black and African Americans make up the second largest group in the United States, but the third largest group after White Americans and Hispanic or Latino Americans (of any race). The majority of the population (55%) lives in the South; compared to the 2000 Census, there has also been a decrease of African Americans in the Northeast and", "-28.048938187363092" ], [ "most played sport with all demographics, including ethnic origin, ages and genders. Professional teams exist in many cities in Canada – with a trio of teams in North America's top pro league, Major League Soccer – and international soccer competitions such as the FIFA World Cup, UEFA Euro and the UEFA Champions League attract some of the biggest audiences in Canada. Other popular team sports include curling, street hockey, cricket, rugby league, rugby union, softball and Ultimate frisbee. Popular individual sports include auto racing, boxing, karate, kickboxing, hunting, sport shooting, fishing, cycling, golf, hiking, horse racing, ice skating, skiing, snowboarding, swimming, triathlon,", "-28.035273210989544" ], [ "Hispanic and Latino American politics in the United States Hispanic/Latino Participation and Key Issues According to U.S. Census Bureau population estimates as of July 1, 2013, there are roughly 54 million Hispanics living in the United States, representing approximately 17% of the U.S. total population, making people of Hispanic origin the nation's largest ethnic minority. Mexican Americans alone are 64% of Hispanics, the Democratic Party is considered to be in a far stronger position among Hispanics overall. The U.S. Census indicates that the Hispanic population of the United States is the fastest growing minority group in the country.\nMore than", "-28.033275514579145" ], [ "and women who come from Australian regional and rural cities. It is argued that regional and rural cities offer children more space to play, a range of sports, participation with adults due to low participation numbers and local sporting heroes. It has been stated that 60 per cent of the Australian team at the 2004 Athens Olympics grew up in rural and regional Australia. Besides developing international athletes, many Australian Football League (AFL) and National Rugby League players have their origins in country areas. In 2010, one-third of AFL players came from country Victoria.", "-28.026049149571918" ], [ "stage. Major League Baseball is increasingly luring away the stars from the Japanese leagues, the European hockey leagues have become a major source of star talent for National Hockey League clubs, and the National Basketball Association frequently recruits talent from professional leagues in Europe, Latin America, Australia and China.\nAll four leagues are considered to be the top league in their respective sports, not only in revenue, but also in quality of talent, player salaries, and worldwide interest. However, of the four major leagues, the NFL has the least presence outside both countries; it is mainly an American and Canadian interest.", "-28.015645287232473" ], [ "also began offering Hispanics several sub-group options from which they could identify themselves, such as Mexican, Puerto Rican, Cuban, et cetera (these Hispanic sub-group options have changed over time). The Other race category was added in 1950, and in 2000 multi-race responses were tabulated for the first time (instructions now explicitly inform respondents that they can chose multiple race boxes). Because multiracial respondents are now allowed, U.S. Census data since 2000 is not directly comparable with that of previous censuses. While people nowadays are enumerated by race based on self-identification, until 1950 their race on the census was mainly", "-27.994833623990417" ], [ "incomes lower than both the U.S. average and non-Hispanic Whites. In 2014, data released by the United States Census Bureau revealed that 5 Asian American ethnic groups are in the top 10 lowest earning ethnicities in terms of per capita income in all of the United States.\nThe Asian American groups that have low educational attainment and high rates of poverty both in average individual and median income are Bhutanese Americans, Bangladeshi Americans, Cambodian Americans, Burmese Americans, Nepali Americans, Hmong Americans, and Laotian Americans. This affects Vietnamese Americans as well, albeit to a lesser degree, as early 21st century immigration from", "-27.98619210443576" ], [ "Sports in North America There is a wide variety of organized sports in the continent of North America. The continent is the birthplace of several of these organized sports, such as basketball, gridiron football (including both American and Canadian games), ice hockey, lacrosse, racquetball, rodeo, ultimate, and volleyball. The modern versions of baseball and softball, skateboarding, snowboarding, stock car racing, and surfing also developed in North America.\nSports leagues in Canada and the United States use a closed, franchise model which has the same teams playing every year, with occasional additions of expansion teams or relocations of existing teams. Leagues in", "-27.981319109734613" ], [ "other North American countries use promotion and relegation systems, where teams are transferred between two divisions based on their performance at the end of each season.\nThe major professional sports leagues in the United States and Canada dominate organized men's professional team sports in those two countries: Major League Baseball (MLB), the National Basketball Association (NBA), the National Football League (NFL), the National Hockey League (NHL), Major League Soccer (MLS) and the Canadian Football League (CFL). Liga MX, the top level Association football in Mexico is also widely popular. Caribbean, where cricket is popular, that region's major domestic competitions include", "-27.958936633658595" ], [ "50.3 million individuals in 2010, consists of much variance within itself with regard to wages, though all groups' wages are lower than those of non-Hispanic whites. In 2007, the largest Hispanic group, consisting of 29.2 million people, were individuals of Mexican origin, followed by 4.1 million people of Puerto Rican origin and 1.6 million people of Cuban origin. By 2009, the median income of Hispanics was lower than that of Whites and Asians, but much higher than the median wages of African-Americans; $38,039, compared to $32,584 for African-Americans and $49,777 for the general population. While their relative wages have fallen", "-27.95889169088332" ], [ "again in 2008 to 10.2%.\nArturo Moreno became the first Hispanic owner of a MLB franchise when he purchased the Anaheim Angels in 2004.\nIn 2005, a Racial and Gender Report Card on Major League Baseball was issued, which generally found positive results on the inclusion of African Americans and Latinos in baseball, and gave Major League Baseball a grade of \"A\" or better for opportunities for players, managers and coaches as well as for MLB's central office. At that time, 37% of major league players were people of color: Latino (26 percent), African-American (9 percent) or Asian (2 percent). Also by", "-27.95560782949906" ], [ "bottom 20% (81 years, compared to 75). This disparity becomes even more pronounced when intersected with race: White males in the top 20% live 14 years longer than African American males in the bottom 20% (for females, the difference is 10 years).\nThe complexity of the state's low-income trends were visible when, in response to growing Chinese and Spanish-speaking populations, the city of Oakland implemented the nation's first policy of recruiting bilingual applicants for public-facing city jobs in 2001. This increased the employment of Hispanic and Chinese bilinguals throughout the public workforce, but also lowered (monolingual) Black employment.", "-27.94813247559796" ], [ "In a franchise system, teams are not promoted or relegated as are teams in a league system. All teams in the league (and by extension, the divisions of the league) are at the same competitive level and remain so year after year.\nNorth American professional sports leagues often construct their season schedules in a way such that teams in a division play matches against each other more often than other teams in the league. This not only has the effect of reducing travel costs, but also creates exciting rivalries between the teams in the division. Moreover, the top teams in a", "-27.913745471742004" ], [ "players to attend receptions of restaurants who sponsor the team. Other strategies that niche sports utilize to differentiate themselves from mainstream sports are providing easy access to team and player information, especially online, as well as offer affordable ticket prices and valuable promotions such as dollar beer nights and 25-cent hot dog nights. In contrast, popular mainstream sports like Major League Baseball (MLB) and the National Basketball Association (NBA) highlight the star power of players, which is why teams go to great effort to promote their best players. This is also seen in media as nationally televised sporting events often", "-27.90732853821828" ], [ "as all Americans, and are included in the numbers reported for those races.\nEach racial category may contain Non-Hispanic or Latino and Hispanic or Latino Americans. For example: the White or European-American race category contains Non-Hispanic Whites and Hispanic Whites (see White Hispanic and Latino Americans); the Black or African-American category contains Non-Hispanic Blacks and Hispanic Blacks (see Black Hispanic and Latino Americans); the Asian-American category contains Non-Hispanic Asians and Hispanic Asians (see Asian Hispanic and Latino Americans); and likewise for all the other categories. See the section on Hispanic and Latino Americans in this article.\nSelf-identifying as both Hispanic or Latino", "-27.89953243470518" ], [ "60% of Indian-Americans had management or professional jobs, compared with a national average of 33%. Indian Americans, along with Japanese and Filipino Americans, have some of the lowest poverty rates for all communities, as well as one of the lowest rates of single parent households (7% versus the national average of 15%). Indian Americans also earn the highest average income out of all national origin/ethnic groups. This has resulted in several stereotypes such as that of the \"Indian Doctor\".\nIt should however be noted that there are still pockets of poverty within the community, with around 8% classified as living", "-27.890894955944532" ], [ "Asian Americans comprised 6% of the nation's population in 2012, Asian American athletes represented only 2% of the NFL, 1.9% of the MLB and less than 1% in both the NHL and NBA.\nDespite these stereotypes, NBA's color barrier was broken by Wataru Misaka back in 1947, who was the first person of color and first Asian American athlete to play in the NBA. Weightlifter Tommy Kono set a total of 26 world records and 7 Olympic records, making him the most accomplished U.S. male weightlifter to date.", "-27.880678795743734" ], [ "of differing tastes in sports between the UK and the U.S. is motorsport, In the UK: Formula 1, rallying and speedway are popular. While in the U.S., the main popular motorsports are NASCAR and the Indianapolis 500. Football / Soccer In the current 2019-2020 season, three Americans are in the FA's top-tier Premier League: Cameron Carter-Vickers (Tottenham Hotspur), Christian Pulisic (Chelsea), and DeAndre Yedlin (Newcastle United). All three players play for the U. S. national team, although only Pulisic is the on the current team, while the others are in reserve. The current team also has two more", "-27.858781516668387" ], [ "of hockey stats to look up in a typical game. Realistic penalties are given and fighting is given an up-close view.\nBesides the national teams, the player can also choose the Cities mode on options and play with teams representing North American franchises, possibly inspired by the NHL. By the time the game was released, all of the cities available had NHL franchises. Some of them bear the same colors of their real-life counterparts. For instance, Los Angeles plays in black and white like the Kings, Calgary wears red like the Flames, Chicago has red and black uniforms like the Blackhawks,", "-27.830809037201107" ], [ "the AP, the NFL was loved or liked a lot by 42.8% of Americans over 18.\nThe NFL has the highest per-game attendance of any domestic professional sports league in the world. The NFL's overall attendance, however, is only approximately 20 percent of Major League Baseball, because of the latter's longer schedule (162-game scheduled regular season).\nA 2007 Turnkey Sports & Entertainment's Team Brand Index for \"team loyalty\" ranked NFL teams in twelve of the top twenty-five spots out of 122 total between the four major sports leagues. The Pittsburgh Steelers and their fanbase had the top spot, while the New England", "-27.798830702202395" ], [ "sport, the national team overshadows the city and provincial teams that play in the top-level domestic leagues. Revenue figures are not released for the country's amateur system. Similarly, according to one official pronouncement, the sport's governing authority \"has never taken into account attendance ... because its greatest interest has always been the development of athletes\".\nAs of 2018, Little League Baseball oversees leagues with close to 2.4 million participants in over 80 countries. The number of players has fallen since the 1990s, when 3 million children took part in Little League Baseball annually. Babe Ruth League teams have over 1 million participants.", "-27.773105894739274" ], [ "race on the U.S. census, with 9 out of every 10 of them preferring to pick white, one of the five single race categories available on the U.S. census.\nIn contrast to non-Hispanic European Americans, whose average European ancestry ranges about 98.6%, genetic research has found that the average European admixture among self-identified Hispanic White Americans is 73% European, while the average European admixture for Hispanic Americans overall (regardless of their self-identified race) is 65.1% European admixture.", "-27.742612353744335" ], [ "Hispanic or Latino Americans are counted as \"white\" in some statistics of the US government.\nHispanics and Latinos who are native-born and those who are immigrant identify as White in nearly identical percentages: 53.9 and 53.7, respectively, per figures from 2007. The overall Hispanic or Latino ratio was 53.8%.\nIn 2017, the Pew Research Center reported that high intermarriage rates and declining Latin American immigration has led to 11% of U.S. adults with Hispanic ancestry (5.0 million people) to no longer identify as Hispanic. First generation immigrants from Spain and Latin America identify as Hispanic at very high rates (97%) which reduces", "-27.737568666110747" ], [ "league-wide color barrier did not apply to the squad, meaning black players such as Kenny Washington (who played in the 1940 contest) were allowed to play in the game. As the talent level of pro football improved (and the NFL itself integrated), the pros came to dominate the series.\nThe qualifying criteria for the College All-Star squad was loose, as the 1945 game featured Tom Harmon, who had begun his professional career in 1941 but had been interrupted by military service. The all-stars last won consecutive games in 1946 and 1947, and won only four of the final 29 games.", "-27.713467981287977" ], [ "'All-American' elevens. What man in the lot that have picked 'All-American' elevens this fall, saw a single game outside the North Atlantic States? With a conceit all their own they fail to recognize that the United States reaches more than 200 miles in any direction from New York. ... Suppose an Ohio football writer picked 'All-American' teams. Ohio readers would not stand for it. But apparently the eastern readers will swallow anything.\" Southern All-Americans The perception of bias was even worse in the South than in the West, and Camp's team eventually grew to accommodate Western football in a way", "-27.6486707017757" ], [ "as they love all sports. Perhaps we become so enamored of athletics that we assume that they are foremost in the minds of legislators as well as fans. We must not forget, however, that there are only some 600 major league baseball players. Whatever muscle they might have been able to muster by combining forces with other athletes has been greatly impaired by the manner in which this Court has isolated them. It is this Court that has made them impotent, and this Court should correct its error ... Baseball should be covered by the antitrust laws beginning with this", "-27.627552586840466" ], [ "The result of the first season of the DH was that the American League posted a higher batting average than the National League, something that has remained consistent to this day.\nIn response to increases in American League attendance because of the designated hitter, the National League held a yes/no vote on August 13, 1980, to determine whether or not the league would adopt the designated hitter. A majority of the 12 member teams was necessary to pass the rule, and the measure was expected to pass. However, when the teams were informed that the rule would not come into effect", "-27.59407358658548" ], [ "had caused serious financial difficulties for professional sports across North America, hit Western Canada particularly hard. Making matters worse was the existence of massive disparity between teams within the provincial unions. For example, by 1935 the Regina Roughriders had won fourteen consecutive SRFU titles, mostly by lopsided margins. Moreover, by the 1930s the top Western teams had begun to tap the massive U.S. talent pool, signing American players who had been passed over by the National Football League and its rivals south of the border. While the presence of American players (later called \"imports\" and today officially known as \"internationals\")", "-27.56819487447501" ], [ "other team twice, once at their home venue, and once away at the oppositions venue as visitors. The results over all games are accumulated and when every team has completed its full schedule of games, a winner is declared. \nIn North America, the scheduling is different. Rather than every team playing all others twice, teams usually play more games against local rivals than teams in other parts of the country. For example, the NBA's Los Angeles Lakers will play the Los Angeles Clippers (a team within their division, a subdivision of the conference) four times in a regular season, while", "-27.567692399490625" ], [ "black players suited up for NFL squads. It was also common, due to the number of talented players that were produced by the Carlisle Indian School's football team, to see teams (both inside and outside the NFL) openly market Native Americans; in fact, the Oorang Indians of 1922 to 1923 consisted entirely of Native American talent. Running back Walter Achiu and quarterback Arthur Matsu, both of the Dayton Triangles, were the first Asian-American players in the NFL, having joined the league in 1927 and 1928 respectively. Ignacio Molinet and Jess Rodriguez were the first Hispanic players in the NFL and", "-27.546116980171064" ], [ "not played at all. There is no clear-cut, physical advantage because both teams are given the same number of opportunities (i.e. innings). The advantage is knowing how well one must perform in the last inning, if at all.\nFor games at home, the hosting team will have the advantage of playing with their first choice uniform/kit, rather than their alternate colors. A team's identity is often partly or mostly based on its home colors (for example, the All Blacks of New Zealand). In the NFL and most NCAA football conferences, the home team has the choice to wear colored or", "-27.535182160674594" ], [ "I, and NAIA Division II).\nThe following table contains a list of men's black national champions. College baseball HBCUs first had a mythical black national champion named in 2002, by blackcollegebaseball.com. More recently, a black national champion has been named since 2015, by blackcollegenines.com. The latter names champions for a \"Large School Division\" (NCAA Division I) and a \"Small School Division\" (NCAA Division II, NCAA Division III, and the NAIA). High school sports Because high school sports in the United States such as football and basketball are state-centered sports involving thousands of schools, it would be almost impossible to have", "-27.522928961756406" ], [ "is considered (after Las Vegas) the largest metropolitan area in the country without a major professional sports team, being larger than a number of other metropolitan areas who currently host professional teams in the 4 major sports.\nThere are two soccer teams, the Hampton Roads Piranhas, a men's team in the USL Premier Development League, and a women's team by the same name in the W-League, the de facto top women's league after the suspension of the Women's United Soccer Association. The Piranhas play at the main stadium of the Virginia Beach Sportsplex, which also contains the central training site for", "-27.519382801256143" ], [ "All-America An All-America team is a hypothetical American sports team composed of outstanding amateur players. These players are broadly considered by media and other relevant commentators as the best players in a particular sport, of a specific season, for each team position.\nSuch athletes at the high school and college level are given the honorific title and typically referred to as \"All-American athletes\" or simply \"All-Americans\". Term usage As of 2009, the term is used in U.S. team sports to refer to players who are selected by members of the national media. The term is used primarily with regard to college", "-27.516363962786272" ], [ "great superiority of American athletes, English sportsmen have finally concluded that this superiority is entirely due to the high development to which the Yankees have brought the science of training. This is better than to acknowledge that the manhood of Great Britain has deteriorated. The American athletes explain it by simply saying 'Mike Murphy,' for Mike is the kingpin of the profession, and every trainer in American follows as closely as he can the methods of the man who has developed more champions than any other man in the world.\"\nWhen the American team returned from London, President Theodore Roosevelt hosted", "-27.509124107224125" ], [ "racial makeup of the city was 55.75% Asian, 28.37% White, 4.20% African American, 0.24% Native American, 0.08% Pacific Islander, 7.65% from other races, and 3.71% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 19.34% of the population. Proposed NFL stadium In April 2008, billionaire land developer and co-owner of the Los Angeles Lakers and Kings Edward P. Roski unveiled plans for the construction of an $800 million NFL stadium in the neighboring City of Industry. In March 2009, Walnut filed a lawsuit opposing construction of the stadium, but dropped those charges in September.\nOn October 23, 2009,", "-27.499712571967393" ], [ "both sports, such as the Chicago Cubs, Green Bay Packers, Boston Red Sox, New York Yankees, St. Louis Cardinals, New England Patriots, Washington Redskins, Oakland Raiders and Pittsburgh Steelers, have cultivated famously loyal fan bases across the country.\nIn many cases, identification with a certain football or baseball team is a matter of local identity and family inheritance going back many generations. Furthermore, the popularity of each, as well as of other major team sports, may vary depending on region, ethnicity and age.", "-27.480288182967342" ], [ "White Americans have an average of 78.8 years . This could be explained from scientist taking DNA samples from multiple ethnic groups, the blood from Latino aged more slowly than any other group. \nIt is also found that Hispanics, when first migrating to the US, have lower smoking rates, better diet and general health. Hispanic infact mortality is also less than NHWs with an average of 5.8 per 1000 births and 9.1 per 1000 births for Non-Hispanic Whites. \nThrough the statistics shown of Hispanics and NHW's with cancer, we can see it as a clear example of The Hispanic Paradox.", "-27.476230578497052" ], [ "of the black game. No longer did facing the best teams mean making a three-day trip to Washington or New York. Inter-city competition had grown in just four seasons into an expanding network of towns and cities that also included Philadelphia, Pittsburgh, Newark, Baltimore and Atlantic City, and the college campuses of Howard, Hampton and Lincoln. In a few more seasons, the network would extend into the Midwest and New England.\nThe black game also had begun to develop a deeper pool of talent. At Harlem's St. Christopher Club, where teams were said to have the luxury of practicing \"two hours", "-27.46948947114288" ], [ "receiving lower quality care than their white counterparts. This is in part because members of ethnic minorities such as African Americans are either earning low incomes, or living below the poverty line. In a 2007 Census Bureau, African American families made an average of $33,916, while their white counterparts made an average of $54,920. Due to a lack of affordable health care, the African American death rate reveals that African Americans have a higher rate of dying from treatable or preventable causes. According to a study conducted in 2005 by the Office of Minority Health—a U.S. Department of Health—African American", "-27.464492263039574" ] ]

[ "It's a metabolic response. Sort of like adrenalin. Blood rushes to the skin of your body, making you warm. And the blood is red, making you reddish. increasing blood to your head/skin helps you to physically move muscles in the area. For example, If you're scared shitless or cry, the same thing can happen, so blood moves to an area where it feels you need it. In this case, facial expressions/responses. I always think of animals when I think of this, and how they try to chase other animals away by making scary faces when they're scared. It's unneeded for us, but evolutionary. URL_0 ", "I have heard that it is an evolutionary trait that helps show humility and undercut chest bumping. In caveman times there was a mire strict social hierarchy and blushing may have been a way to show deference to whoever you were in a confrontation with. I don't remember where I got this information so take it with several grains of salt.", "Embarrassment is an anxious response. Anxiety and fear are closely related and both initiate a stress response. The stress response is essentially the bodies flight or fight mechanism. From an evolutionary perspective the animals that had a greater change in physiology that improved their ability to escape a predator tended to live and reproduce. (Blood rushing to surface allows one to cool off faster) So the stress response makes sense and it is useful. Humans or maybe all higher order or all mammals (dogs maybe, or even rats) have social hierarchies that outside survival pressures there are social pressures. Embarrassment is a stress response to social pressures. Evolution is not purposeful, it just sticks with what already works. Embarrassment taps into the primitive stress response and we get some seemingly unnecessary physiological changes.", "If you get red faced due to nerves/anxiety I've found a miracle drug that works for me, and many others (usually performers). Propranolol. Its a blood pressure medication, but at low doses it suppresses the sympathetic nerve which is what stimulates the red faced response." ]

[ [ "sympathetic nervous system will cause blood vessels to open wide, flooding the skin with blood and resulting in reddening of the face. In some people, the ears, neck and upper chest may also blush. As well as causing redness, blushing can sometimes make the affected area feel hot.\nErythrophobia is the fear of blushing, from Ancient Greek: ερυθρός, lit. 'red' and Ancient Greek: φοβία, lit. 'fear' literally \"fear of redness\". Physiology of blushing A blush is a reddening of the cheeks and forehead bought about by increased capillary blood flow in the skin. It can also extend to the ears, neck and upper", "-36.05925531269895" ], [ "Blushing Blushing is the reddening of a person's face due to psychological reasons. It is normally involuntary and triggered by emotional stress tying candor, such as that associated with passion, embarrassment, shyness, anger, or romantic stimulation.\nSevere blushing is common in people who suffer social anxiety in which the person experiences extreme and persistent anxiety in social and performance situation. Summary Blushing is generally distinguished, despite a close physiological relation, from flushing, which is more intensive and extends over more of the body, and seldom has a mental source. If redness persists for abnormal amounts of time after blushing, then it", "-35.30650372887612" ], [ "Embarrassment Causes Embarrassment can be personal, caused by unwanted attention to private matters or personal flaws or mishaps or shyness. Some causes of embarrassment stem from personal actions, such as being caught in a lie or in making a mistake. In many cultures, being seen nude or inappropriately dressed is a particularly stressful form of embarrassment (see modesty). Personal embarrassment can also stem from the actions of others who place the embarrassed person in a socially awkward situation—such as a parent showing one's baby pictures to friends, having someone make a derogatory comment about one's appearance or behavior, discovering one", "-34.664164244852145" ], [ "of warmth or heat, associated with the vasodilation of the face and skin, can result in an even more sense of shame. More commonly, the act of crying can be associated with shame. Comparison with guilt The boundaries between concepts of shame, guilt, and embarrassment are not easily delineated. According to cultural anthropologist Ruth Benedict, shame is a violation of cultural or social values while guilt feelings arise from violations of one's internal values. Thus shame arises when one's 'defects' are exposed to others, and results from the negative evaluation (whether real or imagined) of others; guilt, on the other", "-34.36226255688234" ], [ "is the victim of gossip, being rejected by another person (see also humiliation), being made the focus of attention (e.g., birthday celebrants, newlyweds), or even witnessing someone else's embarrassment.\nPersonal embarrassment is usually accompanied by some combination of blushing, sweating, nervousness, stammering, and fidgeting. Sometimes the embarrassed person tries to mask embarrassment with smiles or nervous laughter, especially in etiquette situations. Such a response is more common in certain cultures, which may lead to misunderstanding. There may also be feelings of anger depending on the perceived seriousness of the situation, especially if the individual thinks another person is intentionally causing", "-34.11565183411585" ], [ "involved. Psychology of blushing Charles Darwin devoted Chapter 13 of his 1872 The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals to complex emotional states including self-attention, shame, shyness, modesty and blushing. He described blushing as \"... the most peculiar and most human of all expressions.\"\nSeveral different psychological and psycho-physiological mechanisms for blushing have been hypothesized by Crozier (2010): \"An explanation that emphasizes the blush's visibility proposes that when we feel shame we communicate our emotion to others and in doing so we send an important signal to them. It tells them something about us. It shows that we are", "-34.00490850064671" ], [ "especially on the face, becomes hot to the touch. This is the origin of the alternative term \"hot flush\", since the sensation of heat is often accompanied by visible reddening of the face. Excessive flushing can lead to rosacea.\nThe hot-flash event may be repeated a few times each week or every few minutes throughout the day. Hot flashes may begin to appear several years before menopause starts and last for years afterwards. Some women undergoing menopause never have hot flashes. Others have mild or infrequent flashes. The worst sufferers experience dozens of hot flashes each day. In addition, hot flashes", "-33.997379514039494" ], [ "the eyes of others. We have characterized embarrassment as a sudden-onset sense of fluster and mortification that results when the self is evaluated negatively because one has committed, or anticipates committing, a gaffe or awkward performance before an audience. So, because shame is focused on the entire self, those who become embarrassed apologize for their mistake, and then begin to repair things and this repair involves redressing harm done to the presented self.\nOne view of difference between shame and embarrassment says that shame does not necessarily involve public humiliation while embarrassment does; that is, one can feel shame for an", "-33.39212968037464" ], [ "and wet Mizaj.\nWarm colors (red, orange, and yellow) are signs of warmness and can increase the temperature in a confined area. These colors are associated with danger, threat, warning, and movement and the way they affect the brain they increase metabolism and heat in the body and put it on alert which from Iranian traditional medicine point of view are a sign of excessive heat.\nTherefore, those with cold Mizaj who normally have slow metabolism, and feel sluggish had better use warm color for their clothes and houses while for people with warm Mizaj the reverse is true. People with warm", "-33.26459538549534" ], [ "Signs and symptoms Blushing is a physiological response unique to humans and is a hallmark physiological response associated with social anxiety. Blushing is the involuntary reddening of the face, neck, and chest in reaction to evaluation or social attention. Blushing occurs not only in response to feelings of embarrassment but also other socially-oriented emotions such as shame, guilt, shyness, and pride. Individuals high in social anxiety perceive themselves as blushing more than those who are low in social anxiety. Three types of blushing can be measured: self-perceived blushing (how much the individual believes they are blushing), physiological blushing (blushing", "-33.193893370829755" ], [ "Idiopathic craniofacial erythema Idiopathic craniofacial erythema is a medical condition characterised by severe, uncontrollable, and frequently unprovoked, facial blushing.\nBlushing can occur at any time and is frequently triggered by even mundane events, such as, talking to friends, paying for goods in a shop, asking for directions or even simply making eye contact with another person.\nFor many years, the cause of the condition was thought to be an anxiety problem, caused by a mental health disorder. However, in recent years experts in the field of the disorder believe it to be caused by an overactive sympathetic nervous system, an automatic response", "-31.767447294900194" ], [ "the embarrassment. There is a range of responses, with the most minor being a perception of the embarrassing act as inconsequential or even humorous, to intense apprehension or fear.\nThe idea that embarrassment serves an apology or appeasement function originated with Goffman who argued the embarrassed individual \"demonstrates that he/she is at least disturbed by the fact and may prove worthy at another time\". Semin and Manstead demonstrated social functions of embarrassment whereby the perpetrator of knocking over a sales display (the \"bad act\") was deemed more likable by others if he/she appeared embarrassed than if he/she appeared unconcerned – regardless", "-31.64718192352302" ], [ "ashamed or embarrassed, that we recognise that something is out of place. It shows that we are sorry about this. It shows that we want to put things right. To blush at innuendo is to show awareness of its implications and to display modesty that conveys that you are not brazen or shameless. The blush makes a particularly effective signal because it is involuntary and uncontrollable. Of course, a blush can be unwanted [but the] costs to the blusher on specific occasions are outweighed by the long-term benefits of being seen as adhering to the group and by the general", "-31.62093375661061" ], [ "increase warmness and dryness in the body and are the signs and also the cause of dry and warm Mizaj as someone with warm and dry Mizaj is more prone to get angry or excited. People who consume too much warm and dry food stuff might be affected by anger and excitement more often.\nTherefore, all lifestyle tips for warm and dry Mizaj (temperament) would apply to anger and excitement as two psychiatric conditions. Eating spicy, sweat, salty, deep fried and roasted food stuff especially in warm seasons would trigger anger and excitement.\nPleasure and worry are warm and wet while fear,", "-31.375914159114473" ], [ "Health-related embarrassment Features The source of this embarrassment or its range can vary from person to person. For some the embarrassment heightens when confronted by specific characteristics, such as a doctor of the opposite sex, while for others, the scope of their embarrassment may be exhaustive regardless of the social or peer group dynamics. For others, the embarrassment factor may be overarching, especially when at a disadvantaged socioeconomic situation, for example one who needs financial assistance to obtain medical help. In these scenarios the embarrassment may be duplicated due to a possible scenario wherein they are to be examined by", "-31.195099302654853" ], [ "Hyperthermia Signs and symptoms An early stage of hyperthermia can be \"heat exhaustion\" (or \"heat prostration\" or \"heat stress\"), whose symptoms can include heavy sweating, rapid breathing and a fast, weak pulse. If the condition progresses to heat stroke, then hot, dry skin is typical as blood vessels dilate in an attempt to increase heat loss. An inability to cool the body through perspiration may cause the skin to feel dry. Hyperthermia from neurological disease may include little or no sweating, lack of heart rate change, and confusion or delirium.\nOther signs and symptoms vary. Accompanying dehydration can produce nausea,", "-31.15275730844587" ], [ "temperament who are normally vibrant, brisk, lively and stressed should avoid using such colors and use cool colors such as white, blue, and light green. Such cool hues can bring about a more passive reaction in the brain and can make a person feel pleased and relaxed. Accordingly, cool colors do not suit people with cold temperament. Day and night hours The amount of warmness and humidity fluctuate over days and nights, therefore different temperaments form: morning is cold and wet, before noon is warm and wet, afternoon is warm and dry and evening and night are cold and dry.", "-31.11191671481356" ], [ "with a pleasing aesthetic shape, with a texture similar to a natural breast, but which feels completely or mostly numb for the woman herself. This loss of sensation, called somatosensory loss or the inability to perceive touch, heat, cold, and pain, sometimes results in women burning themselves or injuring themselves without noticing, or not noticing that their clothing has shifted to expose their breasts. \"I can't even feel it when my kids hug me,\" said one mother, who had nipple-sparing breast reconstruction after a bilateral mastectomy. The loss of sensation has long-term medical consequences, because it makes", "-30.899471488941344" ], [ "when passing a group of people. Blushing is commonly exhibited by individuals suffering from social phobia. These visible symptoms further reinforce the anxiety in the presence of others. A 2006 study found that the area of the brain called the amygdala, part of the limbic system, is hyperactive when patients are shown threatening faces or confronted with frightening situations.\nThey found that patients with more severe social phobia showed a correlation with the increased response in the amygdala. Comorbidity SAD shows a high degree of co-occurrence with other psychiatric disorders. In fact, a population-based study found that 66% of those with", "-30.846501872409135" ], [ "is completely isolated.\nVicarious embarrassment, like other vicarious emotions, presents symptoms that reflect the original emotion. However, unlike shared emotions, the experience of embarrassment for the observer is dependent on how they normally experience embarrassment. Individuals who experience social anxiety in their own life may experience the familiar symptoms of blushing, excess sweating, trembling, palpitations, and nausea. Other, less severe symptoms may include cringing, looking away, or general discomfort. Empathy Vicarious embarrassment, also known as empathetic embarrassment, is intrinsically linked to empathy. Empathy is the ability to understand the feelings of another and is considered a highly reinforcing emotion to promote", "-30.746317755125347" ], [ "off of the skin, more blood is able to near the surface of the skin making the skin feel warm and look red and finally make people often feel so at ease and cheerful. All these are symptoms of warm temperament which means taking exercise would lead to warmness in the body.\nBut high-intensity exercise would drive the body to excessive coldness, weakness, getting blue face or lips after exercise; moreover after heavy exercise heart rate would take much longer to return to base which is not healthy.\nAdditionally, as getting exercise would increase heat in the body the humidity and other", "-30.593078518286347" ], [ "may be considered an early sign of rosacea. Idiopathic craniofacial erythema is a medical condition where a person blushes strongly with little or no provocation. Just about any situation can bring on intense blushing and it may take one or two minutes for the blush to disappear. Severe blushing can make it difficult for the person to feel comfortable in either social or professional situations. People who have social phobia are particularly prone to idiopathic craniofacial erythema. Psychological treatments and medication can help control blushing.\nSome people are very sensitive to emotional stress. Given a stimulus such as embarrassment, the person's", "-30.573752418975346" ], [ "humors from the brain. William James thought of emotions as reflexes prior to rational thought, believing that the physiological response, as if to stress or irritation, is a precondition to cognitively becoming aware of emotions such as fear or anger.\nWilliam H. Frey II, a biochemist at the University of Minnesota, proposed that people feel \"better\" after crying due to the elimination of hormones associated with stress, specifically adrenocorticotropic hormone. This, paired with increased mucosal secretion during crying, could lead to a theory that crying is a mechanism developed in humans to dispose of this stress hormone when levels grow too", "-30.399964219075628" ], [ "participated in the study claimed they didn’t seek help because they were embarrassed or thought it was a normal condition.", "-30.372194345400203" ], [ "Red dress effect The red dress effect is a putative phenomenon in which people wearing red clothing, such as a red dress, are perceived to be more sexually appealing than they are when wearing other colours. In primates, a visual indicator of female fertility occurs by way of swelling during the follicular phase and is correlated with increased estrogen levels. It has been asserted that this effect acts subconsciously because participants rarely report that they used color in their attractiveness judgments. However, only one study has tested whether conscious awareness matters, with its findings casting doubt on this earlier", "-30.370590466016438" ], [ "Hot flash Signs and symptoms Hot flashes, a common symptom of menopause and perimenopause, are typically experienced as a feeling of intense heat with sweating and rapid heartbeat, and may typically last from two to thirty minutes for each occurrence, ending just as rapidly as they began. The sensation of heat usually begins in the face or chest, although it may appear elsewhere such as the back of the neck, and it can spread throughout the whole body. Some women feel as if they are going to faint. In addition to being an internal sensation, the surface of the skin,", "-30.3397903367877" ], [ "heat both affect the sensation and raise the level of the steady pain. This pain upgrades with tonic light touch, phasic rubbing, or rough textures to become evoked pain.\nThe patient often cannot endure the touch of clothing. His or her entire life becomes an exercise in avoiding evoked pain. It causes difficulty in obtaining rest because bed-clothing contacts the skin. It drives the patient to a hysterical search for relief of the pain, which ends in some degree of resignation and frequent depression. Patients indicate that it has robbed them of their identity, since their values and mental priorities are", "-30.099606470175786" ], [ "Vicarious embarrassment Vicarious embarrassment (also known as secondhand, empathetic, or third party embarrassment) is the feeling of embarrassment from observing the embarrassing actions of another person. Unlike general embarrassment, vicarious embarrassment is not caused by participating in an embarrassing event, but instead it's caused by witnessing (verbally and/or visually) another person experience an embarrassing event. These emotions can be perceived as pro-social, and some say they can be seen as motives for following socially and culturally acceptable behavior.\nVicarious embarrassment (German: Fremdscham) is often seen as an opposite to schadenfreude, which is the feeling of pleasure or satisfaction at misfortune, humiliation", "-29.938826652942225" ], [ "clear: every injury and excess is hiding from the surface (in every successfully avoided blushing) it goes to our inner body (where it avoids to be noticed)” Luis Alberto Mejia Clavijo. It is acknowledged that Saville performs “explorations of people that are both intimate and uncomfortable. Through detailed, frank and unapologetic investigations of the human body, dialogues occur between past and present, and are animated by questions of gender, suffering, and ambiguity.” Asana Greenstreet.", "-29.898245648801094" ], [ "another situation could arise that is similar, and the recovery of that association and inner response can show up spontaneously as jealousy again. It is why a lot of people say to themselves, \"where does this feeling come from\" or, \"Why did I do that?\" A lot of human reactions are from spontaneous recovery of past associations, not always specifically learned physical behaviours. Neurochemistry For the learning and recall associated with spontaneous recovery to happen, there are specific gyri and neurotransmitters that play a role. Firstly, the cerebellum is needed to acquire certain motor skills and develop an automatic state", "-29.81072558415508" ], [ "is said to increase both aggression and appetite, a poor combination for a school's interior. Yellow increases adrenaline levels and is also undesirable for a school setting. Blue, green, and brown create a relaxing and calming environment, which is a positive for the classroom. However, blue also is associated with cold and sadness and elongates the sense of time, which would make a blue classroom tortuous for students (Vodvarka, 1999). Warm colors are often favored by students, making them more alert and increasing brain activity, which helps in increasing test scores. Cool colors had the opposite", "-29.740328906220384" ], [ "are expected to behave in an ashamed or emotional manner versus a cold or angry manner. By showing that they are ashamed of their current standing, the people of higher status are more likely to help them out and have pity on them versus those who do not show shame or pity for their current state. People respond better to seeing people on the streets asking for money or rambling through trash to find items. People of higher standings respond back by giving that individual of lower status clothes, food, and money. Our generosity is dependent on the manner of", "-29.665767523809336" ], [ "face appears, which comes and goes, and one notices an overall inflammatory color noticeable as a strong redness on both cheeks and around both eyes. One experiences a heaviness of the whole body and great restlessness, which expresses itself as a lot of stretching and yawning. There is a pain in the throat and chest and one finds it difficult to breathe and cough. Additional symptoms are: dryness of breath, thick spittle, hoarseness of the voice, pain and heaviness of the head, restlessness, nausea and anxiety. (Note the difference: restlessness, nausea and anxiety occur more frequently with \"measles\" than with", "-29.643407692274195" ], [ "of restitution behaviour (rebuilding the display). The capacity to experience embarrassment can also be seen as functional for the group or culture. It has been demonstrated that those who are not prone to embarrassment are more likely to engage in antisocial behaviour – for example, adolescent boys who displayed more embarrassment were found less likely to engage in aggressive/delinquent behaviours. Similarly, embarrassment exhibited by boys more likely to engage in aggressive/delinquent behaviour was less than one-third of that exhibited by non-aggressive boys. Thus proneness to embarrassment (i.e., a concern for how one is evaluated by others) can act as a", "-29.632543583546067" ], [ "red instead of blue, because red is a physiological stimulation, and the opposite people seek for a low stimulation. The OSL is a moderating variable in this case. Thus, the suitable hypotheses assume that persons have OSL level will experience more happiness from an advertisement whose primary color brings a physiological stimulus, meaning that it should have a red hue and also is bright and saturated.\nHypothesis 1: People who have high OSL will experience more happiness in advertising whose primary color is 1.red hue, 2.saturated, and 3.bright.\nHypothesis 2: People who have high OSL tend to be drawn by advertising whose", "-29.51211385562783" ], [ "becomes avoidant, retaliated, and blaming. In redirecting anger outside the self, shamed individuals may be attempting to regain a sense of agency and control which is so often impaired in the shame experience, so they looked at possibilities of how anger and shame go hand in hand. Once angered, people often feel ashamed of being angry, the experience of shame itself fosters feelings of other-directed anger and hostility, and the acute pain of shame can lead to a sense of ‘humiliated fury' directly toward the self and toward a real or imagined disapproving other. Negative affect fosters feelings of anger", "-29.373164346965495" ], [ "Burning feet syndrome Presentation The burning heat is usually limited to the soles of the feet, but may extend up to the ankles or lower legs of some patients. The burning can sometimes be accompanied by feelings of 'pins and needles' or tingling in these regions. Nighttime is when almost all sufferers of this syndrome report the heat symptoms being the worst, with the condition getting better as morning comes. Those who have psychosomatic disorders sometimes display psychological symptoms along with the burning of feet associated with the syndrome. For most, there is no redness of the skin of their", "-29.333730028709397" ], [ "negative state. On the other hand, boys are taught not to discuss their feelings with others which then diminishes or even gets rid of rumination entirely. The way one is socialized to deal with their negative emotions will vary across cultures and may lead to different outcomes. Symptoms Considering the stigma associated with mental illnesses in the Arab culture, it is not surprising that many Easterners express depression and anxiety through somatic complaints. This is especially true with Eastern women, who may feel symptoms of depression as a result of inequality, but are taught not to express personal feelings. Instead,", "-29.31197375350166" ], [ "you start to shiver. [N/um] makes you tremble, it's hot. . . . Your eyes are open but you don't look around; you hold your eyes still and look straight ahead. But when you get into !kia, you're looking around because you see everything, because you see what's troubling everybody . . . n/um enters every part of your body right to the tip of your feet and even your hair.”\nKatz also states that in order to cure, people must learn to control their boiling n/um and to “pull out sickness” from the people. When they do this, they", "-29.25283107411815" ], [ "II, Chapter 9, “indignation is the emotion most directly opposed to pity.” Aristotle also writes “Indignation is pain caused by the sight of undeserved good fortune.” The terms indignation and indignatio are closely related in part by their common negative emotionality and anger. A speaker may successfully employ indignatio and the audience will feel indignation towards the opponent.", "-29.252529827470426" ], [ "explanations, the equation of being looked at with a feeling of being criticized or despised reveals shame as a motivating force behind scopophobia. In the self-consciousness of adolescence, with its increasing awareness of the Other as constitutive of the looking glass self, shame may exacerbate feelings of erythrophobia and scopophobia. Symptoms and effects Individuals with scopophobia generally exhibit symptoms in social situations when attention is brought upon them like public speaking. Several other triggers exist to cause social anxiety. Some examples include: Being introduced to new people, being teased and/or criticized, embarrassing easily, and even answering a cell phone call", "-29.209121468942612" ], [ "susceptible.\nAccording to Classical Adlerian psychology the second inferiority feeling results when adults feel inadequate from desires to achieve an unobtainable or unrealistic result, \"The need for perfection.\" Stresses associated with feelings of failure and inferiority cause a pessimistic attitude and an inability to overcome difficulties in life.\nAccording to Adler, \"Everyone (...) has a feeling of inferiority. But the feeling of inferiority is not a disease; it is rather a stimulant to healthy, normal striving and development. It becomes a pathological condition only when the sense of inadequacy overwhelms the individual and, far from stimulating him to useful activity, makes him", "-29.15427815768635" ], [ "hyponatremia. Heat illness and dehydration are typically brought on by conditions of high temperatures and high humidity. These conditions carry increased risk for young athletes, particularly if at the beginning of a season when they are less fit. Other factors which increase vulnerability include: heat-retaining clothing, recent illness, previous experience with heat illness, chronic conditions, or sleep deprivation. Additional precaution is to be taken if the child is taking supplements or using cold medication.\nHeat illnesses are among the primary causes of sports-related death or disability, and as such they require immediate medical attention. Symptoms to watch for are dry", "-29.100756050436758" ], [ "wet while areas with chalky or sandy soil composed of the large particles which prevent it from retaining water are warm and dry. Psychiatric conditions Any changes in the psychiatric condition affect human’s temperament to some extent. The longer and deeper the conditions are the more dramatic and lasting the effects are. On the other hand, changes in one's temperament would influence psychiatric condition as well.\nBy releasing the heat from inside the body to the surface and vice versa and by absorbing heat from the body's surface such psychiatric conditions would cause warmness or coldness in the body.\nAnger and excitement", "-29.089236200452433" ], [ "associated with concern over losing the affection or esteem of others. When people have a sense of the difference between their actual self and their social ideal self, an individual will experience feelings of shame and unworthiness. Shame that is often experienced when there is a failure to meet a significant other's goals or wishes involves loss of face and presumed exposure to the dissatisfaction of others. Feeling lack of pride, lack of feeling sure of self and goals, feeling lonely, feeling blue, and feeling not interested in things was also associated with this discrepancy. This discrepancy is associated with", "-29.038714758644346" ], [ "when shame is not acknowledged, but instead negated and repressed, it becomes rage, and rage may drive to aggressive and shaming actions that feed-back negatively on this self-destructive situation. The social management of emotions might be the fundamental dynamics of social cooperation and conflict around resources, complexity, conflict and moral life. It is well-established sociological fact that expression and feeling of the emotion of anger, for example, is strongly discouraged (repressed) in girls and women in many cultures, while fear is discouraged in boys and men. Some cultures and sub-cultures encourage or discourage happiness, sadness, jealousy, excitedness, and many other", "-29.003545225714333" ], [ "century, due to doctors thinking that the women's uterus would respond before the brain to emotional stimulation. Physicians very often justified occurrence of hot illness along with cold illness of Dutch women by connecting aspects of their culture. The state of mind and a women's body were thought at one point to be very connected; warmth represented love, hate, or anger which caused the body to heat up resulting in increased activity and in some more extreme cases manic or choleric behavior. Cold behavior however, was believed to be connected with cooling of the body into phlegmatic lethargy. Love, hate", "-29.00215525191743" ], [ "15. 'Anger, annoyance, and embarrassment were the most common emotional responses, with 45% of women feeling anger, 41% annoyance, and 36% embarrassment. Furthermore, close to one in three women (29%) who has experienced sexual harassment have said that they felt fearful as a result of the most serious incident, while one in five (20%) victims say that the most serious incident made themselves feel ashamed of what had taken place. In other situations, harassment may lead to temporary or prolonged stress or depression depending on the recipient's psychological abilities to cope and the type of harassment and the social support", "-28.935799673214206" ], [ "feeling as if she could no longer fulfill her own desires.\nIn self-analysis, Jackson uncovered vital details regarding her past, saying, \"Certain things may happen, and you just dismiss them instead of stopping and saying, \"Why am I feeling this way? Why am I acting out in this way?\" She had suppressed various traumas throughout her adolescence and early adulthood, using evasion tactics to prevent thoughts from surfacing. She also recalled feeling unaccepted and ostracized for her skin color. She was persistently haunted by a memory of a school teacher intensely scolding her, causing her classmates to erupt in laughter. \"Oh,", "-28.932303656969452" ], [ "also seen as complaining, within professional settings because of the fear of being judged. Mental and emotional consequences Because of the angry Black woman stereotype, Black women tend to become desensitized about their own feelings to avoid judgment. They often feel that they must show no emotion outside of their comfortable spaces. This results in the accumulation of these feelings of hurt, and can be projected on loved ones as anger. Once seen as angry, Black women are always seen in that light, and consequently have their opinions, aspirations, and values dismissed. The repression of these feelings can also result", "-28.91129059562809" ], [ "feel happy and motivated to pursue that behavior. When a somatic marker associated with the negative outcome is perceived, the person may feel sad and the emotion may act as an internal alarm to warn the individual to avoid a course of action. These situation-specific somatic states based on, and reinforced by, past experiences help to guide behavior in favor of more advantageous choices and therefore are adaptive.\nAccording to the SMH, two distinct pathways reactivate somatic marker responses. In the first pathway, emotion can be evoked by the changes in the body that are projected to the brain—called the \"body", "-28.818796199106146" ], [ "the major cause of variation in skin colour. However, in many red-headed people, and other people who do not tan well, there are variations in their hormone receptors, causing them to not respond to MSH in the blood.", "-28.768784764339216" ], [ "by dejection-related emotions. More specifically, because one believes that they have failed to obtain some significant other's hopes or wishes are likely to believe that the significant other is disappointed and dissatisfied with them. In turn, individuals will be vulnerable to shame, embarrassment, or feeling downcast, because these emotions are associated with people believing that they have lost standing or esteem in the eyes of others. Analysis of shame and related emotions have been described as being associated with the standpoint of one or more other people and discrepancies from achievement and/or status standards. Other analyses describe shame as being", "-28.767117120762123" ], [ "embarrassing actions of another person. People who rate themselves as more empathic are more likely to experience vicarious embarrassment. The effect is present whether or not the observed party is aware of the embarrassing nature of their actions, although awareness generally increases the strength of the felt vicarious embarrassment, as does an accidental (as opposed to intentional) action. Etymology The first known written occurrence of embarrass in English was in 1664 by Samuel Pepys in his diary. The word derives from the French word embarrasser, \"to block\" or \"obstruct\", whose first recorded usage was by Michel de Montaigne in 1580.", "-28.643248367821798" ], [ "lack of focus, feeling trapped, irregular heartbeat, air hunger, rapid breathing, parched mouth, sweating, muscle cramps, and physical discomfort that is not actually caused by bodily injury, but is a physical manifestation of the panic and fear that the heliophobic person experiences when exposed to light. This physical pain may be expressed, for example, as a phantom sensation of their skin burning under direct sunlight, even when it is visually apparent that their skin is not actually burning any more than healthy skin would as a result of sun exposure, but nonetheless still feels like real pain for the sufferer.", "-28.62548801593948" ], [ "had tightness in the stomach, tingling in pretibial areas, and developed a purplish hue in the face indicating blood circulation problems. He vomited after 3 minutes.\nAnother subject given 4 mg complained of “chest oppression” and that “a load is pressing down from above and my body feels heavy.” The subject also reported “numbness of the entire body” and “a pleasant Martini feeling-my body is taking charge of my mind”. The subject reported he saw red spots passing before his eyes and red-purple spots on the floor, and the floor seemed very close to his face. Within 2 minutes these visual effects", "-28.59652284612821" ], [ "and adrenaline acts on both eccrine and apocrine glands to produce sweat. Emotional sweating can occur anywhere, though it is most evident on the palms, soles of the feet, and axillary regions. Sweating on the palms and soles is thought to have evolved as a fleeing reaction in mammals: it increases friction and prevents slipping when running or climbing in stressful situations. Gustatory Gustatory sweating refers to thermal sweating induced by the ingestion of food. The increase in metabolism caused by ingestion raises body temperature, leading to thermal sweating. Hot and spicy foods also leads to mild gustatory sweating in", "-28.59492799110012" ], [ "college students, shame was not experienced alone. Anger arousal, suspiciousness, resentment, irritability, a tendency to blame others for negative events, and indirect expressions of hostility were all experienced with the emotion of shame. College students were more likely to report a desire to punish others, as well as a desire to hide, when rating personal shame versus guilt experiences and that is when these other emotions increase feelings of shame.\nTangney et al. found that shame is painful, exposing, disapproving, self-directed, and causes forms of defense towards others. These characteristics are extreme, but shame enters a new level when one's behavior", "-28.579862577986205" ], [ "This means, once people are mad they often go back and rethink the persons roll in the situation. You go back and think wondering if you made the mistake or if the other person did or if it could have been prevented. The results showed that shame and anger are mixed in Cognitive Reappraisals or Anger-Eliciting Situations. Shame was unrelated to reappraisals, except it was found in college students. The last cluster of variables is the Projected Long-Term Consequences of Everyday Episodes of Anger. Participants were asked to think about an event and how they would respond to it and", "-28.560996955260634" ], [ "in motion, which is one of the main reasons an intoxicated person may vomit. The person has this feeling due to impairments in vision and equilibrioception. Diplopia (double vision) or polyplopia are common, as well as the symptoms of motion sickness and vertigo. Causes Ingesting a great deal of alcohol in a short amount of time causes alcohol to quickly enter the bloodstream.\nMixing alcohol with normal soft drinks, rather than diet drinks delays the dizzying effects of alcohol because the sugary mixture slows the emptying of the stomach, so that drunkenness occurs less rapidly.\nThe dizzying effects of alcohol upset the", "-28.55802702830988" ], [ "of the heat, students have experienced nausea, aggravated asthma, and even vomiting. In 2007, one student was taken by ambulance from Ridgely to Greater Baltimore Medical Center after he became dehydrated in class.", "-28.54843827991317" ], [ "wrong, but would not normally suffer professional embarrassment as a result. By contrast, exposure of falsified data supporting a scientific claim (e.g., see Hwang Woo-Suk) would likely lead to professional embarrassment in the scientific community. Professional or official embarrassment is often accompanied by public expressions of anger, denial of involvement, or attempts to minimize the consequences. Sometimes the embarrassed entity issues press statements, removes or distance themselves from sub-level employees, attempts to carry on as if nothing happened, suffers income loss, emigrates, or vanishes from public view. Vicarious embarrassment Vicarious embarrassment is an embarrassed feeling from observing the", "-28.522247505356518" ], [ "is ashamed of. A feeling of inferiority may sometimes lead to a striving for power and honor; work is directed by such desires or by duty, rather than by a striving for joy and happiness. His or her sex life is disturbed by impulses derived from pregenital wishes, so strong that they prevent the experience of full release during orgasm, or else genital wishes are so suppressed by prohibitions and a guilty conscience that they either inhibit a full release during orgasm or prevent the establishment of an adult sex life. Sexual discharge will leave him or her empty, unsatisfied,", "-28.51961056876462" ], [ "the other week with a young lady on ice and we’d been going around for quite a while and she kept on falling down.\nI said, “Have you hurt yourself?”\n She said, “No, I’m sorry to spoil your fun.” \nI said, “You’re not spoiling my fun. It’ll keep on ice.”\nOr he would leave the last word out for the audience to finish and blamed them if they laughed.\nWhen roses are red,\n\nThey’re ready for plucking.\n\nWhen a girl is sixteen,\n\nShe’s ready for … ’Ere \nHe would then say, \"I know exactly what you are saying to yourself, you’re wrong, I know what you’re", "-28.49699542581675" ], [ "distress (different specific emotions) responded in different ways to the risky-choice problems, demonstrating that hot cognition, as an automatic process, affects decision making differently. Another example of hot cognition is a better predictor of negative emotional arousal as compared to cold cognition when they have a personal investment, such as wanting your team to win. In addition, hot cognition changes the way people use decision-making strategies, depending on the type of mood they are in, positive or negative. When people are in a positive mood, they tend to use compensatory, holistic strategies. This leads to a shallow and broad", "-28.399616927228635" ], [ "paleness due to fear. It has been argued that detecting flushing may have influenced the development of primate trichromate vision. Primate studies have found that some species evaluate rivals and possible mates depending on red color characteristics. Facial redness is associated with testosterone levels in humans, and male skin tends to be redder than female skin. Color and time perception Recent results showed that the perceived duration of a red screen was longer than was that of a blue screen. The results reflected sex differences; men, but not women, overestimated the duration of the red screen. Additionally, the reaction times", "-28.398063074797392" ], [ "with materials. Material objects are not the only things that adolescents become envious over; however, it is the most prevalent.\nAs children get older they develop stronger non-materialistic envy such as romantic relationships, physical appearance, achievement, and popularity. Sometimes envious feelings are internalized in children, having a negative impact on their self-esteem. Envy comes from comparing; these comparisons can serve as a reminder that they have failed social norms and do not fit in with their peers. A feeling of inadequacy can arise and become destructive to a child’s happiness and cause further internal damage.\nA child's identity is formed during", "-28.38014999195002" ], [ "don't feel that old because of the training that I took. My body is still strong, it is something that brought gladness in my life. It is about being passionate.\"", "-28.28712075477233" ], [ "but really isn't, you won't see the wrinkles. More recently, a study from Northeastern University researchers found that people could do a pretty good job of faking a Duchenne smile, even when they weren't feeling especially happy.\nBesides, the body language of the eye has several implications. For instance, the research approved that, the person has no control over of his pupils, and the pupils expanded when someone interested in the other person, or looking at something. “ As an indicator, check a friend's pupil size when you're talking to them about something interesting, then change the subject to something less", "-28.28663852554746" ], [ "therefore leave some people confused or forgetful. While in some cases these feelings may fade, it is important to take these emotional problems seriously. By emotionally supporting a struggling relative and seeking help from a doctor or counselor, the forgetfulness can be improved. Theories Tests and data show that as people age, the contiguity effect weakens. This is supported by the associative deficit theory of memory, which asserts old people's poor memory performance is attributed to their difficulty in creating and retaining cohesive episodes. The supporting research in this test, after controlling for sex, education, and other health-related", "-28.262321390444413" ], [ "judgments of others, suspects that she may deserve negative judgment, and feel shame on this basis. Therefore, shame may carry the connotation of a response to something that is morally wrong whereas embarrassment is the response to something that is morally neutral but socially unacceptable. The Shame, Guilt and Anger Study The manner in which children, adolescents, and adults manage and express their feelings of anger has caught the attention of June Price Tangney and her colleagues. They looked into previous studies that had been performed prior to the creation of their own report. While looking at studies done of", "-28.259101947041927" ], [ "which remind them of their accident; they do this to ensure no painful memories become stronger.\n- The athlete becomes emotionally numb: Once an athlete either retires from their sport or has a major injury, they can develop a lethargic lifestyle and lose interest in day-to-day activities, become cut off and detached from family and friends and become emotionally flat and numb.\nAlso, alongside these symptoms it is also very common for these specific symptoms to lead to other mental disorder such as depression, alcohol and drug use and anxiety disorders. Once an athlete reaches this stage it is then vital for", "-28.207979242644797" ], [ "giving and feeling guilt.\" In other notable overviews of warm glow, this phenomenon has been characterized as \"personal distress\". In surveys of self-reported guilt, people experience roughly as much interpersonal and societal guilt as they do personal guilt. Furthermore, half of the survey respondents prefer to directly address and resolve their feelings of guilt. Taken together, these findings suggest a substantial component of guilt aversion. Neurobiological evidence Evidence from neural imaging supports the warm-glow effect. Recent research using functional magnetic resonance imaging of subjects making donation decisions identifies the subgeneal area and the ventral striatum as regions associated with social", "-28.16839337467536" ], [ "being \"hot\" does not predict hits or misses. Proposed explanations Gilovich offers two different explanations for why people believe hot hands exist. The first is that a person may be biased towards looking for streaks before watching a basketball game. This bias would then affect their perceptions and recollection of the game (confirmation bias). The second explanation deals with people's inability to recognize chance sequences. People expect chance sequences to alternate between the options more than they actually do. Chance sequences can seem too lumpy, and are thus dismissed as non-chance (clustering illusion).\nThere are many proposed explanations for why people", "-28.157101919612614" ], [ "see on the outside. Goffman explains that emotions and emotional experience are an ongoing thing that an individual is consciously and actively working through. Individuals want to conform to society with their inner and outer feelings. Self-harm Anger, happiness, joy, stress, and excitement are some of the feelings that can be experienced in life. In response to these emotions, our bodies react as well. For example, nervousness can lead to the sensation of knots in the stomach.\nFeelings can lead to harm. When an individual is dealing with an overwhelming amount of stress and problems in their lives, it can lead", "-28.15136442388757" ], [ "sadness instead if it was caused by situational forces (e.g. a hailstorm) or guilt and shame if they were personally responsible (e.g. he crashed into a wall out of momentary carelessness). Psychotherapist Michael C. Graham defines anger in terms of our expectations and assumptions about the world. Graham states anger almost always results when we are caught up \"... expecting the world to be different than it is\".\nUsually, those who experience anger explain its arousal as a result of \"what has happened to them\" and in most cases the described provocations occur immediately before the anger experience. Such explanations confirm the", "-28.150748557178304" ], [ "population. Alcohol Alcohol consumption increases the risk of hypothermia in two ways: vasodilation and temperature controlling systems in the brain. Vasodilation increases blood flow to the skin, resulting in heat being lost to the environment. This produces the effect of an individual feeling warm, when they are actually losing heat. Alcohol also affects the temperature-regulating system in the brain, decreasing the body's ability to shiver and use energy that would normally aid the body in generating heat. The overall effects of alcohol lead to a decrease in body temperature and a decreased ability to generate body heat in response to", "-28.13368097280545" ], [ "advantages the blush provides: indeed the costs may enhance the signal's perceived value.\" A number of techniques may be used to help prevent or reduce blushing.\nIt has also been suggested that blushing and flushing are the visible manifestations of the physiological rebound of the basic instinctual fight/flight mechanism, when physical action is not possible.", "-28.116238149239507" ], [ "Dejerine–Roussy syndrome Symptoms Dejerine–Roussy syndrome is most commonly preceded by numbness in the affected side. In these cases, numbness is replaced by burning and tingling sensations, widely varying in degree of severity across all cases. The majority of those reported are cases in which the symptoms are severe and debilitating. Burning and tingling can also be accompanied by hypersensitivity, usually in the form of dysaesthesia or allodynia. Less commonly, some patients develop severe ongoing pain with little or no stimuli.\nAllodynia is pain from a stimulus that would normally not cause pain. For example, there is a patient who experiences unrelenting", "-28.115911521028465" ], [ "person got older. As a person ages, they begin to accept their social status. Nonetheless, envious feelings will be present throughout a person’s life. It is up to the individual whether they will let these envious feelings motivate or destroy them. Narcissists Individuals with narcissistic personality disorder are often envious of others or believe others are envious of them. A narcissist may secure a sense of superiority in the face of another person's ability by using contempt to minimize the other person. In philosophy Aristotle, in Rhetoric, defined envy (φθόνος phthonos) as \"the pain caused by the good fortune of", "-28.089792485465296" ], [ "brain's pleasure centers also lit up when someone got a shock that the male thought was \"well-deserved\".\nBrain-scanning studies show that Schadenfreude is correlated with envy in subjects. Strong feelings of envy activated physical pain nodes in the brain's dorsal anterior cingulate cortex; the brain's reward centers, such as the ventral striatum, were activated by news that other people envied had suffered misfortune. The magnitude of the brain's Schadenfreude response could even be predicted from the strength of the previous envy response.\nA study conducted in 2009 provides evidence for people's capacity to feel Schadenfreude in response to negative events in politics.", "-28.076816274784505" ], [ "determined that eyes moisten during laughter as a reflex from the tear glands. Negative aspects Laughter is not always a pleasant experience and is associated with several negative phenomena. Excessive laughter can lead to cataplexy, and unpleasant laughter spells, excessive elation, and fits of laughter can all be considered negative aspects of laughter. Unpleasant laughter spells, or \"sham mirth,\" usually occur in people who have a neurological condition, including patients with pseudobulbar palsy, multiple sclerosis and Parkinson's disease. These patients appear to be laughing out of amusement but report that they are feeling undesirable sensations \"at the time", "-28.06104563793633" ], [ "and because it is a moral virtue inspired by love. Literature According to Vedic sages, when work becomes akin to a yajna (a worship ceremony), the effect of that work is transformed into apurva, that is, it becomes something unique, unprecedented and empowering. In contrast, anger clouds reason, which results in the loss of discrimination between right and wrong and virtue and vice. When the discriminating faculty is ruined, the person loses self-identity and the inner good perishes. With freedom from anger, a person reaches an apurva state. The Upanishads Narada Parivrajaka Upanishad states the nature of akrodha for a", "-28.04048969678115" ], [ "act known only to oneself but in order to be embarrassed one's actions must be revealed to others. Therefore shame can only be experienced in private and embarrassment can never be experienced in private. In the field of ethics (moral psychology, in particular), however, there is debate as to whether or not shame is a heteronomous emotion, i.e. whether or not shame does involve recognition on the part of the ashamed that they have been judged negatively by others. This is a mature heteronomous type of shame where the agent does not judge herself negatively, but, due to the negative", "-28.039771096548066" ], [ "joy and warmth initially, these feelings are later chilled by incredulity. And although negative evaluations may foster sadness that the \"truth\" could not be kinder, it will at least reassure them that they know themselves. Happily, people with negative self-views are the exception rather than the rule. That is, on the balance, most people tend to view themselves positively. Although this imbalance is adaptive for society at large, it poses a challenge to researchers interested in studying self-verification. That is, for theorists interested in determining if behavior is driven by self-verification or positivity strivings, participants with positive self-views will reveal", "-28.034453172644135" ], [ "heavy night sweats, and hot flashes. Mood and memory effects Psychological symptoms include anxiety, poor memory, inability to concentrate, depressive mood, irritability, mood swings, and less interest in sexual activity.\nMenopause-related cognitive impairment can be confused with the mild cognitive impairment that precedes dementia. Forgetfulness affects about half of menopausal women, and is probably caused by the effects of declining estrogen levels on the brain, or perhaps by reduced blood flow to the brain during hot flashes. Causes Menopause can be induced or occur naturally. Induced menopause occurs as a result of medical treatment such as chemotherapy, radiotherapy, oophorectomy, or", "-28.032288109079673" ], [ "how long that their consequence would be. It was proved that the proneness to shame was generally inversely related to positive long term consequence. The results were highest in older participants. The people who were shame prone did not think about the consequences of their anger. Four subtypes There are many different reasons that people might feel shame. According to Joseph Burgo, there are four different aspects of shame. He calls these aspects of shame paradigms. In his first subdivision of shame he looks into is unrequited love; which is when you love someone but your partner does not reciprocate,", "-27.99182153918082" ], [ "relationship. In relation to this, individuals also noted feeling numb and uninterested with the world around them because of the breakup.\nThe combination of this desire to engage in avoidance behaviors and the intrusive memories that may naturally come up cause individuals to feel significant emotional swings and outbursts in the form of irritation, anger, and startle responses. Individuals were noted as being far more paranoid, suspicious, and jealous, often tied towards a desire to know information about their ex-partner.\nOverall, these psychological distress symptoms come together to result in a significantly lower level of self-esteem among individuals who have just undergone", "-27.897809804067947" ], [ "or embarrassment of another person.\nVicarious embarrassment is different from an emotional contagion, which is when a person unconsciously mimics the emotions that others are experiencing. An emotional contagion is experienced by both people making it a shared emotion. Vicarious embarrassment often occurs even when the individual experiencing the embarrassing event might not be aware of the implications. For an act to be considered an emotional contagion, more than one person must be affected by the emotion, but in vicarious emotions, it is only necessary that the observer experience the emotion. Furthermore, vicarious embarrassment can be experienced even when the observer", "-27.77427214605268" ], [ "may seem strange, dry eye can cause the eyes to water. This can happen because the eyes are irritated. One may experience excessive tearing in the same way as one would if something got into the eye. These reflex tears will not necessarily make the eyes feel better. This is because they are the watery type that are produced in response to injury, irritation, or emotion. They do not have the lubricating qualities necessary to prevent dry eye.\nBecause blinking coats the eye with tears, symptoms are worsened by activities in which the rate of blinking is reduced due to prolonged", "-27.77356198785128" ], [ "are often similar to sensations associated with danger\". Other physical symptoms include \"blood pressure go[ing] up a little, the skin...flush[ing], the face and ears...turn[ing] red and...[a] feeling of weakness in the knees\". One can feel a sense of obsession over the other person, longing for \"the day [when they return] to that person\". One can also uncontrollably smile whenever thinking about the other person. Synthesis There is some debate over whether one can artificially create chemistry if they are \"not initially feeling it\". While some people hold that it is something that you \"can't learn and can't teach...[and you] either", "-27.76048517151503" ], [ "is a study (Brown, 1970) where participants were shown to choose avoiding feelings of embarrassment over financial gains. Poor behaviour Initially, self-conscious emotions were looked upon as troublesome and all part of an internal fight. However, views on this have now changed. There is a strong link between the ability of an individual to regulate their behaviour in an appropriate manner and problems with their self-conscious emotions. A school was able to list a set of boys who were classified as ‘prone to aggression and delinquent behaviour’. When these boys sat an interactive IQ test, they scored higher on scores", "-27.744157957935386" ], [ "positive emotions such as happiness, elation, calm, and satisfaction. However, when individuals are rejected or excluded, they feel strong negative emotions such as anxiety, jealousy, depression, and grief. In fact, the psychological pain caused by social rejection is so intense that it involves the same brain regions involved in the experience of physical pain. Both positive and negative reactions in emotion are connected to status of relationship. The existence of a social attachment changes the way one emotionally responds to the actions of a relationship partner and the emotions have the potential to intensify.\nLack of constant, positive relationships has been", "-27.73968282248825" ], [ "irrational fears of humiliating themselves in social situations. They often suffer from panic attacks and severe anxiety as a result, which can occasionally lead to agoraphobia. The disorder is common in children and young adults, diagnosed on average around 13 years of age. If left untreated, people with SAD exhibit asocial behavior into adulthood, avoiding social interactions and career choices that require interpersonal skills. Social skills training can help people who suffer from social phobia or shyness to improve their communication and social skills so that they will be able to mingle with others or go to job interviews with", "-27.725115705747157" ], [ "to feel inferior for their physical appearance develop a self-conscious attitude towards their body image, leading them to foster feelings of depression, anxiety and incompetence. \nPsychological detriments of this sort can also have a negative effect on children’s ability to form relationships and make friends with peers. The social stigma surrounding the “perfect body image” can also be extremely degrading to adolescents who feel they are unable to meet the expectations of such situations causing further damage mentally and physically (anorexia and bulimia). From a long- term perspective obesity can also cause negative psychological effects on individuals who are discriminated", "-27.720822193834465" ], [ "self as inadequate. People employ negative coping responses to counter deep rooted, associated sense of \"shameworthiness\". The shame cognition may occur as a result of the experience of shame affect or, more generally, in any situation of embarrassment, dishonor, disgrace, inadequacy, humiliation, or chagrin. Identification Nineteenth-century scientist Charles Darwin described shame affect in the physical form of blushing, confusion of mind, downward cast eyes, slack posture, and lowered head; Darwin noted these observations of shame affect in human populations worldwide, as mentioned in his book \"The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals\". Darwin also mentions how the sense", "-27.716930838378175" ], [ "unhappiness react to genuine pleasure by unknowingly seeking out experiences of unhappiness. The aversive reaction to pleasure explains the phenomenon of people who reach the pinnacle of success and then end up self-destructing. People with unrecognized needs for unhappiness are also vulnerable when faced with disappointments or loss. In response to loss, they have difficulty comforting themselves and try to feel better by unknowingly recreating unhappy experiences, such as feeling badly about themselves, isolating, overeating, fighting or abusing others.\nTreatment.\nPsychotherapy that is based on the theory of Intrapsychic Humanism is called inner Humanism. Even when people receive", "-27.716273536003428" ], [ "from perceived injustice because it is useful for preventing injustice. Furthermore, the opposite of anger is a kind of insensibility, Aristotle stated. The difference in people's temperaments was generally viewed as a result of the different mix of qualities or humors people contained. Seneca held that \"red-haired and red-faced people are hot-tempered because of excessive hot and dry humors.\" Ancient philosophers rarely refer to women's anger at all, according to Simon Kemp and K.T. Strongman perhaps because their works were not intended for women. Some of them that discuss it, such as Seneca, considered women to be more prone to", "-27.715672103717225" ], [ "were more likely to perceive a letter B, and when letters were associated with the unpleasant task they tended to perceive a number 13.\nPerceptual sets have been demonstrated in many social contexts. People who are primed to think of someone as \"warm\" are more likely to perceive a variety of positive characteristics in them, than if the word \"warm\" is replaced by \"cold\". When someone has a reputation for being funny, an audience are more likely to find them amusing. Individual's perceptual sets reflect their own personality traits. For example, people with an aggressive personality are quicker to correctly identify", "-27.67974136339035" ], [ "heat intolerance. Pain experienced by individuals depends on the severity of the polyneuropathy. It may be dull and constant in some individuals while being sharp and lancinating in others. In many subjects, tenderness is seen upon the palpitation of muscles in the feet and legs. Certain people may also feel cramping sensations in the muscles affected and others say there is a burning sensation in their feet and calves. Motor Sensory symptoms are gradually followed by motor symptoms. Motor symptoms may include muscle cramps and weakness, erectile dysfunction in men, problems urinating, constipation, and diarrhea. Individuals also may experience muscle", "-27.658912757207872" ] ]

[ "This question belongs in [/r/AskReddit](/r/AskReddit) or /r/AskHistorians. ELI5 is for requesting simple explanations of complex ideas. Nothing about your question suits this subreddit. The more you know", "You may get a better answer in /r/AskHistorians", "Note that even though a large portion of oversea Koreans are Christians, Christianity is not the major religion in South Korea. Missionaries sent there were just more effective and they went there later than in most countries. In other countries there were some resentments towards Christian missionaries due to cultural destruction and other shitty things they did, but missionaries who went to South Korea managed to tie their culture to Christianity instead of completely destroying their culture. This made them more accepted than other missionaries.", "Those [red neon crosses]( URL_0 ) they they use for their Christian churches are creepy as hell. They are like cyberpunk stimulant bodegas. I had seen them before in pictures of Seoul, and then in person on a visit to Los Angeles, in Koreatown.", "Yoido Full Gospel Church probably has a lot to do with it. Started in 1958 with one family. Pastor Cho began preaching on the Three-Fold Blessing (the blessing of the spirit, soul, and body), proclaiming that physical health and financial prosperity are as much a part of God's will for Christians as the salvation of the soul. Inspired by his message of hope and monetary wealth, many previously uncommitted people joined the church, and by the beginning of 1961, membership had grown to a thousand. By the late 60's membership was around 8,000. Cho divided the city of Seoul into zones, with church members in each zone comprising a \"cell\" that would meet on a weekday for worship and bible study in the home of a \"cell leader.\" Cell members were encouraged to invite their friends to attend cell meetings to learn about Christianity. Each cell leader was instructed to train an assistant. When cell membership reached a certain number, it would be divided, with about half of its members joining the new cell led by the person who had been the assistant. He also let women lead the cells, who seemed to be more outgoing and hospitable to neighbors. Membership was above 50,000 in the 70's and doubling every few years. Full satellite churches were built around the city, and 5 years ago membership was over 800,000. They probably have over a million now, and plenty of people moving around the country would take the influence and popularity of Christianity with them. **tl;dr** a guy started a church in the 60's, preaching good health and $$$ along with the Bible. Now there are a million members.", "My dad always tells me Korea is the only country that didn't have missionaries come in to introduce Christianity. A Korean guy went to China and brought back some books. If you really want to learn more look [here]( URL_0 ). From what I see, it started to spread because Christianity taught you shouldn't be looked down on because you weren't of noble blood. Korea was all about the class system until the royal family was removed. **ELI5 version:** All the poor kids at school (majority) are unhappy because all the rich kids (minority) are popular and get all the attention. One day a kid who went to China came back with some self help books saying you shouldn't have to be rich to be popular, just a good person. This was bad news bears for the rich kids so they beat up everyone they knew was reading those books. The poor kids started reading in secret. Then history happened.", "Early Korean Christianity (19th century/early 20th century) was almost exclusively Catholicism and most Christian pioneers were scholars who had studied in China, where they learned about the religion. The Catholic church has standard practices around the world and the Korean Catholic church is no exception. Other branches of Christianity are probably what you are thinking about when you talk about Korean Christianity because honestly Korean Catholicism isn't all that exciting or different from Catholicism in other countries. I don't know how this happened, but people who don't go to church fucking hate non-Catholic Christians because they are obnoxious about trying to get people to come to church. Korean-American churches are a bit different. I have not been to a Catholic Korean-American church, but I have been to Baptist churches and whatnot, and they are extremely cliquey and exclusive. That's probably because churches were about the only place where Korean immigrants could socialize with each other.", "I think it one reason that they latched onto Christianity is to create a sense of community. Korea spent much of it's modern history controlled by some empire or another, so to try and keep their culture alive, they molded Christianity to fit their culture, and used it as a form of both support and resistance. In a way, it's similar to how African Americans in the US dealt with slavery: the church became their source of strength. I'm sure it's not that simple though, so this might just be one of many reasons. EDIT: Made my comment more appropriately worded for a 5 y/o." ]

[ [ "Korea\" was adopted.\nThe following year saw significant growth for the Presbyterian church in Korea. Among the reasons contributing to the growth in size of Christian communities in Korea was the fact that unlike in other countries, Christianity was not associated with colonial or imperialist power. The Protestant Christian message came to Korea at a time when the religious and cultural heritage of the country had lost much of its strength and relevance for the common people. In addition to being unencumbered by imperialist or colonial connotations, the Christian communities themselves contributed to their own growth. Presbyterian churches adopted what was", "-34.888815311618146" ], [ "In the years when Korea was under Japanese control, some Koreans adopted Christianity as an expression of nationalism in opposition to the Japan's efforts to promote the Japanese language and the Shinto religion. \nIn 1914 of 16 million Koreans, there were 86,000 Protestants and 79,000 Catholics. By 1934 the numbers were 168,000 and 147,000, respectively. Presbyterian missionaries were especially successful. Harmonizing with traditional practices became an issue. The Protestants developed a substitute for Confucian ancestral rites by merging Confucian-based and Christian death and funerary rituals. Division and Korean War (1945–1953) At the Cairo Conference on November 22, 1943,", "-34.62243733240871" ], [ "Imperial Shinto that they tried to establish in the peninsula. Widespread Christianization of the Koreans took place during State Shinto, after its abolition, and then in the independent South Korea as the newly established military government supported Christianity and tried to utterly oust native Sindo.\nAmong Christian denominations, Presbyterianism is the largest. About nine million people belong to one of the hundred different Presbyterian churches; the biggest ones are the HapDong Presbyterian Church, TongHap Presbyterian Church, the Koshin Presbyterian Church. South Korea is also the second-largest missionary-sending nation, after the United States.\nBuddhism was introduced to Korea in the 4th century. It", "-33.94932225228604" ], [ "link of Christianity with Korean nationalism was strengthened, as the Japanese tried to impose State Shinto, co-opting within it native Korean Sindo, and Christians refused to take part in Shinto rituals. At the same time, numerous religious movements that since the 19th century had been trying to reform the Korean indigenous religion, notably Cheondoism, flourished. 1945—present With the division of Korea into two states in 1945, the communist north and the anti-communist south, the majority of the Korean Christian population that had been until then in the northern half of the peninsula, fled to South Korea. Christians who resettled in", "-33.85190526816996" ], [ "in the first half of the 20th century, the identification of Christianity with Korean nationalism was further strengthened, as the Japanese tried to merge native Sindo with their State Shinto.\nWith the division of Korea into two states after 1945, the communist north and the anti-communist south, the majority of the Korean Christian population that had been until then in the northern half of the peninsula, fled to South Korea. It has been estimated that Christians who migrated to the south were more than one million. Throughout the second half of the 20th century, the South Korean state enacted measures to", "-33.522956579047445" ], [ "country. \nMany Koreans began to migrate to Russia in the 1860s and many of them subsequently converted to Eastern Orthodox Christianity. Orthodox missionaries entered Korea from Russia in 1900. In 1903, the first Orthodox Church in Korea was established. However, the Russo-Japanese war in 1904 and the Russian Revolution in 1918 interrupted the activities of the mission.\nDuring the Japanese colonial occupation, Christians were in the front ranks of the struggle for independence. Factors contributing to the growth of Catholicism and Protestantism included the decayed state of Korean Buddhism, the support of the intellectual elite, and the encouragement of self-support and", "-32.56694951615202" ], [ "evil\". South Korea Protestant missionary activity in Asia was most successful in Korea. American Presbyterians and Methodists arrived in the 1880s and were well received. Between 1910 and 1945, when Korea was a Japanese colony, Christianity became in part an expression of nationalism in opposition to Japan's efforts to promote the Japanese language and the Shinto religion. In 1914, out of 16 million people, there were 86,000 Protestants and 79,000 Catholics; by 1934, the numbers were 168,000 and 147,000. Presbyterian missionaries were especially successful. Since the Korean War (1950–53), many Korean Christians have migrated to the U.S., while those who", "-32.28514764382817" ], [ "founded. A China-based Korean government-in-exile was at one time led by Syngman Rhee, a Methodist.\nChristianity was linked even more with the patriotic cause when some Christians refused to participate in worship of the Japanese Emperor, which was required by law in the 1930s. Although this refusal was motivated by theological rather than political convictions, the consequent imprisonment of many Christians strongly identified their faith, in the eyes of many Koreans, with the cause of Korean nationalism and resistance to the Japanese occupation. Especially the independence of Korea and the Korean War periods featured a further increase in Marian devotion among", "-31.905610564462222" ], [ "Korea were not only open to ideas, technology, and culture but also to other religions. Having lost immense power with Heungseon Daewongun (still captive in China), the Isolationists could do nothing but simply watch. Horace Grant Underwood and his wife, William B. Scranton, his wife, and his mother, Mary Scranton, made Korea their new home in May 1885. They established churches within Seoul and began to establish centers in the countrysides. Catholic missionaries arrived soon afterwards, reviving Catholicism which had witnessed massive persecution in 1866 under Heungseon Daewongun's rule.\nWhile winning many converts, Christian missionaries made significant contributions towards the modernization", "-31.796859424161084" ], [ "from the educational system. Christianity under Japanese occupation, 1910-1945 Christianity grew steadily, with the Catholic population reaching 147,000, and the Protestants 168,000 by the mid-1930s. The stronghold for both groups was the North. From 1910 to 1945 the Japanese occupied all of the country, taking over its rule under a treaty forced on Korea. The Japanese-controlled police made systematic efforts to minimize the influence of the missionaries; this reduced conversions during the years 1911–1919. The idealistic pronouncements of United States President Woodrow Wilson about self-determination of nations contributed to the rapid growth of Korean nationalism in the 1920s, but disillusionment", "-31.555930429182354" ], [ "has been widely seen by Koreans as the religion of the middle class, youth, intellectuals, urbanites, and modernizers. It has been a powerful force supporting South Korea's pursuit of modernity and westernization, and opposition to the old Japanese colonialism and Communism of North Korea.\nPrior to the Korean War (1950–1953), two-thirds of Korean Christians lived in the North, but most later fled to the South. It is not known exactly how many Christians remain in North Korea today. There is uncertainty about the exact number in South Korea. By the end of the 1960s, there were an estimated half a million", "-31.2095040625436" ], [ "self-government among members of the Korean church, and finally the identification of Christianity with Korean nationalism.\nA large number of Christians lived in the northern part of the peninsula (it was part of the so-called \"Manchurian revival\") where Confucian influence was not as strong as in the south. Before 1948 Pyongyang was an important Christian centre: one-sixth of its population of about 300,000 people were converts. Following the establishment of the communist regime in the north, an estimated more than one million Korean Christians resettled to South Korea to escape persecution by North Korea's anti-Christian policies. And at that time, the", "-31.069643064312913" ], [ "their own sins, leading thousands of congregates to accept the missionaries' Christian teachings. From 1901 to 1909, new Korean converts to the Christian faith numbered at just under 100,000.\nHardie's confessions became the catalyst for the Wŏnsan Revival which later inspired the Great Pyongyang Revival of 1907 in Northern Korea. His expression of the feeling of \"humiliation\" at his failings in evangelizing people in the Kangwon Province had the paradoxical effect of inspiring a religious awakening that would infect the entire nation. Alfred Wasson, an American Methodist missionary to Korea, wrote in the Church Growth in Korea (1934):\n[The revival movement] spread", "-30.91001857530091" ], [ "Yakhyeon Catholic Church History The church was established in 1892 by the French Catholic missionary Fr. Eugene Jean Georges Coste of the Society of Foreign Missions of Paris, as a result of Korea gaining religious freedom in 1886.\nIt was the first Catholic church to be established in the city, and it was the first Gothic-style church in Korea.", "-30.870066535662772" ], [ "Korean Methodist Church and Institute Beginning Korea was annexed by Japan in 1910 and there was a massive independence movement on March 1, 1919, known as the 3.1 movement. Koreans in New York City area gathered to remember and celebrated the 3.1 movement on in 1921 and decided to establish a church. That decision led to the first service at Madison Avenue Methodist Church (1723 Madison Avenue New York, NY). Documents relating to the beginning of the church are scarce, but the church celebrates April 28, 1921 as the church establishment day. History On April 22, 1923 the", "-30.467479598648424" ], [ "Misin tapa undong Late Joseon (1890s) Protestantism sunk deep roots in Korea in the 1890s, establishing a network of schools and hospitals. Protestant missionaries labeled indigenous religious practices and shamans as \"devil worship\". The missionaries led campaigns for the burning of idols, ancestral tablets, shamans' tools and clothes, and shrines. According to missionary reports, they were \"destroyed as were the \"books\" (magic scrolls) in Ephesus\". The missionaries also circulated stories about shamans who had converted to Christianity becoming themselves advocates of the destruction of the indigenous religion. The exorcistic struggle between a shaman and a Christian was made into a", "-30.464036470875726" ], [ "small Orthodox community of Korea received support from South Korean's ally Greece. Thereafter, Korean Orthodox faithful requested to come under the spiritual care of the Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople in 1955 and the Ecumenical Patriarchate took Korean Orthodox Church under its protection in 1956.\nChristianity grew significantly in the 1970s and 1980s. In the 1990s it continued to grow, but at a slower rate, and since the 2000s it has shown some decline. Christianity is especially dominant in the west of the country including Seoul, Incheon, and the regions of Gyeonggi and Honam. The Christian faith in South Korea is dominated", "-30.33927512263881" ], [ "was liberal in its admission of non-Christians. Its policy was to admit non-Christians relatively freely and allow the majority Christian students to gradually influence and assimilate them.\nIn the late 1930s, Japan again shifted its policy towards Korea to incorporate it to its scheme of expansionism. In August 1936, the new Japanese Governor-General Jirō Minami began the assimilation of Koreans, to exploit them for military purposes; The governor-general enforced Sōshi-kaimei and Shintoism on Koreans, and began to recruit Koreans for Japanese war efforts. In April 1938, the third Ordinance on Chosun Education ordered the acceptance of Shintoism, voluntary removal of Korean", "-30.2998870987376" ], [ "toward missions helped Korean Christians develop their own religious experience and tradition. This tradition has influenced Korean churches even into the 21st century.", "-30.194604164242264" ], [ "Neo-Confucianism as the state religion. Non-Confucian religions were suppressed and Korean shamanism started to be regarded as a backward relic of the past. In the late 19th and 20th century, a series of circumstances, namely the influence of Christian missionaries and the disruption of society caused by modernisation, contributed to a further weakening of Korean shamanism, ultimately paving the way for a significant growth of Christianity.\nIn the 1890s, when the Joseon dynasty was collapsing, Protestant missionaries gained significant influence through the press, leading a demonisation of Korean traditional religion and even campaigns of violent suppression of local cults. Protestant demonisation", "-30.131283442344284" ], [ "Korea, and an estimated 23,000 native Korean converts.\nIn January 1866, Russian ships appeared on the east coast of Korea demanding trading and residency rights in what seemed an echo of the demands made on China by other western powers. Korean Christians with connections at court saw in this an opportunity to advance their cause and suggested an alliance between France and Korea to repel the Russian advances, suggesting further that this alliance could be negotiated through Bishop Berneux. The Heungseon Daewongun seemed open to this idea, but it was possibly a ruse to bring the head of the Korean Catholic", "-30.032162518467658" ], [ "first Japanese independent 'church' movement began in 1901, when Uchimura Kanzo formed the Mukyokai, of which his main message was the need for complete and ultimate independence from all human forces and entire reliance on God. Nevertheless, religion without \"human wrappings,\" of course is not really an option. The choice is between imported or indigenous forms. The attempts to establish a Japanese type of Christianity independent of its western origins runs through much of Japanese Christianity. United Church of Christ in Japan As the outbreak of the Pacific War was imminent, the Japanese wartime regime planned to sever the Japanese", "-30.014310338048745" ], [ "(i.e. Korean Confucianism). Korean Buddhism, despite an erstwhile rich tradition, at the dawn of the 20th century was virtually extinct as a religious institution, after 500 years of suppression under the Joseon kingdom. Christianity had antecedents in the Korean peninsula as early as the 18th century, when the philosophical school of Seohak supported the religion. With the fall of the Joseon in the last decades of the 19th century, Koreans largely embraced Christianity, since the monarchy itself and the intellectuals looked to Western models to modernise the country and endorsed the work of Catholic and Protestant missionaries. During Japanese colonisation", "-29.961862001066038" ], [ "Worship In 1910, Japan enforced annexation of Joseon and proclaimed the slogan \"Japan and Korea are One\" as an effort to colonize Korea and other Asian countries using the idea of militaristic imperialism. The slogan was used to force people to become \"japanized\", by enforcing Japanese language, shrine worship and deification of the Japanese emperor, as well as enforcing Japanese culture. Christian schools were the first victim of Japanese colonization. While Japan exclaimed that, \"shrine worship is not a religious ceremony but a nationalistic ceremony\", many Christian schools resisted shrine worship and voluntarily closed. The churches in Korea was the", "-29.947310838704198" ], [ "set in after the movement failed to achieve meaningful reform. In 1924, Protestants founded the Korean National Christian Council to coordinate activities and divided the country into regions assigned to specific Protestant denominations for oversight. Korean Protestants also founded overseas missions to Koreans in China.\nBy 1937, the Presbyterian Church of Korea was largely independent of financial support from the United States; in 1934 the Methodist Church became autonomous and elected a Korean bishop. The most active missionaries among the Catholics were the Maryknoll order, which opened the Maryknoll School of Nursing in Pusan in 1964; it is now the Catholic", "-29.874330405466026" ], [ "War, and former North Korean president Kim Il-sung criticized religion in his writings, it is unclear the extent to which religious persecution was enacted, as narratives about persecution faced by Christians are complicated by evidence of pro-Communist Christian communities that may have existed since at least the 1960s, and that many Christian defectors from North Korea were also of a high socioeconomic class and thus would have had other reasons to oppose and face persecution from the government. The Federation of Korean Christians and Korea Buddhist Federation are the official representatives of those faith groups in government, but it is", "-29.85015512989162" ], [ "Joseon state was politically and culturally collapsing. The intelligentsia was looking for solutions to invigorate and transform the nation. It was in this critical period that they came into contact with Western Christian missionaries who offered a solution to the plight of Koreans. Christian communities already existed in Joseon since the 17th century, however it was only by the 1880s that the government allowed a large number of Western missionaries to enter the country. Christian missionaries set up schools, hospitals and publishing agencies. The royal family supported Christianity.\nDuring the absorption of Korea into the Japanese Empire (1910–1945) the already formed", "-29.82895402289796" ], [ "and were actively persecuted by the Japanese administration. The imposition of Shinto rites of worship further exacerbated religious persecution during the occupation. Many Presbyterians were among those who resisted and fought for Korean independence. Following the conclusion the Second World War, the withdrawal of Japan, and the partitioning of Korea, Presbyterian churches in the communist-leaning northern parts of Korea were dissolved. In the Syngman Rhee-led parts of Korea south of the 38th Parallel they were reconstructed in 1946. The 33rd general assembly of the Presbyterian Church of Chosun was held in 1947. Two years later the name \"Presbyterian Church in", "-29.82654055734156" ], [ "the Christian name of Peter. He later returned home with various religious texts and baptized many of his fellow countrymen. The Church in Korea survived without any formal missionary priests until clergy from France (the Paris Foreign Missions Society) arrived in 1836 for the ministry.\nDuring the 19th century, the Catholic Church suffered persecution by the government of the Joseon Dynasty, chiefly for the religion's refusal to carry out ancestral worship, which it perceived to be a form of idolatry, but which the State prescribed as a cornerstone of culture. A century-long persecution produced thousands of martyrs - 103 of whom", "-29.802647879251708" ], [ "Hidden Christian Sites in the Nagasaki Region Christianity in Japan Christianity arrived in Japan in 1549 with the Jesuit missionary Francis Xavier. Fanning out from Nagasaki, the new faith won many converts, including a number of daimyōs. Toyotomi Hideyoshi then Tokugawa Ieyasu persecuted those professing to be Christian. After the Shimabara Rebellion of 1637–1638, the official suppression of Christian practices was combined with a policy of national seclusion that lasted over two centuries. With the advent of Western powers and reopening of Japan in the 1850s and the reforms of the Meiji Restoration, missionary activity was renewed and a number", "-29.606168548583582" ], [ "was demonstrated by many Christians. While South Korea's constitution guarantees freedom of religion and separation of church and state, the government has been sympathetic to Christianity. It considers the religion to provide some ideological protection against their Communist neighbor.\nOn 1 March 1919, an assembly of 33 religious and professional leaders, known as the \"March 1 Movement\", passed a Declaration of independence. Although organized by leaders of the Chondogyo religion, 15 of the 33 signatories were Protestants, including figures such as Gil Seon-ju. The Japanese imprisoned many in the movement. Also in 1919, the predominantly Catholic pro-independence movement called \"Ulmindan\" was", "-29.580297565809815" ], [ "modern South Korea), while in Goguryeo the Korean indigenous religion remained dominant. In the following unified state of Goryeo (918–1392) Buddhism flourished, and even became a political force.\nThe Joseon kingdom (1392–1910), adopted an especially strict version of Neo-Confucianism (i.e. Korean Confucianism) and suppressed and marginalised Korean Buddhism and Korean shamanism. Buddhist monasteries were destroyed, and their number dropped from several hundreds to a mere thirty-six; Buddhism was eradicated from the life of towns as monks and nuns were prohibited from entering them and were marginalised to the mountains. These restrictions lasted until the 19th century.\nIn the late 19th century, the", "-29.572868897965236" ], [ "became soon a dominant religion in the southeastern kingdom of Silla, the region that hitherto hosts the strongest concentration of Buddhists in South Korea. In the other states of the Three Kingdoms Period, Goguryeo and Baekje, it was made the state religion respectively in 372 and 528. It remained the state religion in Later Silla (North South States Period) and Goryeo. It was later suppressed throughout much of the subsequent history under the unified kingdom of Joseon (1392–1897), which officially adopted a strict Korean Confucianism. Today, South Korea has about 7 million Buddhists, most of them affiliated to the Jogye", "-29.40449205118557" ], [ "many influential figures in Korean history. After 1945, North Korea's Soviet-influenced state policy of atheism as a major facet of Juche caused most Christians to flee to South Korea in pursuit of religious freedom. Academic sympathy Matteo Ricci's books, which he created to use Chinese ideograms and concepts to introduce Catholicism, provoked academic controversy when Yi Gwang-jeong brought them into Korea. Academics remained critical of the new thought for many years. Early in the 17th century, Yi Su-gwang, a court scholar, and Yu Mong-in, a cabinet minister, wrote highly critical commentaries on Ricci's works. During the next two centuries, academic", "-29.22473096693193" ], [ "in Korea due to the relatively high percentage of Koreans who practiced Christianity. (In 2005, approximately 1/3 of the Korean population claimed to be practicing Christians). The church provided a unique haven for anti-authoritarian dissent to develop. Kim Chiha Born in the southwestern province of Cholla, Kim Chi-ha is known for being a critic that played a large role in the Pak regime. Participation in anti-government activities, resulted in his multiple arrests which granted him the time to write a satire in experimental pan'sori form, \"Five Bandits\" (Korean: 오적; RR: Ojeok; MR: Ochŏk). This poem expresses his opposition towards the corrupt authoritarian government.", "-29.218771917645427" ], [ "Catholic priests, converted a remarkable number of Koreans, this time with the support of the royal government which winked at Westernising forces in a period of deep internal crisis (due to the waning of centuries-long patronage from a then-weakened China). The lack of a national religious system compared to those of China and that of Japan (Korean Sindo never developed to a high status of institutional and civic religion) gave a free hand to Christian churches. Methodist and Presbyterian missionaries were especially successful. They established schools, universities, hospitals, and orphanages and played a significant role in the modernisation of the", "-28.947918383819342" ], [ "was founded at Sorae (Korean: 소래),\non the southern coast of Ryongyŏn, in 1884 - before the beginning of foreign missionary activity in Korea. The church was founded by Suh Sang-Ryun (서상륜), who had been converted to Christianity while in Manchuria.\nThe church was visited and supported by English, Scottish, and American Presbyterian missionaries in the following years, including Horace Underwood. A permanent church building was constructed by the local Christians in 1895.\nThe territory of Ryongyŏn County lies just above the 38th parallel, and was included in the northern zone during the division of Korea. The nearby Ongjin Peninsula and Baengnyeong Island", "-28.889011203095833" ], [ "Seohak History Catholicism entered Korea indirectly in the 18th century via limited transmission of royal messengers carrying books from missionaries in Qing China. In this way, Seohak slowly entered Korea in the form of foreign books translated into Classical Chinese. This is unique in that Catholicism originally spread without the direct influence of missionaries in Korea. Although, eventually foreign missionaries entered Korea in 1836.\nSeohak was seen as a western philosophy, instead of a religion, which embraced new technology. This movement was initially accepted only by a minority of progressive thinkers and even fewer people were ready to accept the Catholic", "-28.88561324581451" ], [ "Jung notes that Evangelical church leaders have led protests against both regimes. Unlike in other Asian nations, like Japan, South Koreans did not resist Western missionaries, and as a result, Christianity became politically linked to the anti-communist movement in South Korea. The Bush administration's hard line towards North Korea and funding for anti-North organizations has also had an important impact on the formation of an international human rights movement against North Korea.\nThere has also been competition between the two major broadcasting companies in South Korea during the Cold War in the messages sent to the North Korean people. These companies", "-28.77625738023744" ], [ "next target and starting in 1935, many Christian denominations including Seventh-Day Adventist, Methodists, Salvationists, the Holiness Church, the Anglican church and Roman Catholic Church accepted the shrine worship.\nAs for the Presbyterian Church in Korea, the regional synod of Northern Pyongan was the first branch to accept the shrine worship and many other synods began to follow. Resistance to Shrine Worship and Liberation of Korea In efforts to preserve the Christian faith, movement of resistance to shrine worship was formed by the group of ministers who wanted to protect the Gospel. Many ministers at Pyongyang Presbyterian Theological Seminary was displaced and", "-28.7366109426423" ], [ "over Korea under the rule of the Joseon Dynasty. Korea had traditionally been a tributary state of China's Qing Empire, which exerted large influence over the conservative Korean officials who gathered around the royal family of the Joseon kingdom. On February 27, 1876, after several confrontations between Korean isolationists and Japanese, Japan imposed the Japan–Korea Treaty of 1876, forcing Korea open to Japanese trade. The act blocks any other power from dominating Korea, resolving to end the centuries-old Chinese suzerainty.\nOn June 4, 1894, Korea requested aid from the Qing Empire in suppressing the Donghak Rebellion. The Qing government sent 2,800", "-28.728967128423392" ], [ "to see Korea as a strategic foothold leading into northern China, just as Macau and Hong Kong had been Portuguese and English trade enclaves, respectively, in southern China. Colonial rule (1910–1945) In a complicated series of manoeuvres and counter-manoeuvres, Japan pushed back the Russian fleet in 1905 (see Russo-Japanese War). Both the fleets of China and Russia had given Korea sufficient protection to prevent a direct invasion, but this ambuscade of the Russian fleet gave Japan free rein over north China, and Korea was left at the mercy of the new regional naval power Japan.\nKorea became a protectorate of Japan", "-28.70229836451108" ], [ "intermarried with Koreans. Some assimilation into Buddhism and Shamanism took place owing to Korea's geographical isolation from the Muslim world.\nIn 1154, Korea was included in the Arab geographer Muhammad al-Idrisi's world atlas, Tabula Rogeriana. The oldest surviving Korean world map, the Gangnido, drew its knowledge of the Western Regions from the work of Islamic geographers. Goryeo period According to local Korean accounts, Muslims arrived in the peninsula in the year 1024 in the Goryeo kingdom, a group of some 100 Muslims, including Hasan Raza, came in September of the 15th year of Hyeonjong of Goryeo and another group of 100", "-28.670156731991483" ], [ "the 19th century and showing a keen interest in Korea, especially as it was the closest potential point of expansion directly on the Asian mainland. It was perceived that Japan would be vulnerable to any power that controlled the Korean peninsula. With the Japan–Korea Treaty of 1876, Japan decided the expansion of their settlement, the addition of the market and acquired an enclave in Busan. A severe conflict at court between Heungseon Daewongun, the biological father of Gojong (king of the Joseon Dynasty), and Gojong's wife Empress Myeongseong continued. In 1882, Daewongun was seized by the Qing dynasty troops, and", "-28.61250164795274" ], [ "sailors, warriors, or courtesans. Most of the daily activities of the Church were done by Japanese from the beginning, giving the Japanese Church a native face, and this was one of the reasons for its success. By 1590, there were seventy native brothers in Japan, fully one half of Jesuits in Japan, and fifteen percent of all Jesuits who were working in Asia.\nIn June 1592, Hideyoshi invaded Korea; among his leading generals was Christian daimyō Konishi Yukinaga. The actions of his forces in the massacre and enslavement of many of the Korean people were indistinguishable from the non-Christian", "-28.57610106966922" ], [ "Korean War Imperial Japanese rule (1910–1945) Imperial Japan destroyed the influence of China over Korea in the First Sino-Japanese War (1894–95), ushering in the short-lived Korean Empire. A decade later, after defeating Imperial Russia in the Russo-Japanese War (1904–05), Japan made Korea its protectorate with the Eulsa Treaty in 1905, then annexed it with the Japan–Korea Annexation Treaty in 1910.\nMany Korean nationalists fled the country. The Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea was founded in 1919 in Nationalist China. It failed to achieve international recognition, failed to unite nationalist groups, and had a fractious relationship with its US-based founding", "-28.52335488974677" ], [ "North Honshū (see Costa 2003). Hundreds of churches had been built throughout Japan.\nAccepted on a national scale, Christianity was also successful among different social groups from the poor to the rich, peasants, traders, sailors, warriors, or courtesans. Most of the daily activities of the Church were performed by Japanese from the beginning, giving the Japanese Church a native face, and this was one of the reasons for its success. By 1590, there were seventy native brothers in Japan, fully one half of Jesuits in Japan and fifteen percent of all Jesuits who were working in Asia.\nThe 1592 War between Japan", "-28.508761002527876" ], [ "was stirring and emotional, created to stimulate religious fervor.\nElsewhere, Jesuit missionary Francis Xavier introduced the Catholic Church in Japan, and by the end of the 16th century tens of thousands of Japanese adhered. Church growth came to a halt in 1597 under the Shogun Toyotomi Hideyoshi who, in an effort to isolate the country from foreign influences, launched a severe persecution of Christians. Japanese were forbidden to leave the country and Europeans were forbidden to enter. Despite this, a minority Christian population survived into the 19th century when Japan opened more to outside influence, and they continue to the present", "-28.470056397829467" ], [ "church, and polygamy in particular, was seen as a threat to Japanese culture and the Meiji society's ideals of civilization. Even though the Japanese people heard about the church through the Iwakura Mission to the United States in 1872, the earliest official printed introduction of the Japanese people to the LDS Church was likely the 1879 Japanese translation of Jules Verne's Around the World in 80 Days. Jean Passepartout, a character in the book, heard a lecture on Mormonism and polygamy which disturbed him. Magazine articles helped to spread the knowledge of the church in Japan, however, the articles focused", "-28.3781830927619" ], [ "Their testimony of faith came to be recognized immediately after the Beatification of the 103 Saints presided by John Paul II in 1984. Legacy Pope John Paul II, speaking at the canonization, said, \"The Korean Church is unique because it was founded entirely by lay people. This fledgling Church, so young and yet so strong in faith, withstood wave after wave of fierce persecution. Thus, in less than a century, it could boast of 10,000 martyrs. The death of these martyrs became the leaven of the Church and led to today's splendid flowering of the Church in Korea. Even today", "-28.37128517344695" ], [ "initiative, kōminka seisaku. In 1936, shrine worship was made compulsory for university students as well. Schools refusing to participate in these trips could be closed. Under the National Mobilization law of 1938, laws requiring Christian schools to visit shrines were expanded to include all Christians. That September, members of a Presbyterian church in Korea were forced to visit a shrine by soldiers with bayonets. The Shinto Shrine Issue The question of whether or not it was acceptable for Christians to attend shrine ceremonies was a dilemma that deeply divided the Korean Church particularly during the 1930s, with Presbyterians being more", "-28.364637317234155" ], [ "was the case in occupied Korea and occupied Taiwan, as the Manchurian State was conceived as a spiritually autonomous nation.\nMany Japanese new religions, or independent Shinto sects, proselytised in Manchuria establishing hundreds of congregations. Most of the missions belonged to the Omoto teaching, the Tenri teaching and the Konko teaching of Shinto. The Omoto teaching is the Japanese near equivalent of Guiyidao, as the two religions have common roots and history. Christianity According to the Chinese General Social Survey of 2009, Christianity is the religion of 2.15% of the population of the region. Many Christians are reportedly Koreans. Christianity has", "-28.358708013620344" ], [ "Roman Catholic missionaries did not arrive in Korea until 1794, a decade after the return of Yi Sung-hun, a diplomat who was the first baptised Korean in Beijing. He established a grass roots lay Catholic movement in Korea. However, the writings of the Jesuit missionary Matteo Ricci, who was resident at the imperial court in Beijing, had been already brought to Korea from China in the 17th century. Scholars of the Silhak (\"Practical Learning\") were attracted to Catholic doctrines, and this was a key factor for the spread of the Catholic faith in the 1790s. The penetration of Western ideas", "-28.357384656344948" ], [ "French campaign against Korea Background Throughout the history of the Joseon dynasty, Korea maintained a policy of strict isolationism from the outside world (with the exceptions being interaction with the Qing dynasty and occasional trading with Japan through the island of Tsushima). However, it did not succeed entirely in sealing itself off from foreign contact. Catholic missionaires had begun to show an interest in Korea as early as the 16th century with their arrival in China and Japan.\nThrough Korean envoy missions to the Qing court in the 18th century, foreign ideas, including Christianity, began to enter Korea and by the", "-28.302854098898933" ], [ "from China to Japan, as Japanese forces had taken positions in the Korean Peninsula during the course of the war. This paved the way for Imperial Japan to tighten its influence on Korea without official Chinese intervention. In 1905, the Eulsa Treaty made the Empire of Korea (Korean imperial status had been established in 1897 to put King Gojong on equal legal footing with his neighboring sovereigns and to fully sever Korea's superficial ties of suzerainty to China) a protectorate of Japan; in 1907, the Japan–Korea Treaty of 1907 stipulated that Korea's policies would be enacted and enforced under the", "-28.294954385109122" ], [ "in 1894.\nAfter the Russo-Japanese War, Japan began the process that led to the formal annexation of Korea. In 1905, the Korean Empire became a protectorate of Imperial Japan, effectively losing diplomatic rights, and became a part of the Imperial Japan in 1910. In the early 20th century, Korean immigration to Manchuria steadily increased, either by refugees fleeing from Japanese rule, or from encouragement by the Japanese government for people to develop the land. Some local Chinese governments welcomed the Korean immigrants, as they were a source of labor and agricultural skill.\nIn the meantime, Japan began to expand into northeast China.", "-28.24388441248084" ], [ "16 Martyrs of Japan Early Christianity in Japan Christian missionaries arrived with Francis Xavier and the Jesuits in the 1540s and briefly flourished, with over 100,000 converts, including many daimyōs in Kyushu. The shogunate and imperial government at first supported the Catholic mission and the missionaries, thinking that they would reduce the power of the Buddhist monks, and help trade with Spain and Portugal. However, the Shogunate was also wary of colonialism, seeing that the Spanish had taken power in the Philippines, after converting the population. It soon met resistance from the highest office holders of Japan. Emperor Ogimachi issued", "-28.201605472392657" ], [ "it, which was crucial to the spread of the Catholic faith in the 1790s. An 1801 study indicated that 55% of all Catholics had family ties to the Silhak school. Lay leadership As a result of the influence of the Silhak school, Catholicism in Korea began as an indigenous lay movement rather than being imposed by a foreign missionaries. The first Catholic prayer-house was founded in 1784 at Seoul by Yi Seung-hun, a diplomat who had been baptized in Beijing. In 1786, Yi proceeded to establish a hierarchy of lay-priests. Although the Vatican ruled in 1789 that the appointment of", "-28.19148666841238" ], [ "all Koreans believed in their indigenous religion socially guided by mu (shamans). Buddhism was introduced from the Chinese Former Qin state in 372 to the northern Korean state of Goguryeo and developed into distinctive Korean forms. At that time, the peninsula was divided into three kingdoms: the aforementioned Goguryeo in the north, Baekje in the southwest, and Silla in the southeast. Buddhism reached Silla only in the 5th century, but it was made the state religion only in that kingdom in the year 552. Buddhism became much more popular in Silla and even in Baekje (both areas now part of", "-28.180760850592378" ], [ "period and the beginning of the Kamakura period in 1185, solidifying feudal Japan. Korea Korea was fought between the three local kingdoms: Silla, Baekje, and Goguryeo. This continued until the Silla allied with Tang China to conquer all of Korea. Attempts at sinicization occurred. Early modern The Russian Empire began to expand into Asia from the 17th century, and would eventually take control of all of Siberia and most of Central Asia by the end of the 19th century. The Ottoman Empire controlled Anatolia, the Middle East, North Africa and the Balkans from the 16th century onwards. In the 17th", "-28.165991447704073" ], [ "205 Martyrs of Japan Early Christianity in Japan Christian missionaries arrived with Francis Xavier and the Jesuits in the 1540s and briefly flourished, with over 100,000 converts, including many daimyōs in Kyushu. The shogunate and imperial government at first supported the Catholic mission and the missionaries, thinking that they would reduce the power of the Buddhist monks, and help trade with Spain and Portugal. However, the Shogunate was also wary of colonialism, seeing that the Spanish had taken power in the Philippines, after converting the population. It soon met resistance from the highest office holders of Japan. Emperor Ogimachi issued", "-28.159207892235827" ], [ "modernize Korean ideas about music. The organ and other Western musical instruments were introduced in 1890, and a Christian hymnal was published in the Korean language in 1893 under the commission of the Queen Consort. She herself, however, never became a Christian, but remained a devout Buddhist with influences from shamanism and Confucianism; her religious beliefs would become the model, indirectly, for those of many modern Koreans, who share her belief in pluralism and religious tolerance. Military Modern weapons were imported from Japan and the United States in 1883. The first military factories were established and new military uniforms were", "-28.157791257959616" ], [ "interests of a few daimyōs and traders.\nAt the same time the missionaries faced the hostility of many other daimyōs. Christianity challenged Japanese civilization. A militant lay community, the main reason for missionary success in Japan, was also the main reason for the anti-Christian policy of the Tokugawa's bakufu. Economic activities The Jesuits in Japan had to maintain economic self-sufficiency because they could not expect stable and sufficient payment from their patron, the King of Portugal, but the king allowed the Jesuits to engage in trade with Japan. Such economic activity can be found in the work of Francis Xavier, the", "-28.136574243317227" ], [ "subsequent Treaty of Shimonoseki of April 1895 forced defeated China to recognize Korean independence, and later that year, Japanese agents would assassinate Korea's anti-Japanese Queen Min.\nIronically, a decade after the Treaty of Shimonoseki had forced China to recognize Korean independence, Japan, in the wake of the Russo-Japanese War, effectively forced Korea to sign the Eulsa Protective Treaty, which made Korea a protectorate of Japan. In 1910, Korea was formally annexed to the Japanese empire, beginning a period of Japanese colonial rule of Korea that would not end until 1945. China In 1871, despite Chinese consternation over Japan asserting its control", "-28.0745940784127" ], [ "in several places he resigned as president of Tohoku Gakuin in 1891.\nIn 1883, with Tsuda Sen, his was the first Japanese Christian missionary endeavor to Korea. This was a decade before formal Japanese colonial expansion and appeared to be motivated by a Christian transnational cosmopolitanism. He viewed the foreign mission of Japanese Christians as an extension of \"Western\" Christian missionary activity in Japan; for him the mission was an \"obligation.\" In 1894 with other Christians he established the Greater Japan Overseas Education Society, a strictly Christian organization. They established Japanese language schools in Korea. Although Christian and educational", "-28.068505061901305" ], [ "attention in the nineteenth century. Earlier tension over Korea had been settled temporarily through the Japan–Korea Treaty of 1876, which opened Korean ports to Japan, and through the Tianjin Convention in 1885, which provided for the removal from Korea of both Chinese and Japanese troops sent to support contending factions in the Korean court. In effect, the convention had made Korea a co-protectorate of Beijing and Tokyo at a time when Russian, British, and American interests in the peninsula also were on the increase.\nIn 1894, China and Japan went to war over Korea in the First Sino-Japanese War, and the", "-28.06268771694431" ], [ "Korean conflict Background Korea was annexed by the Empire of Japan in 1910. In the following decades during the Japanese occupation of Korea, nationalist and radical groups emerged, mostly in exile, to struggle for independence. Divergent in their outlooks and approaches, these groups failed to unite in one national movement. Based in China, the Korean Provisional Government failed to obtain widespread recognition. The many leaders advocating for Korean independence included the conservative and U.S.-educated Syngman Rhee, who lobbied the U.S. government, and the Communist Kim Il-sung, who fought a guerrilla war against the Japanese from neighboring Manchuria to the north", "-28.060090806284734" ], [ "of them have been some form of resistance against foreign influences. During the colonial period, the Korean nationalists carried on the struggle for independence, fighting against Imperial Japan in Korea, China particularly Manchuria and China Proper and Far East Russia. They formed 'governments in exile', armies, and secret groups to fight the imperial Japanese wherever they are. Partition of Korea Korea was divided at the 38th parallel between north and south by the Allied powers in 1945 as part of the disarmament of Imperial Japan, and the division persists to this day. The split is perpetuated by rival regimes, opposing", "-28.054035572500652" ], [ "Martyrs of Japan Early Christianity in Japan Christian missionaries arrived with Francis Xavier and the Jesuits in the 1540s and briefly flourished, with over 100,000 converts, including many daimyōs in Kyushu. The shogunate and imperial government at first supported the Catholic mission and the missionaries, thinking that they would reduce the power of the Buddhist monks, and help trade with Spain and Portugal. However, the Shogunate was also wary of colonialism, seeing that the Spanish had taken power in the Philippines, after converting the population. It soon met resistance from the highest office holders of Japan. Emperor Ōgimachi issued edicts", "-27.944412571144312" ], [ "20th centuries, Chinese influence in Korea waned and Japanese influence grew. The Treaty of Shimonoseki in 1895 ended the Imperial Chinese tributary system over Korea, and the Japan–Korea Treaty of 1905 made Korea a protectorate of Japan. The Japan–Korea Treaty of 1910 finalized Japan's annexation of Korea. Thus, the Tumen River became a border between the Russian Empire (later, the Soviet Union) and the Japanese Empire; this continued until the end of Japanese rule in Korea in 1945.\nRegardless of who ruled Korea, the coastal strips of Russian and Korean territory always separated China from the Sea of Japan.\nIn 1938, to", "-27.866485589484" ], [ "significant numbers of Catholic and Protestant missions developed. Prominent Jesuit missionaries included the Navarrese St. Francis Xavier, and the Italian Matteo Ricci. At the time of their peak influence, members of the Jesuit delegation were considered some of the emperor's most valued and trusted advisors, holding numerous prestigious posts in the imperial government. However, between the 18th and mid-19th century, nearly all Western missionaries in China were forced to conduct their teaching and other activities covertly. Independently formed Catholic movements (Korea) The history of Catholicism in Korea began in 1784 when Yi Sung-hun was baptized while in China under", "-27.829314612345115" ], [ "of Korea's concerns was the acquisition of Western weapons technology to improve its ability to defend itself. In addition, Korea was very interested in acquiring new agricultural technology to help enrich the country. Gradually however, this concern gave way to a more radical stream of enlightenment thought that placed a high priority on political and institutional change in the government.\nThe dynastic weakness and foreign aggression in both China and Korea between 1896 and 1898 led to a number of internal reform movements. In the search for new answers, Korea certainly had its own visionaries, men like Yu Kil-chun, who studied", "-27.818358379109668" ], [ "had converted to Catholicism after long talks with Portuguese Jesuits, and many Japanese concluded that Christianity with its emphasis on love and gentleness was not a suitable religion for a samurai. Song Ying Chang's letters on March 1, 1593, described the battle in full to the Ming court. After their defeat, the Japanese shifted their strategy to hit-and-run tactics and ambushes. The use of gunpowder technology and street fighting contributed to the victory, which would permanently deter the invasion. Battle of Byeokjegwan Soon after retaking Pyongyang, Li also succeeded in retaking the major city of Kaesong on January 19, 1592,", "-27.804040582291236" ], [ "Yu Chin-gil and Charles Cho Shin-chol had made several visits to Beijing in order to find ways of introducing missionaries into Korea. Since the persecution of 1801, there had been no priest to care for the Christian community. Serious dangers awaited the missionaries who dared to enter Korea. The bishops and priests who confronted this danger, as well as the lay Christians who aided and sheltered them, were in constant threat of losing their lives.\nBishop Laurent Imbert and ten other French missionaries were the first Paris Foreign Mission Society priests to enter Korea and to embrace a different culture. During", "-27.799434826480137" ], [ "the Holy See was one of the first countries to recognize Korea as an independent nation after the liberation from the Japanese colonization. Patrick James Byrne, American missionary of the Maryknoll's fathers, was consecrated Bishop in 1949, but when the Korean War broke out in 1950, he was kidnapped and died in prison.\nIn those years, the South Korean government sent a delegation to the Paris conference in 1948 to be recognized as the only Government of the Korean peninsula. At that time the Holy See and the Apostolic Nuncio in Paris (then Angelo Roncalli, later Pope John XXIII) greatly helped", "-27.773911949388093" ], [ "signed the Treaty of Shimonoseki in 1895. Among its many stipulations, the treaty recognized \"the full and complete independence and autonomy of Korea,\" thus ending Korea's tributary relationship with the Chinese Qing Dynasty, leading to the proclamation of full independence of Joseon Korea in 1895. \nAt the same time, Japan suppressed the Donghak Revolution with Korean government forces. Though the revolt had ended, issues and complaints of the Korean peasant population remained un-addressed. Reforms The reforms were done largely in three stages, according to the changing members of the reform council and the involvement of Japan. There were three stages", "-27.767798430330913" ], [ "(the present-day Shenyang) and established a church there in 1889. This church was called Dongguan Church (East Gate Church) because it was built just outside East Gate, as Christian churches were not allowed within the city wall. It was rebuilt after the Boxer Rebellion, and is now still used as a Protestant church. He also started a mission in Fushun.\nWhile in China, John Ross met traders from Korea one day, and decided to make a Korean translation of the New Testament, which was completed in 1887 and brought to Korea. This was the first Korean version In 1892 he was", "-27.72801295376317" ], [ "as the state religion in 372, in King Sosurim's reign.\nGoguryeo (also spelled as Koguryŏ) was also known as Goryeo (also spelled as Koryŏ), and it eventually became the source of the modern name of Korea.\nGoguryeo initiated the Goguryeo–Wei Wars in 242, trying to cut off Chinese access to its territories in Korea by attempting to take a Chinese fort. However, Cao Wei of the Three Kingdoms of China responded by invading and defeated Goguryeo. Hwando was destroyed in revenge by Cao Wei forces in 244. The invasions sent its king fleeing, and broke the tributary relationships between Goguryeo and the", "-27.71930123428865" ], [ "Korean Martyrs Background At the end of the 18th century, Korea was ruled by the Joseon Dynasty. It was a society based on Confucianism and its hierarchical, class relationships. There was a small minority of privileged scholars and nobility while the majority were commoners paying taxes, providing labour, and manning the military, all above a slave class.\nEven though it was scholars who first introduced Christianity to Korea, it was the ordinary people who flocked to the new religion. The new believers called themselves Chonju Kyo Udul, literally \"Friends of the Teaching of God of Heaven\". The term \"friends\" was the", "-27.704555925643035" ], [ "Division of Korea Japanese rule (1910–1945) When the Russo-Japanese War ended in 1905 Korea became a nominal protectorate of Japan, and was annexed by Japan in 1910. The Korean Emperor Gojong was removed. In the following decades, nationalist and radical groups emerged, mostly in exile, to struggle for independence. Divergent in their outlooks and approaches, these groups failed to unite in one national movement. The Korean Provisional Government in China failed to obtain widespread recognition. World War II At the Cairo Conference in November 1943, in the middle of World War Two, Franklin D. Roosevelt, Winston Churchill and Chiang Kai-shek", "-27.69184080386094" ], [ "with the Mongol invasion in the 13th century. Though repelled due to its strong navy and aid from China, the Japanese invasions in the late 16th century were particularly devastating to the peninsula and it never truly recovered until the modern era. Due to relatively frequent invasions, increased Western colonization of Asia, and the arrival of Christian missionaries, Korea began a long period of isolationism, maintaining diplomatic relationships primarily with China only. For the rest of the Joseon period, the country was marred by economic hardships, peasant revolts, and political factionalism until it was annexed by Japan in the early", "-27.587378966563847" ], [ "After the Tokugawa shogunate banned Christianity in 1620, it ceased to exist publicly. Many Catholics went underground, becoming hidden Christians (隠れキリシタン kakure kirishitan), while others lost their lives. After Japan was opened to foreign powers in 1853, many Christian clergymen were sent from Catholic, Protestant, and Orthodox churches, though proselytism was still banned. Only after the Meiji Restoration, was Christianity re-established in Japan. Freedom of religion was introduced in 1871, giving all Christian communities the right to legal existence and preaching.\nEastern Orthodoxy was brought to Japan in the 19th century by St. Nicholas (baptized as Ivan Dmitrievich Kasatkin), who was", "-27.57410789394453" ], [ "in Korea suffered extreme repression during the Joseon era, which lasted over five hundred years. During this period, Neo-Confucianism overcame the prior dominance of Buddhism.\nOnly after Buddhist monks helped repel the Japanese invasions of Korea (1592–98) did the persecution of Buddhists stop. Buddhism in Korea remained subdued until the end of the Joseon period, when its position was strengthened somewhat by the colonial period, which lasted from 1910 to 1945. However, these Buddhist monks did not only put an end to Japanese rule in 1945, but they also asserted their specific and separate religious identity by reforming their traditions and", "-27.56289255765114" ], [ "Goryeo took refuge on the island as Mongol forces invaded in 1232. After Goryeo capitulated to the Mongols, the elite forces on the island rose up, beginning the Sambyeolcho Rebellion.\nIn the early 19th century, Catholicism was introduced into Korea despite its official proscription by the Korean court. The Korean court clamped down on the illicit French missionaries, massacring French Catholic missionaries and Korean converts alike. In the first battle, the Korean infantry division lost heavily, and General Yang Heon-su concluded that only a large cavalry division could stand up to French firepower. An ambush, by Korean forces, of a French", "-27.56100376059061" ], [ "History of the Catholic Church in Japan Christian missionaries arrived with Francis Xavier and the Jesuits in the 1540s and briefly flourished, with over 100,000 converts, including many daimyōs in Kyushu. It soon met resistance from the highest office holders of Japan. Emperor Ogimachi issued edicts to ban Catholicism in 1565 and 1568, but to little effect. Beginning in 1587 with imperial regent Toyotomi Hideyoshi's ban on Jesuit missionaries, Christianity was repressed as a threat to national unity. After the Tokugawa shogunate banned Christianity in 1620 it ceased to exist publicly. Many Catholics went underground, becoming hidden Christians (隠れキリシタン", "-27.556204815835372" ], [ "Korean Christian Federation History The federation was founded on 28 November 1946 by Christians who had joined the ranks of the new communist administration.\nImmediately, it declared that it would support the country's leader Kim Il-sung and oppose the formation of the South Korean state. Back then, the organization was led by Kim Il-sung's mother's cousin Kang Ryang-uk. Although Christians in North Korea were mostly anti-communist, about a third of them joined the Korean Christian Federation. Christian leaders who refused to join were imprisoned. Organization The federation is \"under close government supervision\". The federation itself restricts certain Christian activities.\nOfficially, the institution", "-27.5526700638884" ], [ "Miracle on the Han River Background Between 1910 and 1945, Korea was a colony of the Japanese Empire. As a result of Japanese capital investment, especially during the 1930s–1940s, it experienced a phase of industrialization, modernization, and economic growth. During the period of Japanese colonialism, eight large companies were founded and other firms grew as a result of aid and foreign-exchange profit. However, the fruits of economic growth were dedicated to the Japanese inhabitants of Korea, and most Korean people remained poor. The Korean economy declined further with the Pacific War, when the Japanese mainland exploited Korea economically. Korea was", "-27.547387311944476" ], [ "Thomasian Martyrs The Martyrs of Japan Conversion of some Japanese to the Christian faith took place between the years 1549–1640 in Japan through the efforts of missionary evangelizers. During this era, the country was ruled by the bakufu, a military government headed by the shōguns who governed the country in the name of the Emperor. The Emperor at this time had become a mere figurehead, secluded in his palace in Kyoto.\nFactors in the outbreak of severe repression of Christianity in Japan certainly included the fear of the Shoguns of all foreign influence. Contributory were the quarrels between Christian denominations, and", "-27.537238592497033" ], [ "harassing the Japanese imperial authorities. One of the most prominent guerrilla leaders was the Communist Kim Il-sung.\nNorthern Korea had little exposure to modern, Western ideas. One partial exception was the penetration of religion. Since the arrival of missionaries in the late nineteenth century, the northwest of Korea, and Pyongyang in particular, had been a stronghold of Christianity. As a result, Pyongyang was called the \"Jerusalem of the East\". Division of Korea At the Tehran Conference in November 1943 and the Yalta Conference in February 1945, the Soviet Union promised to join its allies in the Pacific War within three months", "-27.502349936461542" ], [ "a problem even in the Goryeo period.\nKorea was twice invaded by the Manchus, in 1627 (the First Manchu Invasion of Korea) and 1637 (the Second Manchu Invasion of Korea). Korea surrendered to the Manchus and became a tributary state of the Qing dynasty, which at that time involved two-way trade missions with China. Political factions Throughout the Joseon era, various regional and ideological factions struggled for dominance of the political system. In the earliest years of Joseon, tension between the capital faction and the Yeongnam-based Sarim faction predominated. Village Seowon, which combined the functions of Confucian shrines with educational institutions,", "-27.432595336633312" ], [ "the weakening of China also made Korea vulnerable to foreign maneuvering and encroachment, both as a target in and of itself and as a stepping-stone to the \"larger prize\" of China. This period (roughly from 1870 until annexation by Japan in 1910) was marked in Korea by major upheavals, many intrigues, the inability of Joseon Korea and the later Empire of Korea to right itself amidst all of the maneuvering around it by larger powers (including, but not limited to, Imperial Russia, Japan, China, and to a lesser extent France, Great Britain, and the United States), revolts/insurrections, and other indicators", "-27.4037366770026" ], [ "Korea of 1866, United States expedition to Korea in 1871 and the Incident of the Japanese gunboat Unyo put pressure on many of Joseon's officials, including King Gojong.\nThe Treaty of Ganghwa became the first unequal treaty signed between Korea and a foreign country; it gave extraterritorial rights to Japanese citizens in Korea and forced the Korean government to open three ports, Busan, Incheon and Wonsan, to Japanese and foreign trade. With the signing of its first unequal treaty, Korea became easy prey for many imperialistic powers, and later the treaty led to Korea being annexed by Japan. Imo Rebellion and", "-27.40227738286194" ], [ "of over 300 foreigners including over 80 missionaries from many denominations including those sent by the United Methodist Church, and its predecessor denominations in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Legacy Since its founding in the 19th century, the Korean Methodist Church has dramatically developed as one of major Protestant denominations in Korea. In 2001, the denomination comprised 5,262 churches, 1,394,514 members, and 7,298 ministers. There were six universities established under the Methodist model, including Pai Chai. In addition, the denomination had its own theological seminary, the Methodist Theological Seminary in Seoul. It also had six theological institutes and", "-27.352034291444397" ], [ "Anglican Church of Korea Birth of the Anglican Church of Korea The birth of the Anglican Church of Korea can be traced back to November 1, 1889, when Bishop Charles John Corfe was ordained at Westminster Abbey and inaugurated as the first diocesan bishop of Joseon (Korea). With his colleagues who had been invited to join the mission, he arrived in Incheon Port on 29 September 1890. Nae-dong Anglican Church 성공회 내동성당 which is the first Anglican Church in Korea was established by him and Eli Barr Landis (1865-1898) on Sep. 30, 1891 at Nae-dong, Jung-gu, Incheon. He initiated his", "-27.345794808223673" ], [ "included Konkokyo (金光教), Tenrikyo (天理教), Ontakekyo (御岳教), and Shinrikyo (神理教).\nAfter the Japan-Korea treaty of 1910, Korea was fully under Japanese rule. In turn, the Governor-General responsible for managing Korea for Imperial Japan was empowered to expand the use of shrines there. A year later, a police report on shrine activities in Korea stated that \"shrines are established for the purpose of the protection of local areas, and are deeply revered among many residents. Shrines are managed along with other civic groups by the local association of Japanese residents.\"\nIn 1913, to mark the anniversary of the occupation, members of the Korean", "-27.34505312427939" ], [ "Korean reunification Division The current division of the Korean Peninsula is the result of decisions taken at the end of World War II. In 1910, the Empire of Japan annexed Korea, and ruled over it until its defeat in World War II. The Korean independence agreement officially occurred on 1 December 1943, when the United States, China, and Great Britain signed the Cairo Declaration, which stated: \"The aforesaid three powers, mindful of the enslavement of the people of Korea, are determined that in due course Korea shall become free and independent\". In 1945, the United Nations developed plans for trusteeship", "-27.332058961910775" ], [ "Hanja: 己酉覺書) which effectively removed Korea's judicial power. Meanwhile, Japan dispatched Itō Hirobumi, Japanese Resident-General of Korea, to negotiate with Russia over problems involving Korea and Manchuria. However, Itō was assassinated by Ahn Jung-geun at Harbin, which led to the Japanese annexation of Korea in 1910. Pro-Japanese politicians, such as Song Byung-jun and Lee Wan-yong, defected, merging Korea with Japan by fabricating Korea's willingness and establishing the Japan–Korea Annexation Treaty on August 29, 1910.\nAlthough still existent on paper, the intervention by the Japanese government effectively ended Sunjong's reign over the Korean Empire and he became essentially powerless within three years of", "-27.28541527129164" ], [ "Lutheran Church in Korea Early history Early Lutheran mission work in Korea can be traced to the initial effort by the German missionary, Karl Friedrich August Gützlaff, who also worked for the East India Company as a translator. Gützlaff arrived 1832 in Wonsan Island off the west coast of Korea as part of a fact finding mission and good will tour of the coastal provinces and regions of China (Korea was considered a suzerainty of China then) to collect information about the reactions in official circles, the business community and the population at large to the petition requesting opening the", "-27.27465288714302" ], [ "protect their citizens. After the treaty, Russia continued to occupy all of Manchuria. Annexation of Korea In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, various Western countries actively competed for influence, trade, and territory in East Asia, and Japan sought to join these modern colonial powers. The newly modernised Meiji government of Japan turned to Korea, then in the sphere of influence of China's Qing dynasty. The Japanese government initially sought to separate Korea from Qing and make Korea a Japanese satellite in order to further their security and national interests.\nIn January 1876, following the Meiji Restoration, Japan employed gunboat", "-27.24876262145881" ], [ "of a colonial elite.\nMost Japanese Christians lived in Kyushu, but Christianization was not a regional phenomenon and had a national impact. By the end of the 16th century it was possible to find baptized people in virtually every province of Japan, many of them organized in communities. On the eve of the Sekigahara battle, fifteen daimyōs were baptized, and their domains stretched from Hyūga in Southeast Kyushu to Dewa in North Honshū. Hundreds of churches had been built throughout Japan.\nAccepted on a national scale, Christianity was also successful among different social groups from the poor to the rich, peasants, traders,", "-27.20082269473437" ] ]

[ "Assume that we're talking about a body of water where the air temperature is constantly below freezing. The important thing to know is that is that water is MOST dense at about 4 degrees C. The reason for this has to do with the shape of the water molecule, but that's not necessary to answer the question. As water gets colder, approaching this temperature, it tends to sink, so the water at the bottom of, say, a big lake, is going to be that temperature. Once the whole lake is 4 degrees, the top starts to go below 4 C where the density starts to decrease again because of crystallization and becomes less dense than liquid water at any temperature. Hence, it floats. But it also creates a thermal barrier, so it's harder for more ice to form. Hope this helps!", "Ice is less dense than liquid water, so even if it was freezing at the bottom of the ocean the ice would float to the surface. That being said, the only place that water is exposed to temperatures cold enough to freeze it is at/near the surface.", "Chem engineer here. [Take a look at this **ILLUSTRATION **and see if you can understand it for yourself]( URL_0 ). Well, in most substances a raise of pressure may provoke a passage from the liquid state to the Solid state (Solidification). This happens because the pressure forces the molecules to be closer. However the Water molecules are further apart when they are in the Solid state compared to the liquid state. It has to do with the geometry of the H2O molecule. That's why at 0ºC Ice as a density of 0.9 (Water is 1). So when you increase the pressure and force the water / ice molecules to be even closer they pass to a state where they can be even closer: liquid. **EDIT**: I know this is not a proper graphic. It's an illustration. Even if it had a scale it would be useless: engineers use Equations of state because we need to know partial pressure at different points of pressure and temperature (It's like knowing how much of the water goes to moisture / humidity. There is no 100% liquid water with air around it with 0% humidity ).", "There are a lot of factors... But one that is easy to ELI5 is to ask you if you have ever stuck a bottle of pop in the freezer, took it out and it was liquid but when you opened it if froze? URL_0 Pressure lowers the freezing point of liquids. The deeper you are in the water, the more pressure there is due to the weight of all the water above it. Carbonated liquids like coke shown in the video above are under pressure in the bottle due to the carbon dioxide gas that tries to escape the liquid. this lowers the freezing point until you release that pressure with the satisfying \"TSHHHHHT\" you hear when opening a bottle or can. This causes the freezing point to raise and it freezes before your eyes. Fun fact, the reason why ice is more slippery the warmer it is is purely because the pressure of you walking on it melts the ice a little bit. If it is colder out, you don't melt as much ice by stepping on it. It's also how ice skates work. That blade is pressing down on the ice, melting it ever so slightly and making it slippery.", "First of all, it's cold at the bottom of the ocean, but not that cold, between 0 to 3 degrees Celcius (32-37F). Part of the reason why it's not that cold at the bottom of the ocean is because of earth's internal heating. Second of all, water freezes from top to bottom, and most of the salt leaves the water as it freezes, which makes the water around the ice saltier. This has two effects: first, it lowers the freezing point, and second, it makes the water denser, such that it sinks to the bottom of the ocean. Now, since the temperature at the bottom of the ocean is only 0-3C and not colder, this very briny water simply does not freeze because 0-3C is well above its freezing point.", "pressure and salinity are what prevent the freezing of water. A phase diagram of pure water will show you the conditions necessary for freezing and will allow you to compare conditions in the ocean depths with those on the diagram. Salt is just icing on the freeze prevention cake", "Because it's♪under pressure do do do dah dah do do ♪ Ice requires water molecules to move apart in order to assume their crystallized position. Under that sort of pressure of gagillions of tons of water, you simply can't move them apart because the forces involved (particularly hydrogen bonds) are weaker than gravity and its affect on the scenario. Had to add this bit because my first line got deleted by the bot. Elon Musk is right, AI is gonna kill us.", "Your assumption that water is colder at depth is inaccurate. Depending on the depth of the body of water in question the water temperature can be layered due to external energy sources. Solar radiation warms the top, thermal energy from the earth's crust warms the bottom. Rivers and springs add different temperature water to the lake/ocean of your question. As ice forms in salt water the salt molecules are squeezed out creating less salty ice which floats and a salty slurry that sinks. The top freezes first because that's where the cold air is sucking the energy out of the water.", "It's actually due to the pressure that exists that those depths. You know how water expands as it freezes into ice? The pressure on the water at the bottom of the ocean prevents it from being able to expand. Therefore, it can't freeze.", "When water turns to ice, it needs space for its molecules to arrange themselves in a less dense space. The immense pressure at the bottom of an ocean compresses the water enough to counteract the force of the water expanding. A practical example of pressure melting ice is when you go ice skating. The pressure generated by the skates melts the ice, and hence when ice skating you're actually skating on a very thin film of water.", "Water is less dense when its frozen. That's why ice floats. If bodies of water froze from the bottom up then plant life would die leaving the food chain without a cog in the wheel. Theoretically if that were true, human evolution (or any life for that matter) would not have taken place. So the fact that water floats when frozen is just another reminder of how freaking lucky as a species to even be here.", "Ice floats, all the water that's close to being ice get's pushed to the top and cools water warmer than it. Warm water also \"floats\" on colder water so that also gets pushed to the top to warm the ice and water colder than it. At the bottom of the ocean is the water that's cold enough to push all the water warmer that it up to the top and also all the water colder than it to the top. That water is something that's 4° celsius or 39° fahrenheit. Look for James Cameron there.", "As pressure increases, the freezing/condensing point decreases. Think of LPG (liquified propane has); it's kept in a liquid form inside a pressurized tank. If you expose the liquid, by opening the valve, it immediately becomes gaseous, but while inside the tank, under pressure, it is still liquid. The water at the bottom of the ocean is under ENORMOUS pressure; therefore, the temperature would have to decrease far below the normal freezing point of salt water (which is below the freezing point of fresh water) to cause it to freeze. I'll be honest; this is from the view of an engineer, but I believe it to be correct. A chemist might be able to shed a little more light on this, and may already have. Hope this helps!", "it doesnt get that cold really. even at the bottom of the Marianas trench, the temps are above freezing. you get colder in arctic regions, but not cold enough to freeze, especially when you factor in that its super salty and under a lot of pressure (water doesnt like to freeze under pressure). you might get just under zero in these areas, but the pressure and salt lower the freezing point.", "Water is densest at 4°C. So the bottom of oceans is always 4°C and thus above freezing temperature.", "Probably incorrect but doesnt the salt content have something to do with it?", "The water at the bottom of the oceans not only tends to be more dense but also more saline than the water at the top. This decreases the freezing point of the water at the bottom of the column effectivly making the molecules more resistant to forming ice crystals than the warmer yet less saline water closer to the surface.", "This is probably wrong but I know that ice is less dense than water, so I would assume that whenever water freezes it floats to the top of the body of water it's on instead of staying at the bottom of the body of water because things less dense than water float..? Just a guess though", "Water gets dense until about 4 degrees C. At 0 degrees C, water becomes ice and the bonds that form to make ice (making it hard and solid) cause it to expand and be less dense than the water around it, which is why ice cubes float (like in your drink.)", "Others have answered your question well. But, you can get water at the bottom of the ocean freezing by what are called brinicles. Basically a lot of concentrated very cold brine can descend in the oceans do to its higher density freeze surrounding water as it falls. URL_0 ", "If ice froze at the bottom of the ocean, it would just cause the entire ocean to become ice. And ice is less dense than water, so it will float up to the surface", "Hydrogen bonding between the molecules makes them oppose the surrounding water molecules. Water actually becomes less dense as it gets colder... essential for life.", "Where's the simple answer that states it's just under to much pressure to freeze?", "What other substances are less dense at solid state than at liquid state?" ]

[ [ "of oceans lowers the freezing point by about 1.9 °C (see here for explanation) and lowers the temperature of the density maximum of water to the former freezing point at 0 °C. This is why, in ocean water, the downward convection of colder water is not blocked by an expansion of water as it becomes colder near the freezing point. The oceans' cold water near the freezing point continues to sink. So creatures that live at the bottom of cold oceans like the Arctic Ocean generally live in water 4 °C colder than at the bottom of frozen-over fresh water lakes and", "-39.37727156353503" ], [ "on liquid water, which is an important feature in Earth's biosphere. It has been argued that without this property, natural bodies of water would freeze, in some cases permanently, from the bottom up, resulting in a loss of bottom-dependent animal and plant life in fresh and sea water. Sufficiently thin ice sheets allow light to pass through while protecting the underside from short-term weather extremes such as wind chill. This creates a sheltered environment for bacterial and algal colonies. When sea water freezes, the ice is riddled with brine-filled channels which sustain sympagic organisms such as bacteria, algae, copepods and", "-37.486658015131525" ], [ "is usually more closely and neatly packed and has a higher density than the liquid phase. When lakes freeze, they only do so at the surface while the bottom of the lake remains near 4 °C (277 K; 39 °F) because water is densest at this temperature. No matter how cold the surface becomes, there is always a layer at the bottom of the lake that is 4 °C (277 K; 39 °F). This anomalous behavior of water and ice is what allows fish to survive harsh winters. The density of ice Iₕ increases when cooled, down to about −211 °C (62 K; −348 °F); below that temperature, the", "-36.7091480048839" ], [ "depth. As saline water does not freeze until it reaches −2.3 °C (27.9 °F) (colder as depth and pressure increase) the temperature well below the surface is usually not far from zero degrees.\nThe thermocline varies in depth. It is semi-permanent in the tropics, variable in temperate regions (often deepest during the summer) and shallow to nonexistent in the polar regions, where the water column is cold from the surface to the bottom. A layer of sea ice will act as an insulation blanket.\nIn the open ocean, the thermocline is characterized by a negative sound speed gradient, making the thermocline important in submarine", "-36.60669891174257" ], [ "the ocean's surface layer, acting like a lid, and also affecting deeper waters by increasing subsurface ocean warming and thus facilitating ice melt.\nOur “pure freshwater” experiments show that the low-density lid causes deep-ocean warming, especially at depths of ice shelf grounding lines that provide most of the restraining force limiting ice sheet discharge.\nAnother theory discussed in 2007 for increasing warm bottom water is that that changes in air circulation patterns have led to increased upwelling of warm, deep ocean water along the coast of Antarctica and that this warm water has increased melting of floating ice shelves. An ocean model", "-36.53401111450512" ], [ "forming ice causes it to sink towards the bottom. On a large scale, the process of brine rejection and sinking cold salty water results in ocean currents forming to transport such water away from the Poles, leading to a global system of currents called the thermohaline circulation. Miscibility and condensation Water is miscible with many liquids, including ethanol in all proportions. Water and most oils are immiscible usually forming layers according to increasing density from the top. This can be predicted by comparing the polarity. Water being a relatively polar compound will tend to be miscible with liquids of high", "-35.916704517789185" ], [ "them would be killed. Furthermore, given that water is a good thermal insulator (due to its heat capacity), some frozen lakes might not completely thaw in summer. The layer of ice that floats on top insulates the water below. Water at about 4 °C (39 °F) also sinks to the bottom, thus keeping the temperature of the water at the bottom constant (see diagram). Density of saltwater and ice The density of salt water depends on the dissolved salt content as well as the temperature. Ice still floats in the oceans, otherwise they would freeze from the bottom up. However, the salt content", "-35.63522082101554" ], [ "most susceptible places to climate change on the planet.\nFurthermore, sea ice affects the movement of ocean waters. In the freezing process, much of the salt in ocean water is squeezed out of the frozen crystal formations, though some remains frozen in the ice. This salt becomes trapped beneath the sea ice, creating a higher concentration of salt in the water beneath ice floes. This concentration of salt contributes to the salinated water's density, and this cold, denser water sinks to the bottom of the ocean. This cold water moves along the ocean floor towards the equator, while warmer water on", "-35.605862579715904" ], [ "formation of sea ice contributes to an increase in surface seawater salinity; saltier brine is left behind as the sea ice forms around it (pure water preferentially being frozen). Increasing salinity lowers the freezing point of seawater, so cold liquid brine is formed in inclusions within a honeycomb of ice. The brine progressively melts the ice just beneath it, eventually dripping out of the ice matrix and sinking. This process is known as brine rejection.\nThe resulting Antarctic Bottom Water (AABW) sinks and flows north and east, but is so dense it actually underflows the NADW. AABW formed in the Weddell", "-35.49836297624279" ], [ "earth's oceans. Brinicles As sea ice freezes, it rejects increasingly salty water, which drains through narrow brine channels that thread through the ice. The brine flowing through the brine channels and out of the bottom of the ice is very cold and salty, so it sinks in the warmer, fresher seawater under the ice, forming a plume. The plume is colder than the freezing point of sea water under the ice, so the seawater can freeze where it touches the plume. Ice freezing around the edges of the plume gradually builds a hollow icicle-like tube, called a brinicle. These frozen", "-35.42368838725815" ], [ "in water, water accounts for only 0.05% of Earth's mass. An extraterrestrial ocean's depth would be so deep and dense that even at high temperatures the pressure would turn the water into ice. The immense pressures in the lower regions of these oceans could lead to the formation of a mantle of exotic forms of ice such as ice V. This ice would not necessarily be as cold as conventional ice. If the planet is close enough to its star that the water reaches its boiling point, the water will become supercritical and lack a well-defined surface. Even on cooler", "-35.265695205307566" ], [ "high oxygen content relative to the rest of the oceans' deep waters. This is due to the oxidation of deteriorating organic content in the rest of the deep oceans. Antarctic bottom water has thus been considered the ventilation of the deep ocean. Formation and circulation Antarctic bottom water is created in part due to the major overturning of ocean water.\nAntarctic bottom water is formed in the Weddell and Ross Seas, off the Adélie Coast and by Cape Darnley from surface water cooling in polynyas and below the ice shelf. A unique feature of Antarctic bottom water is the cold", "-35.12084437350859" ], [ "than the reflectivity of the sea (about 10%) and thus the ice also affects the absorption of sunlight at the surface. Hydrological effects The sea ice cycle is also an important source of dense (saline) \"bottom water\". When sea water freezes it leaves most of its salt content behind. The remaining surface water, made dense by the extra salinity, sinks and produces dense water masses such as North Atlantic Deep Water. This production of dense water is essential in maintaining the thermohaline circulation, and the accurate representation of these processes is important in climate modelling. Odden In the Arctic, a", "-34.94930894771824" ], [ "its freezing point of approximately −1.8 °C. This freezing point is however a function of salinity and pressure and thus −1.8 °C is not a general freezing temperature for sea water (see diagram to the right). Movement of deep water masses Formation and movement of the deep water masses at the North Atlantic Ocean, creates sinking water masses that fill the basin and flows very slowly into the deep abyssal plains of the Atlantic. This high-latitude cooling and the low-latitude heating drives the movement of the deep water in a polar southward flow. The deep water flows through the Antarctic Ocean Basin", "-34.933849741733866" ], [ "the seafloor. To do so, the supercold brine from the pack ice overhead must continue to flow, the surrounding water must be significantly less saline than the brine, the water cannot be very deep, the overhead sea ice pack must be still, and currents in the area must be minimal or still. If the surrounding water is too saline, its freezing point will be too low to create a significant amount of ice around the brine plume. If the water is too deep, the brinicle is likely to break free under its own weight before reaching the seafloor. If the", "-34.91411036986392" ], [ "pressure at the bottom is great enough that liquid water can exist at temperatures where water would freeze, at regular pressures. The ice above Lake Vostok, the largest antarctic lake, is approximately 4 kilometres thick.\nScientists studying the lakes, by careful drilling and water sampling, suggest conditions there may resemble the oceans believed to exist on planet Jupiter's moon Europa.", "-34.866855330590624" ], [ "icepack is mobile or currents too strong, strain will break the brinicle.\nUnder the right conditions, including favorable ocean floor topography, a brine pool may be created. However, unlike brine pools created by cold seeps, brinicle brine pools are likely to be very transient as the brine supply will eventually cease.\nOn reaching the seafloor, it will continue to accumulate ice as surrounding water freezes. The brine will travel along the seafloor in a down-slope direction until it reaches the lowest possible point, where it will pool. Any bottom-dwelling sea creatures, including starfish or sea urchins can be encased in this expanding", "-34.79711249814136" ], [ "the warming of the oceans and subsequent melting of glaciers and the polar ice caps, more and more fresh water is released into the high latitude regions where deep water is formed. This extra water that gets thrown into the chemical mix dilutes the contents of the water arriving from lower latitudes, reducing the density of the surface water. Consequently, the water sinks more slowly than it normally would.\nIt is important to note that ocean currents provide the necessary nutrients for life to sustain itself in the lower latitudes. Should the currents slow down, fewer nutrients would be brought to", "-34.66219124564668" ], [ "CO\n2 release, further climate change.\nCold meltwater provides cooling of the ocean's surface layer, acting like a lid, and also affecting deeper waters by increasing subsurface ocean warming and thus facilitating ice melt.\nOur “pure freshwater” experiments show that the low-density lid causes deep-ocean warming, especially at depths of ice shelf grounding lines that provide most of the restraining force limiting ice sheet discharge. Erosion Because ice can flow faster where it is thicker, the rate of glacier-induced erosion is directly proportional to the thickness of overlying ice. Consequently, pre-glacial low hollows will be deepened and pre-existing topography will be amplified", "-34.64275664219167" ], [ "the ocean surface moves in the direction of the poles. This is referred to as \"conveyor belt motion\", and is a regularly occurring process. Ecology Sea ice is part of the Earth's biosphere. When sea water freezes, the ice is riddled with brine-filled channels which sustain sympagic organisms such as bacteria, algae, copepods and annelids, which in turn provide food for animals such as krill and specialised fish like the Bald notothen, fed upon in turn by larger animals such as Emperor penguins and Minke whales.\nA decline of seasonal sea ice puts the survival of Arctic species such as ringed", "-34.62825114442967" ], [ "there are layers of warm water near the top, and colder water deeper down), then the surface water does not mix very much with the deeper waters, so that when the plankton dies, it sinks and takes away ¹²C from the surface, leaving the surface layers relatively rich in ¹³C. Where cold waters well up from the depths (such as in the North Atlantic), the water carries ¹²C back up with it. So, when the ocean was less stratified than today, there was much more ¹²C in the skeletons of surface-dwelling species. Other indicators of past climate include the presence", "-34.41101329011144" ], [ "sea can rise to about 20 C in the summer months. And during exceptionally cold winters, partly as a result of the low salinity of the Baltic, the seawater has also been known to freeze.", "-34.38957144294545" ], [ "into the deep oceans, away from the atmosphere. Because these waters are able to contain a large amount of CO₂, they have helped slow the rise in atmospheric CO₂ concentrations, thus slowing some aspects of climate change.\nClimate change could have different effects on ice melt and brine rejection. Previous studies have suggested that as ice cover thins, it will become a weaker insulator, resulting in larger ice production during the autumn and winter. The consequent increase in winter brine rejection will drive ocean ventilation, and strengthen the inflow of warm Atlantic waters. Studies of the last glacial maximum (LGM) have", "-34.37502615142148" ], [ "the surface. Formation of sea ice further increases the salinity and density, because salt is ejected into the ocean when sea ice forms. This dense water then sinks and the circulation stream continues in a southerly direction. However, the Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation (AMOC) is driven by ocean temperature and salinity differences. But freshwater decreases ocean water salinity, and through this process prevents colder waters sinking. This mechanism possibly caused the cold ocean surface temperature anomaly currently observed near Greenland (Cold blob (North Atlantic)).\nGlobal warming could lead to an increase in freshwater in the northern oceans, by melting glaciers in", "-34.261333910835674" ], [ "shelf into the western Arctic Ocean and create a halocline.\nThis water is met by Greenland Sea Deep Water, which forms during the passage of winter storms. As temperatures cool dramatically in the winter, ice forms and intense vertical convection allows the water to become dense enough to sink below the warm saline water below. Arctic Bottom Water is critically important because of its outflow, which contributes to the formation of Atlantic Deep Water. The overturning of this water plays a key role in global circulation and the moderation of climate.\nIn the depth range of 150–900 metres (490–2,950 feet) is", "-34.219020488264505" ], [ "sea ice. Deep-sea and Antarctic brine pools can be toxic to marine animals. Characteristics Brine pools are sometimes called sea floor \"lakes\" because the dense brine does not easily mix with overlying seawater. The high salinity raises the density of the brine, which creates a distinct surface and shoreline for the pool. When submarines dive into brine pools, they float on the brine surface due to the high density. The motion of a submarine can create waves across the brine-seawater interface that wash over the surrounding \"shoreline\". Support of life Deep sea brine pools often coincide with cold seep", "-34.10488181922119" ], [ "14-16 million square kilometers in late winter to roughly 7 million square kilometers each September. The annual increase of ice plays a major role in the movement of ocean circulation and deep water formation. The density of the water below the newly formed ice increases due to the brine rejection. Saltier water can also become colder without freezing.\nThe dense waters that form in the Arctic are called North Atlantic Deep Waters (NADW), while the Antarctic Bottom Water (AABW) forms in the southern hemisphere. These two areas of brine rejection play an important role in the thermohaline circulation of all of", "-34.04062616522424" ], [ "ice. As ice is an insulator, water on the surface of the ice tends to freeze more quickly than that below.\nThickening ice by spraying seawater onto existing ice has been proposed. Sea ice is an effective thermal insulator, and thus freezing takes place much more rapidly on the top surface of the ice sheet than on the bottom. Thicker sea ice is more structurally stable, and is more resistant to melting due to its increased mass. An additional benefit of this method is that the increased salt content of the melting ice will tend to strengthen downwelling", "-34.03650689579081" ], [ "moves down under the influence of gravity. This process is aided by wind or any other process (currents for example) that agitates the water. This effect also occurs in Arctic and Antarctic waters, bringing water to the surface which, although low in oxygen, is higher in nutrients than the original surface water. This enriching of surface nutrients may produce blooms of phytoplankton, making these areas productive.\nAs the temperature continues to drop, the water on the surface may get cold enough to freeze and the lake/ocean begins to ice over. A new thermocline develops where the densest water (4 °C (39 °F)) sinks", "-34.02569521086116" ], [ "Water near the boiling point is about 4% less dense than water at 4 °C (39 °F).\nUnder increasing pressure, ice undergoes a number of transitions to other polymorphs with higher density than liquid water, such as ice II, ice III, high-density amorphous ice (HDA), and very-high-density amorphous ice (VHDA).\nThe unusual density curve and lower density of ice than of water is vital to life—if water were most dense at the freezing point, then in winter the very cold water at the surface of lakes and other water bodies would sink, the lake could freeze from the bottom up, and all life in", "-33.98248204081392" ], [ "are more frequent in summer and may bring rain or snow. It is cloudy year-round, with mean cloud cover ranging from 60% in winter to over 80% in summer.\nThe temperature of the surface of the Arctic Ocean is fairly constant, near the freezing point of seawater. Because the Arctic Ocean consists of saltwater, the temperature must reach −1.8 °C (28.8 °F) before freezing occurs.\nThe density of sea water, in contrast to fresh water, increases as it nears the freezing point and thus it tends to sink. It is generally necessary that the upper 100–150 m (330–490 ft) of ocean water cools to the", "-33.97196516026452" ], [ "in the summer months. And during exceptionally cold winters, partly as a result of the low salinity of the Baltic, the seawater has also been known to freeze.", "-33.892662801314145" ], [ "and remains submerged only due to the role of salinity in density. When water reaches the basin it is pushed by strong winds into a large circular current called the Beaufort Gyre. Water in the Beaufort Gyre is far less saline than that of the Chukchi Sea due to inflow from large Canadian and Siberian rivers.\nThe final defined water mass in the Arctic Ocean is called Arctic Surface Water and is found from 150–200 metres (490–660 feet). The most important feature of this water mass is a section referred to as the sub-surface layer. It is a product of", "-33.889490538291284" ], [ "Furthermore, the sea ice itself functions to help keep polar climates cool, since the ice exists in expansive enough amounts to maintain a cold environment. At this, sea ice's relationship with global warming is cyclical; the ice helps to maintain cool climates, but as the global temperature increases, the ice melts, and is less effective in keeping those climates cold. The bright, shiny surface (albedo) of the ice also serves a role in maintaining cooler polar temperatures by reflecting much of the sunlight that hits it back into space. As the sea ice melts, its surface area shrinks, diminishing the", "-33.82916190524702" ], [ "strong enough to melt the ice if some antifreeze like ammonia (in the form of ammonia hydrate) or salt was present. Further melting may have led to the separation of ice from rocks and formation of a rocky core surrounded by an icy mantle. A layer of liquid water (ocean) rich in dissolved ammonia may have formed at the core–mantle boundary. The eutectic temperature of this mixture is 176 K (−97 °C). If the temperature dropped below this value, the ocean would have subsequently frozen. The freezing of the water would have caused the interior to expand, which may have been responsible", "-33.777659232669976" ], [ "significantly reducing flow or stopping turbines completely.\nAnother form of anchor ice may be observed at the mouths of Arctic rivers where fresh water seeps out of the river bed into the ocean up through the sediment. Anchor ice forms if the seawater is below the freezing point of the river water. In lakes Shallow tundra lakes may feature anchor ice with a specific behavior. Lakes in the southwestern part of Nunavut, Canada typically freeze down to the bottom when the water level is low. On some cases spring meltwater flows into the lake under the ice cover, which becomes domed", "-33.77481821671245" ], [ "Sea ice Sea ice arises as seawater freezes. Because ice is less dense than water, it floats on the ocean's surface (as does fresh water ice, which has an even lower density). Sea ice covers about 7% of the Earth's surface and about 12% of the world's oceans. Much of the world's sea ice is enclosed within the polar ice packs in the Earth's polar regions: the Arctic ice pack of the Arctic Ocean and the Antarctic ice pack of the Southern Ocean. Polar packs undergo a significant yearly cycling in surface extent, a natural process upon which depends the", "-33.68027844757307" ], [ "Arctic ecology, including the ocean's ecosystems. Due to the action of winds, currents and temperature fluctuations, sea ice is very dynamic, leading to a wide variety of ice types and features. Sea ice may be contrasted with icebergs, which are chunks of ice shelves or glaciers that calve into the ocean. Depending on location, sea ice expanses may also incorporate icebergs. General features and dynamics Sea ice does not simply grow and melt. During its lifespan, it is very dynamic. Due to the combined action of winds, currents, water temperature, and air temperature fluctuations, sea ice expanses typically undergo a", "-33.66638772201259" ], [ "melting of floating ice shelves will not raise sea levels, technically, there is a small effect because sea water is ~2.6% more dense than fresh water combined with the fact that ice shelves are overwhelmingly \"fresh\" (having virtually no salinity); this causes the volume of the sea water needed to displace a floating ice shelf to be slightly less than the volume of the fresh water contained in the floating ice. Therefore, when a mass of floating ice melts, sea levels will increase; however, this effect is small enough that if all extant sea ice and floating ice shelves were", "-33.65337317009107" ], [ "ice and icicles. The reason is that they all form from freshwater (non saline water). Ice sheets, ice caps and glaciers essentially consist of glacial ice. Since glacial ice spreads sideways and down-slope (as a result of gravity), in some areas this ice reaches the coastline. Where this happens, depending on topography, the ice may break up into pieces that fall in the sea, a mechanism called ice calving, and drift away. Alternatively, ice sheets may spread offshore into extensive floating ice platforms called ice shelves, which can ultimately also calve. The features produced by these calving processes are known", "-33.62495341390604" ], [ "a lower concentration of water, it therefore attracts the surrounding water. Due to the cold temperature of the brine, the newly attracted water freezes. If the brine channels are relatively evenly distributed, the ice pack grows downward evenly. However, if brine channels are concentrated in one small area, the downward flow of the cold brine (now so salt-rich that it cannot freeze at its normal freezing point) begins to interact with unfrozen seawater as a flow. Just as hot air from a fire rises as a plume, this cold, dense water sinks as a plume. Its outer edges begin accumulating", "-33.58830358152045" ], [ "to the oceans, thus sea level in the ocean increases again. However, geological records of sea level changes show that the redistribution of the melted ice water is not the same everywhere in the oceans. In other words, depending upon the location, the rise in sea level at a certain site may be more than that at another site. This is due to the gravitational attraction between the mass of the melted water and the other masses, such as remaining ice sheets, glaciers, water masses and mantle rocks and the changes in centrifugal potential due to Earth's variable rotation. Horizontal", "-33.464161211188184" ], [ "at the surface of the ocean produce changes in buoyancy, which cause the sinking and rising of water masses. Changes in the salinity of the oceans are thought to contribute to global changes in carbon dioxide as more saline waters are less soluble to carbon dioxide. In addition, during glacial periods, the hydrography is such that a possible cause of reduced circulation is the production of stratified oceans. In such cases, it is more difficult to subduct water through the thermohaline circulation.", "-33.3938095390331" ], [ "up only 8% of all water in the ocean, are generally restricted to the upper 400 m (1,300 ft) of ocean water, and are separated from lower regions by varying temperatures and salinity which affect the density of the water, which in turn, defines each oceanic region. Because the movement of deep water in ocean basins is caused by density-driven forces and gravity, deep waters sink into deep ocean basins at high latitudes where the temperatures are cold enough to cause the density to increase.\nOcean currents are measured in sverdrup (sv), where 1 sv is equivalent to a volume flow rate of", "-33.36200050996558" ], [ "from rising much above freezing because of the snow-covered surface but can drop to −30 °C (−22 °F) even in July. Temperatures above 20 °C are rare but do sometimes occur in the far south and south-west coastal areas. Ice-free seas Most Arctic seas are covered by ice for part of the year (see the map in the sea-ice section below); 'ice-free' here refers to those which are not covered year-round. \nThe only regions that remain ice-free throughout the year are the southern part of the Barents Sea and most of the Norwegian Sea. These have very small annual temperature variations; average winter", "-33.30087395882583" ], [ "atmospheric temperature and becomes saltier as sea ice crystallizes out. Both these factors make it denser, and the water sinks. From the deep sea near Greenland, such water flows southwards between the continental landmasses on either side of the Atlantic. When it reaches the Antarctic, it is joined by further masses of cold, sinking water and flows eastwards. It then splits into two streams that move northwards into the Indian and Pacific Oceans. Here it is gradually warmed, becomes less dense, rises towards the surface and loops back on itself. Some flows back into the Atlantic. It takes a thousand", "-33.29694818693679" ], [ "How water freezes There are phenomena like supercooling, in which the water is cooled below its freezing point, but the water remains liquid, if there are too few defects to seed crystallization. One can therefore observe a delay until the water adjusts to the new, below-freezing temperature. Supercooled liquid water must become ice at minus 48 C (minus 55 F) not just because of the extreme cold, but because the molecular structure of water changes physically to form tetrahedron shapes, with each water molecule loosely bonded to four others. This suggests the structural change from liquid to \"intermediate ice\". The", "-33.28786971018417" ], [ "the ocean is supercooled to slightly below the freezing point, at which time tiny ice platelets (frazil ice) form. With time, this process leads to a mushy surface layer, known as grease ice. Frazil ice formation may also be started by snowfall, rather than supercooling. Waves and wind then act to compress these ice particles into larger plates, of several meters in diameter, called pancake ice. These float on the ocean surface, and collide with one another, forming upturned edges. In time, the pancake ice plates may themselves be rafted over one another or frozen together into a more solid", "-33.165162911696825" ], [ "freezing point for sea ice to form. In the winter the relatively warm ocean water exerts a moderating influence, even when covered by ice. This is one reason why the Arctic does not experience the extreme temperatures seen on the Antarctic continent.\nThere is considerable seasonal variation in how much pack ice of the Arctic ice pack covers the Arctic Ocean. Much of the Arctic ice pack is also covered in snow for about 10 months of the year. The maximum snow cover is in March or April — about 20 to 50 cm (7.9 to 19.7 in) over the frozen ocean.\nThe climate", "-33.12933671963401" ], [ "brine leaks out. This lowers its freezing temperature and increases its density. Lowering the freezing temperature allows this surrounding, brine-rich water to remain liquid and not freeze immediately. The increase in density causes this layer to sink. Tiny tunnels called brine channels are created all through the ice as this supersaline, supercooled water sinks away from the frozen pure water. The stage is now set for the creation of a brinicle.\nAs this supercooled saline water reaches unfrozen seawater below the ice, it will cause the creation of additional ice. Water moves from high to low concentrations. Because the brine possesses", "-33.114314689300954" ], [ "that water is heaviest and most dense at 39 degrees Fahrenheit and lighter above and below this temperature because it is less dense. Therefore, in the early winter months, the lighter water molecules float to the top. Then as the weather gets colder the water closest to the top freezes first and turns to ice. In addition, since the canal is shallower and has less volume than the adjoining lakes it freezes quicker, and this is the reason why ice forms on Clam Lake canal before lakes Mitchell and Cadillac. As the winter advances and the temperatures drop more the", "-33.00031478825258" ], [ "cavity is a major source of supercooled water, i.e. water chilled at great depths under the ice shelf which is then released to find itself colder than the freezing temperature. Such water influences sea ice growth which in turn affects climate processes at a global scale.", "-32.95726098815794" ], [ "does not occur simply because the Subantarctic water is flowing southward and the AASW is flowing northward, but due to Ekman convergence.\nOnce the northward propagating Antarctic Surface Water reaches the Antarctic Convergence zone it begins to sink because it is more dense than the Subantarctic water to its north, but less dense than the Antarctic water to its south. This water is then referred to as AAIW. The sinking AAIW becomes sandwiched between the Subantarctic water (above) which is much warmer, but more saline and the NADW (below) which is cold and quite salty.\nFor many years the aforementioned", "-32.90038449864369" ], [ "stalactite-like forms are fragile during early stages, but if brine drainage ceases, they may freeze solid. In calm waters, brinicles can reach the sea floor, freezing it fairly abruptly. Climate change The deep ocean basins are stably stratified, so mixing of surface waters with the deep ocean waters occurs only very slowly. The dissolved CO₂ of the surface waters of the ocean is roughly in equilibrium with the partial pressure of CO₂ in the atmosphere. As atmospheric CO₂ levels are rising, the oceans are absorbing some CO₂ from the atmosphere. When surface waters sink, they carry considerable amounts of CO₂", "-32.884513939206954" ], [ "formation caused the surface water to become denser and sink, sometimes to great depths (2,500 m (8,200 ft) or more), making this one of the few regions of the ocean where winter convection occurred, which helped drive the entire worldwide system of surface and deep currents known as the thermohaline circulation. Since the 1990s, the Odden ice tongue rarely develops. Fauna The Greenland Sea is densely inhabited by the organisms that form the base of the oceanic food chain. Large invertebrates, fish (such as cod, herring, redfish, halibut, and plaice), birds, and mammals (including various species of seals, whales, and dolphins) all", "-32.86690265464131" ], [ "of the seas have ice cover for some part of the winter and spring, but lose that ice during the summer. These regions have summer temperatures between about 0 and 8 °C (32 and 46 °F). The winter ice cover allows temperatures to drop much lower in these regions than in the regions that are ice-free all year. Over most of the seas that are ice-covered seasonally, winter temperatures average between about −30 and −15 °C (−22 and 5 °F). Those areas near the sea-ice edge will remain somewhat warmer due to the moderating influence of the nearby open water. In the station-climatology figure", "-32.861465210386086" ], [ "lakes catch up and start the hard freezing process. The warm water of the lake under the ice is forced to leave as the ice becomes thicker on top. The warm water moves toward the canal, thawing the canal and causing the canal water current to flow. It stays open for the length of the winter. On rare occasions, when the temperature goes below zero Fahrenheit, there will be some ice formed on the shoreline of the canal.", "-32.774058011418674" ], [ "frozen solid as ice, the remaining water would be twice as salty as it is today, lowering its freezing point. When the ice sheet melted, it would cover the oceans with a layer of hot freshwater up to 2 kilometres thick. Only after the hot surface water mixed with the colder and deeper saltwater did the sea return to a warmer and less salty state.\nThe melting of the ice may have presented many new opportunities for diversification, and may indeed have driven the rapid evolution which took place at the end of the Cryogenian period. Effect on early evolution The", "-32.72311249002814" ], [ "is highly dependent on the salinity of the water that flows into it. The water that flows southward is fresh and very cold (typically 1 °C - 3 °C), while northward flowing water from the Atlantic is warmer(4 °C - 11 °C) and saltier. Ice will only form at the top layers of the EIC if the salinity is at most 34.7 psu. This causes the water to not be very dense, and will freeze more readily. If the salinity is above 34.8 psu, the water will be too dense to freeze.", "-32.71860508841928" ], [ "in the Antarctic where precipitation over sea ice is high, is from snow deposition: on thin ice, the snow will weigh down the ice enough to cause flooding. Subsequent freezing will form ice with a much more granular structure. \nOne of the more interesting processes to occur within consolidated ice packs is changes in the saline content. As the ice freezes, most of the salt content gets rejected and forms highly saline brine inclusions between the crystals. With decreasing temperatures in the ice sheet, the size of the brine pockets decreases while the salt content goes up. Since", "-32.70656738278922" ], [ "for a larger ice-rich body like Ganymede, pressures are sufficiently high that the ice at depth will transform to higher pressure phases, effectively forming a \"water sandwich\" with an ocean located between ice shells. An important difference between these two cases is that for the small satellite the ocean is in direct contact with the silicates, which may provide hydrothermal and chemical energy and nutrients to simple life forms. Because of the varying pressure at depth, models of a water world may include \"steam, liquid, superfluid, high-pressure ices, and plasma phases\" of water. Some of the solid-phase water could be", "-32.690890605939785" ], [ "of the densest water in the World Ocean and has two main sources: Arctic shelf water and Greenland Sea Deep Water. Water in the shelf region that begins as inflow from the Pacific passes through the narrow Bering Strait at an average rate of 0.8 Sverdrups and reaches the Chukchi Sea. During the winter, cold Alaskan winds blow over the Chukchi Sea, freezing the surface water and pushing this newly formed ice out to the Pacific. The speed of the ice drift is roughly 1–4 cm/s. This process leaves dense, salty waters in the sea that sink over the continental", "-32.67473168269498" ], [ "of ice increases slightly with decreasing temperature and has a value of 0.9340 g/cm³ at −180 °C (93 K).\nWhen water freezes, it increases in volume (about 9% for fresh water). The effect of expansion during freezing can be dramatic, and ice expansion is a basic cause of freeze-thaw weathering of rock in nature and damage to building foundations and roadways from frost heaving. It is also a common cause of the flooding of houses when water pipes burst due to the pressure of expanding water when it freezes.\nThe result of this process is that ice (in its most common form) floats", "-32.616498128452804" ], [ "wind allowing it sink. This makes the WSBW colder than normal allowing it to inject colder water into much of the world's oceans. If the ENSO even is weak enough, the surface winds off the Antarctic coast can shift direction which creates a reduction in shelf water. This will warm the WSBW as it does not have as much access to the cold, dense surface water.", "-32.61472156079253" ], [ "Aquatic sill An aquatic sill (or an oceanic sill) is a sea floor (or lake floor) barrier of relatively shallow depth restricting water movement between oceanic basins. Aquatic sills as barriers An aquatic sill can be a biogeographic barrier for species located in deep basins on either side. On top of an aquatic sill, water is often warmer than deeper water.\nAn aquatic sill can restrict movement of water masses in the bottom, and also results in their isolation, which can be partial, and is sometimes near total.", "-32.55164334032452" ], [ "It then flows very slowly into the deep abyssal plains of the Atlantic, always in a southerly direction. Flow from the Arctic Ocean Basin into the Pacific, however, is blocked by the narrow shallows of the Bering Strait.\nIn the Southern Ocean, strong katabatic winds blowing from the Antarctic continent onto the ice shelves will blow the newly formed sea ice away, opening polynyas along the coast. The ocean, no longer protected by sea ice, suffers a brutal and strong cooling (see polynya). Meanwhile, sea ice starts reforming, so the surface waters also get saltier, hence very dense. In fact, the", "-32.54863545112312" ], [ "cold, ranging from −1 °C to 3 °C. Because this deep and cold layer contains the bulk of ocean water, the average temperature of the world ocean is 3.9 °C.\nIf a zone undergoes dramatic changes in salinity with depth, it contains a halocline. If a zone undergoes a strong, vertical chemistry gradient with depth, it contains a chemocline.\nThe halocline often coincides with the thermocline, and the combination produces a pronounced pycnocline. Exploration The deepest point in the ocean is the Mariana Trench, located in the Pacific Ocean near the Northern Mariana Islands. Its maximum depth has been estimated to be 10,971 meters (35,994 ft)", "-32.537501428159885" ], [ "rivers.\nAs the surface of salt water begins to freeze (at −1.9 °C for normal salinity seawater, 3.5%) the ice that forms is essentially salt-free, with about the same density as freshwater ice. This ice floats on the surface, and the salt that is \"frozen out\" adds to the salinity and density of the sea water just below it, in a process known as brine rejection. This denser salt water sinks by convection and the replacing seawater is subject to the same process. This produces essentially freshwater ice at −1.9 °C on the surface. The increased density of the sea water beneath the", "-32.52530224012298" ], [ "this increases the weakly stratified ocean surface layer and so reduces the ability of warm subsurface water to reach the surface. A 2015 study found this effect in climate models run to simulate future climate change, resulting in an increase of sea ice in the winter months.\nAtmospheric and oceanic drivers likely have contributed to the formation of regionally varying trends in Antarctic sea-ice extent. For example, temperatures in the atmosphere and Southern Ocean have increased during the period 1979–2004. However, sea ice grows faster than it melts, due to a weakly stratified Ocean. Thus, this oceanic mechanism is, among others,", "-32.4993211554829" ], [ "surface layer is found to completely decay and restratify. The decay is caused by the decrease in solar insolation, divergence of turbulent flux and relaxation of lateral gradients.\nDuring the nighttime, the surface ocean cools because the atmospheric circulation is reduced due to the change in heat with the setting of the sun each day. Cooler water is less buoyant and will sink. This buoyancy effect causes water masses to be transported to lower depths even lower those reached during daytime. During the following daytime, water at depth is restratified or un-mixed because of the warming of the sea surface and", "-32.48464924050495" ], [ "from rocks and formation of a rocky core surrounded by an icy mantle. A layer of liquid water (ocean) rich in dissolved ammonia may have formed at the core–mantle boundary. The eutectic temperature of this mixture is 176 K. The ocean, however, is likely to have frozen long ago. The freezing of the water likely led to the expansion of the interior, which may have been responsible for the formation of the canyons and obliteration of the ancient surface. The liquids from the ocean may have been able to erupt to the surface, flooding floors of canyons in the process known", "-32.474463329301216" ], [ "ice. Hydrology The sea is characterized by the low water temperatures, which ranges from −1.8 °C (28.8 °F) in the north to −0.8 °C (30.6 °F) in the south-eastern parts. The medium water layer is warmer, up to 1.5 °С because it is fed by the warm Atlantic waters. It takes them 2.5–3 years to reach the Laptev Sea from their formation near Spitsbergen. The deeper layer is colder at about −0.8 °С. In summer, the surface layer in the ice-free zones warms up by the sun up to 8–10 °С in the bays and 2–3 °С in the open sea, and remains close", "-32.4611210032017" ], [ "layer in a lake is similar to that in the ocean, but mixing is more likely to occur in lakes solely due to the molecular properties of water. Water changes density as it changes temperature. In lakes, temperature structure is complicated by the fact that fresh water is heaviest at 3.98 °C (degrees Celsius). Thus in lakes where the surface gets very cold, the mixed layer briefly extends all the way to the bottom in the spring, as surface warms as well as in the fall, as the surface cools. This overturning is often important for maintaining the", "-32.45192416021018" ], [ "great quantities of dense water sinking at high latitudes must be offset by equal quantities of water rising elsewhere. Note that cold water in polar zones sink relatively rapidly over a small area, while warm water in temperate and tropical zones rise more gradually across a much larger area. It then slowly returns poleward near the surface to repeat the cycle. The continual diffuse upwelling of deep water maintains the existence of the permanent thermocline found everywhere at low and mid-latitudes. This model was described by Henry Stommel and Arnold B. Arons in 1960 and is known as the Stommel-Arons", "-32.42036034388002" ], [ "are largely metal and therefore good conductors of heat energy, the regulator body will cool quickly to a temperature lower than the surrounding medium. When immersed in water during a dive, the water surrounding the regulator is cooled and, if this water is already very cold, it can freeze.\nIf the water in direct contact with the pressure transfer mechanism (diaphragm or piston and the spring balancing the internal pressure) of the regulator freezes, the mechanism will be locked in the position at which the freezing takes place, as the ice will prevent the movement required to close. Since the cooling", "-32.38554492478579" ], [ "causing it to become very dense in relation to lower latitude waters, which in turn causes it to sink to the bottom of the ocean, forming what is known as North Atlantic Deep Water (NADW) in the north and Antarctic Bottom Water (AABW) in the south. Driven by this sinking and the upwelling that occurs in lower latitudes, as well as the driving force of the winds on surface water, the ocean currents act to circulate water throughout the entire ocean.\nWhen global warming is added into the equation, changes occur, especially in the regions where deep water is formed. With", "-32.32281867414713" ], [ "Some of the coldest places on Earth, such as the dry valleys of Antarctica, lack significant ice or snow coverage due to a lack of snow. Sea ice however maybe formed simply by low temperature, although precipitation may influence its stability by changing albedo, providing an insulating covering of snow and affecting heat transfer. Global warming has the capacity to alter both precipitation and temperature, resulting in significant changes to ice cover. Furthermore, the behaviour of ice sheets, ice caps and glaciers is altered by changes in temperature and precipitation, particularly as regards the behaviour of water flowing", "-32.281055870465934" ], [ "typically in temperate waters 8–12 °C (46–54 °F). If sea water temperatures continue to rise, these organisms may be forced to move to deeper, cooler water.\nEach fall in Washington's Hood Canal, a habitat for many octopuses, phytoplankton and macroalgae die and create a dead zone. As these micro-organisms decompose, oxygen is used up in the process and has been measured to be as low as 2 parts per million (ppm). This is a state of hypoxia. Normal levels are measured at 7–9 ppm. Fish and octopuses move from the deep towards the shallow water for more oxygen. Females do not leave, and", "-32.252825131232385" ], [ "shelf with the average depths below 50 meters (160 ft), and the areas south from 76°N are shallower than 25 m. In the northern part, the sea bottom sharply drops to the ocean floor with the depth of the order of 1 kilometer (0.62 mi) (22% of the sea area). There it is covered with silt, which is mixed with ice in the shallow areas. Climate The climate of the Laptev Sea is Arctic continental and, owing to the remoteness from both the Atlantic and Pacific oceans, is one of the most severe among the Arctic seas. Polar night and midnight sun", "-32.22139149508439" ], [ "due to the fact that it is warming up and the glaciers from the ice age are now melting causing the sea levels to rise, which causes the ocean to take over part of the land and beaches. Glaciers are melting at an alarming rate which is causing the ocean to rise faster than predicted. Inside of this ice there are traces of bubbles that are filled with CO₂ that are then released into the atmosphere when they melt causing the greenhouse effect to grow at an even faster rate. Seafloor It is known that climate affects the ocean and", "-32.19543683233496" ], [ "Formation The formation of ice from salt water produces marked changes in the composition of the nearby unfrozen water. When water freezes, most impurities are excluded from the water crystals; even ice from seawater is relatively fresh compared with the seawater from which it is formed. As a result of forcing the impurities out, such as salt and other ions, sea ice is very porous and spongelike, quite different from the solid ice produced when fresh water freezes.\nAs the seawater freezes and salt is forced out of the pure ice crystal lattice, the surrounding water becomes more saline as concentrated", "-32.13497262017336" ], [ "the seabed, these features can be subject to small displacements, either due to thermal expansion or to the pressure exerted by the drifting pack ice onto the fast ice. Because stamukhi tend to be deeply grounded, they may occur as isolated ice features in the open sea during the summer season, after the surrounding ice has melted away.\nSince stamukhi extend downward into the seabed, they present a risk to submarine pipelines and telecommunications cables that cross the shoreline. Seabed penetration by the ice can reach a depth of 5 metres (16 ft).", "-32.09800278789771" ], [ "by deep sea organisms.\nThe downward flux of organic matter decreases sharply with depth, with 80–90% being consumed in the top 1,000 m (3,300 ft). The deep ocean thus has higher oxygen because rates of oxygen consumption are low compared with the supply of cold, oxygen-rich deep waters from polar regions. In the surface layers, oxygen is supplied by exchange with the atmosphere. Depths in between, however, have higher rates of oxygen consumption and lower rates of advective supply of oxygen-rich waters. In much of the ocean, mixing processes enable the resupply of oxygen to these waters (i.e. waters that are", "-32.00341528223362" ], [ "that terminate in the sea, including most glaciers flowing from Greenland, Antarctica, Baffin and Ellesmere Islands in Canada, Southeast Alaska, and the Northern and Southern Patagonian Ice Fields. As the ice reaches the sea, pieces break off, or calve, forming icebergs. Most tidewater glaciers calve above sea level, which often results in a tremendous impact as the iceberg strikes the water. Tidewater glaciers undergo centuries-long cycles of advance and retreat that are much less affected by the climate change than those of other glaciers. Classification by thermal state Thermally, a temperate glacier is at melting point throughout the year, from", "-31.995257980481256" ], [ "Arctic Ocean and the Southern Ocean. The Arctic Ocean covers 14,000,000 km² (5,400,000 sq mi). In the spring the ice covers an area of 5,000,000–8,000,000 km² (1,900,000–3,100,000 sq mi) and in the winter it is twice that. In this area, it is never totally ice-covered. This is due to the winds breaking up the ice. Because of these cracks in the ice there is more biological productivity in the ocean.\nThe Southern Ocean is 28,000,000 km² (11,000,000 sq mi). This ocean contains the Weddell Sea and Ross Sea. The ocean contains large packs of ice that surrounds Antarctica. Land Because of the cold weather it is hard for plants to", "-31.94739843532443" ], [ "isolated from the surface waters.\nAfter the current splits into the Svalbard Branch and the Yermak Branch, the general sinking process described above still continues in the Svalbard Branch. However, in the Yermak Branch the WSC is not able to penetrate deep inside the Arctic Ocean because the zone it enters has very strong tidal mixing. This allows the Atlantic Water to mix with the Polar Waters, creating more of a homogeneous mixture of relatively warm and moderately saline water. This extends down to about 300 meters which is recognized as the bottom depth of the Return Atlantic Current. For the", "-31.88267750979867" ], [ "Antarctic bottom water The Antarctic bottom water (AABW) is a type of water mass in the Southern Ocean surrounding Antarctica with temperatures ranging from −0.8 to 2 °C (35 °F), salinities from 34.6 to 34.7 psu. Being the densest water mass of the oceans, AABW is found to occupy the depth range below 4000 m of all ocean basins that have a connection to the Southern Ocean at that level. \nThe major significance of Antarctic bottom water is that it is the coldest bottom water, giving it a significant influence on the movement of the world's oceans. Antarctic bottom water also has a", "-31.857403996647918" ], [ "crystallization of ice from supercooled water is generally initiated by a process called nucleation. Because of the speed and size of nucleation, which occurs within nanoseconds and nanometers.\nThe surface environment does not play a decisive role in the formation of ice and snow. The density fluctuations inside drops result in that the possible freezing regions cover the middle and the surface regions. The freezing from the surface or from within may be random. However, in the strange world of water, tiny amounts of liquid water theoretically still are present, even as temperatures go below minus 48 C (minus 55 F)", "-31.841502596873397" ], [ "1,200 metres (3,900 ft) deep. The current velocity is fastest near the surface, with the maximum speed typically about 2.5 metres per second (5.6 mph). As it travels north, the warm water transported by the Gulf Stream undergoes evaporative cooling. The cooling is wind-driven: Wind moving over the water causes evaporation, cooling the water and increasing its salinity and density. When sea ice forms, salts are left out of the ice, a process known as brine exclusion. These two processes produce water that is denser and colder (or, more precisely, water that is still liquid at a lower", "-31.823749709350523" ], [ "cope with a large range of temperatures. While they are underwater, temperatures may only vary by a few degrees over the year. However, at low tide, temperatures may dip to below freezing or may become scaldingly hot, leading to a temperature range that may approach 30 °C (86 °F) during a period of a few hours. Many mobile organisms, such as snails and crabs, avoid temperature fluctuations by crawling around and searching for food at high tide and hiding in cool, moist refuges (crevices or burrows) at low tide. Besides simply living at lower tide heights, non-motile organisms may be more dependent", "-31.815696154197212" ], [ "Hydrology and climate The Beaufort Sea is frozen over through the year, except for August and September when the ice breaks near the coast and opens what was once a 50–100 km (31–62 mi) wide strip of open water. During the 2000s, due to climate change in the Arctic, the ice-free area in late summer greatly enlarged. During the record minimum extent of Arctic sea ice in September, 2012, the sea ice boundary had retreated northward much farther than normal from the coast.\nThe channels of the Mackenzie River thaw earlier, in late May–early June. This thawing increases the average water discharge from", "-31.79372517130105" ], [ "Antarctic sea ice Antarctic sea ice is the sea ice of the Southern Ocean. It extends far north in winter and retreats almost to the coastline each summer. Sea ice is frozen seawater that is usually less than a few metres thick. This is in contrast to ice shelves, which are formed by glaciers, float in the sea, and are up to a kilometer thick. There are two subdivisions of sea ice: fast ice, which is attached to land; and ice floes, which are not.\nSea ice in the Southern Ocean melts from the bottom instead of from the surface like", "-31.776668085542042" ], [ "the salinity of upper levels, often raising the freezing point of the sea surface. The distribution and thickness of ice floes depends on many factors: the location, the time of year, water currents, and the sea temperatures.\nWith the exception of Hokkaido, one of the Japanese home islands, the sea is surrounded on all sides by territory administered by the Russian Federation. Islands Some of the Sea of Okhotsk's islands are quite large, including Japan's second largest island, Hokkaido, as well as Russia's largest island, Sakhalin. Practically all of the sea's islands are either in coastal waters or belong to the", "-31.77054522486287" ], [ "furthers understanding of how both this species and the hard bottom communities it helps form, will change under warmer oceans.", "-31.739921688567847" ], [ "freeze, how much water is in the atmosphere, if water is in a liquid or crystal state, at what temperature it freezes, and whether it crystallizes from within or from the surface.\nThe freezing of nanoscale water or silicon liquid drops is initiated at a number of different distances from the centre of the droplet, providing new insights on a long-standing dispute in the field of material and chemical physics.\nWhen water is in a conventional freezer, a dynamic phase transition is triggered. The resulting ice depends on how quickly the system is cooled: If the water is cooled below its freezing", "-31.70858500729082" ], [ "the gulf freeze over in winter, but the ice is unstable. Average air temperature in January is 11 °C (52 °F), and 21 °C (70 °F) in August.\nWater temperature in the gulf ranges from −1.8 °C (28.8 °F) in January, to 21 °C (70 °F) in August. The water temperature is thus similar to arctic waters in the winter, but sub-tropical in the summer. Flora and fauna In the coastal waters there are three main vertical zones: Supralittoral zone, Intertidal zone and subtidal. The supralittoral, or splash zone, covers the area above the high tide mark; in the reserve this is mainly a region for", "-31.703506916732294" ], [ "energy; since salt is rejected from the ice as it forms, the ice increases the salinity of the ocean's surface water where it forms and decreases the salinity where it melts, both of which can affect the ocean's circulation.\nThe map at right shows the areas covered by sea ice when it is at its maximum extent (March) and its minimum extent (September). This map was made in the 1970s, and the extent of sea ice has decreased since then (see below), but this still gives a reasonable overview. At its maximum extent, in March, sea ice covers about 15 million km² (5.8 million sq mi)", "-31.692617766508192" ], [ "Winter swimming Maintaining the hole in the ice One way that the hole is maintained at regular ice swimming places is with a pump that forces the water to circulate under the hole, preventing ice from forming. Small ice-holes can also be kept open by keeping a lid/top over the hole to prevent ice forming.\nMost ice swimming places also use a specific heated \"carpet\" going from the locker rooms to the ice-hole, both to make walking to the hole more pleasant and for safety as otherwise the water dripping from returning swimmers would freeze and create a dangerously slippery surface", "-31.69139893598458" ], [ "as icebergs and may range in size from meter to kilometer scale. The very large ones, referred to as ice islands, are typically tabular in shape. These may be responsible for extreme gouging events. Sea ice Sea ice is the outcome of freezing seawater. It is porous and mechanically weaker than glacial ice. Sea ice dynamics are highly complex. Driven by winds and currents, sea ice may ultimately develop into pressure ridges, a pile-up of ice fragments, or rubble, making up long, linear features. These are a very common source of seabed gouges. Pressure ridges are often enclosed inside expanses", "-31.65935553057352" ], [ "is cold due to air-sea interactions while in the Arctic. Typical characteristics for the EGC Polar water are a temperature between 0 °C and –1.7 °C (e.g. freezing point of low-salinity sea water), and the salinity varies greatly from 30 psu (near the surface) to 34 psu at a 150-meter depth. The layer beneath the Polar Water is known as the Atlantic Water layer. It extends down to about 1000 m. This layer is defined as having relatively warm temperatures and saline waters. The temperatures are normally above 0 °C and have a salinity of 34 psu at 150 meters and it increases", "-31.651573746377835" ] ]

[ "We don't know. One theory is that it's a way of testing blood types/immune systems - someone with a more compatible blood type or immune system will \"taste\" better than someone whose blood type will cause reproductive issues. Some say it's a bonding exercise, that because it involves gazing into each other's eyes for lengthy periods of time along with extreme trust (closing of eyes and shoving a tongue into someone else's tooth-masher is a pretty trusting thing) and as such will further cement the relationship between the two. Some say we humans just like shoving our whatevers into whatever hole we can find. Bonobos also kiss. But then, they fuck as a handshake or because they get bored, so there's that.", "Check out this image of a [Sensory Homunculus]( URL_0 ). Shows how dense the nerve distribution is at the lips. It is thought that kissing on lips is a part of the sexytimes ritual since it stimulates the brain so much. There might also be a relation between the feeling of lips, tongue, saliva and sexual arousal. There are also [other explanations]( URL_1 ), most related to finding the right sexual partner. I don't buy into the immune system explanation, although it might be true. About kissing in other animals, apart from the bonobo example, I'm not sure if licking was an evolutionary precursor of kissing. Many animals lick their loved ones.", "It's the best way to share antibodies yo. That's also why moms kiss their babies. Share the anti-germs to keep the species strong and resilient.", "I always thought of it in this way... \"hey, that animal is putting their mouth on me, and isn't eating me. This is a good thing.\" Don't quote me.", "Sex is a pretty objectively disgusting thing too. Sometimes shit just feels good.", "The lips are a very sensitive part of the body, so I'm sure that has something to do with it, but I don't really know. Maybe someone can elaborate/condense what's already in the thread.", "Some people think it's a test for finding a compatible mate. You go in to kiss someone and they smell, or have bad breath or bad teeth and you know they're potential as a mate isn't that good, or in going in you sense they are sick, you're going to reject them. I would also think as you kiss and you touch each other it also signals attraction and compatibility of the two partners, or may give subtle signals that turn you off (aggressive, grabby, or maybe the other side of the spectrum and are shy or hesitant in their touch).", "It's thought to be a way of telling the major histamine complex of a potential mate. We're thought to look for mates with varying, and different histamine complexes than our own, as further assurance that your young would have a better immune system, and thus a better chance at survival.", "In long term pair-bonding your immune systems clearly \"grow together\". Kissing seems like a pretty good way to urge that process along.", "Now that is a real 5 year old question.", "It's actually good for your health, as it releases serotonin and dopamine during the session (both of which are known to make you all around happier and calmer), depending on how pleasurable it is. However, I do not know where the instinct came from. Perhaps the want of a good feeling mixed with general foreplay arousal, which would lead to a want of escalation?", "I also heard that saliva contains trace amounts of testosterone (responsible in part to our sex drives) so putting saliva in someone else's mouth gets them all ready to the dirty.", "To exchange long protein strings. If you can think of a simpler way, I'd like to hear it." ]

[ [ "Kiss A kiss is the touch or pressing of one's lips against another person or an object. Cultural connotations of kissing vary widely. Depending on the culture and context, a kiss can express sentiments of love, passion, romance, sexual attraction, sexual activity, sexual arousal, affection, respect, greeting, friendship, peace, and good luck, among many others. In some situations, a kiss is a ritual, formal or symbolic gesture indicating devotion, respect, or sacrament. The word came from Old English cyssan (\"to kiss \"), in turn from coss (\"a kiss\"). History Anthropologists are divided into two schools on the origins of", "-32.035836908798956" ], [ "Kissing traditions Many societies have traditions which involve kissing. Kissing can indicate joy or be used as part of a greeting. Kissing involves the touching of one's lips to the lips or other body part, such as the cheek, head or hand of another person. Sometimes people often kiss their friends and or best friends as a way of giving luck or even showing feelings Greetings In the Western world, a kiss is a common gesture of greeting, and at times a kiss is expected. Throughout all cultures people greet one another as a sign of recognition, affection, friendship and", "-31.818867014866555" ], [ "kiss is the last tender proof of love bestowed on one we have loved, and was believed, in ancient times, to follow mankind to the nether world.\"\nKissing on the lips can be a physical expression of affection or love between two people in which the sensations of touch, taste, and smell are involved. According to the psychologist Menachem Brayer, although many \"mammals, birds, and insects exchange caresses\" which appear to be kisses of affection, they are not kisses in the human sense.\nSurveys indicate that kissing is the second most common form of physical intimacy among United States adolescents (after holding", "-31.585067036226974" ], [ "sexes.\" In guilds, for example, it was customary for the members to greet each other \"with hearty handshakes and smacking kisses,\" and, on the conclusion of a meal, people thanked and kissed both their hosts and hostesses. Cultural significance In approximately 10% of the world population, kissing does not take place, for a variety of reasons, including that they find it dirty or because of superstitious reasons. For example, in parts of Sudan it is believed that the mouth is the portal to the soul, so they do not want to invite death or have their spirit taken. Psychology professor", "-31.344932462088764" ], [ "hands), and that about 85% of 15 to 16-year-old adolescents in the US have experienced it. Kiss on the lips The kiss on the lips can be performed between two friends or family. This move aims to express affection for a friend. Unlike kissing for love, a friendly kiss has no sexual connotation. The kiss on the lips is a practice that can be found in the time of Patriarchs (Bible). In Ancient Greece, the kiss on the mouth was used to express a concept of equality between people of the same rank. In the Middle Ages, the kiss of", "-31.173577023891994" ], [ "for emotion and passion to be passed from one partner to another, without involving the eyes of those around them like other public displays of affection would.\nHowever, it has been argued that the act of kissing a persons forehead is not romantic. Instead such an act is purely neutral and should not be used when trying to transfer feelings of emotion, lust, love, or so on. It's been said to lack certain qualities that make other kisses more romantic and therefore should not be thought of as a gesture for expressing non-platonic love. It is even stated that the kiss", "-30.80333044190411" ], [ "...\" Kiss as ritual Throughout history, a kiss has been a ritual, formal, symbolic or social gesture indicating devotion, respect or greeting. It appears as a ritual or symbol of religious devotion. For example, in the case of kissing a temple floor, or a religious book or icon. Besides devotion, a kiss has also indicated subordination or, nowadays, respect.\nIn modern times the practice continues, as in the case of a bride and groom kissing at the conclusion of a wedding ceremony or national leaders kissing each other in greeting, and in many other situations. Religion A kiss in a religious", "-30.368491203451413" ], [ "mouth kissing is often reserved for sexual foreplay. In some tribal cultures the \"equivalent for our 'kiss me' is 'smell me.'\"\nThe kiss can be an important expression of love and erotic emotions. In his book The Kiss and its History, Kristoffer Nyrop describes the kiss of love as an \"exultant message of the longing of love, love eternally young, the burning prayer of hot desire, which is born on the lovers' lips, and 'rises,' as Charles Fuster has said, 'up to the blue sky from the green plains,' like a tender, trembling thank-offering.\" Nyrop adds that the love kiss, \"rich", "-30.288878486947397" ], [ "William Cane notes that kissing in Western society is often a romantic act and describes a few of its attributes:\nIt's not hard to tell when two people are in love. Maybe they're trying to hide it from the world, still they cannot conceal their inner excitement. Men will give themselves away by a certain excited trembling in the muscles of the lower jaw upon seeing their beloved. Women will often turn pale immediately of seeing their lover and then get slightly red in the face as their sweetheart draws near. This is the effect of physical closeness upon two people", "-30.219376809940286" ], [ "Christians, kissing did not have a romantic connotation and it was common for Christians to kiss their fellow believers as a way of greeting. This tradition is still practiced in many Christian congregations today and is known as the \"kiss of peace\". Ehrman explains that, in the context of the Gospel of Philip, the kiss of peace is used as a symbol for the passage of truth from one person to another and that it is not in any way an act of \"divine foreplay\". Gospel of Mary The Gospel of Mary is the only surviving gospel named after a", "-29.854782516064006" ], [ "extended period, usually accompanied with an embrace, it is an expression of romantic and sexual desire. The practice of kissing with an open mouth, to allow the other to suck their lips or move their tongue into their mouth, is called French kissing. \"Making out\" is often an adolescent's first experience of their sexuality and games which involve kissing, such as Spin the Bottle, facilitate the experience. People may kiss children on the forehead to comfort them or the cheek or lips to show affection.\nIn modern Eastern culture, the etiquette vary depending on the region. In West Asia, kissing on", "-29.82662638303009" ], [ "\"It is through kisses that a knowledge of life and happiness first comes to us. Runeberg says that the angels rejoice over the first kiss exchanged by lovers,\" and can keep one feeling young: \"It carries life with it; it even bestows the gift of eternal youth.\" The importance of the lover's kiss can also be significant, he notes: \"In the case of lovers a kiss is everything; that is the reason why a man stakes his all for a kiss,\" and \"man craves for it as his noblest reward.\"\nAs a result, kissing as an expression of love is contained", "-29.638308956549736" ], [ "Kiss of friendship The kiss is also commonly used in American and European culture as a salutation between friends or acquaintances. The friendly kiss until recent times usually occurred only between ladies, but today it is also common between men and women, especially if there is a great difference in age. According to Nyrop, up until the 20th century, \"it seldom or never takes place between men, with the exception, however, of royal personages,\" although he notes that in former times the \"friendly kiss was very common with us between man and man as well as between persons of opposite", "-29.451984964456642" ], [ "Nyrop identified a number of types of kisses, including kisses of love, affection, peace, respect, and friendship. He notes, however, that the categories are somewhat contrived and overlapping, and some cultures have more kinds, including the French with twenty and the Germans with thirty. Expression of affection Kissing another person's lips has become a common expression of affection or warm greeting in many cultures worldwide. Yet in certain cultures, kissing was introduced only through European settlement, before which it was not a routine occurrence. Such cultures include certain indigenous peoples of Australia, the Tahitians, and many tribes in Africa.\nA kiss", "-29.297865128944977" ], [ "status. They do not speak; rather, equals kiss each other on the mouth, and in the case where one is a little inferior to the other, the kiss is given on the cheek.\nDuring the later Classical period, affectionate mouth-to-mouth kissing was first described in the Hindu epic the Mahabharata.\nAcademics who have studied it say kissing spread slowly to other parts of the world after Alexander the Great and his army conquered parts of Punjab in northern India in 326 BC.\nThe Romans helped to spread the habit to most of Europe and North Africa. The Romans were passionate about kissing and", "-29.154726079104876" ], [ "by actually kissing, or faked by using the thumbs as a barrier for the lips and turning so the audience is unable to fully see the act.\nSome literature suggests that a significant percentage of humanity does not kiss. It has been claimed that in Sub-Saharan African, Asiatic, Polynesian and possibly in some Native American cultures, kissing was relatively unimportant until European colonization. Historically however, the culture of kissing is thought to have begun and spread from the Eastern World, specifically India.\nWith the Andamanese, kissing was only used as a sign of affection towards children and had no sexual undertones.\nIn traditional", "-29.078234810265712" ], [ "cheek kissing is a universal form of greeting between a man and a woman or two women.\nIt is not necessary to know a person well or be intimate with them to kiss them on the cheek. When introduced to someone new by a mutual acquaintance in social settings, it is customary to greet him or her with a cheek kiss if the person being introduced to them is a member of the opposite sex or if a woman is introduced to another woman. If the person is a complete stranger, i.e. self-introductions, no kissing is done. A cheek kiss", "-29.004914524557535" ], [ "custom, while in others a kiss on each cheek is the norm, or even three or four kisses on alternating cheeks. In the United States, an air kiss is becoming more common. This involves kissing in the air near the cheek, with the cheeks touching or not. After a first date, it is common for the couple to give each other a quick kiss on the cheek (or lips where that is the norm) on parting, to indicate that a good time was had and perhaps to indicate an interest in another meeting.\nA symbolic kiss is frequent in Western cultures.", "-28.79823739058338" ], [ "talked about several types of kissing. Kissing the hand or cheek was called an osculum. Kissing on the lips with mouth closed was called a basium, which was used between relatives. A kiss of passion was called a suavium.\nKissing was not always an indication of eros, or love, but also could show respect and rank as it was used in Medieval Europe.\nThe study of kissing started sometime in the nineteenth century and is called philematology, which has been studied by people including Cesare Lombroso, Ernest Crawley, Charles Darwin, Edward Burnett Tylor and modern scholars such as Elaine Hatfield. Types Kristoffer", "-28.592467605230922" ], [ "reached a conclusion as to whether kissing is learned or a behavior from instinct. It may be related to grooming behavior also seen between other animals, or arising as a result of mothers premasticating food for their children. Non-human primates also exhibit kissing behavior. Dogs, cats, birds and other animals display licking, nuzzling, and grooming behavior among themselves, and also towards humans or other species. This is sometimes interpreted by observers as a type of kissing.\nKissing in humans is postulated to have evolved from the direct mouth-to-mouth regurgitation of food (kiss-feeding) from parent to offspring or male to female (courtship", "-28.41477875658893" ], [ "when dating for a time a kiss should be a \"clean, decent, sexless one like the kiss between a mother and son\". He also stated that kissing during casual dating is \"asking for trouble\" and that kisses should not be \"handed out like pretzels\". Apostle Richard Scott advised that physical expressions of romantic feelings between unmarried individuals should be kept to \"those that are comfortable in the presence of your parents\". Erotic touch Church leaders have also condemned erotic touching outside of heterosexual marriage using terms like \"necking\" for general kissing and stroking of areas outside of the breasts, buttocks,", "-28.380881969089387" ], [ "kissing, one believing that it is instinctual and intuitive and the other that it evolved from what is known as kiss feeding, a process used by mothers to feed their infants by passing chewed food to their babies' mouths.\nThe earliest reference to kissing-like behavior comes from the Vedas, Sanskrit scriptures that informed Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism, around 3,500 years ago, according to Vaughn Bryant, an anthropologist at Texas A&M University who specializes in the history of the kiss.\nBoth lip and tongue kissing are mentioned in Sumerian poetry:\nMy lips are too small, they know not to kiss.\nMy precious sweet, lying by", "-28.329190220599685" ], [ "way to work realizes that the world is kissing and that the act is totally contagious if one looks around.", "-28.28754591869074" ], [ "peace was recommended by the Catholic Church. The kiss on the lips was also common among knights. The gesture has again become popular with young people, particularly in England. Romantic kiss In many cultures, it is considered a harmless custom for teenagers to kiss on a date or to engage in kissing games with friends. These games serve as icebreakers at parties and may be some participants' first exposure to sexuality. There are many such games, including Truth or Dare?, Seven Minutes in Heaven (or the variation \"Two Minutes in the Closet\"), Spin the Bottle, Post Office, and Wink.\nThe psychologist", "-28.069948303324054" ], [ "may be accompanied by a hug or another sign of physical affection. In business settings, the cheek kiss is not always standard upon introduction, but once a relationship is established, it is common practice.\nAs with other regions, cheek kissing may be lips-to-cheek or cheek-to-cheek with a kiss in the air, the latter being more common.\nIn the Southern Cone countries of Argentina, Chile and Uruguay it is common (almost standard) between male friends to kiss \"a la italiana\", i.e. football players kiss each other to congratulate or to greet.\nAs in Southern Europe, in Argentina and Uruguay men kissing men is", "-27.966851485602092" ], [ "reverence. Depending on the occasion and the culture, a greeting may take the form of a handshake, hug, bow, nod, nose rub, a kiss on the lips with the mouth closed or a kiss or kisses on the cheek. Cheek kissing is most common in Europe and Latin America and has become a standard greeting in Latin Europe.\nWhile cheek kissing is a common greeting in many cultures, each country has a unique way of kissing. In Slovenia, Croatia, Serbia, Macedonia, Montenegro, Russia, the Netherlands, Switzerland, Poland and Lebanon, it is customary to “kiss three times, on alternate cheeks.” Italians and", "-27.870065551214793" ], [ "organizers of the public kiss-in that took place in October 12, 2013, to support three teenagers arrested for posting a picture of themselves kissing on Facebook. The protesters were confronted by onlookers as they kissed and chanted \"Long live love\". The kissing case has sparked uproar online, with citizens protesting against what they see as creeping conservatism in the Muslim country long known for being relatively liberal and tolerant. \nIn an interview with France 24 about the kiss-in, she said: “For us, the message got through. It was a success. There were couples and single people, and the couples were", "-27.77885589062862" ], [ "kiss in some Muslim-majority societies governed by religious law. In Islamic republic of Iran, a man who kisses or touches a woman who is not his wife or relative can be punished such as getting whipped up to 100 times or even go to jail. East Asia Donald Richie comments that in Japan, as in China, although kissing took place in erotic situations, in public \"the kiss was invisible\", and the \"touching of the lips never became the culturally encoded action it has for so long been in Europe and America.\" The early Edison film, The Widow Jones – the May", "-27.729285573981542" ], [ "is kiss, because when two guys kiss it's like a bomb going off in the straight world. Our kisses are louder than bombs.\" Spencer admits that he has fallen in love with India but is terrified because he's losing control. But he also feels safe, like he's home. India tells him that wherever they are, as long as they are together they're home. They kiss, and with each kiss they call out a target that their kiss has destroyed like a bomb, finally declaring that they will blow up the whole straight world. Critical response FAQs was generally poorly received", "-27.6586550868451" ], [ "first time. A man and a woman could cheek kiss each other for greeting without sexual connotations only if they are good friends or depending on the circle, the setting, and the location like in big cities.\nCheek kissing in Iran is relatively common between friends and family. Cheek kissing between individuals of the same sex is considered normal. However, cheek kissing between male and female in public is considered to be a punishable crime by the government, but it is known to occur among some young Iranians.\nIn 2014, Leila Hatami, a famous Iranian actress, kissed the president of Cannes Gilles", "-27.609573849855224" ], [ "Cheek kissing is acceptable between parents and children, family members (though not often two adult males), couples, two female friends or a male friend and a female friend. Cheek kissing between two men who are not a couple is unusual but socially acceptable if both men are happy to take part. Cheek kissing is associated with the middle and upper classes, as they are more influenced by French culture. This behaviour was traditionally seen as a French practice. Southeast Asia In the Philippines, cheek kissing or beso (also beso-beso, from the Spanish for \"kiss\") is a common greeting. The Philippine", "-27.601957269376726" ], [ "can also be used to express feelings without an erotic element but can be nonetheless \"far deeper and more lasting\", writes Nyrop. He adds that such kisses can be expressive of love \"in the widest and most comprehensive meaning of the word, bringing a message of loyal affection, gratitude, compassion, sympathy, intense joy, and profound sorrow.\"\nNyrop writes that the most common example is the \"intense feeling which knits parents to their offspring\", but he adds that kisses of affection are not only common between parents and children, but also between other members of the same family, which can include those", "-27.539324274872342" ], [ "Kiss of peace The kiss of peace is an ancient traditional Christian greeting, sometimes also called the \"holy kiss\", \"brother kiss\" (among men), or \"sister kiss\" (among women). Such greetings signify a wish and blessing that peace be with the recipient, and besides their spontaneous uses they have certain ritualized or formalized uses long established in liturgy. Many denominations use other forms of greeting (besides literal kisses) to serve equivalent purposes; they include handshakes, gestures, and hugs, any of which may be called a sign of peace. In the Church The practice remains a part of the worship in traditional", "-27.517923200641235" ], [ "Irwin-John Rice Kiss (1896), created a sensation when it was shown in Tokyo, and people crowded to view the enormity. Likewise, Rodin's sculpture The Kiss was not displayed in Japan until after the Pacific War. Also, in the 1900s, Manchu tribes along the Amur River regarded public kissing with revulsion. In a similar situation in Chinese tradition, when Chinese men saw Western women kissing men in public, they thought the women were prostitutes. Contemporary practices In modern Western culture, kissing on the lips is commonly an expression of affection or a warm greeting. When lips are pressed together for an", "-27.31055431993491" ], [ "have boatloads of chemistry with someone else.\" On the kiss itself, Dohring noted, \"It was so funny, as an actor, to kiss this girl. I was all nervous beforehand. But you have to just let it go for the scene. It was so fun to watch [later when it aired],\" adding that \"a lot of that emotion was real for me.\" The song \"Momentary Thing\" by band Something Happens plays during Veronica and Logan's first kiss.\nSeries creator Rob Thomas, was not content with the kiss scene, writing that it was not how he envisioned it. \"I wasn't actually pleased with", "-27.221496870508417" ], [ "Elaine Hatfield noted that \"kissing was far from universal and even seen as improper by many societies.\" Despite kissing being widespread, in some parts of the world it still is taboo to kiss publicly and is often banned in films or in other media. South Asia On-screen lip-kissing was not a regular occurrence in Bollywood until the 1990s, although it has been present from the time of the inception of Bollywood. This can appear contradictory since the culture of kissing is believed to have originated and spread from India. West Asia There are also taboos as to whom one can", "-27.19119812900317" ], [ "be vastly inappropriate. The gesture is short, lasting less than a second.\nHand-kissing has become rare and is mostly restricted to the conservative upper class or diplomats.\nIn Turkey, Malaysia, Indonesia, Somalia, and Brunei, hand-kissing is a common way to greet elder people of both genders, primarily the closest relatives (both parents, grandparents, and uncles or aunts) and teachers. Occasionally, after kissing the hand, the greeter will draw the hand to his own forehead. In the Philippines, the gesture evolved into just touching the hand to the forehead.\nIn Southern Italy, especially Sicily, the verbal greeting \"I kiss the hands.\" (Italian: \"Bacio le", "-27.16997776008793" ], [ "man to kiss. The lady offering her hand was expected to be of the same or higher social status than the man. It was a gesture of courtesy and extreme politeness, and it was considered impolite and even rude to refuse an offered hand. Today, the practice is very uncommon in Northern European countries, and has been largely replaced by a kiss on the cheek or a handshake.\nToday, the hand-kiss is sometimes used as a romantic gesture, usually in parting and usually initiated by a man. It could be used to convey a feeling of a more traditional and emotional", "-27.023626588510524" ], [ "kiss is by clinking their glasses. An ancient Christian tradition explains that the clinking sound scares the devil away and the couple kisses in his absence. Another tradition is to ring bells placed at the tables by the wedding party. A ring of the bell signals the bride and groom to kiss. Kissing songs Child and teenage culture includes a number of simple songs about kissing, love and romance, with some revolving around heartbreak and others focussing on enduring love. One of the most famous songs is a children’s song often used to tease other children who are thought to", "-27.00258735578973" ], [ "who are in love.\nRomantic kissing in Western cultures is a fairly recent development and is rarely mentioned even in ancient Greek literature. In the Middle Ages it became a social gesture and was considered a sign of refinement of the upper classes. Other cultures have different definitions and uses of kissing, notes Brayer. In China, for example, a similar expression of affection consists of rubbing one's nose against the cheek of another person. In other Eastern cultures kissing is not common. In South East Asian countries the \"sniff kiss\" is the most common form of affection and Western mouth to", "-26.9969908907442" ], [ "Islamic cultures kissing is not permitted between a man and woman who are not married or closely related by blood or marriage. A kiss on the cheek is a very common form of greeting among members of the same sex in most Islamic countries, much like the south European pattern. Biology and evolution Within the natural world of animals there are numerous analogies to kissing, notes Crawley, such as \"the billing of birds, the cataglottism of pigeons and the antennal play of some insects.\" Even among mammals such as the dog, cat and bear, similar behavior is noted.\nAnthropologists have not", "-26.91002954164287" ], [ "most of the Western world, such as Europe, Australia, New Zealand, Canada and the United States, it is very common to see people holding hands, hugging and sometimes kissing in public. It is not usually socially acceptable to be overly explicit, such as engaging in sexual activities. Kissing is more commonly seen in adult night-life, such as nightclubs. Northern Manchuria Mothers from the Manchu minority ethnic group, as only researched in the 1900s in Aigun of Northern Manchuria where the researcher S. M. Shirokogoroff personally believed the Manchu element were \"purer\" than those of Southern Manchuria and Peking, used to", "-26.9067760904436" ], [ "people are kissing.", "-26.80143611173844" ], [ "actions, feelings that had been considered strictly private. Since Pearl Harbor, Americans had felt that the Japanese were \"sneaky\", claiming that \"if Japanese kissed in private, they should do it in public too.\" Non-sexual kisses In some Western cultures it is considered good luck to kiss someone on Christmas or on New Year's Eve, especially beneath a sprig of mistletoe. Newlyweds usually kiss at the end of a wedding ceremony.\nFemale friends and relations and close acquaintances commonly offer reciprocal kisses on the cheek as a greeting or farewell.\nWhere cheek kissing is used, in some countries a single kiss is the", "-26.787318840400985" ], [ "(Québécois) as un bec (\"donner un bec\") or la bise (\"faire la bise\"). Whether francophone or other, people of the opposite sex often kiss once on each cheek. Cheek kissing between women is also very common, although men will often refrain. Two people introduced by a mutual friend may also give each other un bec.\nImmigrant groups tend to have their own norms for cheek kissing, usually carried over from their native country. In Miami, Florida, an area heavily influenced by Latin American and European immigrants, kissing hello on the cheek is the social norm. Latin America In Latin America,", "-26.78081716287852" ], [ "European countries, kissing a stranger on the cheek constitutes a proscriptive norm in the United States. Subjective Subjective norm is determined by beliefs about the extent to which important others want them to perform a behavior. Social influences are conceptualized in terms of the pressure that people perceive from important others to perform, or not to perform, a behavior. Mathematical representations Over the last few decades, several theorists have attempted to explain social norms from a more theoretical point of view. By quantifying behavioral expectations graphically or attempting to plot the logic behind adherence, theorists hoped to be able", "-26.776799989660503" ], [ "context is common. In earlier periods of Christianity or Islam kissing became a ritual gesture, and is still treated as such in certain customs, as when \"kissing... relics, or a bishop's ring.\" In Judaism, the kissing of the Torah scroll, a prayer book, and a prayer shawl is also common. Crawley notes that it was \"very significant of the affectionate element in religion\" to give so important a part to the kiss as part of its ritual. In the early Church the baptized were kissed by the celebrant after the ceremony, and its use was even extended as a salute", "-26.704977294633863" ], [ "feel affection toward each other:\n[name] and [name] sitting in a tree\n\nK-I-S-S-I-N-G\n\nFirst comes love, then comes marriage\n\nThen comes a baby in a baby carriage Kissing in Christianity Kissing out of honor, respect, and even forgiveness is a tradition that is incorporated into many Christian denominations. The kissing of icons, painted images of Jesus and the saints, is the primary form of veneration in Orthodox Christianity. Veneration of the holy images is an ancient custom dating back to the 5th and 6th centuries, and is still practiced today in Orthodox Christian worship. Through veneration, Orthodox Christians show reverence for the people and", "-26.680868835916044" ], [ "customary in many regions to only have kisses between women and women, but not men and women, who only shake hands or hug (more familiar) instead.\nAlthough cheek kissing is not as widely practiced in the United Kingdom or Ireland as in other parts of Europe, it is still common. Generally, a kiss on one cheek is common, while a kiss on each cheek is also practiced by some depending on relation or reason. It is mostly used as a greeting and/or a farewell, but can also be offered as a congratulation or as a general declaration of friendship or love.", "-26.66318170836894" ], [ "grave and solemn moments,\" notes Nyrop, \"not only among those who love each other, but also as an expression of profound gratitude. When the Apostle Paul took leave of the elders of the congregation at Ephesus, \"they all wept sore, and fell on Paul's neck and kissed him\" (Acts 20:37). Kisses can also be exchanged between total strangers, as when there is a profound sympathy with or the warmest interest in another person.\nFolk poetry has been the source of affectionate kisses where they sometimes played an important part, as when they had the power to cast off spells or to", "-26.654705704480875" ], [ "in, causing the loved one's skin or hair to be suctioned against the nose and upper lip. A common misconception is that the practice arose so that Inuit could kiss without their mouths freezing together. Rather, it is a non-erotic but intimate greeting used by people who, when they meet outside, often have little except their nose and eyes exposed. \nThe greeting was described in reports of a group of Alaska Native people touring the United States with entrepreneur Miner W. Bruce in the 1890s: \"Mr. Bruce yesterday instructed Kerlungner and Wearner that in this country they should not rub", "-26.63430366042303" ], [ "campaign have been posting pictures of them kissing on social networking sites.", "-26.610823837138014" ], [ "kiss, planning instead of making the award hosts humorously say that \"we've seen it before\" and make the camera pan out. Sandvik Moe and Holm told Norwegian press afterwards that they did not expect it, but described the scenario as \"we're used to it\", with reference to kissing as a frequently requested activity between them at parties they'd both attended in the past.\nSandvik Moe also appeared at Oslo Pride on 1 July 2017, with Skam co-star Carl Martin Eggesbø and producer Marianne Furevold-Boland, to accept the \"Fryd\" award for persons or organizations that break the norms in gender and sexuality", "-26.57304663641844" ], [ "cheek kiss is a cheek-to-cheek kiss, not a lips-to-cheek kiss. The cheek kiss is usually made once (right cheek to right cheek), either between two women, or between a woman and a man. Amongst the upper classes, it is a common greeting among adults who are friends, while for the rest of the population, however, the gesture is generally reserved for relatives. Filipinos who are introduced to each other for the first time do not cheek kiss unless they are related.\nIn certain communities in Indonesia, notably the Manado or Minahasa people, kissing on the cheeks (twice) is normal among relatives,", "-26.48344549018657" ], [ "French kiss In English informal speech, a French kiss, also known as a deep kiss, is an amorous kiss in which the participants' tongues extend to touch each other's lips or tongue. A \"kiss with the tongue\" stimulates the partner's lips, tongue and mouth, which are sensitive to the touch and induce physiological sexual arousal. The oral zone is one of the principal erogenous zones of the body. The implication is of a slow, passionate kiss which is considered intimate, romantic, erotic or sexual. The sensation when two tongues touch, also known as \"tongue touching\", has been proven to", "-26.471252844745322" ], [ "but a holy one.\n\nTo avoid the holy kiss because it is not politically-correct, or socially acceptable means that we place more importance on pleasing men than pleasing God. Jesus made it perfectly clear that we should not place the approval of man before the approval of God. And to assert that a handshake or hug may be substituted for the holy kiss is adding to the Word of God.\n— Apostolic Christian Church", "-26.447452724460163" ], [ "but that she herself was not. \"I feel much safer with girls, so I felt more comfortable kissing [Seyfried] than kissing any of the other people that I had to kiss\", she said. Seyfried's uneasiness in the scene caused \"giggling fits\" between takes. Seyfried said that neither of them wanted to do the kiss because they felt it was just for promotional purposes. She agreed with Fox that she was uneasy about acting out the scene. \"It was my first time doing a real kissing scene with a woman\", she stated. \"It is just weird. It is a woman. With", "-26.331945572586847" ], [ "stimulate endorphin release and reduce acute stress levels. French kissing is often described as ‘1st base’, and is used by many as an indicator of what stage a relationship has reached. Etymology A French kiss is so called because at the beginning of the 20th century, in the English-speaking world, the French had acquired a reputation for more adventurous and passionate sex practices. It originated in America and Great Britain. In France, it is referred to as un baiser amoureux (\"a lover's kiss\") or un baiser avec la langue (\"a kiss with the tongue\"), even if in past times it", "-26.197558144645882" ], [ "human kisses (e.g. French kiss); in the former, the tongue is used to push food from mother to child with the child receiving both the mother's food and tongue in sucking movements, and the latter simply forgoes the premasticated food. In fact, observations across various species and cultures confirms that the act of kissing and premastication have most likely evolved from the similar relationship-based feeding behaviours. History and culture Written records of premastication have been found in Ancient Egypt, though the practice likely extends back into prehistoric times to non-human ancestors. For instance, in the Ancient Egyptian Ebers medical papyrus,", "-26.087684418940626" ], [ "the worst about... Reading Kiss Kiss is one of the first times I can remember a real-life truth staring back at me from a book. I hadn't yet thought about the nasty tricks adults play on each other just to hurt each other. Particularly, married adults who aren't in love and who might know the others weakness best. My imagination matured.\"", "-26.040999647200806" ], [ "that they were \"just kissing\"", "-25.856684163038153" ], [ "ordinary cheek kissing between world leaders. For example, it is traditional for the President of France to greet world leaders by kissing them on both cheeks. This is not a socialist fraternal kiss because there are only two kisses, and it carries no ideological meaning. It is practiced by Gaullist presidents as well as Socialist presidents. In popular culture The fraternal kiss became famous via Erich Honecker and Leonid Brezhnev, who were photographed exercising the ritual. The photograph became widespread and it was subsequently reproduced into a graffiti painting on the Berlin Wall named My God, Help Me to", "-25.85049766478187" ], [ "interview with the Library of Congress. She went on to say, \"I felt he was very strong, he was just holding me tight, and I'm not sure I -- about the kiss because, you know, it was just somebody really celebrating. But it wasn't a romantic event. It was just an event of thank God the war is over kind of thing,\" adding that \"it wasn't my choice to be kissed. The guy just came over and kissed or grabbed.\" \"I did not see him approaching, and before I know it I was in this tight grip,\" Friedman told CBS", "-25.744183795060962" ], [ "kiss she sees her entire future with her lover. The ballad \"Where Are You Now\" talks about wanting to know where a previous love is, and what that person is up to, so that she can finally let them go and find closure. Lines on \"Can't Make You Love Me\", a Europop song, state that fancy cars and money pale in comparison to true love, with Spears singing: \"I'm just a girl with a crush on you.\" The mid-tempo, synth-backed \"When Your Eyes Say It\", written by songwriter Diane Warren, combines a string section with a loping hip hop beat,", "-25.742597087286413" ], [ "presents twenty-six forms of kisses, ranging from those appropriate for showing respect and affection, to those during foreplay and sex. Vatsyayana also mentions variations in kissing cultures in different parts of ancient India. The best kiss for an intimate partner, according to kamasutra, is one that is based on the awareness of the avastha (the emotional state of one's partner) when the two are not in a sexual union. During sex, the text recommends going with the flow and mirroring with abhiyoga and samprayoga.\nOther techniques of foreplay and sexual intimacy described in the kamasutra include various forms of holding and", "-25.632435922627337" ], [ "woman's presented hand (usually the right) with his right hand and kiss it while bowing. In cases of a low degree of intimacy, the hand is held but not kissed. The ultra-formal style, with the man's right knee on the floor, is now only used in marriage proposals, as a romantic gesture.\nCheek kissing is common in Europe and Latin America and has become a standard greeting mainly in Southern Europe but also in some Central European countries.\nWhile cheek kissing is a common greeting in many cultures, each country has a unique way of kissing. In Russia, Poland, Slovenia, Serbia, Macedonia,", "-25.59555758924398" ], [ "pastime of kissing creates turmoil on the red planet.\"", "-25.566636712472246" ], [ "A kiss can be \"blown\" to another by kissing the fingertips and then blowing the fingertips, pointing them in the direction of the recipient. This is used to convey affection, usually when parting or when the partners are physically distant but can view each other. Blown kisses are also used when a person wishes to convey affection to a large crowd or audience. The term flying kiss is used in India to describe a blown kiss. In written correspondence a kiss has been represented by the letter \"X\" since at least 1763. A stage or screen kiss may be performed", "-25.532135336594365" ], [ "to come. You can't tell when they're running toward each other if they're gonna kiss or they're gonna hug or they're gonna hit each other. It's a bunch of different emotions.\" Reception The video was nominated in the category of Best Pop Video at the 2004 MTV Video Music Awards. The song won her a TMF Award in the Fake ID Category, and assisted her in winning the 2004 World Music Award for Best New Artist. Chart performance The song debuted on the Billboard Hot 100 chart of February 28, 2004, at number 53, and eventually peaked at number 35.", "-25.419949911505682" ], [ "love--it is a price they are not willing to pay. So many arguments have been conjured up to enable many denominations to quickly rationalize the holy kiss away.\nAmazingly, this line of thinking has even found its way into some of our English Bibles! Specifically, authors of some paraphrased versions of the Bible have chosen to replace the words \"holy kiss\" in their versions of the Bible with the words \"handshake\" or \"hug\" (if you don't find the holy kiss in your Bible, that's why). It is a terrible thing that authors of these Bible versions found some words in the", "-25.300749052241372" ], [ "instance, Cheek kissing is a very common method of greeting in Latin America, but among Europeans it is an uncommon form of greeting. Different cultures have different display rules, the degree with which emotions are expressed. Cultural display rules also affect the degree to which individuals share their personal space, gaze and physical contact during interactions. In a High contact culture, such as South America, Latin America, Southern Europe, Africa, Russia, the Middle East and others, people tend to share more physical contact. High contact cultures communicate through long gazes, long hugs, and share a decrease", "-25.285712893863092" ], [ "It's the network brass more than television series writers and producers who have reinforced society's negative attitudes toward public displays of affection between gay and lesbian couples by treating same-sex kissing as a taboo subject.\" Tropiano wondered now that Lena and Bianca had kissed if they would kiss again or go beyond that in regards to physical intimacy; he felt that it was not likely until society, or at least, television, began to regard a same-sex kiss as just a kiss.\nWhen asked if soap opera fans were ready for the kiss, Riegel stated, \"I know that on the (Internet) message", "-25.18941318866564" ], [ "to several studies, one of which examined touching in coffee houses. During a one-hour sitting 180 touchings were observed for Puerto Ricans, 110 for French, none for English and 2 for Americans. (Harper, 297). In order to know if someone was touching more frequently than normal it would be necessary to first know what is normal in that culture. In high touch countries a kiss on the cheek is considered a polite greeting while in Sweden it may be considered presumptuous. Jandt relates that two men holding hands will in some countries be a sign of friendly affection, whereas in", "-25.18215772602707" ], [ "including males.\nIn parts of Central, South, and East Asia with predominantly Buddhist or Hindu cultures, or in cultures heavily influenced by these two religions, cheek kissing is largely uncommon and may be considered offensive, although its instances are now growing. Middle East Cheek kissing in Israel is widely common. It is typical for individuals to cheek kiss twice (one time on each cheek) when greeting and when saying goodbye, regardless of gender. It consists of cheek to cheek contact and the sound of a kiss to the air.\nCheek kissing in the Arab world is relatively common, between friends and relatives.", "-25.115180814435007" ], [ "Are You Gonna Kiss Me or Not Content \"Are You Gonna Kiss Me or Not\" is a country love song. In the first verse, the song's male narrator describes sitting with his love interest and talking, and being caught off guard when she says to him 'are you gonna kiss me or not?' In the second verse he describes the kiss favorably, and decides to take a chance and ask for her hand in marriage. The song's bridge describes the events of the couple getting married, and him lifting up her veil before asking her 'are you gonna kiss me", "-25.111490924791724" ], [ "kissing each other.", "-25.08469940217219" ], [ "him in a Tokyo park, holding his hand and kissed him in public; at the time, kissing in public and couples holding hands in Japan were considered to be deeply immoral acts that no decent person should ever engage in, and many people in the park chided the couple for their behavior. Later that same day, when Ōsugi met Ichiko, he told her that he had kissed a woman in public for the first time in his entire life, which, as the woman in question was not Ichiko, caused a very heated scene. Itō, who was hoping to see Ōsugi", "-25.08140972612364" ], [ "Forehead kiss A forehead kiss is a social kissing gesture to indicate friendship and/or to denote comforting someone. A forehead kiss is a sign of adoration and affection. In some Arabic cultures, the forehead kiss is a gesture of apology as well as a sign of acknowledgment of grievance on the part of the person being kissed. Other regions where the forehead kiss has been noted is in Kurdish societies wherein it is usually the older person kissing the younger person on the forehead. Likewise, the forehead kiss is a more acceptable, and subtle, public display of affection. It allows", "-25.05290781228541" ], [ "such as Denmark, Germany, Italy, Mexico and Sweden. \n\"Kiss Kiss\" was written by Chris Brown and T-Pain, and produced by the latter. In an interview with Shaheem Reed from MTV News, Brown stated that the first version, which he intended to make a little more adult, was rejected. He said the original line, \" She's chunky, chunky/ She's thick, thick\" was changed to \"She wants that lovey dovey/ That kiss, kiss/ In her mind, she fantasize about getting with me/ 'Cause they hating on me/ They wanna dis, dis, but she's fine, so fine/ And thick as can be\" to", "-25.049590909009567" ], [ "meaning on her MySpace:\n\"Kiss with a Fist\" is NOT a song about domestic violence.\nIt is about two people pushing each other to psychological extremes because they are fighting but they still love each other. The song is not about one person being attacked, or any actual physical violence, there are no victims in this song.\nSometimes the love two people have for each other is a destructive force. But they can't have it any other way, because it's what holds them together, they enjoy the drama and pushing each other's buttons.\nThe only way to express these extreme emotions is with extreme", "-24.99676467602967" ], [ "by stating, \"Let's just do this\", Lowe said Jewel agreed to do the scene. Lowe stated: \"But as we approached the kissing moment it became strained and it's never good when you can't trust that your fellow actor is on the same page... I pecked her on the lips; her mouth scrunched closed like you would do if someone was going to stick something unwanted into it, which I was not intending. I sort of moved my head from side to side to make it look real, like there was at least a dollop of energy or passion. 'Cut', said", "-24.9729641314334" ], [ "embracing and eventually kissing. UK TV presenters Richard and Judy campaigned to have the video banned claiming it pandered to pedophiles with the use of school uniforms and young girls kissing, although the campaign failed. Capitalizing on the controversy, the kiss was choreographed into their live performances. Top of the Pops aired the girls' performance with the kiss replaced by audience footage. NBC's The Tonight Show with Jay Leno cut away from the girls' kiss to shots of the band. Throughout their promotional tour, t.A.T.u. protested by appearing in shirts reading \"censored\".\nIn 2004, Maroon 5's video for \"This Love\" generated", "-24.854340513260468" ], [ "although married couples may kiss one another instead. Protestantism Different Protestant and Reformed churches have readopted the holy kiss either metaphorically (in that members extend a pure, warm welcome that is referred to as a holy kiss) or literally (in that members kiss one another). Anabaptism The Holy kiss is particularly important among many Anabaptist sects. These groups include the Apostolic Christian Church, the Amish, the Schwarzenau Brethren, and many conservative Mennonite Churches including the Church of God in Christ, Mennonite\nThis article from the Apostolic Christian Church describes an Anabaptist viewpoint on the Holy kiss:\nOver the years various arguments have", "-24.838580766314408" ], [ "formation of human behavior. In some cultures, it is permissible to hold hands; other cultures this open act of compassion is forbidden. Looking or gazing upon another is accepted; other cultures, the eyes are not directed at anyone not of your family. Public affection is acceptable in one country but to kiss, touch or hold someone’s hand is blasphemous. This behavior may be deemed negatively valenced. Personality Personality or personality traits also affect intimacy or immediacy within a dyad relationship. Just as humans differ in their size, weight and emotional attributes, human personalities differ in their degree of sociability, their", "-24.83378856550553" ], [ "Kissing You (Girls' Generation song) Music video The music video featured a cameo from Super Junior's Donghae as the shared love interest. The video followed a candy theme, with the group members dressed in white and dancing whilst holding a lollipop (both concepts that also feature in live performances of the song, including covers by other groups.) The music video was released on January 14, 2008. Rhythmer Volume 1 remix single In January 2008, it was announced that people could submit their remixes of \"Kissing You\" to a website for a chance to have them officially released. The four chosen", "-24.82184670607967" ], [ "kiss do not apply. And if one looks up \"holy kiss\" in the typical Christian encyclopedia, if it appears at all, you will probably find a mention of the Jewish practice of greeting with a kiss and the implication that this is an obsolete custom not to be practiced in modern times. But never will you find any substantial supporting evidence given for that position and for good reason: there isn't any! Let's look at three reasons why Christians should continue to practice the holy kiss.\nFirst: While we know that a kiss of greeting was practiced in Jewish cultures, it", "-24.779191833600635" ], [ "fast, my heart throbs, it is as if I were about to suffocate, yet, nevertheless, I want to have another kiss. Strange, never-suspected pain! Has Chloe, I wonder, drunk some poisonous draught ere she kissed me? How comes it that she herself has not died of it?\nRomantic kissing \"requires more than simple proximity,\" notes Cane. It also needs \"some degree of intimacy or privacy, ... which is why you'll see lovers stepping to the side of a busy street or sidewalk.\" Psychologist Wilhelm Reich \"lashed out at society\" for not giving young lovers enough privacy and making it difficult to", "-24.75120349424833" ], [ "Instinct over what they believed were negative portrayals of lesbian and bisexual women.\nThe kiss-in had a minor resurgence in popularity in July, 2009, when LGBT activists, angered by the support of the LDS church for initiatives to ban same-sex marriage in general and the arrest of a same-sex couple on Mormon property in Salt Lake City when they exchanged a kiss and were charged with trespassing, staged a series of kiss-ins across the country. In April 2011, a similar kiss-in was used to bring attention to a London pub after a gay couple was thrown out for kissing.", "-24.72604909654183" ], [ "and Lesbian Anti-Violence Project declared in 2007 that \"people are still verbally harassed and physically attacked daily for engaging in simple displays of affection in public. Everything changes the minute we kiss\". Social media Expression of a person’s feelings towards someone else had previously been limited to written letters, phone calls or in person. In the modern world, social media sites such as Facebook and Twitter are growing, with 1.7 billion users on Facebook and over half a billion Twitter users. Studies on relationships through Facebook found that, when two individuals who are interested in one another both use Facebook", "-24.704849976711557" ], [ "under that bush. It is important to remember that during this period a kiss was taken very seriously - it was usually seen as a promise of marriage. New Year's kiss In some Western cultures, it is a custom for people to kiss at the stroke of midnight on New Year's Eve. Some hold the superstition that failing to kiss someone ensures a year of loneliness. \nWhen celebrating at a Scottish Hogmanay party, it is custom to try to give a kiss to everyone in the room after the stroke of midnight \"the bells\". Wedding kiss It is a Western", "-24.692821641485352" ], [ "The Kiss of Death (sculpture) Imagery Rather than depicting death as a winged angel the sculptor instead chose a skeleton. The eroticism of the kiss is hard to escape - the sculpture shows youth welcoming death as a partner. The sculpture is at once romantic and horrifying, which leads to the varying views of the people that view it. It attracts and repels at once, the urge to touch combines with the desire to flee.", "-24.68435867372318" ], [ "show affection for their children by performing fellatio on their male babies, placing the penis in their mouths and stimulating it, while they regarded public kissing with revulsion. China Historically, the Chinese has regarded most to all physical contacts between opposite genders as unacceptable. The earliest iconic record of such view is Mencius: Li Lou I (孟子 · 离娄上, written in the Warring States Period), in which Mencius (Chinese: 孟子; pinyin: mèngzǐ), a Confucian scholar and philosopher, states “It is the etiquette that males and females shall not allow their hands to touch in giving or receiving anything.\" The exact", "-24.599525703638392" ], [ "short peck on the lips (\"the mysteries of the kiss revealed\"). The kissing scene was denounced as shocking and pornographic to early moviegoers and caused the Roman Catholic Church to call for censorship and moral reform - because kissing in public at the time could lead to prosecution. A tableau vivant style is used in short film The Birth of the Pearl (1901) featuring an unnamed long-haired young model wearing a flesh-colored body stocking in a direct frontal pose that provides a provocative view of the female body. The pose is in the style of Botticelli's The Birth of Venus.\nBecause", "-24.564435999971465" ], [ "my heart,\none by one \"tonguemaking,\" one by one.\nWhen my sweet precious, my heart, had lain down too,\neach of them in turn kissing with the tongue, each in turn.\nKissing is described in the surviving ancient Egyptian love poetry from the New Kingdom, found on papyri excavated at Deir el-Medina:\nFinally I will drink life from your lips \nand wake up from this ever lasting sleep.\nThe wisdom of the earth in a kiss \nand everything else in your eyes.\nI kiss her before everyone \nthat they all may see my love.\nAnd when her lips are pressed to mine \nI am made drunk and need", "-24.562627623672597" ], [ "Kissing Strangers Background On April 6, 2017, the band posted a picture of Doug the Pug including a phone number listed on his dog tag, if dialed, an instrumental chorus of \"Kissing Strangers\" will be offered. DNCE and Nicki Minaj teased the collaboration via social media on April 10, 2017. Nicki Minaj revealed photos from the music video, while DNCE released a preview of the song, with an early snippet offered by dialing a phone number.\nIn an interview by CBS Radio, Joe Jonas of DNCE said: \"'Kissing Strangers' is a song about having fun with a stranger, getting to know", "-24.558972808430553" ], [ "seconds. This type of \"kiss\" has given H. temminkii the common name of kissing gourami has been considered an intraspecific aggressive behavior also known as \"mouth fight\" due to the contraction of the jaw muscles. However, it is not completely confirmed that it is an aggressive behavior and is rather understood as a ritualized form of aggression. Ecosystem roles Helostoma temminkii can become the host tosome parasitic algal species. These algae are able to survive under kissing gourami skin and look like color spots. Some hypothesis affirm that these algae communities receive some nutrients required for photosynthesis from the H.", "-24.471406007534824" ], [ "to right-hemispheric emotional processing. \nUnlike some other types of physical contact, a hug can be practiced publicly and privately without stigma in many countries, religions and cultures, within families, and also across age and gender lines, but is generally an indication that people are familiar with each other. Moving from a handshake (or touch-free) relationship to a hug relationship is a sign of a closer friendship such as best friends.\nAn unexpected hug can be regarded as an invasion of a person's personal space, but if it is reciprocated it is an indication that it is welcome. Some Western culture commentators", "-24.422494407564955" ], [ "a quote from Marilyn Monroe where she said that a wise girl always kisses before she's kissed...So that's basically how the chorus of the song goes, 'You always kiss before you're kissed/You're not a stupid girl.' It's not really calling a girl stupid.' \"\nSaving Abel shot a video for \"Stupid Girl (Only in Hollywood)\" during the month of April in Los Angeles and have already determined that another one of the album's rockers, \"The Sex is Good,\" will be \"Miss America's\" second single. The title track, meanwhile, was inspired by the group's performances for U.S. troops both here and overseas,", "-24.409551712902612" ], [ "during rock and roll music. After translating the song, Haglund claimed that the theme of the song is about \". . .openly declaring and displaying one's love, coming out from 'the bushes' where 'lovers glide stealthily' and feeling love 'everywhere'\". The Huffington Post summarized the song more simply saying that it made the statement \"about how kissing is fun\". Slate noted that yé-yé singers were often \"teenage girls who exuded a faux-innocent sexuality\", which played on Megan Draper's \"youthful sex appeal and the generation gap between Megan and Don\". Paré stated that, \"Megan, who is younger and more naïve", "-24.39868175824813" ], [ "way to manage interaction with strangers by not engaging in any interpersonal communication or needing to respond to a stranger's touch. Goffman uses an elevator study to explain this phenomenon. It is uncommon for people to look at, talk to, or touch the person next to them. While it may be so crowded that they 'touch' another person, they will often maintain an expressionless demeanor so not to affect those around them. Friendship/warmth It is more acceptable for women to touch than men in social or friendship settings, possibly because of the inherent dominance of the person touching over the", "-24.32932562496353" ] ]

[ "Small insurance brokers are \"underwritten\" by larger ones such as Lloyds of London, and may also have sold some of the risk to other insurers (a practice called reinsurance) such as Swiss Re. Lloyds of London is actually an insurance *market*: they don't carry the risk themselves, that falls on investors (individual and corporate) who make money in good times and lose money in bad times.", "In a word, [reinsurance]( URL_0 ). Insurance companies insure themselves against these sorts of catastrophic losses so they'll have back-up funds when shit like this happens. Reinsurers collect large enough premiums, invest their money wisely enough and have occasion to pay off rarely enough that they're there when disaster strikes. Or at least that's how it's supposed to work. Edit- fix typo", "Insurance companies are themselves insured against this sort of thing. It's called reinsurance. The reinsurance market exists to keep the insurance market solvent after a major natural disaster or the like.", "I work for a property insurance company that does a lot of business in the area. For the past week we've had a team dedicated to generating these claims (preemptively) so that they could be processed as soon as possible once more information came in. And yes, the larger companies have enough money and have reinsured these risks as precaution against catastrophic events such as this." ]

[ [ "Citizens Property Insurance Corporation Catastrophe Hurricane Andrew in 1992 was the costliest storm the United States had experienced, with $26.5 billion in damage. It took a huge bite out of the reserves for claims held by 30 insurance companies doing business in Florida. Eleven insurance companies were bankrupted, while others stopped writing or renewing property insurance policies in the state. Those that remained raised premiums and deductibles across the board and limited the number of high-risk policies they wrote. Almost 1 million coastal homeowners were unable to find any company willing to insure their homes, so the Florida Legislature authorized", "-31.75802974832186" ], [ "one press report estimated the firm's profit margin below 10 percent in 1989. On January 6, 1989, the company's facility in Georgia burned to the ground, destroying (the company said) $2 million to $3 million in inventory ($4,042,416 to $6,063,624 in 2018 dollars). Cooper's two insurance companies canceled coverage of the firm and refused to pay, citing inaccuracies in the insurance policy. The bankruptcy court refused to consider Cooper's claims against the insurance companies. Cooper appealed the court's ruling.\nBen Cooper, Inc. emerged from bankruptcy in April 1989 after paying all its creditors in full.\nThe United States Court of Appeals for", "-31.701804696582258" ], [ "property damage from natural disaster or theft, and various legal expenses incurred resulting from injuries sustained on an individual's property. The companies also sell RV, ATV, boat, mobile home, collectible vehicle, and motorcycle policies and offers flood insurance policies as a participant in the National Flood Insurance Program (NFIP), which is managed by the federal government. MetLife's various types of coverage for auto insurance include liability protection, collision and comprehensive coverage, personal injury protection, rental car coverage, and uninsured and underinsured motorists coverage. Through an arrangement with Hyatt Legal Plans, a subsidiary of MetLife, MetLife Auto & Home underwrites group", "-31.405133072286844" ], [ "that fire caused around US$500 million in insurance claims alone . Over 70 houses and 200 informal dwellings were damaged or destroyed. Over 1,200 firefighters and other official and volunteer personal were involved in fighting the fire at a cost of $3 million.", "-31.39397067972459" ], [ "reduction in premium compared with what other insurance companies were charging. The fire prevention methods they developed, monitored by regular fire inspections for mill policyholders, resulted in fewer losses. Despite its initial success, one problem remained for the pioneer mutual insurance company: a single mutual insurance company could not withstand the financial cost of the loss of an entire plant. More insurance capacity was needed, so in 1848, Allen formed another mutual insurance company, Rhode Island Mutual. Expansion In 1850, Boston Manufacturers Mutual Fire Insurance Company, the third-oldest FM Global predecessor, was created when Allen convinced a Boston merchant with", "-30.86733660288155" ], [ "blamed city officials for not releasing $1.8 million to buy six new pumpers, even though he spent $32,000 to purchase a new command vehicle and an undisclosed sum to buy himself and other commanders 14 new cars. The report also showed that fire truck drivers were inadequately trained and poorly supervised, and were having too many accidents. Because of the lack of reserve vehicles, drivers also continued to operate vehicles even though they should have turned them in for repair. This worsened the repair issues when the vehicle finally failed. Although Few ordered the six pumpers by June 2002, there", "-30.70572402549442" ], [ "insurance is weak; in Gwilliam v West Hertfordshire Hospital NHS Trust [2002] the Court of Appeal held that where the contractor's insurance had expired a few days before the event, the occupier was not liable. In Naylor v Payling the occupier was not liable for failing to check public liability, since he had checked the contractor was accredited under the police and local government schemes required, and the contractor had been employed for 18 months before the case during which there were no reasons to doubt his competency. The Court of Appeal also held that, except in special circumstances, there", "-30.6914239221951" ], [ "operators could meet their financial protection responsibilities. The insurance industry responded by creating an insurance pool called American Nuclear Insurers (ANI), which today includes 60 U.S. property and casualty insurance companies who represent some of the largest insurance companies in the country. Extensions By 1966 it had become apparent that the industry would still be unable to obtain adequate private insurance, so the act was extended until 1976. A provision was added to the Act which prevented companies from offering certain defenses to damages claims (particularly defenses which claimed that the accident had not been their fault). A minimum time", "-30.585520399268717" ], [ "neighboring 50-unit, two-story apartment building was destroyed.\nThe blast damaged the nearby West Rest Haven nursing home, and many residents were evacuated. Many of the nursing home residents received cuts from flying glass, but emergency personnel on scene judged that most of these injuries were not life-threatening.\nOn April 20, some residents who tried to return to their destroyed homes were turned away, because leaking gas tanks were causing small fires.\nAccording to the company's insurer, United States Fire Insurance of Morristown, New Jersey, the facility was only covered by $1 million in liability insurance. According to official estimates from both state and", "-30.494781733112177" ], [ "Carolina Re, that collected the large dividends the owners collected discreetly.\nA November 2001 article of Insurance Journal stated that the Japanese insurance companies Taisei, Nissan Fire & Marine Insurance Co. and Aioi Insurance Co were the owners of Fortress Reinsurance Co. 911 financial failure The agency was dealt a heavy blow by the September 11 attacks. Fortress Re pooled the funds of several insurance companies to share the risks of reinsuring aviation portfolios. All four planes that crashed on September 11, 2001 were ultimately reinsured into the Fortress Re pool. The participating companies faced claims of $2.5 billion, and", "-30.438221180811524" ], [ "1987. Force-placed insurance controversy Maintaining a property insurance policy is one of the most common conditions imposed upon anyone who borrows money to purchase a house. If a borrower allows such a policy to lapse, US lenders will purchase force-placed insurance for the property owner (also called lender-placed insurance, or collateral protection insurance) The use of force-placed insurance by lenders is an ongoing practice that, in the wake of the financial crisis, has become increasingly common, being cited by many experts as the cause of foreclosures themselves. The coverage prevents gaps in insurance, which is required by the terms", "-30.435108612058684" ], [ "insurance at a booth in the Sears pavilion. In 1934, Allstate opened its first permanent sales office in a Chicago Sears store.\nIn 1941, only about a quarter of US drivers had auto liability insurance. This led to the state of New York passing a law which established the financial responsibility of drivers for damage or injuries resulting from auto mishaps. That law inspired legislation in other states, and by the mid-1950s nearly every state had some sort of financial responsibility law on its books.\nIn 1949 the Allstate Headquarters Building was completed at 3245 W. Arthington Street in Chicago. The", "-30.219507444024202" ], [ "firms. Processes around theft and accidental damage insurance, cancelled sales and a smaller number of affordability checks did fail some of its customers and were all stopped. In March 2018, PerfectHome agreed with the Financial Conduct Authority (FCA) a package of redress totalling over £2.1 million. This was made up of cash payments and balance write-offs for 37,000 customers.", "-30.206205610418692" ], [ "casualty insurance company in the US. \nProducts include: Insurance products Asset protection: auto insurance, homeowners insurance, condominium, renters, scheduled personal property, business umbrella, commercial auto, commercial inland marine, small business owner, customizer and business package policy, landlord package, manufactured home, mobile home, motor home, motorcycle, boat, personal umbrella, comprehensive personal liability, recreational vehicle, off-road vehicle, motor club, loan protection and flood protection. Wealth transfer Estate planning products, business succession planning products, fixed survivorship life, and variable survivorship life family protection insurance, term life, universal life, variable universal life, long-term care and supplemental health. Financial products Asset management and accumulation, life", "-30.142373437352944" ], [ "damage liability requirements range from $5,000 to $25,000 in most states. Excess An excess payment, also known as a deductible, is a fixed contribution that must be paid each time a car is repaired with the charges billed to an automotive insurance policy. Normally this payment is made directly to the accident repair \"garage\" (the term \"garage\" refers to an establishment where vehicles are serviced and repaired) when the owner collects the car. If one's car is declared to be a \"write off\" (or \"totaled\"), then the insurance company will deduct the excess agreed on the policy from the settlement", "-30.025029446114786" ], [ "mortgagee will waive the need for the mortgagor to carry homeowner's insurance if the value of the land exceeds the amount of the mortgage balance. In such a case even the total destruction of any buildings would not affect the ability of the lender to be able to foreclose and recover the full amount of the loan.\nHome insurance in the United States may differ from other countries; for example, in Britain, subsidence and subsequent foundation failure is usually covered under an insurance policy. United States insurance companies used to offer foundation insurance, which was reduced to coverage for damage due", "-30.00472912110854" ], [ "agency who supervises the Defense Base Act. One of the largest insurance companies who provides Defense Base Act insurance is AIG, one of the largest companies receiving federal aid during the banking crisis of 2008-09. For those who are considering working for companies to include Dyncorp or MPRI, the Defense Base Act provisions may be the only remedy if you are injured while working outside the United States.\nClaims submitted through the Defense Base Act of 1941 may take several years or more. Persons should use extreme care with the knowledge of challenges in attempting to seek remedies", "-29.885199198964983" ], [ "Haber. They've since revamped their approach. Allstate criticized the report, with a spokesman noting that \"The personal injury lawyers behind this report provide no support for their statements other than decade old recycled allegations that have been shown to be without merit in courts of law.\" In 2009 Allstate successfully fought to obtain Federal government TARP fund eligibility only to decline it once they obtained eligibility. Auto insurance claims An investigative report in February 2007 by CNN found that major car insurance companies, like Allstate, are increasingly fighting auto insurance claims from those who incurred injuries by their insured members.", "-29.872007056561415" ], [ "employees in high-risk industries, including miners and coal workers. Within a few months, the company’s founders became concerned that a single disease epidemic would bankrupt the company. Mutual Medical Aid and Accident purchased back all outstanding medical-aid policies and reincorporated as Provident Accident Insurance Company. Provident only issued accident policies.\nIn 1892, Thomas Maclellan and John McMaster purchased a 50% stake in the company for $1000. The two men purchased the remaining 50% equity in 1895 and Maclellan was the company's sole owner and president by 1900. Maclellan reorganized the company from being mutually held to a stock company in 1910.\nThomas", "-29.831512265489437" ], [ "the 16-acre (65,000 m²) WTC complex as part of a major insurance claims settlement. Post-Hurricane Katrina property insurance claims In the wake of Hurricane Katrina, several thousand homeowners filed lawsuits against their insurance companies accusing them of bad faith and failing to properly and promptly adjust their claims. Florida Consumer Choice Act On 24 June 2009, Florida Governor Charlie Crist vetoed the Consumer Choice Act (H.B. 1171). The bill would have trumped state regulation, and allowed Florida's biggest insurance companies to establish their own rates.\nRemarking upon State Farm's pullout from Florida, Ted Corless, a property insurance attorney who has represented large insurance", "-29.826744542631786" ], [ "to obtain insurance due to high-profile accidents. On 4 November 2017 the company indicated in an interview in The Bend Bulletin, that they were still in limited operations, \"focused on fulfilling customer commitments\" and were seeking investors. On 22 May 2018 Flying reported that the company had shut down, but that an unrelated company, Elite Pilot Services, was providing owners with technical support.", "-29.79705055791419" ], [ "Vehicle insurance in the United States Vehicle insurance, in the United States and elsewhere, is designed to cover risk of financial liability or the loss of a motor vehicle the owner may face if their vehicle is involved in a collision resulting in property or physical damages. Most states require a motor vehicle owner to carry some minimum level of liability insurance. States that do not require the vehicle owner to carry car insurance include Virginia, where an uninsured motor vehicle fee may be paid to the state; New Hampshire, and Mississippi which offers vehicle owners the option to post", "-29.793849903624505" ], [ "of fire companies from Augusta, Slanesville, and Fort Ashby. When firefighters left the scene around 3:30 p.m., only the brick walls of the building remained standing. Firefighters approximated that 60,000 U.S. gallons (230,000 L) of water had been used to fight the fire. Though assessed to have been extinguished, the fire re-established the following day.\nAccording to Romney Fire Department Chief Eugene Dorsey, the Wirgman Building was uninsured and its damage was estimated at $5,000. Dorsey estimated damages to the partially-insured Peaford Company furniture store at $6,000.\nFollowing the fire, the Bank of Romney purchased the Wirgman Building and demolished it, along with the", "-29.770231188158505" ], [ "and fire boats. The only injury reported was a fractured ankle, when the employee jumped down a burning stairwell to survive. The car float and 25 cars owned by the NYNH&H that were docked at Bridge No.10 were a total loss, while three other car floats that sustained varying damage were salvageable. All five bridges were put out of service, and freight was rerouted through PRR's other facilities in Harsimus Cove and Exchange Place, in addition to the Lehigh Valley Railroad's terminal on the Morris Canal Basin. The fire cost the PRR $500,000 and $1,000,000, which in the 2014 value", "-29.715979642467573" ], [ "repair costs $3,000, then the insured has to pay $500 while the insurer pays the remaining $2,500.\" Automobile and property insurance In a typical automobile insurance policy, a deductible will apply to claims arising from damage to or loss of the policy holder's own vehicle, whether this damage/loss is caused by accidents for which the holder is responsible, or vandalism and theft. Depending on the policy, the deductible may differ based on the type of expense incurred that triggers the insurance claim.\nThird-party liability coverages including auto liability, general liability, garage keepers, inland marine, professional liability and workers compensation are also", "-29.66182847484015" ], [ "home sales in the area. Insurance companies stopped writing policies for the high risk area around Lolo Peak, impacting 181 active listings and 67 houses pending sales. As of August 31, the fire had burned over 39,400 acres (159 km²), was 31% contained, and estimated to cost $34.6 million. September By September 1, select evacuation warnings remained in place and the fire continued to burn in One Horse Creek and the northern end of Sweeney Creek. New evacuation warnings were introduced on the evening of September 3, due to 10 more houses being threatened by the fire. On September 5, closures", "-29.605619017587742" ], [ "Hartford Fire Insurance Co. v. California Facts Various reinsurance companies in the United Kingdom had conspired through Lloyd's of London to coerce U.S. insurers into abandoning certain policy practices that were beneficial to consumers, but costly to the reinsurers. When U.S. states (including the named plaintiff, California) filed a lawsuit alleging antitrust violations, the defendant companies raised a number of defenses, asserting that the United States lacked jurisdiction over their acts, that various statutes exempted them from liability, and that principles of comity dictated that they should not be brought before a U.S. court. The United States district court in", "-29.553348538349383" ], [ "majority of property insurance crimes involve arson. One reason for this is that any evidence that a fire was started by arson is often destroyed by the fire itself. According to the United States Fire Administration, in the United States there were approximately 31,000 fires caused by arson in 2006, resulting in losses of $755 million. Council compensation claims The fraud involving claims from the councils' insurers suppose staging damages blamable on the local authorities (mostly falls and trips on council owned land) or inflating the value of existing damages. Legislation National and local governments, especially in the last", "-29.481389524924452" ], [ "for truck drivers to transport the goods and harvesters to harvest the crops. Other jobs were also affected such as those in tourism, as holiday-makers avoided the area until the wreckages had been cleaned up. On the other hand, the building industry and manufacturers flourished as the need to repair to replace goods/buildings, which had been destroyed or damaged by Cyclone Justin, was tremendously high. With damage to many buildings, vehicles, produce and other items, thousands of insurances claims were made. Some insurance premiums then rose so that the companies could cover the cost of the claims. Human The cyclone", "-29.478974477402517" ], [ "written insurance policies on numerous homes in a particular city, then a devastating earthquake will quickly drain all the company's resources. Insurance companies devote much study and effort toward risk management to avoid such cases.\nIn the United States, insurance companies stop selling coverage for a few weeks after a sizeable earthquake has occurred. This is because damaging aftershocks can occur after the initial quake, and rarely, it may be foreshock. Although aftershocks are smaller in magnitude, they deviate from the original epicenter. If an aftershock is significantly closer to a populated area, it can cause much more damage than the", "-29.401314530317904" ], [ "large portion suddenly collapsed, sending twelve firefighters into the fully involved building. In the end, six firefighters had died in the fire and over 30 injured. Bankruptcy and closure A&P, the parent company of Waldbaum's, declared Chapter 11 bankruptcy in July 2015. All Waldbaum's stores were sold or closed by November 2015.", "-29.25872157642152" ], [ "of $35 million to settle state allegations of deceptive sales practices. Prudential acknowledged that for more than a decade its agents had improperly persuaded customers to cash in old policies and purchase new ones so that the agents could generate additional sales commissions. US military life insurance lawsuit In 2010, various media outlets noted allegations that the Prudential Life Insurance Company was manipulating the payout of life insurance benefits due to the families of American soldiers in order to gain extra profits. The company provided life insurance to people in the armed forces under a government contract. Rather than paying", "-29.206565181029873" ], [ "for injuries and deaths related to fires in cases of vehicle rollovers for all cars sold in the US by all manufacturers. The values assigned to serious burn injuries and loss of life were based on values calculated by NHTSA in 1972. In the memo Ford estimated the cost of fuel system modifications to reduce fire risks in rollover events to be $11 per car across 12.5 million cars and light trucks (all manufacturers), for a total of $137 million. The design changes were estimated to save 180 burn deaths and 180 serious injuries per year, a", "-29.19131991545146" ], [ "fire at the team's base resulted in the destruction of one of their vehicles, and damage to other vehicles and the garage that housed them. Replacement cost of the lost vehicle alone was estimated to be $100,000, which exceeded the team's entire annual funding. Repair costs for the remaining vehicles and building were additional. Marty Leger search On May 29, 2014, a 30-year-old mountain biker on the Spider Lake trails in Waverley, Nova Scotia failed to return from an afternoon ride. That evening Halifax Regional Search and Rescue was brought in by the RCMP to assist in locating him.", "-29.18870586765115" ], [ "hard to reduce MFR (Minimum Financial Responsibility) levels for rental car companies in Maine and thwarted efforts to increase these levels in New York.\nACRA helped pass legislation in Arizona that shifted the company’s liability to a secondary position rather than primary thereby making the tortfeasor the first in line to pay personal injury claims when other insurance is available.\nACRA was instrumental in the elimination of vicarious liability on a federal level, the Graves Amendment, and has been in the forefront of defeating numerous attempts at a repeal of this legislation. ACRA members have also prevailed in legal challenges to this", "-29.099844346601458" ], [ "to acquire Fireman's Fund Insurance Co.’s personal lines business for a total of $365 million. The deal closed in the second quarter of 2015. Business model Fireman's Fund worked with independent agents and brokers and is powered by two primary business units: commercial insurance (includes agribusiness) and personal insurance.\nCommercial Insurance offered businesses and organizations risk management by providing admitted and non-admitted solutions, customized products for a variety of industries and program business for small to mid-sized affinity programs.\nPersonal insurance for high-net-worth and affluent customers included home, auto, valuables, excess liability, art, wine, and jewelry collections, yacht, and watercraft.\nFireman's Fund provided", "-29.098356722912285" ], [ "a neighboring building housing antiques dealers. Eight businesses were destroyed and others were damaged. City fire marshals never determined the cause, but said an unfixed sprinkler system helped the fire spread. Firefighters used 1 million gallons (3,800,000 l) of water in three hours and then had to pump water from Long Island Sound when the water mains ran out. Dark mushroom clouds formed over the scene, visible for miles along Interstate 95. About 200 residents from homes on Pacific and Henry streets were evacuated. In July 2006, more than 100 antiques dealers filed a class-action lawsuit against the owner, Antares Real", "-29.090553051093593" ], [ "the fire before leaving the premises. The fire took over four hours to extinguish and gutted most of the interior causing damage in excess of A$1 million.\nThe Licensee was later found to have organised the attack in an attempt to claim a $3M dollar insurance payout.", "-29.01419970835559" ], [ "of water when the fire started, as the area did not have a hydraulic pump as other areas such as West India Dock did, and the water company only supplied water to houses in Tooley Street for 90 minutes a day. The report also noted that insurance companies lost over £1 million from the fire. The fire and insurance premium rises led to the 1865 Metropolitan Fire Brigade Act, which established the London Fire Brigade. Other fires on Tooley Street An 1836 fire destroyed Topping's Wharf on Tooley Street, and an 1843 fire on Tooley Street destroyed St. Olave's Church.", "-28.998901556129567" ], [ "due care to not disturb the pylon, the lack of a foundation (which they assumed was there) caused the accident. Damage was estimated at $1 million.\nA dispute broke out over whose insurance company would pay to repair the pylon. Clark Construction was insured by The Hartford Fire Insurance Co. and Kalos Construction by Montgomery Mutual Insurance Co. The Hartford argued that the pylons were not mentioned in the insurance policy and it never agreed to insure them. Montgomery Mutual paid the claim, reserving its right to litigate the issue. It then sued to recover damages from the Women in", "-28.981325141096022" ], [ "in 1970. AIG then took on tens of billions of dollars of risk associated with mortgages. It insured tens of billions of dollars of derivatives against default, but did not purchase reinsurance to hedge that risk. Secondly, it used collateral on deposit to buy mortgage-backed securities. When losses hit the mortgage market in 2007-2008, AIG had to pay out insurance claims and also replace the losses in its collateral accounts.\nAIG purchased the remaining 39% that it did not own of online auto insurance specialist 21st Century Insurance in 2007 for $749 million. With the failure of the parent company and the", "-28.945431110012578" ], [ "carriers like Nationwide, noted \"that homeowners are really going to have to look out for themselves\". Five days after Crist vetoed the Consumer Choice Act, Corless defended property insurance deregulation by pointing out that \"if the blue-chip insurance companies wanted to price themselves out of the market\", then they would go out of business. He accused Crist of making choices on behalf of consumers, not protecting their right to choose. In 2006 the average Florida annual insurance premium was $1,386 for a homeowner, one of the highest in the country.", "-28.932997973519377" ], [ "customers affected.\nReinsurance broker Aon Benfield stated that these are the costliest wildfires in U.S. history, with an estimated eight billion U.S. dollars in insured losses. The largest portion of these losses was to residential property. Additional losses were to automobiles, commercial property including business interruption insurance, and to crops. Many of the losses were in urban areas not historically prone to wildfire exposure. Air pollution By October 12, the air quality in the city of Napa was ranked the poorest in the nation, due to high levels of particulates and ozone. By October 13, air quality in", "-28.883799789386103" ], [ "their stores. Insurance coverage and tax deductions Controversy has arisen over whether the damage will be covered under the insurance policies for home insurance or general liability insurance. In March 2010, a New Orleans judge ruled that the damage was covered under a home insurance policy. It is unknown whether the general liability insurance will cover the claims. The standard policy contained an exception to an exclusion for pollution which allowed coverage if the pollution came from the products of the insured, but insurers had revised the policies to incorporate a \"total pollution exclusion\" which has no exception. Even without", "-28.87810733675724" ], [ "any new patients, perform any non-emergency surgeries, and discontinue emergency operations due to numerous deficiencies, including deficiencies in the hospital's nursing care. On September 1, the hospital filed for bankruptcy. On September 8, the hospital closed. On January 24, 1980 an auction was held to sell the building and its equipment. The property was sold to HMS Fund Inc. for $9,000 (plus $116,000 in tax and water liens) at a public auction. After the hospital's closure, area residents nearest hospitals were Melrose-Wakefield Hospital, Lynn General Hospital (since closed), and Union Hospital. HMS planned to refurbish the building and turn it", "-28.87107690423727" ], [ "In its most basic form, automobile insurance provides liability coverage in the event that a driver is found \"at fault\" in an accident. This can cover medical expenses of individuals involved in the accident as well as restitution or repair of damaged property, all of which would fall into the realm of casualty insurance coverage.\nIf coverage were extended to cover damage to one's own vehicle, or against theft, the policy would no longer be exclusively a casualty insurance policy. Definitions The state of Illinois includes vehicle, liability, worker's compensation, glass, livestock, legal expenses, and miscellaneous insurance under its class of", "-28.82469095016131" ], [ "National Life and Accident Insurance Company \"Sick and accident\" policies In December 1901, the National Sick and Accident Association was sold to C. A. Craig to settle an estate. By 1902, the company was nearly insolvent. In the early years, the company's business consisted primarily of low-premium, low-benefit \"sick and accident\" policies, which is a form of disability insurance that paid the owner a stated amount for every week he was unable to work due to illness or injury. To prevent fraud, it was necessary for the amount of the benefit to be somewhat less than what the insured earned", "-28.82162129750941" ], [ "of the Act. Road Traffic Act Only Insurance has a limit of £1,000,000 for damage to third party property, while third party only insurance typically has a greater limit for third party property damage.\nMotor insurers in the UK place a limit on the amount that they are liable for in the event of a claim by third parties against a legitimate policy. This can be explained in part by the Great Heck Rail Crash that cost the insurers over £22,000,000 in compensation for the fatalities and damage to property caused by the actions of the insured driver of a motor", "-28.810045692371204" ], [ "or professional liability insurance due to the high cost of premiums. However, in the event of a claim, out-of-pocket costs for a legal defence or settlement can far exceed premium costs. In some cases, the costs of a claim could be enough to shut down a small business.\nBusinesses must consider all potential risk exposures when deciding whether liability insurance is needed, and, if so, how much coverage is appropriate and cost-effective.\nThose with the greatest public liability risk exposure are occupiers of premises where large numbers of third parties frequent at leisure including shopping centres, pubs, clubs, theatres, cinemas, sporting", "-28.800339154549874" ], [ "employee, Deborah Shank, to recover the money it spent for her health care after she was brain-damaged, restricted to a wheelchair, and nursing home-bound after her minivan was hit by a truck. Walmart sued the former employee for $470,000 after she received a settlement from the accident, citing that company policy forbids employees from receiving coverage if they also win a settlement in a lawsuit. After a wave of bad publicity, Walmart dropped its suit.\nIn 2011, Walmart stopped providing health insurance for part-time employees working under 24 hours per week. In 2013, health insurance benefits will not be available to", "-28.783801850640884" ], [ "from drowning and falls.\nLenders may purchase \"real estate owned\" insurance to protect against loss and liability relating to lender-owned properties. REO insurance differs from \"forced placed\" insurance (also \"lender placed\" insurance), which a lender purchases for borrower-owned property when the borrower does not insure the property. Bulk real estate owned Bulk REO or bulk real estate owned, from a real estate investor’s point of view, is like investing on wholesale real estate properties. On the other hand, banks or lenders sell or open their assets in group for auction at a very low price compared to their market value.", "-28.75772379967384" ], [ "lawsuit and compensate clients whose commercial insurance it arranged from 2001 to 2004.\nMuch of Marsh & McLennan's corporate strategy since 2005 stemmed from an effort to recover from this tumultuous period, eventually leading to the firm's current organization and simplified focus on insurance services and consulting. September 11 attacks At the time of the 2001 September 11 attacks in the United States, the corporation held offices on eight floors, 93 to 100, of the North Tower of the World Trade Center. When American Airlines Flight 11 crashed into the building, its offices spanned the entire impact zone, floors 93 to", "-28.732828115156735" ], [ "after July 1, 1942, the War Damage Corporation should issue insurance policies upon the payment of annual premiums. Under the terms of War Damage Corporation's charter an authorized capital stock of US$100,000,000 was provided, all of which was subscribed for by the Reconstruction Finance Corporation.\nThe Corporation was transferred from the Federal Loan Agency to the Department of Commerce by Executive Order #9071 of February 24, 1942, returned to the Federal Loan Agency by Act of February 24, 1945 (59 Stat. 5), and abolished by Act of June 30, 1947 (61 Stat. 202) with its functions assumed by Reconstruction Finance Corporation.", "-28.709950575779658" ], [ "the FRA for not requiring railroads to do so. Lastly, it said that the failure of the glazings, or the windows on the cars, contributed to the loss of life and severity of injury. Legal actions Within a week of the accident, attorneys for several passengers had filed notices of claims, the first step toward filing a lawsuit, against Metro-North. Lawyers for a police officer riding the train to work said his injuries could prevent him from returning to duty and demanded $10 million. Denise Williams, a dentist headed to a convention in the city who required back surgery for", "-28.692489664041204" ], [ "2013, a federal jury awarded American Steamship Company (ASC) $4.7 million for repairs and lost profits in their lawsuit against Hallett Dock Company. According to ASC, repairs cost nearly $4.2 million, 45 shipping days and five cargo hauls before it could be returned to service resulting in just over a half million in lost profits.", "-28.67148716887459" ], [ " In 2010 Allstate commanded 18% of the auto insurance market in the United States. Homeowners claims The PBS television program Now, in conjunction with Bloomberg Markets magazine, did an exposé regarding Allstate and other major insurers' homeowners insurance policies. Catastrophe exposure management Allstate has stated intentions of reducing its exposure in hurricane-prone Florida. In November 2006, Allstate did not renew 120,000 policies that were expiring at that time. Governor Charlie Crist and the Florida Cabinet passed a 90-day emergency order to temporarily prevent insurance companies from nonrenewing policies. On February 20, 2007, Florida Insurance Commissioner Kevin McCarty clarified the", "-28.637615882296814" ], [ "of June 20, 2013, the cost for fighting the fire was estimated at $9,323,955.\nAt the completion of the first of four parts of the Black Forest assessment in early July, the El Paso County Accessor's office reported that the fire destroyed 486 homes — fewer than the sheriff's department's initial estimate of 511 — and damaged 37, causing $85,444,052 in damage. Sixteen members of the office, who have been working full-time on the fire, must now put dollar amounts to lost outbuildings, commercial structures and, perhaps most costly, trees. A treeless lot sells for about 30 percent", "-28.628509053087328" ], [ "were to come in $25 million worth of inventory, all of which would help service General Host's $238 million in debt. Bankruptcy and liquidation In February 2001, the company filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy because it could not afford to pay its vendors. Matters were taken to bankruptcy court, where questions arose as to whether or not Frank's could avoid shutting down its retail stores. The matter was resolved, and the company was able to recover and continue full operation.\nIn September 2004, company officials again filed for Chapter 11. The company was heavily in debt, particularly in relation to their", "-28.625665471307002" ], [ "coverage for the main dwelling.\nThe cost of homeowner's insurance often depends on what it would cost to replace the house and which additional endorsements or riders are attached to the policy. The insurance policy is a legal contract between the insurance carrier (insurance company) and the named insured(s). It is a contract of indemnity and will put the insured back to the state he/she was in prior to the loss. Typically, claims due to floods or war (whose definition typically includes a nuclear explosion from any source) are excluded from coverage, amongst other standard exclusions (like termites). Special insurance can", "-28.612141915713437" ], [ "losses. Another telephone company in the area, General Telephone Company, estimated $700,000 in damage occurred to its business. At the United States Army helicopter repair center in Corpus Christi, there were about $5 million in damage. Around 800–900 family housing units at the Naval Air Station Corpus Christi were considered uninhabitable, indicating $35 million in losses at that location.\nTwo large Sunoco oil tanks and another owned by Humble Oil burned after possibly being struck by lightning. Approximately $17 million in losses occurred to both companies. Heavy property damage was also reported in rural areas, totaling slightly more than $20 million. At least 75% of the", "-28.600315885734744" ], [ "her estate since her insurance company would be setting aside funds for a court to distribute to injured parties if her actions were found to have contributed to the accident.\nNew York personal injury attorney Howard Hershenhorn filed a negligence lawsuit for Robert Dirks' wife Christine Ueda. It names Metro North, the train engineer Steven Smalls Jr., Westchester County and the town of Mount Pleasant among the defendants. The complaint lists bad visibility, poorly designed third rail, local official negligence and unsafe speed among the reasons for the defendants' alleged negligence. \"We are going to focus on the operation of the", "-28.568202629336156" ], [ "insurance unit's drag on Citigroup stock price because Travelers earnings were more seasonal and vulnerable to large disasters and events such as the September 11 attacks. It was also difficult to sell insurance directly to its customers since most customers were accustomed to purchasing insurance through a broker.\nTravelers merged with The St. Paul Companies Inc. in 2004 forming The St. Paul Travelers Companies. Citigroup retained the life insurance and annuities underwriting business; however, it sold those businesses to MetLife in 2005. Citigroup still sells life insurance through Citibank, but it no longer underwrites insurance.\nIn spite of divesting Travelers Insurance, Citigroup", "-28.564134019543417" ], [ "such as hurricane shutters; or if the house has a security system and has insurer-approved locks installed.\nTypically payment is made annually. Perpetual insurance which continues indefinitely can also be obtained in certain areas. In the United States In the United States, most home buyers borrow money in the form of a mortgage loan, and the mortgage lender often requires that the buyer purchase homeowner's insurance as a condition of the loan, in order to protect the bank if the home is destroyed. Anyone with an insurable interest in the property should be listed on the policy. In some cases the", "-28.536638531950302" ], [ "caused by the driver of one of the firm's tractor-trailers who had not slept for 24 hours. Morgan's limousine was apparently hit by the trailer, injuring him and two fellow passengers and killing a fourth, fellow comedian James McNair. Walmart settled with the McNair family for $10 million, while admitting no liability. Morgan and Walmart reached a settlement in 2015 for an undisclosed amount, though Walmart later accused its insurers of \"bad faith\" in refusing to pay the settlement.\nIn 2015, the company closed five stores on short notice for plumbing repairs. However, employees and the United Food and Commercial Workers", "-28.522134601254947" ], [ "Risk retention group History Under the McCarran-Ferguson Act, most insurance matters are regulated at the state, rather than federal, level. However, in the late 1970s, Congress faced an unprecedented crisis in insurance markets, during which many businesses were unable to obtain product liability coverage at any cost.\nCongress was forced to take action, and, after several years of study, enacted the Product Liability Risk Retention Act of 1981, which permitted individuals or businesses with similar or related liability exposure to form \"risk retention groups\" for the purpose of self-insuring. The Act only applied to product liability and completed operations insurance.\nWhen companies", "-28.50414797430858" ], [ "would have extended the federal government’s involvement in the flood insurance to combine the current sale of flood insurance through the NFIP with wind coverage. As a result, those who experienced damage from a catastrophe like a large-scale hurricane would know that they could not fall through a crack in their coverage. However, others argued that the bill was unnecessarily subsidizing the purchase of wind insurance when such insurance is already available in 99% of ZIP codes in the United States. A bundle of wind and flood insurance is the perfect illustration of multiple-peril insurance coverage. Even though the combination", "-28.48429172881879" ], [ "and spent millions of dollars to renovate its remaining outlets to be flashier and more consumer-friendly. However, GE Capital reneged on promises of further financial support of Montgomery Ward's restructuring plans.\nOn December 28, 2000, after lower-than-expected sales during the Christmas season, the company announced it would cease operating, close its remaining 250 retail outlets, and lay off its 37,000 employees. All stores closed within weeks of the announcement. The subsequent liquidation was at the time the largest retail Chapter 7 bankruptcy liquidation in American history (this would be later surpassed by the 2009 and 2018 store closures of Circuit City", "-28.47546978900209" ], [ "that are likely to flood (and therefore require flood insurance).\nIn addition to delaying the onset of higher premiums, the bill would allow homeowners who sell their homes to pass the lower flood insurance premiums on to the next homeowner. Procedural history The Homeowner Flood Insurance Affordability Act of 2014 was introduced into the United States Senate on January 14, 2014 by Sen. Robert Menendez (D, NJ). Senator Johnny Isakson (R-GA) was the main Republican co-sponsor of the bill. The bill was debated and considered on January 27, 28, and 29th, 2014. On January 30, 2014, the Senate voted in Roll", "-28.473581879226913" ], [ "away as Corvallis. One volunteer firefighter, Floyd McMullen, a student at Willamette University, died in the fire, which drew firefighters from as far away as Portland. Salem sent seven fire trucks to the scene; three more came from Portland. Only the outer walls were left standing after the fire was extinguished. Losses were estimated at $1.5 million ($ 27.4 million as of 2019), and the state did not carry insurance. The losses, which included historic artifacts such as the portraits of all the governors, could have been worse had the state not used fire-proof vaults in the basement to store valuables such", "-28.429516560048796" ], [ "of the insurance company to compensate the damages against the insured person in some cases (usually in case of DUI or other infringement of the law by the driver).\nThe victims of accidents caused by non-insured vehicles could be compensated by the Road's Victim Warranty Fund (Fondo garanzia vittime della strada), which is covered by a fixed amount (2.5%, as 2015) of each RCA insurance premium. New Zealand Within New Zealand, the Accident Compensation Corporation (ACC) provides nationwide no-fault personal injury insurance. Injuries involving motor vehicles operating on public roads are covered by the Motor Vehicle Account, for which premiums are", "-28.385604175069602" ], [ "of the public, visitors, trespassers, sub-contractors, etc. who may be physically injured or whose property may be damaged or both). It varies from state to state as to whether either or both employer's liability insurance and public liability insurance have been made compulsory by law. Regardless of compulsion, however, most organizations include public liability insurance in their insurance portfolio even though the conditions, exclusions, and warranties included within the standard policies can be a burden. A company owning an industrial facility, for instance, may buy pollution insurance to cover lawsuits resulting from environmental accidents.\nMany small businesses do not secure general", "-28.373452574480325" ], [ "Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA), totaling to just over $1 million (2003 USD, $1.1 million 2006 USD). 141 small businesses applied for loans, totaling to around $2.5 million (2003 USD, $2.75 million 2006 USD). In addition, FEMA received 183 applications for public assistance, which would be used for rebuilding public roads and buildings. Over twenty volunteer organizations met to establish a long-term committee to find resources for disaster recovery needs. One goal sought by the committee was to find a permanent housing solution for every one who was displaced from their houses from the storms. Volunteers also helped remove ruined appliances and furniture to local landfills, totaling to more than 300 tons.", "-28.36856204114156" ], [ "liability insurance, was provided by Shipowners Insurance and Guaranty Company Ltd. (SIGCo) of Hamilton, Bermuda. Grounding On 4 February 1999, New Carissa was bound for the Port of Coos Bay to pick up a load of wood chips. The ship's crew was informed by the local bar pilots that weather conditions would prevent the ship (which was empty at the time) from entering Coos Bay harbor until the next morning. The captain ordered the ship to drop anchor 1.7 nautical miles (3.1 km) off the coast in order to ride out the storm. The crew used a single anchor to secure", "-28.336414911726024" ], [ "general store (combined with a post office and gas station) was destroyed by fire, and in Fortuna, damage totaled $4 million. A six figure portion of that figure was due to losses at the high school's gymnasium.\nThe two aftershocks the following morning were separated by less than four hours and both caused at least as much damage as the mainshock. A large fire was triggered following the first aftershock at a shopping center in Scotia that destroyed four businesses, with the resulting damage at that site alone estimated at $15 million, and was the largest individual financial misfortune of the", "-28.33158120769076" ], [ "Nearly two years after Andrew, about 70% of homes in Homestead that were damaged or destroyed were repaired or rebuilt. Additionally, of the homes destroyed or severely damaged throughout Dade County, 36,000 had been restored by July 1994.\nMore than 930,000 policyholders in South Florida lost coverage after 11 insurance companies went bankrupt, caused by more than 600,000 insurance claims filed. This led the Florida Legislature to create new entities, such as the Joint Underwriting Association, the Florida Windstorm Underwriting Association, and the Florida Hurricane Catastrophe Fund, in an effort to restore adequate insurance capacity. Stricter building codes were created in Florida in the aftermath", "-28.31842288770713" ], [ "to the wreck by the original insurance company.", "-28.27745222277008" ], [ "So at new car time, insist on Rusty Jones rustproofing.\" Bankruptcy Rusty Jones Inc. filed for bankruptcy protection in 1988 claiming that automakers' extension of factory warranties against rust had caused business to deteriorate. Between 1985 and 1988, the company's distribution network declined from 3,000 new car dealerships to 1,800. However, there is some disagreement regarding why the company went out of business, as former director of marketing Bruce Freud claimed in an interview that the company was \"unbelievably profitable\", but that its insurance carrier (who serviced the rust warranties on Rusty Jones treated vehicles) filed for bankruptcy, creating problems", "-28.251490906230174" ], [ "because in 1988 when the transaction was going through, the market was buoyant and the extent of the borrower's overdraft facility was commonplace. This would mean no damages would be recoverable at common law, for there would be no causal connection with Mothew's (alleged) negligence and the building society's loss. At first instance he was unsuccessful. However his professional indemnity insurers took the matter to the Court of Appeal where three judges unanimously supported Mr Mothew (see Judgment below) and the case was referred back, ultimately resulting in a settlement whereby no penalty or payment was required to be paid", "-28.23810102872085" ], [ "third parties against the financial consequences of loss, damage or injury caused by a vehicle.\nCalifornia and New Jersey have enacted \"Personal Responsibility Acts\" which put further pressure on all drivers to carry liability insurance by preventing uninsured drivers from recovering non economic damages (e.g. compensation for \"pain and suffering\") if they are injured in any way while operating a motor vehicle.\nNorth Carolina is the only state to require that a driver hold liability insurance before a license can be issued. North Carolina does allow for a \"fleet license\" to be issued if the license holder has no insurance, however", "-28.237176075024763" ], [ "stolen, or damaged by accident, vandalism, weather (hail), etc., the customer or other insurance must pay to the rental company the full cost of repair, plus administrative charges and, in some states, loss of use. From some companies, in some states and countries, there are charges for towing, storage, impound, administrative fees and diminution of value of the car (Avis, Budget, National, Thrifty). Some companies even say they alone will decide the diminution (Dollar, Hertz\").\nThe rental company's damage waiver normally covers accidental damage and towing a damaged vehicle, as long as the renter complies with the rental contract (such as", "-28.221728416276164" ], [ "by passersby and neighbors, with at least one account of dozens of evacuees jumping into a reservoir to escape the flames.\nIn May 2019, NPR reported that more than 1,000 families who were displaced by the fire are still looking for housing six months later. Rural northern California has been experiencing a severe housing shortage and growing homelessness crisis, in part due to the fire. Economic The volume of insurance claims overwhelmed Merced Property and Casualty Company, a small insurer founded in 1906, to the point of insolvency (policyholders' surplus $25 million). In response to a notice given by the company, the", "-28.2208219038439" ], [ "Travelers Casualty & Surety Co. of America v. Pacific Gas & Electric Co. Background Before they declared bankruptcy, Pacific Gas & Electric Company (PG&E) purchased surety bonds from Travelers, an insurance company. The bonds obliged Travelers to settle debts PG&E couldn't repay. When PG&E filed a voluntary Chapter 11 bankruptcy petition on April 6, 2001 as a result of the California electricity crisis, Travelers hired attorneys to protect its interests. California law mandated that PG&E cover all attorney fees incurred by Travelers during state court proceedings. The litigation later moved to federal court, where PG&E refused to pay for Travelers'", "-28.217682608403265" ], [ "in liability to $75 million for damages, which can be paid by the fund, but are not indemnified from the cost of cleanup. As of 2010, before payouts related to the Deepwater Horizon drilling rig explosion, the fund stood at $1.6 billion.\nThe hydroelectric industry is not generally held financially liable for catastrophic incidents such as dam failure or resultant flooding. For example, dam operators were not held liable for the 1977 failure of the Teton Dam in Idaho that caused approximately $500 million in property damage.\nWhile many industries have no explicit liability cap, in practice, liability in such industries may", "-28.198915960616432" ], [ "mortgage loans backed by federal agencies such as the FHA and VA. However, the program has never worked as insurance, because of adverse selection. It has never priced people out of living in very risky areas by charging an appropriate premium, instead, too few places are included in the must-insure category, and premiums are artificially low.\" The lack of flood insurance can be detrimental to many homeowners who may discover only after the damage has been done that their standard insurance policies do not cover flooding.\nFlooding is defined by the National Flood Insurance Program (NFIP) as a general and temporary", "-28.194319209549576" ], [ "23, 1905, a small fire in the barber shop of the Windsor Hotel got out of control when the fire engine ran out of water, spreading throughout the city and causing $300,000 in damage, though no lives were lost. Robert Service was working as a bank teller at the time and participated in suppressing the flame. The White Horse Restaurant and Inn was among the buildings destroyed, after its co-founder Frederick Trump, the grandfather of Donald Trump, had sold his shares and left the city.\nIn 1920 the first planes landed in Whitehorse and the first air mail was sent in", "-28.187446175696095" ], [ "the agency was under fire for its disaster loan operation's response to Hurricanes Katrina, Rita, and Wilma. Preston pledged to improve processing and disbursement of SBA disaster loans to storm victims at his confirmation hearing. Ultimately, the agency distributed approximately $6 billion in loans to those victims. Under Preston, SBA completely reworked disaster operations, implementing reforms that cut key processing times for disaster loan applications by up to 90 percent.\nOn the day Preston was sworn in, CBS \"Evening News\" criticized the agency's lax enforcement of small business contracting rules, a failure members of Congress said resulted in more than $12", "-28.178709377651103" ], [ "the CHP. Residents in the area as well as golfers on a nearby course made calls that were later found to have not been reported. Investigations were pending as of Friday July 13. Impacts As of June 28, over $141 million in damage had occurred. 254 homes destroyed, 26 homes damaged and 3,000 evacuations were prompted, making it among the top half-dozen most costly fires in the U.S. As of June 28, the cost to fight the fire has been estimated at $10 million, with $5.5 million spent so far. FEMA will pay 75%. Losses to the tourist-driven economy are estimated/forecast to be", "-28.1779263180797" ], [ "company on three contracts with the U.S. Department of Defense. Three of the company’s nine manufacturing plants were placed under suspension, meaning they could not initiate any new federal contracts. The plants affected were in Lancaster, Pennsylvania, Woburn, Massachusetts and Farmingdale, New York. In addition, a Chicago marketing office was also suspended. At approximately the same time, Herley stock lost approximately 34% of its value, decreasing to $10.06 a share, the lowest since November 1998. In July 2010 the company settled for $10 million USD without admitting any wrongdoing.\nLee N. Blatt retired at the time, and", "-28.170755041734083" ], [ "Administrator with the approval of the President of the United States pursuant to §5(d) of the Reconstruction Finance Corporation Act or 1932, 15 USCA §606(b) for the purpose of providing insurance covering damage to property of American nationals not otherwise available from private insurers arising from \"enemy attack including by the military, naval of air forces of the United States in resisting enemy attack\". Prior to July 1, 1942, the War Damage Corporation provided for such insurance without compensation, but by express Congressional enactment Congress added §5(g) to the Reconstruction Finance Corporation Act, 15 USCA §606(b)(2) requiring that on and", "-28.167615312864655" ], [ "insurance coverage to ensure that their drivers can cover the cost of damage to other people or property in the event of an accident. Some states, such as Wisconsin, have more flexible \"proof of financial responsibility\" requirements.\nCommercial insurance for vehicles owned or operated by businesses functions quite similar to private auto insurance, with the exception that personal use of the vehicle is not covered. Commercial insurance pricing is also usually higher than private insurance, due to the expanded types of coverage offered for commercial users. Insurance providers In the United States in 2017, the largest private passenger vehicle insurance providers", "-28.144672814261867" ], [ "insurance policies to truckers. \"I listened to what the independent truckers complained about, and I solved their problems,\" she said. \"I created something and said, 'Here's what you asked for.' Sale of SIRVA By the time she sold the companies, there were 12,000 members. She was 100 percent owner. The sale to SIRVA was reported to have been for $100 million. (although SEC filings indicate the price was closer to $40 million). SIRVA would sell the insurance business along with Transguard Insurance Company of America, Inc. and Vanguard Insurance Agency, Inc. to IAT Reinsurance Company Ltd. in 2005.\nSince the sale,", "-28.14021751791006" ], [ "fire insurance policy. Insurers enrolled in the JER scheme who have to pay earthquake claims to homeowners share the risk among themselves and also the government, through the JER. The government pays a much larger proportion of the claims if a single earthquake causes aggregate damage of over about 1 trillion yen (about US$8.75 billion). The maximum payout in a single year to all JER insurance claim filers is 5.5 trillion yen (about US$39.4 billion); if claims exceed this amount, then the claims are pro-rated among all claimants. New Zealand New Zealand's Earthquake Commission (EQC) is a", "-28.116954012553833" ], [ "top regulator of that industry. Mills signed landmark settlement agreements with the world’s largest insurer as well as three prominent U.S. insurance brokers, secured auto rate premium reductions, was involved in securing an extension of the federal Terrorism Risk Insurance Act (TRIA) through the end of 2007, and within the Insurance Department itself, created a Corporate Practices Unit within the agency’s Office of General Counsel.\nAfter a New York Post article revealed that Mills had maintained his Assembly campaign account and continued raising funds while Insurance Superintendent, using them for purposes such as paying for a luxury car, dining out and", "-28.111322491400642" ], [ "at $256 million and IAG and other insurers, including Suncorp were likely to reach their maximum event retention level in relation to the storm. International insurer Platinum Underwriters Holdings Ltd expected an $85 million loss from catastrophes including the Chile earthquake, winter storms in Europe and the United States, and the Melbourne hail storm. Car dealerships As a result of the storm, hundreds of cars damaged by hail were expected to be sold for large savings at showrooms and auction houses around Melbourne. One dealer stated that his cars would have to be sold for 20% off their list price", "-28.109336950525176" ], [ "Deposit Insurance Corporation-insured industrial bank which specializes in loans secured by commercial property in Southern California. The thrift, which has a single branch located in Orange, California, offers a liquid account which pays the current T-bill rate. First American Property and Casualty Insurance Company The First American Property & Casualty Insurance Companies offer property and casualty insurance products to home buyers through independent agents and directly through the escrow or closing process First American Home Warranty First American Home Warranty is a leading provider of home warranties offering home buyers and home sellers protection against repairs and replacement on their", "-28.099974931566976" ], [ "the crash. Atlantic Wholesalers and Loblaws argue that they are owed $40,667.86 in damages, and an additional $847.50 to cover the clean-up costs. After extensive press coverage and public backlash, Atlantic Wholesalers and Loblaws attempted to defend their action stating that this action was \"normal insurance procedures follow an accident of this nature\". Public outrage spread and on January 8, 2010, Loblaws dropped the suit for unspecified reasons after enormous public backlash with numerous persons calling for a boycott of the chain. Memorial A memorial for the victims was unveiled on June 6, 2008, at Bathurst High School. An archway", "-28.088608980484423" ], [ "Homeowner's Defense Act Overview The Homeowners’ Defense Act is a bill proposed in the House and Senate in the 111th United States Congress. The bill was proposed by Representative Ron Klein of Florida. The purpose of the law, according to its sponsors, is to ensure availability of homeowners’ insurance for catastrophic events. The legislation would create a National Catastrophe Risk Consortium to monitor and regulate state insurance entities. The Consortium would also be able to issue securities and loans from the U.S. Treasury to provide capital to state-run insurers for catastrophe related risks. Previous forms of the bill have been", "-28.08121781225782" ], [ "to weather analytics firm Planalytics, lost revenue to Houston area retailers and restaurants alone will be approximately $1 billion. The Houston area controls 4% of the spending power in the United States.\nIn September 2017, the Insurance Council of Texas estimated the total insured losses from Hurricane Harvey at $19 billion. This figure represents $11 billion in flood losses insured by the National Flood Insurance Program (NFIP), $3 billion in \"insured windstorm and other storm-related property losses\"; and about $4.75 billion in insured flood losses of private and commercial vehicles. By January 1, 2018, payouts from the NFIP reached $7.6 billion against total", "-28.015349657580373" ], [ "vehicle that caused the disaster. No limit applies to claims from third parties for death or personal injury, however UK car insurance is now commonly limited to £20,000,000 for any claim or series of claims for loss of or damage to third party property caused by or arising out of one incident.\nThe minimum level of insurance cover generally available, and which satisfies the requirement of the Act, is called third party only insurance. The level of cover provided by Third party only insurance is basic, but does exceed the requirements of the act. This insurance covers any liability to third", "-28.008042123285122" ], [ "claim greater than the value of the insured's vehicle, assuming that a rental car may be worth more than the insured's vehicle.\nMost rental car companies offer insurance to cover damage to the rental vehicle. These policies may be unnecessary for many customers as credit card companies, such as Visa and MasterCard, now provide supplemental collision damage coverage to rental cars if the rental transaction is processed using one of their cards. These benefits are restrictive in terms of the types of vehicles covered.\nMaine requires car insurance to rent a car. Collision Collision coverage provides coverage for vehicles involved in collisions.", "-28.005099557427457" ] ]

[ "It goes back to the Stonewall riots in the 60s. Trans people were heavily involved and we kinda all ended up as one movement. Although like the other commenter mentioned some LGB people are transphobic af", "They're bundled because all of those are/were persecuted groups of people related to the issue of sex and sexuality, so they stuck together for solidarity and safety, and to combine resources to campaign for emancipation. Note that it might not be as harmonious as it first appears. Gay and lesbian communities can still be extremely discriminatory against bisexual and transgender people, and BT people are still fighting for recognition within these communities as well as the wider world. Some gay communities also have issues with race related to sexual preference. Just because a person is in a minority, doesn't also mean that they can't be bigoted (though I'm sure most people are perfectly decent).", "Trans and LGB people are associated with each other, because being gay is itself a form of gender variance. There's no general social taboo against sexual or romantic relationships with men - it's only an issue when *men* do so, because by having these relationships they have been considered to be inappropriately \"acting like women\". And there's no general taboo against relationships with women - unless a woman does so, in which case she is taking the \"role of a man\" and that has been considered a problem. For most of the first half of the 20th century neither the law, medical science, nor social attitudes made any meaningful distinction between gay and trans people. People who would now be considered either gay or trans were all considered [**inverts**]( URL_3 ) - people believed to have an inborn reversal of \"natural\" gender traits. A woman who desired other women was considered to be \"sexually male\", a man who desired other men was considered \"sexually female\", while bisexuals were called \"psychosexual hermaphrodites\". A person who was born male, happy as such, and conventionally \"masculine\" in all respects except for his desire for other men, and a person who was born male but identified and lived exclusively as a woman, were considered variations of the same \"inversion.\" The former was seen as \"inverted\" solely in his sexual desires, while the latter was seen as \"inverted\" in all aspects of her personality. Legally, bars were routinely raided and patrons arrested on the grounds that the patrons were seen wearing clothing considered inappropriate for their gender - which was itself a crime. \"Conversion therapy\" meant to make gay people heterosexual focused intensely on gender norms, believing homosexuality to be a form of self-loathing caused by rejection of one's \"natural\" role as a man/woman and over-identification with an opposite-sex parent (the whole \"dominant mothers/absent fathers cause gayness\" idea). The entire idea that there is a strict distinction between gender variance in one's sexual desires, and gender variance in all other areas of one's life, is a relatively recent development. And the social connections between the two are still very much alive. Gay men deemed \"feminine\" and lesbians deemed \"butch\" still face far higher rates of discrimination and attacks than those who can \"pass\" for heterosexual. And \"conversion therapy\" not only still exists, go to any reddit thread about trans kids and you'll see a hell of a lot of people defending it. Not to mention that gender-variant people have been part of the LGBT rights movement from its earliest moments. Hell, the [**Compton's Cafeteria riot**]( URL_0 ) predated Stonewall by three years, and Stonewall itself was instigated in part by trans women and activists [**Marsha P. Johnson and Sylvia Rivera**]( URL_2 ). Sylvia is said to have thrown the first bottle of the riot, and continued very actively working for trans rights until her death in 2002. Stonewall was a riot started and largely fought by street queens. [**Here**]( URL_1 ) is a picture of Sylvia and Marsha at the 1973 Christopher Street Gay Pride Parade, with the Street Transvestite Action Revolutionaries - an organization she and Marsha founded to work with homeless drag queens and transgender women of color in NYC." ]

[ [ "to by everyone that they encompass. For example, some argue that transgender and transsexual causes are not the same as that of lesbian, gay, and bisexual (LGB) people. This argument centers on the idea that being transgender or transsexual have to do more with gender identity, or a person's understanding of being or not being a man or a woman irrespective of their sexual orientation. LGB issues can be seen as a matter of sexual orientation or attraction. These distinctions have been made in the context of political action in which LGB goals, such as same-sex marriage legislation and human", "-39.59790961164981" ], [ "trans man and trans woman. Likewise, the term transsexual commonly falls under the umbrella term transgender, but some transsexual people object to this.\nWhen not inclusive of transgender people, the shorter term LGB is used instead of LGBT. Intersex inclusion The relationship of intersex to lesbian, gay, bisexual and trans, and queer communities is complex, but intersex people are often added to the LGBT category to create an LGBTI community. Some intersex people prefer the initialism LGBTI, while others would rather that they not be included as part of the term. LGBTI is used in all parts of \"The Activist's Guide\"", "-39.19643013530731" ], [ "identity and who reinforce and support that identity. Rather, LGB individuals are often raised in communities that are either ignorant of or openly hostile toward homosexuality.\"\nThe British gay rights activist Peter Tatchell has argued that the term gay is merely a cultural expression which reflects the current status of homosexuality within a given society, and claiming that \"Queer, gay, homosexual ... in the long view, they are all just temporary identities. One day, we will not need them at all.\"\nIf a person engages in sexual activity with a partner of the same sex but does not self-identify as gay, terms such", "-39.124388630792964" ], [ "specific agenda to obtain equality. Instead, they are often considered an obscure and misunderstood subgroup of the gay community.” Many individuals in the LBG community do not identity with transgender people, and believe that gay rights and transgender rights should be separated. This view stems from many reasons, including the difference between sexual identity and gender identity, and whether each is considered a “choice” or not.\nGay rights advocate John Aravosis said, \"But when [the gay community is] asked—well, told—to put our civil rights on hold, possibly for the next two decades, until America catches up on its support for trans", "-37.84855505806627" ], [ "of bisexual orientations and of transsexuality, sometimes leading public biphobia and transphobia. In contrasts to separatists, Peter Tatchell of the LGBT human rights group OutRage! argues that to separate the transgender movement from the LGB would be \"political madness\", stating that: \n\nQueers are, like transgender people, gender deviant. We don't conform to traditional heterosexist assumptions of male and female behaviour, in that we have sexual and emotional relationships with the same sex. We should celebrate our discordance with mainstream straight norms.[...] \n\nThe portrayal of an all-encompassing \"LGBT community\" or \"LGB community\" is also disliked by some lesbian, gay, bisexual,", "-37.75498219858855" ], [ "bisexual only addresses the physical, biological sex of the people involved, not the gender-presentation.\" According to the National Center for Transgender Equality, 25% of American transgender people identify as bisexual.\nScholar Shiri Eisner states that terms such as pansexual, omnisexual, polysexual, queer, etc. are being used in place of the term bisexual because \"bisexuality, it's been claimed, is a gender binary, and therefore oppressive, word\" and that \"the great debate is being perpetuated and developed by bisexual-identified transgender and genderqueer people on the one hand, and non-bi-identified transgender and genderqueer people on the other.\" Eisner argues that \"the allegations of binarism", "-37.22263076597301" ], [ "framed LGBT, others \"whose sexual orientation and/or gender identity varies, those who may not self-identify as LGBT\" and also intersex populations (as persons with disorders of sex development) as \"sexual and gender minority\" (SGM) populations. This has led to the development of an NIH SGM Health Research Strategic Plan. Variations on LGBT Another variant is LGBTQIA, which is used, for example, by the \"Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Transgender, Queer, Intersex, Asexual Resource Center\" at the University of California, Davis. Intersex and children's rights Kimberly Zieselman of interACT has described how the LGBT community has helped open doors, but how intersex rights", "-37.20072476059431" ], [ "of \"asexual\" as a form of asexual erasure. There is also the acronym QUILTBAG (queer and questioning, intersex, lesbian, transgender and two-spirit, bisexual, asexual and ally, and gay and genderqueer).\n Similarly LGBTIQA+ stands for \"lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, intersex, queer/questioning, asexual and many other terms (such as non-binary and pansexual)\".\nIn Canada, the community is sometimes identified as LGBTQ2 (Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Transgender, Queer and Two Spirit). Depending on the which organization is using the acronym the choice of acronym changes. Businesses and the CBC often simply employ LGBT as a proxy for any longer acronym, private activist groups", "-37.18752681964543" ], [ "Gender Minority Research Office and numerous professional and academic institutions have adopted this term.\nSexual and gender minority is an umbrella term that encompasses populations included in the acronym \"LGBTI\" (lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender and intersex), and those whose sexual orientation or gender identity varies. It includes those who may not self-identify as LGBTI (e.g., queer, questioning, two-spirit, asexual, men who have sex with men, gender variant), or those who have a specific medical condition affecting reproductive development (e.g., individuals with differences or disorders of sex development, who sometimes identify as intersex). Origins The term sexual minority was coined most likely", "-36.80553201401199" ], [ "bisexual community).\nSome use LGBT+ to mean \"LGBT and related communities\". LGBTQIA is sometimes used and adds \"queer, intersex, and asexual\" to the basic term.\nOther variants may have a \"U\" for \"unsure\"; a \"C\" for \"curious\"; another \"T\" for \"transvestite\"; a \"TS\", or \"2\" for \"two-spirit\" persons; or an \"SA\" for \"straight allies\". However, the inclusion of straight allies in the LGBT acronym has proven controversial as many straight allies have been accused of using LGBT advocacy to gain popularity and status in recent years, and various LGBT activists have criticised the heteronormative worldview of certain straight allies. Some may", "-36.696404370712116" ], [ "and/or gender, not necessarily at the same time, not necessarily in the same way, and not necessarily to the same degree.\"\n\nAccording to Rosario, Schrimshaw, Hunter, Braun (2006):\n...the development of a lesbian, gay, or bisexual (LGB) sexual identity is a complex and often difficult process. Unlike members of other minority groups (e.g., ethnic and racial minorities), most LGB individuals are not raised in a community of similar others from whom they learn about their identity and who reinforce and support that identity. Rather, LGB individuals are often raised in communities that are either ignorant of or openly hostile toward homosexuality.\nBisexuality as", "-36.268755580760626" ], [ "LGB individuals together with heterosexual, non-trans people may problematically suggest that LGB individuals, unlike transgender individuals, \"experience no mismatch between their own gender identity and gender expression and cultural expectations regarding gender identity and expression\". From intersex organizations Intersex people are born with atypical physical sex characteristics that can complicate initial sex assignment and lead to involuntary or coerced medical treatment. The term cisgender \"can get confusing\" in relation to people with intersex conditions though some intersex people use the term, according to the Interact Advocates for Intersex Youth Inter/Act project. Hida Viloria of Intersex Campaign for Equality notes that,", "-36.23369176196866" ], [ "that LGBT persons should not have the same protections accorded to persons based on race or religion, writing \"[should] sodomy be elevated to the same constitutional status as race and religion? My answer is No.\" In 2015, a Bush spokesperson said that the op-ed \"does not reflect Governor Bush's views now, nor would he use this terminology today.\"\nIn his 1995 book, Profiles in Character, Bush described the \"gay rights movement,\" \"feminist movement,\" and \"black empowerment movement\" as \"modern victim movements\" which \"have attempted to get people to view themselves as part of a smaller group deserving of something from society.\"", "-36.231046625529416" ], [ "often employ LGBTQ+, whereas public health providers favour the more inclusive LGBT2Q+ to accommodate twin spirited indigenous peoples. For a time the Pride Toronto organization used the much lengthier acronym LGBTTIQQ2SA, but appears to have dropped this in favour of simpler wording. Transgender inclusion The term trans* has been adopted by some groups as a more inclusive alternative to \"transgender\", where trans (without the asterisk) has been used to describe trans men and trans women, while trans* covers all non-cisgender (genderqueer) identities, including transgender, transsexual, transvestite, genderqueer, genderfluid, non-binary, genderfuck, genderless, agender, non-gendered, third gender, two-spirit, bigender, and", "-36.23076631198637" ], [ "community and young gender-variant women.\nIn the early 1970s, conflicts began to emerge due to different syntheses of lesbian, feminist and transgender political movements, particularly in the United States. San Francisco trans activist and entertainer Beth Elliott became the focus of debate over whether to include transgender lesbians in the movement, and she was eventually blacklisted by her own movement. Bisexual communities and binarism One view is that the word bisexual is transphobic, as \"bi\" means \"two\" (thus implying a belief in the binary view of gender). Some people, such as scholar Shiri Eisner, say that some make the claim that", "-35.95494303299347" ], [ "help from others, especially when their orientation is not accepted in society. Sometimes they do not inform their own families.\nAccording to Rosario, Schrimshaw, Hunter, Braun (2006), \"the development of a lesbian, gay, or bisexual (LGB) sexual identity is a complex and often difficult process. Unlike members of other minority groups (e.g., ethnic and racial minorities), most LGB individuals are not raised in a community of similar others from whom they learn about their identity and who reinforce and support that identity\" and \"[r]ather, LGB individuals are often raised in communities that are either ignorant of or openly hostile toward homosexuality.\"\nSome", "-35.947333125557634" ], [ "is alienating; the term itself implies estrangement from straight people as a separate group. Further, including three groups involved with sexuality and one group exploring transsexual/transgender identity (a broader phenomenon) is artificial.\nMattilda Berstein Sycamore argues that the single-issue focus of LGBT politics, which ignores all intra-group differences, has naturally led to a movement and culture focused on the needs of white, middle-class gay cisgender men, which alienates anyone who does not fit that description. Cultural focus on promiscuity Some gay male commentators who are in monogamous relationships argue that mainstream gay culture's disdain of monogamy and its promotion of promiscuity", "-35.923309262725525" ], [ "lives as ordinary men and women and not the adoption of new, misleading identity. ... To make it worse, the word \"intersex\" began to attract individuals who are not necessarily intersex, but feel that they might be, because they are queer or trans. ... Fortunately, the intersex movement did not rely solely on queer identity model for its strategies. Queer heterosexuality Queer is sometimes expanded to include any non-normative sexuality, including (cisgender) \"queer heterosexuality\". This has been criticized by some LGBT people, who argue that queer can only be reclaimed by those it has been used to oppress: \"For someone", "-35.81455364040448" ], [ "and gender minority are often not preferred by LGBTQ people, as they represent clinical categories rather than individual identity.\nThough lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and queer (LGBTQ) people have existed throughout human history, LGBT rights movements across many western countries led to the recognition of LGBTQ people as members of a minority group. LGBTQ people represent a numerical and social minority. They experience numerous social inequalities stemming from their group membership as LGBTQ people. These inequalities include social discrimination and isolation, unequal access to healthcare, employment, and housing, and experience negative mental and physical health outcomes due to these experiences. People", "-35.79531806893647" ], [ "so as to explicitly include all people who are not cisgender and heterosexual; or gender, sexual, and romantic minorities (GSRM), which is more explicitly inclusive of minority romantic orientations and polyamory; but those have not been widely adopted either. Other rare umbrella terms are Gender and Sexual Diversities (GSD), MOGII (Marginalized Orientations, Gender Identities, and Intersex) and MOGAI (Marginalized Orientations, Gender Alignments and Intersex).\nThe National Institutes of Health have framed LGBT, others \"whose sexual orientation and/or gender identity varies, those who may not self-identify as LGBT\" and also intersex populations (as persons with disorders of sex development) as \"sexual and", "-35.792619968764484" ], [ "have little to do with bisexuality's actual attributes or bisexual people's behavior in real life\" and that the allegations are a political method to keep the bisexual and transgender movements separated, because of those who believe that bisexuality ignores or erases the visibility of transgender and genderqueer people.\nThe American Institute of Bisexuality argues that \"terms like pansexual, polysexual, omnisexual, and ambisexual also describe a person with homosexual and heterosexual attractions, and therefore people with those labels are also bisexual\" and that \"by replacing the prefix bi – (two, both) with pan- (all), poly- (many), omni- (all), ambi- (both, and implying", "-35.76003785734065" ], [ "and failing to acknowledge that many intersex people are not LGBT. Organisation Intersex International Australia states that some intersex individuals are same sex attracted, and some are heterosexual, but \"LGBTI activism has fought for the rights of people who fall outside of expected binary sex and gender norms.\" Julius Kaggwa of SIPD Uganda has written that, while the gay community \"offers us a place of relative safety, it is also oblivious to our specific needs\". Mauro Cabral has written that transgender people and organizations \"need to stop approaching intersex issues as if they were trans issues\" including use of intersex", "-35.692400213491055" ], [ "has written that, while the gay community \"offers us a place of relative safety, it is also oblivious to our specific needs\". Mauro Cabral has written that transgender people and organizations \"need to stop approaching intersex issues as if they were trans issues\" including use of intersex as a means of explaining being transgender; \"we can collaborate a lot with the intersex movement by making it clear how wrong that approach is\".\nPidgeon Pagonis states that adding an I to LGBTQA may or may not help increase representation, and may increase funding opportunities for intersex organizations, but may also be harmful", "-35.67341631621821" ], [ "gay transgender people were treated poorly by cisgender gay individuals because they were thought to have made the choice to be gay. Therefore, the gay community's display of transphobia and heterosexism creates inequality.\nAccording to Tyler Curry, the senior editor of HIV Equal Online and an award-winning LGBT columnist, “As we continue to progress in the fight for equal rights, it has become apparent that the “T” in LGBT is being neglected as gay men and women continue to take precedence. By being part of the same-sex acronym, trans individuals are rarely recognized as a unique group that requires its own", "-35.63699318515137" ], [ "male) side of the gender spectrum.\nThe term transsexual originated in the medical and psychological communities. However, unlike the term transgender, transsexual is not an umbrella term, and many transgender people do not identify as such. Transsexual is a term for AFAB and assigned male at birth (AMAB) people alike who feel their sex organs do not reflect their gender and have chosen to change some aspect of their body; it is an older term, with GLAAD stating that it is \"still preferred by some people who have permanently changed – or seek to change – their bodies through medical interventions", "-35.43561230128398" ], [ "and politics Several LGBT social movements around the world use the identifier queer, such as the Queer Cyprus Association in Cyprus and the Queer Youth Network in the United Kingdom. In India, pride parades include Queer Azaadi Mumbai and the Delhi Queer Pride Parade. The use of queer and Q is also widespread in Australia, including national counselling and support service Qlife and Q News.\nOther social movements exist as offshoots of queer culture or combinations of queer identity with other views. Adherents of queer nationalism support the notion that the LGBT community forms a distinct people due to their unique", "-35.4174626373715" ], [ "rights, a lot of gay people don't feel sufficiently vested in trans rights, sufficiently vested in the T being affixed to the LGB, to agree to such a huge sacrifice for people they barely know.\" Transgender people's legal rights in the United States There is currently no transgender discrimination against someone trying to change their name due to their gender identity. Changing the birth certificate requires either proof of surgical treatment or a court order in favor of the change (depending on the state), but still in some states this right will not be granted. A person can also change", "-35.28641312129912" ], [ "means \"denoting or relating to a person whose sense of personal identity and gender does not correspond with their birth sex.\" However, Heidi M Levitt describes transgender as \"different ways in which people transgress the gender boundaries that are constituted within a society.\" She then describes how one must understand the difference between sex and gender in order to fully understand transgender. She argues that sex is biological whereas \"gender is a social construct.\" Thus people who are transgender express themselves differently than their biological sex. In contrast, Levitt explains that \"transsexual people have a sexual identity that does not", "-35.28026675846195" ], [ "showed that transgender people reinforced the idea of heteronormativity, seen in their gender practices and beliefs. Although, there are also transgender people that are set on a path to challenge Western traditional beliefs in gender roles and sexual differences within relationships. Other LGBT groups Several other segments of the LGBTQ+ community have their own communities and cultures, including the deaf queer community. Queer women of color Race, gender, and class can shape the representation and politics of the queer movement and queer identities. According to one study that interviewed 25 Latina and Asian/Pacific Islander women, queer women of color", "-35.26966745001846" ], [ "also be \"discussed in terms of three categories: heterosexual (having emotional, romantic, or sexual attractions to members of the other sex), gay/lesbian (having emotional, romantic, or sexual attractions to members of one's own sex), and bisexual (having emotional, romantic, or sexual attractions to both men and women).\"\nAccording to Rosario, Schrimshaw, Hunter, Braun (2006), \"the development of a lesbian, gay, or bisexual (LGB) sexual identity is a complex and often difficult process. Unlike members of other minority groups (e.g., ethnic and racial minorities), most LGB individuals are not raised in a community of similar others from whom they learn about their", "-35.24078972131247" ], [ "1999. Transgender culture The study of transgender and transsexual culture is complicated by the many ways in which cultures deal with sexual identity/sexual orientation and gender. For example, in many cultures people who are attracted to people of the same sex—that is, those who in contemporary Western culture would identify as gay, lesbian or bisexual—are classed as a third gender with people who would (in the West) be classified as transgender.\nIn the contemporary West there are different groups of transgender and transsexual people, such as groups for transsexual people who want sex reassignment surgery, male, heterosexual-only cross-dressers and Trans men's", "-35.228714982979" ], [ "marks a social and political divide in the LGBT community between those (including civil-rights activists) who perceive themselves as \"normal\" and who wish to be seen as ordinary members of society and those who see themselves as separate, confrontational and not part of the ordinary social order. \nOther LGBT people disapprove of reclaiming or using queer because they consider it offensive, derisive or self-deprecating because use by heterosexuals as a pejorative continues to this day, and some LGBT people avoid queer because they perceive it as faddish slang, or alternatively as academic jargon. Intersex and queer identities Scholars and activists", "-35.22668633630383" ], [ "transsexual or non-homosexual transsexual. Psychobiologist James D. Weinrich has described this split among psychologists: \"The mf transsexuals who are attracted to men (whom some call 'homosexual' and others call 'androphilic') are in the lower left-hand corner of the XY table, in order to line them up with the ordinary homosexual (androphilic) men in the lower right. Finally, there are the mf transsexuals who are attracted to women (whom some call heterosexual and others call gynephilic or lesbian).\"\nThe use of homosexual transsexual and related terms have been applied to transgender people since the middle of the 20th century, though concerns about", "-35.191142768831924" ], [ "from stigma. Leavitt and Berger stated in 1990 that \"The homosexual transsexual label is both confusing and controversial among males seeking sex reassignment. Critics argue that the term \"homosexual transsexual\" is \"heterosexist\", \"archaic\", and demeaning because it labels people by sex assigned at birth instead of their gender identity. Benjamin, Leavitt, and Berger have all used the term in their own work. Sexologist John Bancroft also recently expressed regret for having used this terminology, which was standard when he used it, to refer to transsexual women. He says that he now tries to choose his words more sensitively. Sexologist Charles", "-35.16708052105969" ], [ "men. Rodriguez asserts that bisexuality was regarded as anti-feminist by many lesbians because of the implied \"desires for penetration, sexual dominance, and submission,\" and gender roles. Bisexual vilification and erasure by the community may not be as open and prevalent today, but identifying as bisexual can still lead to exclusion and erasure in many lesbian spaces.\nIn 2013, a study published in the Journal of Bisexuality surveyed thirty people who identified as part of the lesbian, gay, queer or bisexual communities and their individual experiences with coming out. Ten of these people reported that they claimed the label of bisexuality", "-35.10980579597526" ], [ "may well change.\"\nThe term pansexuality is sometimes used interchangeably with bisexuality, and, similarly, people who identify as bisexual may \"feel that gender, biological sex, and sexual orientation should not be a focal point in potential [romantic/sexual] relationships.\" In one study analyzing sexual identities described as alternative terms for bisexual or bi-self labels, \"half of all bisexual and bisexual-identified respondents also chose alternative self-labels such as queer, pansexual, pansensual, polyfidelitous, ambisexual, polysexual, or personalized identities such as 'byke' or 'biphilic'\". Polysexuality is similar to pansexuality in definition, meaning \"encompassing more than one sexuality,\" but not necessarily encompassing all sexualities. This is", "-35.10387788468506" ], [ "view terms such as \"gay\" and \"lesbian\" as vestiges of white Eurocentric dominance, and defined \"gay\" as \"the mainstream white (patriarchal) homosexual community.\"\nAccording to Manago, \"In the midst of a need for affirmation and acknowledgment from the \"gay\" community, same-gender-loving Black people are subject to sexual objectification, discrimination, white supremacist treatment and indifference.\" The SGL movement also objects to the pink triangle, the rainbow flag and the lambda symbol, which they view as symbols of white gayness, \"none of which is African- or black-identified.\"", "-35.03369502094574" ], [ "because of the biblical mandate of Jesus Christ that we are all created equal in God's sight, and in recognition of the presence of the lesbian minority in EWCI, EWCI takes a firm stand in favor of civil rights protection for homosexual persons.\"\nA survey of self-identified lesbian women found a \"dissonance\" between their religious and sexual identities. This dissonance correlated with being an evangelical Christian before coming out. Bisexuality Very few churches have released statements about bisexuality, and research into the bisexual Christian community has been affected by the fact that bisexual Christians are often considered the same as lesbian", "-35.01538496624562" ], [ "Intersex can also be contrasted with transgender, which describes the condition in which one's gender identity does not match one's assigned sex. Some people are both intersex and transgender. A 2012 clinical review paper found that between 8.5% and 20% of people with intersex variations experienced gender dysphoria. LGBT and LGBTI The relationship of intersex to lesbian, gay, bisexual and trans, and queer communities is complex, but intersex people are often added to LGBT to create an LGBTI community. This initialism is used in all parts of The Activist's Guide of the Yogyakarta Principles in Action.\nJulius Kaggwa of SIPD Uganda", "-35.00963321243762" ], [ "and transgender people. Some do not subscribe to or approve of the political and social solidarity, and visibility and human rights campaigning that normally goes with it including gay pride marches and events. Some of them believe that grouping together people with non-heterosexual orientations perpetuates the myth that being gay/lesbian/bi/asexual/pansexual/etc. makes a person deficiently different from other people. These people are often less visible compared to more mainstream gay or LGBT activists. Since this faction is difficult to distinguish from the heterosexual majority, it is common for people to assume all LGBT people support LGBT liberation and the visibility of", "-34.984126613417175" ], [ "of Bisexuality, say that the term \"is an open and inclusive term for many kinds of people with same-sex and different-sex attractions\" and that \"the scientific classification bisexual only addresses the physical, biological sex of the people involved, not the gender-presentation.\"\nIn order to deal with issues related to transphobia and the gender binary, many individuals have taken on terms such as pansexual, omnisexual (an alternative word for pansexual) or polysexual in place of the term bisexual. The American Institute of Bisexuality argues that these terms \"describe a person with homosexual and heterosexual attractions, and therefore people with these labels are", "-34.9336468114052" ], [ "educational institutions\", which are entitled to discriminate on the basis of religious belief or sexuality in the area of employment.\nFederal law also protects LGBT and intersex people in the Northern Territory in the form of the Sex Discrimination Amendment (Sexual Orientation, Gender Identity and Intersex Status) Act 2013. Transgender rights Transgender individuals are entitled to have their name and birth certificate amended to reflect their gender identity and transgender status.\nFollowing the federal legalisation of same-sex marriage in December 2017, the Northern Territory followed several other states and territories in updating their laws relating to transgender people. On 29 November 2018,", "-34.926846343209036" ], [ "are less religious or who do not share their local dominant religious context. Many argue that it is homosexual actions which are sinful, rather than same-sex attraction itself. To this end, some discourage labeling individuals according to sexual orientation. Several organizations exist that assert that conversion therapy can help diminish same-sex attraction.\nHowever, some adherents of many religions view the two sexual orientations positively, and some religious denominations may bless same-sex marriages and support LGBT rights, and the amount of those that do are continuously increasing around the world as much of the developed world enacts laws supporting LGBT rights.\nHistorically, some", "-34.90552210833994" ], [ "what trans people feel about what their gender is, and should be, is itself “constructed” and, therefore, not real. And then the feminist police comes along\".\nJeffreys stated in a 2014 ABC Radio \"Sunday Night Safran\" program that transsexual women are either \"homosexual men who don’t feel they can be homosexual in the bodies of men\" or \"heterosexual men who have a sexual interest in wearing women’s clothes and having the appearance of women\", provoking criticism from members of the Indigenous and trans communities for racism and transphobia.\nIn March 2018, addressing an audience at the House of Commons in a presentation", "-34.90128255455056" ], [ "usually raised and enculturated as a cisgender heterosexual member of the assigned sex, which may or may not match their emergent gender identity throughout life or some remaining sex characteristics (for example, chromosomes, genes or internal sex organs). Transgender people Transgender people experience a mismatch between their gender identity and their assigned sex. Transgender is also an umbrella term because, in addition to including trans men and trans women whose binary gender identity is the opposite of their assigned sex (and who are sometimes specifically termed transsexual if they desire medical assistance to transition), it may include genderqueer people (whose", "-34.85857957570988" ], [ "Court history when bisexuals were mentioned alongside gays and lesbians bisexuality has not been mentioned in Supreme Court opinions or briefs in major LGBT rights cases, which often describe gays and lesbians as being exclusively affected by sexual orientation discrimination.\nWhile courts have begun to increasingly use the term same-sex in litigation involving sexual minority groups, this term is still used interchangeably with gay, lesbian, and homosexual, therefore erasing the bisexual contingent. Nancy Marcus uses the monumental Obergefell v. Hodges case that grants same-sex marriage rights as an example of nearly complete bisexuality erasure despite efforts, including an amicus brief", "-34.842873967194464" ], [ "denying that bisexuality exists. It is often a manifestation of biphobia, although it does not necessarily involve overt antagonism.\nThere is increasing inclusion and visibility of bisexuals, particularly in the LGBT community. American psychologist Beth Firestone writes that since she wrote her first book on bisexuality, in 1996, \"bisexuality has gained visibility, although progress is uneven and awareness of bisexuality is still minimal or absent in many of the more remote regions of our country and internationally.\" Symbols A common symbol of the bisexual community is the bisexual pride flag, which has a deep pink stripe at the top for", "-34.837460614799056" ], [ "including cyberfeminism works, porn films like I.K.U. which feature transgender cyborg hunters and \"Sharing is Sexy\", an \"open source porn laboratory\", using social software, creative commons licensing and netporn to explore queer sexualities beyond the male/female binary. Racism Within the LGBTQ community, there lies a distinguishing marker between those who just identify as LGBTQ and those who identify with both an oppressed race alongside being LGBTQ. In \"Punks, Bulldaggers, and Welfare Queens\", Cathy Cohen critiques modern day queer politics, arguing that lack of recognition of LGBTQ people who face other forms of oppression results in many queers not being supported", "-34.75655303528765" ], [ "Transgender inequality Common misconceptions A common misconception is that a transgender person is therefore gay. However, being transgender focuses on gender identity and not sexual orientation. A transgender person may identify with any sexual orientation. Another important misconception is that individuals who crossdress are transgender. However, many crossdressers are comfortable with their assigned sex. Even though individuals who participate in crossdressing are officially under the Transgender Umbrella, most do not identify as transgender.\nThe status of transgenderism as a mental disorder is widely disputed. Many transgender people experience gender dysphoria, which is a disconnect between one's assigned sex at birth and", "-34.75248959080636" ], [ "use it as a source of \"pride and power\". In this, he compared it to the gay liberation movement's reappropriation of the term \"queer\", which had formerly been used only as a term of homophobic abuse. He suggested that part of the term's appeal resided in the fact that a large proportion of Pagan converts were raised in Christian families, and that by embracing the term \"pagan\" – a word long used in reference to that which was \"rejected and reviled by Christian authorities\" – these converts are summarizing \"in a single word his or her definitive break\" from Christianity.", "-34.703029131749645" ], [ "of LGBTQ identities in the curriculum through the privileging of heterosexual identities. In a quote from Gust Yep, heteronormativity is the \"presumption and assumption that all human experience is unquestionably and automatically heterosexual\". Laws such as \"No Promo Homo\" that prohibit the mention of or teaching about LGBTQ identities are considered to work to reinforce the hidden curriculum of heteronormativity. In addition to No Promo Homo laws, currently over half of the states in the U.S. are not legally mandated to have any sexual education. According to Mary Preston, the lack of sexual education in schools removes LGBTQ identities from", "-34.67788598459447" ], [ "no longer needs to refer to any specific sexual orientation at all; that it is now only about disrupting the mainstream, with author David M. Halperin arguing that straight people may now also self-identify as \"queer,\" which some believe, is a form of cultural appropriation which robs gays and lesbians of their identity and makes invisible and irrelevant the actual, lived experience that causes them to be marginalized in the first place. \"It desexualizes identity, when the issue is precisely about a sexual identity.\" See Queer heterosexuality.\nSome supporters of identity politics take stances based on Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak's work (namely,", "-34.66187309741508" ], [ "Homonormative is the replication of a normative heterosexual lifestyle excluding sexuality.\nQueer Nation is a group that fights for the rights of LGBT people. They staged a kiss in where they had different people of LGBT kiss in the mall in front of cameras. However, news media channels chose to only cover people of LGBT that were white and middle class. Marketing to the LGBT community The gay community has been targeted by marketers who view LGBT people as an untapped source of discretionary spending, as many couples have two income streams and no children. As a result, companies are advertising", "-34.65291447173513" ], [ "including creating false impressions \"that intersex people's rights are protected\" by laws protecting LGBT people, and failing to acknowledge that many intersex people are not LGBT. Julius Kaggwa of SIPD Uganda has written that, while the gay community \"offers us a place of relative safety, it is also oblivious to our specific needs\". Mauro Cabral has written that transgender people and organizations \"need to stop approaching intersex issues as if they were trans issues\" including use of intersex as a means of explaining being transgender; \"we can collaborate a lot with the intersex movement by making it clear how wrong", "-34.599680930841714" ], [ "personal sense of gender identity taking precedence over biological sex, rather than the other way around.\" Bagemihl goes on to take issue with the way this terminology makes it easy to claim transsexuals are really homosexual males seeking to escape from stigma. Gender, transgender, cisgender, and conformance The earliest writers on sexual orientation usually understood it to be intrinsically linked to the subject's own sex. For example, it was thought that a typical female-bodied person who is attracted to female-bodied persons would have masculine attributes, and vice versa. This understanding was shared by most of the significant theorists of sexual", "-34.5765735412715" ], [ "Sexual minority A sexual minority is a group whose sexual identity, orientation or practices differ from the majority of the surrounding society. Primarily used to refer to LGB individuals, it can also refer to transgender, genderqueer (including third gender) or intersex individuals.\nVariants such as GSM (\"Gender and Sexual Minorities\"), GSSM (\"Gender, Sexual and Sexuality Minorities\") GSRM (\"Gender, Sexual and Romantic Minorities\"), and GSD (\"Gender and Sexual Diversity\") have been considered in academia, but it is SGM (\"Sexual and Gender Minority\") that has gained the most advancement since 2014. In 2015 the NIH announced the formation of the Sexual and", "-34.55623575684149" ], [ "that approach is\".\nOrganisation Intersex International Australia states that some intersex individuals are same sex attracted, and some are heterosexual, but \"LGBTI activism has fought for the rights of people who fall outside of expected binary sex and gender norms\" but, in June 2016, the same organization pointed to contradictory statements by Australian governments, suggesting that the dignity and rights of LGBTI (LGBT and intersex) people are recognized while, at the same time, harmful practices on intersex children continue.\nIn August 2016, Zwischengeschlecht described actions to promote equality or civil status legislation without action on banning \"intersex genital mutilations\" as a form", "-34.53901785341441" ], [ "an ongoing issue. One study has found that approximately 90% of Asian and Pacific Islanders (APIs) who self-identified as LGBT thought homophobia or transphobia to be an issue in the larger API community.\nAccording to Amy Sueyoshi: \"Voices from the queer left, though opposed to homophobia in cultural nationalism, have picked up the protest against the feminization of Asian American men in the gay community. While coming from drastically different perspectives both groups find common ground in supporting a phallocentric standard of Asian American male sexuality.\" United Kingdom There is a widespread assumption that being gay is a phenomenon purely of", "-34.53276502186782" ], [ "identity. In September 2013, the Act was amended to extend protections to transgender and intersex people, whilst also extending protections from offensive conduct to prohibit a person from offending, humiliating, intimidating, insulting or ridiculing another person on the basis of their actual or perceived gender, sexual orientation and/or gender identity.\nFederal law also protects LGBTI people in Tasmania in the form of the Sex Discrimination Amendment (Sexual Orientation, Gender Identity and Intersex Status) Act 2013. Transgender rights In line with its transformation on other LGBT issues, Tasmania's approach to transgender people has changed from strong opposition to one of the most", "-34.524592728121206" ], [ "to intersex children due to stigma associated with being LGBTQA. Organisation Intersex International Australia states that some intersex individuals are same sex attracted, and some are heterosexual, but \"LGBTI activism has fought for the rights of people who fall outside of expected binary sex and gender norms.\" Protecting intersex people in law Emi Koyama describes how inclusion of intersex in LGBTI can fail to address intersex-specific human rights issues, including creating false impressions \"that intersex people's rights are protected\" by laws protecting LGBT people, and failing to acknowledge that many intersex people are not LGBT.\nSouth Africa protects intersex people from", "-34.502863796427846" ], [ "Media and LGBTQ youth of colour in the United States In the United States, LGBTQ youth of colour are marginalized adolescents in the LGBTQ community. Social issues include homelessness; cyberbullying; physical, verbal and sexual abuse; suicide; drug addiction; street violence; immigration surveillance; engagement in high-risk sexual activity; self-harm, and depression. The rights of LGBTQ youth of colour are reportedly not addressed in discussions of sexuality and race in the larger context of LGBTQ rights.\nSpecific issues primarily stem from the framework of intersectionality. LGBTQ youth of colour may experience sexism, homophobia, transphobia, racism, heterosexism, white supremacy or poverty, sometimes simultaneously. Concerns", "-34.484688024633215" ], [ "LGBT General Many variants exist including variations that change the order of the letters; LGBT or GLBT are the most common terms. Although identical in meaning, LGBT may have a more feminist connotation than GLBT as it places the \"L\" (for \"lesbian\") first. LGBT may also include additional Qs for \"queer\" or \"questioning\" (sometimes abbreviated with a question mark and sometimes used to mean anybody not literally L, G, B or T) producing the variants LGBTQ and LGBTQQ. In the United Kingdom, it is sometimes stylized as LGB&T, whilst the Green Party of England and Wales uses", "-34.482421286869794" ], [ "well as to \"a person's sense of identity based on those attractions, related behaviors, and membership in a community of others who share those attractions.\" Therefore, a person can be celibate and still identify as being bisexual or homosexual based on romantic proclivities. Cultural perceptions The population that has come to be referred to as gay in the West is not a descriptive term that would be recognized by all men who have sex with men (MSM) as known in the rest of the world. While gay culture is increasingly open and discussed, the world of MSM consists of a", "-34.48187658533061" ], [ "members of the LGBTI population.\nSociologist Georgiann Davis describes OII and (the now defunct) Intersex Society of North America as \"activist organisations\". The objective of OII is to achieve equality and human rights for intersex people, and end human rights violations against them, particularly the practice of non-consensual genital surgeries on infants and minors. The ethos of the group is that people will hold different views as appropriate to the individual; this often entails treating as optional socially and medically constructed categories such as binary genders and sexual identifications; the identity human being being seen as the fundamental identity. Affiliates Affiliates", "-34.479240931832464" ], [ "laws on lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) issues, for example, same-sex marriage and civil unions, LGBT adoption, recognizing sexual orientation as a protected civil rights minority classification, LGBT military participation, inclusion of LGBT history and themes in public education, introduction of anti-bullying legislation to protect LGBT minors—as well as non-governmental campaigns and individual actions that increase visibility and cultural acceptance of LGBT people, relationships, and identities. The term has also been used by some social conservatives to describe alleged goals of LGBT rights activists, such as supposed recruitment of heterosexuals into a \"homosexual lifestyle\".\nA 1987 essay titled \"The Overhauling", "-34.47302196244709" ], [ "Classification of transsexual and transgender people The classification of transsexual people and people with other gender atypicalities has been done since the mid-1960s. In medicine and psychiatry, terms such as heterosexual and homosexual have been based on a person's sex assignment at birth, which has prompted the increased use of androphilia and gynephilia to avoid terminological confusion and bias. In social, political and medical contexts, the classification is often relative to one's desired sex. DSM-III-R The DSM-III-R, published in 1987, retained the term transsexualism. It was located under \"Disorders Usually First Evident in Infancy, Childhood or Adolescence\". DSM-IV and", "-34.4667287607881" ], [ "Lesbianas, Gays, Transexuales y Bisexuales (FELGTB) is considered to be the model for the organisation. These reasons are why CHA is still a separate entity from FALGBT. Since the legalization of same-sex marriage in 2010, FALGBT has continued to advocate for rights and representation of LGBT people in Argentina. Its other successes include: passing the Gender Identity Law in 2012, which allows people to legally change gender without permission from medical or healthcare providers and also ensures non-binary, transgender, or gender non-conforming individuals get equal access to healthcare; the repealing of the Fault Codes, a collection of laws that \"criminalized", "-34.45790891163051" ], [ "People who have a distinct but not exclusive preference for one sex/gender over the other may also identify themselves as bisexual. Like gay and lesbian individuals, bisexual people who pretend to be heterosexual are often referred to as being closeted.\nPansexuality (also referred to as omnisexuality) may or may not be subsumed under bisexuality, with some sources stating that bisexuality encompasses sexual or romantic attraction to all gender identities. Pansexuality is characterized by the potential for aesthetic attraction, romantic love, or sexual desire towards people without regard for their gender identity or biological sex. Some pansexuals suggest that they are gender-blind;", "-34.4382374486886" ], [ "myself to give it dignity but still open it up to answering questions about Christianity as a faith system.\" Playwright Terrence McNally, a gay man, received death threats when it was played in the United States. 2010 to 2015 In early 2011, members of the organisation unanimously voted to include intersex formally into the organisation at the Annual General Meeting and adopt the formal use of the LGBTQI acronym. To allow for greater inclusion of the LGBTQI community it represents (including those identifying as bisexual, transsexual, queer and intersex), on 17 November 2011 the festival and event organisers changed", "-34.36535194370663" ], [ "among young people.\nThe American LGBT rights organization GLAAD advises the media to avoid using the term homosexual to describe gay people or same-sex relationships as the term is \"frequently used by anti-gay extremists to denigrate gay people, couples and relationships\". History Societal attitudes towards same-sex relationships have varied over time and place, from expecting all males to engage in same-sex relationships, to casual integration, through acceptance, to seeing the practice as a minor sin, repressing it through law enforcement and judicial mechanisms, and to proscribing it under penalty of death.\nIn a detailed compilation of historical and ethnographic materials of preindustrial", "-34.36289432668127" ], [ "relevance to society. There are many groups that are marginalized and underrepresented; however, four specific areas to look at are: LGBTQIA LGBTQIA community, race, and religion. These areas, along with others, represent concepts that make up one's identity. The approach to identity helps to shape the ideas and themes that go into cultural competence training.\nThe acronym LGBTQIAP stands for Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Transsexual, Transgender, Queer, Questioning, Intersex, and Asexual. This particular group of individuals has faced numerous obstacles and has historical events to highlight the inequalities they face such as the Stonewall riots. The Stonewall riots became a symbol for", "-34.34844258185694" ], [ "communities.\nThe blue and pink overlapping triangle symbol represents bisexuality and bi pride. The origin of the symbol, sometimes facetiously referred to as the \"biangles\", is largely unknown, however the colors of bisexuality originate from this symbol: pink for attraction to women, blue for attraction to men, and lavender for attraction to both, as well as a reference to queerness. Intersex Intersex people are those who do not exhibit all the biological characteristics of male or female, or exhibit a combination of characteristics, at birth. Between 0.05% and 1.7% of the population is estimated to have intersex traits.\nThe intersex flag", "-34.316409505681804" ], [ "refer to trans women who are attracted exclusively to men, while \"non-homosexual\" refers to trans women who are attracted to other people than men or who are attracted to neither men nor women. Historical background Observations suggesting that there exist multiple types of transsexualism date back to the beginning of the 20th century. Havelock Ellis used the terms eonism and sexo-aesthetic inversion in 1913 to describe cross-gender feelings and behaviors, and Magnus Hirschfeld observed multiple types of such individuals. Hirschfeld divided cases into five types: homosexual, bisexual, heterosexual, asexual, and \"automonosexual.\" The term automonosexualism was coined by Rohleder", "-34.31167892416124" ], [ "more toward either the heterosexual or gay communities. This has led to difficulty in creating visibility for bisexuality because western culture has created a binary of heterosexual or gay, with very few people choosing to live in both communities.", "-34.26509719208116" ], [ "ambiguity in this case), people who adopt these labels seek to clearly express the fact that gender does not factor into their own sexuality,\" but \"this does not mean, however, that people who identify as bisexual are fixated on gender.\" The institute believes that the notion that if a person identifies as bisexual, then it is a reinforcement of a false gender binary is a notion that \"has its roots in the anti-science, anti-Enlightenment philosophy that has ironically found a home within many Queer Studies departments at universities across the Anglophone world\" and that \"while it is true that our", "-34.263307943037944" ], [ "federal government. Political activism Since the 1960s, many LGBT people in the West, particularly those in major metropolitan areas, have developed a so-called gay culture. To many, gay culture is exemplified by the gay pride movement, with annual parades and displays of rainbow flags. Yet not all LGBT people choose to participate in \"queer culture\", and many gay men and women specifically decline to do so. To some it seems to be a frivolous display, perpetuating gay stereotypes. To some others, the gay culture represents heterophobia and is scorned as widening the gulf between gay and non-gay people.\nWith the outbreak", "-34.2450788874994" ], [ "The Gay City News, \"Dr. Ray Blanchard, a psychiatry professor at the University of Toronto, is deemed offensive for his theories that some types of transsexuality are paraphilias, or sexual urges. In this model, transsexuality is not an essential aspect of the individual, but a misdirected sexual impulse.\" Blanchard responded, \"Naturally, it's very disappointing to me there seems to be so much misinformation about me on the Internet. [They didn't distort] my views, they completely reversed my views.\" Zucker \"rejects the junk-science charge, saying there 'has to be an empirical basis to modify anything' in the DSM. As", "-34.235481069103116" ], [ "people. Organisations that include intersex people as well as LGBT people include the National LGBTI Health Alliance and community media. Also used are the terms LGBTQI, and LGBTQIA, with the A denoting asexual people, and Q queer people. Demographics In 2014, over half a million people or 3.0% of the adult population identified as gay, lesbian or \"other\". This included 268,000 people who identified as gay or lesbian and 255,000 people who identified as having an \"other\" sexual orientation. Same-sex couples In 2011, same-sex couples accounted for 0.7% of the total number of couples. It increased to 0.9% in the", "-34.233660477621015" ], [ "UK, such as Manchester and London, were found by the Naz Project to be more tolerant. Anti-Black racism Many LGBT black people report experiencing racism from the white LGBT community, leading some to repudiate labels such as \"gay\" and connections to white LGBT culture. The term same gender loving was coined by the activist Cleo Manago to describe people of African descent who are attracted to the same sex, as opposed to terms such as \"gay/lesbian\", \"bisexual\", or \"queer\". This term was meant to actively express pride in one's racial heritage.\nEfforts to push gay rights forward alongside the black rights", "-34.223949799197726" ], [ "bisexuals build an identity around their bisexuality, what being a bisexual means socially, and how it relates to other identities such as feminism. One debate is whether or not it is valuable to establish bisexuality as a sexual identity. As author Jennifer Baumgardner writes:\nIt is feminist to understand bisexuality as its own identity too, because it's a chapter of women's history that has been repressed and misunderstood, and one that has contributed substantially to current ideas about queerness\nHowever, the author recognizes that there are also political limitations to identifying as bisexual, saying that:\nThe thing about being bisexual is that you", "-34.2210955261653" ], [ "with shame. Savage writes that gay pride can also lead to disillusionment where an LGBT individual realises the reality that sexual orientation doesn't say much about a person's personality, after being led by the illusion that LGBT individuals are part of a co-supportive and inherently good group of people.\nThe growth and commercialization of Christopher Street Days, coupled with their de-politicalisation, has led to an alternative CSD in Berlin, the so-called \"Kreuzberger CSD\" or \"Transgenialer\" (\"Transgenial\"/Trans Ingenious\") CSD. Political party members are not invited for speeches, nor can parties or companies sponsor floats. After the parade there is a festival with", "-34.20128396525979" ], [ "that:\nBisexuality is good; it is the capacity to love people of either sex. The reason so few of us are bisexual is because society made such a big stink about homosexuality that we got forced into seeing ourselves as either straight or non-straight. Also, many gays go turned off to the ways men are supposed to act with women and vice-versa, which is pretty f---ed-up. Gays will begin to turn on to women when 1) it's something that we do because we want to, and not because we should, and 2) when women's liberation changes the nature of heterosexual relationships.", "-34.163256933912635" ], [ "term \"GAY\" with the \"A\" replaced by a numerical \"0\" to coin a unique term and represent a complete rejection (ZER0'ing out) of Anal-sex & other stereotypes. As explained on the primary website at www.g0ys.org: \"When the term \"GAY\" was coined, --it originally meant \"Same Gender Attracted\".  G0YS have no problem with THAT simple definition. However, -as time passed, the term \"GAY\" became connected with cross-gender behaviors (which is why \"intersexed\" & \"transgender\" ride in the gay-pride passenger seats) & perilous acts such as AnalSex. In many places, the term \"GAY-SEX\" has come to equate \"ANAL-SEX\". G0YS completely reject that", "-34.15461870050058" ], [ "accept the words \"gay\" or \"lesbian\" in an organization's name.\nIn 1988, following the repeal of anti-sodomy laws in Israel, the phrase \"for Gays, Lesbians, and Bisexuals in Israel\" was added to the name. In 1995, the operating name of the organization changed to \"The Association of Gays, Lesbians, and Bisexuals in Israel\", and the term \"Transgender\" was added to the name in 1999.\nThe organization is commonly known by the colloquial names \"The Aguda\" (Hebrew: האגודה‎) (which may also be transliterated in English as \"The Agudah\") or \"The Israeli LGBT Association\" (Hebrew: אגודת הלהט״ב‎).", "-34.14855286119564" ], [ "Sexual inversion (sexology) Theory According to this theory, gay men and lesbians were sexual \"inverts\", people who appeared physically male or female on the outside, but felt internally that they were of the \"opposite\" anatomical sex (according to the binary view of gender). Therefore, same-sex desires and attraction were explained as \"latent heterosexuality\", and bisexual desire was known as psychosexual hermaphroditism – in other words, gay men and lesbians were really just heterosexuals who were \"born in the wrong body\", and \"bisexuals\" were what modern-day sexologists would call intersexuals (formerly hermaphrodites) by this theory (the bisexual person's \"male\" part supposedly", "-34.13160210731439" ], [ "of the Yogyakarta Principles in Action. Emi Koyama describes how inclusion of intersex in LGBTI can fail to address intersex-specific human rights issues, including creating false impressions \"that intersex people's rights are protected\" by laws protecting LGBT people, and failing to acknowledge that many intersex people are not LGBT. Organisation Intersex International Australia states that some intersex individuals are same sex attracted, and some are heterosexual, but \"LGBTI activism has fought for the rights of people who fall outside of expected binary sex and gender norms\". Julius Kaggwa of SIPD Uganda has written that, while the gay community \"offers us", "-34.118335752980784" ], [ "insist on distinguishing themselves from transvestites, it is because transsexuals consider that they were born into the wrong body, whereas transvestites do not experience as deeply internal conflicts in relation to their male bodies.\nThe formal labor market is largely closed to transgender people. An extremely small minority of transvestites have university educations or professional qualifications. With few exceptions, the only professions open to them are nursing, domestic service, hairdressing, gay entertainment, and prostitution. In some cases, even those who work as hairdressers, gay nightclub artists and domestic servants also double as sex workers. In the central, north and northeastern regions", "-34.110517830675235" ], [ "same sex, persons of the opposite sex, or persons of either sex\". In addition, \"not being romantically or sexually attracted to persons of either sex is also a sexual orientation\". Gender identity and expression Transgender persons are allowed to change their legal gender and to have their new gender recognised as a result of the Gender Recognition Act 2009 (c.11).", "-34.100818086997606" ], [ "homosexuality, and bisexuality.\nAs asexuality is relatively new to public discourse, few Christian denominations discuss it and the Bible does not clearly state a view on it. However, some Christians have recently made statements on the subject. In the Christian magazine Vision, David Nantais, S.J. and Scott Opperman, S.J. wrote in 2002, \"Question: What do you call a person who is asexual? Answer: Not a person. Asexual people do not exist. Sexuality is a gift from God and thus a fundamental part of our human identity. Those who repress their sexuality are not living as God created them to be: fully", "-34.094206474750536" ], [ "of that person's biological sex or gender, equating it to or rendering it interchangeable with pansexuality. The concept of pansexuality deliberately rejects the gender binary, the \"notion of two genders and indeed of specific sexual orientations\", as pansexual people are open to relationships with people who do not identify as strictly men or women. Sometimes the phrase \"bisexual umbrella\" is used to describe any nonmonosexual behaviors, attractions, and identities, usually for purposes of collective action and challenging monosexist cultural assumptions.\nThe bisexual activist Robyn Ochs defines bisexuality as \"the potential to be attracted—romantically and/or sexually—to people of more than one sex", "-34.08991876611253" ], [ "in the same category. There are no other articles in the Criminal Code of Transnistria that have laws that are separated in penalizing same-sex sexual activity, or committing 'sodomy and lesbianism.'\nDespite this, LGBT individuals are subject to governmental and societal discrimination. Recognition of same-sex unions Transnistria does not recognize same-sex unions. The Code of Marriage and Family that came into force in 2002 states that marriage is voluntary martial union between a man and a woman. The Code does not recognize other types of partnership for both opposite-sex and same-sex couples other than marriage.", "-34.07766572665423" ], [ "through a sex change. Valerio says that transsexuals are not simply just a branch of lesbian or gay. He asserts that \"transsexual identities must be defined and expressed on our own terms\". In Valerio's opinion, transsexuals voices and experiences, until more recently, are \"unheard and incompletely imagined\".\nThe first section, \"Beginning\", describes Valerio as he begins his transition from female to male. Valerio discusses the physical changes occurring that have allowed him to understand what it feels like to experience biological masculinity. These include physical changes such as his voice becoming deeper and his hair becoming darker and coarser.\nThe second section,", "-34.06890032236697" ], [ "the term LGBTIQ in its manifesto and official publications.\nThe order of the letters has not been standardized; in addition to the variations between the positions of the initial \"L\" or \"G\", the mentioned, less common letters, if used, may appear in almost any order. Longer initialisms based on LGBT are sometimes referred to as \"alphabet soup\". Variant terms do not typically represent political differences within the community, but arise simply from the preferences of individuals and groups.\nThe terms pansexual, omnisexual, fluid and queer-identified are regarded as falling under the umbrella term bisexual (and therefore are considered a part of the", "-34.04368990426883" ], [ "also bisexual\" and that the notion that bisexuality is a reinforcement of a gender binary is a concept that is founded upon \"anti-science, anti-Enlightenment philosophy that has ironically found a home within many Queer Studies departments at universities across the Anglophone world\". Eisner agrees with this view, stating that \"allegations of binarism have little to do with bisexuality's actual attributes or bisexual people's behavior in real life\" and that the allegations are an attempt to separate the bisexual and transgender communities politically. Consequences Whether intentional or not, transphobia and cissexism have severe consequences for the target of the negative attitude.", "-34.03851568582468" ], [ "to the privileging of homosexuality or the assimilation of heteronormative ideals and constructs into LGBTQ culture and individual identity. Specifically, Catherine Connell states that homonormativity \"emphasizes commonality with the norms of heterosexual culture, including marriage, monogamy, procreation, and productivity\". The term is almost always used in its latter sense, and was used prominently by Lisa Duggan in 2003, although transgender studies scholar Susan Stryker, in her article \"Transgender History, Homonormativity, and Disciplinary\", noted that it was also used by transgender activists in the 1990s in reference to the imposition of gay/lesbian norms over the concerns of transgender people. Transgender people", "-34.03608618152862" ], [ "traitors, cop-outs, closet cases, people whose primary goal in life is to retain 'heterosexual privilege'\".\nAlthough some groups or individuals may disapprove of LGBT rights based on religion or social conservatism, the themes of criticism mentioned below may not necessarily imply disapproval of LGBT people or homosexuality by itself. Identity politics Criticism has been made that the LGBTQ+ community represents an artificial separation, rather than one based on tangible customs or ethnic identification. In particular, labels that LGBTQ+ members use to describe themselves vary widely; some simply prefer to identify as loving a particular gender. Some believe that the LGBTQ+-community concept", "-33.949190696002916" ], [ "LGBT multiculturalism is the diversity within the LGBT (lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender) community as a representation of different sexual orientations, gender identities—as well as different ethnic, language, religious groups within the LGBT community. At the same time as LGBT and multiculturalism relation, we may consider the inclusion of LGBT community into a larger multicultural model, as for example in universities, such multicultural model includes the LGBT community together and equal representation with other large minority groups such as African Americans in the United States.\nThe two movements have much in common politically. Both are concerned with tolerance for real differences, diversity,", "-33.9460315311444" ], [ "queer people, who participate in \"institutions of oppression\" at the expense of the vast majority of LGBT people. Some consider the very notion of \"separatism\", or a group lifestyle, alienating (including of LGBTQ+ members in the broader society).\nAnother problem is that bisexual and transsexual/transgender individuals experience social pressure to identify as gay or lesbian, and may face ostracism and discrimination from the mainstream LGBTQ+ culture. For bisexuals, this pressure is known as bisexual erasure. New York University School of Law professor Kenji Yoshino has written, \"Gays de-legitimatize bisexuals...the lesbian and gay community abounds with negative images of bisexuals as fence-sitters,", "-33.945176935754716" ], [ "American, bisexual female. Blasingame used this term to address the lesbian and gay communities who turned a blind eye to the dichotomy that oppressed bisexuals from both heterosexual and homosexual communities. This oppression negatively affects the gay and lesbian communities more so than the heterosexual community due to its contradictory exclusiveness of bisexuals. \nBlasingame argued that in reality dichotomies are inaccurate to the representation of individuals because nothing is truly black or white, straight or gay. Her main argument is that biphobia is the central message of two roots; internalized heterosexism and racism. Internalized heterosexism is described in the monosexual", "-33.941973893903196" ], [ "allows for recognition of not only transgender persons defined as the \"other\" gender under Indian law, but would potentially leave the door open for the recognition of other gender identities. Living conditions There are many avenues for the LGBT community in metro cities for meeting and socialising, although not very openly. These include GayBombay (Mumbai), Good as You (Bangalore), HarmlessHugs (Delhi), Orinam (Chennai), Queerala (Kochi), Queerhythm (Thiruvananthapuram), Mobbera (Hyderabad), Parichay Collective (Bhubaneswar), and Sahodaran (Chennai). Groups focused on LGBT women include ASQ (Bangalore), Labia (Mumbai), Sappho for Equality (Kolkata), Chennai Queer Cafe, among others. Trans-specific groups that are focused on", "-33.930146013794" ] ]

[ "I don't know about the \"causing inflammation more often\" part, but the fingers are specifically chock-full of receptors for stimuli. Fingertips are one of the most touch-sensitive parts of the body. This is why fingertips and nails are used as a specific form of torture, as well. They hurt a lot because there are a lot of receptors there, including for pain.", " URL_0 Here's the classic representation. The size of the body part shows how much it \"communicates\" with the nervous system (sensory = sight, smell, taste, touch, hear; motor = movement).", "May be more likely to get inflamed as the hands/fingers tend to be very dirty so can be prone to infection?", " > skin near the thumb's nail hurt more than any other part of the body I'll say you are a chick", "iirc, it is this idea of the size of your fingers are a small amount of tissue. Its the same reason why a paper cut hurts so much. The inflammation doesn't have much room to spread and so it is very localized to the one area. Source: anatomy and physiology in nursing school Edit: also because of the high amount of sensory nerves we have in the hands. Google the homunculus" ]

[ [ "wounds or open sores on or in his or her mouth, or bleeding gums. Brushing the teeth, flossing, undergoing dental work soon before or after performing oral sex can also increase the risk of transmission, because all of these activities can cause small scratches in the lining of the mouth. These wounds, even when they are microscopic, increase the chances of contracting STIs that can be transmitted orally under these conditions. Such contact can also lead to more mundane infections from common bacteria and viruses found in, around and secreted from the genital regions. Because of the aforementioned factors, medical", "-33.17582984874025" ], [ "rare circumstances.\nFingernail and toenail loss have been reported in children 4–8 weeks after having HFMD. The relationship between HFMD and the reported nail loss is unclear; however, it is temporary and nail growth resumes without treatment.\nMinor complications due to symptoms can occur such as dehydration, due to mouth sores causing discomfort with intake of foods and fluid. Epidemiology Hand, foot and mouth disease most commonly occurs in children under the age of 10. It tends to occur in outbreaks during the spring, summer, and autumn seasons. This is believed to be due to heat and humidity improving spread. HFMD is", "-32.82589605952671" ], [ "In extreme cases, cosmetic mutilation can cause severe pain to the child not just once but at regular intervals, which is the case for neck rings and lip plates. The weight of the rings alters the growth of the ribs, shoulders, and clavicles, and could potentially crush a child’s collarbones. In Myanmar, it is common for girls aged two to five in the Kayan culture to wear brass collars until their collarbone is deformed.\nLip plates can cause infection or malnutrition as the child may not eat due to pain caused by moving her lips.\nTattooing children can result in exposure to", "-32.602836417616345" ], [ "Onychogryphosis Causes Onychogryphosis may be caused by trauma or peripheral vascular disease, but most often secondary to self-neglect and failure to cut the nails for extended periods of time. This condition is most commonly seen in the elderly. Treatment Some recommend avulsion of the nail plate with surgical destruction of the nail matrix with phenol or the carbon dioxide laser, if the blood supply is adequate. Epidemiology Severe congenital onychogryphosis affecting all twenty nailbeds has been recorded in two families who exhibit the dominant allele for a certain gene. Congenital onychogryphosis of the fifth toe (the baby, little, pinky or", "-32.31596258094214" ], [ "than 60 years, and their presence in the nail reflects a slight weakening in the nail's ability to defend itself against fungal invasion. Risk factors Aging is the most common risk factor for onychomycosis due to diminished blood circulation, longer exposure to fungi, and nails which grow more slowly and thicken, increasing susceptibility to infection. Nail fungus tends to affect men more often than women, and is associated with a family history of this infection.\nOther risk factors include perspiring heavily, being in a humid or moist environment, psoriasis, wearing socks and shoes that hinder ventilation and do not absorb perspiration,", "-32.161147248974885" ], [ "skin injuries are common: the absence of grown hair makes nicks, scratches and bruises heal faster because of the reduced microbial population on shaved skin.", "-31.94369611045113" ], [ "be avoided because they may irritate the fresh piercing, and cause additional swelling and trauma during the healing process. Using peroxide, iodine, teatree oil, conventional antibacterial soap, or dish soap can damage or kill the skin in and around the piercing, extending the healing process. The use of Hydrogen peroxide can damage the piercing site more, resulting in irritation of the piercing. The ornament should be periodically cleansed to prevent bacterial plaque accumulation. History and culture Precolumbian cultures of South America historically used lip piercing called Tembetá. Lip piercing continues to be practiced by many people, the most well-known of", "-31.905500701686833" ], [ "No cases of osteomyelitis have been reported. After healing, the nail fold skin remains low and tight at the side of the nail. The Syme procedure In difficult or recurrent cases of Onychocryptosis (Ingrown Toenail) the patient's symptoms persist necessitating a permanent operative solution. The \"Avulsion procedure\" is simple but the surgeon must be skilled enough to accomplish total destruction, and removal of, the nail matrix. Another disadvantage is the long healing and recovery time(> 2 months). In these cases, the best method is the Syme procedure, that means total nail matrix removal + skin flap transfer + phalanx partial", "-31.69887322699651" ], [ "usage of a dental deterrent device that prevents the front teeth from damaging the nails and the surrounding cuticles. After about two months, the device leads to a full oppression of the nail biting urge.\nEvidence on the efficacy of drugs is very limited, and they are not routinely used. A small double-blind randomized clinical trial in children and adolescents indicated that N-acetylcysteine, a glutathione and glutamate modulator, could, in the short term only, be more effective than placebo in decreasing the nail-biting behavior.\nNail cosmetics can help to ameliorate nail biting social effects.\nIndependently of the method used, parental education is useful", "-31.683860068573267" ], [ "injuries are most commonly seen in athletes who participate in contact or high impact sports like football, soccer, or golf. The prevalence rate for traumatic hip injuries that causes a tear of the labrum is very low. Less than 25% of all patients can relate a specific incident to their torn labrum, however they are often a result of a dislocation or fracture. Falling on one’s side causes a blunt trauma to the greater trochanter of the femur. Since there is very little soft tissue to diminish the force between the impact and the greater trochanter, the entire blow", "-31.45788442569028" ], [ "tissues (an anal fissure) or perforation (a hole) in the colon, the latter of which being a serious medical issue that should be remedied by immediate medical attention. Because of the rectum's lack of elasticity, the anal mucous membrane being thin, and small blood vessels being present directly beneath the mucous membrane, tiny tears and bleeding in the rectum usually result from penetrative anal sex, though the bleeding is usually minor and therefore usually not visible. By contrast to other anal sexual behaviors, anal fisting poses a more serious danger of damage due to the deliberate stretching of the anal", "-31.456329730106518" ], [ "where damage to the muscles, nerves, and blood vessels of the eyelid has occurred. More severe injuries require reconstruction, however, this usually results in some loss of function and subsequent surgeries may be necessary to improve structure and function. Microvascular surgery is another method of repair but is rarely used to treat eye avulsions. Sometimes botulinum toxin is injected into the eyelid to paralyze the muscles while the eyelid heals. Nail avulsions Trauma to the nail can cause the nail plate to be torn from the nail bed. Unlike other types of avulsion, when a nail is lost, it is", "-31.387439884711057" ], [ "women, as repeated shaving can make the skin of the upper lip tougher and harder to pierce. The orbicularis oris (the sphincter muscle around the mouth) is used in the playing of brass and woodwind instruments; as a result, players of these instruments tend to have a larger muscle around the mouth and may experience more discomfort during the piercing process.\nAs with similar piercings, monroes can cause long-term damage to the gums and teeth. The back-disk of metal jewellery worn in this piercing rubs against them, potentially resulting in gum recession or damage to tooth enamel. Plastic labret-studs are available", "-31.38471684317483" ], [ "damage, which is the damaging of blood vessels or nerves in the dermis or dermal layer. This is more likely to happen when the piercing is done by someone who is not a professional. If the piercing is too deep, the skin layers may pull together, resulting in embedding. Shallow piercings will result in migration or rejection. The last risk is bacterial infection, which occurs when the equipment used is not sterilized, or the piercing is not well cared for during the healing process. Pus and inflammation may develop if the piercing becomes infected, however, careful cleaning and aftercare can", "-31.37474287772784" ], [ "produce a sticky white discharge or a crust around the jewellery during the healing process. Complications, when reported, are usually fixed with a short-term round of antibiotics. A light bruise is common, due to the high amount of capillaries in the eyebrow and the proximity to the surface of the skin. Sudden pain in the area of the piercing could be a potential sign of infection, and should be checked by a professional immediately. History and culture Body piercing has been performed in many cultures for millennia, usually as part of a rite of passage or to identify", "-31.36648523627082" ], [ "a metal ball or a jewel on the outer-end. The lip can often swell considerably after the piercing and will need both facial and oral aftercare to keep both sides of the jewelry clean at all times. Monroes, like all piercings, are prone to infection and it is vital that the piercing is cleaned regularly. Scarring is minimal to none if properly taken care of. Health impacts An advantage of a monroe piercing is that the lip area generally heals faster than other piercings. The estimated healing time given by professional piercers for this type of lip piercing is", "-31.29343791298743" ], [ "can weaken the skin, and lead to tearing of the skin.", "-31.222104375134222" ], [ "friction, this can result in pain, itching, or hypertrophic scarring.", "-31.17516362978313" ], [ "Hypertrophic scar Cause Mechanical tension on a wound has been identified as a leading cause for hypertrophic scar formation.\nWhen a normal wound heals, the body produces new collagen fibres at a rate which balances the breakdown of old collagen. Hypertrophic scars are red and thick and may be itchy or painful. They do not extend beyond the boundary of the original wound, but may continue to thicken for up to six months. They usually improve over one or two years, but may cause distress due to their appearance or the intensity of the itching; they can also", "-31.169161669939058" ], [ "between the two meningeal layers, thus increasing the likelihood of shearing forces causing a tear. It is also more common in patients on anticoagulants or antiplalet medicationss, such as warfarin and aspirin, respectively. People on these medications can have a subdural hematoma after a relatively minor traumatic event. Another cause can be a reduction in cerebrospinal fluid pressure, which can reduce pressure in the subarachnoid space, pulling the arachnoid away from the dura mater and leading to a rupture of the blood vessels. Risk factors Factors increasing the risk of a subdural hematoma include very young or very old age.", "-31.01228086500487" ], [ "puncture through the skin on the hip. This process is less popular because of the higher rejection rate due to the jewelry being less optimal than the dermal jewelry. The second procedure, using a scalpel, creates a pocket under your skin for the jewelry to reside. This process will reduce stress on the piercing and has a lower rejection rate. Treatment This piercing typically heals in one to three months, depending on the person’s body. The best way to take care of your piercing is to be extremely careful and do your best in cleaning the area during the healing", "-30.872682375018485" ], [ "infection or inflammation, or releasing chemicals that make normally non-painful stimuli painful.\nInvasion of bone by cancer is the most common source of cancer pain. It is usually felt as tenderness, with constant background pain and instances of spontaneous or movement-related exacerbation, and is frequently described as severe. Rib fractures are common in breast, prostate and other cancers with rib metastases.\nThe vascular (blood) system can be affected by solid tumors. Between 15 and 25 percent of deep vein thrombosis is caused by cancer (often by a tumor compressing a vein), and it may be the first hint that cancer is present.", "-30.814841322309803" ], [ "trauma. Severe contusions may involve deeper structures and can include nerve or vascular injury. Abrasions are superficial injuries to the skin no deeper than the epidermis tissue layer, and bleeding, if present, is minimal. Minor abrasions generally do not scar, but deeper abrasions generally bleed and may scar. Lastly, sports-related lacerations are caused by blunt trauma and result in burst-type open wounds, often with jagged irregular edges. Facial lacerations are the most variable of the soft tissue injuries that athletes can sustain. They can occur intraorally and extraorally, vary from a superficial skin nick to a through and through lip", "-30.76393372187158" ], [ "common. Scarring resulting in interference with erectile function is less likely but more damaging. Issues with physical sensation.\nConcealed penis where a normal penis is buried in suprapubic fat. In most cases, when the fat is depressed with the fingers, the penis is seen to be of normal size. This is common in overweight boys before the penile growth of puberty. Surgical techniques have been devised to improve it. Potential surgical problems: The most common difficulty is recurrence with further weight gain. Scarring can occur. Feminizing surgical procedures In the last 50 years, the following procedures were most commonly performed to", "-30.75898394198157" ], [ "Initially there may be no pain from a bite, but over time the wound may grow to 10 inches (25 cm) in extreme cases. Bites usually become painful and itchy within two to eight hours, pain and other local effects worsen 12 to 36 hours after the bite, and then necrosis will develop over the next few days.\nSystemic effects are unusual but include mild nausea, vomiting, fever, rashes, and muscle and joint pain. Rarely, more severe symptoms occur including red blood cell destruction (hemolysis), low platelets (thrombocytopenia), and loss of clotting factors (disseminated intravascular coagulation). Children may be more susceptible to", "-30.747609048557933" ], [ "blood on purpose from a deliberate wound however, is. As a disorder or symptom thereof Fingernail-biting that develops into fingernail-eating is a form of pica, although many do not consider nail biting as a true form of cannibalism. Other forms of pica include the compulsion of eating one's own hair, which can form a hairball in the stomach. Left untreated, this can cause death due to excessive hair buildup. As a choice Some people will engage in self-cannibalism as an extreme form of body modification, for example ingesting their own semen, blood or skin. Others will drink their own", "-30.712575370067498" ], [ "performance.\nLong term complications of ACL injury include early onset arthritis of the knee and/or re-tearing the ligament. Factors that increase risk of arthritis include severity of the initial injury, injury to other structures in the knee, and level of activity following treatment. Not repairing tears to the ACL can sometimes cause damage to the cartilage inside the knee because with the torn ACL, the tibia and femur bone are more likely to rub against each other.\nUnfortunately, young female athletes have a significant risk of re-tearing a repaired ACL, or tearing the ACL on the other knee after their recovery. This", "-30.711227296938887" ], [ "more vulnerable to frictional damage as the lubricating function of saliva is lost, and mucosal atrophy (thinning), which makes a breach of the epithelium more likely. Radiation to the bones of the jaws causes damage to osteocytes and impairs the blood supply. The affected hard tissues become hypovascular (reduced number of blood vessels), hypocellular (reduced number of cells), and hypoxic (low levels of oxygen). Osteoradionecrosis is the term for when such an area of irradiated bone does not heal from this damage. This usually occurs in the mandible, and causes chronic pain and surface ulceration, sometimes resulting in non-healing bone", "-30.6911038086364" ], [ "the Fitbone, Phenix, PRECICE, and PRECICE 2 nails. Complications At a median 14 years after tibial nailing of isolated tibial fractures, patients' function is comparable to population norms, but objective and subjective evaluation shows persistent sequelae which are not insignificant.\nAnother complication of intramedullary nailing after a fracture, is that of bone malrotation, which is where the broken bone fixated with nails, is actually out of alignment and heals incorrectly, causing a rotated limb.", "-30.55921027774457" ], [ "(swelling) around the ulcer. Chronic trauma may produce an ulcer with a keratotic (white, thickened mucosa) margin. Malignant lesions may ulcerate either because the tumor infiltrates the mucosa from adjacent tissues, or because the lesion originates within the mucosa itself, and the disorganized growth leads to a break in the normal architecture of the lining tissues. Repeat episodes of mouth ulcers can be indicative of an immunodeficiency, signaling low levels of immunoglobulin in the oral mucous membranes. Chemotherapy, HIV, and mononucleosis are all causes of immunodeficiency/immunosuppression with which oral ulcers may become a common manifestation. Autoimmunity is also a cause", "-30.521452722488903" ], [ "radiates diffusely to the upper thigh, and may refer to the lower back, the external genitalia or perineum. Diagnostic procedures Some diagnostic procedures, such as lumbar puncture (see post-dural-puncture headache), venipuncture, paracentesis, and thoracentesis can be painful. Infection The chemical changes associated with infection of a tumor or its surrounding tissue can cause rapidly escalating pain, but infection is sometimes overlooked as a possible cause. One study found that infection was the cause of pain in four percent of nearly 300 people with cancer who were referred for pain relief. Another report described seven people with cancer, whose previously well-controlled", "-30.520227930130204" ], [ "jagged or deeper, have a much higher risk of infection. Simply the easiest way to avoid infection is to completely remove the splinters or foreign body as soon as possible. \nThough infection is generally the largest complication encountered with splinters, ranging from 1.1 to 12 percent presence, the use of antibiotics in non-bite cases is generally deemed unnecessary by the medical community. Though cases are rare, infection of foreign body wounds can result in cases of tetanus.\nOne case of tetanus contraction through a splinter was seen in Ohio, 1993. An 80-year-old woman was presented to an ED with dysphagia", "-30.4812585223699" ], [ "Implant (body modification) Clavicle or collarbone piercing A very deep piercing that passes beneath the collarbone, and therefore enters the body cavity.\nThese are highly prone to rejection as the collarbone placement is a high movement area. Also, because of the depth of the piercing—going deep under the collarbone and through a large amount of flesh and muscle—healing is difficult. With all the movement in the area the fistula cannot heal properly, and will hurt far worse than a hip piercing. Deep chest piercing A deep chest piercing is a long piercing that passes under the skin of the chest and", "-30.453332618344575" ], [ "the penis comes in contact with the cervix. Sexual partners of those with piercings may experience complications during oral sex such as chipped teeth, choking, foreign bodies getting stuck between the partner's teeth, and mucosal injury to receptive partners.\nAs with many piercings, there is risk of the jewelry becoming caught on clothing and being pulled or torn out. Very large gauge or heavy jewelry can cause thinning of the tissue between the urethral opening and the healed fistula resulting in an accidental tearing or other complications with sexual experiences. Conversely, extremely thin jewelry can cause the same tearing in what", "-30.444415294070495" ], [ "Cutis laxa Signs and symptoms It is characterised by skin that is loose, hanging, wrinkled, and lacking in elasticity. The loose skin can be either generalised or localised. Biopsies have shown reduction and degeneration of dermal elastic fibres in the affected areas of skin. The loose skin is often most noticeable on the face, resulting in a prematurely aged appearance. The affected areas of skin may be thickened and dark. In addition, the joints may be loose (hypermobile) because of lax ligaments and tendons. When cutis laxa is severe, it can also affect the internal organs. The lungs, heart (supravalvular", "-30.442758987977868" ], [ "treatment of intraarticular fractures where early fixation allows early joint motion to prevent joint stiffness. Fracture management depends on the person's overall well being, fracture pattern and location, and the extent of soft tissue injury. Both reamed and unreamed intramedullary nailing are accepted surgical treatments for open tibial fracture. Both techniques have similar rates of postoperative healing, postoperative infection, implant failure and compartment syndrome. Unreamed intramedullary nailing is advantageous because it has a lower incidence of superficial infection and malunion compared to external fixation.  However, unreamed intramedullary nailing can result in high rates of hardware failure if a person's weight", "-30.39086872973712" ], [ "If it is permanently removed it will probably leave a small scar.\nThe dydoe is generally considered to be one of the most painful of piercings, as it goes through the glans of the penis. Bleeding is normal and very likely. Because the ridge of the glans must be large enough to accommodate the needle and jewelry it is a piercing that depends on the anatomy of the individual and should be done by a professional piercer. It is usually performed on circumcised males, as the presence of a tight foreskin keeps the area moist and inhibits healing. Effects Speculation has", "-30.368397571874084" ], [ "the orofacial area, and it is commonly inferred that the virus (in this case commonly HSV-1) is transferred by the cutting, chewing or sucking of fingernail or thumbnail.\nIn adults, it is more common for the primary source to be the genital region, with a corresponding preponderance of HSV-2. It is also seen in adult health care workers such as dentists because of increased exposure to the herpes virus.\nContact sports are also a potential source of infection with herpetic whitlows. Treatment Although it is a self-limited illness, oral or intravenous antiviral treatments, particularly acyclovir, have been used in the management of", "-30.347696946409997" ], [ "brain (the meninges), or indirectly by causing a build-up of fluid (edema) that may compress pain-sensitive tissue.\nPain from cancer of the organs, such as the stomach or liver (visceral pain), is diffuse and difficult to locate, and is often referred to more distant, usually superficial, sites. Invasion of soft tissue by a tumor can cause pain by inflammatory or mechanical stimulation of pain sensors, or destruction of mobile structures such as ligaments, tendons and skeletal muscles.\nPain produced by cancer within the pelvis varies depending on the affected tissue. It may appear at the site of the cancer but it frequently", "-30.30957850679988" ], [ "caused by excess shear stress between the bottom and surface of the skin and the body. The strata of skin around the stratum spinosum are most susceptible to shear. As the stratum spinosum tears away from the connecting tissues below, plasma from the cells diffuses out. This plasma solution helps new cells divide and grow into new connective tissues and epidermal layers.\nThe clear fluid will be reabsorbed as new cells develop and the swollen appearance will subside. Painful blisters located on hands (palmar surface) and feet (plantar surface) are due to tissue shearing deeper in the epidermis, near nerve endings.", "-30.279082272551022" ], [ "Bruise Signs and symptoms Bruises often induce pain immediately after the trauma that results in their formation, but small bruises are not normally dangerous alone. Sometimes bruises can be serious, leading to other more life-threatening forms of hematoma, such as when associated with serious injuries, including fractures and more severe internal bleeding. The likelihood and severity of bruising depends on many factors, including type and healthiness of affected tissues. Minor bruises may be easily recognized in people with light skin color by characteristic blue or purple appearance (idiomatically described as \"black and blue\") in the days following the injury.", "-30.255845404521096" ], [ "neuropathy and autoregulation of capillaries leads to poor perfusion of tissues, especially wound base. When pressure is placed on the skin, the skin is damaged and is unable to be repaired due to the lack of blood perfusing the tissue. The wound has a characteristic deep, punched out look, often extending down to the tendons. The wounds are very painful. Diagnosis The lesion can be easily identified clinically. Arterial doppler and pulse volume recordings are performed for baseline assessment of blood flow. Radiographs may be necessary to rule out osteomyelitis. Management The prevalence of arterial insufficiency ulcers among people", "-30.21818237376283" ], [ "injury cases. Of these cases, the ulnar nerve was most often injured. Peripheral nerves are structured so that the axons are surrounded by most often a myelinated sheath and then an endoneurium. A perineurium surrounds that and the outermost layer is considered the epineurium. When injury occurs, “local vascular trauma leads to hemorrhage and edema (swelling), which results in vigorous inflammatory response resulting in scarring of the injured segment. In most cases, due to the extreme nature of the injury, there is typically complete loss of function. Mechanisms Trauma is the most frequent cause of peripheral nerve lesions. There are", "-30.186592708574608" ], [ "scarring and stricturing of the anal canal. In theory, it is thought that radiofrequency induced IAS injury may cause collagen deposition and fibrosis (scarring), resulting in the affected area tightening. Specialized surgical instrument called a radiofrequency handpiece is used. It has 4 needles which enter the IAS and heat up to 85 °C. This causes the water molecules in the tissue to vibrate with subsequent frictional heating. The hand piece is cooled by water and monitors the temperature of the tissues it is applied to for safety. It is thought that the improvement in FI occurs over time as collagen is", "-30.163580192216614" ], [ "injury during nail care, however slight, warrants the use of simple and inexpensive preventative measures. Infections in the patients There have been numerous accounts of patients with trichophyton fungal infections and associated asthma, which further substantiates the likelihood of respiratory disease transmission to the healthcare provider being exposed to the microbe-laden nail dust In 1975, a dermatophyte fungal infection was described in a patient with severe tinea. The resulting treatment for mycosis improved the patient’s asthmatic condition. The antifungal treatment of many other trichophyton foot infections has alleviated symptoms of hypersensitivity, asthma, and rhinitis. Control measures Chronic", "-30.150442585903875" ], [ "periwound skin. They can create a gateway for infection as well as cause wound edge deterioration preventing wound closure. Pathophysiology Chronic wounds may affect only the epidermis and dermis, or they may affect tissues all the way to the fascia. They may be formed originally by the same things that cause acute ones, such as surgery or accidental trauma, or they may form as the result of systemic infection, vascular, immune, or nerve insufficiency, or comorbidities such as neoplasias or metabolic disorders. The reason a wound becomes chronic is that the body's ability to deal with the damage", "-30.14860650844639" ], [ "Arterial insufficiency ulcer Characteristics The ulcer has punched-out appearance. It is intensely painful. It has gray or yellow fibrotic base and undermining skin margins. Pulses are not palpable. Associated skin changes may be observed, such as thin shiny skin and absence of hair. They are most common on distal ends of limbs. A special type of ischemic ulcer developing in duodenum after severe burns is called Curling's ulcer. Cause The ulcers are caused by lack of blood flow to the capillary beds of the lower extremities. Most often endothelial dysfunction is causative factor in diabetic microangiopathy and macroangiopathy. In microangiopathy,", "-30.14089429465821" ], [ "Junctional epidermolysis bullosa (medicine) Signs and symptoms Sufferers experience very fragile skin, with blisters and skin erosion occurring in response to relatively benign trauma. Blisters may form all over the body, including the mucous membranes. Chronic scarring can lead to the formation of granulation tissue, which may bleed easily, predisposing to infection. Hands and fingers may be affected, as well as various joints. Pathophysiology α6β4 integrin is a transmembrane protein found in hemidesmosomes. As a heterodimer molecule containing two polypeptide chains its extracellular domain enters the basal lamina and interacts with type IV collagen suprastructure containing laminins (laminin-5), entactin/nidongen or", "-30.095353991284355" ], [ "and remains there. Injuries resulting from bites carry a high infection risk. Epidemiology As many as 50–70% of people who survive traffic accidents have facial trauma. In most developed countries, violence from other people has replaced vehicle collisions as the main cause of maxillofacial trauma; however in many developing countries traffic accidents remain the major cause. Increased use of seat belts and airbags has been credited with a reduction in the incidence of maxillofacial trauma, but fractures of the mandible (the jawbone) are not decreased by these protective measures. The risk of maxillofacial trauma is decreased by a factor", "-30.052849164174404" ], [ "passed via respiratory droplets among people in close and prolonged contact. The transmission rate is low and 95 percent of people are naturally immune to it. Caused by the bacterium Mycobacterium leprae, leprosy affects the skin, mucous membranes, peripheral nerves and eyes. As nerve damage is permanent, even those who have recovered can not feel pain. Minor cuts and abrasions on fingers and toes often turn into gaping, inflamed ulcers because of unsanitary living conditions. These open sores overrun the digits, which slowly shrink and many sufferers end up with stumps. Some have legs amputated. Treatment In China, dapsone was", "-30.02642550317978" ], [ "intricate mechanisms of the disease.\nThe skin of the bony ear canal is unique, in that it is not movable but is closely attached to the bone, and it is almost paper thin. For these reasons, it is easily abraded or torn by even minimal physical force. Inflammation of the ear canal skin typically begins with a physical insult, most often from injury caused by attempts at self-cleaning or scratching with cotton swabs, pen caps, fingernails, hair pins, keys, or other small implements. Another causative factor for acute infection is prolonged water exposure in the forms of swimming or exposure to", "-30.021708346088417" ], [ "Pelvic fracture Signs and symptoms Symptoms include pain, particularly with movement. Complications Complications are likely to result in cases of excess blood loss or punctures to certain organs, possibly leading to shock. Swelling and bruising may result, more so in high-impact injuries. Pain in the affected areas may differ where severity of impact increases its likelihood and may radiate if symptoms are aggravated when one moves around. Causes Common causes include falls, motor vehicle collisions, a pedestrian being hit by a vehicle, or a direct crush injury. In younger people significant trauma is typically required while in older people less", "-30.012728422385408" ], [ "since the anterior interosseous nerve has no cutaneous branch. Causes Injuries of the forearm with compression of the nerve is the most common cause: examples include\nsupracondylar fractures, often associated with haemorrhage into the deep musculature;\ninjury secondary to open reduction of a forearm fracture; or dislocation of the elbow.⁠⁠\nDirect trauma from a penetrating injury such as a stab wound is a common cause for the syndrome.\nFibrous bands or arcuate (curved) ligaments may entrap the median as well as the anterior interosseous nerves, in which case a patient may experience numbness as well as pain.⁠⁠\nRheumatoid disease and gouty arthritis may be a", "-29.968986411113292" ], [ "Cause The presence of bruises may be seen in patients with platelet or coagulation disorders, or those who are being treated with an anticoagulant. Unexplained bruising may be a warning sign of child abuse, domestic abuse, or serious medical problems such as leukemia or meningoccocal infection. Unexplained bruising can also indicate internal bleeding or certain types of cancer. Long-term glucocorticoid therapy can cause easy bruising. Bruising present around the navel (belly button) with severe abdominal pain suggests acute pancreatitis. Connective tissue disorders such as Ehlers-Danlos syndrome may cause relatively easy or spontaneous bruising depending on the severity.\nBruising can also occur", "-29.956325527455192" ], [ "in time required to close wounds, incidence of infection (suture canals through the skin's epidermal, dermal, and subcutaneous fat layers introduce additional routes of contamination), and finally cosmetic appearance.\nSome rock climbers use cyanoacrylate to repair damage to the skin on their fingertips. Similarly, stringed-instrument players can form protective finger caps (in addition to calluses) with cyanoacrylates. While the glue is not very toxic and wears off quickly with shed skin, applying large quantities of glue and its fumes directly to the skin can cause chemical burns.\nWhile standard \"superglue\" is 100% ethyl 2-cyanoacrylate, many custom formulations (e.g., 91% ECA, 9%", "-29.907492176047526" ], [ "scar. However, the intraoral (inside the mouth) approach carries a higher risk of infection since the mouth contains more bacteria. Cheek implant surgery is usually performed under sedation or general anesthesia and take about one to two hours. Recovery from this surgery usually takes about ten days. Risks As with any surgery there is a risk of infection, postoperative bleeding, formation of a blood clot, and severe swelling. Asymmetry is a risk with all forms of cheek augmentation. This can occur due to uneven resorption, implant displacement, or shifting. This shift can happen due to swelling, trauma or scarring. Although", "-29.885225534875644" ], [ "are estimated to affect 95% of people with acne vulgaris. The scar is created by abnormal healing following this dermal inflammation. Scarring is most likely to take place with severe acne, but may occur with any form of acne vulgaris. Acne scars are classified based on whether the abnormal healing response following dermal inflammation leads to excess collagen deposition or loss at the site of the acne lesion.\nAtrophic acne scars have lost collagen from the healing response and are the most common type of acne scar (account for approximately 75% of all acne scars). They may be further classified as", "-29.845293383550597" ], [ "from January 1998 to December 2001, due to the rapid growth of new complex finger trauma in the mid-1980s. Of the most frequent injuries, three out of four were related to the fingers: pulley injuries accounted for 20%, tendovaginitis for 7%, and joint capsular damage for 6.1%. Shoulder injuries Shoulder related injuries include rotator cuff tear, strain or tendinitis, biceps tendinitis and SLAP lesion. Elbow injuries Tennis elbow (Lateral Epicondylitis) is a common elbow injury among climbers, as is Golfer's elbow (Medial Epicondylitis, which is similar, but occurs on the inside of the elbow). Calluses, dry skin Climbers often", "-29.786280389060266" ], [ "or at least tolerated by the majority (cosmetic surgery), or be extreme and opposed by most people (neck rings). Ear piercing is a minor aesthetic alteration that is widely accepted (on females' ears). The acceptance of highly diverse tattoos and body piercings depends on location, size, and number and, perhaps most importantly, on the mind of each individual being asked to accept it.\nAlso known as maiming, mutilation is any form of physical injury aimed at degrading the bodily appearance or function of a living organism's body. Examples, include amputation, foot binding, and genital cutting.\nThe reasons for these changes can be", "-29.770650072139688" ], [ "report mild irritation or scratchiness, but never extreme pain, which is an indicator of more serious disease such as keratitis, corneal ulceration, iridocyclitis, or acute glaucoma.", "-29.741037771684205" ], [ "heavily draining wounds causes irritation of the periwound that may lead to maceration, excoriation, and otherwise compromise skin integrity.\nThis type of damage is more common in chronic wounds due to exudate composition which differs from fluids produced in acute wounds or burns. Chronic wound exudate contains proteolytic enzymes and other components that degrade skin integrity and predispose it to inflammation. Moisture-associated skin damage can also be caused by bodily fluids or other contaminants that enter the periwound areas, for example, in patients suffering from urinary or fecal incontinence, or colostomy patients. Other causes include dryness of the skin due to", "-29.730816189810866" ], [ "Sprained ankle Signs and symptoms Knowing the symptoms that can be experienced with a sprain is important in determining that the injury is not really a break in the bone. When a sprain occurs, broken blood vessels will hemorrhage into the tissue that surrounds the joint, causing a visible bruise. White blood cells responsible for inflammation migrate to the area, and blood flow increases as well. Along with this inflammation, swelling and pain is experienced. The nerves in the area become more sensitive when the injury is suffered, so pain is felt as throbbing and will worsen if there is", "-29.704122343144263" ], [ "affected to feel like stabbing electric shocks, burning, sharp, pressing, crushing, exploding or shooting pain that becomes intractable.\nThe pain also tends to occur in cycles with remissions lasting months or even years. 1–6% of cases occur on both sides of the face but extremely rare for both to be affected at the same time. This normally indicates problems with both trigeminal nerves, since one serves strictly the left side of the face and the other serves the right side. Pain attacks are known to worsen in frequency or severity over time, in some people. Pain may migrate to other branches", "-29.693456273991615" ], [ "nail polish are disputed. According to the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, \"The amount of chemicals used in animal studies is probably a couple of hundred times higher than what you would be exposed to from using nail polish every week or so. So the chances of any individual phthalate producing such harm [in humans] is very slim.\" A more serious health risk is faced by professional nail technicians, who perform manicures over a workstation, known as a nail table, on which the client's hands rest – directly below the technician's breathing zone. In 2009, Susan Reutman, an", "-29.6532551273267" ], [ "inflammation of the nerve root. It has been known for several decades that disc herniations result in a massive inflammation of the associated nerve root. In the past five years increasing evidence has pointed to a specific inflammatory mediator of this pain. This inflammatory molecule, called tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF), is released not only by the herniated or protruding disc, but also in cases of disc tear (annular tear), by facet joints, and in spinal stenosis. In addition to causing pain and inflammation, TNF may also contribute to disc degeneration. If the cause of the", "-29.636216829065233" ], [ "with swelling of the periarticular tissues, especially heel pads and finger pads. Nodules may be found in the subcutaneous tissues. Attacks may become more frequent with time but there is no joint damage after attacks.\nIt typically affects people between the ages of 20 and 50. One study showed an average age of onset of 49. Causes Palindromic rheumatism is a disease of unknown cause. It has been suggested that it is an abortive form of rheumatoid arthritis (RA), since anti-cyclic citrullinated peptide antibodies (anti-CCP) and antikeratin antibodies (AKA) are present in a high proportion of patients, as is the case", "-29.6150538099173" ], [ "Because each vertebra can cause pain in different areas of the body, the pain from the disease can be sensed in the back, leg, neck area, or even the arms. When the spinal canal begins to lose its gap and gets thinner, it can cause pain in the neck, which can also cause a numb feeling in the arms and hands. Those are symptoms of cervical stenosis disease. The discs between each vertebra have fibers that can begin to deteriorate, and this can occur in cervical disc herniation. This disease is less common in younger people as it is", "-29.612396538082976" ], [ "people are usually required to stay at home while they are infectious to avoid spreading the disease to others. Cutting the nails short or wearing gloves may prevent scratching and minimize the risk of secondary infections.\nAlthough there have been no formal clinical studies evaluating the effectiveness of topical application of calamine lotion (a topical barrier preparation containing zinc oxide, and one of the most commonly used interventions), it has an excellent safety profile. It is important to maintain good hygiene and daily cleaning of skin with warm water to avoid secondary bacterial infection. Scratching may also increase the risk of", "-29.612355095043313" ], [ "the full thickness of the dermis or greatly diminishes the dermal thickness, subcutaneous fat can herniate outward or pucker the skin out in an unattractive way. In areas prone to friction, this can result in pain, itching, or hypertrophic scarring. Pathology report A pathology report is highly dependent on the quality of the biopsy that is submitted. It is not unusual to miss the diagnosis of a skin tumor or a skin biopsy due to a poorly performed or inappropriately performed skin biopsy. The clinical information provided to the pathologist will also affect the final diagnosis. An example would", "-29.58968823903706" ], [ "on poor diet, which was lacking in variety, vegetables, and clean water. Mosquito bites contributed to the prevalence of septic sores, but flies were the main reason minor cuts and scratches became septic. Flies were everywhere, in the men's drinks, food, and tents. The sores, which took the form of superficial ulcerations on the surface of the skin, often occurred following a slight injury to the hands. They were painful and hard to treat except by antiseptics, and such treatment was \"hardly practicable in the field.\" The majority of the men suffering sores on hands or faces had to wear", "-29.583645885664737" ], [ "a pin prick or mild burning sensation. Within an hour victims generally develop more severe local pain with local sweating and sometimes piloerection (goosebumps). Pain, swelling and redness spread proximally from the site. Less commonly, systemic envenoming is heralded by swollen or tender regional lymph nodes; associated features include malaise, nausea, vomiting, abdominal or chest pain, generalised sweating, headache, fever, hypertension and tremor. Rare complications include seizure, coma, pulmonary edema, respiratory failure or localised skin infection. The duration of effects can range from a few hours to days, with severe pain persisting for over 24 hours after being bitten in", "-29.574997387135227" ], [ "and rectal have also resulted from chronic inflammation and scarring. Skin disease About 25% of patients have cutaneous lesions, with tense vesicles or bullae, mainly on the face, neck, and scalp. Healing of erosion is either with or without atrophic scars. Cutaneous lesions of cicatricial pemphigoid presents in 2 subtypes: (1)presents as generalized eruption of tense bullae without scarring (2) presents as localised blisters on an erythematous base, resulting in atrophic scarring. Cicatricial pemphigoid is also associated with malignancy. Malignancy — CP with antibodies directed against laminin 332 (previously known as laminin 5 and epiligrin) has been associated with an", "-29.57294035761879" ], [ "Clitoral hood piercing Pain, healing and aftercare Compared to other piercings, clitoral hood piercings tend to be rather uncomplicated with regard to the piercing process itself as well as the healing, which certainly contributes to the popularity of the piercing. In contrast to common expectations, this piercing is no more painful to perform than other body piercings. Since the piercing passes through a thin layer of tissue, it is quick to pierce and reportedly hurt less than ear piercings. Clitoral hood piercings also have rather short healing times, due to the amount of blood circulation to the area. During the", "-29.567758823235636" ], [ "foreign object being inserted into the skin. This behavior can be witnessed with other objects such as splinters, road rash, or infections. With surface piercings being closer to the surface of the skin, the tendency to reject is higher, as it is easier for the body to force the jewelry out. Surface piercing rejection rates Surface piercings, such as a navel piercing, Christina piercing, eyebrow piercing, or a nape piercing, tend to have a higher rejection rate than piercings that pass through a deeper area of flesh or have holes on the opposite side of each other. Thus surface piercings", "-29.551948989304947" ], [ "chance of developing the severe/potentially lethal complications.\nSevere pain may last for 2–4 weeks. Locally, it may persist depending on the level of tissue damage. Often, local swelling peaks within 48–72 hours, involving both the affected limb and the trunk. If swelling up to the trunk occurs within 1–2 hours, massive envenomation is likely. Discoloration may occur throughout the swollen area as red blood cells and plasma leak into muscle tissue. Death from septicaemia or kidney, respiratory, or cardiac failure may occur 1 to 14 days after the bite or even later.\nA study in The Lancet showed that out of a", "-29.529060712695355" ], [ "pain, each with many potential sources or origins of cause. Cancer Pain caused by cancer within bones is one of the most serious forms of pain. Because of its severity and uniqueness with respect to other forms of pain, it is extensively researched. According to studies of bone cancer in mouse femur models, it has been determined that bone pain related to cancer occurs as a result of destruction of bone tissue. Chemical changes that occur within the spinal cord as a result of bone destruction give further insight into the mechanism of bone pain.\nMetastatic cancer cells often establish themselves", "-29.518466071720468" ], [ "the mouth and sometimes only the mouth, sparing the skin. The different environmental conditions (saliva, thinner mucosa, trauma from teeth and food), mean that some cutaneous disorders which produce characteristic lesions on the skin produce only non specific lesions in the mouth. The vesicles and bullae of blistering mucocutaneous disorders progress quickly to ulceration in the mouth, because of moisture and trauma from food and teeth. The high bacterial load in the mouth means that ulcers may become secondarily infected. Cytotoxic drugs administered during chemotherapy target cells with fast turnovers such as malignant cells. However, the epithelia of the mouth", "-29.51690217689611" ], [ "of the osteoporosis can well reduce the risk of further fracture. Only young patients tend to consider having it removed; the implant may function as a stress riser, increasing the risk of a break if another accident occurs. Subtrochanteric fractures Subtrochanteric fractures may be treated with an intramedullary nail or a screw-plate construction and may require traction pre-operatively, though this practice is uncommon. It is unclear if any specific type of nail results in different outcomes than any other type of nail. Rehabilitation Rehabilitation has been proven to increase daily functional status. It is unclear if the use of anabolic", "-29.511819939187262" ], [ "of skin: elasticity, surface integrity, color and texture. However, periwound can become compromised and negatively affect the healing progress of the wound. Periwound issues Periwound issues affect the integrity and healthy functionality of the skin surrounding the wound and may include maceration, excoriation, dry (scaly) skin, eczema, callus (hyperkeratosis), infection, inflammation. Signs and symptoms Patients suffering from periwound issues may experience burning, itching, tenderness, and pain. Visible and measurable signs include rash, erythema, discoloration, changes in skin texture and temperature. Causes The most common cause of periwound issues is excessive moisture present in the area surrounding the wound. Exudate from", "-29.50624307585531" ], [ "the patients mouth, vagina or rectum. Sometimes the victim has scratched the perpetrator in defense and fingernail scrapings can be collected.\nInjuries to the genital areas can be swelling, lacerations, and bruising. Common genital injuries are anal injury, labial abrasions, hymenal bruising, tears of the posterior fourchette and fossa. Bruises, tears, abrasions, inflammation and lacerations may be visible. If a foreign object was used during the assault, x-ray visualization will identify retained fragments. Genital injuries are more prevalent in post-menopausal women and prepubescent girls. Internal injuries to the cervix and vagina can be visualized using colposcopy. Using colposcopy has increased the", "-29.501829611021094" ], [ "Skin bridge A skin bridge is a penile skin adhesion. It most commonly occurs as a consequence of an improperly healed circumcision, being formed when the inner lining of the remaining foreskin attaches to another part of the penis (normally the glans) as the cut heals. While less common, skin bridges can also occur in uncircumcised men due to difficulty of cleaning, resulting in buildups of smegma underneath wide skin bridges, but this is typically a minor inconvenience and does not lead to further issues. However, in more severe cases, this condition can result in painful erections, sometimes", "-29.46868616808206" ], [ "Lip piercing Procedure and healing Approximate healing time for most lip piercings is between 1 and 3 months; however, there is a possibility of serious infection if the piercing is not properly taken care of. After healing is complete, other jewelry may be used. After this time, some scar tissue may be present, but the fistula is normally fully developed and mostly healed. Aftercare consists of hot saline soaks two to three times daily. Soaking the wound for three to five minutes with a weak saline solution softens any blood and lymph discharge attached to the jewelry. Afterwards, taking a", "-29.45004672727009" ], [ "within 20 minutes after the bite. The blood pressure drops, and the heart rate falls. Blistering occurs at the site of the bite, developing along the affected limb in severe cases. Necrosis is usually superficial and limited to the muscles near the bite, but may be severe in extreme cases. Vomiting and facial swelling occur in about one-third of all cases. Kidney failure (renal failure) also occurs in approximately 25-30 percent of untreated bites. Severe disseminated intravascular coagulation also can occur in severe envenomations. Early medical treatment and early access to antivenom can prevent and drastically reduce the", "-29.419328901392873" ], [ "usually affects the flexor tendon of the fingers, the disease can also affect the extensor tendons occasionally. The clinical presentation is therefore as acute infection following trauma. The infection can be mono- or polymicrobial and can vary depending on the nature of the trauma. The most common pathogenic agent is staphylococcus aureus introduced from the skin. Other bacteria linked to infectious tenosynovitis include Pasteurella multocida (associated with animal bites), Eikenella spp. (associated with IV drug use), and Mycobacterium marinum (associated with wounds exposed to fresh or salt water). Additionally, sexually active patients are at risk for hematogenous spread due to", "-29.375091815556516" ], [ "insensitive to pain. The frequent burns and cuts she suffered due to her hypoalgesia healed quicker than average.", "-29.367723083356395" ], [ "restrict movement if they are located close to a joint.\nSome people have an inherited tendency to this type of scarring, for example, those with Ehlers–Danlos syndrome. It is not possible to completely prevent hypertrophic scars, so those with a history of them should inform their doctor or surgeon if they need surgery. Scar therapies may speed up the process of change from a hypertrophic scar to a flatter, paler one.", "-29.367285599699244" ], [ "based on the patient's history, the diagnosis can be made via a thorough physical examination: looking for a painful spot, which worsens by tensing the abdominal muscles with lifting the head and straightened legs (Carnett's sign). Almost always, a small area of maximal pain is covered by a larger area of altered skin sensibility with somatosensory disturbances such as hypoesthesia as well as hyperesthesia or hyperalgesia and change of cool perception. Pinching the skin between thumb and index finger is extremely painful compared to the opposite non-involved side.\nConfirmation of a diagnosis of ACNES is warranted using an abdominal wall infiltration", "-29.31002643663669" ], [ "Arthrofibrosis Arthrofibrosis (from Greek: arthro- joint, fibrosis - scar tissue formation) has been described in most joints like knee, hip, ankle, foot joints, shoulder, elbow, wrist, hand joints as well as spinal vertebrae. In the knee, it can happen after knee injury or surgery. There is excessive scar tissue formation within the joint and surrounding soft tissues leading to painful restriction of joint motion that persists despite physical therapy and rehabilitation. The scar tissue can involve only a part of the knee joint or the whole knee. The scar tissue may be located inside the knee joint or may involve", "-29.28998279100051" ], [ "few initial symptoms include swelling, knee instability, and pain. A popping sound or sensation may or may not be heard when the ACL first tears. A following symptom usually includes the feeling of the knee \"giving out\". Tearing of the ACL is the most significant injury because it leaves the knee unstable, which also causes the knee to lose its normal function.\nEpidemiology\nIt is estimated that 100,000 new anterior cruciate ligament injuries occur in the U.S. each year. Approximately half of the new ACL injuries involve injuries to the ligament, tendon, and or muscle of that affected knee. Women are", "-29.2559848716337" ], [ "skin and have been known to result in infections, mainly characterized by swelling and discoloration. Pain from such infections can last for long periods of time, sometimes for hours. Some species of the genus Acanthurus are even thought to possess poison glands on their caudal spines.", "-29.25493164116051" ], [ "entire body from the noxious stimulus and thereby avoids further (potential) injury. However, a characteristic of pain (in mammals at least) is that pain can result in hyperalgesia (a heightened sensitivity to noxious stimuli) and allodynia (a heightened sensitivity to non-noxious stimuli). When this heightened sensitisation occurs, the adaptive value is less clear. First, the pain arising from the heightened sensitisation can be disproportionate to the actual tissue damage caused. Second, the heightened sensitisation may also become chronic, persisting well beyond the tissues healing. This can mean that rather than the actual tissue damage causing", "-29.220128111250233" ], [ "common remover is acetone. Repeated use can cause the skin around the nails to become dry or cracked. Acetone can also remove artificial nails made of acrylic or cured gel.\nAn alternative nail polish remover is ethyl acetate, which often also contains isopropyl alcohol. Ethyl acetate is usually the original solvent for nail polish itself.\nAcetonitrile has been used as a nail polish remover, but it is more toxic and potentially more carcinogenic than the aforementioned options. It has been banned in the European Economic Area for use in cosmetics since 17 March 2000. Health concerns The health risks associated with", "-29.21642301825341" ], [ "Sodoku Signs and symptoms The initial scratch or wound caused by a bite from a carrier rodent results in mild inflammatory reactions and ulcerations. The wounds may heal initially, but reappear with the onset of symptoms. The symptoms include recurring fever, with body temperature 101–104°F (38–40°C). The fever lasts for 2–4 days, but recurs generally at 4–8 weeks. This cycle may continue for months or years. The other symptoms include regional lymphadenitis, malaise, and headache. The complications include myocarditis, endocarditis, hepatitis, splenomegaly, and meningitis. Causes The infections are acquired through rat bites or scratches. It can occur as nosocomial infections", "-29.211297075118637" ], [ "for them from a dermatologist and following pregnancy. Causes Stretch marks appear to be caused by stretching of the skin. This is especially true when there is an increase in cortisone.\nIn other words, an increase in cortisone levels can increase the probability or severity of stretch marks by reducing the skin's pliability; more specifically, it affects the dermis by preventing the fibroblasts from forming collagen and elastin fibers, necessary to keep rapidly growing skin taut. This can create a lack of supportive material as the skin is stretched, and lead to dermal and epidermal tearing, which in turn can produce", "-29.12004051605618" ], [ "and 5–7% of patients experiencing post-hernia repair groin pain litigate. Cause Neuropathic pain is defined as pain in the sensory distribution of an offended nerve. This may be due to preexisting stretch injury or intraoperative nerve injury. It is often described as stabbing and burning. Nociceptive pain includes somatic and visceral pain. Somatic pain may be due to chronic inflammation from tissue injury and is described as gnawing, tender, and pounding. Visceral pain can manifest as testicular and ejaculatory pain which may be associated with mesh ingrowth into spermatic cord structures. Nerves management Avoiding nerve entrapment and injury is critical.", "-29.103389265153965" ], [ "detection of internal trauma from six percent to fifty-three percent. Genital injuries to children who have been raped or sexually assaulted differ in that the abuse may be on-going or it happened in the past after the injuries heal. Scarring is one sign of the sexual abuse of children.\nSeveral studies have explored the association between skin color and genital injury among rape victims. Many studies found a difference in rape-related injury based on race, with more injuries being reported for white females and males than for black females and males. This may be because the dark skin color of some", "-29.08296551735839" ], [ "or neck. Sharp claws with powerful muscles behind them can lacerate flesh in a scratch that can lead to serious infections.\nIn the UK between 2003 and 2004, there were 5,868 dog attacks on humans, resulting in 5,770 working days lost in sick leave.\nIn the United States, cats and dogs are a factor in more than 86,000 falls each year. It has been estimated around 2% of dog-related injuries treated in UK hospitals are domestic accidents. The same study found that while dog involvement in road traffic accidents was difficult to quantify, dog-associated road accidents involving injury more commonly involved two-wheeled", "-29.073132364152116" ], [ "Dermatothlasia Dermatothlasia is a cutaneous neurosis characterized by a person's uncontrollable desire to rub or pinch him/herself to form bruised areas on the skin, sometimes as a defense against pain elsewhere.", "-29.03747343487339" ], [ "from cautery or traction can lead to chronic pain, however this can be difficult to determine. Chronic compression of the nerve root by a persistent agent such as disc, bone (osteophyte) or scarring can also permanently damage the nerve root. Epidural scarring caused by the initial pathology or occurring after the surgery can also contribute to nerve damage. In one study of failed back patients, the presence of pathology was noted to be at the same site as the level of surgery performed in 57% of cases. The remaining cases developed pathology at a different level,", "-28.99940737185534" ], [ "Uvula piercing Health issues The piercing is rare due to the gag reflex, which makes it difficult to administer or receive it. Should jewellery pierced through the uvula come loose, it may be swallowed or even inhaled, which would require surgery to remove.\nAs with tongue piercings, there is a risk of crush injury during the piercing, swelling, and infection. The jewelry will also pull the uvula down during sleep, reducing the diameter of the nasal airway and increasing the chance of sleep-related breathing disorders such as snoring. Uvula piercings may migrate leading to bisection of the uvula, which is harmless.", "-28.993974048935343" ] ]

[ "The Egyptians subdivided daytime and nighttime into twelve hours each since at least 2000 BC, hence the seasonal variation of their hours. The Hellenistic astronomers Hipparchus (c. 150 BC) and Ptolemy (c. AD 150) subdivided the day sexagesimally and also used a mean hour (1⁄24 day), simple fractions of an hour (1⁄4, 2⁄3, etc.) and time-degrees (1⁄360 day or four modern minutes), but not modern minutes or seconds.[8] The day was subdivided sexagesimally, that is by 1⁄60, by 1⁄60 of that, by 1⁄60 of that, etc., to at least six places after the sexagesimal point (a precision of better than 2 microseconds) by the Babylonians after 300 BC. For example, six fractional sexagesimal places of a day was used in their specification of the length of the year, although they were unable to measure such a small fraction of a day in real time. As another example, they specified that the mean synodic month was 29;31,50,8,20 days (four fractional sexagesimal positions), which was repeated by Hipparchus and Ptolemy sexagesimally, and is currently the mean synodic month of the Hebrew calendar, though restated as 29 days 12 hours 793 halakim (where 1 hour = 1080 halakim).[9] The Babylonians did not use the hour, but did use a double-hour lasting 120 modern minutes, a time-degree lasting four modern minutes, and a barleycorn lasting 31⁄3 modern seconds (the helek of the modern Hebrew calendar),[10] but did not sexagesimally subdivide these smaller units of time. No sexagesimal unit of the day was ever used as an independent unit of time. In 1000, the Persian scholar al-Biruni gave the times of the new moons of specific weeks as a number of days, hours, minutes, seconds, thirds, and fourths after noon Sunday.[4] In 1267, the medieval scientist Roger Bacon stated the times of full moons as a number of hours, minutes, seconds, thirds, and fourths (horae, minuta, secunda, tertia, and quarta) after noon on specified calendar dates.[11] Although a third for 1⁄60 of a second remains in some languages, for example Polish (tercja) and Turkish (salise), the modern second is subdivided decimally. - URL_0 ", "The measurement of time was based off of the sun. [Sun goes up, sun goes down]( URL_0 ), one day passes. And not all cultures use the same marker for measuring time. For instance, Orthodox Jews use sundown as the end of the day instead of midnight.", "Did you know that after the French Revolution the French adopted a system based on the more scientific 10 than the religious inspired system that was in place and still is now. 100 seconds per minute, 100 minutes in an hour. 10 hours a day. 30 days a month, 12 months a year.", "this comments totally gonna get buried, but Radiolab did a great show on time and how it developed in the modern sense: URL_0 ", "It actually started with the Roman Empire known as the Julian calendar created by Julius Caesar in 46 BC. They based it off Astronomy studies that the Greeks (famed Hipparchus) and themselves studied with the sun. Previously, calendars were based off lunar cycles. As you know, the Roman Empire dominated a vast majority of Europe at one point and many countries adopted the calendar. However, there were some minor issues (it assumed that the time between vernal equinoxes is 365.25 days, but it's actually 11 seconds) with the calendar and it was edited by Pope Gregory XIII in 1582, now known as the Gregorian calendar. Since it was adopted by a Pope, he asked the Catholic church to adopt the calendar. As many European countries were of the Catholic faith, it was pretty much given that they too would adopt the calendar with time. Shortly after this, Europe was in the midst of colonizing the world and taking the calendar with them. It was only a matter of time before the Asian countries would adopt the calendar too, since a majority of the world already adopted it. It wasn't until the late 1800s for Japan and 1900s for China amongst others. Edit: And then you edited the question and my post is useless :'(", "On an interesting side note, the aboriginal perception of time isn't linear like ours (past, present and future) but rather depends on the importance of an event to the individual/community. Ie, a birth, death or marriage is deemed closer in time than the first time you tried a favourite food. It seems to be known as dream time.", "Man, I asked this exact question before: URL_0 Such an interesting question.", "When the Roman Elders decided to split the Year up into 365 they spend weeks locked up in the Senate deciding what to call it. After a while they gave up and called it a day.", "Minutes and Seconds were not originally measures of time, they were measures of angles. There are two things to understand: First there are three universally observable phenomenon that have shaped how every single civilization used the concept of time. 1. The Earths 24 hour rotation upon its own axis 2. The Earths 365 day revolution around the sun 3. The Moons 29 day revolution around the earth Tracking these three phenomenon with high precision was VERY important to all civilizations just for daily function, and became REALLY important when religion started to come into play. All Christian holidays can be traced back to celebrations of the equinoxes and solstices, Ramadan occurs on a lunar cycle, and it was important that they occur at exactly the proper time to please god etc. So tracking stellar movement and the suns path across the sky was a point of great interest to every society. Second, Ancient civilizations were obsessed with the number 60. This makes a lot of sense because 60 is divisible by 1,2,3,4,5,6,10,12 so it was really easy to use and made a lot of intuitive sense. There's a reason that a circle has 360 degrees, due to the Babylonians obsession with the number 60. etc. you see 60 everywhere. So the sky is divided into a 360 degree sphere, and as we got good at tracking the suns movement across the sky, we realized that we could divide the sky into more minute (meaning small) divisions in order to more precisely refer to its location at a given time. Therefore we divided each degree in the sky into 60 more minute divisions called of course minutes. So instead of saying the sun was at 72 degrees you could now say the sun was at 72 degrees and 15 minutes to more precisely reflect its position. If you've ever taken a little precalc you'll be familiar with the concept of arcminutes to further divide a circle. So now we started to get even better at tracking the location of the sun and the stars, and even arc minutes weren't precise enough for us, so we decided to add a SECOND division of the sky and divide each arcminute into what could only be called an arcsecond (original I know). So now you could say a certain star was at 75 degrees 15 minutes and 29 seconds to refer to the angle you had to make to view it. If you view time itself as a measure of distance (the sun moving across the sky) then I think you can better understand where the 60 seconds and 60 minutes came from and why they universally used. It's because they're not arbitrary measures that varied from culture to culture, they are mathematical calculations used to track universally observable astronomical phenomenon.", "This is total conjecture, but I think it's because you can draw an accurate clock with 12 positions using just circles. With a compass or a piece of string & a pencil or even just a pair of pencils fixed at an arbitrary distance - start with one circle, then put another with its centre on the edge of the first. Repeat with the centre of the next circle on the point where the first two cross and eventually you have exactly 12 points equally spaced around the first circle with which you can then make a sundial. No straightedge or measurement required. EDIT: OK so it's slightly more complicated - you only get 6 points to start with but 12 is one iteration away. Also, it's really hard to perfectly line up circles in MS Paint. Pencil and paper with a piece of string and a thumbtack is far simpler.", "The main reason is that it measures \"small\" cycles (hours, minutes, seconds). So, how do you represent this in an easily understandable way? A: a circle! Now you need to brake it into fractions: 1/2, 1/3, 1/4, 1/5 and so on... So, as someone else mentioned before, 60 is divisible by 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 10, 12, 15, 20, and 30, thus helping a lot to this. A decimal measure of time would help for linear time (useful for long cycles too) and very short fractions. So its just a logical way of measuring... But then again, i might be wrong.", "Great britain own(s)[ed] the world and that happened to be their way?", "I was literally just thinking this last week! I love reddit.", "Are you thinking of 24 hours a day?" ]

[ [ "length dates back to the early civilisations of the Middle East (10000 BC – 8000 BC). Archeologists have been able to reconstruct the units of measure in use in Mesopotamia, India, the Jewish culture and many others. Archeological and other evidence shows that in many civilisations, the ratios between different units for the same quantity of measure were adjusted so that they were integer numbers. In many early cultures such as Ancient Egypt, multiples of 2, 3 and 5 were not always used—the Egyptian royal cubit being 28 fingers or 7 hands. In 2150 BC, the Akkadian emperor Naram-Sin rationalised the Babylonian", "-35.30014818138443" ], [ "History of the metre Universal measure The standard measures of length in Europe diverged from one another after the fall of the Carolingian Empire (around 888): while measures could be standardized within a given jurisdiction (which was often little more than a single market town), there were numerous variations of measure between regions. Indeed, as the measures were often used as the basis for taxation (of cloth, for example), the use of a particular measure was associated with the sovereignty of a given ruler and often dictated by law.\nNevertheless, with the increasing scientific activity of the 17th century came calls", "-34.89703933452256" ], [ "centuries by scientists, astronomers, navigators, and horologists. In East Asia, time notation was 24-hour before westernization in modern times. Western-made clocks were changed into 12 dual-hours style when they were shipped to China in the Qing dynasty. There are many surviving examples of clocks built using the 24-hour system, including the famous Orloj in Prague, and the Shepherd Gate Clock at Greenwich.\nThe first mechanical public clocks introduced in Italy were mechanical 24-hour clocks which counted the 24 hours of the day from one half hour after sundown to the evening of the following day. The 24th hour was the last", "-34.46813933644444" ], [ "Length History Measurement has been important ever since humans settled from nomadic lifestyles and started using building materials, occupying land and trading with neighbours.\nMany units of length have been used throughout history and in different civilisations and cultures: until quite recently it was common for length units to be differently defined even between neighbouring towns and cities. \nFor instance one of the oldest units of length measurement used in the ancient world was the cubit, which was the length of the arm from the tip of the finger to the elbow. This could then be subdivided into shorter units like", "-34.24389554037771" ], [ "from the base 12 (duodecimal) system used in many other devices by many cultures. The system was abolished in 1806. History of time measurement devices A large variety of devices have been invented to measure time. The study of these devices is called horology.\nAn Egyptian device that dates to c. 1500 BC, similar in shape to a bent T-square, measured the passage of time from the shadow cast by its crossbar on a nonlinear rule. The T was oriented eastward in the mornings. At noon, the device was turned around so that it could cast its shadow in the evening", "-33.954949188861065" ], [ "devices, and units of time were measured in degrees of arc. Conceptual units of time smaller than realizable on sundials were also used.\nThere are references to 'second' as part of a lunar month in the writings of natural philosophers of the Middle Ages, which were mathematical subdivisions that could not be measured mechanically. Fraction of solar day The earliest mechanical clocks which appeared starting in the 14th century had displays that divided the hour into halves, thirds, quarters and sometimes even 12 parts, but never by 60. In fact, the hour was not commonly understood to be the duration", "-33.62806826418819" ], [ "to be correlated. Time In 1832 German mathematician Carl-Friedrich Gauss made the first absolute measurements of the Earth's magnetic field using a decimal system based on the use of the millimetre, milligram, and second as the base unit of time. Gauss' second was based on astronomical observations of the rotation of the earth, and was the sexagesimal second of the ancients: a partitioning of the solar day into two cycles of 12 periods, and each period divided into 60 intervals, and each interval so divided again, so that a second was 1/86,400th of the day.\nThis effectively established a time", "-32.602091356995516" ], [ "needed standard units of time alongside the units of length and mass. He chose the second (rather than the minute or the hour) as his unit of time, thereby implicitly making the second a base unit of the metric system. The hour and minute have however been \"accepted for use within SI\".\nDuring the 20th century it became apparent that the Earth's rotation was slowing down. This results in days becoming 1.4 milliseconds longer each century. It was verified by comparing the calculated locations of eclipses of the Sun with those observed in antiquity going back to Chinese records of 763 BC", "-32.588082478934666" ], [ "of accurate mechanical clocks in the mid-17th century, sundials were the only reliable timepieces, and apparent solar time was the generally accepted standard. Events and units of time in seconds Fractions of a second are usually denoted in decimal notation, for example 2.01 seconds, or two and one hundredth seconds. Multiples of seconds are usually expressed as minutes and seconds, or hours, minutes and seconds of clock time, separated by colons, such as 11:23:24, or 45:23 (the latter notation can give rise to ambiguity, because the same notation is used to denote hours and minutes). It rarely makes sense to", "-32.42164170162869" ], [ "Time in physics The unit of measurement of time: the second In the International System of Units (SI), the unit of time is the second (symbol: ). It is a SI base unit, and it has been defined since 1967 as \"the duration of 9, 192, 631, 770 [cycles] of the radiation corresponding to the transition between the two hyperfine levels of the ground state of the caesium 133 atom\". This definition is based on the operation of a caesium atomic clock. These clocks became practical for use as primary reference standards after about 1955 and have been in", "-32.18507981405128" ], [ "European mechanistic devices of marking time (clocks, watches, calendars), they depended on the cycles of nature: sunrise to sunset, winter to summer. Their stories and histories are not marked by decades and centuries, but remain close in, as they circle around the constant rhythms of the natural world.\nWithin the last decades our time scale has expanded from unimaginably small (nanoseconds) to unimaginably large (deep time). In comparison, our working concept of time as {past : present : future} looks almost quaint. How do we map \"tradition\" into this multiplicity of time scales? Folklore studies has already acknowledged this in the study of", "-32.10845769713342" ], [ "in the sides. Similar methods of measuring time were used in medieval churches and earlier, famously by King Alfred the Great of England, first by counting the number of candles of a specific size burnt, and later by use of a graduated candle. Eventually, these clocks were replaced by normal clocks that we use today. Al-Jazari The most sophisticated candle clocks known to date, however, were those of Al-Jazari in 1206. It included a dial to display the time and, for the first time, employed a bayonet fitting, a fastening mechanism still used in modern times. The English engineer and", "-31.907506638322957" ], [ "time Outside of this set of systems was the measurement of time. As clock towers only started to appear in late Middle Ages, and their usability was limited to within a small radius, some basic substitutes for modern minutes and hours were developed, based on Christian prayers. The pacierz (or paternoster) was a non-standard unit of time comprising some 25 seconds, that is enough time to recite the Lord's Prayer. Similarly, zdrowaśka (from Zdrowaś Mario, the first words of the Hail Mary) was used, as was the Rosary (różaniec) that is the time needed to recite Hail Mary 50 times", "-31.88243041826172" ], [ "into 10 tenths (décime). This hour was only briefly in official use, being repealed by the same 1795 legislation that first established the metric system.\nThe metric system bases its measurements of time upon the second, defined since 1952 in terms of the Earth's rotation in AD 1900. Its hours are a secondary unit computed as precisely 3,600 seconds. However, an hour of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC), used as the basis of most civil time, has lasted 3,601 seconds 27 times since 1972 in order to keep it within 0.9 seconds of universal time, which is based on measurements of the mean", "-31.839110865388648" ], [ "current definition of the second, coupled with the current definition of the meter, is based on the special theory of relativity, which affirms our spacetime to be a Minkowski space. The definition of the second in mean solar time, however, is unchanged. World time While in theory, the concept of a single worldwide universal time-scale may have been conceived of many centuries ago, in practicality the technical ability to create and maintain such a time-scale did not become possible until the mid-19th century. The timescale adopted was Greenwich Mean Time, created in 1847. A few countries have replaced it with", "-31.832419297192246" ], [ "sundials, and astronomical clocks sometimes show the hour length and count using some of these older definitions and counting methods. Counting from dawn In ancient and medieval cultures, the counting of hours generally started with sunrise. Before the widespread use of artificial light, societies were more concerned with the division between night and day, and daily routines often began when light was sufficient.\n\"Babylonian hours\" divide the day and night into 24 equal hours, reckoned from the time of sunrise. They are so named from the false belief of ancient authors that the Babylonians divided the day into 24 parts,", "-31.803391607449157" ], [ "Roman numerals, so \"21st century\" should be written as \"Siglo XXI\".\nThe Romans solidified the modern concept of the hour as one-24th part of a day and night. The English measurement system also retains features of the Ancient Roman foot (11.65 modern inches), which was used in England prior to the Anglo-Saxon settlement of Britain. The inch itself derives from the Roman uncia, meaning one-twelfth part. Religion While classical Roman and Hellenistic religion were ultimately superseded by Christianity, many key theological ideas and questions that are characteristic of Western religions originated with pre-Christian theology. The first cause argument for", "-31.75924277678132" ], [ "length as 250 cm. Surveyor's trade American surveyors use a decimal-based system of measurement devised by Edmund Gunter in 1620. The base unit is Gunter's chain of 66 feet (20 m) which is subdivided into 4 rods, each of 16.5 ft or 100 links of 0.66 feet. A link is abbreviated \"lk,\" and links \"lks\" in old deeds and land surveys done for the government. Time Time is an abstract measurement of elemental changes over a non spatial continuum. It is denoted by numbers and/or named periods such as hours, days, weeks, months and years. It is an apparently irreversible series", "-31.705347398135928" ], [ "other countries, but its use is nearly universal today. One aspect of measurement decimalisation was the introduction of metric prefixes to derive bigger and smaller sizes from base unit names. Examples include kilo for 1000, hecto for 100, centi for 1/100 and milli for 1/1000. The list of metric prefixes has expanded in modern times to encompass a wider range of measurements. \nWhile the common units of time, minute, hour, day, month and year, are not decimalised, there have been proposals for decimalisation of the time of day and decimal calendar systems. Astronomers use a decimalised Julian day number to", "-31.648060825187713" ], [ "Unit of time Historical The natural units for timekeeping used by most historical societies are the day, the solar year and the lunation. Such calendars include the Sumerian, Egyptian, Chinese, Babylonian, ancient Athenian, Buddhist, Hindu, Islamic, Icelandic, Mayan, and French Republican calendars.\nThe modern calendar has its origins in the Roman calendar, which evolved into the Julian calendar, and then the Gregorian. Units of time interrelated All of the important units of time can be interrelated. The key units are the second, defined in terms of an atomic process; the day, an integral multiple of seconds; and the year, usually 365", "-31.571801853584475" ], [ "of their bases differing by no more than 0.05 percent.\nOther civilizations produced generally accepted measurement standards, with Roman and Greek architecture based on distinct systems of measurement. The collapse of the empires and the Dark Ages which followed them lost much measurement knowledge and standardisation. Although local systems of measurement were common, comparability was difficult since many local systems were incompatible. England established the Assize of Measures to create standards for length measurements in 1196, and the 1215 Magna Carta included a section for the measurement of wine and beer.\nModern metrology has its roots in the French Revolution. With a", "-31.536854553502053" ], [ "French Academy of Sciences' artefacts for length and mass were the only nascent units of the metric system that were defined in terms of formal standards. Other units based on them, except the litre proved to be short-lived. Pendulum clocks that could keep time in seconds had been in use for about 150 years, but their geometries were local to both latitude and altitude, so there was no standard of timekeeping. Nor had a unit of time been recognised as an essential base unit for the derivation of things like force and acceleration. Some quantities of electricity like charge", "-31.52383005898446" ], [ "measures between nations who traded and exchanged scientific ideas with each other was necessary. Spain, for example, had aligned her units of measure with the royal units of France, and Peter the Great aligned the Russian units of measure with those of England. In 1783 the British inventor James Watt, who was having difficulties in communicating with German scientists, called for the creation of a global decimal measurement system, proposing a system which used the density of water to link length and mass, and in 1788 the French chemist Antoine Lavoisier commissioned a set of nine brass cylinders—a [French] pound", "-31.454149476339808" ], [ "all of these uses were positional.\nModern time separates each position by a colon or point. For example, the time might be 10:25:59 (10 hours 25 minutes 59 seconds). Angles use similar notation. For example, an angle might be 10°25'59\" (10 degrees 25 minutes 59 seconds). In both cases, only minutes and seconds use sexagesimal notation—angular degrees can be larger than 59 (one rotation around a circle is 360°, two rotations are 720°, etc.), and both time and angles use decimal fractions of a second. This contrasts with the numbers used by Hellenistic and Renaissance astronomers, who used thirds, fourths, etc.", "-31.43925806399784" ], [ "at the Hanging Gardens of Babylon and Nineveh in the 7th century BCE. This attribution, however, is disputed by the historian John Peter Oleson.\nThe Mesopotamians used a sexagesimal number system with the base 60 (like we use base 10). They divided time up by 60s including a 60-second minute and a 60-minute hour, which we still use today. They also divided up the circle into 360 degrees. They had a wide knowledge of mathematics including addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, quadratic and cubic equations, and fractions. This was important in keeping track of records as well as in some of their", "-31.401696309214458" ], [ "the prominent exception of the United States and, to a lesser extent, the United Kingdom. Thus a kilometre is 1000 metres, while a mile is 1,760 yards. Electrical units are decimalised worldwide. Common units of time remain undecimalised; although an attempt was made during the French revolution, this proved to be unsuccessful and was quickly abandoned. Europe Russia converted to a decimal currency under Tsar Peter the Great in 1704, with the ruble being equal to 100 kopeks, thus making the Russian ruble the world's first decimal currency.\nFrance introduced the franc in 1795 to replace the livre tournois, abolished during", "-31.392574414086994" ], [ "time scale based on the rotation of the Earth around its axis, such as sidereal time.\nThe American astronomer G M Clemence (1948) made a detailed proposal of this type based on the results of the English Astronomer Royal H Spencer Jones (1939). Clemence (1948) made it clear that his proposal was intended \"for the convenience of astronomers and other scientists only\" and that it was \"logical to continue the use of mean solar time for civil purposes\".\nDe Sitter and Clemence both referred to the proposal as 'Newtonian' or 'uniform' time. D Brouwer suggested the name 'ephemeris time'.\nFollowing this, an", "-31.300811948254704" ], [ "time at Greenwich became a standard, later named Universal Time (UT). But in the later 19th and early 20th centuries, with the increasing precision of astronomical measurements, it began to be suspected, and was eventually established, that the rotation of the Earth (i.e. the length of the day) showed irregularities on short time scales, and was slowing down on longer time scales. Ephemeris time was consequently developed as a standard that was free from the irregularities of Earth rotation, by defining the time \"as the independent variable of the equations of celestial mechanics\", and it was at first measured astronomically,", "-31.289228750683833" ], [ "adopt mean time in 1780, followed by London in 1792, Berlin in 1810, Paris in 1816, and Vienna in 1823. Religious consequences Religious texts of the period make many more references to the irreversible passage of time, and artistic themes appeared at this time such as Vanitas, a reminder of death in the form of a still life, which always included a watch, clock, or some other timepiece. The relentless ticking of a clock or watch, and the slow but certain movement of its hands, functioned as a visible and audible memento mori. Clocks and sundials would be", "-31.2276653246372" ], [ "system using the length of a pendulum as the base unit of length received the support of the British Parliament, championed by John Riggs Miller, but when the French overthrew their monarchy and decided to use the meridional definition of the metre as their base unit, Britain withdrew support. The French continued alone and created the foundations of what is now called the Système International d'Unités and is the measurement system for most of the world. 1799–1962 In 1799, the French created, and started to use, a new system with the metre and the kilogram as the units of length", "-31.165353290489293" ], [ "also sometimes used informally to denote minutes of time. History One of the earliest known uses of the minute (and the second) is found in John of Sacrobosco's Computus (ca. 1235), where he used them when discussing the length of the tropical year. No earlier records for the origin of the minute as ​¹⁄₆₀ of the hour and the second ​¹⁄₆₀ of the minute have ever been found. Another motivation that has been suggested for the emergence of these fine divisions of time was the construction of \"precision\" timepieces (mechanical and water clocks). \nHistorically, the word \"minute\" comes from", "-31.145249398541637" ], [ "and decimal subdivisions thereof for his experimental work.\nIn 1790, a proposal floated by the French to Britain and the United States, to establish a uniform measure of length, a metre based on the period of a pendulum with a beat of one second, was defeated in the British Parliament and United States Congress. The underlying issue was failure to agree on the latitude for the definition, since gravitational acceleration and therefore the length of the pendulum, varies with latitude: each party wanted a definition according to a major latitude passing through their own country. The direct consequence of", "-31.12704359856434" ], [ "time, and its angular extent is the difference between the greatest positive and negative deviations of local solar time from local mean time when this time-difference is related to angle at the rate of 15° per hour, i.e., 360° in 24 h. This width of the analemma is approximately 7.7°, so the length of the figure is more than six times its width. The difference in size of the lobes of the figure-eight form arises mainly from the fact that the perihelion and aphelion occur far from equinoxes. They also occur a mere couple of weeks after solstices, which in turn", "-31.116661864245543" ], [ "in Asia whereas the original and more sophisticated Methods Time Measurement technique, better known as MTM, is a global standard.\nThe most commonly used form of MOST is BasicMOST, which was released in Sweden in 1972 and in the United States in 1974. Two other variations were released in 1980, called MiniMOST and MaxiMOST. The difference between the three is their level of focus—the motions recorded in BasicMOST are on the level of tens of TMUs, while MiniMOST uses individual TMUs and MaxiMOST uses hundreds of TMUs. This allows for a variety of applications—MiniMOST is commonly used for", "-31.055101584537795" ], [ "Local mean time Local mean time is a form of solar time that corrects the variations of local apparent time, forming a uniform time scale at a specific longitude. This measurement of time was used for everyday use during the 19th century before time zones were introduced beginning in the late 19th century; it still has some uses in astronomy and navigation. Past use Local mean time was used from the early 19th century, when local solar time or sundial time was last used until standard time was adopted on various dates in the several countries. Each town", "-31.041520198996295" ], [ "the mean solar time and the apparent solar time. Johannes Kepler's definition of the equation is \"the difference between the number of degrees and minutes of the mean anomaly and the degrees and minutes of the corrected anomaly.\" Apparent time versus local mean time Until the invention of the pendulum and the development of reliable clocks during the 17th century, the equation of time as defined by Ptolemy remained a curiosity, of importance only to astronomers. However, when mechanical clocks started to take over timekeeping from sundials, which had served humanity for centuries, the difference between clock time and sundial", "-30.99802363489289" ], [ " An accurate and precise record of time was not kept prior to the industrial revolution. The new clock-time imposed by government and capitalist interests replaced earlier, collective perceptions of time—such as natural rhythms of time like sunrise, sunset, and seasonal changes—that Thompson believed flowed from the collective wisdom of human societies. However, it is likely that earlier views of time were imposed by religious and other social authorities prior to the industrial revolution, Thompson's work identified time discipline as an important concept for study within the social sciences.\nThompson addresses the development of time as a measurement that has", "-30.97271999178338" ], [ "Standard time Standard time is the synchronization of clocks within a geographical area or region to a single time standard, rather than using solar time or a locally chosen meridian (longitude) to establish a local mean time standard. Generallly, standard time agrees with the local mean time at some meridian that passes through the region, often near the center of the region. Historically, the concept was established during the 19th century to aid weather forecasting and train travel. Applied globally in the 20th century, the geographical areas became extended around evenly spaced meridians into time zones which (usually) centered on", "-30.950555083814834" ], [ "By the 2nd century BC Hipparchus was the first to use such a system to uniquely specify places on Earth. He also proposed a system of determining longitude by comparing the local time of a place with an absolute time. This is the first recognition that longitude can be determined by accurate knowledge of time. In the 11th century Al-Biruni believed the earth rotated on its axis and this forms our modern notion of how time and longitude are related. Problem of longitude Determining latitude was relatively easy in that it could be found from the altitude of the sun", "-30.94897759857122" ], [ "minutes and every other division of time is a different duration at different times of the year. The time of day measured with mean time versus apparent time may differ by as much as 15 minutes, but a single day will differ from the next by only a small amount; 15 minutes is a cumulative difference over a part of the year. The effect is due chiefly to the obliqueness of earth's axis with respect to its orbit around the sun.\nThe difference between apparent solar time and mean time was recognized by astronomers since antiquity, but prior to the invention", "-30.914957114770004" ], [ "Time Temporal measurement and history Generally speaking, methods of temporal measurement, or chronometry, take two distinct forms: the calendar, a mathematical tool for organising intervals of time,\nand the clock, a physical mechanism that counts the passage of time. In day-to-day life, the clock is consulted for periods less than a day whereas the calendar is consulted for periods longer than a day. Increasingly, personal electronic devices display both calendars and clocks simultaneously. The number (as on a clock dial or calendar) that marks the occurrence of a specified event as to hour or date is obtained by counting from a", "-30.91097387339687" ], [ "as a fraction of the day, as a fraction of an extrapolated year, and as the microwave frequency of a caesium atomic clock, and they have realized a sexagesimal division of the day from ancient astronomical calendars. Sexagesimal divisions of calendar time and day Civilizations in the classic period and earlier created divisions of the calendar as well as arcs using a sexagesimal system of counting, so at that time the second was a sexagesimal subdivision of the day (ancient second = ), not of the hour like the modern second (= ). Sundials and water clocks were among the earliest timekeeping", "-30.905095546346274" ], [ "12 o'clock was conventionally located at the top of the dial. French decimal time During the French Revolution in 1793, in connection with its Republican calendar, France attempted to introduce a decimal time system. This had 10 decimal hours in the day, 100 decimal minutes per hour, and 100 decimal seconds per minute. Therefore, the decimal hour was more than twice as long (144 min) as the present hour, the decimal minute was slightly longer than the present minute (86 seconds) and the decimal second was slightly shorter (0.86 sec) than the present second. Clocks were manufactured with", "-30.816137058660388" ], [ "instrumentation have long histories. Scales for comparing weights and simple pointers to indicate position are ancient technologies. Some of the earliest measurements were of time. One of the oldest water clocks was found in the tomb of the ancient Egyptian pharaoh Amenhotep I, buried around 1500 BCE. Improvements were incorporated in the clocks. By 270 BCE they had the rudiments of an automatic control system device. \nIn 1663 Christopher Wren presented the Royal Society with a design for a \"weather clock\". A drawing shows meteorological sensors moving pens over paper driven by clockwork. Such devices did not become standard in", "-30.807585873029893" ], [ "sexagesimal orders of magnitude rather than decimal, i.e. a year is 12 months, and a minute is 60 seconds.\nThe smallest meaningful increment of time is the Planck time, the time light takes to traverse the Planck distance, many decimal orders of magnitude smaller than a second. The largest realized amount of time, given known scientific data, is the age of the universe, about 13.8 billion years - the time since the Big Bang as measured in the cosmic microwave background rest frame. Those amounts of time together span 60 decimal orders of magnitude. Metric prefixes are defined", "-30.596472165896557" ], [ "Ephemeris time History (1952 standard) Ephemeris time (ET), adopted as standard in 1952, was originally designed as an approach to a uniform time scale, to be freed from the effects of irregularity in the rotation of the earth, \"for the convenience of astronomers and other scientists\", for example for use in ephemerides of the Sun (as observed from the Earth), the Moon, and the planets. It was proposed in 1948 by G M Clemence.\nFrom the time of John Flamsteed (1646–1719) it had been believed that the Earth's daily rotation was uniform. But in the later nineteenth and early", "-30.56070860615" ], [ "History of the metric system The history of the metric system began in the Age of Enlightenment with notions of length and weight taken from natural ones, and decimal multiples and fractions of them. The system became the standard of France and Europe in half a century. Other dimensions with unity ratios were added, and it went on to be adopted by the world.\nThe first practical realisation of the metric system came in 1799, during the French Revolution, when the existing system of measures, which had become impractical for trade, was replaced by a decimal system based on", "-30.522596283757593" ], [ "spanning 10⁻²⁴ to 10²⁴, 48 decimal orders of magnitude which may be used in conjunction with the metric base unit of second. Metric units of time larger than the second are most commonly seen only in a few scientific contexts such as observational astronomy and materials science although this depends on author; for everyday usage and most other scientific contexts the common units of minutes (60 s), hours (3600 s or 3.6 ks), days (86 400 s), weeks, months, and years (of which there are a number of variations) are commonly used. Weeks, months and years are significantly variable units", "-30.454516922851326" ], [ "scale, on a proposal by Gerald Clemence defining the time unit in terms of the Earth's motion round the sun. The ephemeris second, based on a fraction of the tropical year derived from Simon Newcomb's expression for the mean solar motion, became a standard in 1960, but in 1967, at the 13th Conférence Générale des Poids et Mesures, the second was redefined in terms of a value for the ephemeris second that had been precisely measured by Essen in collaboration with William Markowitz of the United States Naval Observatory in terms of the frequency of a chosen line from the", "-30.4059500527801" ], [ "a sundial is ahead of a clock. History The phrase \"equation of time\" is derived from the medieval Latin aequātiō diērum, meaning \"equation of days\" or \"difference of days\". The word aequātiō was widely used in early astronomy to tabulate the difference between an observed value and the expected value (as in the equation of the centre, the equation of the equinoxes, the equation of the epicycle). The difference between apparent solar time and mean time was recognized by astronomers since antiquity, but prior to the invention of accurate mechanical clocks in the mid-17th century, sundials were the only", "-30.366061392589472" ], [ "measures from 1801. After the restoration of the Empire, in 1812, the old names for units of length were revived but the units redefined in terms of the metre: this system was known as mesures usuelles, and lasted until 1840, when the decimal metric system was again made the sole legal measure. In the meantime, the Netherlands had adopted the metric system from 1816, the first of several countries to follow the French lead. The Helvetic Republic had adopted the metre shortly before its collapse in 1803.\nWith the extension of the survey it became apparent that Méchain and Delambre's result", "-30.360230903228512" ], [ "and Eurocentric\". Time discipline did not arise because of the Industrial Revolution, but had been a phenomenon since the Middle Ages as the government, religion, and economics played larger roles in day-to-day life. In Sauter's article \"Clockwaters and Stargazers: Time Discipline in Early Modern Berlin\", he argues that time discipline came from the streets, and was part of the rise of \"local knowledge\" as public clocks were used by public event planners. People began to learn where clocks were located and which social groups used which ones. Furthermore, Sauter argues that time discipline is not \"externally imposed\" on people, but", "-30.33262711833231" ], [ "the lines of the meridians, each of which should have its own time. Each time zone should differ from the next by one hour, whereas minutes and seconds should coincide. The first time zone should be centred on Rome's meridian. The splitting into time zones should establish the local time (L). His hypothesis provided also with the establishing of a universal time (U) that should be used as only datum line in astronomy and telegraph communications. Filopanti as paradoxer Filopanti authored several books with peculiar titles, as Cesar at the Rubicon (1847), On the Uses of Canvas in Hydraulics (1866),", "-30.285679346306097" ], [ "for the institution of a standard measure or \"metro cattolico\" (as Italian Tito Livio Burattini said ), which would be based on natural phenomena rather than royal decree, and would also be decimal rather than using the various systems of subdivision, often duodecimal, which coexisted at the time.\nIn 1645 Giovanni Battista Riccioli had been the first to determine the length of a \"seconds pendulum\" (a pendulum with a half-period of one second). In 1671 Jean Picard measured the length of a \"seconds pendulum\" at the Paris Observatory. He found the value of 440.5 lines of the Toise of Châtelet which", "-30.21174514046288" ], [ "no relationship to each other. As both humanity's understanding of philosophical concepts and the organisation of society developed, so units of measurement were standardised – first particular units of measure had the same value across a community then different units of the same quantity (for example feet and inches) were given a fixed relationship. Apart from Ancient China where the units of capacity and of mass are linked to red millet seed, there is little evidence of the linking of different quantities until the Age of Reason. Relating quantities of the same kind The history of the measurement of", "-30.199578586267307" ], [ "time became an issue for everyday life. Apparent solar time is the time indicated by the Sun on a sundial (or measured by its transit over a preferred local meridian), while mean solar time is the average as indicated by well-regulated clocks. The first tables to give the equation of time in an essentially correct way were published in 1665 by Christiaan Huygens. Huygens, following the tradition of Ptolemy and medieval astronomers in general, set his values for the equation of time so as to make all values positive throughout the year.\nAnother set of tables was published in 1672–73 by", "-30.087268516188487" ], [ "into 24 hours of 60 minutes, with each minute composed of 60 seconds. Decimal and metric time In the 19th century, an idea circulated to make a decimal fraction (​¹⁄₁₀ ₀₀₀ or ​¹⁄₁₀₀ ₀₀₀) of an astronomical day the base unit of time. This was an afterglow of the short-lived movement toward a decimalisation of timekeeping and the calendar, which had been given up already due to its difficulty in transitioning from traditional, more familiar units. The most successful alternative is the centiday, equal to 14.4 minutes (864 seconds), being not only a shorter multiple of an hour (0.24 vs", "-30.038828898686916" ], [ "scale. Since the published circulars are definitive, better estimates do not create another version of TAI; it is instead considered to be creating a better realisation of Terrestrial Time (TT). History Early atomic time scales consisted of quartz clocks with frequencies calibrated by a single atomic clock; the atomic clocks were not operated continuously. Atomic timekeeping services started experimentally in 1955, using the first caesium atomic clock at the National Physical Laboratory, UK (NPL). It was used as a basis for calibrating the quartz clocks at the Royal Greenwich Observatory and to establish a time scale, called Greenwich Atomic", "-30.027136422810145" ], [ "standard remained popular, because it was found that gravity only varies with latitude. Gravitational acceleration increases smoothly from the equator to the poles, due to the oblate shape of the Earth, so at any given latitude (east-west line), gravity was constant enough that the length of a seconds pendulum was the same within the measurement capability of the 18th century. Thus the unit of length could be defined at a given latitude and measured at any point along that latitude. For example, a pendulum standard defined at 45° north latitude, a popular choice, could be measured in parts of France,", "-29.970662427367643" ], [ "History of timekeeping devices in Egypt The ancient Egyptians were one of the first cultures to widely divide days into generally agreed-upon equal parts, using early timekeeping devices such as sundials, shadow clocks, and merkhets (plumb-lines used by early astronomers).\nObelisks are used by reading the shadow that it makes. The citizens could divide the day into two parts, and then into smaller hours. Sundials and shadow clocks Despite Herodotus's attribution of the invention of the sundial to the Babylonians in 430 BCE, the earliest known sundials were simple gnomons of Egyptian origin invented around 3500 BCE. More complex devices were", "-29.952167249393824" ], [ "a standard until superseded in the 1970s by further time scales (see Revision).\nDuring the currency of ephemeris time as a standard, the details were revised a little. The unit was redefined in terms of the tropical year at 1900.0 instead of the sidereal year; and the standard second was defined first as 1/31556925.975 of the tropical year at 1900.0, and then as the slightly modified fraction 1/31556925.9747 instead, finally being redefined in 1967/8 in terms of the cesium atomic clock standard (see below).\nAlthough ET is no longer directly in use, it leaves a continuing legacy. Its successor time scales,", "-29.932549670542357" ], [ "duration of more life spans. Using a broad scope of time segments, Kubler divides the segments into \"families\" that scale from smallest to largest. The smallest being the \"annual crop of fashions\" which he backs up with contemporary and historical patterns, and the largest, which he says are few, are our defined periods in history: \"Western Civilization, Asiatic culture, prehistoric to barbarian and primitive societies\" (91). The areas of time in-between the smallest and the largest are measured by our calendars and our mathematical methods of measurement.\nKubler returns to the manageable interval of a year, thinking that this span is", "-29.698511252950993" ], [ "using the Sun's movement along the celestial equator rather than along the ecliptic. The irregularities of this time system were so minor that most clocks reckoning such hours did not need adjustment. However, scientific measurements eventually became precise enough to note the effect of tidal deceleration of the Earth by the Moon, which gradually lengthens the Earth's days. \nDuring the French Revolution, a general decimalization of measures was enacted, including decimal time between 1793 and 1795. Under its provisions, the French hour (French: heure) was ​¹⁄₁₀ of the day and divided formally into 100 decimal minutes (minute décimale) and informally", "-29.68332837507478" ], [ "came to be associated with this newly fashioned time discipline. Production of clocks and watches during this period shifted from Italy and Bavaria to Protestant areas such as Geneva, the Netherlands, and England; the names of French clockmakers during this time disclose a large number of commonly Huguenot names from the Old Testament. Standard, synchronous, public time In the nineteenth century, the introduction of standard time and time zones divorced the \"time of day\" from local mean solar time and any links to astronomy. Time signals, like the bells and dials of public clocks, once were relatively local affairs;", "-29.67604899907019" ], [ "in the Earth's orbit and the tilt of the Earth's axis that causes up to a 15-minute variation from mean solar time. This is a type of dial furniture seen on more complicated horizontal and vertical dials.\nPrior to the invention of accurate clocks, in the mid-17th Century, sundials were the only timepieces in common use, and were considered to tell the \"right\" time. The Equation of Time was not used. After the invention of good clocks, sundials were still considered to be correct, and clocks usually incorrect. The Equation of Time was used in the opposite direction from today, to", "-29.59044418449048" ], [ "political motivation to harmonise units throughout France, a length standard based on a natural source was proposed. In March 1791, the metre was defined. This led to the creation of the decimal-based metric system in 1795, establishing standards for other types of measurements. Several other countries adopted the metric system between 1795 and 1875; to ensure international conformity, the International Bureau of Weights and Measures (French: Bureau International des Poids et Mesures, or BIPM) was established by the Metre Convention. Although the BIPM's original mission was to create international standards for units of measurement and relate them to national standards", "-29.577960166323464" ], [ "Second Clocks and solar time A mechanical clock, one which does not depend on measuring the relative rotational position of the earth, keeps uniform time called mean time, within whatever accuracy is intrinsic to it. That means that every second, minute and every other division of time counted by the clock will be the same duration as any other identical division of time. But a sundial which measures the relative position of the sun in the sky called apparent time, does not keep uniform time. The time kept by a sundial varies by time of year, meaning that seconds,", "-29.566260284394957" ], [ "some particular date. Variation in detail Software timekeeping systems vary widely in the precision of time measurement (granularity); some systems may use time units as large as a day, while others may use nanoseconds. For example, for an epoch date of midnight UTC (00:00) on 1 January 1900, and a time unit of a second, the time of the midnight (24:00) between 1 January 1900 and 2 January 1900 is represented by the number 86400, the number of seconds in one day. When times prior to the epoch need to be represented, it is common to use the same system,", "-29.565368260955438" ], [ "in the tomb of Egyptian pharaoh Amenhotep I. They could be used to measure the hours even at night, but required manual upkeep to replenish the flow of water. The Ancient Greeks and the people from Chaldea (southeastern Mesopotamia) regularly maintained timekeeping records as an essential part of their astronomical observations. Arab inventors and engineers in particular made improvements on the use of water clocks up to the Middle Ages. In the 11th century, Chinese inventors and engineers invented the first mechanical clocks driven by an escapement mechanism.\nThe hourglass uses the flow of sand to measure the flow of time.", "-29.534924198378576" ], [ "a tablet used π as 25/8 (3.125 instead of 3.14159~). The Babylonians are also known for the Babylonian mile, which was a measure of distance equal to about seven modern miles (11 km). This measurement for distances eventually was converted to a time-mile used for measuring the travel of the Sun, therefore, representing time. Astronomy From Sumerian times, temple priesthoods had attempted to associate current events with certain positions of the planets and stars. This continued to Assyrian times, when Limmu lists were created as a year by year association of events with planetary positions, which, when they have survived to", "-29.51597929664422" ], [ "vulnerable to damage or destruction over the years, and because of the difficulty of comparing prototypes, the same unit often had different lengths in distant towns, creating opportunities for fraud. During the Enlightenment scientists argued for a length standard that was based on some property of nature that could be determined by measurement, creating an indestructible, universal standard. The period of pendulums could be measured very precisely by timing them with clocks that were set by the stars. A pendulum standard amounted to defining the unit of length by the gravitational force of the Earth, for all intents constant,", "-29.49599269393366" ], [ "Hellenistic astronomers.\nBase-60 number systems have also been used in some other cultures that are unrelated to the Sumerians, for example by the Ekari people of Western New Guinea. Modern usage Unlike most other numeral systems, sexagesimal is not used so much in modern times as a means for general computations, or in logic, but rather, it is used in measuring angles, geographic coordinates, electronic navigation, and time.\nOne hour of time is divided into 60 minutes, and one minute is divided into 60 seconds. Thus, a measurement of time such as 3:23:17 (3 hours, 23 minutes, and 17 seconds) can be", "-29.484216579352506" ], [ "Ancient Greek units of measurement Ancient Greek units of measurement varied according to location and epoch. Systems of ancient weights and measures evolved as needs changed; Solon and other lawgivers also reformed them en bloc. Some units of measurement were found to be convenient for trade within the Mediterranean region and these units became increasingly common to different city states. The calibration and use of measuring devices became more sophisticated. By about 500 BC, Athens had a central depository of official weights and measures, the Tholos, where merchants were required to test their measuring devices against official standards.", "-29.440535679575987" ], [ "time reckoning in Old English based on the writings of Bede. Abbo of Fleury wrote astronomical discussions of timekeeping and of the celestial spheres for his students, teaching for a while in England where he influenced the work of Byrhtferth of Ramsey, who wrote a Manual in Old English to discuss timekeeping and the natural and mystical significance of numbers. Foundation of universities In the early Middle Ages, Cathedral schools developed as centers of education, evolving into the medieval universities which were the springboard of many of Western Europe's later achievements. During the High Middle Ages, Chartres Cathedral operated the", "-29.383444636012428" ], [ "historian Bede in the first chapter of his De temporum ratione, (725), entitled \"Tractatus de computo, vel loquela per gestum digitorum\", which allowed counting up to 9,999 on two hands, though it was apparently little-used for numbers of 100 or more. This system remained in use through the European Middle Ages, being presented in slightly modified form by Luca Pacioli in his seminal Summa de arithmetica (1494). By country or region Finger-counting varies between cultures and over time, and is studied by ethnomathematics. Cultural differences in counting are sometimes used as a shibboleth, particularly to distinguish nationalities in war time.", "-29.362307353352662" ], [ "Decimal time China Decimal time was used in China throughout most of its history alongside duodecimal time. The midnight-to-midnight day was divided both into 12 double hours (traditional Chinese: 時辰; simplified Chinese: 时辰; pinyin: shí chén) and also into 10 shi / 100 ke (Chinese: 刻; pinyin: kè) by the 1st millennium BC. Other numbers of ke per day were used during three short periods: 120 ke from 5–3 BC, 96 ke from 507–544 CE, and 108 ke from 544–565. Several of the roughly 50 Chinese calendars also divided each ke into 100 fen, although others divided each ke into", "-29.325067745463457" ], [ "included preeminent French men of science, used the same principles for relating length, volume, and mass that had been proposed by the English clergyman John Wilkins in 1668 and the concept of using the Earth's meridian as the basis of the definition of length, originally proposed in 1670 by the French abbot Mouton.\nIn March 1791, the Assembly adopted the committee's proposed principles for the new decimal system of measure including the metre defined to be 1/10,000,000 of the length of the quadrant of earth's meridian passing through Paris, and authorised a survey to precisely establish the length of the meridian.", "-29.265952619869495" ], [ "have passed. However, we usually prefer to measure time in hours or minutes, and it is not difficult to change the units of time. For example, since 1 hour is 3 twenty-minute intervals, the population in one hour is . The hourly growth factor is 8, which means that for every 1 at the beginning of the hour, there are 8 by the end. Indeed, \n\nwhere is measured in hours, and the relative growth rate may be expressed as or approximately 69% per twenty minutes, and as or approximately 208% per hour. RGR of", "-29.221148398937657" ], [ "other produce a mathematical concept of time that works sufficiently well for describing the everyday phenomena of most people's experience. In the late nineteenth century, physicists encountered problems with the classical understanding of time, in connection with the behavior of electricity and magnetism. Einstein resolved these problems by invoking a method of synchronizing clocks using the constant, finite speed of light as the maximum signal velocity. This led directly to the result that observers in motion relative to one another measure different elapsed times for the same event. Spacetime Time has historically been closely related with space, the two together", "-29.22038115534815" ], [ "System time In computer science and computer programming, system time represents a computer system's notion of the passage of time. In this sense, time also includes the passing of days on the calendar.\nSystem time is measured by a system clock, which is typically implemented as a simple count of the number of ticks that have transpired since some arbitrary starting date, called the epoch. For example, Unix and POSIX-compliant systems encode system time (\"Unix time\") as the number of seconds elapsed since the start of the Unix epoch at 1 January 1970 00:00:00 UT, with exceptions for leap seconds.", "-29.176477078231983" ], [ "time, covers equal distance. With the use of the quantifier ″any″, uniformity is introduced and expressed more explicitly than in previous definitions. Summary Page numbers at the start of each paragraph are from the 1898 standard Italian version and are found in the Crew and Drake translations. Day one: Resistance of bodies to separation [50] Preliminary discussions. \nSagredo (taken to be the younger Galileo) cannot understand why with machines one cannot argue from the small to the large: \"I do not see that the properties of circles, triangles and...solid figures should change with their size\". Salviati (speaking for Galileo) says", "-29.156441802042536" ], [ "Traditional Chinese timekeeping The traditional Chinese time systems refers to the time standards for divisions of the day used in China until the introduction of the Shixian calendar in 1628 at the beginning of the Qing dynasty. Han-era system The third chapter of the Huainanzi outlines 15 hours during daylight. These are dawn (晨明), morning light (朏明), daybreak (旦明), early meal (早食; 蚤食), feast meal (宴食), before noon (隅中), noon (正中), short shadow (少还; 小還), evening (𫗦时; 餔時; \"evening mealtime\"), long shadow (大还; 大還), high setting (高舂), lower setting(下舂), sunset (县东; 縣車), twilight (黄昏; 黃昏), rest time (定昏). These are", "-29.09082329075318" ], [ "well - defined system of weights and measures. The government of that time ensured that everybody used the same system. In the Indian medical system, Ayurveda, the units of mass and volume were well defined.\nThe measurement system during the time of the Mughal emperor, Akbar, the guz was the measure of length. The guz was widely used till the introduction of the metric system in India in 1956. During the British period, efforts were made to achieve uniformity in weights and measures. A compromise was reached in the system of measurements which continued till India's independence in 1947. After independence", "-29.067429584858473" ], [ "the spatial arrangement of cards which showed a temporal progression. The result was that the speakers of the relative language (Americans) exclusively chose to represent time spatially as progressing from left (earlier time) to right (later time). Whereas the Pormpuraawans took the direction they faced into account and preferred to depict time as progressing from east (earlier time) to west (later time) the most. The importance of language for cognition Gentner, Özyürek, Gürcanli, and Goldin-Meadow found that deaf children, who lacked a conventional language, did not use gestures to convey spatial relations (see home sign). Building on that, they showed", "-29.03590138576692" ], [ "different system of units, although complementary and interchangeable, was used in measuring lengths for agrarian purposes. The basic unit was a step (krok), equalling 3.75 of standard ell, or 2.2333 metres. Two steps made a rod (pręt, 4.4665 metres), 2 rods made a stick (laska), and five sticks were equal to a cable (sznur of 44.665 metres). Finally 3 cables made up a furlong (staje) of roughly 134 metres.\nIn measuring the distance between cities, the basic unit was staje, although it was different from the staje mentioned before and had the length of roughly 893 metres. Eight staje made up", "-29.02401777205523" ], [ "time period is known as a scaler. This colloquial name comes from the early days of automatic radiation counting, when a pulse-dividing circuit was required to \"scale down\" a high count rate to a speed which mechanical counters could register. This technique was developed by C E Wynn-Williams at The Cavendish Laboratory and first published in 1932. The original counters used a cascade of \"Eccles-Jordan\" divide-by-two circuits, today known as flip flops. Early count readings were therefore binary numbers and had to be manually re-calculated into decimal values.\nLater, with the development of electronic indicators, which started with the introduction", "-29.004724015656393" ], [ "the measurement of time via a separate, independent clock as opposed to the local system's internal time, i.e. with regard to the difference between the two.\n\"Real time\" in the meaning of \"wall time\" should not be confused with real-time computing. In simulation The term wall-clock time has also found widespread adoption in computer simulation, to distinguish between, first, the (often compressed or expanded) simulation time and, second, time as it passes for the user of the simulation tool.", "-28.76221646403428" ], [ "(each 86.4 seconds in standard time) counted from 000–999, with @000 being midnight and @500 being noon standard time in Switzerland, which is Central European Time (one hour ahead of Universal Time). A line painted on Swatch headquarters in the Swiss city of Biel (now Biel/Bienne) was declared to mark the Biel Meridian, and Central European Time was relabelled as \"Biel Meantime\" (BMT), even though it does not correspond to actual local mean time in Biel. Decimal hours Another common type of decimal time is decimal hours. In 1896, Henri de Sarrauton of the Oran Geographical Society proposed dividing the", "-28.71755876415409" ], [ "or places on the Earth, or arbitrarily on the length of some common object.\nIn the International System of Units (SI), the basic unit of length is the metre and is now defined in terms of the speed of light. The centimetre and the kilometre, derived from the metre, are also commonly used units. In U.S. customary units, English or Imperial system of units, commonly used units of length are the inch, the foot, the yard, and the mile.\nUnits used to denote distances in the vastness of space, as in astronomy, are much longer than those typically used on Earth and", "-28.703089440998156" ], [ "were measurements of distance. Smaller distances were measured in units based on parts of the body – the el, the voet, the palm and the duim. Area was measured by the morgen, hont, roede and voet. Units of volume included the okshoofd, aam, anker, stoop, and mingel. At the start of the 19th century the Dutch adopted a unified metric system, but it was based on a modified version of the metric system, different from the system used today. In 1869, this was realigned with the international metric system. These old units of measurement have disappeared, but they remain", "-28.677678877167637" ], [ "systems.\nThis system is no longer in use since the adoption of the metric system in 1864. Spanish system There were several variants. The Castilian is shown. Swedish system In Sweden, a common system for weights and measures was introduced by law in 1665. Before that, there were a number of local variants. The system was slightly revised in 1735. In 1855, a decimal reform was instituted that defined a new Swedish inch as 1/10 foot. It did not last long, because the metric system was subsequently introduced in 1889. Up to the middle of the 19th century there was", "-28.55978116102051" ], [ "Proper time In relativity, proper time along a timelike world line is defined as the time as measured by a clock following that line. It is thus independent of coordinates, and is a Lorentz scalar. The proper time interval between two events on a world line is the change in proper time. This interval is the quantity of interest, since proper time itself is fixed only up to an arbitrary additive constant, namely the setting of the clock at some event along the world line. The proper time interval between two events depends not only on the events but also", "-28.535210262576584" ], [ "be assigned to local time in non-nautical applications — zones M and Y have the same clock time but differ by 24 hours: a full day). These can be vocalized using the NATO phonetic alphabet which pronounces the letter Z as Zulu, leading to the use of the term \"Zulu Time\" for Greenwich Mean Time, or UT1 from January 1, 1972 onward.\nZone Z runs from 7°30′W to 7°30′E longitude, while zone A runs from 7°30′E to 22°30′E longitude, etc.\nThese nautical letters have been added to some time zone maps, like the World Time Zone Map published by Her Majesty's Nautical", "-28.523989459732547" ], [ "since the most to least significant digit order provides a simple method to order and sort time readings. Date The little-endian format (day, month, year; 1 June 2006) is the most popular format worldwide, followed by the big-endian format (year, month, day; 2006 June 1). Dates may be written partly in Roman numerals (i.e. the month) or written out partly or completely in words in the local language. Time The 24-hour clock enjoys broad everyday usage in most non-English speaking countries, at least when time is written or displayed. In some regions, for example where German, French, and Romanian are", "-28.52337600867031" ], [ "time scale, and many physicists expect that the Planck time might be the smallest unit of time that could ever be measured, even in principle. Tentative physical theories that describe this time scale exist; see for instance loop quantum gravity. Time travel Time travel is the concept of moving backwards or forwards to different points in time, in a manner analogous to moving through space, and different from the normal \"flow\" of time to an earthbound observer. In this view, all points in time (including future times) \"persist\" in some way. Time travel has been a plot device in fiction", "-28.516985609312542" ], [ "night was divided into four watches. The duration of these hours varied with seasons; in the winter, when the daylight period was shorter, its 12 hours were correspondingly shorter and its four watches were correspondingly longer.\nAstrologers divided the solar day into 24 equal hours, and these astrological hours became the basis for medieval clocks and our modern 24-hour mean solar day.\nAlthough the division of hours into minutes and seconds did not occur until the middle ages, ancient astrologers had a minuta equal to ​¹⁄₆₀ of a day (24 modern minutes), a secunda equal to ​¹⁄₃₆₀₀ of a day (24 modern", "-28.508040329499636" ], [ "Time and frequency transfer Time and frequency transfer describes mechanisms for comparing measurements of time and frequency from one location to another. The technique is commonly used for creating and distributing standard time scales such as International Atomic Time (TAI).", "-28.37520945223514" ], [ "'all of apiece' we have come to realise that time may be segmented in as many ways as convenient to the researcher concerned.\n\nThe three-age system is a relative chronology. The explosion of archaeological data acquired in the 20th century was intended to elucidate the relative chronology in detail. One consequence was the collection of absolute dates. Connah argues:\nAs radiocarbon and other forms of absolute dating contributed more detailed and more reliable chronologies, the epochal model ceased to be necessary.\nPeter Bogucki of Princeton University summarizes the perspective taken by many modern archaeologists:\nAlthough modern archaeologists realize that this tripartite division of prehistoric", "-28.33878649577673" ], [ "and cultural costs which must be offset against the advantages to be obtained from using a more rational system. However pressure built up, including from scientists and engineers for conversion to a more rational, and also internationally consistent, basis of measurement.\nIn antiquity, systems of measurement were defined locally: the different units might be defined independently according to the length of a king's thumb or the size of his foot, the length of stride, the length of arm, or maybe the weight of water in a keg of specific size, perhaps itself defined in hands and knuckles. The unifying characteristic is", "-28.32715435870341" ], [ "Time domain Origin of term The use of the contrasting terms time domain and frequency domain developed in U.S. communication engineering in the late 1940s, with the terms appearing together without definition by 1950. When an analysis uses the second or one of its multiples as a unit of measurement, then it is in the time domain. When analysis concerns the reciprocal units such as Hertz, then it is in the frequency domain.", "-28.32619529913063" ] ]

[ "Certain medals will let you receive benefits such as compensation, medical preference, educational (for yourself or family), and lower rates on things like license plates, free access to state parks. A lot of it varies by state, though. I wouldn't say \"they mean squat\" (especially coming from someone who didn't serve in the US military). [Purple Heart Benefits]( URL_0 ) [Medal of Honor Benefits]( URL_1 ) Edit: Just wanted to address some of the other comments: Yes, all service members get to use Tuition Assistance while in. Once you get out, you can use the GI Bill. You can transfer those benefits to a family member if you've been in at least 10 years. I know California and Indiana your child can attend a state school for a certain amount of credit hours (in Indiana where I live it's enough to get a Bachelors), but you often have to have a disability rating--not necessarily a Purple Heart of Medal of Honor. For example, in Indiana you only need a 10% rating. The medals OP asked about do have additional benefits. The stuff above is essentially a given, provided you meet the Time in Service requirements and the disability rating requirements. It does help with your medical preference so you have a somewhat easier time getting treated, as if you were given either of these, you'll probably need future treatment.", "A purple heart will usually get you some kind of disability payment related to the injury and a sweet new licence plate. A Medal of Honor will get you stopped at airport security by a bunch of dumbfucks who don't know what a Medal of Honor is, like what happened to Joe Foss.", "I was awarded a Bronze Star in Afghanistan, and I am hoping it cuts a little bit off of the prison sentence I am about to have to serve.", "It might help you get a job with the US Federal government or the District of Columia. The preference for qualified candidates is 1. Native Americans 2. Disabled Veterans 3. Combat Veterans But the candidate still has to be qualilfied.", "You are wrong. Most places love to hire veterans. I work at a fortune 500 company and we make it a point to. They tend to be disciplined and hard workers. They also tend to be natural leaders.", "Retired Army SFC here. In the civilian world, when you do something extraordinary for your business, they give you money. In the military, when you do something extraordinary, they give you a medal. Personally, I like cash better.", "Prisoners of War are exempt from paying many forms of taxation in many different places (up to state/local governments).", "The Medal of Honor is really the only one you listed that has benefits after service. From: URL_0 Recipients receive a 10% increase in retirement pay, and they receive invitations to all future Presidential inaugurations and inaugural balls. Most of the other benefits most all other service members already receive such as being buried in Arlington or using military transport. Otherwise everything looks good on a resume.", "I have a BSMV (bronze star w/ valor) and a Purple Heart. The bronze star doesn't mean anything to anyone but me really, it means a lot that my guys thought I deserved one. Not letting them down is really the only thing that got me through the worst times. It doesn't do anything when you get out though, no one really knows what it means, what the \"V\" device means, but I mean, if you're looking for recognition then you're probably not gonna have a great time with it. The Purple Heart on the other hand.... The real perk is the license plates. I'm a safe driver and I don't like to abuse the power of the plates but you're going to have less issues with police. They know at least one thing about you when they run your plates. You also have free vehicle registration with the plates (or its 3 bucks or something). It took me a long time to even get the plates, it weirded me out to display that kinda shit but I mean....yea, you hear of people getting pulled over for ridiculous stuff all the time and I'd rather avoid it. I've also heard my son will get free college at when he gets older. I'm not sure about the details but I have 16 years or so to figure it out.", "When i got out i didn't care what happened to mine, stuck them in a box and when i found them 8 years later i gave all of them to my 5 year old daughter. She has them sporadically pinned to stuffed animals in the house, its weird seeing a stuffed purple gorilla and thinking about dragging a dead guy but hey, whatever makes her happy.", "Where in the world do you get the idea that \"most places won't hire ex-military types\"?", "This doesn't explain anything, but all the purple hearts awarded today were manufactured during WWII in anticipation of the invasion of Japan. There are still 120,000 left, even after 10 years in Iraq and Afghanistan.", "The history of military rewards is interesting. Back in the middle ages, war was a racket. Piracy. One bunch of aristocrats, with their army of indentured slaves (called serfs) would attack another bunch of aristocrats (to whom they were related), and the winners would take the losers land. The reward for winning a battle (if you were an aristocrat) were real and material - you got a cut of the profits from the war. So new land, a new castle, new slaves. If you were a serf of course, you got nothing. Blenheim Palace for instance, where Churchill grew up, was given to his family when an ancestor of his chopped the heads off a bunch of Frenchmen. However, sometime about the late middle ages, the Germans (I believe) realised that their nobles were doing quite well out of war, and this was a bunch of money that the King could keep for himself. Also, with the rise of professional armies, the serfs started to be used to organise the battles themselves and could rise through the ranks. Still, giving away a bunch of estates to commoners was, of course, unthinkable. So, quite suddenly, the rewards for helping win a war were changed from being a cut of the war profits - land and castles and so on - to a worthless piece of tin you pinned to the poor idiots chest. I imagine the first guy to win one of these new medals instead of an estate and a comfortable life was incredibly pissed off. So war is far more efficient nowadays. You don't hand the profits to the participants any more, it goes to the organisers instead, which everyone seems to have been persuaded is a far more sensible way of running things. Not a racket at all any more.", "I would have to say your statement \"most places won't hire ex-military types\" is false considering there are laws against discriminating veterans and laws that actually give them preferential treatment. No doubt there are some who get around this but saying most has to e a complete overstatement.", "When my brother got a purple heart he said, \"Can't wait to get my purple heart license plate. A lifetime free speeding pass.\"", "Purple Heart: Free license plates for life in the state of Ohio (likely others as well). Higher tier of VA care. Disability payments based on the severity of injuries received. Free food/drinks (if you are willing to advertise your award, most consider that disrespectful, myself included).", "You're looking at it wrong. First of all... That's EXACTLY what those medals are meant to do. Recognize you for some certain exemplary or exceptional aspect of your service. You did 'X', which most people/service members have not done. GOOD JOB. Seriously, that's the whole point. Now, there are literally TONS of programs implemented by states, federal agencies, private companies, organizaitons, etc... that are designed to demonstrate appreciation for the actions that earned someone those medals, but that's all third party stuff. The thing is, \"showing appreciation and recognition for extraordinary sacrifices and accomplishments\" isn't, especially in a morale dependant organization such as the military, a silly or frivolous exercise. There are occasions where it BECOMES that (Soldier X pulls 3 people from burnning vehicle and gets Medal Y. Soldier Z mans a desk for 15 months in Iraq without screwing it up too bad and recieves same commendation), but that's it's own issue that needs to dealt with independantly of what OP is talking about. More to the point, I think, is this: You're not going to DO the sort of things that would merit those commendations (outstanding acts of bravery, etc..) because you want a better parking spot at the Social Security Administration building downtown, or whatever. Silly little economic incentives like that don't really factor into it, because stuff like that will never be worth the risks involved. If you're taking those risks, it's because you're the kind of person to do that sort of thing anyway.", "I am a combat vet, 11B, certified disabled (gunshot wounds). I have a CIB and a Purple Heart. It has never been of any use other than a little respect in meetings and with colleagues. So, to answer the OP, they are worth a little respect but nothing else. The US Army pays me $125/mo for the gunshot wounds. That's something.", "Fuckin nothin. No metal earned, nor awarded will put food on the table.", "Your wee ones will look at you one day with admiration and a deep newfound respect when the find your medals stashed away in a box in the garage and read the citations. Everyone thinks their dad is a hero when they're little. Then they get a little older realized he's flawed. Then they find the stuff he did when he was your age and realize he really was a hero, a deep, honorable man they could respect and admire regardless of all the shit life has dealt him.", "Once upon a time military honors meant knighthoods or other traditional medieval military titles. Compared to what they used to mean you are not wrong in that their value is partly based on a military culture and tradition that goes back to the age of chivalry, and in the context of the 21 century military awards are of dubious social value. But remember that military honors and titles come from a military culture that has its origins hundreds, if not thousands of years ago.", "I'll tell you what they get from me: My undying respect and pretty much anything you asked of me.", " > Not trying to be disrespectful, but what do these war honors actually do for someone that gets them? For the really prestigious awards, you get respect while you are still in the military. Once you leave the military, you can't expect much except from other veterans. It's like winning the \"employee of the year\" at your job... nice but you're only hot shit while you still work there.", "If you earn a Medal of Honor your son or daughter can automatically get into West Point or the Naval Academy. That education is valued at ~500,000 USD.", "Military service actually looks really good on a resume, I have no idea where you are getting your information about not hiring former military members from.", "The Medal of Honor confers special privileges on its recipients. By law, recipients have several benefits: Each Medal of Honor recipient may have his or her name entered on the Medal of Honor Roll (38 U.S.C. § 1560). Each person whose name is placed on the Medal of Honor Roll is certified to the United States Department of Veterans Affairs as being entitled to receive a monthly pension above and beyond any military pensions or other benefits for which they may be eligible. The pension is subject to cost-of-living increases; as of 2011, it is $1,237 a month. Enlisted recipients of the Medal of Honor are entitled to a supplemental uniform allowance. Recipients receive special entitlements to air transportation under the provisions of DOD Regulation 4515.13-R. This benefit allows the recipient to travel as he or she deems fit across geographical locations, and allows the recipient's dependents to travel either Overseas-Overseas, Overseas-Continental US, or Continental US-Overseas when accompanied by the recipient. Special identification cards and commissary and exchange privileges are provided for Medal of Honor recipients and their eligible dependents. Recipients are granted eligibility for interment at Arlington National Cemetery, if not otherwise eligible. Fully qualified children of recipients are eligible for admission to the United States military academies without regard to the nomination and quota requirements. Recipients receive a 10 percent increase in retired pay. Those awarded the medal after October 23, 2002, receive a Medal of Honor Flag. The law specified that all 103 living prior recipients as of that date would receive a flag. Recipients receive an invitation to all future presidential inaugurations and inaugural balls. As with all medals, retired personnel may wear the Medal of Honor on \"appropriate\" civilian clothing. Regulations specify that recipients of the Medal of Honor are allowed to wear the uniform \"at their pleasure\" with standard restrictions on political, commercial, or extremist purposes (other former members of the armed forces may do so only at certain ceremonial occasions). Most states (40) offer a special license plate for certain types of vehicles to recipients at little or low cost to the recipient. The states that do not offer Medal of Honor specific license plate offer special license plates for veterans for which recipients may be eligible. Admiral Eric T. Olson salutes Sergeant First Class Leroy Petry at a ceremony at The Pentagon. Although not required by law or military regulation,[95] members of the uniformed services are encouraged to render salutes to recipients of the Medal of Honor as a matter of respect and courtesy regardless of rank or status and, if the recipients are wearing the medal, whether or not they are in uniform.[96] This is one of the few instances where a living member of the military will receive salute from members of a higher rank.", "A significant paper trail follows each award or medal you earn. Those awards and medals provide a significant amount of credibility. Example: Liberation of Kosovo NATO medal - means the recipient very likely went to Kosovo or was in direct logistical support somewhere else in the world. Also, the *NATO* portionmeans that in some way you were part of a joint effort with many nations and probably had to work with, communicate or support military personnell from other countries. Earning a NAM (Navy and Marine Achievement Medal) can be for any reason. You could have worked countless hours tirelessly coordinating the distribution of millions of toys for the Toys for Tots program (Public Relations/community service) A Combat Action Ribbon likely means you were in a highly stressful military battle, maneuver, action... anything where bodily harm or death was immenent. Military people who earn these things, get out of the military and prove themselves as marketable can be seen as fairly valuable to many companies. Edit: (read your last sentence and it is completely false) I am a 15 year Marine and current. The only Marines I have seen get out and not find a job is because of their own personal issues, not because of their military service. Most of them have great jobs or are enjoying retirement. Also, Vets who are homeless actually rate many benefits but either choose to ignore them or are ignorant of them. There is always an initiative by certain entities to find these veterans and make sure they are aware of their benefits.", "I cannot speak for the individual who receives them, however, here it can mean a lot to the family. My Grandfather was in WW2, but he never talked about it. Wouldn't really talk about is a better way of saying it, he just refused and everyone was OK with that. He had several medals and honors, but we didn't know why or what they were. They got destroyed in a fire when he and my grandmother were younger and he never wanted them replaced. After he died I got curious so i sent out some emails, and i was able to get his record, explanations for why he received the medals and I was able to get reproductions of them. When I gave them all to her, it was like my grandmother had a piece of him back. I mean she always knew he was a good person, and she obviously loved him, but reading about him being courageous in ways she had never heard about.... it was pretty meaningful. So there is more to them then just tangible benefits. it creates a legacy and a link to the past for the family as well.", "Beyond what these medals do for the recipient, they also tell us how we should act, in ways such as jobs, general help, or whatever. I'd gladly allow certain medals to move ahead of me in a line, or I'd gladly sacrifice in some big or small way, if it improves the medal recipient's position. Take purple heart guy there. I don't get to check out of the grocery store before him (if I know). I get my stuff and I just move out of the line to back behind him. I don't bother him unless he asks why, I just do it. For those that would abuse this system, there are ways of correcting such dastardly behavior :)", "Two specific benefits I haven't seen yet: If you receive the Medal of Honor your children will receive a special nomination if they are applying to one of the Service Academies. Normally somebody would have to get a nomination from their congressperson or senator, however they can skip this process if their parent has been awarded the Medal of Honor. Additionally, Medal of Honor Recipients may request a parade in their honor when they visit the service academy. (I don't know if this applies to all military bases. I have also never heard of someone actually requesting a parade in their honor, but the option is still there, which is what counts.)", "My buddy got his top front teeth blown out and his lips torn up because a garbage truck filled with explosives exploded 20 feet from his guard tower. He saved a completely unprepared base of 150 soldiers from a huge wave of insurgents; killed numerous hostiles, pulled his comrades to safety, resupplied medics and other defenders after he was pulled from the line by his C.O., almost bled out, was medevac'd to Germany, came back to reality after a few weeks, got a Silver Star.... and now he has to fight the VA for any medical treatment at all. GG.", "Most men who earn those medals aren't doing it for the recognition. Your right. They do nothing. They can get medical through the VA, but that's a crap shoot. There's the biblebelt \"support the troops\" circle jerk and a few discounts at restaurants, but that's about it. College money is the most useful thing, but none of this has anything to do with medals.", "Not sure, but I know the \"Hero of the motherland\" medal in the USSR got you a butt-load of free stuff, example being you got a paid vacation every year or so, you could use the thing to get free rides anywhere, better retirement benefits, priority for your family in stuff, blah blah blah.", "After my 7 years in the Marines I worked at Hanscom AFB at the gate. We were always told to notify base Commander so he can escort the Medal of Honor recipient around the base. Something I don't know if mandatory but was happy to see.", "Most places won't hire ex military? Where did you get that from? It's actually the opposite. Also, if someone in the military gets hurt or has issues when they get out, the military pays for their care through disability.", "The children of Medal of Honor recipients receive admission into one of the military academies without having to meet the standard academic quotas of said institution.", "It's meant to be a mark/badge of honor, not a materialistic reward. It's meant to signify that you are among the best humanity has to offer.", "In some states, having marksmanship medals and ribbons will count for exams in concealed carry classes as well as law enforcement.", "Does the Presidential Medal of Freedom have any sort of benefits?" ]

[ [ "the Purple Heart. Service members, themselves, complicated matters by unofficially leaving hospitals, hastily returning to their units to rejoin battle so as to not appear a malingerer. In such cases, even if a service member had received actual wounds in combat, both the award of the Purple Heart, as well as the entire visit to the hospital, was unrecorded in official records.\nService members requesting retroactive awards of the Purple Heart must normally apply through the National Personnel Records Center. Following a review of service records, qualified Army members are awarded the Purple Heart by the U.S. Army Human Resources Command", "-35.80036707932595" ], [ "Purple Heart Former eligibility From 1942 to 1997, non-military personnel serving or closely affiliated with the armed forces—as government employees, Red Cross workers, war correspondents, and the like—were eligible to receive the Purple Heart whether in peacetime or armed conflicts. Among the earliest to receive the award were nine Honolulu Fire Department (HFD) firefighters killed or wounded in peacetime while fighting fires at Hickam Field during the attack on Pearl Harbor. About 100 men and women received the award, the most famous being newspaperman Ernie Pyle who was awarded a Purple Heart posthumously by the Army after being killed by", "-35.11786279384978" ], [ "custody of the military, and can no longer be loaned and transferred for retroactive medals determination. In such cases, requestors asking for a Purple Heart (especially from records of the First World War) are provided with a complete copy of all available records (or reconstructed records in the case of the 1973 fire) and advised the Purple Heart may be privately purchased if the requestor feels it is warranted.\nA clause to the archival procedures was revised in mid-2008, where if a veteran, or, if deceased, an immediate member of the family, requested the Purple Heart, on an Army or Air", "-34.99017384997569" ], [ "Purple Heart Medal are denoted by ​⁵⁄₁₆ inch stars in the Navy, Marine Corps, and Coast Guard. Presentation Current active duty personnel are awarded the Purple Heart upon recommendation from their chain of command, stating the injury that was received and the action in which the service member was wounded. The award authority for the Purple Heart is normally at the level of an Army Brigade, Marine Corps Division, Air Force Wing, or Navy Task Force. While the award of the Purple Heart is considered automatic for all wounds received in combat, each award presentation must still be reviewed to", "-34.90158623835305" ], [ "service employees received the award.\nHowever, in 1997, at the urging of the Military Order of the Purple Heart, Congress passed legislation prohibiting future awards of the Purple Heart to non-military personnel. Civilian employees of the U.S. Department of Defense who are killed or wounded as a result of hostile action may receive the new Defense of Freedom Medal. This award was created shortly after the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001. Appearance The Purple Heart award is a heart-shaped medal within a gold border, 1 ³⁄₈ inches (35 mm) wide, containing a profile of General George Washington. Above the heart appears a", "-34.78619980660733" ], [ "in Fort Knox, Kentucky. Air Force veterans are awarded the Purple Heart by the Awards Office of Randolph Air Force Base, while Navy, Marine Corps, and Coast Guard, present Purple Hearts to veterans through the Navy Liaison Officer at the National Personnel Records Center. Simple clerical errors, where a Purple Heart is denoted in military records, but was simply omitted from a (WD AGO Form 53-55 (predecessor to the) DD Form 214 (Report of Separation), are corrected on site at the National Personnel Records Center through issuance of a DD-215 document. Retroactive requests Because the Purple Heart did not exist", "-34.40703740896788" ], [ "medal from USAF Chief of Staff Gen. Mark Welsh in a ceremony at the Pentagon on April 30, 2014. Link to Purple Heart Due to a provision in the FY1996 National Defense Authorization Act, service secretaries are required to award the Purple Heart to any POW Medal recipients wounded in captivity. The law specified that \"[a] person shall be considered to be a former prisoner of war for purposes of this section if the person is eligible for the prisoner-of-war medal under section 1128 of title 10, United States Code.\" The corresponding DoD regulation specifies that any \"Service member who", "-34.35600499568682" ], [ "the medals to the volunteers who stayed behind and retained the others on the grounds that, if he returned the remainder to the War Department, the War Department would try to reissue the medals.\nIn 1916, a board of five Army generals on the retired list convened under act of law to review every Army Medal of Honor awarded. The board was to report on any Medals of Honor awarded or issued \"for any cause other than distinguished conduct by an officer or enlisted man in action involving actual conflict with an enemy.\" The commission, led by Nelson A. Miles, identified", "-33.95996032218682" ], [ "Heart medals manufactured in anticipation of potential casualties from the planned invasion of Japan. To date, all American military casualties of the 60 years following the end of World War II, including the Korean and Vietnam Wars, have not exceeded that number. In 2003, there were still 120,000 of these Purple Heart medals in stock. Because of the number available, combat units in Iraq and Afghanistan were able to keep Purple Hearts on hand for immediate award to wounded soldiers on the field. Speedy end of war saved lives Supporters of the bombings argue waiting for the Japanese to surrender", "-33.76838510320522" ], [ "prior to 1932, decoration records are not annotated in the service histories of veterans wounded, or killed, by enemy action, prior to establishment of the medal. The Purple Heart is, however, retroactive to 1917 meaning it may be presented to veterans as far back as the First World War. Prior to 2006, service departments would review all available records, including older service records, and service histories, to determine if a veteran warranted a retroactive Purple Heart. As of 2008, such records are listed as \"Archival\", by the National Archives and Records Administration, meaning they have been transferred from the", "-33.66543037246447" ], [ "ensure that the wounds received were as a result of enemy action. Modern day Purple Heart presentations are recorded in both hardcopy and electronic service records. The annotation of the Purple Heart is denoted both with the service member's parent command and at the headquarters of the military service department. An original citation and award certificate are presented to the service member and filed in the field service record.\nDuring the Vietnam War, Korean War, and World War II, the Purple Heart was often awarded on the spot, with occasional entries made into service records. In addition, during mass demobilizations following", "-33.660744355089264" ], [ "was originally established by General George Washington in 1782. It was re-instituted in 1932 for the bicentennial of Washington's birth. Although generally awarded to service members wounded in action, it was also awarded for any \"singularly meritorious act of extraordinary fidelity or essential service.\" Later in the war, the requirements for award of the Purple Heart were limited to wounds received as a result of enemy action. At that time, individuals were given other awards to replace the Purple Heart.\nOn October 6, 1944, 1st Lieutenant Fox was awarded the Bronze Star Medal. The Report of Decorations Board cited the same", "-33.639586917939596" ], [ "The medal is authorized to military members who served on active duty between President Roosevelt's declaration of a limited national emergency on September 8, 1939 and the attack on Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941. Members of the United States Army, to include those in the Organized Reserve and National Guard, received this medal for any length of service during the eligibility period, provided that they were on orders to active duty for a period of twelve months or longer. The United States Navy excluded those reservists who were on active duty for less than ten days during", "-33.544390636147" ], [ "of life. \"Military personnel serving on active duty would normally not be recommended for Gold and Silver Lifesaving Medals; however, military personnel may be recommended for a Lifesaving Medal if the act of heroism was performed while the individual was in a leave or liberty status. In all other circumstances, a military award should be considered.\" The Lifesaving Medal is authorized for wear on U.S. military uniforms.\nThe Lifesaving Medal is unusual among U.S. medals because it is actually struck from the eponymous precious metal, silver or gold.\nMultiple awards of the Lifesaving Medal are denoted by award stars on the decoration's", "-33.04764248113497" ], [ "officer. \"The Purple Hearts were coming down in boxes. Kerry, he had three Purple Hearts. None of them took him off duty. Not to belittle it, that was more the rule than the exception.\"\nIn Douglas Brinkley's book Tour of Duty: John Kerry and the Vietnam War, Brinkley notes that Purple Hearts were given out frequently:\nAs generally understood, the Purple Heart is given to any U.S. citizen wounded in wartime service to the nation. Giving out Purple Hearts increased as the United States started sending Swifts up rivers. Sailors—no longer safe on aircraft carriers or battleships in", "-32.95815928187221" ], [ "Medal for Long Service History The medal was established by the Law of January 8, 1938. After the outbreak of the Second World War the conferment was suspended, and after the war the medal was eventually discontinued. In 1951, it was replaced by the Medal of the Armed Forces in the Service of the Fatherland for members of the armed forces.\nThe Medal for Long Service was revived by the Law of 14 June 2007, which amended the Act of 16 October 1992, concerning medals and decorations, along with the Military Cross and the Military, Air Force and Navy Cross of", "-32.915309782663826" ], [ "the highest military decoration awarded by the United States government. It is bestowed on a member of the United States armed forces who distinguishes himself by \"... conspicuous gallantry and intrepidity at the risk of his life above and beyond the call of duty while engaged in an action against an enemy of the United States ...\" Because of its nature, the medal is commonly awarded posthumously; since its creation during the American Civil War it has been presented only 3,464 times.\nThe Medal of Honor was awarded to 27 U.S. Marines and U.S. sailors (14 posthumously), during the battle of Iwo Jima.", "-32.80851671731216" ], [ "each of America's major wars of the 20th century, it was common occurrence to omit mention from service records of a Purple Heart award. This occurred due to clerical errors, and became problematic once a service record was closed upon discharge. In terms of keeping accurate records, it was commonplace for some field commanders to engage in bedside presentations of the Purple Heart. This typically entailed a general entering a hospital with a box of Purple Hearts, pinning them on the pillows of wounded service members, then departing with no official records kept of the visit, or the award of", "-32.76398269133642" ], [ "the United States Army, and Fike is a Purple Heart recipient, so he was inspired to attempt returning the medal to the family of its original owner. He set the task aside while deployed to Afghanistan in 2009 and 2010, during which he was wounded and received the Purple Heart himself.\nAfter returning to the United States in 2010, Fike took up the task of returning his 2009 Christmas gift to its original owner or his family. After returning the medal to the sister of the original recipient, a World War II veteran, Fike's subsequent research revealed numerous Purple", "-32.745915937121026" ], [ "Purple Hearts Reunited Purpose Established in 2012 as 501 (c)(3) nonprofit foundation, Purple Hearts Reunited (PHR) works to return lost or stolen medals to recipients or their family at no cost to them. When possible, PHR conducts a ceremony to formally place the medal back in the hands of the recipient or family. In situations where a recipient or family member cannot be located, PHR works to identify a suitable alternative, such as a military museum.\nIn circumstances where the recipient of a returned Purple Heart has not been included in the Purple Heart Hall of Honor, PHR ensures", "-32.70978693186771" ], [ "twenty-four years. When medals are not worn, recipients of clasps would wear a silver rosette on the ribbon bar to donate each clasp.\nA further amendment, on 10 May 1946, made part-time officers who served during the Second World War also eligible for the award of the medal and clasp, provided they were serving on the active list of the Citizen Force on 2 September 1939 and were embodied or called up for war service. The reason for this amendment originated from the anomaly that, during the war, a large number of officers were commissioned from the ranks, and merely by", "-32.623232229147106" ], [ "and regular force and reservists, including Rangers and honorary appointees.\nMembers of the British Armed Forces regular, reserve, and cadet branches, serving prison officers and members of the emergency services who were enrolled as of Accession Day and had been so for five years were given the medal in the United Kingdom. 94,222 members of the Army received the medal, as did 32,273 in the Royal Navy and Royal Marines, and 38,889 in the Royal Air Force. Longer serving members of the Royal Household and living holders of the Victoria Cross and the George Cross also received the medal.", "-32.568181376719394" ], [ "a purple heart, it was intended as a military order for soldiers who exhibited, \"not only instances of unusual gallantry in battle, but also extraordinary fidelity and essential service in any way.\" First awards The writings of General Washington indicate that three badges, two Honorary Badges of Distinction and a Badge of Military Merit, were created on August 7, 1782. This is thought to be the first time in modern history that military awards had been presented to common soldiers. The practice in Europe was to honor high-ranking officers who had achieved victory, rather than honoring common soldiers. But in", "-32.405789452343015" ], [ "Military Medal History The Military Medal was established on 25 March 1916. It was awarded to other ranks including non-commissioned officers and warrant officers, and ranked below the Distinguished Conduct Medal (DCM). Awards to British and Commonwealth forces were announced in the London Gazette, but not honorary awards to allied forces. (Lists of awards to allied forces were published by The National Archives in 2018 and are kept in country specific files within WO 388/6.)\nWhen the medal was first introduced, it was unpopular among regular soldiers wrote MM and DCM recipient Frank Richards who stated \"the Military Medal, which without", "-32.402840919443406" ], [ "Posthumous promotion Academic promotions The award of a posthumous degree relates to granting a university title after a student or facility member has died. In many cases, honorary degrees may be bestowed upon the deceased. Military promotions The granting of posthumous military decorations and promotions in rank are very common for soldiers and sailors who are killed in combat. The Purple Heart is one such award which is routinely presented posthumously to service members killed in action.\nThe presentation in the United States Armed Forces of posthumous rank has become less common in the 21st century, but was widely used", "-32.3717931015417" ], [ "awarding of the Purple Heart to those injured by Hasan during the shooting, providing those injured with a higher degree of services from the Veterans Affairs. The Army planned to present the Purple Hearts in April 2015; which was carried out on 10 April 2015. Following the awarding benefits for those wounded in hostile-fire were extended to the Purple Heart recipients, and it was announced that those killed and injured during the 2009 Little Rock recruiting office shooting would also receive the Purple Heart. Veteran groups Veterans groups across the United States expressed condolences for victims of the attack. American", "-32.216963849122294" ], [ "buried in Arlington National Cemetery. Distinguished Service Medal citations Distinguished Service MedalThe President of the United States of America, authorized by Act of Congress, July 9, 1918, takes pleasure in presenting the Army Distinguished Service Medal to Lieutenant Colonel (Infantry) James A. Ulio (ASN: 0-1984), United States Army, for exceptionally meritorious and distinguished services to the Government of the United States, in a duty of great responsibility during the World War. As Assistant Chief of Staff, G-1, of the 4th Army Corps, Lieutenant Colonel Ulio showed marked organizing and administrative ability. By his tireless efforts and ceaseless energy, he contributed", "-32.150910605312674" ], [ "Military Medal of Honor (Japan) Military Medal of Honor (従軍記章 jūgun kishō) was a military decoration for meritorious service to the Empire of Japan, formerly awarded to all military personnel who participated in battles in a war. These war medals and accompanying certificates specifically identify the conflict for which the decoration will have been awarded.\nThese decorations were effectively abolished during the Allied Occupation of Japan in the post-war years (1945–1951). The plausible re-institution of a modern equivalent was made unlikely by the adoption of Japan's post-war Constitution which disavows the right of the state to engage in aggressive war;", "-32.01706287685374" ], [ "National Purple Heart Hall of Honor National Purple Heart Hall of Honor is located along NY 300 in the Town of New Windsor, New York, United States, less than two miles south of the Town of Newburgh line and not far from the City of Newburgh. It is a Purple Heart national registry of military personnel that were injured or killed during combat. In 1782, at his headquarters, George Washington created the Badge of Military Merit to be given to enlisted men and noncommissioned officers for meritorious action. The museum is located right next to New Windsor Cantonment State", "-32.0057306686831" ], [ "in the service, the medal is awarded if the conscript is deemed to achieve a passing grade on completion of service. The medal can be awarded only once. The medal can be awarded posthumously. The medal can also be ordered by anyone who has completed his military service before 26 August 2002. Approved grade shall be authenticated in connection with the order. In 2003 approximately 14,000 conscripts received the medal.\nThe medal is awarded by the commanding officer (or equivalent) at the appropriate ceremony in connection with discharge. Staff who fulfills the requirements for the award of the medal but for", "-31.9912848151871" ], [ "during combat requiring treatment by a medical officer; the military makes no distinction regarding the severity of the injury. Under military regulations, the Purple Heart can also be awarded for \"friendly fire\" wounds in the \"heat of battle,\" so long as the fire is targeted \"under full intent of inflicting damage or destroying enemy troops or equipment.\"\nAn article in The Boston Globe described the circumstances in which Purple Hearts were given to wounded Swift Boat personnel in Vietnam:\n\"There were an awful lot of Purple Hearts—from shrapnel; some of those might have been M-40 grenades,\" said George Elliott, Kerry's commanding", "-31.987943055588403" ], [ "associated with, military service and involving risk to life and limb.\" The medal can be awarded to officers, non-commissioned officers, or privates/seaman/aircrew of the Defence Forces and to members of the Army Nursing Service and Chaplaincy Services. Appearance The medal is made of silver when awarded with Honour and is bronze when awarded with Distinction and Merit. The obverse of the medal depicts a cross with St. Brendan's knot on each arm. Superimposed on the cross is a laurel wreath. In the centre are the words DE ḂARR CALMAĊTA (For Gallantry). The reverse is plain", "-31.98135311988881" ], [ "States Public Law 88–257 permits U.S. military personnel to accept the medal for service performed in Vietnam from 1 March 1961 to 28 March 1973, inclusive. Since March 1966, the medal may also be awarded to any service member who, while serving outside the geographical limits of the Republic of Vietnam, contributed direct combat support to the Republic of Vietnam Armed Forces for six months. This stipulation most often applies to members who performed Vietnam War support from the 7th Fleet (all members of the fleet serving off the coast of Vietnam), Thailand and Guam (air crews if aircraft out", "-31.90649437758111" ], [ "1932 until after the Second World War, a top suspender broach bar was issued to recipients who served with either the Military Hospitals Reserve or the Voluntary Aid Detachments. The bar is silver and bears the letters 'M.H.R.' or 'V.A.D.', as appropriate, surmounted by crown. When the ribbon was worn alone, a roundel with the appropriate initials was worn on the ribbon. Qualifications The medal is typically rewarded to recognise efficient service of appropriate duration in the St John Ambulance. The length varies by location, with current terms for the United Kingdom, Canada, New Zealand and South Africa set for", "-31.82535279604417" ], [ "Military Medal for Gallantry History Created in 1944, the Military Medal for Gallantry is awarded in three different classes. Originally referred to as 1st, 2nd and 3rd class, but since 1984 they have been respectively been referred to with Honour, with Distinction, and with Merit. Since the medal's inception it has been awarded six times with Distinction and twice with Merit. It has never been awarded with Honour. Criteria The Military Medal for Gallantry is awarded for \"any act of exceptional bravery or gallantry (other than one performed on war service) arising out of, or", "-31.788770245970227" ], [ "conferred by decree of the National Government to those members of the Armed Forces who served in international war. The medal is awarded by recommendation of the respective theater commander to the General Command of the Armed Forces. The theater commander provides the necessary documentation showing recipients have met the requirements for the medal. The Medal for Service in War Overseas has only been authorized for issue during the Korean War. Appearance The Iron Cross is a 44 millimetres (2 in) wide blackened iron cross pattée with a beaded edge. In the center of the obverse is the Coat of arms", "-31.744407724829216" ], [ "served in that capacity until November 1945. Awards and decorations Williams' decorations from World War II included the Distinguished Service Cross, Great Britain's Order of the Bath, and France's Legion of Honor and Croix de guerre. The Distinguished Service Cross (DSC) is the second highest military decoration that can be awarded to a member of the United States Army, awarded for extreme gallantry and risk of life in actual combat with an armed enemy force. Later life Williams retired, disability received in the line of duty, on 1 July 1946 as a major general. He lived in San", "-31.739214031171286" ], [ "circle. The medal is suspended by a ring from a dark green ribbon with red center stripe. The service ribbon has the Army, Navy, or AF emblem in center; small bronze, silver, or gold stars on the ribbon indicate additional awards. The decoration was created by Government Decree number 2281, dated 10 November 1998. Medal for Those Wounded in Action (Medalla Militar \"Herido en Acción\") Presented to those who sustain wounds in combat or as a result of enemy action. The medal is a silvered 16-point sunburst with small 5-point stars between the angles of the points, with a", "-31.69980611553183" ], [ "under Title 10 of the United States Code, with other regular components of the U.S. Armed Forces.\nThe Military Order of Foreign Wars of the United States has officially adopted the medal in recognition of those who served during the Cold War. U.S. Armed Forces retirees, veterans and civilian governmental employees who served honorably during the Cold War may augment their certificate by privately purchasing and wearing the medal solely on civilian attire. Some retirees, veterans and civilian governmental employees have purchased the medal and worn it for public holidays in parades and at functions. In this regard,", "-31.690294258281938" ], [ "Gallantry During the First World War, as approved by Royal Warrant on 4 October 1916, non-commissioned officers below the rank of Sergeant and men also became eligible for the award of the Meritorious Service Medal, without the annuity, for acts of gallantry in the performance of military duty, not necessarily on active service, or in saving or attempting to save the life of an officer or soldier. For acts of gallantry, however, only the Meritorious Service Medal (United Kingdom) was awarded, irrespective of the recipient's nationality, and recipients were entitled to use the post-nominal letters \"MSM\". A Bar to the", "-31.680075594689697" ], [ "Wounded Personnel Medal Medal The medal is in the form of a cross in gold.. Superimposed in the center of a cross is a disc where a relief head of Gen Gregorio del Pilar is placed facing front. The wreath made of light green laurel leaves superimposed the cross. The cross signifies the risk of life while in combat; the disc with the head of General Del Pilar is for achievements that resulted in the wounding of an awardee by an armed enemy; the wreath symbolizes honor for such endeavor; and the green color stands for nobility and devotion to", "-31.638711602950934" ], [ "member must perform an additional three years of service without having to be disciplined, before the Good Conduct may be authorized.\nDuring times of war, the Good Conduct Medal may be awarded for one year of faithful service. The Good Conduct Medal may also be awarded posthumously, to any service member killed in the line of duty. Reserve components Service for the Good Conduct Medal must be performed on active duty; with two exceptions, it is not awarded to enlisted members of the military reserve components, to include the Army National Guard and Air National Guard, for inactive part-time (e.g., \"drilling\")", "-31.637534175766632" ], [ "their families. The Military Order of the Purple Heart (MOPH), the national organization whose members are Purple Heart recipients, contributed $500,000 toward the project. Mission The mission of the Hall of Honor is to collect and preserve the stories of Purple Heart recipients from all branches of service and across generations in an attempt to ensure that all recipients are represented. Their stories are preserved and shared through a series of exhibits, live and videotaped interviews with veterans themselves, and the Roll of Honor, an interactive computer program detailing the stories of each individual.", "-31.610903423046693" ], [ "restored by the Army Board for Correction of Military Records in 1989. The report issued by the Medal of Honor review board in 1917 was reviewed by the Judge Advocate General, who also advised that the War Department should not seek the return of the revoked medals from the recipients identified by the board. In the case of recipients who continued to wear the medal, the War Department was advised to take no action to enforce the statute. Of the 910 revocations, none involved black recipients.", "-31.566251466014364" ], [ "Awards and decorations of the United States Armed Forces The United States Armed Forces awards and decorations are primarily the medals, service ribbons, and specific badges which recognize military service and personal accomplishments while a member of the U.S. Armed Forces. Such awards are a means to outwardly display the highlights of a service member's career.", "-31.510389851871878" ], [ "World War II, the Korean War and the Vietnam War to ensure that no prejudice was shown to those deserving the Medal of Honor. Citation The President of the United States of America, authorized by Act of Congress, July 9, 1918 (amended by act of July 25, 1963), takes pride in presenting the Medal of Honor (posthumously) to:\nFor conspicuous gallantry and intrepidity at the risk of his life above and beyond the call of duty:\nSpecialist Four Jesus S. Duran distinguished himself by acts of gallantry and intrepidity above and beyond the call of duty while serving as an acting M-60", "-31.439374178647995" ], [ "of the Senate Committee on Military Affairs and the Militia, introduced a resolution for a Medal of Honor for the Army. The resolution (37th Congress, Second Session; Resolution No. 52, 12 Stat. 623–624) was approved by Congress and signed into law on July 12, 1862 (\"A Resolution to provide for the Presentation of \"Medals of Honor\" to the Enlisted Men of the Army and Volunteer Forces who have distinguished, or may distinguish, themselves in Battle during the present Rebellion\"). This measure provided for awarding a medal of honor \"to such non-commissioned officers and privates as shall most distinguish themselves by", "-31.435913231718587" ], [ "rarely declared obsolete regardless of the amount of time which has passed since the last issuance. This is since such medals could be reinstated, on very short notice, in the event of an armed conflict in which the United States armed forces would be called to service.\nAlthough United States service medals of the World Wars have also been declared obsolete by the U.S. military, many may still be found in various charts, publications, and instructions. This is since a large number of veterans still display such medals as retirement awards or through functions and ceremonies with various veteran", "-31.42500547991949" ], [ "awarded in the name of The Congress the MEDAL OF HONOR to\nPRIVATE FIRST CLASS DESMOND T. DOSS\nUNITED STATES ARMY\nfor service as set forth in the following\nCitation: Private First Class Desmond T. Doss, United States Army, Medical Detachment, 307th Infantry, 77th Infantry Division. Near Urasoe-Mura, Okinawa, Ryukyu Islands, 29 April – 21 May 1945. He was a company aid man when the 1st Battalion assaulted a jagged escarpment 400 feet high. As our troops gained the summit, a heavy concentration of artillery, mortar and machinegun fire crashed into them, inflicting approximately 75 casualties and driving the others back. Private First Class", "-31.39684248904814" ], [ "Military Merit Medal (Vietnam) Acceptance and wear by allied forces The United States military authorized the Military Merit Medal as a foreign decoration and permitted the medal to be worn on U.S. uniforms by enlisted personnel. A high number Military Merit Medals were issued posthumously as the medal was most often awarded to United States servicemen who were killed in action. The Military Merit Medal was last issued to U.S. personnel in 1973 and was discontinued after the fall of South Vietnam in 1975. The decoration is now only available through private dealers in military insignia.", "-31.387202680343762" ], [ "Defensive memorial cordon The Defensive memorial cordon (防衛記念章) is the decoration for officers in the Japan Self-Defense Forces. The officials can wear it on their uniforms only in active service. They are only cordons like the Unit Awards and the Unit Citations of United States Armed Forces.\nThe appearance of the defensive memorial cordon is similar to ribbon bars of military decoration, but it is completely different from regular ribbon bars, and are not awards or medals. The defensive memorial cordon is a 'rectangular-shaped memorial souvenir' for service career, participation of training in overseas, and participation in international peacekeeping and assistance", "-31.37979879329214" ], [ "and after the Second World War officers could also be awarded this medal if they had completed at least twelve of their eighteen years of service in the ranks. War service, subject to certain conditions, was counted as double time.\nA Clasp to the medal was introduced in 1940 and could be awarded for thirty years of service. An officer became eligible for the award of the clasp if twenty-two or more of the thirty years of service had been in the ranks and provided that the other criteria had been met. Order of wear In the order of wear prescribed", "-31.346144322982582" ], [ "Meritorious Service Medal (United Kingdom) History The Meritorious Service Medal was instituted on 19 December 1845 for the British Army, to recognise meritorious service by non-commissioned officers. Recipients were also granted an annuity, the amount of which was based on rank.\nDuring 1916–1919, army NCOs could be awarded the medal immediately for meritorious service in the field. They could also be awarded the medal for acts of non-combat gallantry. Awards for gallantry ceased after 7 September 1928, as they were honoured by the Empire Gallantry Medal.\nThe medal for Royal Marines was instituted in 1849, for gallantry or for distinguished service. As", "-31.341697574491263" ], [ "of the United States takes pride in presenting the MEDAL OF HONOR posthumously to\nfor service as set forth in the following citation:\nFor conspicuous gallantry and intrepidity at the risk of his life above and beyond the call of duty as an Artillery Forward Observer of Battery F, Second Battalion, Eleventh Marines, First Marine Division (Reinforced), in action against enemy aggressor forces in Korea on the night of October 26, 1952. When his observation post in an extremely critical and vital sector of the main line of resistance was subjected to a sudden and fanatical attack by hostile forces, supported by", "-31.30643717997009" ], [ "Certificates were approved for this period. The certificate was discontinued after the war and reintroduced in 1876 effective from June 22, 1874, to February 10, 1892, when it was awarded for extraordinary gallantry by private soldiers in the presence of the enemy. From February 11, 1892, through July 9, 1918, (Certificate of Merit disestablished) it could be awarded to members of the Army for distinguished service in combat or noncombat; from January 11, 1905, through July 9, 1918, the certificate was granted medal status as the Certificate of Merit Medal (first awarded to a soldier who was awarded the Certificate", "-31.302841531622107" ], [ "in good standing to receive the NDSM and no active duty service is required. Inactive Ready Reserve and Retired Reserve are not eligible to be awarded the NDSM unless called to active duty.\nThe medal is authorized to cadets and midshipmen at the military service academies after they are sworn into service, as well as pre-commission officer candidates/trainees at the Officer Candidate Schools or Officer Training Schools of the various U.S. Armed Forces; but is not granted to discharged or retired military personnel who did not serve in one of the above time periods; nor is it authorized for Reserve Officer", "-31.299762903130613" ], [ "1923 and 1941 respectively. The Selected Marine Corps Reserve Medal was established in 1925.\nAs the NDSM has been awarded to all military personnel during four wartime periods, it has millions of recipients and is probably the most widely awarded medal in the history of the United States military, with the possible exception of World War II Victory Medal. Award criteria The National Defense Service Medal (NDSM) is awarded to anyone who serves on active duty in the United States Armed Forces during the above time periods. Reserve Component service during the Korean and Vietnam periods, other than those Reserve", "-31.27815802837722" ], [ "Purple Heart, Combat Infantryman Badge, Korean Service Medal, United Nations Service Medal, National Defense Service Medal, Republic of Korea Presidential Unit Citation, and the Republic of Korea War Service Medal. Distinguished Service Cross Kahoʻohanohano's official Distinguished Service Cross citation reads:\nThe President of the United States of America, under the provisions of the Act of Congress approved July 9, 1918, takes pride in presenting the DISTINGUISHED SERVICE CROSS (Posthumously) to \nCITATION:\n\nFor extraordinary heroism in connection with military operations against an armed enemy of the United Nations while serving with Company H, 2d Battalion, 17th Infantry Regiment, 7th Infantry Division. Private First", "-31.215797401382588" ], [ "UN soldiers in the Korean War, Vietnamese and allied forces in the Vietnam War, and coalition forces in recent military operations such as the Persian Gulf War, War in Afghanistan, and the Iraq War. A number of Bronze Star Medals with the \"V\" device were awarded to veterans of the Battle of Mogadishu. World War II infantry award As a result of a study conducted in 1947, the policy was implemented that authorized the retroactive award of the Bronze Star Medal (without the \"V\" device) to all soldiers who had received the Combat Infantryman Badge or the Combat Medical Badge", "-31.20550716680009" ], [ "August 1942 to October 1943, played a key role in helping the greatly outnumbered American forces push back Japanese troops in the British Solomon Islands.\nThe Purple Heart Memorial was dedicated August 7, 1990, in honor of Purple Heart medal recipients interred at the cemetery. The Purple Heart was created by General George Washington in 1782 and was originally awarded for heroism. It eventually fell into disuse until 1931 when Gen. Douglas MacArthur revived it for soldiers who were wounded or killed in defense of their nation.\nAdditional memorials honor: the Fourth Marine or “Fighting Fourth” Division; the Commonwealth of Virginia Memorial", "-31.184864660113817" ], [ "little or no recognition during and after the war\". As of 2014, at least 50 medals had been awarded.\nRecipients must be shown to have \"distinguished themselves conspicuously by gallantry, bravery, and intrepidity at the risk of life, above and beyond the call of duty, while engaged in action against the enemy of the Confederate States of America.\" Most recipients are listed on the Confederate Roll of Honor. The medal and certificate are given to an institution, such as a museum or library, which guarantees to display them. Appearance The current medal is bronze and silver, with two five-pointed stars overlain.", "-31.14968666108325" ], [ "returned to the United States. Nine days later, on 13 July, Murphy was buried with full military honors at Calverton National Cemetery. Medal of Honor On 11 October 2007 The White House announced Murphy would be presented the Medal of Honor, awarded posthumously, during a ceremony at the White House on 22 October 2007.\nThe Medal of Honor is the highest military decoration awarded by the United States government and is bestowed on a member of the armed forces who distinguishes himself \"... conspicuously by gallantry and intrepidity at the risk of his life above and beyond the call of duty", "-31.118515513953753" ], [ "awarded to troops who served with UNCRO for at least 90 consecutive days. The medal was issued suspended from a ribbon 35 millimetres (1.4 inches) wide with a 9-millimetre (0.35 in) red stripe with a white border on a blue background, flanked by 6-millimetre (0.24 in) stripes—olive green on the left and brown on the right—set 3 millimetres (0.12 inches) apart from the white border.", "-31.117141025868477" ], [ "Medal was awarded for non-operational service in the Armed Forces, the Home Guard, the Civil Defence Service and other approved civilian services during the period from 3 September 1939 to 8 May 1945 (2 September 1945 for those serving in certain specified territories in the Far East and the Pacific), with an earlier end date for members of organisations that stood-down before May 1945. Military personnel In the United Kingdom, those eligible included military personnel working in headquarters, on training bases and airfields for the duration of the War in Europe from 3 September 1939 to 8 May 1945, and", "-31.111317598435562" ], [ "to Officers on Non-Commissioned Officers. Enlisted personnel cannot be awarded the first class of the medal.\nContrary to popular belief, the first class of the medal is not reserved for acts of gallantry causing loss of life of the awardee. The only additional requirement that is required to be eligible to the first class of the medal is that the acts performed were 'very exceptional'.\nIn order to be eligible for an award, the award proposal must be made within 5 years after the occurrence of the gallant act. Devices On the ribbon an inverted gilt chevron is affixed when the first", "-31.079755383718293" ], [ "States, every service member who is discharged or released from active duty is issued a DD Form 214 and a military discharge certificate (denoting the discharge type, such as Honorable). A reservist who is called to active duty is given a DD 214 when he or she is deactivated and returned to the reserves. Those who are discharged before completing 8 years of active duty or reserve duty in an active drilling status are transferred to the Individual Ready Reserve (IRR) for the remainder of their military service obligations (MSO). The Individual Ready Reserve does not drill or receive pay;", "-31.075348689133534" ], [ "no minimum time in service requirement. The National Personnel Records Center has reported some cases of service members receiving the award for only a few days of service. As the Second World War ended on 2 September 1945, there may be cases of service members who had enlisted, entered officer candidate school, or had been a cadet or midshipman at the U.S. Military Academy, the U.S. Naval Academy or the U.S. Coast Guard Academy between 3 September 1945 and any date in 1946, receiving the medal without having been a veteran of World War II. The reason for this late", "-31.038553644903004" ], [ "one medal shall be awarded to any individual. No clasps, distinguishing devices, or other insignia are authorized to be worn on the corresponding service ribbon except that Individuals to whom the medal has been or may be awarded for service performed under General Order No. 176, of 1 July 1942, shall upon becoming eligible for this award for service performed subsequent to 2 September 1945, wear a bronze star signifying the second award on the ribbon of the medal and on the service ribbon.\n.\nRegulations permit the wearing of a bronze service star if a service member had performed duty during", "-31.034773893137753" ], [ "class of the medal is awarded.\nWhen the medal is awarded during wartime (which hasn't happened since the end of the Korean War), a silver palm bearing a Royal Monogram was attached to the ribbon. Specificities Nowadays, the criteria for exceptional devotion to duty are considered being met, and the second class of the medal is thus awarded, after 20 years of active service aboard Belgian Navy vessels.\nIn the period 2009-2013, the Military Decoration for Exceptional Service or Acts of Courage or Devotion second class was awarded 58 times, mostly for exceptional devotion to duty (see below).\nDuring the same period, the", "-31.019946288492065" ], [ "others who were awarded the Soldier's Medal. The Secretary of the Army Award for Valor was awarded to police officers Kimberly Munley and Mark Todd, for the roles they played in stopping the shooter. On May 23, 2011, the Army Award for Valor was posthumously awarded to the civilian physician assistant Michael Cahill, who died trying to charge the shooter with a chair. In May 2012, Senator Joe Lieberman and Representative Peter T. King proposed legislation that would make the victims of the shooting eligible for the Purple Heart. In the 113th Congress, Representative John Carter introduced legislation to change", "-30.92419125023298" ], [ "the National Temple Hill Association about the badge.\nBissell's badge was reportedly lost when his house burned in July 1813. Disuse After the Revolutionary War, the Badge of Military Merit fell into disuse although it was never officially abolished. In 1932, the United States War Department authorized the new Purple Heart Medal for soldiers who had previously received either a Wound Chevron or the Army Wound Ribbon. At that time, it was also determined that the Purple Heart Medal would be considered the official \"successor decoration\" to the Badge of Military Merit.", "-30.92288649326656" ], [ "no more than forty-nine a year may be awarded in the Royal Navy, three in the Royal Marines, eighty-nine in the Army and sixty in the Royal Air Force, and in practice these numbers are not reached. First World War During the First World War, as approved by Royal Warrant on 4 October 1916, non-commissioned officers below the rank of Sergeant and men also became eligible for the award of the Meritorious Service Medal, without the annuity, for acts of gallantry in the performance of military duty, not necessarily on active service, or in saving or attempting to save the", "-30.915121912956238" ], [ "the Medal of Honor). The Chaplain's Medal for Heroism is a special US military decoration given to military chaplains who have been killed in the line of duty, although it has to date only been awarded to the famous Four Chaplains, all of whom died in the Dorchester sinking in 1943 after giving up their lifejackets to others.\nIn 2006, training materials obtained by US intelligence showed that insurgent snipers fighting in Iraq were urged to single out and attack engineers, medics, and chaplains on the theory that those casualties would demoralize entire enemy units. Among the training materials, there included", "-30.88401963445358" ], [ "with a gratuity, that varied in amount depending on rank, and given on the recipient's discharge from the Army.\nSince January 1918 recipients have been entitled to the post-nominal letters DCM.\nA bar to the medal, introduced in 1881, could be awarded in recognition of each subsequent act of distinguished conduct for which the medal would have been awarded.\nDuring the First World War, concern arose that the high number of medals being awarded would devalue the medal's prestige. The Military Medal was therefore instituted on 25 March 1916 as an alternative and lower award, with the Distinguished Conduct Medal reserved for more", "-30.881753548863344" ], [ "Medals of Honor for the Korean War were awarded for the Battle of Taejon. For his actions on the front lines, Dean was awarded the first Medal of Honor, although he remained a prisoner of the North Koreans until the end of the war (released in September 1953). A second soldier, Sergeant George D. Libby, received the Medal of Honor posthumously, for tending to wounded soldiers during the evacuation: he repeatedly passed over shelled roads to help evacuate them. He was killed while trying to evacuate more soldiers. Additionally, a chaplain, Herman G. Felhoelter, was awarded the Distinguished Service Cross", "-30.854845041409135" ], [ "Shri have been so annulled, twice in 1958 for recipients residing in the state of Punjab and once in 1974 for a recipient residing in the state of Gujarat. Military Awards Since 11 July 2019, Indian Army allows close relatives of deceased military personnel to wear their medals on the right side of chest while attending homage ceremonies at war memorials, cemeteries and funerals.", "-30.838812668196624" ], [ "duty. As such, they are used as a tool to build morale. Military officials occasionally give them to non-military personnel for outstanding service or rewards, like the case of student athletes at Northeastern University.\nIn the context as they are used by the modern U.S. military, the tradition probably began among special forces units during the Vietnam War. The tradition spread through the Airborne community, and by the early 1980s also into the 75th Ranger Regiment. As officers were reassigned as their careers progressed, they carried with them the tradition of awarding a unit coin for acts that were worthy of", "-30.82483564002905" ], [ "18, 2014 ceremony in the White House.\n(Distinguished Service Cross)\n(Upgraded) \n\nThe award came through the Defense Authorization Act which called for a review of Jewish American and Hispanic American veterans from World War II, the Korean War and the Vietnam War to ensure that no prejudice was shown to those deserving the Medal of Honor. Medal of Honor Citation The President of the United States of America, authorized by Act of Congress, July 9, 1918 (amended by act of July 25, 1963), takes pride in presenting the Medal of Honor to:\nFor conspicuous gallantry and intrepidity at the risk of his life", "-30.82128014904447" ], [ "however, a member in IRR status can be recalled to active duty during time of war or national emergency until the 8 years have expired. Most members separating with an honorable discharge after completing a single term of service (typically 3–6 years) are transferred to the IRR for the remainder of the 8-year MSO. Retirees are furnished with the DD 214, though a U.S. military retirement is not characterized as a discharge as retirees may be recalled to active duty, under certain circumstances, until they have achieved a total of 30 years of service.\nThe DD 214 is a complete documentation", "-30.81153424223885" ], [ "British Royal Red Cross (Second Class) medal, and the United States Distinguished Service Medal. Purple Heart After General Douglas MacArthur created the Purple Heart for combat wounds, MacDonald applied for and received the first Purple Heart to a woman on January 4, 1936. By both her date of injury and her award date, she is the first woman to be awarded a Purple Heart.", "-30.80051394401744" ], [ "both doctors in the Royal Army Medical Corps, for rescuing wounded under fire; and New Zealander Charles Upham, an infantryman, for combat actions. Upham remains the only combatant soldier to have received a VC and Bar. An Irishman, Surgeon General William Manley, remains the sole recipient of both the Victoria Cross and the Iron Cross. The VC was awarded for his actions during the Waikato-Hauhau Maori War, New Zealand on 29 April 1864 while the Iron Cross was awarded for tending the wounded during the Franco-Prussian War of 1870–71. Royal New Zealand Air Force Flying Officer Lloyd Trigg has the", "-30.76607961289119" ], [ "Distinguished Service Medal. His citation read:\nThe President of the United States takes pleasure in presenting the Army Distinguished Service Medal to Stephen J. Chamberlin, Major (Infantry), US Army, for exceptionally meritorious and distinguished services to the Government of the United States, in a duty of great responsibility during World War I. As Acting Dispatch Officer at Port of Embarkation, Hoboken, New Jersey, from November 15, 1917 to September 6, 1918, Major Chamberlin displayed marked ability in handling the movements of troops through the port, assigning units and detachments to camps, convoys, and ships, and by foresight, thorough organization, and hard", "-30.765553302830085" ], [ "Beatrice Mary MacDonald Beatrice Mary MacDonald (September 27, 1881 – September 4, 1969), an American Army nurse during World War I, received a Purple Heart for combat wounds on January 4, 1936, making her retroactively the first women to receive the award. MacDonald was also one of three women to receive the United States Distinguished Service Cross for her heroism during World War I. Other awards for her heroism include the French Croix de Guerre (Bronze), a British Military Award for gallantry, the British Royal Red Cross (Second Class) medal, and the United States Distinguished Service Medal. Early life, education,", "-30.76422565127723" ], [ "of the Gold Medals and Crosses was discontinued when would-be recipients became eligible for Order of the Bath on its restructuring to three classes.\nIn 1847 the Military General Service Medal (MGSM) was authorised, to be retrospectively awarded to all surviving veterans of the campaigns, irrespective of rank. Holders of the gold medals, crosses or additional clasps were not eligible to claim identical clasps on the MGSM. The eligible battles and campaigns for the MGSM were identical, with the addition of Egypt.\nThe design of the cross is very similar to the later Victoria Cross and is considered to have", "-30.75170838701888" ], [ "Officer, 1st Battalion, 3rd U.S. Infantry in accordance with Army Regulation 600-8-22. For a service member to permanently receive the badge, they must serve nine months as a member of the Honor Guard and receive a recommendation from the Commanding Officer of the Honor Guard Company.\nThe Guard, Tomb of the Unknown Soldier Identification Badge can be revoked if a Soldier disgraces him or herself in a manner that brings dishonor on the Tomb. This action can happen even after the Soldier completes his or her tour as a member of the Honor Guard. Recipients The first recipient of this", "-30.7421755642863" ], [ "pistol and hand grenades. Army Distinguished Service Medal Citation:\nThe President of the United States of America, authorized by Act of Congress, July 9, 1918, takes pleasure in presenting the Army Distinguished Service Medal to Colonel Hiram Iddings Bearss (MCSN: 0-1102), United States Marine Corps, for exceptionally meritorious and distinguished services to the Government of the United States, in a duty of great responsibility during World War I. Colonel Bearss commanded with distinction the 102d Infantry Regiment, 26th Division, achieving notable success in the active operations in which that regiment was engaged. By his untiring energy and dauntless courage in overcoming", "-30.73955328130978" ], [ "service a gold oakleaf is added to the ribbon.\nThe Department of Defense Force Long Service Medal (Danish: Forsvarets Hæderstegn for God Tjeneste) was instituted in 1953 by King Frederik IX and may be awarded to any member of the Armed Forces Central Services after 25 years of good service. After 40 years of service a gold oakleaf is added to the ribbon.\nRibbon of the Armed Forces Reserve Long Service Medal\nThe Reserve Long Service Medal (Danish: Fortjensttegnet for God Tjeneste i Forsvarets Reserve) was instituted in 1978 by Queen Margrethe II and may be awarded to any member of the Armed", "-30.72962722578086" ], [ "Obsolete military awards of the United States Obsolete military awards of the United States are United States military awards which have been officially removed from U.S. military award precedence charts and are listed as \"Obsolete Military Decorations\" in military award publications and instructions.\nTypically, the U.S. military will declare a decoration obsolete twenty to thirty years after its last issuance to an active duty member of the military or, in the case of medals designed for members of the reserve forces, a drilling reservist attending annual training. Medals for valor (such as the Medal of Honor and Silver Star) are", "-30.729077408323064" ], [ "after the number indicate the branch of service that issued it. For example, a \"256A\" is awarded by the Army. Other certificates for long service, or to eligible spouses of veterans, may also be presented.\nThe Freedom of Information Act has made (limited) records of military service available to the public, on request. However, information protected by the Privacy Act of 1974 can be released only with the veteran's consent. Military discharge uniform insignia During wartime the American military have often issued special insignia to honorably discharged veterans to wear on their uniforms to distinguish them from local service personnel or", "-30.719830345202354" ], [ "treasury, postal and military telegraphy services, were eligible for the award of the medal. The medal was not awarded to participants whose service records were marred by serious military offences or habitual misconduct.\nIn the cases of men who had died on active service, the medal was awarded as a souvenir to a near relative (in order of preference the deceased man's eldest son, widow, father, mother or eldest brother).\nEach medal recipient was also given a diploma issued by the navy ministry (Ministère de la Marine) or the army ministry (Ministère de la Guerre).\nA law of 27 July 1887 extended", "-30.702868381013104" ], [ "having its service members eligible for several new inter-service campaign and service medals (such as the Armed Forces Expeditionary Medal and the National Defense Service Medal).\nIn the modern age, members of other military branches serving under an Army command are also eligible to receive Army decorations. All Army service members may receive inter-service awards and decorations, international decorations, and authorized foreign medals. The Department of the Army also awards a limited number of civilian awards.\nThe current active decorations of the United States Army as follows (the Medal of Honor, the highest military award, is not shown as it covers all", "-30.702241978258826" ], [ "Medal for Faithful Service in the National People's Army Medal description The medal is suspended from a five sided cloth ribbon which is 48 mm (1.9 in) at the widest point. The medal is 35 mm (1.4 in) in diameter and is silvered and/or gilded bronze (gold medal), or bronze depending on the grade of the medal. Some variations of the medal are 34.7 mm in diameter.\nThe ribbons for the Faithful Service medals stem from the basic design used for the Bronze medal. The basic ribbon has a wide light green center stripe flanked by three equal width stripes of yellow, red and black, with", "-30.69598920363933" ], [ "Service Medal to General Paul DeWitt Adams (ASN: 0-7306), United States Army, for exceptionally meritorious and distinguished services to the Government of the United States, in a duty of great responsibility as Commander in Chief, United States Strike Command, during the period from October 1961 to October 1966. Citation The President of the United States of America, authorized by Act of Congress July 9, 1918, takes pleasure in presenting the Army Distinguished Service Medal to Major General Paul DeWitt Adams (ASN: 0-7306), United States Army, for exceptionally meritorious and distinguished services to the Government of the United States, in a", "-30.693645538354758" ], [ "does not, however, specify which medal was to be awarded. In July 1945 the War Department had recommended to Congress that special gold medals be voted by Congress in cases of outstanding leadership and that the Medal of Honor be reserved for awarding only gallantry in action. Major General William \"Billy\" Mitchell was awarded the Congressional Gold Medal, which was announced using the identical citation and approved date as listed for the award above. It seems apparent that the intention was to award the Gold Medal rather than the Medal of Honor. However, for some unknown reason, when the Senate", "-30.64640007977141" ], [ "Prisoner of War Medal Legislative proposals for the Medal The idea of creating a military award to recognize prisoners of war was first put forth in 1944. However, the military services opposed the idea, claiming that other medals could be awarded in such cases. Congressman F. Edward Hébert (D-LA) submitted a bill to create a POW lapel button in 1971, but the bill was defeated. The Defense Department told Herbert that the pin \"could have an adverse impact on the morale and pride of those families whose members are or were missing in action,\" and also claimed that it was", "-30.628364308853634" ], [ "it would overlap with service and campaign medals already issued for the Vietnam War and the Korean War, as well as the costs of issuing millions of medals to eligible veterans. On February 17, 2011, Senator Olympia Snowe (ME) and on May 24, 2011, Representative Steve Israel (NY-2) reintroduced legislation in the Senate and House, respectively, that the Secretary of Defense concerned may issue a service medal, to be known as the `Cold War Service Medal', to Cold War veterans who meet the criteria.", "-30.61546884663403" ], [ "Service Ribbon is awarded after four months of active service.\nThe Army Service Ribbon is presented as a one-time award only, i.e., no subsequent awards are authorized. The United States Air Force equivalent of the Army Service Ribbon is the Air Force Training Ribbon. Neither the U.S. Navy nor the U.S. Marine Corps have a direct equivalent, though the Navy awards the Basic Training Honor Graduate Ribbon to the top 3% of each Navy recruit graduating class.\nThe Army Service Ribbon is a multi-colored (red, orange, yellow, green and blue) ribbon to represent the entire spectrum of military specialties in", "-30.606315588927828" ], [ "The current statutory authorization for the medal is Title 10 of the United States Code, 10 U.S.C. § 3746 for the U.S. Army, 10 U.S.C. § 8746 for the U.S. Air Force, and 10 U.S.C. § 6244 for the U.S. Navy.\nThe U.S. Army and Air Force award the medal as the \"Silver Star\". The U.S. Navy, Marine Corps, and Coast Guard continue to award the medal as the \"Silver Star Medal\". Since 21 December 2016, the Department of Defense (DoD) refers to the decoration as the Silver Star Medal. Recipients The Department of Defense does not keep extensive records for the Silver Star Medal. Independent", "-30.584283728981973" ], [ "veteran threw the Purple Heart his brother received posthumously into the concrete of the memorial's foundation. Several thousand items are left at the memorial each year. The largest item left at the memorial was a sliding glass storm door with a full-size replica \"tiger cage\". The door was painted with a scene from Vietnam and the names of U.S. POWs and MIAs from the conflict. History On April 27, 1979, four years after the Fall of Saigon, The Vietnam Veterans Memorial Fund, Inc. (VVMF), was incorporated as a non-profit organization to establish a memorial to veterans of the Vietnam War.", "-30.564494715537876" ], [ "award was reduced from four years to three years; however, this change was not retroactive. Service must have been consecutive and service performed in the Reserve Component of the U.S. Air Force, Navy, Marine Corps, or Coast Guard may not be credited for award of this medal. The member must have exhibited honest and faithful service in accordance with the standards of conduct, courage and duty required by law and customs of the service of a member of the same grade as the individual to whom the standard is being applied. A member must be recommended for the award by", "-30.552730134120793" ] ]

[ "You can't have a true 0 ping, but you can have so little that it will be rounded down to show 0. It depends on your connection type, and the hardware you use, and the hardware of the server you're connecting to, and every connection in between those", "Well... you could plug directly into the server. But otherwise they are probably exaggerating. Your 17ms is about as good as it gets without directly linking.", "Sme systems round down from values below 1ms. That said, this is virtually impossible to achieve unless you're literally on the same LAN as the game server. ISPs don't give you ping that good.", "[Give me a PING Vasili. One PING only, please.]( URL_0 )", "It *might* be possible if the server you're pinging is within 150km of your location. Explanation: Light can travel roughly 300 km in 1 millisecond. I say 1ms because anything less than that can show up as 0 ms. Keeping in mind that a ping packet has to travel to the server and back, that would be 300/2 = 150km. But this is just an approximation because the packet doesn't travel straight to its destination, it travels all over the place and through lots of network equipment before actually reaching its destination. So it is more likely than not that the streamers are exaggerating or lying. A few lucky ones may have servers they ping (such as URL_0 servers) hosted in an exchange near where they live. For example, many universities will host a speedtest server, ISO servers, etc.", "You can measure the hypothetical minimum ping easily by using the speed of light and straight line distance. Of course, the latency will be much longer than that in real life because it doesn't travel in a straight line and there are pieces of equipment that can slow it down. One of the most important factors regarding latency is distance. In order to have 0ms you would need to be physically very close that server, perhaps even on a LAN. Obviously, it's not actually 0.000ms latency as that would be impossible. It's just in the microseconds so it's like 0.04ms (40us) ping and it is rounded down to 0ms.", "if you think about it. actual zero ping means from the time your computer sends info, the server will already know about it. that's impossible. information needs time to propogate. wall street traders fight over which server aisle their servers are on so that the number of feet of cable is minimized to the trading exchange server. that gets them a nanosecond faster than the guy in the next aisle. your gaming application 10ms is a lifetime in wall street exchange numbers.", "Speaking as someone who gets 150-200 ping in all my online games.. f**k you. :)" ]

[ [ "their own latency detection into existing game packets (usually based on the UDP protocol) instead.\nSome factors that might affect ping include: communication protocol used, Internet throughput (connection speed), the quality of a user's Internet service provider and the configuration of firewalls. Ping is also affected by geographical location. For instance, if someone is in India, playing on a server located in the United States, the distance between the two is greater than it would be for players located within the US, and therefore it takes longer for data to be transmitted. However, the amount of packet-switching and network hardware in", "-31.605183798645157" ], [ "tool for Windows, Mac, Linux, Android, and iOS called Fing made by Overlook Soft.\nPings can be detected by protocol loggers like ippl.", "-28.925894570653327" ], [ "for monitoring Internet Traffic.\nPingER, an acronym for Ping End-to-end Reporting, measures round-trip travel time of a packet of data between two nodes on the Internet. How PingER works Using the ping command, monitoring nodes initiate transmissions to remote nodes, then measure and record the response times, or the lack of responses. Each combination of monitoring node-remote node is called a pair. PingER is easy to implement, because little special software must be installed to make measurements. Almost any networked computer will respond to a ping, and require nothing added. Monitoring nodes require only a script to issue ping commands and", "-28.277572408740525" ], [ "from 10.0.3.1: icmp_seq=1 ttl=255 time=6388671.9 ms\n\n--- 10.0.3.1 ping statistics ---\n9 packets transmitted, 4 packets received, 55% packet loss\nround-trip min/avg/max = 3211900.8/5222806.6/6388671.9 ms\n\n\nScript done on Sat Apr 28 14:14:28 2001\nThis real life implementation was mentioned by the French MP Martine Billard in the French Assemblée Nationale, during debates about Hadopi.\nThe implementation was noted in the song \"Paper Pings\" by Steve Savitzky. Risks In December 2005, a Gartner report on bird flu that concluded “A pandemic wouldn't affect IT systems directly” was humorously criticized for neglecting to consider RFC 1149 and RFC 2549 in its analysis.\nAlthough collisions are unlikely, packets can be", "-28.250501197588164" ], [ "of π using a distributed network of several hundred computers. In 2000, after two years, the project finished computing the five trillionth (5*10¹²), the forty trillionth, and the quadrillionth (10¹⁵) bits. All three of them turned out to be 0. Software for calculating π Over the years, several programs have been written for calculating π to many digits on personal computers. General purpose Most computer algebra systems can calculate π and other common mathematical constants to any desired precision.\nFunctions for calculating π are also included in many general libraries for arbitrary-precision arithmetic, for instance Class Library for Numbers, MPFR and", "-27.9431336701673" ], [ "(262,144) 36-bit locations (9,437,184 bits), equivalent to 1,179,648 8-bit bytes, or 1152 KB, or 1.125 MiB—slightly more than the 8086.\nSome older computers (decimal computers), were decimal digit-addressable. For example, each address in the IBM 1620's magnetic-core memory identified a single six bit binary-coded decimal digit, consisting of a parity bit, flag bit and four numerical bits. The 1620 used 5-digit decimal addresses, so in theory the highest possible address was 99,999. In practice, the CPU supported 20,000 memory locations, and up to two optional external memory units could be added, each supporting 20,000 addresses, for a total", "-27.870382657383743" ], [ "at z = 0, let alone in a neighborhood of 0. Programming languages The C and C++ standards do not specify the result of 0⁰ (a domain error may occur), but as of C99, if the normative annex F is supported, the result is required to be 1 because there are significant applications for which this value is more useful than NaN (for instance, with discrete exponents). The Java standard and the .NET Framework method System.Math.Pow also treat 0⁰ as 1. Some languages document that their exponentiation operation corresponds to the pow function from the C mathematical library; this is the", "-27.596541933278786" ], [ "This initialization causes a high load on the network, which is made up for from the perspective of the developer with long service life and efficient data transfer. Construction of the network topology After activation, each sensor node transmits every second ping for 30 seconds. Pings are in the network technology brief messages that are sent back immediately from sender to receiver, usually to check connection and line quality. With Z-MAC, the ping contains information on the sending node itself and all the information that has been collected through the direct neighbors of the node. By pinging the environment experienced", "-27.355201554542873" ], [ "this context. Thus, it predicts that the next bit will be a 0 with probability p₀ = n₀ / n = n₀ / (n₀ + n₁) and 1 with probability p₁ = 1 − p₀ = n₁ / n. In addition, each table entry has a pair of pointers to the contexts obtained by appending either a 0 or a 1 to the right of the current context (and possibly dropping bits on the left). Thus, it is never necessary to look up the current context in the table; it is sufficient to maintain a pointer to the current context and", "-27.244898036296945" ], [ "usual 0 to 255 values). The PHY itself uses this to represent certain special symbols that have meaning to the PHY itself (e.g. IDLE symbols). Note that the ratio 8:9 can cause some confusion when specifying the data rate of the D-PHY: a PHY implementation running with a 450 MHz clock frequency is often rated as a 900 Mbit/s PHY, while only 800 Mbit/s is then available for the UniPro stack.\nThe D-PHY also supports a Low-Power Data Transmission (LPDT) mode and various other low-power modes for use when no data needs to be sent. Low speed modes and power savings It", "-27.174993018852547" ], [ "zero-pressure capacitive touch to provide a true hands-on computing experience for mobile computers and other digital input products over a single device.\nA large number of user reports suggest that the Dell Latitude XT suffers from a major problem. The N-Trig digitizer interfaces to the XT by an internal USB port. Users report that any other USB device which is plugged in may, and usually does, prevent the N-Trig applet (program which controls the features) from identifying the N-Trig hardware. In addition, there have been reports that certain other drivers, such as iTunes Helper, may cause this or a similar problem.", "-27.087389990105294" ], [ "to (0 + 1)/2 = 0.5. The median of the second group is the upper or third quartile, and is equal to (27 + 61)/2 = 44.\nThe smallest and largest observations are 0 and 63.\nSo the five-number summary would be 0, 0.5, 7.5, 44, 63. Example in R It is possible to calculate the five-number summary in the R programming language using the fivenum function. The summary function, when applied to a vector, displays the five-number summary together with the mean (which is not itself a part of the five-number summary).\n> moons <- c(0, 0, 1, 2, 63, 61, 27,", "-26.782451265724376" ], [ "Chudnovsky algorithm Example: Python Implementation π can be computed to any precision using the above algorithm in any environment which supports arbitrary-precision arithmetic. As an example, here is a Python implementation:\nfrom decimal import Decimal as Dec, getcontext as gcdef PI(maxK=70, prec=1008, disp=1007): # parameter defaults chosen to gain 1000+ digits within a few seconds\n gc().prec = prec\n K, M, L, X, S = 6, 1, 13591409, 1, 13591409\n for k in range(1, maxK+1):\n M = (K**3 - 16*K) * M // k**3 \n", "-26.760602432113956" ], [ "(codename K8). 10h and 0Fh refer to the main result of the CPUID x86 processor instruction. In hexadecimal numbering, 0Fh (h represents hexadecimal numbering) equals the decimal number 15, and 10h equals decimal 16. (The \"K10h\" form that sometimes pops up is an improper hybrid of the \"K\" code and Family identifier number.) Confirmation of time frames On July 21, 2006, AMD President and Chief operating officer (COO) Dirk Meyer and Senior VP Marty Seyer confirmed that the launch date of new microprocessors of Revision H under the new microarchitecture is slated for the middle of 2007; and that it", "-26.68787124712253" ], [ "intended for maximising compatibility with different computers. Bit 7 is always 0, which is especially useful when transmitting ASCII characters, because these always have bit 7 set to 0.\nFor the audio signals, square waves in the form of a 1200 Hz wave for a \"0\" bit and two 2400 Hz waves for a \"1\" bit are used, resulting in a time of 1/1200 seconds for each bit. A pause longer than 1/1800 seconds between waves marks the beginning of a byte, making the following wave the start bit. After the start bit and before the eight data bits is another pause", "-26.6405304329528" ], [ "with an error less than 0.001, while the numeral 0.08 indicates an absolute error bounded by 0.01. In both cases, the true value of the measured quantity could be, for example, 0.0803 or 0.0796 (see also significant figures). Decimal computation Most modern computer hardware and software systems commonly use a binary representation internally (although many early computers, such as the ENIAC or the IBM 650, used decimal representation internally).\nFor external use by computer specialists, this binary representation is sometimes presented in the related octal or hexadecimal systems.\nFor most purposes, however, binary values are converted to or from the equivalent decimal", "-26.609628908801824" ], [ "0.1234567890000000000\nThe answer, accurate to 20 significant digits, is\n 0.0000000001234567890\nHowever, on the 10-digit floating-point machine, the calculation yields\n 0.1234567891 − 0.1234567890 = 0.0000000001\nIn both cases the result is accurate to same order of magnitude as the inputs (−20 and −10 respectively). In the second case, the answer seems to have one significant digit, which would amount to loss of significance. However, in computer floating-point arithmetic, all operations can be viewed as being performed on antilogarithms, for which the rules for significant figures indicate that the number of significant figures remains the same as the smallest", "-26.58562303800136" ], [ "of some countries.\nThe numeric value adopted for ɡ₀ was, in accordance with the 1887 CIPM declaration, obtained by dividing Defforges's result – 980.991 cm⋅s⁻² in the cgs system then en vogue – by 1.0003322 while not taking more digits than warranted considering the uncertainty in the result.", "-26.585075157112442" ], [ "to many digits, and then using an integer relation-finding algorithm (typically Helaman Ferguson's PSLQ algorithm) to find a sequence A that adds up those intermediate sums to a well-known constant or perhaps to zero. BBP compared to other methods of computing π This algorithm computes π without requiring custom data types having thousands or even millions of digits. The method calculates the nth digit without calculating the first n − 1 digits and can use small, efficient data types.\nThough the BBP formula can directly calculate the value of any given digit of π with less computational effort than formulas that must calculate", "-26.4325825428823" ], [ "a ratio value of 0 equals to non-methylation of the locus (i.e., homozygous unmethylated); a ratio of 1 equals to total methylation (i.e., homozygous methylated); and a value of 0.5 means that one copy is methylated and the other is not (i.e., heterozygosity), in the diploid human genome.\nAnalysis of methylation data\n\nThe scanned microarray images of methylation data are further analyzed by the system, which normalizes the raw data to reduce the effects of experimental variation, background and average normalization, and performs standard statistical tests on the results. The data can then be compiled into several types of figures for visualization", "-26.33819008944556" ], [ "we compute 2P. We have s(P) = s(1,1) = 4, so the coordinates of 2P = (x′, y′) are x′ = s² – 2x = 14 and y′ = s(x – x′) – y = 4(1 – 14) – 1 = –53, all numbers understood (mod n). Just to check that this 2P is indeed on the curve: (–53)² = 2809 = 14³ + 5·14 – 5.\nThen we compute 3(2P). We have s(2P) = s(14,-53) = –593/106 (mod n). Using the Euclidean algorithm: 455839 = 4300·106 + 39, then 106 = 2·39 + 28, then 39 = 28 + 11,", "-26.31997147272341" ], [ "have a correspondence to the usual ordinal numbers which predate the invention of the zero by a long time.\nPascal allows the range of an array to be of any ordinal type (including enumerated types). APL allows changing between 0 or 1 origin during runtime programatically as the programmers finds convenient. Some recent languages, such as Lua and Visual Basic, have adopted the same convention for the same reason.\nZero is the lowest unsigned integer value, one of the most fundamental types in programming and hardware design. In computer science, zero is thus often used as the base case for many kinds", "-26.2776866289787" ], [ "one and only one bit set in their binary representation:\nx == 0...010...0\nx-1 == 0...001...1\nx & (x-1) == 0...000...0\nIf the number is neither zero nor a power of two, it will have '1' in more than one place:\nx == 0...1...010...0\nx-1 == 0...1...001...1\nx & (x-1) == 0...1...000...0\nIf inline assembly language code is used, then an instruction that counts the number of 1's or 0's might be available; for example, the POPCNT instruction from the", "-26.274266811233247" ], [ "\"relative address\". In the 65CE02, these could be -32768 or +32767 locations, by following the branch with a 16-bit value. Previously to perform a \"long branch\" one normally had to use a JMP to the 16-bit target and then branch over those three bytes when you didn't want to do it. For instance, if one wanted to branch to address $1234 if the accumulator is zero, one would do a CMP #$00/BNE +3/JMP $1234, meaning you want to skip over the 3-byte JMP if the accumulator is not zero. In the 65CE02 this can be reduced to something like CMP", "-26.270439272164367" ], [ "These measurements are commonly used with an SI prefix such as tera-, combined into the shorthand \"TFLOPS\" (10¹² FLOPS, pronounced teraflops), or peta-, combined into the shorthand \"PFLOPS\" (10¹⁵ FLOPS, pronounced petaflops.) \"Petascale\" supercomputers can process one quadrillion (10¹⁵) (1000 trillion) FLOPS. Exascale is computing performance in the exaFLOPS (EFLOPS) range. An EFLOPS is one quintillion (10¹⁸) FLOPS (one million TFLOPS).\nNo single number can reflect the overall performance of a computer system, yet the goal of the Linpack benchmark is to approximate how fast the computer solves numerical problems and it is widely used in the industry. The FLOPS measurement", "-26.254205108911265" ], [ "That means that the maximum transfer rate of XMODEM is a function of the phone system more than the speed of the modems themselves. At 300 bit/s this is not a serious concern, as the packet will take about 3.5 seconds to send, the 0.1 delay being insignificant. However, at 9600 bit/s the packet only takes about 0.1 seconds to send, meaning that at least half of the potential throughput is lost while the sender waits for the ACK or NAK to arrive.\nSEAlink addresses this through the use of a \"sliding window\". In this case the sender does not", "-26.243272761290427" ], [ "Ping of death A ping of death is a type of attack on a computer system that involves sending a malformed or otherwise malicious ping to a computer. \nA correctly-formed ping packet is typically 56 bytes in size, or 64 bytes when the Internet Protocol header is considered. However, any IPv4 packet (including pings) may be as large as 65,535 bytes. Some computer systems were never designed to properly handle a ping packet larger than the maximum packet size because it violates the Internet Protocol documented in RFC 791. Like other large but well-formed packets, a ping of death is fragmented", "-26.22769251911086" ], [ "setting bit number 0 (0x1 in value) of CR4. Because the VME interrupt speed-up enhancements were found useful for non-VM86 protected tasks, they can also be enabled separately by setting only bit number 1 (0x2 in value), which is called PVI (Protected Mode Virtual Interrupts). Detecting whether a processor supports VME (including PVI) is done using the CPUID instruction, by testing the value of second bit (bit number 1, 0x2 in value) in EDX register, which is set if VME is supported by the processor. In Linux, this latter bit is reported as the vme flag in the /proc/cpuinfo file,", "-26.2210475828615" ], [ "of distributions f(x), g(y) when their means approach each other.\nAn interesting experiment the results of which coincide with the properties of L–K metric was performed in 1967 by Robert Moyer and Thomas Landauer who measured the precise time an adult took to decide which of two Arabic digits was the largest. When the two digits were numerically distanced such as 2 and 9. subjects responded quickly and accurately. But their response time slowed by more than 100 milliseconds when they were closer such as 5 and 6, and subjects then erred as often as once in every ten trials. The", "-26.211254592803016" ], [ "free software, since it has a restriction that users must abide by the project's distribution terms.\nSpecifically, if the software is used to discover a prime number with at least 100,000,000 decimal digits, the user will only win $50,000 of the $150,000 prize offered by the Electronic Frontier Foundation.\nThird-party programs for testing Mersenne numbers, such as Mlucas and Glucas (for non-x86 systems), do not have this restriction.\nGIMPS also \"reserves the right to change this EULA without notice and with reasonable retroactive effect.\"", "-26.147142634203192" ], [ "Pingus History Work on the game began in 1998. Version 0.6 was released in 2003 for Linux, and featured new levels and a level editor. On February 11, 2006 the game began being ported from ClanLib to Simple DirectMedia Layer (SDL). On August 27, 2007 version 0.7.0 (the first version to use SDL) was released. In addition to Windows and Linux, the switch to SDL enabled Pingus to be easily built on other platforms, including Apple's OS X. On September 23, 2007 version 0.7.1 was released with a new level editor. On October 31, 2007, version 0.7.2 was released with", "-26.12234945136879" ], [ "fact, we can use the Levenshtein distance computing algorithm for E(m, j), the only difference being that we must initialize the first row with zeros, and save the path of computation, that is, whether we used E(i − 1,j), E(i,j − 1) or E(i − 1,j − 1) in computing E(i, j). \nIn the array containing the E(x, y) values, we then choose the minimal value in the last row, let it be E(x₂, y₂), and follow the path of computation backwards, back to the row number 0. If the field we arrived at was E(0, y₁), then T[y₁ + 1] ... T[y₂] is a substring of T with the minimal edit distance to the pattern P.\nComputing", "-26.099749907501973" ], [ "Bitmap index A bitmap index is a special kind of database index that uses bitmaps.\nBitmap indexes have traditionally been considered to work well for low-cardinality columns, which have a modest number of distinct values, either absolutely, or relative to the number of records that contain the data. The extreme case of low cardinality is Boolean data (e.g., does a resident in a city have internet access?), which has two values, True and False. Bitmap indexes use bit arrays (commonly called bitmaps) and answer queries by performing bitwise logical operations on these bitmaps. Bitmap indexes have a significant space and performance", "-26.07070480947732" ], [ "Pinger Products Pinger makes apps that help people communicate in new and surprisingly simple ways. Our two flagship services, Sideline and Textfree, have been used by over 100 million people around the world. Textfree Textfree makes communication free and accessible, even without a carrier plan. As the original free texting app, Textfree lets anyone with an internet connection call and text for free from a real phone number. Sideline Sideline is a mobile app that gives people a 2nd number to separate work from life on one device. Powering millions of phone numbers, Sideline is the fastest-growing communication app for", "-26.06900380566367" ], [ "and result in a value of 0.76593020E+103, not a particularly helpful response. Nevertheless, by asking questions that would be responded to using single-letter responses, programmers could test the result against known character values to produce what looked like character input.\nFOCAL's PDP-8 implementation used a floating point representation that represented numbers as four 12-bit words, forty-eight bits in total, with thirty-six bits of mantissa and twelve bits of exponent. This allowed for both significantly higher precision and a significantly wider range of values than most contemporary interpreters and made it a reasonable choice for serious numerical work. This high precision, and", "-26.055241734720767" ], [ "to 4-byte integer values will increment the pointer's pointed-to byte-address by 4. This has the effect of incrementing the pointer to point at the next element in a contiguous array of integers—which is often the intended result. Pointer arithmetic cannot be performed on void pointers because the void type has no size, and thus the pointed address can not be added to, although gcc and other compilers will perform byte arithmetic on void* as a non-standard extension, treating it as if it were char *.\nPointer arithmetic provides the programmer with a single way of dealing with different types: adding and", "-26.0172448863741" ], [ "+ 1);\n int z = 5 * double(x);\n \n printf(\"y is %d\\n\",y);\n printf(\"z is %d\\n\",z); \n \n return 0;}\n./example3y is 10z is 18\nNormally, the result expected was \"y is equal to 64 and z to 30\". But when the preprocessor replace the calls of the macros, we obtain:\n// y:x + 1*x + 1*x + 1 // equivalent tox + (1 * x) + (1 * x) + 1 // or3 + (1 * 3) + (1 * 3) + 1 // is equal", "-26.01158904031763" ], [ "sections of popular artists on Ping, such as Britney Spears, Lady Gaga, Katy Perry and U2, all of whom were among the recommended accounts listed on the Ping homepage.\nSecurity vendor Sophos expressed bemusement that Apple had allegedly set up no spam or URL filtering in Ping, leaving the service open to spam commenting. MacRumors reported that the \"first 'free iPhone' spam wave remained active for up to four hours before being disabled.\" PC World noted that if Sophos' claims are correct it would be very \"surprising ... considering that Apple appears to be filtering profile photos.\" Fake accounts On September", "-25.999416844715597" ], [ "at address A, while something like POKE A,(V AND 255) followed by POKE (A+1),TRUNC(V/256) would be used to write the 16-bit integer V at address A.\nHowever, BASIC on 16- or 32-bit machines, such as IBM PCs or Commodore Amigas often had additional commands, such as DPEEK and DPOKE to read and set a 16-bit value in a single operation. Other 16-/32-bit machines, such as the Sinclair QL, had PEEK_W/PEEK_L and POKE_W/POKE_L for reading and setting 16- and 32-bit values respectively, while the Atari ST series used the traditional names but had the possibility to define 8-/16-/32-bit memory segments and addresses", "-25.95536422569421" ], [ "bitwise XOR is a binary operation that takes two bit patterns of equal length and performs the logical exclusive OR operation on each pair of corresponding bits. The result in each position is 1 if only the first bit is 1 or only the second bit is 1, but will be 0 if both are 0 or both are 1. In this we perform the comparison of two bits, being 1 if the two bits are different, and 0 if they are the same. For example:\n 0101 (decimal 5)\nXOR 0011 (decimal 3)\n = 0110 (decimal 6)\nThe", "-25.90278314810712" ], [ "even before the availability of computers. During the period 1945–1956 Wrench and Levi B. Smith used a desk calculator to produce more and more digits of π, ending with 1160 places.\nIn 1961 Wrench and Daniel Shanks used an IBM 7090 computer to calculate π to 100,000 digits.\nHarry Polachek had a printout of the 100,000 digits specially bound, inscribed in gold letters, and donated to the Smithsonian Institution.\nWrench also calculated a number of other mathematical constants to high precision, for example the Euler–Mascheroni constant γ to 328 decimal places\nand Khinchin's constant to 65 places.\nHe was at one time the editor of", "-25.88531256801798" ], [ "Intercom 500, 550, and 1000 are numerical, six or seven digits in length. Instructions are stored sequentially; the beauty is convenience, not speed. Intercom 1000 even has an optional double-precision version.\nAs mentioned above the machine uses hexadecimal numbers. But the user never has to deal with this in normal programming. The user programs use the decimal numbers while the OS resides in the higher addresses. Significance The G-15 is sometimes described as the first personal computer, because it has the Intercom interpretive system. The title is disputed by other machines, such as the LINC and the PDP-8, and some", "-25.81585657011601" ], [ "is 0110₂ (6), and the low nibble is 0001₂ (1). The total value is high-nibble × 16 + low-nibble (6×16+1=97). Extracting a nibble from a byte In C:\n#define HI_NIBBLE(b) (((b) >> 4) & 0x0F)#define LO_NIBBLE(b) ((b) & 0x0F)\nwhere b must be a variable or constant of an integral data type, and only the least-significant byte of b is used.\nFor example, HI_NIBBLE(0xAB)==0xA and LO_NIBBLE(0xAB)==0xB.\nIn Common Lisp:\n(defun hi-nibble (b)\n (ldb (byte 4 4) b))(defun lo-nibble (b)\n (ldb (byte 4 0) b))", "-25.814087971055415" ], [ "(an octet, resulting in the possibility of 256 values (2⁸). (The term byte once meant (and in some cases, still means) a collection of bits, typically of 5 to 32 bits, rather than only an 8-bit unit.) The prefix kilo, in conjunction with byte, may be, and has traditionally been, used, to mean 1,024 (2¹⁰). However, in general, the term kilo has been used in the International System of Units to mean 1,000 (10³). Binary prefixes have been standardized, such as kibi (Ki) meaning 1,024. Nearly all processor registers have sizes that are powers of two, 32 or 64", "-25.812380456074607" ], [ "uses pointers to structures. Consequently, TAPI 2.x is easy to access from C or C++ applications, but it can be awkward to use from many other programming languages.\nTAPI 3.x was designed with a Component Object Model (COM) interface. This was done with the intent of making it accessible to higher level applications such as developed in VB or other environments that provide easy access to COM but don't deal with C-style pointers. \nTAPI 3.x has a slightly different set of functionality than TAPI 2.x. The addition of integrated media control was the most significant addition. But TAPI 3.x doesn't include", "-25.79474059617496" ], [ "32-bit instruction format. The PPE contains a 64-bit general purpose register set (GPR), a 64-bit floating point register set (FPR), and a 128-bit Altivec register set. The SPE contains 128-bit registers only. These can be used for scalar data types ranging from 8-bits to 64-bits in size or for SIMD computations on a variety of integer and floating point formats. System memory addresses for both the PPE and SPE are expressed as 64-bit values for a theoretic address range of 2⁶⁴ bytes (16 exabytes or 16,777,216 terabytes). In practice, not all of these bits are implemented in hardware. Local store", "-25.789133254118497" ], [ "48-bit timestamp (the number of 4-microsecond units of time since 1 Jan 1980 UTC); the next 2 octets are reserved; the next octet is the \"address family\"; and the final 7 octets are a 56-bit host ID in the form specified by the address family. Though different in detail, the similarity with modern version-1 UUIDs is evident. The variant bits in the current UUID specification coincide with the high bits of the address family octet in NCS UUIDs. Though the address family could hold values in the range 0..255, only the values 0..13 were ever defined. Accordingly, the variant-0", "-25.760076793667395" ], [ "way, as in the following examples: 149597870700 metres is 1 astronomical unit; 3.14159265358979323846 is π rounded to 20 decimal places, and 2.71828182845904523536 is e rounded to 20 decimal places.\nIn some programming languages, it is possible to group the digits in the program's source code to make it easier to read; see Integer literal: Digit separators. Ada, C# (from version 7.0), D, Haskell (from GHC version 8.6.1), Java, OCaml, Perl, Python (from version 3.6), Ruby, Rust, and Swift use the underscore (_) character for this purpose. All these languages allow seven hundred million to be entered as 700_000_000. Fixed-form Fortran ignores", "-25.748161538882414" ], [ "However it remained rare outside the FidoNet world, and was rarely seen in user-facing software. XMODEM-1K Another way to solve the throughput problem is to increase the packet size. Although the fundamental problem of latency remains, the speed at which it becomes a problem is higher. XMODEM-1K with 1024-byte packets was the most popular such solution. In this case, the throughput at 9600 bit/s is 81%, given the same assumptions as above.\nXMODEM-1K was an expanded version of XMODEM-CRC, which indicated the longer block size in the sender by starting a packet with the <STX> character instead of <SOH>. Like other", "-25.71055675513344" ], [ "Random.org Bits A binary digit (bit) can be either 0 or 1. There are several Random.org radios located in Copenhagen, Dublin, and Ballsbridge, each generating 12,000 bits per second from the atmospheric noise picked up. The generators produce a continuous string of random bits which are converted into the form requested (integer, Gaussian distribution, etc.) Quota There are limits to the number of bits supplied to a particular IP address. A new user (identified by IP address) starts with a free-of-charge quota of 1,000,000 bits which is depleted every time bits are supplied, and topped up by 200,000 bits (or", "-25.69391647563316" ], [ "record results. In September 1999 there were 1977 pairs, consisting of 511 remote nodes in 54 countries.\nPingER uses the data to determine latency (round-trip_time), jitter (variability of round-trip_time), and loss (percentage of packets that never return). The results of the PingER Project, including source code, are made available to the public at no cost. This collection of data shows long term world-wide Internet performance trends, covering over 750 sites in over 165 countries. Researchers at the National University of Sciences and Technology, Pakistan, have been dealing with increasingly large amounts of PingER data by using a relational database. From a", "-25.67039875109913" ], [ "Ni1000 The Ni1000 is an artificial neural network chip developed by Nestor Corporation. The chip is aimed at image analysis applications, contains more than 3 million transistors and can analyze patterns at the rate of 40,000 per second. Prototypes running with Nestor's OCR software in 1994 were capable of recognizing around 100 handwritten characters per second.", "-25.66224544683064" ], [ "a 0 or 1. X is a variable length string of digits consisting of any digit between 0 and 8. 9 is used as a delimiter. <EN> is a variable length user-defined number consisting of any digits 0-9. Thus, NASS addresses are variable in length.\nSome examples of fully qualified GDS NASS addresses; all address below contain the GDS IAC (00) and CC (1) with endpoint numbers indicated as <EN>:\n0010 Reserved\n00119<EN> (OP = 19)\n001109<EN> (OP = 109)\n001119<EN> (OP = 119)\n001129<EN> (OP = 129)\n001139<EN> (OP = 139)\n001189<EN> (OP = 189)\n00110123456789<EN> (OP = 10123456789)\nActual Dialing\nWith the onset of Cisco Telepresence which uses the", "-25.646972498856485" ], [ "p-value, the probability that a given result could be obtained, assuming random coincidence. When asking \"does X affect Y?\", it is common to vary X and see if there is significant variation in Y as a result. If this p-value is less than some predetermined statistical significance threshold α, one considers the result \"significant\".\nHowever, if one is performing multiple tests (\"looking elsewhere\" if the first test fails) then a p value of 1/n is expected to occur after about n tests. For example, when there is no real effect, an event with p < 0.05 will on average still be seen", "-25.613636871566996" ], [ "to the relative accuracy of the multimeter. Digital The resolution of a multimeter is often specified in the number of decimal digits resolved and displayed. If the most significant digit cannot take all values from 0 to 9 it is generally, and confusingly, termed a fractional digit. For example, a multimeter which can read up to 19999 (plus an embedded decimal point) is said to read ​4 ¹⁄₂ digits.\nBy convention, if the most significant digit can be either 0 or 1, it is termed a half-digit; if it can take higher values without reaching 9 (often 3 or 5), it may", "-25.60699659261445" ], [ "user receives an email notifying them of any downtime as soon as it occurs and again when it ends. The monitoring tool can also determine how long it takes a website to load fully, how many files it constitutes, and the number of scripts and images required to load.\nPingdom publishes reports on global Internet use and country-specific data on visitors to popular websites like Facebook. The report also includes data on the location of the hosts for many of the most visited websites in the world as determined by Alexa Internet. In 2012, Pingdom was able to determine that about", "-25.60449891956523" ], [ "ptr g = @fdim as integer ptr i = gassert(*i = 257)assert( (g + 4) = (@f + 1) ) C and C++ In C and C++ pointers are variables that store addresses and can be null. Each pointer has a type it points to, but one can freely cast between pointer types (but not between a function pointer and an object pointer). A special pointer type called the “void pointer” allows pointing to any (non-function) object, but is limited by the fact that it cannot be dereferenced directly (it shall be cast). The address itself can often be directly", "-25.59855243543643" ], [ "previous one:\nstruct s pi = { .z = \"Pi\", .x = 3, .y = 3.1415 };\nUsing a designator in an initializer moves the initialization \"cursor\". In the example below, if MAX is greater than 10, there will be some zero-valued elements in the middle of a; if it is less than 10, some of the values provided by the first five initializers will be overridden by the second five (if MAX is less than 5, there will be a compilation error):\nint a[MAX] = { 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, [MAX-5] = 8, 6, 4, 2, 0 };\nIn C89, a union", "-25.55856746842619" ], [ "implemented such that it only takes a maximum of m + 1 bits for a value that would normally be represented in binary with m bits.\nThe properties of NAF make it useful in various algorithms, especially some in cryptography; e.g., for reducing the number of multiplications needed for performing an exponentiation. In the algorithm, exponentiation by squaring, the number of multiplications depends on the number of non-zero bits. If the exponent here is given in NAF form, a digit value 1 implies a multiplication by the base, and a digit value −1 by its reciprocal.\nOther ways of encoding integers that", "-25.54585002717795" ], [ "32 digits of precision for advanced operations (square root, transcendental functions). The largest value that can be represented on the Windows Calculator is currently <10¹⁰ ⁰⁰⁰ and the smallest is 10-9,999. (Also ! calculates the Gamma function which is defined over all real numbers, only excluding the negative integers). Windows 2000, XP and Vista In Windows 2000, digit grouping is added. Degree and base settings are added to menu bar.\nThe calculators of Windows XP and Vista were able to calculate using numbers beyond 10¹⁰⁰⁰⁰, but calculating with these numbers (e.g. 10^2^2^2^2^2^2^2…) does increasingly slow down the calculator and make it unresponsive", "-25.515285052533727" ], [ "instance, JMP ($1234) would first fetch the value in memory locations $1234 and $1235, and then use those 16 bits as the actual memory location to jump to. However, if the initial address ended in $FF, the boundary of a memory page, the JMP took the most significant byte of the 16-bit address from $00 of the original page rather than $00 of the new page. So for instance, JMP ($12FF) would get the first byte at $12FF and the second, incorrectly, from $1200 rather than $1300. This was fixed in the 65C02.\nAnother bug in the original 6502 concerned the", "-25.506672254414298" ], [ "10.\nThe double-dabble algorithm, performed on the value 243₁₀, looks like this:\n0000 0000 0000 11110011 Initialization\n0000 0000 0001 11100110 Shift\n0000 0000 0011 11001100 Shift\n0000 0000 0111 10011000 Shift\n0000 0000 1010 10011000 Add 3 to ONES, since it was 7\n0000 0001 0101 00110000 Shift\n0000 0001 1000 00110000 Add 3 to ONES, since it was 5\n0000 0011 0000 01100000 Shift\n0000 0110 0000 11000000 Shift\n0000 1001 0000 ", "-25.480525911261793" ], [ "by x, and if it was previously a multiple of the CRC polynomial, the result of that multiplication will be, as well. This is equivalent to the fact that, since 726 is a multiple of 11, so is 7260.\nA similar solution can be applied at the end of the message, inverting the CRC register before it is appended to the message. Again, any non-zero change will do; inverting all the bits (XORing with an all-ones pattern) is simply the most common.\nThis has an effect on one-pass CRC checking: instead of producing a result of zero when the message", "-25.47194903464333" ], [ "5 (not called 5.0) was unveiled by the Palm subsidiary PalmSource in June 2002 and first implemented on the Palm Tungsten T. It is the first version to support ARM devices and replaced the Kadak AMX68000 kernel with the custom MCK kernel, named for its developer, that was written in-house by Palm. Applications written for the prior OS versions use the older DragonBall 68K instruction set and are supported via the Palm Application Compatibility Environment (PACE) emulator in Garnet. Even with the additional overhead of PACE, Palm applications usually run faster on ARM devices than on previous generation hardware.", "-25.457546411038493" ], [ "discounting the server). The CTCP PING command works by sending an (often) integer argument (a timestamp) to a target client, the target client then responds by supplying exactly the same numerical parameter. The difference between the original timestamp and the current timestamp is calculated, with the result being displayed to the user that initiated the CTCP PING. More often than not, a timestamp that utilises milliseconds is used due to the majority of users with broadband Internet connections having a ping under 1 second.\nA sample CTCP PING request to target <nickname> from the XChat client is:\nCTCP PING 23152511\nLikewise, sample output", "-25.455907638490316" ], [ "bit/s MELPe, but its delay was longer. Implementations The MELPe has been implemented in many applications including secure radio devices, satellite communications, VoIP, and cellphone applications. In such applications, additional expertise is required for combating channel errors, packet loss, and synchronization loss. Such expertise requires the understanding of the MELPe's bits sensitivity to errors. The 2400 bit/s and 1200 bit/s MELPe include synchronization bit, which is useful in serial communications. Intellectual property rights Note that MELPe (and/or its derivatives) is subject to IPR licensing from the following companies, Texas Instruments (2400 bit/s MELP algorithm / source code), Microsoft (1200", "-25.454866627114825" ], [ "bits per sample.\nPrior to Windows XP, the number of MME/WinMM device interfaces (waveIn, waveOut, midiIn, midiOut, mixer, and aux) is restricted to 10. This limit is raised from 10 to 32 in Windows XP.\nDevice name length in MME is restricted to 31 characters so long device names may appear only partially. Issues A fault in the MME WaveIn/WaveOut emulation was introduced in Windows Vista: if sample rate conversion is needed, audible noise is sometimes introduced, such as when playing audio in a web browser that uses these APIs. This is because the internal resampler, which is no longer configurable, defaults", "-25.447290687647182" ], [ "Ping-pong lemma In mathematics, the ping-pong lemma, or table-tennis lemma, is any of several mathematical statements that ensure that several elements in a group acting on a set freely generates a free subgroup of that group. History The ping-pong argument goes back to late 19th century and is commonly attributed to Felix Klein who used it to study subgroups of Kleinian groups, that is, of discrete groups of isometries of the hyperbolic 3-space or, equivalently Möbius transformations of the Riemann sphere. The ping-pong lemma was a key tool used by Jacques Tits in his 1972 paper containing the proof of", "-25.42397284681647" ], [ "(28 decimal digits) decimal arithmetic that is appropriate for financial and monetary calculations. Contrary to the float and double data types, decimal fractional numbers such as 0.1 can be represented exactly in the decimal representation. In the float and double representations, such numbers often have non-terminating binary expansions, making those representations more prone to round-off errors.\nWhile Java lacks such a built-in type, the Java library does feature an arbitrary precision decimal type. This is not considered a language type and it does not support the usual arithmetic operators; rather it is a reference type that must be manipulated using the", "-25.386112706066342" ], [ "of S[i] and S[j]\n output z := S[j + S[i + S[z + k]]]\nendwhile\nThe value w, is relatively prime to the size of the S array. So after 256 iterations of this inner loop, the value i (incremented by w every iteration) has taken on all possible values 0...255, and every byte in the S array has been swapped at least once.\nLike other sponge functions, Spritz can be used to build a cryptographic hash function, a deterministic random bit generator (DRBG), an encryption algorithm that supports authenticated encryption with associated data (AEAD), etc.\nIn 2016, Banik and Isobe proposed", "-25.32847986969864" ], [ "is greater than 1, while the absolute value of its conjugate, −φ⁻¹ ≈ −0.618, is less than 1. Therefore, φ is a Pisot number. Its minimal polynomial is x² − x − 1.", "-25.311555628548376" ], [ "value). For example, in an eight-bit byte, only seven bits represent the magnitude, which can can range from 0000000 (0) to 1111111 (127). Thus numbers ranging from −127₁₀ to +127₁₀ can be represented once the sign bit (the eighth bit) is added. For example, −43₁₀ encoded in an eight-bit byte is 10101011 while 43₁₀ is 00101011. A consequence of using signed magnitude representation is that there are two ways to represent zero, 00000000 (0) and 10000000 (−0).\nThis approach is directly comparable to the common way of showing a sign (placing a \"+\" or \"−\" next to the number's magnitude).", "-25.311214717279654" ], [ "values that can be represented in 5 bits (2⁵) to a single character. Thus \"10010\" represents \"D\", \"10001\" represents \"Z\", and so forth. Turing changed only a few of the standard encodings; for instance, 00000 and 01000, which mean \"no effect\" and \"linefeed\" in the teleprinter code, were represented by the characters \"/\" and \"@\" respectively. Binary zero, represented by the forward slash, was the most common character in programs and data, leading to sequences written as \"///////////////\". One early user suggested that Turing's choice of a forward slash was a subconscious choice on his part, a representation of rain", "-25.30741098737053" ], [ "subtracting the number of elements required instead of the actual offset in bytes. (Pointer arithmetic with char * pointers uses byte offsets, because sizeof(char) is 1 by definition.) In particular, the C definition explicitly declares that the syntax a[n], which is the n-th element of the array a, is equivalent to *(a + n), which is the content of the element pointed by a + n. This implies that n[a] is equivalent to a[n], and one can write, e.g., a[3] or 3[a] equally well to access the fourth element of an array a.\nWhile powerful, pointer arithmetic can be a", "-25.30299645042396" ], [ "by nava-nikharva (900,000,000,000) to get the value of pi (π). This calculation yields the value π = 3.1415926535922. This is the value of π used by Madhava in his further calculations and is accurate to 11 decimal places.", "-25.284963697660714" ], [ "Ping (networking utility) History The ping utility was written by Mike Muuss in December 1983 during his employment at the Ballistic Research Laboratory, now the US Army Research Laboratory. Created as a tool to troubleshoot problems in an IP network, Mike Muuss was inspired by a remark by David Mills on using ICMP echo packets for IP network diagnosis and measurements. The author named it after the sound that sonar makes, since its methodology is analogous to sonar's echo location. The first released version was public domain software while all subsequent versions were licensed under the BSD license. Ping was", "-25.281955939281033" ], [ "first three \"x\" bits are the first three bits of the floating-point opcode. Then two \"m\" bits, then the latter half three bits of the floating-point opcode, followed by three \"r\" bits. The \"m\" and \"r\" bits specify the addressing-mode information.\nApplication programs had to be written to make use of the special floating-point instructions. At run time, software could detect the coprocessor and use it for floating-point operations. When detected absent, similar floating-point functions had to be calculated in software, or the whole coprocessor could be emulated in software for more precise numerical compatibility. Registers The x87 family does not", "-25.25117076013703" ], [ "Story About Ping was adapted for film by Weston Woods Studios in 1955. Other Because of a coincidence in naming with the ping computer program, this book has become known in the Unix and Internetworking technical communities.", "-25.221881314151688" ], [ "Ping-pong scheme Algorithms said to employ a Ping-Pong scheme exist in different fields of software engineering. They are characterized by an alternation between two entities. In the examples described below, these entities are communication partners, network paths or file blocks. Databases In most database management systems durable database transactions are supported through a log file. However, multiple writes to the same page of that file can produce a slim chance of data loss. Assuming for simplicity that the log file is organized in pages whose size matches the block size of its underlying medium, the following problem can occur:\nIf the", "-25.20843585691182" ], [ "two. For example, the simple decimal fraction 0.3 (3/10) might be represented as 5404319552844595/18014398509481984 (0.299999999999999988897769...). This inexactness causes many problems that are familiar to experienced programmers. For example, the expression 0.1 * 7 == 0.7 might counterintuitively evaluate to false in some systems, due to the inexactness of the representation of decimals.\nAlthough all decimal fractions are fractions, and thus it is possible to use a rational data type to represent it exactly, it may be more convenient in many situations to consider only non-repeating decimal fractions (fractions whose denominator is a power of ten). For example, fractional units of currency", "-25.206121107738" ], [ "POKE of four bytes at once.\nIn APL, ! is used for factorial as in mathematics (but like all APL functions, preceding its argument) and also for the binomial coefficient, , written as k!n.\nBCPL, the precursor of C, used \"!\" for pointer and array indirection: \"!P\" was equivalent to C's \"*P\" and \"P!3\" is equivalent to \"P[3]\" in C.\nPlings are also used in Acorn RISC OS to denote an application directory: a folder that when double-clicked executes a program file inside called !Run. Other files in the appfolder generally contain resources the application needs to run. The appfolder can be viewed", "-25.1827947642887" ], [ "the de facto standard among Unix and Unix-like operating systems. The first six integer or pointer arguments are passed in registers RDI, RSI, RDX, RCX, R8, R9 (R10 is used as a static chain pointer in case of nested functions), while XMM0, XMM1, XMM2, XMM3, XMM4, XMM5, XMM6 and XMM7 are used for the first floating point arguments. As in the Microsoft x64 calling convention, additional arguments are passed on the stack. Integer return values up to 64 bits in size are stored in RAX while values up to 128 bit are stored in RAX and RDX. Floating-point", "-25.181704679329414" ], [ "bits in x. In fact, for a constant fraction of x, there exists a polynomial time algorithm that lists O(1/&epsilon²) candidates that include all valid x. Thus, an algorithm can invert ƒ(x) in polynomial time for a non-negligible fraction of x, which contradicts the hypothesis.", "-25.17530621602782" ], [ "bitwise XOR may be used to invert selected bits in a register (also called toggle or flip). Any bit may be toggled by XORing it with 1. For example, given the bit pattern 0010 (decimal 2) the second and fourth bits may be toggled by a bitwise XOR with a bit pattern containing 1 in the second and fourth positions:\n 0010 (decimal 2)\nXOR 1010 (decimal 10)\n = 1000 (decimal 8)\nThis technique may be used to manipulate bit patterns representing sets of Boolean states.\nAssembly language programmers and optimizing compilers sometimes use XOR as a short-cut to setting", "-25.17446279039723" ], [ "0 to C,” starting with a rather radical step: Removing all of the computers from the classroom. Instead, he introduced physical objects the students are meant to interact with.“From 0 to C” allows people to visualize what happens inside the computer when a program runs – how bytes are moved around and manipulated by the program.\nRegarding the “From 0 to C”outcomes, de Feo explains, \"The scope of this primer is not teaching you to be the best coder or hacker, but to be one who knows what you are dealing with and has a better attitude towards problem solving.\" \"After", "-25.16087740396324" ], [ "Ping sweep In computing, a ping sweep is a method that can establish a range of IP addresses which map to live hosts.\nThe classic tool used for ping sweeps is fping, which traditionally was accompanied by gping to generate the list of hosts for large subnets, although more recent version of fping include that functionality. Well-known tools with ping sweep capability include nmap for Unix systems, and the Pinger software from Rhino9 for Windows NT. There are many other tools with this capability, including: Hping, Simple Nomad's ICMPEnum, SolarWind's Ping Sweep, and Foundstone's SuperScan. There is also a ping sweep", "-25.1363172273268" ], [ "is unable to calculate more than 32 million digits, and Alexander J. Yee & Shigeru Kondo were able to set a record of 10 Trillion 50 Digits of Pi using y-cruncher under a 2 x Intel Xeon X5680 @ 3.33 GHz - (12 physical cores, 24 hyperthreaded) computer on October 16, 2011 Super PI is much slower than these other programs, and utilizes inferior algorithms to them.", "-25.1324487793172" ], [ "and 89,345 is expressed as 8 (ten thousands) 万 9 (thousand) 千 3 (hundred) 百 4 (tens) 十 5 is found in Chinese, and in Vietnamese with a few irregularities. Japanese, Korean, and Thai have imported the Chinese decimal system. Many other languages with a decimal system have special words for the numbers between 10 and 20, and decades. For example, in English 11 is \"eleven\" not \"ten-one\" or \"one-teen\".\nIncan languages such as Quechua and Aymara have an almost straightforward decimal system, in which 11 is expressed as ten with one and 23 as two-ten with three.\nSome psychologists", "-25.12063872779254" ], [ "message for 1/0, and infinity for 1/0.0 (0.0 tells these systems to use floating point arithmetic instead of algebraic arithmetic).", "-25.104774499486666" ], [ "= 0.12 cm [virtually \"0\", really], mp = 12.05 cm. Further assuming that p = 0.6 and q = 0.4 in this example population, then:\nG = 5.45 (0.6 − 0.4) + (0.48)0.12 = 1.15 cm (rounded); and\nP = 1.15 + 12.05 = 13.20 cm (rounded). The mean after long-term self-fertilization The contribution of AA is , while that of aa is . [See above for the frequencies.] Gathering these two a terms together leads to an immediately very simple final result:\n. As before, .\nOften, \"G(f=1)\" is abbreviated to \"G₁\".\nMendel's peas can provide us with the allele effects and midpoint (see previously); and a mixed", "-25.0991840751376" ], [ "ε > 0 there is a constant k = O(1/ε²) such that the expected error of the estimate is at most ε. For example, 400 hashes would be required to estimate J(A,B) with an expected error less than or equal to .05. Variant with a single hash function It may be computationally expensive to compute multiple hash functions, but a related version of MinHash scheme avoids this penalty by using only a single hash function and uses it to select multiple values from each set rather than selecting only a single minimum value per hash function. Let h be a", "-25.098476796993054" ], [ "and it stood at 100,000 as of October 2006. The previous record (83,431) was set by the same person (Akira Haraguchi) on July 2, 2005, and the record previous to that (42,195) was held by Hiroyuki Goto.\nAn institution from Germany provides the details of the \"Pi World Ranking\". Lengthier works There are piphilologists who have written texts that encode hundreds or thousands of digits. This is an example of constrained writing, known as \"Pilish\". For example, Poe, E.: Near a Raven represents 740 digits, Cadaeic Cadenza encodes 3835, and Not A Wake extends to 10,000 digits. Irish Níl", "-25.09505305904895" ], [ "computing, such as CPU clock speeds or measures of performance.\nThe IEC 80000-13 standard uses the term 'byte' to mean eight bits (1 B = 8 bit). Therefore, 1 kB = 8000 bit. One thousand kilobytes (1000 kB) is equal to one megabyte (1 MB), where 1 MB is one million bytes. Base 2 (1024 bytes) The kilobyte has traditionally been used to refer to 1024 bytes (2¹⁰ B), a usage still common. The usage of the metric prefix kilo for binary multiples arose as a convenience, because 1024 is approximately 1000.\nThe binary interpretation of metric prefixes is still prominently", "-25.073005618323805" ], [ "as giving approximately eighteen significant digits of precision. The use of decimal when talking about binary is unfortunate because most decimal fractions are recurring sequences in binary just as 2/3 is in decimal. Thus, a value such as 10.15 is represented in binary as equivalent to 10.1499996185 etc. in decimal for REAL*4 but 10.15000000000000035527etc. in REAL*8: interconversion will involve approximation except for those few decimal fractions that represent an exact binary value, such as 0.625. For REAL*10, the decimal string is 10.1499999999999999996530553etc. The last 9 digit is the eighteenth fractional digit and thus the twentieth significant digit of the string.", "-25.061867163400166" ], [ "practice.\nIn practice the Schönhage–Strassen algorithm starts to outperform older methods such as Karatsuba and Toom–Cook multiplication for numbers beyond 2²¹⁵ to 2²¹⁷ (10,000 to 40,000 decimal) digits. The GNU Multi-Precision Library uses it for values of at least 1728 to 7808 64-bit words (33,000 to 150,000 decimal digits), depending on architecture. There is a Java implementation of Schönhage–Strassen which uses it above 74,000 decimal digits.\nApplications of the Schönhage–Strassen algorithm include mathematical empiricism, such as the Great Internet Mersenne Prime Search and computing approximations of π, as well as practical applications such as Kronecker substitution, in which multiplication of polynomials with", "-25.030547126254532" ], [ "of its time. PL/I pointers are untyped, and therefore no casting is required for pointer dereferencing or assignment. The declaration syntax for a pointer is DECLARE xxx POINTER;, which declares a pointer named \"xxx\". Pointers are used with BASED variables. A based variable can be declared with a default locator (DECLARE xxx BASED(ppp); or without (DECLARE xxx BASED;), where xxx is a based variable, which may be an element variable, a structure, or an array, and ppp is the default pointer). Such a variable can be address without an explicit pointer reference (xxx=1;, or may be addressed with an explicit", "-25.028799546154914" ], [ "Non-adjacent form Properties NAF assures a unique representation of an integer, but the main benefit of it is that the Hamming weight of the value will be minimal. For regular binary representations of values, half of all bits will be non-zero, on average, but with NAF this drops to only one-third of all digits.\nObviously, at most half of the digits are non-zero, which was the reason it was introduced by G.W. Reitweisner for speeding up early multiplication algorithms, much like Booth encoding.\nBecause every non-zero digit has to be adjacent to two 0s, the NAF representation can be", "-25.020162070781225" ], [ "is 1, the lower 16 bits of the address refer to a location in a 64K-word block of memory specified by the Extension Address in bits 42-47 of the Program Status Doubleword, with the Extension Address being concatenated with the lower 16 bits of the reference address to form the physical address. CPU Sigma systems provided a range of performance, roughly doubling from Sigma 5, the slowest, to Sigma 9 Model 3, the fastest. For example, 32-bit fixed point multiply times ranged from 7.2 to 3.8 μs; 64-bit floating point divide ranged from 30.5 to 17.4 μs.\nMost Sigma systems", "-25.00284715584712" ], [ "a nat or nit and defined as log₂ e (≈ 1.443) bits, where e is the base of the natural logarithms; and the dit, ban, or hartley, defined as log₂ 10 (≈ 3.322) bits. This value, slightly less than 10/3, may be understood because 10³ = 1000 ≈ 1024 = 2¹⁰: three decimal digits are slightly less information than ten binary digits, so one decimal digit is slightly less than 10/3 binary digits. Conversely, one bit of information corresponds to about ln 2 (≈ 0.693) nats, or log₁₀ 2 (≈ 0.301) hartleys. As with the inverse ratio, this value, approximately 3/10, but slightly more, corresponds to the", "-24.994165121403057" ], [ "received before the computer has to service the interrupt. This increases the maximum bit rate the computer can process reliably from 9600 to 153,000 bit/s if it has a 1 millisecond interrupt dead time. A 32-byte FIFO increases the maximum rate to over 300,000 bit/s. A second benefit to having a FIFO is that the computer only has to service about 8 to 12% as many interrupts, allowing more CPU time for updating the screen, or doing other chores. Thus the computer's responses will improve as well.", "-24.99230533654918" ] ]

[ "It's the leftover color when you're trying to balance a system that involves elemental types of damage. Red has a strong association with fire and heat, and likewise Blue has a strong association with cold, ice and water. Electricity tends to be another very common damage type and is generally tied to the color Yellow -- signs warning about electrical dangers even tend to be bright Yellow. If you're trying to deal with simple primary colors that leaves you with Green, and a common damage type that's left over once you've made your way through Fire, Ice and Electricity is either Poison or Acid, so those often get relegated to Green. In short, it's often Fire=Red, Water=Blue, Lightning/Air=Yellow, Poison/Acid/Radiation/Earth=Green. The concept of using sickly-green or greenish-yellow colors to represent acids and poisons goes back further than that, though. There's a TVTropes article about it: URL_0 ", "Chlorine gas is *the* traditional chemical weapon. (WW1) since is easy and cheap to make. [And it's green]( URL_0 )", "Acid=bile=bilious=green. People have been throwing up for a long time, and have understood that stomach bile -- which is green/yellow -- is acidic. edit: I should have put \"acidic\" in quotes. There's a bunch of literary references going wayyy back that refer to bile as both green and acidic, I'll see if I can dig them up. We're talking a link between poetry about jealousy/vengeance and modern video games, not medical accuracy. :)", "It is a common trope in movies, long pre-dating video games or D & D as has been suggested here. I don't know how it started, but Disney movies used green to signify evil or danger as far back as Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs in 1937.", "Inspired by /u/blubox28 i did some further digging and found the origin story for the Joker in Detective Comics #168 from 1951. It shows the \"Red Hood\" (the Joker before he became deformed) falling into a vat of \"chemical wastes\" which is... *green*. URL_0 " ]

[ [ "and monochromatic colors could depict the desired dark and moody atmosphere, but the developers wanted the aesthetic to resemble the vibrant color schemes of a comic book. To this end, they used saturated colors for in-game lighting. Lighting was an important component of the game, being used to highlight points of interest and to draw the player onward in otherwise boring corridors. To maintain the intended level of detail and allow the game's console versions to fit into the devices' memory, each area had to be streamed in and out of memory seamlessly to free up memory for textures and", "-26.0720161854847" ], [ "materials, as well as the temperature.\nIt has been found that Scheele's green was composed of a variety of different compounds, including copper metaarsenite (CuO·As\n₂O\n₃), copper arsenite salt (CuHAsO\n₃ and Cu(AsO\n₃)\n₂·3H\n₂O)), neutral copper orthoarsenite (3CuO·As\n₂O\n₃·2H\n₂O), copper arsenate (CuAsO\n₂ and Cu(AsO\n₂)\n₂), and copper diarsenite (2CuO·As\n₂O\n₃·2H\n₂O). Uses Scheele's Green was used as a color for paper, e.g. for wallpapers and paper hangings, and in paints, wax candles, and even on some children's toys. It was also used to dye cotton and linen. Scheele's Green is more brilliant and durable than the then-used copper carbonate pigments. However, because of its copper content it tends", "-25.95229022530839" ], [ "contain photosynthetic pigments, which is why they are usually green or blue.\nCyanobacteria are found almost everywhere; in oceans, lakes and rivers as well as on land. They flourish in Arctic and Antarctic lakes, hotsprings and wastewater treatment plants. They even inhabit the fur of polar bears, to which they impart a greenish tinge. Cyanobacteria produce potent toxins, but they also produce helpful bioactive compounds, including substances with antitumour, antiviral, anticancer, antibiotic and antifungal activity, UV protectants and specific inhibitors of enzymes. Harmful algal blooms Cyanotoxins are often implicated in what are commonly called red tides or harmful algal blooms. Lakes", "-25.645378299988806" ], [ "Rhodizonic acid History Rhodizonic acid was discovered by Austrian chemist Johann Heller in 1837, by analyzing the products of heating a mixture of potassium carbonate and charcoal. The name comes from Greek ῥοδίζω (rhodizō, \"to tinge red\"), on account of the color of its salts. Salts Rhodizonates tend to have various shades of red, from yellowish to purplish, in transmitted light, with a greenish luster in reflected light. \nPotassium rhodizonate can be prepared with good yield and purity by oxidizing inositol with nitric acid and reacting the result with potassium acetate in the presence of oxygen. The rhodizonate crystallizes out", "-25.364160145400092" ], [ "Metal Gear Acid 2 Gameplay Gameplay remains of Metal Gear Acid 2 essentially similar to that of its predecessor: using a series of collectible trading cards based on the other Metal Gear games. There are new features, such as the SELL option for cards, allowing overstocked cards that the player cannot use to be sold for more points (in-game currency used to buy cards) and cover fire (when a player's ally is behind an enemy and has an equipped weapon in range of the target, when the player attacks, his/her ally takes a shot onto the target as well). Also", "-25.347642190841725" ], [ "the acid. This second group may be divided into a-barbaloins, obtained from Barbados Aloe, and reddened in the cold, and b-barbaloins, obtained from Aloe Socotrina and Zanzibar Aloe, reddened by ordinary nitric acid only when warmed or by fuming acid in the cold. Nataloin (2C₁₇H₁₃O₇·H₂O) forms bright-yellow scales, barbaloin (C₁₇H₁₈O₇) prismatic crystals. Aloe species also contain a trace of volatile oil, to which their odour is due. Flavoring Aloe perryi, A. barbadensis, A. ferox, and hybrids of this species with A. africana and A. spicata are listed as natural flavoring substances in the US government Electronic Code of Federal Regulations.", "-25.196130730444565" ], [ "radish-like odor; that it imparts a red color to sulfuric acid; and that when this solution is diluted with water, it has a black precipitate. Nevertheless, he was not able to identify this metal and gave it the names aurum paradoxium (paradoxical gold) and metallum problematicum (problem metal), because it did not exhibit the properties predicted for antimony.\nIn 1789, a Hungarian scientist, Pál Kitaibel, discovered the element independently in an ore from Deutsch-Pilsen that had been regarded as argentiferous molybdenite, but later he gave the credit to Müller. In 1798, it was named by Martin Heinrich Klaproth, who had earlier", "-25.175120161264203" ], [ "to reddish-brown colors, giving mammals an earth tone. Some mammals, like the mandrill, have more vibrant colors due to structural coloration. Many sloths appear green because their fur hosts green algae; this may be a symbiotic relation that affords camouflage to the sloths.\nCamouflage is a powerful influence in a large number of mammals, as it helps to conceal individuals from predators or prey. In arctic and subarctic mammals such as the arctic fox (Alopex lagopus), collared lemming (Dicrostonyx groenlandicus), stoat (Mustela erminea), and snowshoe hare (Lepus americanus), seasonal color change between brown in summer and white in winter is driven", "-25.12593314924743" ], [ "in four elements: Venus (manipulation of rocks and plants), Mars (revolving around fire and heat), Jupiter (based on wind and electricity), and Mercury (concerning water and ice). Players can return to previous locations in the game to finish puzzles which they could not solve earlier because of the lack of a specific Psynergy spell. Battle and Djinn Golden Sun contains both random monster encounters, featuring randomly selected enemies, and compulsory boss battles that advance the story. When a battle begins, a separate screen is brought up in which the player's party faces off against the enemy. During a battle, the", "-25.092610018095" ], [ "the game.\nDesign lead Johann Seidenz said that games such as Dwarf Fortress, Prison Architect, and The Sims influenced the design of Oxygen Not Included.", "-24.979873571544886" ], [ "have been placed in a new order called green clays. The green colour is due to the presence of certain unoxidised minerals found in the primitive earth because O₂ was not present. There are also some forest soils of more recent times that cannot clearly be classified as Alfisols or as Spodosols because, despite their sandy horizons, they are not nearly acidic enough to have the typical features of a Spodosol.", "-24.979567350514117" ], [ "Cover Orange Gameplay Throughout each level, the player must place down stage elements to alter the environment and protect oranges from the acid rain of an evil cloud. These stage elements may vary in any way, from a triangular block to spiked balls that destroy ice to the oranges themselves. The cloud is activated by the last placed element, so there is no changing the setup once that is done. If the player causes an orange to fall off the stage or get hit by the acid rain, they will be forced to restart the level. There are some stars", "-24.978836987400427" ], [ "can be recognised by the absence of the white rim that surrounds the edge of most Uno cards.\nOther versions of the game use symbols and images in both old and new designs, especially ones with Wild cards that do not bear the word \"Wild\". There are also language-free versions of the newer styles that do not bear the word \"Wild\" but have the same styling.\nThe 2010 \"Uno Mod\" edition uses symbols instead of letters or numbers.\nOn September 16, 2017, Mattel released UNO® ColorADD, the first game designed specifically for those suffering from color blindness.\nOn October 1, 2019, Mattel released a", "-24.964050369453616" ], [ "(Red), Moon (Yellow), Lure (Blue), Friend (Green), Love (Pink), Fast (White), and Heavy (Black). Beginning in Pokémon Ruby, Sapphire, and Emerald, other specialized balls appear, including the Timer Ball, which becomes more effective as the number of turns in the current battle rises, and the Net Ball, which has a better chance of catching Water and Bug-type Pokémon, among others. In addition, in several games there exists an area called the Safari Zone in which only Safari Balls can be used; these cannot be obtained or used elsewhere in the game. Pokémon Sun and Moon introduced the Beast Ball, which", "-24.928898216225207" ], [ "Meanwhile, red was used heavily to add a sense of strangeness, as well as for establishing a tie to the game's narrative and story. Orange was used as a color of interaction, while white was used to add purity to the world. Blue is the last of Shangri-La's main colors, and represents dangers and honor.\nUbisoft promised that Far Cry 4 would have much more of a multiplayer element than Far Cry 3. Some elements that were scrapped for Far Cry 3 due to time constraints were featured in Far Cry 4, such as the \"Guns for Hire\" co-operative multiplayer mode.", "-24.92763407866005" ], [ "results from small-scale replacement of aluminium by chromium oxide, which is responsible for alexandrite's characteristic green to red colour change. Alexandrite from the Ural Mountains in Russia is green by daylight and red by incandescent light. Other varieties of alexandrite may be yellowish or pink in daylight and a columbine or raspberry red by incandescent light. The optimum or \"ideal\" colour change would be fine emerald green to fine purplish red, but this is rare. Iridescence Iridescence is the 'play' or 'fire' of rainbow-coloured light caused by very thin regular structures or layers beneath the surface of a gemstone. Similar", "-24.879973700089977" ], [ "Anthocyanin Anthocyanins (also anthocyans; from Greek: ἄνθος (anthos) \"flower\" and κυάνεος/κυανοῦς kyaneos/kyanous \"dark blue\") are water-soluble vacuolar pigments that, depending on their pH, may appear red, purple, blue or black. Food plants rich in anthocyanins include the blueberry, raspberry, black rice, and black soybean, among many others that are red, blue, purple, or black. Some of the colors of autumn leaves are derived from anthocyanins.\nAnthocyanins belong to a parent class of molecules called flavonoids synthesized via the phenylpropanoid pathway. They occur in all tissues of higher plants, including leaves, stems, roots, flowers, and fruits. Anthocyanins are derived from anthocyanidins by", "-24.778378191171214" ], [ "Evoland Gameplay Evoland is based on the concept of tracing the evolution of video games. When the player begins his or her adventure there are only two colors, big, simple pixels and a 2D character. Through the adventure, the player gradually unlocks new graphics, new technologies and new gameplay until reaching the HD age and a three-dimensional world. This evolution in-game of video game history is punctuated by many references to classic role-playing games and movies.\nThe game alternates between action RPG phases similar to The Legend of Zelda and Active-Time Battles like those seen in Final Fantasy. The", "-24.752200172515586" ], [ "later games had sophisticated multi-color displays, early games achieved color effects using transparent filters to change the color of the (usually light blue) light emitted by the phosphors. High power consumption and high manufacturing cost contributed to the demise of the VFD as a videogame display. LCD games could be manufactured for a fraction of the price, did not require frequent changes of batteries (or AC adapters) and were much more portable. Since the late 1990s, backlit color active-matrix LCD displays have been able to cheaply reproduce arbitrary images in any color, a marked advantage over fixed-color, fixed-character VFDs. This", "-24.718544224073412" ], [ "amounts of glowing eco particles or fully charging through eco vents. Green eco, the most common of the six types of eco, restores health. Blue eco increases Jak's speed; breaks nearby boxes (except strong boxes); attracts Precursor orbs, scout flies, and small clusters of blue and green eco towards him; and activates certain machinery. Red eco increases attack power, while yellow eco allows the player to shoot ranged bursts of energy through Jak's hands. Dark eco also exists in the game, but as an obstacle that damages Jak, rather than an item that is collected. Light eco is also used", "-24.61459059623303" ], [ "Biblical פוך (pūk), \"paint\" (if not that word itself), a cosmetic eye-shadow used by the ancient Egyptians and other inhabitants of the eastern Mediterranean. It could be any color: black, red, green, or blue.\nAccordingly, the modern study of marine and freshwater algae is called either phycology or algology, depending on whether the Greek or Latin root is used. The name Fucus appears in a number of taxa. Relationship to land plants The first land plants probably evolved from shallow freshwater charophyte algae much like Chara almost 500 million years ago. These probably had an isomorphic alternation of generations and were", "-24.590371044236235" ], [ "and allow players to decide how much colour they wanted to have. Levius acknowledged that this feature \"is a big thing for me and Petr as we always wanted to also have a black and white version of the game in style of Jules Verne's illustrations\". He also commented that several other features, such as more animations and leaderboards, were left out due to a lack of time, but he kept them in mind for a possible sequel. Sequel A sequel, Fortune Winds: Ancient Trader, was developed by Swedish studio Legendo Entertainment and released in July 2012 for Microsoft Windows", "-24.56713590642903" ], [ "Red Faction (video game) Gameplay The game features GeoMod technology, which allows players to significantly alter and otherwise affect the surrounding terrain and buildings, either with explosives or otherwise. Past games had allowed limited alteration of the environment through scripted means, or special triggered areas which would add or remove certain predefined level elements. Red Faction was the first video game that allowed players unscripted level-altering possibilities.\nThe PC version of Red Faction includes an extra level called \"Glass House\" which allows the player to experiment with GeoMod as a mechanic in a sandbox environment. \nThe PlayStation 2 version of Red", "-24.54903245071182" ], [ "titles, combat features prominently in the game play; in the Dark Sun series, combat is turn-based. Like its predecessor, Ravager also incorporates elements unique to the Dark Sun campaign setting, including unique character races (the Mul and the insectoid thri-kreen (Though thri-kreen appear in both Pool of Radiance and Curse of the Azure Bonds)) and extensive use of psionics.\nThe game has several bugs, some of which result in a crash, others resulting in the game not winnable. For example, due to game engine limitations, graphics for doorways or items may disappear. Some of these issues were addressed in the 1.02", "-24.517179252477945" ], [ "in shades of green and red; all the spectral colors are possible, however. The iridescence is due to the microstructure of the aragonite: unlike most other gems, whose colors come from light absorption, the iridescent color of ammolite comes from interference with the light that rebounds from stacked layers of thin platelets that make up the aragonite. The thicker the layers, the more reds and greens are produced; the thinner the layers, the more blues and violets predominate. Reds and greens are the most commonly seen colors, owing to the greater fragility of the finer layers responsible for the blues.", "-24.500140463525895" ], [ "amulets in the shape of scarab beetles made of malachite, which would protect and give vigor to the deceased. It also symbolized the sea, which was called the \"Very Green.\"\nIn Ancient Greece, green and blue were sometimes considered the same color, and the same word sometimes described the color of the sea and the color of trees. The philosopher Democritus described two different greens: cloron, or pale green, and prasinon, or leek green. Aristotle considered that green was located midway between black, symbolizing the earth, and white, symbolizing water. However, green was not counted among the four classic colors of", "-24.48675191611983" ], [ "and b and carotenoids. Green bacteria have different light harvesting pigments consisting of bacteriochlorophyll c, d and e. These organisms do not produce oxygen through photosynthesis or use water as a reducing agent. Many of these organisms use sulfur, hydrogen or other compounds as an energy source to drive photosynthesis. Most of these bacterioplankton are found in anoxic waters, including stagnant and hypersaline environments. Heterotrophic Bacterioplankton Heterotrophic bacterioplankton rely on the available concentration of dissolved organic matter in the water column. Usually these organisms are saprophytic, absorbing nutrients from their surroundings. These heterotrophs also play a key role in", "-24.46994473959785" ], [ "Green Luxin is springy and flexible. The uses are as varied as the drafter is creative: from furniture to projectiles to shields to the throwing arms of war engines. Greens are wild and free. They don't so much disrespect authority as not even recognize it. Yellow Yellow Luxin is most often a liquid that releases its energy back into light quickly, allowing its use as a torch or a trigger to ignite flammable materials or explosives. Yellow nourishes other luxins, extending the durability of luxin structures or tools. Like water turning to ice, when yellow is drafted perfectly, it loses", "-24.42739349178737" ], [ "Red and Green were released in Japan. The original intention was to release the game in 1998, even synchronizing with the supposed end of the anime's first season. Development issues, worsened by Game Freak being sidetracked with Pokémon Stadium and the localization of the first generation, led the game to be postponed, and the original release slate was taken over by Pokémon Yellow. Programmer Shigeki Morimoto stated that part of why development took three and a half years was due to being a small team of only four programmers. Satoru Iwata, then the president of HAL Laboratory who would later", "-24.425605591677595" ], [ "red sun with an Orc face, usually found on Games Workshop inks can be seen in the background.\nGames Workshop has announced that Cyanide Studios now have a license to create computer games based on Blood Bowl and that \"Any differences between Games Workshop and Cyanide have been amicably settled for an undisclosed sum, and as part of the settlement the Chaos League title has been assigned to Games Workshop\". The game Blood Bowl was released in Q3 2009 for the PC, PlayStation Portable, PlayStation 3, Nintendo DS and Xbox 360.", "-24.397499005892314" ], [ "Ultisol Introduction Ultisols vary in color from purplish-red, to a bright reddish-orange, to pale yellowish-orange and even some subdued yellowish-brown tones. They are typically quite acidic, often having a pH of less than 5. The red and yellow colors result from the accumulation of iron oxide (rust), which is highly insoluble in water. Major nutrients, such as calcium and potassium, are typically deficient in Ultisols, which means they generally cannot be used for sedentary agriculture without the aid of lime and other fertilizers, such as superphosphate. They can be easily exhausted, and require more careful management than Alfisols or Mollisols.", "-24.37410780391656" ], [ "combination. The red phycoerytherin pigment is an adaptation to help red algae catch more sunlight in deep water—as such, some red algae that live in shallow water have less phycoerytherin in their rhodoplasts, and can appear more greenish. Rhodoplasts synthesize a form of starch called floridean starch, which collects into granules outside the rhodoplast, in the cytoplasm of the red alga. Chloroplastida (green algae and plants) The chloroplastidan chloroplasts, or green chloroplasts, are another large, highly diverse primary chloroplast lineage. Their host organisms are commonly known as the green algae and land plants. They differ from glaucophyte and red algal", "-24.354807097399316" ], [ "they could, the high end of their skills ended up being a good challenge for expert players. The graphics were given a simple appearance to avoid a cluttered game screen, and object designs were made distinct from each other to avoid confusion. Black was chosen as the background color to help characters stand out and reduce clutter. Enemy designs Each enemy was designed to exhibit a unique behavior toward the character; random elements were programmed into the enemies' behaviors to make the game more interesting. The first two designed were the simplest: Electrodes and Grunts. Electrodes are stationary objects that", "-24.13969662791351" ], [ "the halobacteria.\nAnimals typically use the color green as camouflage, blending in with the chlorophyll green of the surrounding environment. Most fish, reptiles, amphibians, and birds appear green because of a reflection of blue light coming through an over-layer of yellow pigment. Perception of color can also be affected by the surrounding environment. For example, broadleaf forests typically have a yellow-green light about them as the trees filter the light. Turacoverdin is one chemical which can cause a green hue in birds, especially. Invertebrates such as insects or mollusks often display green colors because of porphyrin pigments, sometimes caused by diet.", "-24.132116688415408" ], [ "secondary colors green, purple and orange. Mixing more than two different colors will result in black, which Worker Droids are not attracted to.\nThe game consists of many short puzzle levels to solve, however a single mistake can render a puzzle unsolvable, forcing to restart the level. There are 26 levels in total, each with only one solution. Reception ChromaGun was met with mixed-to-positive critical reception on all platforms.\nTwinfinite's Chaz Miller scored it 3.5/5, praising the game's art direction, difficulty and concept, but stated that the puzzles could get \"frustrating\" or \"repetitive\" in portions, and had no alternative solutions.\nOn review aggregate", "-24.119281954015605" ], [ "colours are a mismatch, the tentacle will break off at the point where the goobug touched it, also resulting in loss of a life. Some of the goobugs in the liquid are easy to absorb, as they simply float about aimlessly, while others may be combative and pursue the rotozoan. If the rotozoan makes too many mismatches with the goobugs it will run out of lives, and the game ends.\nTo aid the rotozoan on its quest, the game spawns certain items during the progression of a stage. If the rotozoan has lost one or more lives, Heart items may occasionally", "-24.012494758593675" ], [ "able to create their own pigments, including both carotenoids and (green) chlorophyll. Animals that eat green plants do not become green, however, as chlorophyll does not survive digestion. Variable coloration by chromatophores Chromatophores are special pigment-containing cells that may change their size, but more often retain their original size but allow the pigment within them to become redistributed, thus varying the color and pattern of the animal. Chromatophores may respond to hormonal and/or neurobal control mechanisms, but direst responses to stimulation by visible light, UV-radiation, temperature, pH-changes, chemicals, etc. have also been documented. The voluntary control of chromatophores is", "-23.97910393908387" ], [ "cyanobacteria. The variations on this theme are due mainly to carotenoids and phycoerythrins that give the cells their red-brownish coloration. In some cyanobacteria, the color of light influences the composition of the phycobilisomes. In green light, the cells accumulate more phycoerythrin, whereas in red light they produce more phycocyanin. Thus, the bacteria appear green in red light and red in green light. This process of complementary chromatic adaptation is a way for the cells to maximize the use of available light for photosynthesis.\nA few genera lack phycobilisomes and have chlorophyll b instead (Prochloron, Prochlorococcus, Prochlorothrix). These were originally grouped together", "-23.9692167902831" ], [ "flashes green it can mean the Agnus is bad, the Agnus socket is bad, the logic connected to the Agnus is bad, the logic connected to the CPU is bad, the logic connected to the RAM is bad, a connection between CPU and/or logic and/or Agnus and/or Chip RAM is bad and/or some/all of the chip RAM is faulty etc. etc. Many of the issues with Amigas are caused by damage from corrosion or poor repair skills, especially the A500+ which has a Ni-Cad battery fitted and is always corroded if the battery has not been removed. Likewise a corroded", "-23.925196432275698" ], [ "certain parts of the game. However, 3-D effects are optional, allowing the player to view the levels in standard 2-D instead. Some levels are playable in 3-D from the beginning, while other levels require the 3-D feature to be unlocked. The 3-D effect is focused upon certain objects in the background rather than the characters themselves, minimizing the necessary blue/red separation and making it easier for observers without 3-D glasses.\nSly 3 features new gameplay elements and skills, such as safe-cracking, searching for clues and objects in paintings, aerial combat, disguises, pirate ship battles, and conversations. However, the removal of clue", "-23.917896824597847" ], [ "Nearly all the vibrant blues in animals and plants are created by structural coloration rather than by pigments. However, some types of Synchiropus splendidus do possess vesicles of a cyan biochrome of unknown chemical structure in cells named cyanophores. Although they appear unusual in their limited taxonomic range, there may be cyanophores (as well as further unusual chromatophore types) in other fish and amphibians. For example, brightly coloured chromatophores with undefined pigments are found in both poison dart frogs and glass frogs, and atypical dichromatic chromatophores, named erythro-iridophores have been described in Pseudochromis diadema. Pigment translocation Many species are able", "-23.909297503065318" ], [ "the color scheme of opposing players is used to differentiate between teams.\nIn certain cases, such as role-playing video games, palette swaps are used to signify a character's status. Prominent examples of this are seen in Final Fantasy, in which a player character afflicted with the \"Poison\" Status effect will appear purple. In other games, such as Dragon Quest IX or Dark Cloud 2, palette swaps are used for mobs to distinguish higher level enemies. By contrast, the main characters of Breath of Fire II occasionally swap their palette colors to indicate an increase in their respective statistics. In Mario", "-23.864457266929094" ], [ "Myth II engine, but we gutted almost everything out of it except for the AI. And the graphical engine is completely redone.\" The single biggest change made to the game engine was that everything in The Wolf Age is rendered in OpenGL 3D, including the characters and all environmental objects; unlike the previous games, The Wolf Age did not include a software rendering option. It was the first Myth game to feature fully 3D characters; the previous games had featured a 3D environment, but the characters and some environmental objects were 2D sprites. In The Wolf Age, each 3D character", "-23.830722822691314" ], [ "Othello (video game) Gameplay It is played with two-sided (black and white) chips, also called discs, on a board. The player can choose between black or white chips. Games are either player versus computer or player versus player. The goal is to end the game with as many chips showing your color as possible. To do this, players must sandwich their opponents' chip(s) between a piece of their own color already on the board, and the piece being played. The game has four skill levels when playing the computer, as well as a hidden fifth level if you beat", "-23.78291787883063" ], [ "Sprite (computer graphics) History The use of sprites originated with arcade games. The first video game to represent player characters as human player images was Taito's Basketball, which was licensed in February 1974 to Midway, releasing it as TV Basketball in North America.\nSignetics devised the first chips capable of generating sprite graphics (referred to as objects by Signetics) for home systems. The Signetics 2636 video processors were first used in the 1978 1292 Advanced Programmable Video System and later in the 1979 Elektor TV Games Computer.\nThe Atari VCS, released in 1977, features a hardware sprite implementation where five graphical objects", "-23.778276747907512" ], [ "Those that can are often red in color due to the presence of large amounts of hemoglobin, which greatly increases the amount of oxygen carried to cells. Because the concentration of oxygen within this zone is low, most species construct tunnels or borrows in which they can hide and make the minimum movements necessary to circulate water through, drawing oxygen to them without expending much energy. Fish and other vertebrates Fish have a range of physiological tolerances that are dependent upon which species they belong to. They have different lethal temperatures, dissolved oxygen requirements, and spawning needs that are", "-23.77750532736536" ], [ "of light while reflecting green. It is the presence and relative abundance of chlorophyll that gives plants their green color. All land plants and green algae possess two forms of this pigment: chlorophyll a and chlorophyll b. Kelps, diatoms, and other photosynthetic heterokonts contain chlorophyll c instead of b, red algae possess chlorophyll a. All chlorophylls serve as the primary means plants use to intercept light to fuel photosynthesis.\nCarotenoids are red, orange, or yellow tetraterpenoids. They function as accessory pigments in plants, helping to fuel photosynthesis by gathering wavelengths of light not readily", "-23.76695799153822" ], [ "Mortal Kombat II, Kitana, Mileena, and secret character Jade were palette swaps of each other, using blue, purple and green, respectively. Mortal Kombat 3, Ultimate Mortal Kombat 3, and Mortal Kombat Trilogy introduced multiple palette swaps including Cyrax, Sektor, and Ermac.\nIn the Pokémon franchise, palette swapping is used to give some Pokémon a different coloration than the rest of their kind. As these Pokémon often have sparkling visual and audio effects, they have been named \"Shiny Pokémon\".", "-23.76632495505328" ], [ "Rotohex Gameplay The objective of the game is for the player to form hexagons of a solid color (called a \"Hex\") by rotating into place and combining together colored triangles which drop down from the top of the screen. The player is required to create a certain number of Hexes in order to pass each stage. Initially the game starts with triangles encompassing only two colors, with more colors eventually being added to the mix. In addition, glowing triangles give the player power-ups such as creating a hole in the bottom of the play area, or swapping colors. There are", "-23.759347745915875" ], [ "up into three main groups: the Cyanophyceae, the Chlorophyceae and the Bacillariaceae. The Cyanophyceae contain chlorophyll, which is the molecule that absorbs sunlight and uses that energy to make carbohydrates from carbon dioxide and water and also pigments that make it blue-green to violet in color. The Chlorophyceae usually only have chlorophyll in them which makes them green, and the Bacillariaceae contain chlorophyll as well as pigments that make the algae brown in color. Blue-green algae and nitrogen fixation Blue-green algae, or Cyanophyceae, are responsible for nitrogen fixation. The amount of nitrogen they fix depends more on physiological and environmental", "-23.754536804975942" ], [ "The triangles also allowed developers to implement the game's quicksand and rippling water features. The dynamic lighting system was improved with coloured lighting and better water reflection, making Tomb Raider III more atmospheric than its predecessors. The team also implemented new weather effects such as rain, snow, and wind. The game features more particle effects, offering more realistic explosions and smoke. All the textures used in the game were drawn in true colour before being rendered by the graphics engine, resulting in a better output quality.\nTomb Raider III was designed more in line with the puzzle-solving gameplay of the original", "-23.71952147874981" ], [ "Red shiners are found naturally in a variety of aquatic habitats, including backwaters, creek mouths, streams containing sand and silt substrates, riffles, and pools. They are tolerant of areas of frequent high turbidity and siltation, but they tend to avoid waters with high acidity. Red shiner are habitat generalists in that they are adapted to favor a wide range of environmental conditions that are not ideal to most other fish species. These include habitats degraded by human disturbance, and those with poor water quality (such as polluted waterways), natural physiochemical extremes, and seasonally intermittent flows. Range The red shiner is", "-23.704853972711135" ], [ "element is also introduced along with the original elements of fire, water, wood, earth and neutral. The new element, mechanical, is much like neutral as it has no weakness and strengths versus other elements. The only difference between the two is that mechanical and neutral have separate power levels, which the player can increase by using cards of the same element repeatedly, but lowering all other elements slightly and the opposite element even further. The main villain of the game is a user of the mechanical element.", "-23.66074957890669" ], [ "the wavelengths of light these species use for energy. Phycoerythrin also gives these three species a brownish-green color.\nThe rate of oxygen created by photosystem II is much higher when Cyanothece does not fix nitrogen (when the medium is nitrogen-replete). The genera's circadian rhythm controls photosynthetic oxygen generation by regulating when the proteins for their photosynthetic machinery are produced. This diurnal oscillation occurs even when the organisms are kept in the light continuously or in the dark continuously. Photosynthesis is downregulated when the nitrogen-fixing enzyme, nitrogenase, is upregulated. Decreasing the oxygen in the cell allows the", "-23.65651325881481" ], [ "The Game Creators DarkBASIC DarkBASIC was released in the year 2000 as a game creation programming language with accompanying IDE and development tools. The language is a structured form of BASIC, similar to AMOS on the Amiga. The purpose of the language is video game creation using Microsoft's DirectX from a BASIC programming language. It is marketed for its ability to allow a novice game developer to make playable games after following its tutorials. It can create both 2D and 3D games by providing function libraries that enable a game to be programmed with considerably less code than with a", "-23.63479905575514" ], [ "Hue (video game) Gameplay In Hue, the player explores a grey land while searching for their missing mother. The player can uncover coloured pieces, which when matched against obstacles will cause them to disappear, revealing new puzzles. As the player progresses and unlocks more colours, the game's difficulty increased with more colours being needed to complete puzzles. There are eight colours to find in this game; Sky Blue, Dark Blue, Purple, Pink, Orange, Red, Yellow, Lime.", "-23.633032952202484" ], [ "White Night (video game) Development White Night started in 2010, when its lead developer was working on a remake of Alone in the Dark. During this time, he became interested with the idea of putting black and white into a survival horror game. The team built the engine form scratch and found it gratifying to see it play out on various consoles. They enjoyed working with Activision, and appreciated the resources that partnership came with, for instance them showing the game off to the media. They had free rein in their creative decision, and while Activision offered tips on where", "-23.5986360089737" ], [ "Red Earth (video game) Gameplay Red Earth features two different game modes: a single-player Quest Mode and a two-player Versus Mode. In Quest Mode, the player chooses from one of the four main characters, and progresses through their character's storyline while fighting against a series of eight computer-controlled adversaries in one-on-one battles (like in the first Street Fighter), gaining experience points during each battle, which are used to improve the character's attack and defense and access new moves. In Versus Mode, two players fight against each other, each using any of the four main characters (including the same character", "-23.585908907232806" ], [ "have more organized crystals that reduce diffraction. Given a source of white light, they produce a white shine. As with xanthophores and erythrophores, in fish the distinction between iridophores and leucophores is not always obvious, but, in general, iridophores are considered to generate iridescent or metallic colours, whereas leucophores produce reflective white hues. Melanophores Melanophores contain eumelanin, a type of melanin, that appears black or dark-brown because of its light absorbing qualities. It is packaged in vesicles called melanosomes and distributed throughout the cell. Eumelanin is generated from tyrosine in a series of catalysed chemical reactions. It is", "-23.57595646943082" ], [ "be deeply colored yellow, orange, or red. Carotenoids are the dominant pigment in autumn leaf coloration of about 15-30% of tree species, but many plant colors, especially reds and purples, are due to polyphenols.\nCarotenoids serve two key roles in plants and algae: they absorb light energy for use in photosynthesis, and they protect chlorophyll from photodamage. Carotenoids that contain unsubstituted beta-ionone rings (including beta-carotene, alpha-carotene, beta-cryptoxanthin, and gamma-carotene) have vitamin A activity (meaning that they can be converted to retinol). In the eye, lutein, meso-zeaxanthin, and zeaxanthin are present as macular pigments whose importance in visual function, as of", "-23.56615922396304" ], [ "ice is weak against fire, but effective against wind.\nElements are important because most in-game enemies have specific elemental weaknesses (e.g. most monsters in the colder region of the world are weak to fire, mechanical enemies are often weak to lightning). Espers A key gameplay mechanic carried over from other Final Fantasy titles is that of 'Espers' (also known by other names, such as 'Summons' in other Final Fantasy games). Espers are powerful creatures that can be found in the game's world and, once defeated in battle, equipped to the player's units. Equipping an Esper will grant units new statistics and", "-23.561232197202116" ], [ "yellow solution (probably of cis–[Os(OH)₂O₄]²⁻) by reactions with sodium hydroxide at red heat. After acidification he was able to distill the formed OsO₄. He named it osmium after Greek osme meaning \"a smell\", because of the ashy and smoky smell of the volatile osmium tetroxide. Discovery of the new elements was documented in a letter to the Royal Society on June 21, 1804.\nUranium and osmium were early successful catalysts in the Haber process, the nitrogen fixation reaction of nitrogen and hydrogen to produce ammonia, giving enough yield to make the process economically successful. At the time, a group at BASF", "-23.553186727687716" ], [ "Carotenoid Carotenoids (/kəˈrɒtɪnɔɪd/), also called tetraterpenoids, are yellow, orange, and red organic pigments that are produced by plants and algae, as well as several bacteria and fungi. Carotenoids give the characteristic color to pumpkins, carrots, corn, tomatoes, canaries, flamingos, and daffodils. Carotenoids can be produced from fats and other basic organic metabolic building blocks by all these organisms. The only animals known to produce carotenoids are aphids and spider mites, which acquired the ability and genes from fungi, and it is produced by endosymbiotic bacteria in whiteflies. Carotenoids from the diet are stored in the fatty tissues of animals, and", "-23.551732616266236" ], [ "the landscape. An elemental substance called Eco is prominent throughout the game and is considered the world's life source. Eco comes in several forms, Red Eco, Blue Eco, Yellow Eco, Green Eco, Light Eco and Dark Eco, each with different prospective effects. Subsequent entries are set in a future setting that has witnessed large advancements in both society and technology, mainly taking place in cities and other larger settlements. However, beyond those cities lies some, yet fewer natural environments with many platforming segments, akin to the first game. Overall, there are many distinct and differing environments available to discover and", "-23.5212505847212" ], [ "Jynx Design and characteristics Jynx was one of 151 different designs conceived by Game Freak's character development team and finalized by Ken Sugimori for the first generation of Pocket Monsters games Red and Green, which were localized outside Japan as Pokémon Red and Blue. Originally called \"Rujura\" in Japanese, Nintendo decided to give the various Pokémon species \"clever and descriptive names\" related to their appearance or features, when translating the game for western audiences, as a means to make the characters more relatable to American children. As a result, they were renamed \"Jynx\", a play on the word \"jinx\".\nAlso known", "-23.518518668948673" ], [ "the color green, rather that emitting it through luminescent or phosphorescent qualities. The large number of green pigments makes it impossible to mention them all. Among the more notable green minerals, however is the emerald, which is colored green by trace amounts of chromium and sometimes vanadium. Chromium(III) oxide (Cr₂O₃), is called chrome green, also called viridian or institutional green when used as a pigment. For many years, the source of amazonite's color was a mystery. Widely thought to have been due to copper because copper compounds often have blue and green colors, the blue-green color is likely to be", "-23.51422365963299" ], [ "lighter tone and characters but also sports a murder-mystery plot, so the color yellow was chosen to represent both the lighter tones and to evoke a \"warning\" signal. According to Soejima, blue was the \"color of adolescence\", and yellow was the \"color of happiness\". For Persona 5, the color chosen was red, to convey a harsh feeling in contrast to the previous Persona games and tie in with the game's story themes. Its art style was described as a natural evolution from where Persona 4 left off. Music The music of the Persona series has been handled by multiple composers.", "-23.482110306715185" ], [ "Muddy Waters (video game) Game characteristics The setting of Muddy Waters is a \"historical fantasy environment\". Player characters may be of the human, elf, dwarf, gnome, orc, or hobbit races.\nA distinctive feature of the game is its book of character histories, which contains the name and description of every character generated on the MUD.\nMuddy Waters supports a gameinfo command at its initial login screen to help new players orient themselves. Reception The character creation process of Muddy Waters has been called \"particularly poetic\", and was used as an example \"fairly typical for all MUDs\" in Internet Agents: Spiders, Wanderers,", "-23.479508751421236" ], [ "Red and Pokémon Green games in Japan in 1996, later changed to Pokémon Red and Pokémon Blue for worldwide release in 1998. It soon becomes popular in the United States, spurring the term Pokémania and is adapted into a popular anime series and trading card game, among other media forms.\nResident Evil is released in 1996. It becomes the most popular survival-horror series in video gaming well into the next decade and inspires several films.\nCrash Bandicoot is released in September 1996, becoming an innovative platformer for the PlayStation.", "-23.473133395484183" ], [ "red plants, such as red cabbage, which contain anthocyanin pigments. The composition of different betalain pigments can vary, resulting in strains of beetroot which are yellow or other colors in addition to the familiar deep red. Some of the betalains in beets are betanin, isobetanin, probetanin, and neobetanin (the red to violet ones are known collectively as betacyanin). Other pigments contained in beet are indicaxanthin and vulgaxanthins (yellow to orange pigments known as betaxanthins). Indicaxanthin has been shown as a powerful protective antioxidant for thalassemia and prevents the breakdown of alpha-tocopherol (Vitamin E).\nBetacyanin in beetroot may cause red urine", "-23.442703526932746" ], [ "It makes use of a proprietary graphics engine that was developed specifically for the game. Though purchasing an engine would reduce the development time, the team chose to create their own in order to have more freedom in the features and game design. The engine provides various graphical effects. Lighting is mainly baked but the Haze Engine also has support for real time lighting and has a high-dynamic range. Particle and fire effects help give the illusion of volume along with motion blur and real time depth fields, the engine supports color Specular maps, Normal Mapping, and Parallax Mapping technologies.", "-23.41745352250291" ], [ "the majority of genera within the phylum actually do not contain chloroplasts and are colourless. Generally these species are small, free swimming and exhibit a vibrant green colour. What sets the genus apart from other photosynthetic species is the presence of its rigid cytoskeleton (although some species have semi-rigid or plastic cytoskeleton) made up of pellicular strips and its predominantly flat, leaf-shaped structure. Many different species express secondary fusion of these pellicular strips and many of the strips have a variety of shapes including S-shaped, A-shaped, M-shaped or plateau.\nThe pellicles forms a shell around the cytoskeleton covering the whole cell", "-23.38828635396203" ], [ "programs to be colored yellow and \"evil\" programs (those loyal to Sark and the MCP) to be colored blue. Partway into production, this coloring scheme was changed to blue for good and red for evil, but some scenes were produced using the original coloring scheme: Clu, who drives a tank, has yellow circuit lines, and all of Sark's tank commanders are blue (but appear green in some presentations). Also, the light-cycle sequence shows the heroes driving yellow (Flynn), orange (Tron), and red (Ram) cycles, while Sark's troops drive blue cycles; similarly, Clu's tank is red, while tanks driven by crews", "-23.341573572266498" ], [ "more robust and can take much more damage than any other minion group, though they are susceptible to fire and poison and they drown in water higher than the Overlord's knee. Reds are the ranged attackers, hurling fireballs at enemies, combustibles and explosives; they have the added ability to remove flame from obstacles and can traverse through fiery obstacles without harm. The Greens are stealth attackers that become invisible if they are stationary, and while close to useless in a direct confrontation (without Browns), they are devastating if planted along a patrols path or if directed to attack an enemy", "-23.32454133592546" ], [ "differences between Games Workshop and Cyanide have been amicably settled for an undisclosed sum, and as part of the settlement the Chaos League title has been assigned to Games Workshop\". This settlement led directly to Cyanide's release of an official new version for Windows computers on 26 June 2009 (with both \"classic\" turn-based mode and real-time mode). The playable races in the original video game version of Blood Bowl included Dwarfs, Wood Elves, Humans, Goblins, Orcs, Chaos, Skaven, and Lizardmen. With a subsequent patch, Dark Elves were added to the game as a playable race.\nOn 14 November 2007, the", "-23.272879553536768" ], [ "and also the first game which had a comprehensive manual attached, with terms and explanations of the game world. The manual asked players to describe colours apparent at certain points in the game, making it impossible to play in black-and-white. These features all came into wider use among other Czech games. Plot and gameplay In the year 2360, androids have killed all humans on planet Earth and now they plan to destroy all the vegetation using an element called Cybertrone. A small group of human scientists have hidden on Matna Plus and developed a counter-device against Cybertrone called Sodomgomorhator. They", "-23.26915652351454" ], [ "The bright green varieties may have been identified with the young Maize God. The Olmec were fascinated with the unique blue jade of Guatemala and it played an important role in their rituals involving water sources. The Olmec used blue jade because it represented water, an Olmec iconography representing the Underworld. Blue also represented the blue color that snakes turn before shedding their skin; therefore, blue represents aquatic and serpentine rejuvenation. Working jade Next to emery, jade was the hardest mineral known to ancient Mesoamerica. In the absence of metal tools, ancient craftsmen used tools themselves made of jade, leather", "-23.261816173268016" ], [ "Vulgaxanthin Vulgaxanthins are a group of betaxanthins, or the predominant yellow plant pigments found in red beets, among other plants like Mirabilis jalapa and swiss chard. They are antioxidant pigments, types I, II, III, IV, and V. Like all betaxanthins, they cannot be hydrolyzed by acid to aglycone without degradation. Water activity also affects stability of this antioxidant. It has been studied as a natural nutritional additive but instability remains a problem.", "-23.26173718692735" ], [ "to neuromelanin.\nOutside the brain, hemoglobin has non-oxygen-carrying functions as an antioxidant and a regulator of iron metabolism in macrophages, alveolar cells, and mesangial cells in the kidney. In history, art and music Historically, an association between the color of blood and rust occurs in the association of the planet Mars, with the Roman god of war, since the planet is an orange-red, which reminded the ancients of blood. Although the color of the planet is due to iron compounds in combination with oxygen in the Martian soil, it is a common misconception that the iron in hemoglobin and its oxides", "-23.204954532833654" ], [ "Rhodobacterales Etymology From Greek rhodon, the rose, and bakterion, a rod. This refers to the colour of aerobic phototrophic cultures of this order of bacteria which can be pink or red due to the production of carotenoids.", "-23.195161184761673" ], [ "game was already completed, so due to time constraints he had to hack into the attract mode to insert a snippet of the character as an unplayable red herring who was a purple palette swap of Scorpion, while creating a new font for displaying his name in his power bar; therefore, it is the only one in the game that is not italicized.\nRain was made a playable character with his own backstory and distinct set of moves for the home versions of UMK3 and the 1996 home-release compilation title Mortal Kombat Trilogy, the latter which was to actually include another", "-23.185539469588548" ], [ "Chlorophyll Chlorophyll (also chlorophyl) is any of several related green pigments found in the mesosomes of cyanobacteria, as well as in the chloroplasts of algae and plants. Its name is derived from the Greek words χλωρός, khloros (\"pale green\") and φύλλον, phyllon (\"leaf\"). Chlorophyll is essential in photosynthesis, allowing plants to absorb energy from light.\nChlorophylls absorb light most strongly in the blue portion of the electromagnetic spectrum as well as the red portion. Conversely, it is a poor absorber of green and near-green portions of the spectrum, which it reflects, producing the green color of chlorophyll-containing tissues. Two types of", "-23.17583227297291" ], [ "for example, Leon no longer wears large shoulder pads, which were added to distinguish his original, low-polygon model. Ada Wong’s red dress was dropped in favor of a trenchcoat with sunglasses for similar reasons. Though they strove to make a \"modern, accessible\" game, they focused on horror over action, hoping to preserve a claustrophobic feel. The game uses the RE Engine, the same game engine used for Resident Evil 7: Biohazard, which allowed for Capcom to modernize the gameplay. Producer Tsuyoshi Kanda acknowledged the difficulty of making zombies seem scary and threatening, as they had become ubiquitous in entertainment media", "-23.14714901932166" ], [ "is standard, light blue means timid, and red represents aggressive. Some apes are equipped with weaponry, allowing them to attack players, or binoculars that allow them to identify players from long distances. Players are required to capture a specific amount of apes to clear a level; remaining apes can be captured upon revisiting the level.\nShould players take damage, they lose a life. Players can recharge their health by collecting cookies. Throughout the game, players can gather Specter Coins, which can be found in hidden locations in each stage. Collecting enough Specter Coins unlocks three bonus mini-games: Ski Kidz Racing, a", "-23.14467807393521" ], [ "Angeal; and the water symbolizes Aerith.\nCrisis Core was first envisioned as an action game, but because almost all of the staff had more experience designing RPGs, they decided to modify it, making battles more similar to the ones found in standard RPGs. However, they also added more action orientated elements to the battles, resulting in the game becoming more of an action RPG than a traditional RPG. The Materia system was designed so that players could choose between \"RPG-oriented enhancements\" and \"action-oriented enhancements,\" as well as to help with the game's balance. Additionally, the Digital Mind Wave system (DMW) was", "-23.102649629232474" ], [ "sulfur have caused the sulfur to assume various colours, including black, brown-orange, orange, red, yellow, and yellow-orange. These colours vary along the length of the flows and between various flows, indicating that temperatures varied between one flow and another. Liquid sulfur has different viscosity and rheomorphic properties at different temperatures, and some variation occurred at Lastarria's flows as well.\nSuch sulfur flows are rare on Earth; they may be more common on the Jupiter moon Io. On Earth, they have been found at Kawah Ijen in Indonesia, Mount Iō (Shiretoko) in Japan, Mauna Loa on Hawaii, Momotombo in Nicaragua, and Sierra", "-23.084075818798738" ], [ "to sci-fi as it was a genre many staff on the development team wanted to explore. As a result, mechs replaced demons, and technology replaced magic. Initially, the game was set in a foreign world. The animations created by Hayao Miyazaki, whose works often integrate nature with steampunk, inspired the team. However, after watching Life After People, the team decided to set the game on Earth, one that was peaceful as nature reclaimed it after humanity's disappearance. A lot of colour, in particular red, was injected into the game's world to reflect this. Writing Antoniades and writer Rhianna Pratchett wrote", "-23.06746705493424" ], [ "Sun Shine (video game) Gameplay Sun Shine is a puzzle game similar to Columns and Tetris where the main objective is to match three colored tiles of the same color that fall at the top of the playfield as a vertical pair by catching them with the Sun Dish players take control of, instead of the blocks themselves to form a solid vertical line without gaps, although their falling order can be arranged depending on the difficulty level or game mode selected.\nA vertical line section in the middle of the playfield allows players to aim and shoot at the incoming", "-23.052938284079573" ], [ "creative compositions. Once the user chooses one of the palettes, there are different colors to choose. The colors include these: turquoise, pink, purple, light blue, and colors that have been dithered.\nThe game's instruction manual has some ideas for drawing including these: geometric designs with intense patches of color, birds flying over untamed jungles, cars on a race track, and dinosaurs in the user's imaginary backyard.\nThere is no data storage or export medium, so pictures and video can only be saved by recording a playback of the NES's display through a VCR. Reception According to InstallSoftware.com, the game offers a relatively", "-23.016315899672918" ], [ "Hexic 2 Gameplay The board is one column longer than in the original game to allow for a more effective use of the board and remove two impossible hexagons accessed by the grid (the hexagon in the upper right and the hexagon in the lower right). Hexagons in Hexic 2 are colored red, blue, yellow, green, silver, white, and black.\nIt is even hinted with various screenshots that new skins are available, but possibly as a power for the new multiplayer mode. Combos are still achieved by rotating the cursor in a similar manner to the previous incarnations of the game.", "-23.00458526040893" ], [ "themselves. Chlorophyll c is also found in some green algae and cyanobacteria.\nChlorophylls d and f are pigments found only in some cyanobacteria. Carotenoids In addition to chlorophylls, another group of yellow–orange pigments called carotenoids are also found in the photosystems. There are about thirty photosynthetic carotenoids. They help transfer and dissipate excess energy, and their bright colors sometimes override the chlorophyll green, like during the fall, when the leaves of some land plants change color. β-carotene is a bright red-orange carotenoid found in nearly all chloroplasts, like chlorophyll a. Xanthophylls, especially the orange-red zeaxanthin, are also common. Many other forms", "-22.997071921126917" ], [ "Osmos Gameplay The aim of the game is to propel oneself, a single-celled organism (\"Mote\"), into other smaller motes to absorb them. Colliding with a mote larger than the player will cause the player to be absorbed, resulting in a game over. Motes smaller than the player are blue, while motes bigger than the player are red. Changing course is done by expelling mass. Due to conservation of momentum, this results in the player's mote moving away from the expelled mass, but also in one's own mote shrinking.\nThere are three different \"zones\" of levels in Osmos: In the \"sentient\" levels,", "-22.994922756159212" ], [ "to the graphical interface in SC3K. Although the game retained the pseudo-isometric dimetric perspective of its predecessor, the actual landscape became more complex and colorful. In SimCity and SC2K, the playable landscape was brown, like the color of bare dirt. In SC3K, the playable landscape was a more realistic green color, simulating grassland, along with other colors that progressively change by height, from beige (beach sand) to green to brown (bare ground) to white (snow). In SC2K, land could either be flat or sloped, and all slopes were of the same steepness. In SC3K, there were five distinct steepness of", "-22.99424868694041" ], [ "RedOctane History RedOctane was founded in 1999 by the brothers Kai Huang and Charles Huang. They got their beginnings operating the world's first online video game rental service, called WebGameZone. They soon began to create game accessories such as the Red Octane Ignition dance mat, joysticks, and other accessories to build upon already existent musical games. After soon realizing that their game accessories were tied to the launch dates of the games they were producing for, Red Octane began producing games. Their first original game was In The Groove developed by Roxor Games for the PlayStation 2 and Arcade platforms.", "-22.980451262614224" ], [ "thylakoid space. Embedded in the thylakoid membrane are integral and peripheral membrane protein complexes of the photosynthetic system.\nPlants absorb light primarily using the pigment chlorophyll. The green part of the light spectrum is not absorbed but is reflected which is the reason that most plants have a green color. Besides chlorophyll, plants also use pigments such as carotenes and xanthophylls. Algae also use chlorophyll, but various other pigments are present, such as phycocyanin, carotenes, and xanthophylls in green algae, phycoerythrin in red algae (rhodophytes) and fucoxanthin in brown algae and diatoms resulting in a wide variety of colors.\nThese pigments are", "-22.963617829722352" ], [ "unsuccessful in achieving its potential or gaining a large audience, Dark Sun Online: Crimson Sands made a valiant attempt at achieving the inevitable future of gaming.\" Gameplay The game was set in the desert world of Athas. Like many modern MMOs, it had \"classes, guilds, chat windows, grouping, levels, death penalties.\" Characters could be built from eight races and eight classes, with the choice of an alignment limited by their class. There was also the option to multi-class under certain conditions.\nInteraction between players was accomplished via a MUD-like chat interface, and combat was turn-based, with each player having a short", "-22.943942306330428" ], [ "a unit character and crimson is dominant to yellow. Wild type insect possesses crimson body colour due to the presence of a complex closely resembling water-soluble polyhydroxy-anthraquinones, collectively called lac dye. Apart from their usage in food and cosmetics, these anthraquinones also exhibit many pharmaceutical properties, including antibiotic, antiviral, antifeedant effect. A recent study has shown that the anthraquinone component of lac dye also possess antineoplastic or anticancer effects.\nIt is proposed that lac insects employ polyketide pathway catalysed by polyketide synthase to produce laccaic acid D, a common precursor molecule for the biosynthesis of other lac dye constituents. Lac resin", "-22.942663463007193" ], [ "odour, described as that of bleach or chlorine, dead fish or iodine. Like other destroying angels, the flesh stains yellow when treated with potassium hydroxide (KOH).\nThis fungus resembles the edible mushrooms Agaricus arvensis and A. campestris, and the puffballs (Lycoperdon spp.) before the caps have opened and the gills have become visible, so those collecting immature fungi run the risk of confusing the varieties. It also resembles and grows in the same areas as the edible and prized Amanita velosa, which can be distinguished from A. ocreata by its lack of ring, striate cap margin and thick universal veil remnants", "-22.89759117513313" ], [ "Last Lovecraft: Relic of Cthulhu.\nThe colours are included in Lovecraft-inspired role playing games, such as in the Call of Cthulhu game, where a colour out of space is a monster that the player characters may encounter.\nA colour out of space appears to Lovecraft in the story \"To Mars and Providence\".\nThe 2018 film, Annihilation has similarities to the Colour Out of Space, featuring many creatures being altered by a similar anomaly.", "-22.88783161318861" ], [ "in the game. To ease the game's difficulty level, the flavors were named specifically as either puns or alliteration to help the player remember them. For instance, the punch-flavored jelly bean transforms Blobert into a hole, a play on the term \"hole punch\". A grape-flavored bean listed in the game's manual was only present in the version submitted to Nintendo. This flavor transformed the blob into a wall (\"grape wall\", a pun of Great Wall of China) which would repel enemies. A Boy and His Blob proved to be \"one of the most played games at Nintendo\" once it was", "-22.84527109982446" ] ]

[ "I don't know a lot about the phenomenon, but I do know that this is called \"the call of the void.\" I'm not suicidal, but I get this sometimes when I'm depressed and waiting for the train. (In4b: I'm good, I love my friends and family WAY too much to do follow through!)", "More generally, they are called [intrusive thoughts]( URL_0 ). It's just where you get a thought or urge that is unpleasant or upsetting in some way to you. Everyone gets them, but they can be more harmful and common in people with OCD, PTSD, depression, etc.", "There's a phenomenon of some sort, or maybe a characteristic, of the human brain, that the neurons (which are pathways for thought, in short) are pretty much always firing. Sometimes, they fire randomly, giving a person random thoughts. Sometimes those thoughts are to bring up memories, sometimes they are to daydream, and sometimes they tell you to step in front of a bus. I get the urge to step in front of a bus because my brain is poison in a particular way (depression), but that urge persists and colors my reality rather than just passing in and out of my brain because of the depression. Someone with a healthy brain will experience that thought, which again is just your neurons firing because neurons gotta neuron, and they won't entertain it seriously as an action.", "Edgar Allen Poe wrote of this, and called it the '[imp of the perverse]( URL_0 '", "There was a post a while ago in r/TIL where it was explained as 'call of the void' where it is an intrusive thought. Otherwise I'd say on a college campus it would be for \"free tuition\"", "Why am doing this? What's the point of me being here and doing exactly this that I'm doing right now? Ask yourself next time you are waiting for one. If you think hard enough, you might find yourself not finding a real logical answer. Can happen to anyone. Depressive or not. IMHO.", "the call of the void. TL;DR When you're in a dangerous position, your brain tries to rationalize why you're in that position. Such as people looking into the Grand Canyon and falling in because they zone out." ]

[ [ "the person should jump. However, when the crowd was large and it was late at night it caused people to be anonymous, therefore they would more quickly shout that the person had to jump from the building.\nThis is caused through deindividuation which is a process whereby people lose their sense of socialized individual identity and often show unsocialized and even antisocial behavior. In this situation people often blur their normal behaviors, leading to an increase in impulsive and deviant behavior. One becomes less an individual and more part of the mass.\nDeindividuation theory predicts that under the cover of anonymity, crowd", "-31.239039310254157" ], [ "to block the bus's path by standing in the road. The bus does not so much as slow down, however, and the civilians flee back to the bus stop. The Director Ma threatens to leave once more, but stays. At this point, Glasses' watch lets us know that ten whole years have passed. Each character worries about what they've missed in the last ten years. The Girl and the Mother describe dreams that they've had and embrace due to their own dissatisfactions with life.\nThe Hothead tries to instigate a gambling card game, but is ultimately shut down by the Carpenter,", "-30.238719664419477" ], [ "Autokabalesis Autokabalesis is a psychiatric term that refers to the choice of jumping from a raised structure or otherwise at a significant height to the ground. Autokabalesis can be an act of suicide or due to a psychiatric disorder. Studies Autokabalesis was studied in 1979 by Sims & O'Brien K. A 1992 study found that many suicidal acts of autokabalesis were committed by young males who were unemployed and single. A 1988 study of 28 persons hospitalized as a result of autokabalesis showed most fallers had serious psychiatric disorders.\nExamination of data from between 1990 and 1998 of suicide", "-30.139911897436832" ], [ "on the bus.\" Feinberg invites us to imagine a bus ride in which you, a passenger rushing to an important appointment, are confronted by a series of deeply offensive but harmless acts. Some of the acts involve affronts to the senses (e.g., a man scratching his fingernails across a slate). Others involve acts that are deeply disgusting or revolting (e.g., eating various kinds of nauseatingly repulsive things). Still others involve affronts to our religious, moral, or patriotic sensibilities (e.g., overt acts of flag desecration); shocks to our sense of shame or embarrassment (such as acts of public sex); and a", "-29.993711828486994" ], [ "come to realize that their problems are very insignificant and that they were not worth taking their life. Rajaji reveals that was his plan all along, but on their way back the bus's brakes get stuck. Rajaji saves all the passengers, but he himself can not get out. However, the police arrive just in time to save him.", "-29.837132446467876" ], [ "offered that humans are thrill-seekers by nature, and explains that as the reason why some would \"leap from a 1,149-foot-tall tower or wait in line to ride the world's steepest roller coaster.\" They praised the film and its challenging the concept that brain activity would decrease when \"riding high-speed, vomit-inducing amusement park rides,\" and concluded that while they were unable to decide their favorite of the seven, they enjoyed how protagonist Dr. Nick Laslowicz \"tries to convince us that 'gravity is a mistake' and that brain activity actually increases when a person experiences his terrifyingly impossible park rides. Obviously,", "-29.514003962802235" ], [ "of car culture and crash victims. Frustrated car drivers inhibited by the ride have sometimes reacted in hostile ways toward riders, even erupting into violence and arrests of motorists and cyclists alike during Critical Mass rides. Pomerantz's flyers have also proposed that drivers should only be as mad as they are at any traffic jam, most of which they accept as normal. Similar organizations and movements The Critical Mass rides have inspired a number of other bicycle movements, that range from political movements to the \"Critical Tits\" ride during the yearly Burning Man festival.\nIn Chicago, a movement has grown out", "-29.31092150771292" ], [ "Symptoms Coasterphobia, like most recognized and unrecognized phobias, is an anxiety condition. Therefore its main symptom is a panic attack, which can include shortness of breath, rapid breathing, irregular heartbeat, sweating, nausea, heart palpitations, and dizziness, and a sense of dread.\nFear of these rides is similar to a fear of flying in an airplane, in that while statistically, it is rare for someone to be injured or die from riding on a rollercoaster, it is an activity which carries some risk. Therefore they fall under phobias that are extreme over-reactions to normal self-preservation instincts. Treatment In 1999, Dr. Michael Otto,", "-29.244981040246785" ], [ "fast as if he was throwing a tantrum\". They said he drove \"very, very fast\" the whole time, without slowing for turns.\nAs the bus was travelling on a downhill section of Tai Po Road, near Tai Po Mei village, it came to a bend where it flipped onto its left side, hitting a lamp post and destroying Tai Po Mei bus stop. Eighteen people were killed at the scene. Immediate aftermath Immediately after the crash, some passengers tried to physically attack the driver. Fire services officers had to cut into the bus to rescue those trapped inside, an operation that", "-29.174778311047703" ], [ "occur. It shows him saving several people, including a woman about to be run over by a cyclist, a woman who gets her purse stolen and a suicidal man about to jump from a ledge. Each time, his actions are misinterpreted and the victims are shown to be ungrateful. The woman about to be run over is mad that he shoved her, the police think he's in league with the purse snatcher and nearly arrest him and the suicidal man is upset to be pulled away from the ledge. The helpful man seems to be saddened and frustrated, but keeps", "-29.14747447575064" ], [ "no S-1 Gard is present, the prevalent type of accident involving transit vehicles and individuals is pedestrians or cyclists falling in the path of and/or being pulled under the wheel, as opposed to individuals being struck by the vehicle body. Among bus wheel accidents, approximately 85% occur at the right hand drive wheel (curbside rear wheel). The accidents most often occur as buses are making right-hand turns, when pedestrians who are not fully on the sidewalk or who fall into the street risk being run over by the right rear wheels of the bus. It is estimated that 40–100 people", "-29.09078421141021" ], [ "had dissuaded roughly two per month from committing suicide. Two people did jump after his intercession.\nIn 2003, Briggs described a typical conversation — starting by asking how the person is doing, then asking their plans for the following day. He would ask \"are you here to hurt yourself?\" If they did not have plans for the next day, he'd try to make plans with them, inviting them to come back to the bridge if their plan did not work out at the end of the day. \nIn May 2013, the American Foundation for Suicide Prevention recognized the California Highway Patrol", "-29.046021952060983" ], [ "(Jake describes the bus as suffering the positronic brain equivalent of perpetual migraines.) The cars chase and eventually surround the bus, communicating with it until it opens a door. Jake falls out, and the bus drives off with Gellhorn. Sally takes Jake back to the farm; Gellhorn is found dead in a ditch the next morning, exhausted and run over. The bus is found by the police and is identified by its tire tracks.\nThe story ends with Jake losing trust in his cars, thinking what the world will become if cars realize that they are effectively enslaved by humans, and", "-29.001885054865852" ], [ "Baiting crowd Deindividuation It is a typical situation where a person is about to jump from a high building while there are people standing below, whereas some people begin to shout that the person has to jump off.\nLeon Mann (born 12 December 1937) is an Australian psychologist. He is currently Director of the Research Leadership Program and coordinator of the University of Melbourne's Mentoring Program for Research Leaders.\nIn the late 20th century, Leon Mann became interested in the idea of deindividuation. More specifically, he wanted to investigate how aggression of a group of people towards another individual or group, could", "-28.973054109927034" ], [ "get on a bus if they are afraid of suicide bombers?... He could have been running, but not from the police... When the Underground stops, everybody runs to get on the train. That he jumped over the barriers is a lie.\"\nThe Brazilian government released a statement expressing its shock at the killing, saying that it looked forward \"to receiving the necessary explanation from the British authorities on the circumstances which led to this tragedy.\" Foreign Minister Celso Amorim, who had already arranged to visit London, said he would seek a meeting with the UK's Foreign Secretary, Jack Straw. He later", "-28.910768590983935" ], [ "what do to save herself when there was an accident, and she warns him that he will need to know what to do soon. As she states this, one of the other students sees a pickup truck overtaking dangerously, only to meet another vehicle coming towards them. The school bus is forced off the road, knocking out the driver and sending the vehicle off the road and dangling over the edge of a cliff.\nRemembering what he'd read, and with some coaching from Tracy, Kevin evacuates the other students before reviving the driver and both getting off the bus which is", "-28.548573527572444" ], [ "cab, or walk. But please, children and grown-ups, don't ride the bus at all on Monday. Please stay off all buses Monday.\nThe next morning there was a meeting led by the new MIA head, King, where a group of 16 to 18 people gathered at the Mt. Zion Church to discuss boycott strategies. At that time Rosa Parks was introduced but not asked to speak, despite a standing ovation and calls from the crowd for her to speak; she asked someone if she should say something, but they replied, \"Why, you've said enough.\" A citywide boycott of public transit was", "-28.362964811036363" ], [ "down to sit down. Christoph Köhler, one of the participants of this protest, later commented on this as follows:\n\"Well, and then we sat there modestly and were pretty scared of being beaten up by the people who want to go home quickly.\"\nAlthough the trams had to stop their journey and the urban transport in the downtown area collapsed in part, but after about an hour, the students were pushed by the police, and some were carried away. The students then continued their action on the station square, where they limited themselves to a demonstration without obstructing the tram traffic. Around", "-28.35096719622379" ], [ "In the latter case, imposters have lured unsuspecting passengers to their vehicles by placing an Uber sticker on their dashboard or by claiming to be a passenger's expected driver.\nIn February 2016, Uber was criticized following the 2016 Kalamazoo shootings, a shooting spree in Kalamazoo, Michigan that left six people dead and two wounded. It was committed by Jason Dalton, who was driving for Uber while conducting the shooting. During the ensuing seven-hour manhunt, authorities believe that Dalton continued to drive and accept fares. Uber was aware of issues with Dalton's driving skills, having received multiple complaints, though critics agree that", "-28.258204661426134" ], [ "in profound injuries, such as multiple fractures, amputations, concussion and severe mental and physical handicapping.\nUnlike on underground railways, in suicides involving above-ground railway lines, the person will often simply stand or lie on the tracks, waiting for the arrival of the train. As the trains usually travel at high speeds (usually between 80 and 200 km/h), the driver is usually unable to bring the train to a halt before the collision. This type of suicide may be traumatizing to the driver of the train and may lead to post-traumatic stress disorder. Europe In the Netherlands, as many as 10% of all", "-28.191717219073325" ], [ "I took the bus, the Palestinians around Damascus Gate [in Jerusalem] were all smiling. You could sense that everybody was happy. When I got on the bus, nobody knew that it was me who had led [the suicide bomber to the target]... I was feeling quite strange, because I had left [the bomber] 'Izz Al-Din behind, but inside the bus, they were all congratulating one another. They didn't even know one another, yet they were exchanging greetings...While I was sitting on the bus, the driver turned on the radio. But first, let me tell you about the gradual rise in", "-28.116072148579406" ], [ "girl to freak out and traumatised her. Finally, when the attendant managed to receive the call from the girl's mother, they disclosed that the bus had missed the drop due the lapse in management which was later found out to be untrue. The real reason was total carelessness on part of the bus driver, attendant and coordinator who didn't do their duty well. As soon as the contact between the bus attendant and the girl's mother happened, the parents asked the driver and the attendant to not move the bus any further. Later, the parents reached the spot as disclosed", "-28.0971126051154" ], [ "at a car crash, right? It's human nature. Yes, except that if you play that card, you also have to realize that human nature comes with the capacity to draw a line, to hold fast against the dehumanization and incremental tearing down of the social fabric, even if this never-ending onslaught of reality television suggests that's a losing effort. You can say no to visual exploitation. You can say no to TLC. And you can say no to Honey Boo Boo Child. Somebody has to.\nTV Guide's \"Cheers & Jeers 2012\" issue commented, \"Jeers to Here Comes Honey Boo Boo for", "-28.079222186497645" ], [ "their cars as he approaches, while others duck into nearby buildings; one hides himself in the opposite side of a revolving door to avoid being tagged. Crowds empty off the streets, while others huddle in lines behind the partial cover given by wastebins, scattering when they are spotted.\nThe tagged man chases a group into a subway station, where they cram themselves into a departing train. He manages to jam his arm between the closing doors, but the people in reach shrink away. He frustratedly pulls his arm out of the door and, after glancing to his left, begins strolling nonchalantly", "-28.076498511247337" ], [ "towns when the bus leaves them behind. After the diner they stop at is attacked by fire giants revealed to be working with the Wizard, they purchase a car and drive the rest of the way to Florida, not risking public transportation because after the diner blew up, they were listed as nationally wanted terrorists.\nOn the way, they pick up three college-age hitchhikers on their way to the YA! Party House, explained to be the headquarters of a very popular TV show of the same name. Once they get to the Party House, it is explained that the three boys", "-27.97698330692947" ], [ "the boys and threaten to shoot them, since, they are not home-owners due to them being minors, and are therefore \"homeless\", but they're able to recognize Cartman as the \"kid who jumped ten homeless people on his skateboard\", so they decide to help the boys. While talking to the survivors, they are able to explain that the homeless situation got so out of control that it was hard to tell who was homeless and who wasn't. During the discussion, Kyle finds a pamphlet on the ground, which advertises South Park as a \"haven for the homeless\"; He realizes that the", "-27.90539031940716" ], [ "walking down a busy London pavement, without changing his stride or direction throughout, except for one instance where he is forced to stop for a moving car and a reflection is seen of him standing stationary in the car's tinted window. He narrowly avoids being hit by a car as he starts his walk, repeatedly bumping into passers-by (causing one young woman to lose balance and fall), and he also jumps on top of the bonnet of another vehicle stopped in his path (the driver gets out of her car and proceeds to confront him, while he continues unflinchingly). At", "-27.842608849983662" ], [ "suicidal tendencies has attracted huge public backlash – \"If you die, your boyfriend may be sad for a few days, but he will soon find a new girlfriend and live normally. It is not worth doing such a silly thing for him!\".\nVarious educators and social workers commented that the controversial example can be very dangerous for people with suicidal thoughts. According to Shiu Ka-chun, the example provided was irritating and may encourage the person at risk to think pessimistically. Suicide of Choi Yuk-lin's son On 7 September 2017, the Under-secretary for Education Christina Choi Yuk-lin's (Chinese: zh:蔡若蓮; born 1966) 25-year-old", "-27.798951018805383" ], [ "a homeless man. The man, in a drunken stupor, walks to the edge and accidentally falls off as the train is about to arrive. Remembering the man hit by a bus, Silas pulls the man off the tracks and throws him onto the platform, himself falling onto the tracks in the process. Before he is killed, he briefly hears a piper playing.", "-27.69945196097251" ], [ "16, 2016, a young lady committed suicide in Darvazeh Dolat Station. Milad Tower Jumping from a height is also a common method of suicide and it has been proven psychologically that incongruous city appearance can cause suicidal thoughts in some people. Before the 1979 Revolution of Iran, places like \"Pelasko Building\" and \"The Aluminum Building\" in Tehran were among the favorite sites of suicide by jumping and it has been said that some famous Iranian people like Sadeq Hedayat and Nosrat Rahmani intended to jump from these buildings. After the revolution, Milad Tower, which had become the highest building, attracted", "-27.673075133381644" ], [ "bus attendant. Meanwhile, the girl realised that the bus had missed her drop and brought this to the notice of the bus attendant and the driver. But the duo didn't pay a heed and continued on their pre-decided route instead of turning back. They didn't even bother to inform the school or tried getting back to the girl's drop location. The girl was petrified as she didn't know where she had reached, where the bus was heading with these two unknown people, why they didn't pay any heed or why were they not taking any action. This incident caused the", "-27.567469594068825" ], [ "were four SUVs, all grey and with tinted windows. Everyone was armed.\"\n The violence and constant car hijackings have been so bad that buses lines avoid Fed. 101 by driving out miles away to avoid the road. Another report from a woman who survived a hijacking said through El Universal newspaper that heavily armed men would stop buses at roadblocks, and then force women and young girls at gunpoint, \"strip them naked, rape them,\" and then drive away in trucks, leaving the passengers traumatized. One bus driver, \"who said he had avoided being stopped thus far,\" claimed that another bus", "-27.405602050130256" ], [ "them they were incapable of joining an evacuation of Chicago's population which has taken place. Proceeding as a group, they continue to search the deserted streets, coming upon a car that will not start. Another survivor, Charles Otis (Mort Marshall), sees them and tells them that the same applies to all the other cars he has tried.\nA growing apprehension takes hold as they begin to appreciate that they are alone with an unknown menace that has caused everyone to evacuate the city. Charles finds a newspaper in a hotel lobby that proclaims that a \"mystery army\" is attacking the city.", "-27.392723505574395" ], [ "Accused of hijacking the bus that she was on, the teenage girl was ordered to serve nothing more than counseling with a court-appointed psychologist because she was a witch and that the hijacking may have been caused due to the stress of losing her father. The details of the bus incident are unclear as Sera has blocked those events from her memory. Sera is not even sure that she caused the incident though she accepted the responsibility.\nSera generally dresses in gothic attire, but her make-up and blue hair are both put in place by shapeshifting. To her disgust, She is", "-27.386649843887426" ], [ "Jumper (song) Background and writing Lead singer Stephan Jenkins has said that the song is \"about a friend who's gay, jumping off a bridge and killing themselves.\" The song is also about Jenkins' own difficulties, often alienating childhood experiences. He says, \"My parents divorced, and that hurt me. We were poor and I went to a rich high school. I was dyslexic and had attention deficit disorder, which I still have. So I carried all these things with me. One afternoon, I had this epiphany. I said 'You know what? I don't have it all together. I come from stuff", "-27.34072536684107" ], [ "she would never ride the front car of any train, ever. \"I remember hoping and praying it wasn't anyone I knew. But ... you don't want it to be anyone anybody knows.\"\n\"[T]he exposure goes well beyond simply knowing people on the train,\" said a psychiatrist at a nearby hospital. \"Many of these communities only exist because people are able to travel into the city for work and fun and to see family,\" said The Rev. Gwyneth MacKenzie Murphy, the interim pastor at Nadol's Church of St. Mary the Virgin. \"So this has hit us at a place that is just", "-27.3011218492029" ], [ "any attempt to do so provokes universal anxiety, since it \"calls everyone's bluff\". Like Arsel and Thompson, he draws from La Distinction by Pierre Bourdieu to conclude:\nOnce you take the Bourdieuian view, you can see how hipster neighborhoods are crossroads where young people from different origins, all crammed together, jockey for social gain. One hipster subgroup's strategy is to disparage others as \"liberal arts college grads with too much time on their hands\"; the attack is leveled at the children of the upper middle class who move to cities after college with hopes of working in the \"creative professions\". These", "-27.253121978254057" ], [ "a plane going to Australia to shoot Superman: Flyby and dropped from the film as a result. McG told people he suffered from fear of flying despite the issue being persistent agoraphobia. \"It was easier to say it was a fear of flying because, while it might make me look weak, people can understand it and I don't have to say, 'Well, I'm kind of crazy,'\" he told Fast Company.\nHis brother died of a cocaine overdose in 2007, which he says has kept him grounded and reminds him not to take life for granted.\nHe and actress Bridget Moynahan dated", "-27.242919765529223" ], [ "want,’ then it gets out of hand, so you’ve got to have really, really tight rules. [Steve and Jaime] can jump up two stories but not three. They can jump down three stories but not four. Jaime can’t turn over a truck but she can turn over a car.\" These limits were occasionally incorporated into episodes, such as \"Kill Oscar Part 1,\" in which Jaime is forced to make a jump that's too far down for her bionic legs, causing massive damage to them and nearly causing her death as a result.\nThe series premiered on ABC in January 1976, as", "-27.14336494076997" ], [ "a feeling of aggression in them and attaches it to the trigger of a squeezed fist at a meeting in a café. Meanwhile, a green security van drives past the window.\nThe last stage before the heist is making the subjects believe that they have it within themselves to overpower a security guard and to know what to say and how to say it without thinking about it. Brown teaches them what he calls an esoteric martial arts exercise, where they are able to make one another fall using the mental power of \"chi\". (In reality the person made to fall", "-27.130127404176164" ], [ "finds this fun and decides to do more on his own. However, he has mischief on his mind.\nFirst, he causes several cars to crash at an intersection by displaying \"Go left\", \"Go right\", \"Go this way\", and \"Go that way\" above. Sam wants to talk to him about this behavior, that it is dangerous and bad; however, Gus abandons Sam as he thinks Sam does not know how to have fun. Gus then continues to cause mischief; he causes several airplanes to get crossed up by displaying \"Go up\", \"Go down\", \"Go this way\", and \"Go that way\", he causes", "-27.088464043306885" ], [ "some bus passengers so much, the driver abandons her. She hitchhikes with a trucker named Norm, then meets and travels with a pair of protesters, Elizabeth, a ditzy but sweet and likeable girl, and Howard, who sells apples he carves into celebrities. She gradually grows close to the two.\nSteve and crew end up covering a breaking news story: an old mine collapsed with numerous deaf children stuck inside. Initially, it appears that the children are rescued. Mary, who arrives on the scene, accidentally falls into the mine shaft as well while making a beeline for Steve. It turns out that", "-27.064844351261854" ], [ "be concerned about someone they know to direct them to help.\nSuicide gesture and suicidal desire (a vague wish for death without any actual intent to kill oneself) are potentially self-injurious behaviors that a person may use to attain some other ends, like to seek help, punish others, or to receive attention. This behavior has the potential to aid an individual's capability for suicide and can be considered as a suicide warning, when the person shows intent through verbal and behavioral signs. Support groups Many non-profit organizations exist, such as the American Foundation for Suicide Prevention in the United States, which", "-27.05464211343633" ], [ "and students.\nSeize The Awkward: seizetheawkward.org\nA national campaign in partnership with Ad Council and American Foundation for Suicide Prevention, that encourages teens and young adults to \"seize the awkward\" by reaching out to a friend who may be struggling with mental health problems.", "-27.047279609483667" ], [ "that elevator had no fourth-floor doors, the passengers were rescued by an adjacent elevator. After the fall, building inspectors reviewed all of the building's elevators. Suicide attempts Because of the building's iconic status, it and other Midtown landmarks are popular locations for suicide attempts. More than 30 people have attempted suicide over the years by jumping from the upper parts of the building, with most attempts being successful.\nThe first suicide from the building occurred on April 7, 1931, before the tower was even completed, when a carpenter who had been laid-off went to the 58th floor and jumped. The first", "-27.046469927299768" ], [ "but must avoid traffic caused by President Obama's trip to Philly. The gang attend their high school reunion and are humiliated by the \"cool kids\" and other former enemies. They then take revenge on their enemies in the form of a dance routine.", "-27.04164336976828" ], [ "prove how macho I am, I'm gonna to really conquer my fear, I'm gonna get in the toughest place\", and he gets in front. When he finishes the ride, he must feel like, \"Gee, it wasn't so bad, after all.\" Whereas that poor milquetoast fellow who gets in the back, he's probably never going to ride again. So one of the things you might predict is that people who ride in the front of roller coasters are more likely to ride again. People who ride in the back for the first time are less likely to bother to go on", "-27.01162196342193" ], [ "seem \"congested\" or \"backed-up\" at times, from all the pedestrians and cyclists.", "-26.98709163221065" ], [ "danger In Cordas v. Peerless Taxi Company, 27 N.Y.S.2d 198 (1941), Justice Carlin held that a taxicab driver hijacked at gunpoint by a fleeing mugger in New York City may be excused from negligence for jumping out of the moving taxicab to save his own life, leaving the cab on an unguided trajectory towards bystanders. While some persons might choose to be singularly heroic, that standard is not one that is required for an ordinary prudent person. Such a person is held excused from liability, even if such failure might endanger others. An ordinary prudent person is not under any", "-26.9428353808471" ], [ "bus presumably hits him. In the panic of the situation and unable to think straight, they send the bleeding victim in a pickup truck that arrived soon after. They lie about the accident and pretends it to be a hit-and-run, while the driver of the truck assures to take him to hospital. One of the bags of the victim gets misplaced and they take it with them.\nGuilt-ridden, Iravi along with Suku, search the victim's bag and recognize him to be Devan (Hemanth Menon)– the son of Venu master (a retired well-respected school headmaster and the current village president) and the", "-26.91323823563289" ], [ "kids jump off to collect a toy just as Nick boards, forcing him to jump off and land unsafely. When they lose their luggage, they reluctantly drive.\nBelieving Nick is only their mother's friend, the kids are tamed but still misbehave and show Nick no respect. At a truck stop, the two learn from one of Nick's friends, Marty, on his cell phone that he not only dislikes them, but also lied about not having feelings for their mother. \nThey then show less restraint and cause mayhem throughout the trip, hijacking Nick's car by having Kevin fake an asthma attack, injuring", "-26.90867989763501" ], [ "influence one’s own behaviour. In the attempt to investigate this matter, Mann analysed 166 cases of suicide or suicide attempt, in which 21 suicide a crowd was involved. He wanted to find out when collective aggression towards an individual, who was about to commit suicide (e.g. encouraging to jump of a large building), would cause an outsider to join the baiting crowd in this process of deindividuation. In ten of these 21 cases several factors may have led to deindividuation where baiting occurred.\nHe found out that when the crowd was small and during daytime, people would usually not shout that", "-26.901932947919704" ], [ "jumped off the train. A police force chases the group, until their path is blocked by a helicopter. The group turns out to be the conductor and others, who explained that the real group of fugitives told them to jump off the train at gunpoint, to keep running, and not to look back. As Michael, Lincoln, Sara, and Kellerman leave the train without incident, Kellerman finds a car, and is again contacted by the president. Kellerman asks her what they did during his 35th birthday. When the voice on the other line cannot answer the question, Kellerman realizes that she", "-26.8988111980143" ], [ "version of Bill (dressed in plain clothes and lacking his usual make-up) is standing on top of a multi-story car park, teary-eyed and apparently ready to jump. While several people notice the suicidal figure on top of the building, no one does anything, except Bill's other self, who rushes into the parking structure and runs up the flights of stairs. On the roof, the two versions look at each other and a third version of Bill (identical to the suicidal version) is created. This third version walks away from the roof safely, while the suicidal version falls off the building", "-26.819756595836225" ], [ "since the September 11 attacks. No definite explanation for that trend has been established; possible explanations include heightened anxiety for one's safety and irritation with invasive security. Causes The most common cause of a passenger or crew member acting unruly is from intoxication. The availability of alcoholic beverages on airlines and at airports enables passengers to drink excessively before and during flights. Flight attendants have the ability to keep track of how many drinks are served to passengers while on board an aircraft, but have no way of knowing how many are consumed prior to boarding.\nOther causes include the use", "-26.81936977256555" ], [ "to the water/ground beneath.\nDr. Michael Liebowitz, founder of the Anxiety Disorders Clinic at the New York State Psychiatric Institute, says, \"It's not an isolated phobia, but usually part of a larger constellation ... It's people who get panic attacks. You get light-headed, dizzy; your heart races. You become afraid that you'll feel trapped.\" It is a situational phobia.\nThe New York State Thruway Authority will lead gephyrophobiacs over the Tappan Zee Bridge. A driver can call the authority in advance and arrange for someone to drive the car over the bridge for them. The authority performs the service about six times", "-26.81362915925274" ], [ "from users. User strikes have erupted over the bad quality of the service, with users blocking the dedicated lanes used for the buses, at times halting the entire system. These protests sometimes devolve into riots involving heavy police presence and the use of crowd control measures such as tear gas and water cannons.\nThe system has been described by the users, independent bodies and the media as suffering from overcrowding with an average of eight passengers per square meter, insecurity and providing bad customer service. During rush hours, \"stations are so packed that people can't get off the bus\". In some", "-26.808585297781974" ], [ "the bus. Cleo becomes frantic and makes her way off the bus and into the park where she vomits on the grass. At home, Cleo is hanging onto the toilet when her other roommate Malady Mayapple comes home and asks if she's alright. After Cleo confirms her condition, Malady leaves for class. Depressed and alone, Cleo goes outside for a cigarette. Across town, Audrey is at the video rental store when the clerk, Myrtle, touches her hand in a certain way that surprises Audrey. Afterwards, she runs home having to pee. At night, Trilby is at home watching old episodes", "-26.796536714187823" ], [ "thought that one of the onlookers of such a scene would probably shout \"go ahead and jump\". Roth bounced this suggestion off Hostler who agreed it was good. Instead of being about a threatened suicide, the words were written as an invitation to love. Roth later told Musician magazine that Hostler was \"probably the most responsible for how it came out.\"\nTed Templeman recalls that \"'Jump' was recorded at Eddie Van Halen's studio. \"Engineer Donn Landee and Ed put the track down alone in the middle of the night. We recut it once in one take for sonic reasons. Dave wrote", "-26.74764859076822" ], [ "schooling is stultifying and she wants a normal life with friends. When she triggers an avalanche while snowboarding without permission, she learns that she, like her parents, has the ability to jump, after she suddenly finds herself in her own bedroom. Her family relocates to a small town so that she can meet friends, but when they do, all three of them get wrapped up in a criminal conspiracy that grows larger as they investigate it. Cent learns to jump in place and add momentum/velocity as she arrives, resulting in the ability to throw herself into the air.\nWhen Hyacinth Pope,", "-26.740540418133605" ], [ "Scooter brushed it off as Bill putting on a good comedy act (until he found out off-screen that he really was in danger and did save him). Throughout the series, he is known for his catch phrase \"When does the hurting stop?\". Bill is continually depressed, sometimes almost to the point of psychosis. He appears to have a deep-seated hatred for Scooter, having even tried to kill Scooter with a rock while muttering his catch phrase.\nScooter (voiced by Curtis Armstrong) is a jolly, overly enthusiastic caveman and is blissfully unaware of Bill's attitude toward him. He is also rarely", "-26.727992984233424" ], [ "buses, making sure their hair is trendy, and that they are wearing the proper clothes that all the kids like and wear, and all that fun shit.\" Morris' band the Circle Jerks would later appear on the 2007 edition of the tour.\nIn 2013, Oliver Sykes, lead vocalist of Bring Me the Horizon took to Twitter to pronounce that he was no longer allowed to start a mosh pit or wall of death. Kevin Lyman took to Twitter as well to say that audience members can create mosh pits and wall of deaths but that someone in the audience has to", "-26.727683770819567" ], [ "another road user was being discourteous, breaking traffic rules, or in many cases because someone felt that their safety was being compromised by the actions of another road user. According to University of Hawaii professor of psychology Leon James, \"bike rage is a common occurrence, and quite predictable\", because urban commuting causes \"tension, anxiety, and anger – in drivers as well as cyclists\". Montogomery claims some cyclists hit cars using a \"classic U-lock bash-and-run\" tactic. He argues that \"some cyclists consider such attacks acts of driver education\". Montogomery claims the \"... problem is that city planners have mixed bikes and", "-26.693189611894923" ], [ "(nicknamed \"Zosh\"). Sophie has been using a wheelchair since a drunk-driving accident caused by Frankie (although the novel implies that her paralysis is psychological in nature). She spends most of her time looking out the window and watching the nearby elevated rail line. She takes out her frustrations by fighting with her husband, and she uses his guilt to keep him from leaving her. The turmoil in their relationship only spurs on his addiction.\nHe works nights dealing in backroom card games operated by \"Zero\" Schwiefka. He aspires to join the Musicians' Union and work with jazz drummer Gene Krupa, but", "-26.675080739878467" ], [ "streets as a homeless individual. He moved later to Cartagena, where the cycle of psychiatric admissions and homelessness continued, in addition to some time spent in jail.\nIn the middle of what was assumed to be a psychotic episode, Gómez Jattin jumped to death in front of a running bus on May 22, 1997. It has never been clear whether his death was accidental or a suicide.\nHe was a distant relative and close friend of journalist and writer Juan Gossaín when they both studied in the same school in Cartagena. Poetry His reading of poets Machado, García Lorca, Rubén Darío, Fernando", "-26.663800820853794" ], [ "club leads them through a tunnel to a nearby manhole. As they proceed to climb out, a passing truck hits the old lady and kills her. Once out on the street, the group tries to get to their car but find it destroyed. Ariel's condition continues to get worse due to blood loss and the group decides that they need to get him to the hospital on top of the hill as soon as possible. Suddenly, a tsunami warning is heard and they all rush to the hillside cable tram station that could quickly take them up the hill. After", "-26.641694466379704" ], [ "not until early 2009 that she discovered that he was riding on buses. The drivers told her that he would politely queue along with other passengers at the bus stop opposite her house, and when a bus came that he liked, he would get on and jump on his favourite seat. Casper would remain on the bus for its 11-mile (18 km) round-trip to the city centre and back to the bus stop opposite his house, where the drivers would let him exit, ensuring that he did not get off at any other stop. When Finden learned of Casper's bus", "-26.616089383082" ], [ "the approach of the train. However, the man, who was covered by a sleeping bag at the time he was struck, spoke of suicide while in the emergency room.\nOn March 23, 2012, a man was struck by a westbound Sprinter train at the West Mission Road and North Pacific Street crossing. The victim's death was ruled a suicide by the San Diego County medical examiner's office. The operator of the train applied the brakes and sounded the horn, but was unable to avoid the collision. The victim died at the scene. Service suspension (2013) On February 28, 2013,", "-26.569381271954626" ], [ "have been spurred by movies such as The Texas Chain Saw Massacre (1974) and a few real stories of imperiled passengers, notably the kidnapping of Colleen Stan in California. See § Safety, below.\nJulian Portis points out that the rise of faster highways, such as freeways, motorways, and expressways, has made hitchhiking more difficult. He adds:\nThe real danger of hitchhiking has most likely remained relatively constant, but the general perception of this danger has increased. ... [O]ur national tolerance for danger has gone down: things that we previously saw as reasonably safe suddenly appeared imminently threatening. This trend is not just isolated", "-26.556956857442856" ], [ "it places the fleeing motorist at risk of serious bodily injury or death. In the Harris case, Officer Scott applied his police car's push bumper to the rear of the suspect's vehicle, causing the suspect vehicle to lose control and crash, resulting in the fleeing suspect being paralyzed from the waist down.\nTraditionally, intentional contact between vehicles has been characterized as unlawful deadly force, though some U.S. federal appellate cases have mitigated this precedent. In\nAdams v. St. Lucie County Sheriff's Department, 998 F.2d 923 (11th Cir. 1993). ,\nthe Seventh Circuit Court of Appeals ruled that although fatalities may result from intentional", "-26.553716988069937" ], [ "a dream as well and described what they were. Howie and the others get ready to leave, but find that their bus driver is a monster, making the Backstreet Boys scream in terror.", "-26.553020614839625" ], [ "like, 'Fuck it, take your clothes off.' Then I [thought], 'I’m being a hypocrite. Why do I feel afraid?' Because people tell us that we’re victims, or that there are predators. Yes, that’s true, but I created this show, I created this community, let me feel safe in my own space. Taking [my] clothes off wasn’t meant to be a statement, but I knew there would be a reaction, but it was a natural thing, to be comfortable.\"\nUrbani's performance style, solo and with Friends, is typified by a strong sense of audience participation, stating: \"I make sure to get involved", "-26.54093519996968" ], [ "legs were non-elimination pit stops. Host Phil Keoghan said, \"They enjoyed every single moment they were on this race, whether they were in first or in last. They kept their spirit all the way to the end.\" “If it’s this successful to be hippies, we might as well stay hippies,” Tyler said at the finish line in Denver, Colorado. B.J. added, \"I think that on this Race, being cerebral or being intelligent doesn't help as much as being in the moment and just being aware of what's going on around you. And it's just great to stay", "-26.53260655933991" ], [ "2014 CAFE started a petition declaring that the Toronto Transit Commission should not stop men from spreading their legs to adjacent seats on subways — a practice that had gained attention under than name manspreading. The CAFE petition reached over 900 signatories. The CAFE volunteer who created the petition was quoted by the Toronto Star saying: \"I understand the concern about people taking up more than what's necessary on the bus … but why we have to focus on one gender is beyond me.\" Billboard Campaigns In March 2015, CAFE unveiled a billboard in downtown Toronto, which asserted that \"half", "-26.52829346730141" ], [ "in the larger cities such as Tokyo or Nagoya, because it disrupts train schedules and if one occurs during the morning rush-hour, causes numerous commuters to arrive late for work. However, suicide by train persists despite a common policy among life insurance companies to deny payment to the beneficiary in the event of suicide by train (payment is usually made in the event of most other forms of suicide). Suicides involving the high-speed bullet-train, or Shinkansen are extremely rare, as the tracks are usually inaccessible to the public (i.e. elevated and/or protected by tall fences with barbed wire)", "-26.522002989571774" ], [ "unharmed and ripped a door off the car in order to save Audrey. David used the accident as an excuse to quit football because Audrey did not like the violence of the sport.\nUnder Elijah's influence, David realizes that what he thought was just a natural \"instinct\" for picking out dangerous people during security checks is actually a form of extrasensory perception. Now consciously honing this ability, David discovers that when he comes into touch contact with other people, he is able to glimpse criminal acts they have committed. At Elijah's suggestion, David stands in the middle of a crowd", "-26.514468245150056" ], [ "suicide, from which people return feeling better. \"People who are suicidal can have this fantasy where they can have a temporary escape—a temporary suicide,\" he told the National Post. \"And maybe that way they will stand out, and somebody will come along and save them. Maybe this was some form of this woman testing fate.\"\nOthers wondered why, given popular locations in Japan such as the Aokigahara forest near Mount Fuji, where there are many suicides each year due to the intense seclusion, for that sort of wilderness suicide, Yoshikubo had traveled so far for hers. \"Sometimes people romanticize about how", "-26.51291262358427" ], [ "sister-in-law, wrote in her diary, \"I don't care a damn about their morals and manners, but I do think what - for want of a better word - I call their anti-cant, is really suicidal to happiness.\"\nTwo deaths were attributed to the group and their actions, with Gustav Hamel, a Swedish amateur flyer and racing driver crashing his private plane during a flight from France to London; and Denis Anson drowning in the Thames during a late-night swimming party.", "-26.47251555963885" ], [ "to stop the hijacker by standing in front of the truck, but had to jump out of the way and was slightly injured when the hijacker accelerated towards him.\nThe hijacker then drove the truck at high speed into a pedestrian street, going about 500 metres (1,600 ft) down Drottninggatan, one of Stockholm's main shopping streets, hitting pedestrians along the way. Witnesses said the hijacker attempted to target children as he zigzagged on the street. The attack ended when the truck rammed the Åhléns City department store on the corner of Drottninggatan and Mäster Samuelsgatan. The truck caught fire, but the flames", "-26.417334180616308" ], [ "parties, hedonistic times, that notion of living your life, too busy to notice what you’re doing, don’t always stop and think ‘Who the fuck am I?\" He added that \"Don't let the Car Crash\" dates from when he was in a car crash when he was 17: \"my best mate died, we were all a bit drunk going down the road, we’d been thrown out of a club for dancing with each other, sure they were playing ‘Starman’! We got in and the car careered off the road, and I thought ‘Fuck, I’m gonna die’, was thrown about everywhere. we", "-26.362094349278777" ], [ "Self Help (The Walking Dead) Plot Abraham Ford (Michael Cudlitz), Rosita Espinosa (Christian Serratos), Tara Chambler (Alanna Masterson), Maggie Greene (Lauren Cohan), Glenn Rhee (Steven Yeun), and Eugene Porter (Josh McDermitt) are on their way to Washington, D.C. in the church bus. After passing a small group of walkers, a mechanical breakdown causes Abraham to lose control of the speeding bus and crash into wrecks on the road, turning the vehicle over. Alerted by the noise, the walkers move in.\nWith Abraham lightly concussed, Glenn organizes the group to fight their way out of the wreck, killing the walkers. A terrified", "-26.322030561492284" ], [ "who sarcastically states \"Nine people out of ten make it out of an elevator alive.\" Evans places this in her report, causing a large controversy over his statement by his boss, Mitchell, and the police. During the same day, a roller skater is sucked into an elevator in the parking garage and shot from the 86th floor of the building to his death. The roller skater's death is explained to media as suicide.\nEvans visits Newman and shows him a tape of the roller skater's death. She points out the time it normally takes for the elevator to go up 87", "-26.310238457343075" ], [ "a near death experience, when according to Mr Friedman, a crazy local news reporter allegedly tried to kill him by pushing him down an escalator just to get a story.", "-26.29569647373137" ], [ "In every coach there are a number of small compartments and it is easy for anyone who wants to commit suicide to open the door of his compartment and throw himself out of the train. This man purposed to throw himself out of the train in a certain tunnel just as the train coming from an opposite direction would be about to dash past and he thought this would be a quick end to his life.\nThere was a young man at the depot that night who had been saved the night before. He was all on fire to get others", "-26.290710985602345" ], [ "Positive hijacks Goleman points out that \"'not all limbic hijackings are distressing. When a joke strikes someone as so uproarious that their laughter is almost explosive, that, too, is a limbic response. It is at work also in moments of intense joy.\"\nHe also cites the case of a man strolling by a canal when he saw a girl staring petrified at the water. \"[B]efore he knew quite why, he had jumped into the water—in his coat and tie. Only once he was in the water did he realize that the girl was staring in shock at a toddler who had", "-26.27851589373313" ], [ "to go up the stairs to the roof instead of down. That group would all lose their lives that day, as access doors to the roof were locked, and there were no plans for helicopter rescues from the roof, as the NYPD deemed it too unsafe to attempt due to dense clouds of smoke and rooftop antennas.\nAs Clark and DiFrancesco made their way to the voice screaming for help, DiFrancesco became overcome with smoke and returned to the stairs, which he would also ascend. Unlike the rest of his coworkers who went up the stairs, however, DiFrancesco reversed course and", "-26.275378317557625" ], [ "some stations, but is expensive. Car Some suicides are the result of intended car crashes. This especially applies to single-occupant, single-vehicle accidents, \"because of the frequency of its use, the generally accepted inherent hazards of driving, and the fact that it offers the individual an opportunity to imperil or end his life without consciously confronting himself with his suicidal intent.\" There is always the risk that a car accident will affect other road users; for example, a car that brakes abruptly or swerves to avoid a suicidal pedestrian may collide with something else on the road.\nThe real percentage of suicides", "-26.274692008868442" ], [ "and return for the children, but the bus breaks down after travelling only a few yards.\nThe children help push the bus up an incline, after which it is able to coast almost all the way into the city. With the town in sight, the threesome run the rest of the way. Reuben smiles as he anticipates his survival.", "-26.272383710253052" ], [ "pedestrian were injured. KMB subsequently admitted that Chan had been involved in this accident. He was convicted of careless driving, had driving offence points deducted, and had been fined. The company afterward deemed him fit to continue working. Chan has been reported to be a bus fan active on online bus enthusiast communities. A friend stated that he possessed a \"bad driving attitude\". Investigation Immediately following the crash, passengers told local media that the driver was exceeding the speed limit. The police said they also suspected that the bus was speeding. They said that alcohol was not a factor in", "-26.26731409408967" ], [ "When social movements protest for something in the interest of the whole society, it is easier for the individual to not protest. The individual will benefit the outcome, but will not risk anything by participating in the protest. This is also known as the free-rider problem. Social movements must convince people to join the movement to solve this problem. Examples Opposition to United States involvement in the Vietnam War. During the Vietnam war, supporters and opponents of the war mobilized for protests. Social movements against the war were groups of students or veterans. These groups did not believe the war", "-26.233534758608585" ], [ "a show similar to MTV's Jackass but end with dire consequences. Sometimes, the victim will attempt keeping calm and rationally try keeping the situation from getting out of control (from their perspective).\nThe pranks end when the victim is completely terrified and someone would ask them, \"Are you scared?\" to which they usually reply in the affirmative. They then get the reply, \"You shouldn't be! You're on Scare Tactics!\" or \"I'll have to/I'm gonna put you on Scare Tactics!\". Alternately, at times when a victim almost ran for their lives, they immediately announced the same thing. At least once or twice,", "-26.209815299196634" ], [ "now, whereas when you were a child, all you had to do is play games and lay in the grass, you know what I mean?\"\nOn the Blairing Out With Eric Blair show, when asked about what kind of advice Chibi would give to somebody who was thinking about committing suicide, Chibi responds: \"Just ride it out because things can get better. When I think back to times in my life when I was having a horrible time, like I hated high school, I was unpopular, the whole thing. It became so irrelevant. It's like if you just give things time,", "-26.192189386230893" ], [ "advance. She agreed to cooperate and thought it would be fun. I went with the gentleman to the elevator. He wasn't afraid of walking into an elevator, but when it started to move it became an unbearable experience. So I chose an unbusy time and I had him walk in and out of the elevator, back in and out. Then at a point when we walked in, I told the girl to close the door and said, \"Let's go up.\"\n\nShe went up one story and stopped in between floors. The gentleman started to yell, \"What's wrong!\" I said, \"The elevator", "-26.178112615423743" ], [ "to other bus lines by LSSP leaflets the same evening.\nHowever, certain bus owners announced of that they would run their buses, whatever the situation. The general public, among whom they were anyway not very popular, directed their anger against these defiant owners. This was especially true of the Gamini Bus Co Ltd and the High Level Road Bus Co Ltd. Their buses were stopped, stoned, and smashed by the angered people. Their principal routes were then blocked at numerous points with felled trees, so that even a military escort could not get their buses through. It was not for several", "-26.176865628251107" ], [ "priority and the space back from the motor traffic.\nCritical Mass events highlight the numbers of people want to use their bike on the streets, but are usually unable to do so without risking their safety. They are a call to action to councils, governments and road planners to properly and thoughtfully design in the safety of all road users, including those who would prefer to walk and cycle, instead of prioritising motor traffic above all else.\nThe event originated in 1992 in San Francisco (typically held on the last Friday of every month); by the end of 2003, the event was", "-26.175790305409464" ], [ "brake and fled the bus, leaving Demoor to die.\nLater, newspapers however reported that he asked the youths to calm down, and that, when they wouldn't listen, he grabbed one of them at the throat. Two of them then beat and kicked Demoor, the other four watched. After this, the youngsters fled.\nAccording to the youth's lawyers, the six youths were just making noise. Demoor repeatedly yelled to lower the volume. One of the youths apologised. After another yell from Demoor, one of the youths started making animal noises, upon which Demoor made physical threats, calling: \"It's always the same problem with", "-26.157225054354058" ], [ "walks to an elevator, while a young boy (Bhavi Baskar) also enters inside with them, and he is pasting some paper on the elevator wall.\nA girl (Pearle Maaney) is riding a scooter on the road. A man (Dharmajan Bolgatty) in a bicycle selling ice cream gestures her to switch off the head light of the scooter, which she turned off without any response. She stops at the traffic signal where she see a child (Akshara Kishore) sitting on the lap of a lady (Anjali Aneesh Upasana) who is sitting in the backseat of a bike. The child smiles at", "-26.146035877929535" ], [ "to take them home. Subsequently, the teacher and her 10- and 11-year-old pupils boarded the bus to find themselves the hostages of four armed men. The children were used as a human shield and bargaining chip. The hijackers rode to the local obkom and demanded about 2 million rubles (about US$3.3 million at the time) and an aircraft. The bus windows were curtained so that the law enforcement units could not see what was happening inside.\nThe authorities conceded, but the airport of Ordzhonikidze was unable to handle the large Ilyushin Il-76 cargo aircraft, that was sent. The hijackers rode to", "-26.145275299582863" ], [ "PANIC!\" at the top of his voice (usually at some inappropriate moment, such as when holding an armed landmine or hand grenade) until someone manages to calm him down to a state in which he is useful. This is often not evidence of fear, however, but of extreme eagerness: a courageous man, Jones is always the first to volunteer for any activity (regardless of any potential danger) and is extremely keen when doing so: he is known to sulk if someone else is chosen (the one time he didn't volunteer, Frazer accused him of only volunteering to impress Captain Mainwaring", "-26.144541583489627" ], [ "after a visit to Georgia in 1954, the young couple decided to sit in the back of the bus, in the \"colored\" section. The bus driver told them he could not drive the bus until they moved but they refused to change seats. Finally the driver gave up and let them stay where they were and the bus went on its way. This incident occurred before the Montgomery bus boycott and the Freedom Riders campaign.\nWhile living in Nashville after their return from Korea, the Elrods became involved in the 1960 Nashville sit-in protests and attended the non-violence workshops led by", "-26.14071578050789" ] ]

[ "As others have said the Rosetta Stone was vital in beginning understanding. Beyond that we know because it keeps making sense. So as an example. Why did the ¥ cross the road? The ¥ we ate last night was good. We had fried ¥. The ¥s ran out of the coop. The ¥ feathers were beige. We can start narrowing in on what ¥ is because there are only certain things that can be filled in and make sense. In this case birds are really the only thing that work, in particular I started with chicken. Sometimes we don't have an absolute answer but a close enough answer that can be used. As we see the symbols more we have more knowledge about what the symbol means. It is actually the same way you learn new words, the context eventually reveals the information, and as you hear the word more often you can fix any mistakes you've made in the meaning.", "As others have said, the Rosetta Stone played a huge role in deciphering hieroglyphics since it included translations in languages we already knew. But how could it be deciphered if we didn't have that kind of cheat sheet? A fascinating example is [Linear B]( URL_1 ), a pre-Ancient Greek language discovered on stone tablets on the island of Crete. It was long assumed that it would be completely indecipherable without some sort of \"Rosetta stone\", but we cracked the code in 1952, thanks to decades of study by [Alice Kober and Michael Ventris]( URL_0 ). The first breakthrough came after Kober diligently recorded the frequency and position of each symbol on the tablets (While this type of analysis is not hard to do with computers today, this took *years* of work for Kober). In doing so, she discovered many instances of the same groups of symbols, but with consistently different endings. Through this, she realized that Linear B was an inflected language with different endings based on usage, like verb endings in Latin and Spanish. She also noted that there were about 200 unique symbols in total. Being an expert of many languages, she knew that this was too many characters to be alphabetic (each symbol representing a letter - English, for example), and too few to be logographic (each symbol representing a word, like Chinese). She surmised that each symbol in Linear B likely represented a syllable. Now we have a clear understanding of what *type* of language Linear B was, but how do we determine what any of it means? This is where Ventris stepped up. He theorized that these tablets likely had location names, and knew that location names often stayed similar over long periods of time. So he basically did ~~brute force~~ trial-and-error using the ancient Greek names for towns in Crete: What if a particular group of symbols are syllables that mean something like, \"ko-no-so\", meaning the Cretian city of Knossos? After exploring this idea in countless ways, he eventually discovered a pattern that confirmed this: When he interpreted one particular set of symbols as \"ko-no-so\", other symbols began to make sense. Slowly but surely, that first bit of translation led to him fully deciphering the entire language. EDIT: As /u/QuarkMawp pointed out, brute force was not the correct term. And since this has gotten some traction, if anybody is more interested in this and other sorts of amazing cryptography achievements throughout history, I highly recommend [The Code Book]( URL_2 ) by Simon Singh. It covers a broad history of immense achievements in cryptography including Linear B, along with things like development of new codes in Renaissance Europe, cracking the Enigma Machine code in World War II, Navajo Wind Talkers and modern Public-Key Encryption. It's very informative and engaging, and also very accessible for the layperson.", "Others have talked about how we have decided what means what in hieroglyphs, but that doesn't actually mean we know for sure that our translations are correct. I'm going to give an example that I leaned about when I took a class on reading hieroglyphs in college; unfortunately, the details have faded a little. Back in the 50s or 60s, egyptologists thought they had the translations down. Then, one discovered a pattern in verbs that indicated a whole tense no one had noticed before. This tense looked very much like present tense, but was subtly different. They had to go back and re translate practically every thing. The fundamental meanings didn't change a whole lot, but the subtleties did. I think this new tense is called \"second tense\"", "The Rosetta Stone is a big help. A decree etched on stone in both hieroglyphs, which we didn't understand, and Ancient Greek, which we do", "The top and middle texts are in Ancient Egyptian using hieroglyphic script and Demotic script, respectively, while the bottom is in Ancient Greek. As the decree has only minor differences between the three versions, the Rosetta Stone proved to be the key to deciphering Egyptian hieroglyphs. URL_0 ", "Related question: how are names translated from non-alphabetic languages? I can understand how a name that's a combination of common words (like \"smith\" or \"underhill\") would be translated, but how did the Egyptians write down a name that's a random collection of sounds?", "Besides inferring from translations, there is also some help in errors that have been made by the people who wrote in hieroglyphs. Because when you make an error with language, it's not random but rather reflects the system of the language. So if you find a phrase that is repeated in many places, but in one place there's a mistake in it, you can look how it differs and thus get a better idea about the phrase. It's a bit hard to imagine, but one example is Latin pronunciation - a writer might confuse I with E because the sounds are pretty close, but he won't ever confuse I with X because they're very far apart.", "Rosetta Stone as others stated. Remember it was a tax code. Meaning a lot of technical jargon. Not much room for interpretation. Had 2 languages we knew and 1 we didn't.", "The importance of the Rosetta Stone is a bit overblown, but things like that help. Generally, we know through continued translations that match up using the same Hiero. Things would get very chaotic if the translations were wrong now. But we can still translate them fairly easily (the grammar is much simpler than Latin and Greek, thankfully.) Edit: If you're going to downvote me, at least challenge me in the comments. Or else you're only doing it because other people did. (I hate double editing, but for context I was at -7 when I made the first edit.)", "BBC did an awesome documentary about this. It's on Netflix & it's called '[Egypt]( URL_0 )'. It's definitely dramatized but the facts check out. The first four episodes are about king Tut and the European race to find ancient Egyptian tombs & artifacts. The last 3 however are an account of the quest to decipher the Rosetta Stone's Egyptian Heiroglyphs.", "For that matter, how do you know your tanslation of this english sentence to your native language (whatever that may be) is accurate? You assume it is, for you have \"learned\" the meaning of every word and think you know how to grammatically decipher a sentence, but how do you KNOW? On a less filosophical note, though, there's a video from VSauce that somewhere in the video goes on a tangent on how you could start to decipher any foreign language by noting how frequently some words and letters are used (also, the rest of the video is pure awesome). URL_0 Definitely worth a watch.", "There's a fascinating Nova special called \"Cracking the Maya Code.\" It covers this topic in regards to Mayan hieroglyphics instead of Egyptian, but it goes over the history of how we discovered certain things and how long-standing beliefs were changed after new discoveries. If you can find it, I highly recommend watching it. URL_0 ", "The story is long and complex and full of feuds, frauds and other issues. Most people trying to decipher the hieroglyphs thought they were pictograms- for instance, that the duck was used for Son (which was a lucky guess.) This actually hampered the decoding for decades. One of the first clues, were the names of kings, like Ramses which were named in Coptic texts. Ultimately many sources of documents written in Greek, Coptic and other languages which had not died out - helped scholars build a larger and larger vocabulary. There is a Learning Company DVD series that helps you learn to read them, and gives the full history of how they were decodes. It's interesting to note that the breakthroughs still did not come until decades after the Rosetta stone was discovered. Part of the reason the language died was illiteracy and the rigidity of the scribes. The language changed over the centuries, but the scribes pretty much stuck to the same system. Imagine if all books today were printed in Gaelic - and you had to have a translator to read them to you, or write them for you.", "we use so many emoticons nowadays that I am wondering whether people in the future when they look back will think that we are in the age of hieroglyphics", "All these comments about the Rosetta Stone and not a single person mentioned the name of the person who actually translated hieroglyphics: Jean-François Champollion.", "IT'S HIEROGLYPHS NOT HIEROGLYPHICS. My Ancient Egypt professor got triggered so hard he had a mental breakdown whenever any of us students said hieroglyphics instead of hieroglyphs." ]

[ [ "a means of recording a spoken language. Some attempts at decipherment by Islamic and European scholars in the Middle Ages and Renaissance acknowledged the script might have a phonetic component, but perception of hieroglyphs as ideographic hampered efforts to understand them up through the 18th century.\nThe Rosetta Stone, discovered in 1799 by members of Napoleon Bonaparte's campaign in Egypt, bore a parallel text in hieroglyphic, demotic and Greek. It was hoped that the Egyptian text could be deciphered through its Greek translation, especially in combination with the evidence from Coptic, the last stage of the Egyptian language. Doing so proved", "-33.69374771960429" ], [ "that he thought contained traditions derived from Egypt. His translations turned short texts containing only a few hieroglyphic characters into lengthy sentences of esoteric ideas. Unlike earlier European scholars Kircher did realise that hieroglyphs could function phonetically, though he considered this function a late development. He also recognised one hieroglyph, 𓈗, as representing water and thus standing phonetically for the Coptic word for water, mu, as well as the m sound. He became the first European to correctly identify a phonetic value for a hieroglyph.\nAlthough Kircher's basic assumptions were shared by his contemporaries, most scholars rejected or even ridiculed his", "-32.427479351172224" ], [ "the papyri as determined by Egyptologists, but in addition propose that the hieroglyphic text has some hidden meaning. Some apologists argue that there are other messages and meanings embedded in the text along with the Egyptologist's translations that are unknown to us. For many years, Hugh Nibley, for instance, preferred the argument that the Sensen text has two meanings: one that can be determined by standard translation (a \"literal translation\"), and another (a \"secret meaning\") that can only be divined, possibly with the help of a tool like the Urim and Thummim or one of the seer stones that", "-32.29165402947547" ], [ "and try to identify phonetic characters in them.\nYoung did so, with two results that together paved the way for the final decipherment. In the hieroglyphic text, he discovered the phonetic characters \"p t o l m e s\" (in today's transliteration \"p t w l m y s\") that were used to write the Greek name \"Ptolemaios\". He also noticed that these characters resembled the equivalent ones in the demotic script, and went on to note as many as 80 similarities between the hieroglyphic and demotic texts on the stone, an important discovery because the two scripts were previously thought", "-32.19496702947799" ], [ "translations. Nevertheless, his argument that Coptic was derived from the ancient Egyptian language was widely accepted. Eighteenth century Hardly anyone attempted to decipher hieroglyphs for decades after Kircher's last works on the subject, although some contributed suggestions about the script that ultimately proved correct. William Warburton's religious treatise The Divine Legation of Moses, published from 1738 to 1741, included a long digression on hieroglyphs and the evolution of writing. It argued that hieroglyphs were not invented to encode religious secrets but for practical purposes, like any other writing system, and that the phonetic Egyptian script mentioned by Clement of Alexandria", "-32.149412719591055" ], [ "fully understood how the scripts worked. Diodorus Siculus, in the 1st century BC, explicitly described hieroglyphs as an ideographic script, and most classical authors shared this assumption. Plutarch, in the 1st century AD, referred to 25 Egyptian letters, suggesting he might have been aware of the phonetic aspect of hieroglyphic or demotic, but his meaning is unclear. Around AD 200 Clement of Alexandria hinted that some signs were phonetic but concentrated on the signs' metaphorical meanings. Plotinus, in the third century AD, claimed hieroglyphs did not represent words but a divinely inspired, fundamental insight into the nature of the objects", "-32.013724904943956" ], [ "difficult, despite some halting progress made by Antoine-Isaac Silvestre de Sacy and Johan David Åkerblad. Young, building on their work, observed that demotic characters were derived from hieroglyphs and identified several of the phonetic signs in demotic. He also identified the meaning of many hieroglyphs, including phonetic glyphs in a cartouche containing the name of an Egyptian king of foreign origin, Ptolemy. He was convinced, however, that phonetic hieroglyphs were used only in writing non-Egyptian words. In the early 1820s Champollion compared Ptolemy's cartouche with others and ultimately realised the hieroglyphic script was a mixture of phonetic and ideographic elements.", "-31.947895984572824" ], [ "some hieroglyphs had been decoded by Ibn Wahshiyya, eight centuries before Champollion deciphered the Rosetta stone. A. K. Eyma critiques this idea and think that \"there was no such thing as an Arabic decipherment of hieroglyphs\". Carlo Nallino, in his lectures on the history of Arab Astronomy, is also of the opinion that books attributed to Ibn Wahshiyya are actually works of an unreliable pupil attributed to him, and of no scientific value, including the claim that he deciphered some hieroglyphs. Cryptography He published several cipher alphabets that were used to encrypt magic formulas.", "-31.865539686485135" ], [ "Mater lectionis Overview Because the scripts used to write some Semitic languages lack vowel letters, unambiguous reading of a text might be difficult. Therefore, to indicate vowels (mostly long), consonant letters are used. For example, in the Hebrew construct-state form bēt, meaning \"the house of\", the middle letter י in the spelling בית acts as a vowel, but in the corresponding absolute-state form bayit (\"house\"), which is spelled the same, the same letter represents a genuine consonant. Matres lectionis are extensively employed only in Hebrew, Aramaic, Syriac and Arabic, but the phenomenon is also found in the", "-31.77970777160408" ], [ "hieroglyphics dates from AD 394, after which all knowledge of hieroglyphics was lost. Until Thomas Young and Jean-François Champollion found the key to hieroglyphics in the 19th century, the main authority was the 4th century Greek grammarian Horapollon, whose chief contribution was the misconception that hieroglyphics were \"picture writing\" and that future translators should look for symbolic meaning in the pictures.\nThe first modern study of hieroglyphics came with Piero Valeriano Bolzani's Hieroglyphica (1556), and Kircher was the most famous of the \"decipherers\" between ancient and modern times and the most famous Egyptologist of his day. In his Lingua Aegyptiaca Restituta", "-31.53070755229419" ], [ "History of the alphabet Predecessors Two scripts are well attested from before the end of the fourth millennium BCE: Mesopotamian cuneiform and Egyptian hieroglyphs.\nHieroglyphs were employed in three ways in Ancient Egyptian texts: as logograms (ideograms) that represent a word denoting an object pictorially depicted by the hieroglyph; more commonly as phonograms writing a sound or sequence of sounds; and as determinatives (which provide clues to meaning without directly writing sounds). Since vowels were mostly unwritten, the hieroglyphs which indicated a single consonant could have been used as a consonantal alphabet (or \"abjad\"). This was not done when writing", "-31.503073100699112" ], [ "nonsense, but as they were put forth in a learned tongue many people at the time believed they were correct.\nThe accurate meaning of Egyptian hieroglyphs were not deciphered until 1824 when Jean-François Champollion finally solved the riddle through his study of the Rosetta stone.\nIn 1999 the University of Geneva exhibited one of the vast tomes of Oedipus Aegyptiacus in an exhibition to celebrate the centenary of Jorge Luis Borges as representative of books associated with the Argentinian author.", "-31.40719048277242" ], [ "translation was suddenly available. In the early 19th century, scholars such as Silvestre de Sacy, Johan David Åkerblad, and Thomas Young studied the inscriptions on the stone, and were able to make some headway. Finally, Jean-François Champollion made the complete decipherment by the 1820s. In his Lettre à M. Dacier (1822), he wrote:\nIt is a complex system, writing figurative, symbolic, and phonetic all at once, in the same text, the same phrase, I would almost say in the same word.\nHieroglyphs survive today in two forms: directly, through half a dozen Demotic glyphs added to the Greek alphabet when writing Coptic;", "-31.379765022109495" ], [ "the priest Horapollo wrote Hieroglyphica, an explanation of almost 200 glyphs. His work was believed to be authoritative, yet it was misleading in many ways, and this and other works were a lasting impediment to the understanding of Egyptian writing. Later attempts at decipherment were made by Arab historians in medieval Egypt during the 9th and 10th centuries. Dhul-Nun al-Misri and Ibn Wahshiyya were the first historians to study hieroglyphs, by comparing them to the contemporary Coptic language used by Coptic priests in their time. The study of hieroglyphs continued with fruitless attempts at decipherment by European scholars, notably Johannes", "-31.332354299076542" ], [ "vital textual traditions\". Richard Parkinson points out that the hieroglyphic version strays from archaic formalism and occasionally lapses into language closer to that of the demotic register that the priests more commonly used in everyday life. The fact that the three versions cannot be matched word for word helps to explain why the decipherment has been more difficult than originally expected, especially for those original scholars who were expecting an exact bilingual key to Egyptian hieroglyphs. Rivalries Even before the Salvolini affair, disputes over precedence and plagiarism punctuated the decipherment story. Thomas Young's work is acknowledged in Champollion's 1822 Lettre", "-31.328295681771124" ], [ "in French, Sjesjonk in Dutch, and Scheschonk (Scheschonq) in German.\nBecause exact details regarding the phonetics of Egyptian are not completely known, most transcriptions depend on Coptic for linguistic reconstruction or are theoretical in nature. Egyptologists, therefore, rely on transliteration in scientific publications. Encoding In 1984 a standard, ASCII-based transliteration system was proposed by an international group of Egyptologists at the first Table ronde informatique et égyptologie and published in 1988 (see Buurman, Grimal, et al., 1988). This has come to be known as the Manuel de Codage (or MdC) system, based on the title of the publication, Inventaire des signes", "-31.149102770417812" ], [ "in the dictionary and books of E. A. W. Budge. This reading is found as a phonetic complement using the signs for z and š, leading to the misunderstanding. However, Old Kingdom Egyptian lacked a distinct sign for the ẖ sound and the Coptic descendant shows that the original second consonant was indeed the palatalized fricative ẖ not the (alveolo-)palatal sibilant š, (š being the pool-lake-basin (hieroglyph) in the Egyptian language).\nWhen used as the verb zẖꜣ, the hieroglyph has a variety of related meanings: to write, to draw, to make a design, to do into writing. As the noun zẖꜣ,", "-31.12988768031937" ], [ "the decipherment of Egyptian hieroglyphs\". Kircher thought the Egyptians had believed in an ancient theological tradition that preceded and foreshadowed Christianity, and he hoped to understand this tradition through hieroglyphs. Like his Renaissance predecessors he believed hieroglyphs represented an abstract form of communication rather than a language. To translate such a system of communication in a self-consistent way was impossible. Therefore, in his works on hieroglyphs, such as Obeliscus Pamphilius (1650) and Oedipus Aegyptiacus (1652–1655), Kircher proceeded by guesswork based on his understanding of ancient Egyptian beliefs, derived from the Coptic texts he had read and from various ancient texts", "-31.03935504983383" ], [ "list of distinct hieroglyphic signs. He also pointed out the distinction between hieroglyphic text and the illustrations that accompanied it, whereas earlier scholars had confused the two. Jean-Jacques Barthélémy tried to apply Warburton's ideas to Egyptian texts in European collections and noted that hieratic seemed to contain signs derived from hieroglyphs. He also pointed out the oval rings, later to be known as cartouches, that enclosed small groups of signs in many hieroglyphic texts, and in 1761 he suggested that cartouches contained the names of kings or gods. Joseph de Guignes, one of several scholars of the time who speculated", "-31.023846316704294" ], [ "region with similar scripts written in other Semitic languages, for example, Protosinaitic. It is believed that the original shapes of the script go back to Egyptian hieroglyphs, though the phonetic values are instead inspired by the acrophonic principle. The common ancestor of Hebrew and Phoenician is called Canaanite, and was the first to use a Semitic alphabet distinct from that of Egyptian. One ancient document is the famous Moabite Stone, written in the Moabite dialect; the Siloam Inscription, found near Jerusalem, is an early example of Hebrew. Less ancient samples of Archaic Hebrew include the ostraca found near Lachish, which", "-31.015307141497033" ], [ "vowel with a diacritic symbol, but the Uthmanic orthography, the one in which the Quran is traditionally written and printed, has some differences, which are not always consistent. Also, under influence from orthography of European languages, transliterating of borrowed words into Arabic is usually done using matres lectionis in place of diacritics, even when the latter is more suitable or when words from another Semitic language, such as Hebrew, are transliterated. That phenomenon is augmented by the neglect of diacritics in most printed forms since the beginning of mechanical printing.\nThe name given to the three matres lectionis by traditional Arabic", "-30.971420013713214" ], [ "correctly found the sound value of six hieroglyphic signs, but had not deduced the grammar of the language. Young himself acknowledged that he was somewhat at a disadvantage because Champollion's knowledge of the relevant languages, such as Coptic, was much greater.\nSeveral scholars have suggested that Young's true contribution to Egyptology was his decipherment of the demotic script. He made the first major advances in this area; he also correctly identified demotic as being composed by both ideographic and phonetic signs.\nSubsequently, Young felt that Champollion was unwilling to share the credit for the decipherment. In the ensuing controversy, strongly motivated by", "-30.82877386889595" ], [ "Phonetic Alphabet has a set of 28 symbols to represent the range of basic vowel qualities, and a further set of diacritics to denote variations from the basic vowel.\nThe writing systems used for some languages, such as the Hebrew alphabet and the Arabic alphabet, do not ordinarily mark all the vowels, since they are frequently unnecessary in identifying a word. Technically, these are called abjads rather than alphabets. Although it is possible to construct simple English sentences that can be understood without written vowels (cn y rd ths?), extended passages of English lacking written vowels can be difficult to understand;", "-30.821462217645603" ], [ "and indirectly, as the inspiration for the original alphabet that was ancestral to nearly every other alphabet ever used, including the Latin alphabet. Uniliteral signs The Egyptian hieroglyphic script contained 24 uniliterals (symbols that stood for single consonants, much like letters in English). It would have been possible to write all Egyptian words in the manner of these signs, but the Egyptians never did so and never simplified their complex writing into a true alphabet.\nEach uniliteral glyph once had a unique reading, but several of these fell together as Old Egyptian developed into Middle Egyptian. For example, the folded-cloth glyph", "-30.72698176107133" ], [ "and found out the correct sound value from 14 of the 29 signs, but he wrongly believed the demotic hieroglyphs to be entirely alphabetic. One of his strategies of comparing the demotic to Coptic later became a key in Champollion's eventual decipherment of the hieroglyphic script and the Ancient Egyptian language.\nIn 1810, Åkerblad sent to Sacy for publication his work entitled MÉMOIRE: Sur les noms coptes de quelques villes et villages d'Égypte. Yet, unfortunately, its publication was delayed, and it was not published until 1834. Some scholars saw such delay as motivated by political or personal considerations.\nHis last days were", "-30.701354798220564" ], [ "they depicted. Ammianus Marcellinus in the 4th century AD copied another author's translation of a hieroglyphic text on an obelisk, but the translation was too loose to be useful in understanding the principles of the writing system. The only extensive discussion of hieroglyphs to survive into modern times was the Hieroglyphica, a work probably written in the fourth century AD and attributed to a man named Horapollo. It discusses the meanings of individual hieroglyphs, though not how those signs were used to form phrases or sentences. Some of the meanings it describes are correct, but more are wrong, and all", "-30.680477845238784" ], [ "that of the Roman Empire. Hieroglyphs became increasingly obscure, used mainly by Egyptian priests.\nThese scripts contained a mix of phonetic signs, representing sounds in the spoken language, and ideographic signs, representing ideas. Phonetic signs included uniliteral, biliteral and triliteral signs, standing respectively for one, two or three sounds. Ideographic signs included logograms, representing whole words, and determinatives, which were used to specify the meaning of a word written with phonetic signs.\nMany Greek and Roman authors wrote about these scripts, and many were aware that the Egyptians had two or three writing systems, but none whose works survived into later times", "-30.663656032120343" ], [ "number of ancient alphabets, in which he deciphered a number of Egyptian hieroglyphs, was later read by Athanasius Kircher in the 17th century, and then translated and published in English by Joseph von Hammer-Purgstall in 1806 as Ancient Alphabets and Hieroglyphic Characters Explained; with an Account of the Egyptian Priests, their Classes, Initiation, and Sacrifices in the Arabic Language by Ahmad Bin Abubekr Bin Wahishih, 16 years before Jean-François Champollion's complete decipherment of Egyptian hieroglyphs. This book was known to Silvestre de Sacy, a colleague of Champollion. Dr Okasha El Daly, at University College London's Institute of Archaeology, claims that", "-30.616648261604496" ], [ "Hieroglyph A hieroglyph (Greek for \"sacred writing\") was a character of the ancient Egyptian writing system. Logographic scripts that are pictographic in form in a way reminiscent of ancient Egyptian are also sometimes called \"hieroglyphs\". In Neoplatonism, especially during the Renaissance, a \"hieroglyph\" was an artistic representation of an esoteric idea, which Neoplatonists believed actual Egyptian hieroglyphs to be. The word hieroglyphics refer to a hieroglyphic script. \nThe Egyptians invented the pictorial script. The appearance of these distinctive figures in 3000 BCE marked the beginning of Egyptian civilization. Though based on images, Egyptian script was more than a sophisticated form", "-30.58051590753894" ], [ "were more or less meaningless or impossible, and in transcribing phrases either Coptic syntax was hopelessly violated or the order of hieroglyphic words had to be inverted. This was all very baffling and misleading.\" Champollion was also unaware that signs could spell two or three consonants as well as one. Instead he thought every phonetic sign represented one sound and each sound had a very high number of homophones. Thus the middle sign in the cartouches of Ramesses and Thutmose represented the consonant sequence ms, but Champollion read it as m. Neither had he struck upon the concept now known", "-30.515459600661416" ], [ "is therefore impossible to decipher based on a linguistic analysis. Whorf argued that it was exactly the reluctance to apply linguistic analysis of Maya languages that had held the decipherment back. Whorf sought for cues to phonetic values within the elements of the specific signs, and never realized that the system was logo-syllabic. Although Whorf's approach to understanding the Maya script is now known to have been misguided, his central claim that the script was phonetic and should be deciphered as such was vindicated by Yuri Knorozov's syllabic decipherment of Mayan writing in the 1950s.", "-30.501755937177222" ], [ "seems to have been originally an /s/ and the door-bolt glyph a /θ/ sound, but these both came to be pronounced /s/, as the /θ/ sound was lost. A few uniliterals first appear in Middle Egyptian texts.\nBesides the uniliteral glyphs, there are also the biliteral and triliteral signs, to represent a specific sequence of two or three consonants, consonants and vowels, and a few as vowel combinations only, in the language. Semantic reading Besides a phonetic interpretation, characters can also be read for their meaning: in this instance, logograms are being spoken (or ideograms) and semagrams (the latter are also", "-30.472641002270393" ], [ "and 10th centuries, wrote treatises containing dozens of scripts known in the Islamic world, including hieroglyphs, with tables listing their meanings. The Egyptologist Okasha El-Daly has argued that Ibn Wahshiyya's tables of hieroglyphs correctly identified the meaning of many of the signs. Other scholars have been sceptical of Ibn Wahshiyya's claims to understand the scripts he wrote about, and Tara Stephan, a scholar of the medieval Islamic world, says El-Daly \"vastly overemphasizes Ibn Waḥshiyya's accuracy\". Ibn Wahshiyya did, however, recognise that hieroglyphs could function phonetically as well as symbolically, a point that would not be acknowledged in Europe for centuries.", "-30.464821746437792" ], [ "are compounds of a determinative (called a 'radical'), which may not exist independently, and a phonetic complement indicates the approximate pronunciation of the morpheme. However, the phonetic element is basic, and these might be better thought of as characters used for multiple near homonyms, the identity of which is constrained by the determiner. Due to sound changes over the last several millennia, the phonetic complements are not a reliable guide to pronunciation. In the Maya Script The Maya Script, the logosyllabic orthography of the Maya Civilization, used phonetic complements extensively and phonetic complements could be used synharmonically or disharmonically. The", "-30.444479374051298" ], [ "contain an arrangement of correlated characters from the Small Sensen papyrus. These pages are divided into two halves: on the left-hand side of a given page, Egyptian characters are listed, and on the right side, an apparent translation of these characters is given. This suggests that whoever created the correlation was attempting to perform a direct, literal, and comprehensive translation (as opposed to a merely spiritual or divined translation, as some apologists contend) of the figures of the papyri scraps.\nWhile the \"Egyptian Alphabet and Grammar\" only contains an explicit correlation between Egyptian characters and their purported English translation for Abraham", "-30.432479311013594" ], [ "to be entirely different from one another. This led him to deduce correctly that the demotic script was only partly phonetic, also consisting of ideographic characters derived from hieroglyphs. Young's new insights were prominent in the long article \"Egypt\" that he contributed to the Encyclopædia Britannica in 1819. He could make no further progress, however.\nIn 1814, Young first exchanged correspondence about the stone with Jean-François Champollion, a teacher at Grenoble who had produced a scholarly work on ancient Egypt. Champollion saw copies of the brief hieroglyphic and Greek inscriptions of the Philae obelisk in 1822, on which William John Bankes", "-30.425638003609492" ], [ "It wasn't until Athanasius Kircher in the mid 17th century that scholars began to think the hieroglyphs might also represent sounds. Kircher was familiar with Coptic, and thought that it might be the key to deciphering the hieroglyphs, but was held back by a belief in the mystical nature of the symbols.\nThe breakthrough in decipherment came only with the discovery of the Rosetta Stone by Napoleon's troops in 1799 (during Napoleon's Egyptian invasion). \nAs the stone presented a hieroglyphic and a demotic version of the same text in parallel with a Greek translation, plenty of material for falsifiable studies in", "-30.357524109829683" ], [ "material was translated from each character.\"\nThis correlation found in the \"Egyptian Alphabet and Grammar\" between Abraham 1:11–2:9 and the Small Sensen papyrus has thus led many critics to assert that all of the Book of Abraham text most likely came entirely from Smith's interpretation of the Small Sensen papyrus, rather than a hypothetical lost section (as is often asserted by apologists). This means, however, that Smith likely used a single Egyptian character to derive dozens of words. Jerald Tanner, for instance, wrote \"Joseph Smith apparently translated many English words from each Egyptian character. The characters from fewer than four lines", "-30.33936081895081" ], [ "say, rather than the symbols representing only or mainly whole words or concepts, many symbols in fact represented the sound elements of the language in which they were written, and had alphabetic or syllabic elements as well, which if understood could further their decipherment. By this time, this was largely known and accepted for several of these, such as Egyptian hieroglyphs (the decipherment of which was famously commenced by Jean-François Champollion in 1822 using the tri-lingual Rosetta Stone artefact); however the prevailing view was that Mayan did not have such features. Knorozov's studies in comparative linguistics drew him to the", "-30.20122985757189" ], [ "thus correcting one of the most fundamental faults in Champollion's work. Other scholars, such as Emmanuel de Rougé, refined the understanding of Egyptian enough that by the 1850s it was possible to fully translate ancient Egyptian texts. Combined with the decipherment of cuneiform at approximately the same time, their work opened up the once-inaccessible texts from the earliest stages of human history. Egyptian scripts and their extinction For most of its history ancient Egypt had two major writing systems. Hieroglyphs, a system of pictorial signs used mainly for formal texts, originated sometime around 3200 BC. Hieratic, a cursive system derived", "-30.18741073401179" ], [ "Aramaic, and Hebrew (he, waw, yod; sometimes even aleph; Naveh 62). Naveh (ibid.) notes that the earliest Aramaic and Hebrew documents already used matres lectionis. Some scholars argue that the Greeks must therefore have borrowed their alphabet from the Arameans. However, the practice has older roots, as the Semitic cuneiform alphabet of Ugarit (13th century BC) already had matres lectionis (Naveh 138). Hebrew The earliest method of indicating some vowels in Hebrew writing was to use the consonant letters yod י, waw ו, he ה,and aleph א of the Hebrew alphabet to also write long vowels in some cases. Originally,", "-30.165685607978958" ], [ "even remotely fitted the original texts\". In Oedipus Aegyptiacus, Kircher argued under the impression of the Hieroglyphica that ancient Egyptian was the language spoken by Adam and Eve, that Hermes Trismegistus was Moses, and that hieroglyphs were occult symbols which \"cannot be translated by words, but expressed only by marks, characters and figures.\" This led him to translate simple hieroglyphic texts now known to read as ḏd Wsr (\"Osiris says\") as \"The treachery of Typhon ends at the throne of Isis; the moisture of nature is guarded by the vigilance of Anubis\"\nAccording to the Egyptologist Sir E. A. Wallis Budge:\nMany", "-30.13801952896756" ], [ "on a fundamental misconception, some modern commentators have described Kircher as the pioneer of the serious study of hieroglyphs. The data which he collected were later consulted by Champollion in his successful efforts to decode the script. According to Joseph MacDonnell, it was \"because of Kircher's work that scientists knew what to look for when interpreting the Rosetta stone\". Another scholar of ancient Egypt, Erik Iversen, concluded:\nIt is therefore Kircher's incontestable merit that he was the first to have discovered the phonetic value of an Egyptian hieroglyph. From a humanistic as well as an intellectual point of view Egyptology may", "-30.12483968338347" ], [ "Decipherment of ancient Egyptian scripts The writing systems used in ancient Egypt were deciphered in the early 19th century by the work of several European scholars, especially Jean-François Champollion and Thomas Young. Egyptian writing, which included the hieroglyphic, hieratic and demotic scripts, ceased to be understood in the fourth and fifth centuries AD. Later generations' knowledge of these scripts was based on the work of Greek and Roman authors whose understanding was faulty. It was thus widely believed that Egyptian scripts were exclusively ideographic, representing ideas rather than sounds, and even that hieroglyphs were an esoteric, mystical script rather than", "-30.065617976200883" ], [ "words are delimited by thickening the grid. Another variant starts with a blank grid: the solver must insert both the answers and the shaded squares, and Across and Down clues are either ordered by row and column or not ordered at all.\nModern Hebrew is normally written with only the consonants; vowels are either understood, or entered as diacritical marks. This can lead to ambiguities in the entry of some words, and compilers generally specify that answers are to be entered in ktiv male (with some vowels) or ktiv haser (without vowels). Further, since Hebrew is written from right to left,", "-29.984504148131236" ], [ "linguist, who is credited as the first to recognise that the middle text was written in the Egyptian demotic script, rarely used for stone inscriptions and seldom seen by scholars at that time, rather than Syriac as had originally been thought. It was artist and inventor Nicolas-Jacques Conté who found a way to use the stone itself as a printing block to reproduce the inscription. A slightly different method was adopted by Antoine Galland. The prints that resulted were taken to Paris by General Charles Dugua. Scholars in Europe were now able to see the inscriptions and attempt to read", "-29.8980291964981" ], [ "are around 800 hieroglyphs dating back to the Old Kingdom, Middle Kingdom and New Kingdom Eras. By the Greco-Roman period, there are more than 5,000.\nGeoffrey Sampson stated that Egyptian hieroglyphs \"came into existence a little after Sumerian script, and, probably [were], invented under the influence of the latter\", and that it is \"probable that the general idea of expressing words of a language in writing was brought to Egypt from Sumerian Mesopotamia\". There are many instances of early Egypt-Mesopotamia relations, but given the lack of direct evidence for the transfer of writing, \"no definitive determination has been made as to", "-29.837956430696067" ], [ "some genuine knowledge about the writing system. It offers an explanation of close to 200 signs.\nSome are identified correctly, such as the \"goose\" hieroglyph (zꜣ) representing the word for \"son\". Decipherment Knowledge of the hieroglyphs had been lost completely by the medieval period. \nEarly attempts at decipherment are due to Dhul-Nun al-Misri and Ibn Wahshiyya (9th and 10th century, respectively).\nAll medieval and early modern attempts were hampered by the fundamental assumption that hieroglyphs \nrecorded ideas and not the sounds of the language. \nAs no bilingual texts were available, any such symbolic 'translation' could be proposed without the possibility of verification.", "-29.804476844867168" ], [ "written in an alphabet or syllabary, dictionaries are usually ordered alphabetically. Samuel Johnson defined dictionary as \"a book containing the words of any language in alphabetical order, with explanations of their meaning\" in his dictionary. But Johnson's definition cannot be applied to the Chinese dictionaries, as Chinese is written in characters or logograph, not alphabets. To Johnson, not having an alphabet is not to the Chinese's credit, as in 1778, when James Boswell asked about the Chinese characters, he replied (Boswell 1907:822) \"Sir, they have not an alphabet. They have not been able to form what all other nations have", "-29.7391216934775" ], [ "Arabic alphabet Consonants The basic Arabic alphabet contains 28 letters. Adaptations of the Arabic script for other languages added and removed some letters, as for Persian, Ottoman Turkish, Kurdish, Urdu, Sindhi, Malay, Pashto, Arwi and Malayalam (Arabi Malayalam), all of which have additional letters as shown below. There are no distinct upper and lower case letter forms.\nMany letters look similar but are distinguished from one another by dots (ʾiʿjām) above or below their central part (rasm). These dots are an integral part of a letter, since they distinguish between letters that represent different sounds. For example, the Arabic letters ب", "-29.643974419886945" ], [ "of Tarhunt, in Luwian a W-shaped hieroglyph. List of decipherment claims The decipherment claims listed are categorized into linguistic decipherments, identifying the language of the inscription, and non-linguistic decipherments. A purely logographical reading is not linguistic in the strict sense: while it may reveal the meaning of the inscription, it will not allow for the identification of the underlying language. Modern use Side A of the Phaistos disc is used as the logo of FORTH, one of the largest research centers in Greece.", "-29.60686536472349" ], [ "of demotic, publishing a grammar of it in 1855.\nIn 1866 Lepsius discovered the Canopus Decree, a parallel text like the Rosetta Stone whose inscriptions were all largely intact. The hieroglyphs could now be compared directly with their Greek translation, and the results proved the validity of Champollion's approach beyond reasonable doubt. Samuel Birch, the foremost figure in British Egyptology during the mid-nineteenth century, published the first extensive dictionary of Egyptian in 1867, and in the same year Brugsch published the first volume of his dictionary of both hieroglyphic and demotic. Brugsch's dictionary established the modern understanding of the sounds of", "-29.58166115187487" ], [ "His claims were initially met with some scepticism and with accusations that he had taken ideas from Young without giving credit, but they gradually gained acceptance. Champollion went on to roughly identify the meanings of most phonetic hieroglyphs and to establish much of the grammar and vocabulary of ancient Egyptian. Young, meanwhile, largely deciphered demotic using the Rosetta Stone in combination with other Greek and demotic parallel texts.\nDecipherment efforts languished after Young's death in 1829 and Champollion's in 1831, but in 1837 Karl Richard Lepsius pointed out that many hieroglyphs represented combinations of two or three sounds rather than one,", "-29.55410582964396" ], [ "the Egyptian language, which draws upon the phonology of Semitic languages as Hincks suggested. Egyptologists have continued to refine their understanding of the language up to the present, but by this time it was on firm ground, decades after the Rosetta Stone's discovery. Together with the decipherment of cuneiform in the same century, the decipherment of ancient Egyptian had opened the way for the study of the earliest stages of human history.", "-29.54651872627437" ], [ "separate component signs.\nNot all epigraphists are equally reliable, and before a scholar publishes an important treatment of a text, the scholar will often arrange to collate the published transcription against the actual tablet, to see if any signs, especially broken or damaged signs, should be represented differently. Historiography The key to reading logosyllabic cuneiform came from the Behistun inscription, a trilingual cuneiform inscription written in Old Persian, Elamite and Akkadian. (In a similar manner, the key to understanding Egyptian hieroglyphs was the bilingual Rosetta stone and Jean-François Champollion's transcription in 1822.)\nIn 1838 Henry Rawlinson, building on the 1802 work of", "-29.490567743065185" ], [ "three parallel scripts – hieroglyphic, demotic, and Greek. Late survival Hieroglyphs continued to be used under Persian rule (intermittent in the 6th and 5th centuries BC), and after Alexander the Great's conquest of Egypt, during the ensuing Ptolemaic and Roman periods. It appears that the misleading quality of comments from Greek and Roman writers about hieroglyphs came about, at least in part, as a response to the changed political situation. Some believed that hieroglyphs may have functioned as a way to distinguish 'true Egyptians' from some of the foreign conquerors. Another reason may be the refusal to tackle a foreign", "-29.482634255451558" ], [ "been published that are even more rigorous in transliterating the tetragrammaton using Semitic forms to translate it in the Old Testament and also using the same Semitic forms to translate the Greek word Theos (God) in the New Testament—usually Yahweh, Elohim or some other variation.\nOther translations are distinguished by smaller but distinctive doctrinal differences. For example, the Purified Translation of the Bible, by translation and explanatory footnotes, promoting the position that Christians should not drink alcohol, that New Testament references to \"wine\" are translated as \"grape juice\".", "-29.454145847150357" ], [ "hieroglyphs, that they were syllables rather than ideograms. He contributed to the methodology that ultimately led to the deciphering of the hieroglyphs. He was part of the trio, Linda Schele and Peter Mathews being the others, that one afternoon in 1973, worked out a 200-year timeline of the Palenque royal family, presenting it that evening at the First Palenque Round Table.\nDuring this period, Lounsbury studied the Venus almanac in the Dresden codex and concluded that the Thompson correlation fits the evidence in the codex better than the standard GMT correlation. A correlation constant is the number of days between the", "-29.45300542699988" ], [ "by Johan David Åkerblad in 1802 (14 turned out to be incorrect). Åkerblad was correct in stressing the importance of the demotic text in trying to read the inscriptions, but he wrongly believed that demotic was entirely alphabetic.\nBy 1814 Young had completely translated the \"enchorial\" text of the Rosetta Stone (using a list with 86 demotic words), and then studied the hieroglyphic alphabet but initially failed to recognise that the demotic and hieroglyphic texts were paraphrases and not simple translations.\nThere was considerable rivalry between Young and Jean-François Champollion while both were working on hieroglyphic decipherment. At first they briefly cooperated", "-29.442961753775307" ], [ "not realised that the cuneiform and hieroglyphic texts recorded the same language.\nIn the 1970s, as a result of a fundamental revision of the readings of a large number of hieroglyphs by John David Hawkins, Anna Morpurgo Davies, and Günter Neumann, it became clear that both cuneiform and hieroglyphic texts recorded the same Luwian language. This revision resulted from a discovery outside the area of Luwian settlement, namely the annotations on Urartian pots, written in the Urartian language using the hieroglyphic Luwian script. The sign , which had hitherto been read as ī was shown to be being used to indicate", "-29.44038933626871" ], [ "of lexical substitution in interpreting Classical Hebrew. This concept, in which the meaning of a word in the Bible was substituted by a closely associated word, proved to be controversial. Twelfth-century biblical commentator Abraham ibn Ezra strongly opposed it and called it \"madness\" close to heresy. Kitab al-Usul Kitab al-Usul, the dictionary, was arranged into 22 chapters—one for each letter of the Hebrew alphabet. The dictionary included more than 2,000 roots, nearly all of them triliteral. Less than five percent of the roots have more than three letters, and they were added as appendix in each chapter. Definitions for the", "-29.43851138089667" ], [ "Biblical poetry Unusual forms The employment of unusual forms of language cannot be considered as a sign of ancient Hebrew poetry. In the sentences of Noah the form lamo occurs. But this form, which represents partly lahem and partly lo, has many counterparts in Hebrew grammar, as, for example, kemo instead of ke-; or -emo = \"them\"; or -emo = \"their\"; or clemo = \"to them\"—forms found in passages for which no claim to poetical expressions is made. Then there are found ḥayeto = \"beast\", osri = \"tying\", and yeshu'atah = \"salvation\"—three forms that probably retain remnants of the old", "-29.41455492154637" ], [ "not indicated in the original text, but various sources attest them at various stages of development. Greek and Latin transcriptions of words from the Biblical text provide early evidence of the nature of Biblical Hebrew vowels. In particular, there is evidence from the rendering of proper nouns in the Koine Greek Septuagint (3rd-2nd centuries BCE), and the Greek alphabet transcription of the Hebrew Biblical text contained in the Secunda (3rd century CE, likely a copy of a preexisting text from before 100 BCE). In the 7th and 8th centuries CE various systems of vocalic notation were developed to indicate vowels in the Biblical text.", "-29.40529105369933" ], [ "an RTL document, it will become RTL). Egyptian hieroglyphs Egyptian hieroglyphs can be written bidirectionally, where the signs had a distinct \"head\" that faced the beginning of a line and \"tail\" that faced the end. Chinese characters and other CJK scripts Chinese characters can be written in either direction as well as vertically (top to bottom then right to left), especially in signs (such as plaques), but the orientation of the individual characters is never changed. This can often be seen on tour buses in China, where the company name customarily runs from the front of the vehicle to its", "-29.40262134313525" ], [ "Phaistos Disc decipherment claims Many people have claimed to have deciphered the Phaistos Disc.\nThe claims may be categorized into linguistic decipherments, identifying the language of the inscription, and non-linguistic decipherments. A purely ideographical reading is not linguistic in the strict sense: while it may reveal the meaning of the inscription, it would not allow us to identify the underlying language.\nA large part of the claims are clearly pseudoscientific, if not bordering on the esoteric. Linguists are doubtful whether the inscription is sufficiently long to be unambiguously interpreted. It is possible that one of these decipherments is correct, and that, without", "-29.396282638568664" ], [ "from which the other two were originally translated, is a question that has remained controversial. Letronne attempted to show in 1841 that the Greek version, the product of the Egyptian government under the Macedonian Ptolemies, was the original. Among recent authors, John Ray has stated that \"the hieroglyphs were the most important of the scripts on the stone: they were there for the gods to read, and the more learned of their priesthood\". Philippe Derchain and Heinz Josef Thissen have argued that all three versions were composed simultaneously, while Stephen Quirke sees in the decree \"an intricate coalescence of three", "-29.36994127795333" ], [ "the origin of hieroglyphics in ancient Egypt\". Instead, it is pointed out and held that \"the evidence for such direct influence remains flimsy” and that “a very credible argument can also be made for the independent development of writing in Egypt...\" \nSince the 1990s, the discoveries of glyphs at Abydos, dated to between 3400 and 3200 BCE, may challenge the classical notion according to which the Mesopotamian symbol system predates the Egyptian one. However, Egyptian writing does make a sudden apparition at that time, while on the contrary Mesopotamia has an evolutionary history of sign usage in tokens dating back", "-29.358769739570562" ], [ "two varieties of the letter. The Aramaic script began developing special final forms for certain letters in the 5th century BCE, though this was not always a consistent rule (as reflected in the Qumran practice). Matres lectionis The original Hebrew alphabet consisted only of consonants, but gradually the letters א ,ה ,ו ,י, also became used to indicate vowels, known as matres lectionis (Latin: \"mothers of reading\") when used in this function. It is thought that this was a product of phonetic development: for instance, *bayt 'house' shifted to בֵּית in construct state but retained its spelling. While no examples of", "-29.343713388498145" ], [ "the contemporary Semitic abjads had begun to overload a few of the consonant symbols with a secondary function as vowel markers, called matres lectionis. This practice was at first rare and limited in scope but became increasingly common and more developed in later times. Addition of vowels In the 9th century BC the Greeks adapted the Phoenician script for use in their own language. The phonetic structure of the Greek language created too many ambiguities when vowels went unrepresented, so the script was modified. They did not need letters for the guttural sounds represented by aleph, he, heth or ayin,", "-29.29048154121847" ], [ "to deduce how a word is pronounced only from its spelling, and the Tetragrammaton is a particular example: two of its letters can serve as vowels, and two are vocalic place-holders, which are not pronounced. \nThe original consonantal text of the Hebrew Bible was, several centuries later, provided with vowel marks by the Masoretes to assist reading. In places that the consonants of the text to be read (the qere) differed from the consonants of the written text (the ketiv), they wrote the qere in the margin as a note showing what was to be read. In such a case", "-29.272755962389056" ], [ "are no dependent vowel signs, only independent ones that can appear at the beginning of a word, as with other Indic scripts. There is no virama, and consonant clusters are written with independent consonants. There is one section mark punctuation that has been identified. The independent vowels, of which there are only four, represent both short and long forms of the independent vowels in addition to phonological variations, and 'i' sometimes represents 'ya'. Ultimately, many consonants represent multiple sounds, and the digits largely represent those found in Gurmukhi, with the exception of 6 and 7, which resemble Devanagari more closely.", "-29.25888290727744" ], [ "can also be seen as rungs of a divine hierarchy between Earth and Godhead—and the three forms of word analysis. These consist of gematria where each of the twenty-two letters of the Hebrew alphabet have their own number and are added together in words to make metaphorical sympathy; aiq baqir, also called \"Qabalah of the Nine Chambers\", which converts any letter in a word to its radical equivalent, such as \"A\" (=1) to \"I\" (=10) or \"Q\" (=100), hence \"AIQ\" for the radical no. 1 column; and notariqon, which uses Hebrew words as initials for a potential larger sentence, for", "-29.23990628012689" ], [ "hieroglyphic texts tended to be wordy and portentous; for example, he translated a frequently occurring phrase in Egyptian, dd Wsr, \"Osiris says,\" as \"The treachery of Typhon ends at the throne of Isis, the moisture of nature is guarded by the vigilance of Anubis.\"\nKircher was respected in the seventeenth century for his study of Egyptian hieroglyphs; his contemporary Sir Thomas Browne (1605–1682) who owned several books by Kircher, including Oedipus Aegyptiacus, paid tribute to him as an Egyptologist and his study of hieroglyphs:\nBut no man is likely to profound the ocean of that doctrine beyond that eminent example of industrious", "-29.22666521987412" ], [ "Hebrew have character forms; a word's phonetic pronunciation depends on unwritten or indistinct vowel markings such that many meanings can be rendered ambiguous or corrupted via oral transmission over time. Dotless and dotted i A number of alphabets use dotted and dotless I, both upper and lower case.\nIn the modern Turkish alphabet, the absence or presence of a tittle distinguishes two different letters representing two different phonemes: the letter \"I\" / \"ı\", with the absence of a tittle also on the lower case letter, represents the close back unrounded vowel [ɯ], while \"İ\" / \"i\", with the inclusion of a", "-29.224971260911843" ], [ "idea of expressing words of a language in writing was brought to Egypt from Sumerian Mesopotamia\". The two writing systems are in fact quite similar in their initial stages, relying heavily on pictographic forms and then evolving a parallel system for the expression of phonetic sounds.\nStandard reconstructions of the development of writing generally place the development of the Sumerian proto-cuneiform script before the development of Egyptian hierogplyphs, with the suggestion the former influenced the latter.\nThere is however a lack of direct evidence, and \"no definitive determination has been made as to the origin of hieroglyphics in ancient Egypt\". Instead, it", "-29.19491456868127" ], [ "was devised by someone in Byblos who had seen Egyptian hieroglyphs and used them freely as an example to compose a new syllabary that was better adapted to the native language of Byblos—just as in neighbouring Ugarit a few centuries later a cuneiform alphabet was devised that was easier to use than the complicated Akkadian cuneiform.\nSeveral signs resemble letters of the later Phoenician alphabet: . This suggests that the latter was derived in some way from the syllabary. Thus the inscriptions are potentially an important link between the Egyptian hieroglyphic script and the later Semitic abjads derived from Proto-Sinaitic. Brian", "-29.182869978332747" ], [ "stated that Gibbs' decipherment \"doesn’t result in Latin that makes sense.\" Greg Kondrak Professor Greg Kondrak, a natural language processing expert at the University of Alberta, together with his graduate student Bradley Hauer, used computational linguistics in an attempt to decode the manuscript. Their findings were presented at the Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics in 2017, in the form of an article suggesting that the language of the manuscript is most likely Hebrew, but encoded using alphagrams, i.e. alphabetically ordered anagrams. However, the team admitted that experts in medieval manuscripts who reviewed the work were not convinced.", "-29.173555615881924" ], [ "determine word boundaries and find grammatical patterns, using linguistics techniques. Daniels' judgement is that Sobelman's \"result should be taken into account in all future work on these texts.\" Martin (1962) Malachi Martin read the body of characters as an alphabet and categorized the various signs into 27 \"classes\". After publishing \"part one\" of his decipherment, in two volumes, he never published a sequel. Mendenhall (1985) In 1985 a new translation attempt was published by George E. Mendenhall from the University of Michigan. Many signs that reappear in the later Phoenician alphabet were assumed by Mendenhall to have a similar phonetic", "-29.17305571230827" ], [ "a metaphor for knowing the basics about anything. Ancient Northeast African and Middle Eastern scripts The history of the alphabet started in ancient Egypt. Egyptian writing had a set of some 24 hieroglyphs that are called uniliterals, to represent syllables that begin with a single consonant of their language, plus a vowel (or no vowel) to be supplied by the native speaker. These glyphs were used as pronunciation guides for logograms, to write grammatical inflections, and, later, to transcribe loan words and foreign names.\nIn the Middle Bronze Age, an apparently \"alphabetic\" system known as the Proto-Sinaitic script appears in Egyptian", "-29.151198070059763" ], [ "drawn from Greek, but borrowings are not always fully adapted to the Coptic phonological system and may have semantic differences as well. There are instances of Coptic texts having passages that are almost entirely composed from Greek lexical roots. However, that is likely due to the fact that the majority of Coptic religious texts are direct translations of Greek works.\nWhat invariably attracts the attention of the reader of a Coptic text, especially if it is written in the Sa'idic dialect, is the very liberal use which is made of Greek loan words, of which so few, indeed, are to be", "-29.148417202763085" ], [ "been understood since shortly before the fall of the Roman Empire. The usage of the hieroglyphic script had become increasingly specialised even in the later Pharaonic period; by the 4th century AD, few Egyptians were capable of reading them. Monumental use of hieroglyphs ceased after the closing of all non-Christian temples in 391 by Roman Emperor Theodosius I; the last known inscription is dated to 24 August 394, found at Philae and known as the Graffito of Esmet-Akhom.\nHieroglyphs retained their pictorial appearance, and classical authors emphasised this aspect, in sharp contrast to the Greek and Roman alphabets. In the 5th century,", "-29.143009238585364" ], [ "nor in Ethiopic. Old Persian cuneiform script is somewhat similar, with more than one inherent vowel, but is not an abugida because the non-inherent vowels are written with full letters, and are often redundantly written after an inherent vowel other than /a/. Millet and Rowan Millet (1970) proposed that Meroitic e was in fact an epenthetic vowel used to break up Egyptian consonant clusters that could not be pronounced in the Meroitic language, or appeared after final Egyptian consonants such as m and k which could not occur finally in Meroitic. Rowan (2006) takes this further and proposes that", "-29.13660101671121" ], [ "reformed Arabic alphabet with better identification of vowels came into use in Turkestan; however, it still could not accommodate the variety of vowels in the Turkic languages.\nFitrat \"obviously\" (William Fierman) did not interpret the Arabic alphabet as holy or as an important part of Islam: Already in 1921, he argued in favour of abolishing all forms of the Arabic letters apart from the initial form during a congress in Tashkent. This would have made possible easier teaching, learning and printing of texts. Furthermore, he wanted to abolish all letters that in Uzbek did not represent their own sound (for example", "-29.133096744306386" ], [ "that China had some historical connection to ancient Egypt, believed that Chinese writing was an offshoot of hieroglyphs. In 1785 he repeated Barthélémy's suggestion about cartouches, comparing it with a Chinese practice that set proper names apart from the surrounding text.\nGeorg Zoëga, the most knowledgeable scholar of Coptic in the late 18th century, made several insights about hieroglyphs in De origine et usu obeliscorum (1797), a compendium of knowledge about ancient Egypt. He catalogued hieroglyphic signs and concluded that there were too few distinct signs for each one to represent a single word, so in order to produce a full", "-29.12793076253729" ], [ "with a Chinese student about Chinese script, Silvestre de Sacy considered a suggestion made by Georg Zoëga in 1797 that the foreign names in Egyptian hieroglyphic inscriptions might be written phonetically; he also recalled that as early as 1761, Jean-Jacques Barthélemy had suggested that the characters enclosed in cartouches in hieroglyphic inscriptions were proper names. Thus, when Thomas Young, foreign secretary of the Royal Society of London, wrote to him about the stone in 1814, Silvestre de Sacy suggested in reply that in attempting to read the hieroglyphic text, Young might look for cartouches that ought to contain Greek names", "-29.086550442912994" ], [ "alphabet, itself a descendant of the Phoenician script.\nThe Aramaic alphabet, used to write Aramaic, is another descendant of Phoenician. Aramaic, being the lingua franca of the Middle East, was widely adopted. It later split off (due to political divisions) into a number of related alphabets, including Hebrew, Syriac, and Nabataean, the latter of which, in its cursive form, became an ancestor of the Arabic alphabet currently used in Arabic-speaking countries from North Africa through the Levant to Iraq and the Persian Gulf region, as well as in Iran, Afghanistan, Pakistan and other countries.\nThe Sogdian alphabet, a descendant of Phoenician via", "-29.08022424986666" ], [ "is possible that the restricted set of letters was supposed to invoke an archaic variant of the Arabic alphabet modeled on the Aramaic alphabet.\nCertain co-occurrence restrictions are observable in these letters; for instance, ʾAlif is invariably followed by Lām. The substantial majority of the combinations begin either ʾAlif Lām or Ḥāʾ Mīm.\nIn all but 3 of the 29 cases, these letters are almost immediately followed by mention of the Qur'anic revelation itself (the exceptions are surat al-‘Ankabūt, ar-Rūm and al-Qalam); and some argue that even these three cases should be included, since mention of the revelation is made", "-29.0708318833058" ], [ "resembles an i, and heth (ח), which resembles the letter n. Less accurate approximants for some other alphanumerics can also be found, but these are usually only accurate enough to use for the purposes of foreign branding and not for substitution. Furthermore, the Hebrew alphabet is written from right to left and trying to mix it with left-to-right glyphs may cause problems. Chinese The Chinese language can be problematic for homographs as many characters exist as both traditional (regular script) and simplified Chinese characters. In the .org domain, registering one variant renders the other unavailable to anyone; in .biz a", "-29.062269820686197" ], [ "of the letter.\nEarly manuscripts of the Qur’ān did not use diacritics either for vowels or to distinguish the different values of the rasm. Vowel pointing was introduced first, as a red dot placed above, below, or beside the rasm, and later consonant pointing was introduced, as thin, short black single or multiple dashes placed above or below the rasm (image). These i‘jām became black dots about the same time as the ḥarakāt became small black letters or strokes.\nTypically, Egyptians do not use dots under final yā’ ⟨ي⟩, which looks exactly like alif maqṣūrah ⟨ى⟩ in handwriting and in print. This", "-29.0566246615781" ], [ "third century CE no Greek manuscript has Κύριος in place of the tetragram or ΙΑΩ. \"An original tetragram, either in Semitic guise or in Greek transliteration\", \"had been maintained as far back as Origen\", who wrote that the best copies used the paleo-Hebrew letters, not the square:\nIn the more accurate exemplars [of the LXX] the (divine) name is written in Hebrew characters; not, however, in the current script, but in the most ancient.\nOther old fragments cannot be used in this discussion because, in addition to their brevity and fragmentary condition, they include no Hebrew Bible verse containing the Tetragrammaton (i.e.", "-29.055448146158597" ], [ "phonetic progression of letter production that began with the 'deepest' letter, the glottal pharyngeal letter \"ع\" (عين), i.e. ʿayn meaning \"source\". Instead he adopted the abjad, or Arabic alphabetic ordering system that is the universal standard of dictionary format today.", "-29.04774616389477" ], [ "original-language text, or it may be compared and used along with other witnesses. Thus, for example, scholars use the reconstructed Vorlage of the Greek Septuagint translation of the Hebrew Bible at parts to correct the Hebrew Masoretic version when trying to determine oldest version of the Hebrew Bible that they can infer. Or, as another example, the Coptic fragments of Plato's Republic included among the Nag Hammadi library are used to help attest to the original Greek text which Plato himself wrote. For the bulk of the Gospel of Thomas, the Vorlage exists only as a retroversion", "-29.04553371262591" ], [ "also some signs that are unique to hieratic, though Egyptologists have invented equivalent hieroglyphic forms for hieroglyphic transcriptions and typesetting. Several hieratic characters have diacritical additions so that similar signs could easily be distinguished.\nHieratic is often present in any given period in two forms, a highly ligatured, cursive script used for administrative documents, and a broad uncial bookhand used for literary, scientific, and religious texts. These two forms can often be significantly different from one another. Letters, in particular, used very cursive forms for quick writing, often with large numbers of abbreviations for formulaic phrases, similar to shorthand.\nA highly cursive", "-29.02045355977316" ], [ "with the latter connotation amounting to an acknowledgement that the so-called translation is but one possible interpretation and is not claimed to be the full equivalent of the original). For instance, Pickthall called his translation The Meaning of the Glorious Koran rather than simply The Koran.\nThe task of translation of the Qur'an is not an easy one; some native Arab speakers will confirm that some Qur'anic passages are difficult to understand even in the original Arabic script. A part of this is the innate difficulty of any translation; in Arabic, as in other languages, a single word can have", "-29.00719158499851" ], [ "most influential in the Arabic movie industry and is therefore the most widespread. As a result, most Arabic countries have grown up listening to the dialect and therefore have no trouble understanding it, even though they actually speak their own.\nOriginally the Egyptians wrote in hieroglyphics. At first the meaning of the hieroglyphics was unknown; until one day in the year 1799 Napoleón Bonaparte's soldiers dug up the Rosetta stone. The Rosetta Stone was found broken and incomplete. It features 14 lines of hieroglyphic script, 32 lines in Demotic and 53 lines of Ancient Greek. Ancient Egypt The perspective (rather than", "-29.005928824219154" ], [ "Nonconcatenative morphology Transfixation Another form of nonconcatenative morphology is known as transfixation, in which vowel and consonant morphemes are interdigitated. For example, depending on the vowels, the Arabic consonantal root k-t-b can have different but semantically related meanings. Thus, [kataba] 'he wrote' and [kitaːb] 'book' both come from the root k-t-b. Words from k-t-b are formed by filling in the vowels, e.g. kitāb \"book\", kutub \"books\", kātib \"writer\", kuttāb \"writers\", kataba \"he wrote\", yaktubu \"he writes\", etc. In the analysis provided by McCarthy's account of nonconcatenative morphology, the consonantal root is assigned to one tier, and the vowel pattern to", "-29.000185412252904" ], [ "in Greek to write out vowel sounds: Phoenician being a Semitic language, words were based on consonantal roots that permitted extensive removal of vowels without loss of meaning, a feature absent in the Indo-European Greek. However, Akkadian cuneiform, which wrote a related Semitic language, did indicate vowels, which suggests the Phoenicians simply accepted the model of the Egyptians, who never wrote vowels. In any case, the Greeks repurposed the Phoenician letters of consonant sounds not present in Greek; each such letter had its name shorn of its leading consonant, and the letter took the value of the now-leading vowel. For", "-28.987239455724193" ], [ "hear a word pronounced but do not know how to write it in characters, they can very quickly look it up in pinyin order and find the correct characters and meanings. However, to look up an unknown character's pronunciation and meaning, then one needs to use a radical-indexed dictionary. Bauer says \"I have generally succeeded in finding almost all the words and expressions I have tried to look up; this I regard as quite remarkable since I cannot say the same about other dictionaries I have been consulting over my more than 25 years of working on Chinese.\" (1997: 308).", "-28.983369980705902" ], [ "he or she should not waste valuable time looking for a word in a set of letters that is ruled out by an anamonic.\nA successful anamonic will typically have some memorable semantic relationship to the stem. It will usually avoid unnecessary or easily confused words, which might lead to a misconception of just which letters combine with the stem.\nWhen no vowel combines with the stem, an anamonic phrase will typically make use of multiple vowels that are meant to be ignored. A skilled Scrabble player will typically be able to verify that at least one of these vowels does not", "-28.980458270263625" ], [ "not dealing with a language directly but are reconstructing it from a very imperfect mnemonic writing system which had not been basically aimed at the rendering of morphophonemics\". Vowels The vowels that are clearly distinguished by the cuneiform script are /a/, /e/, /i/, and /u/. Various researchers have posited the existence of more vowel phonemes such as /o/ and even /ɛ/ and /ɔ/, which would have been concealed by the transmission through Akkadian, as that language does not distinguish them. That would explain the seeming existence of numerous homophones in transliterated Sumerian, as well as some details of the phenomena", "-28.976887373355567" ] ]

[ "First off, teachers don't work 9/12ths of the year. They don't just show up on the first day that students arrive and they don't leave when students do. They don't stop working at 3 when school ends for students, but keep going into the night and often weekends doing grading, prep, parent calls, conferences, meetings, etc. I'm not a teacher myself because I couldn't handle it. Honestly. I know way too many teachers and know that I couldn't handle the job they do. Second, many places require more than a Bachelor's degree. Where I live, a postgraduate degree is required. Teachers are also typically required to attend regular professional development courses throughout their careers. These are extra university courses that they have to pay for regularly. Third, it's not a lot in comparison to other jobs that have less responsibility and requirements. A median salary of $53k is in the same ballpark as restaurant managers ($53k), construction crane operators ($53k), postal carriers ($51k), bricklayers ($51k)... none of which require investing in education and none of which are responsible for our children's futures. **EDIT** So I don't have to repeat myself a million times in the comments: No, I'm *not* saying that people in blue collar jobs don't have skills or don't deserve to earn money. Don't put words in my mouth. I've worked blue collar jobs and fully appreciate how skilled tradesmen can be and how necessary those jobs are. I *am* saying that it costs more in time and money to get the degrees necessary to become a teacher while most trades are learned either through cheaper, shorter-term courses and/or on-the-job training. I'm sure you can point out trades that cost more to learn, but I'd also bet most of those pay more. If not, then they too are probably underpaid. **EDIT 2** [Source for the numbers was the Bureau of Labor Statistics.]( URL_0 )", "My wife and I are both teachers. Not sure what state you are in, but in my state the only way you would be making $50,000 or above would be if you had advanced degrees (master's or master's+30) AND had at least 20 years experience. While we do have the summers off, I spend most of the summer taking classes or planning for next year. There is also a lot of planning that takes place after school hours. Most of my planning, material creation, and grading papers has to take place at home because my \"planning periods\" are taken up by constant meetings between my grade level, content area, administration, and parents.", "If I'm being really honest with myself, I have been a part of private and public school teaching curriculums, and now hold a doctorate degree. So I've seen through as much education as anyone. The quality of public school teacher I've seen in New York City? I would qualify about 20% as competent to outstanding, 50% as below minimum acceptable standard, and 30% as downright dangerous, dysfunctional, grossly incompetent, unable to control their class, etc. Forgive me for being callous, but since I am not a public school teacher, I don't particularly care if their work is well-rewarded monetarily. What I, and I think most of society should care about, is whether the occupation of teacher is attracting enough competent, talented people into the profession, and it isn't. That's why the salary should increase. I'd argue that since information is the most important resource on earth, that teachers should be paid double or more what they currently are, to ensure that only the best succeed at becoming teachers.", "My girlfriend is a teacher and she makes $36,000 a year. She also in no way, shape or form works only 9/12ths of the year. Not to mention she has to be there from around 7 until around 4 every day. Then there's all of the take home stuff teachers are required to do unpaid, like lesson planning, grading and sometimes talking to parents. On top of this there is a pay freeze in effect. What that means is she hasn't had a raise in 5 years. So she makes less and less money every year (inflation). AND finally, these days, teaching is an unbelievably thankless job. Kids are terrible, and parents don't want to believe that it could possibly be their or their child's fault, and it becomes the teacher's fault. Then there are the constant criticisms about teachers being underpaid.", "Beginning teachers do make 30,000 - even less in rural areas. When I started in 2002 I made 26,000. I didn't break 30,000 for 5 years. I've been at it 13 years and still make less than 50,000, even though I am now in an urban district. Among jobs that require 4 year degrees, teaching pays in the bottom 4%. Also, the average teacher puts in more time in the 10 months of the school year than an average full time, year round employee does.", "Also, a lot of places teachers only make 30-40k, and are responsible for the education of the next generation and that's horrifying. Also, 50k is not a great salary. And places where it is a great salary, are not the places where teachers are making 50k. EDIT: also, for those of you who aren't teachers/don't have extensive experience working with kids - it's HARD. I was a high school teacher, and jeez, I never stopped working. I got to school at 8 AM, left at 8PM, after lesson plans, grading, extra-curricular activities, tutoring, etc.", "Teachers also work really long hours factoring in how much work is done before and after school. Their pay isn't as high when that is accounted for.", "Nobody is mentioning this, but where I live taxpayers voted to give teachers a cost of living adjustment and my state took the money and spent it on roads instead. A bunch of other things were voted on as well and the money didn't end up going towards education so the teachers walked out. The cost of living (especially housing in my area) has gone up something like 150% in 10 years, not to mention inflation. Also, the teachers can't afford to live anywhere near where they work, so they have to live somewhere cheap and commute. That adds another several hours to their work day, not to mention if they teach high school they have to be there around 6am. Most of my teachers would have to wake up at 4 to go to work. They often stay until 4 or 5 pm and then go home. They're long days. I think part of the problem with the education system is that the curriculum is shit, but a good teacher can make the best out of it, and then kids actually learn. We complain about the mediocre state of education, yet many aren't willing to support wages that will attract good people to become teachers. Also, most starting salaries, even for high school, are like $38,000 and you have to have a masters in my state. That's shit pay for a graduate degree.", "While it may seem that teachers have 3 months off per year, it really doesn't work out to that. There is a hella amount of prep work before the school year as well as after hours work during the year teachers do not get credit for. I also think he underpaid part comes from the fact that industries pay way more for good talent, and our schools cannot compete for the best instructors. As a result, our educational system dies not turn out the caliber students it potentially could.", "Link the source on this number please. It seems much to high. With starting salaries closer to 30 it's hard to believe that's the median.", "My dad is 60+ years old. Has been an educator for 35+ years. Has a bachelors, two masters, a fifth year, and is ABD. He stays up until midnight ever night grading and writing exams for his kids, he's up at 4:30 every day to be out the door by five to get to school early and prepare for his kids. He writes 50 or so personalized college recommendations for his students every summer; the summer he is supposed to have off. He runs summer programs for his students, and clubs after school throughout the year. I cannot even begin to fathom the amount of lives he has changed, and time he has invested in doing so. He will forever be my hero, and despite all the work and sacrifice he has made over the years, he will probably not be able to retire for another 10 years (taught overseas, and private schools for many years). The common misconception is that their work stops the second they leave the classroom, but I assure you that is not the case by any means. So far all he has done and will do, and the importance of his job, my old man is way underpaid.", "Why do teachers always have to justify their salaries but politicians never do? Plus they make more, have more time off, and need no education whatsoever", "As a lazy teacher trying to finish the last six days of my fifth year teaching I can say this is the hardest job I've ever had. By a lot. And I don't make anywhere near $50k. I taught 8th grade math my first year and made about $36. This was in Georgia. I teach 4th grade in Washington state and make around $40. I see some of my coworkers and what they do everyday, and I believe they are underpaid even with our summers off and holidays and whatever else. Unless your heart is 100% completely in it, teaching is a shit job. Don't do it. Seriously. If you don't believe me and go into education, be prepared. Only teachers know what it is truly like. People think because they were in school at some point that they have an idea and thus a valid opinion on what it must be like. It can't be that hard. The school day is only from 8 to 3. Everybody's job sucks.... Fuck you. Don't become a teacher. It's not worth it. Not even if you're planning on being a shitty, lazy one like I've become. Don't do it.", "This is going to sound terrible, but of my high school graduating class the ones who ended up being teachers weren't exactly the brightest. I think they're underpaid because if the pay was higher they might have attracted more talented people.", "Teachers' jobs don't finish in the classroom. GOOD teachers go beyond classroom duties for their kids. If you think a teacher is done when the bell rings at 2:10/3:30 then you're dead wrong. Take into account how much curriculum planning they do after school, in the evenings and on weekends, marking, reporting, extra curriculars, coaching, tutorials etc. and it's a job that can burn you out extremely quickly. Not to mention the classroom management aspect, dealing with behavior students AND their parents as well as taking into account special needs and individualized lesson plans for modified students. Those teachers that are most effective are the ones that are most worked because they understand teaching is a multidimensional job. You take a cookie cutter approach into a classroom and you're gonna crash and burn and the kids aren't going to benefit at all. **TL:DR:** There is way more going on behind the scenes of a teaching job. It's not as easy as walking into a class and yapping for an hour or reading a book.", "I'm a high school American History teacher in the great state of North Carolina and I came here to say FUCK YOU and your median goddamn google salary results.", "You know the really hard presentation you have to make every quarter? The one you prepare for all month, the one that exhausts you, the one you celebrate when it's finally over? Okay, do that presentation every day for eight hours. To ungrateful little shits. Who you also have to babysit. There's no overtime. You have homework every night. And everyone laughs at you and says \"If you can't do teach hurr hurr hurr.\" And also you have to manage insane parents who don't believe their little precious baby is in actuality capable of any wrongdoing whatsoever, even though they're children and you're a fucking adult. Also, you're beholden to every no-nothing school board member and politician who interferes to get a vote, nevermind the fact that none of them have any experience in your field and are talking completely out of their ass. Also you have to wear slacks and never cuss or do anything but be a perfect paragon of humanity with infinite patience.", "Ignoring all other factors, teaching is a very important profession (they're educating and looking after our children for minimum 13 years and preparing the next generation of workers and citizens), and yet they have an incredibly high turnover rate considering the amount of skills the job requires (classroom management, lesson design, people skills, etc, not to mention subject knowledge). 50% of new teachers leave the profession within 3-5 years, which represents a huge loss of investment for the school districts and state and federal govts. So regardless of whether we think the job deserves the pay or not, we should think about ways to make the job more attractive and more accommodating so that we stop hemorrhaging skilled workers.", "Have you dealt with one teenager for 8 hours a day, 5 days a week, 9 months a year? No, it's actually considered a form of torture in some countries. Teachers deal with 30 of them at once.", "There are rural districts where I live that pay teachers around 30k or less starting out. My mom teaches preschool and makes less than 30k. I'm closer to the median in the mid 40s -- that's with 4 years experience and a coaching stipend. I work at one of the highest paying districts in my area, and living costs where I live are pretty cheap, so I don't feel underpaid one bit. I can even teach summer school or get a summer job to supplement my income. That being said, a teacher living in an urban area with high living expenses, college loans, and kids of his own would be scraping by at 56k. He would probably need to be on government assistance depending on his spouse's income. Also, if that teacher in the urban area is working at a school that has a lot of economically disadvantage students and an unsupportive admistration, the working conditions caused by behavioral issues would make his job extremely difficult. I mean unimaginably difficult for anyone who has never taught. For many teachers like this, the pay is not enough, and that's why these schools have high turn over as well as a constant cycle of underperformance. The TLDR is: 56k is the median, but many teaches are making way less than that especially in rural areas. 56k really isn't that much money unless you are living somewhere with cheap living expenses . EDIT: If you are interested in finding out what districts near you pay teachers, go to their district website and look for their \"salary schedule\" or just Google [district name] \"salary schedule\" and click on the relevant search result. It will give you the salaries for teachers in the district from 0 experience to 20+ years of experience.", "Where are you posting from? My live in girlfriend is going to be a fourth year high school teacher this August. She barely breaks 30k a year in gross wages. Nevermind the paid summers off. The addage that teachers are the only profession that steals office supplies from home to take to work is true. I am the one who installed the shelves in her classroom. She begs and borrows for supplies, because nothing is provided.", "Because they don't make anyone money. If you make someone money you generally get paid more. There are plenty of fields that are underpaid for similar reasons. Also economics, generally there are more teachers than positions in most areas.", "First, can you share the link where you got that figure? Second, while some big cities pay okay (though the jobs can be brutal) most teaching jobs in small towns or rural areas are barely above the poverty line. Also, because teachers are union workers, they get the benefits written into the contract but not the benefits that are required by state law. They don't get Social Security when they retire. They don't get maternity leave (at least in my district). They also have to pay union dues (even if they don't agree with the union). When I was teaching I started out at 47k a year, which is great! Much higher than most people starting a career. But I took home closer to 30k. Teaching used to be considered a respectable middle class career, but now because the pay has stayed low, benefits are few and getting worse, there isn't a lot of room to move up or get better pay (the world only needs so many principals) and it's not enough to support a family. I know teachers starting out who are on food stamps. It's not the worst problem in the country, but it's sad that it's becoming a less and less prestigious job. This means that it attracts young grads for a few years, who then move on to better paying jobs. It's hard to be a teacher as a lifelong career anymore. And the students suffer when they have a constant rotation of new teachers learning on them, and then moving on to better jobs after a few years.", "It's underpaid relative to what they could be getting in the private sector. In general, if you are qualified to be a teacher, you are taking a paycut by choosing that career path", "As a new teacher to the profession, people generally think that teachers just teach. This is not the case. I care a ton about my students and go to numerous school games or plays because I care about them. They're 12-15 year old's and need a lot of support through those awkward years (those were the worst years of MY life anyway). We are in charge of your student's academic success, emotional well being and physical well being and in some instances, furthering their growth in sports, arts or other extracurricular activities. There are so many tangibles of our job that many people don't think about when they think of the teaching profession. My job as a teacher is never done and continues outside the classroom. Not just marking and parent teacher interviews but being a positive role model to kids. Teaching is extremely stressful and very demanding but ultimately the most rewarding thing I've ever done! As an aside, in our province anyway, a big chunk of our pay cheques go towards taxes, pension and union fees. Not complaining. But that money isn't our take home!", "is 56k median for **all** teachers? if yes, it means that you lump new teachers with 0 experience with those who's been teaching for decades (maybe up to 35 years experience). if we assume that all teachers only paid based on experience, and amount of teachers are equally distributed between each years, it means that you only make $56k with 17 years experience, which is so much smaller. many business and finance jobs starting salary at the range $50-60k, some even more. teachers have to teach 17 years just to earn the same salary as a starting finance person.", "Both of my parents are teachers. My mother has her Masters and several specialist degrees. She barely makes $50K a year and has been teaching over 20 years. My step father just began teaching and is making $30K. He has half that in student debt. My mother is always working on extra tasks at home. She doesn't get paid for this. If she did, she'd probably be making $60K. Teaching is a very underpaid profession. Also, in Georgia, government thinks we should keep cutting their pay to get us out of debt. Go figure.", "In addition to the time factor that everyone here is pointing out, paying teachers a higher salary encourages even more talented people to teach, instead of becoming a doctor or scientist. Typically, if you have a degree from great school (think Harvard, Cambridge, Stanford), you're looking for positions that pay maybe double, maybe even triple that amount, but we need those people to teach and inspire kids as well.", "Become a teacher, then you'll understand. My first year of teaching my salary was $26,000. This was in 2011, with a BA. Also, it remained that way for the three years I stayed because of budget cuts. This was in Las Vegas, NV.", "Live in Ontario Canada, teachers start at about 60,000 a year and make well over 100k a year by the time they retire. It is one of the best paying jobs you can get here.", "I'm a teacher, however, I don't know how things are all over the US. I can only speak to my school district in regards to compensation. In my school district we finally settled our contract last month for the just completed school year. For someone to earn 50k in my school district, that salary plateau is reached after year 19. The maximum pay in my district for teachers that have worked for at least 26 years is 59,300. As far as working 9/12th's of the year...I know plenty of teachers that put in 50 - 60 hours on a weekly basis making sure that everything is taken care of for their classrooms. This is a result of overcrowding (even though my state has instituted a class-size reduction amendment, the state DOE continues to violate it on a daily basis) and meeting the accountability requirements for the state. For example teachers have to write lesson plans so their school administrators know what the teachers will be teaching, how they are going to teach it, and a list of the materials the teacher will use in the lesson. These lesson plans are usually due two-weeks in advance of the lessons actually being taught. Teachers are also virtually required to purchase their own equipment and supplies for the classroom. I know plenty of teachers that have to buy their own copy paper, calculators, notebook paper, rulers, scissors, and other supplies because the district just won't pay to supply these items. I know posts like this usually devolve into \"bash the lazy, complaining teacher\" rants, but I just would ask anyone here to volunteer at a school to see what happens on a daily basis in the classroom. You'll likely gain a different perspective on the situation if you do.", "My mother is a teacher and all I hear is complaint after complaint from her and her friends. Its a firestorm bitch fest every time they get together, as if they are the only ones that have problems in their work. I agree things have changed over the years, and maybe not for the best, but that's what happens, things change. But When I point out that she works from 8am until 2:30, has at least one break period (gym, computer, library, art) last 45 minutes, plus a 30 minute lunch break, plus a 15 minute recess, its not like she has a long of work. She does point out that she has to do lesson plans and correct papers, but that honestly takes her about 2 hours a day, if that. Her kids parents are given a list of items that need to be brought in, and another list of suggested donations, but she still talks about providing supplies like it runs her thousands a year. Honestly, she went to staples once to get a few items, well under $100. And lets face it, they have most holidays off, all weekends, and 2 months off in the summer. Not to mention a week break for thanksgiving, February and April vacations and so on. So forgive me if I am not overly sympathetic to teachers plights. I appreciate the service that they provide, but lets be honest, it is not as bad as they complain, I mean claim.", "Well first of all, the national avrage for a starting teacher with a bachelors is 36,141 [(NEA Study)]( URL_0 ). Second, teachers may teach for 9 months of the year but they spend some of the other 3 months doing activities related to education. Some examples are obtaining a Masters degree and attending professional development courses as both are needed to maintain a residency license. Finally to answer your question, I think the sense of \"teachers are underpaid\" comes from a great respect for the type of work while also not wanting to do that type of work themselves. I often hear, \" I could never do that\", when I tell people I work with special education students.", "There are many places where teachers do make under 30k/year. My wife was a middle school science teacher for 3 years after the graduated (has since moved onto nursing). In AZ she started at $26k/year. When she left after 3 years she was making $27k but the district was broke and she had to buy her own supplies (paper, pens, stickers, etc). The max a teacher could make (after like 15 years and a masters) in her district was like $42k Now contrast that with my mom who was a teacher in MN. They start at like $35k and when my mom retired she was making $75-$80k.", "First of all, most teachers work through a good part of the summer whether it be cleaning and organizing their classroom, doing trainings, or working with athletic teams if they also happen to be a coach. Secondly, it isn't that they aren't paid a living wage, just that their wages are relatively meager given that they are literally shaping tomorrows youth", "Median for the nation isn't an accurate measurement. 53K here where I live in central VA is plenty to make a decent living, but where my dad lives about 30 mins south of Buffalo, NY? You'd be lucky to ever own a small home.", "This is my son and daughter's school in suburb of chicago. My daughter's grade 2 teacher was making $97000 2 years ago. URL_0 ", "I'm a teacher. The highest I've ever been paid is mid $30s. Why do I think I should be paid more? Because I have a masters degree, I show up hours before the kids do and leave hours after the kids leave and when I go home I work some more. I field and make phone calls and emails to parents, administrators, etc. I create (or modify existing ones) my own lessons plans every year that are tailored to the specific group of students I have that year. When I worked at a smaller district I created my own curriculum, in larger schools it is often collaborative. I attend district, campus, and personal professional development every year (about 30 hrs a year which is above the minimum for most places and contrary to what most ppl think I pay for most of this out of pocket, the district is too broke). I spend 1-3 hours on a regular basis breaking down and setting up labs. I keep the chemical storeroom clean, tidy, and properly maintained. (When I first started it was a mess and I spent my free weekends cleaning it up.) I spend about $500-1000 of my measly salary buying materials for my classroom that the district doesn't buy... Construction paper, card stock, glue, tape, some of the lab materials. It really adds up. Let's not forget all the grading, tutoring, extra-curriculars, afternoon duty and morning duty. I'm sure I left something out. And then there is the instructional time...I spend 6 hours on my feet teaching, questioning, monitoring, redirecting. My boyfriend works hard and long hours similar to mine in a different industry. He has a bachelors... I have a masters. He makes 4x as much as I do. So yeah I'd like to get paid a little more so I can get a new to me car and go on a vacation. Honestly...I'd be thrilled with $50k a year. On a side note: most people don't realize that teachers don't make enough money to buy a house in the district they work for. they often have to commute 30 minutes to an hour or more where I live. Shouldn't they get paid the median so they can live and work where their students are. It builds a sense of community.", "So, I'm a teacher's kid. My mom held a masters in special education and worked in her field in an urban district for 32 years. The highest salary she ever received was ~45,000. My best friend had a high school education and hired in as a janitor for a facility making ~30,000 a year. Then she got a job within the facility as a parts inspector and now makes ~65,000. She does now also have an associate's degree, but it had no effect on her pay rate. I'm not saying my friend doesn't work hard. She does. It's a mindless, thankless job, but it pays well, so she toughs it out. My mother did her 40 hours a week, plus about 2-4 hours a night of IEP paperwork on her students, plus lesson plans, job placement work, and yes, as many people have added, she had to buy her own classroom supplies. (No child left behind eliminated a lot of positions, meaning she often had to do the work of 2 or 3 people and funding is a joke in the public school system.) Given the choice between the two, especially knowing the benefits at the higher-paying job were far better (way better insurance, paid overtime, etc) who would pick teaching? I'll never understand why we don't treat them as some of our most valuable citizens and let their pay reflect it.", "I am a 4th year teacher. I get to work at 6 a.m. every morning, two hours before school starts. Then I stay until 4 p.m., helping students with getting material or tutoring kids that didn't understand the topic. Not to mention, my lunch breaks and prep period are given to students to help tutoring because they can not stay after school due to riding the bus. I grade daily, typically this is what is done in the morning. No, I don't want an applause or a gold star, but people don't understand the work of real teachers... I am a social worker, a friend, and a guidance counselor, I wear many hats. Some teachers are terrible, but for the most part, teachers give everything to teach the beautiful minds of the young.", "Ok, I taught my first classes last semester at my university, where I'm a graduate assistant. I spent countless hours prepping for these classes, trying to avoid latent fears of failing my students. I spent sleepless nights wondering how I could improve in any aspect. Any teacher worth a damn goes through this every single academic year, and it takes a special type of person to deal with this on an ongoing basis for lackluster pay. This doesn't even include the hours spent grading papers, trying to tailor comments to adequately correct (without discouraging) each and every student.", "People who pat themselves on the back the hardest: Teachers Nurses Firefighters Paramedics All absolutely required in modern society, and very important to the health of a country, but man, do they like to talk about how great they are. You rarely hear about the plumber who comes out to a house at 2am to clear a backed up sewage pipe. Or the guys working 24/7 at the wastewater plant to keep your drinking water safe. Or the researchers working on cancer battling drugs.", "This must be a U.S. thing. Starting salary for high school teachers here in Australia is over 60k, increasing each year/level to over 100k. Source: URL_0 ", "The best way I can answer this is based on what made me decide to jump ship from teaching--which is still a huge passion of mine--about a year before I'd have had my bachelor's (yes, I'd have had to continue on to my master's most likely, but that's beside the point). At my high school, there were a number of teachers who were actually paid pretty handsomely. At least 7 or 8 teachers I knew who got paid over $100k/year. Hell, our wrestling coach/one of the gym teachers is currently making $130k/year (it's all listed online: URL_0 ) If you look all the way down to the bottom of that list, you'll see that a lot of the newer teachers are right around $35-38k. But I went to high school in Carol Stream, IL. We're not Beverly Hills, but it's a relatively affluent area with an extremely highly rated school system. One of my favorite teachers, Robert Gunther, who is on that list, explained to me that he makes good money because: 1.) He has been there for decades 2.) He teaches 6 classes, and runs or is involved in 4+ extra curricular programs. Many of the other teachers on that list are paid well because they take a very heavy class load and work with a lot of extracurricular programs. As it was explained to me by Gunther, pay, at least in this district, is attributed based on your classload and other things you're involved with. On that list, there's about 120 active teachers, and our school hovered around the 4,000 student mark. Now, I'm getting a little sidetracked, but... Our first classes started at 7:25, our last classes ended at 2:45. There were morning extra-curriculars starting as early as 5:45, and going as late as 8PM. Let's take a teacher like Mr. Gunther with a 6 class load, who also had an AM extra curricular at 6:25 3 days a week, and three others, keeping him until 4:30 or so all 5 days, along with whatever else he actually had to do in the school that day. Now, if you had an extra curricular, you were expected to be there at least 20 minutes early for any students who may be arriving early. One of his extra curriculars also took up 3 hours on Saturdays for 4 months out of the year. So let's examine that hour load 6:05a-4:30p, at the very least, is about 10.5 hours, 3 days a week. Normal days, he's required to be in by 6:30 for his 7:25 class. He's still there till 4:30, though. So that gives him 10 hours the other two days of the week. Not that big of a deal, 52 hours for the week of tangible time with students. Obviously, there's department meetings (he was the head of the psych department, and taught the AP classes, of which there were 4 that year), so whatever other work was needed for that, I can't speak to the hours. But i can say that during those 4 months he was coaching softball, you had to add at least another 3 hours a week on for saturdays, so up to 55 hours. Now, Gunther was a FANTASTIC teacher, but he did rely heavily on scantron exams, so figure we'll add just another 1 hour per week for grading those. Entering them in to his grading software? We'll give that another 2 hours per week (and that might be a bit low), but the rest--not everything was scantron. We wrote a two page paper every week about a topic we were given in the AP class--4 classes, 28 people per class, 112 papers, at least 224 pages to read. I read at about 30-50 pages an hour, so let's call it 40, and say that's an additional 5 hours reading, analyzing, and meaningfully grading these assignments. So, when all of that comes to a head, we're up to 63 hours worked. This is before any test or lesson plan preparation has begun. Assuming he spent about an hour and a half per day planning tests, assignments, and lesson plans, that puts us up to 70.5 hours per week. I'm not going to begin to speculate what happens with meetings or anything else. So there we have a man making $130k/year over 70.5 hours per week. That puts him at $35/hour. That's a pretty nice salary. He's also been doing it for over 30 years. And that's the other part---the last two years, I've been working two jobs, ranging from a total of 55-65 hours per week between the two. I go through stretches where I'm lucky to have ONE day month where I don't do something work related, and I'm damn near burning out. This man has beat me by 28+ years, AND his job involves dealing with shitty fucking teenagers, and their even shittier fucking parents. So is Mr Gunther underpaid? No. But now, what about the woman on the list who has the same workload and is making $36/yr? If she's putting in those same hours? She's making $9.80/hr Pretty fucking underpaid, if you ask me.", "Where I'm from in Australia teachers get paid lots more than any of what has been mentioned here... First year teachers earn between $46,524 USD and $51,478 USD on top of this they have the break/meal law, they aren't allowed to get extra classes assigned to them and they get a mentor (longer serving staff member) to train them and check up with them periodically. They certainly do show up well before the students arrive and leave long after they are gone. They also often work during holidays and on weekends. Teachers that are not in their first year then they can earn anywhere between $53,955 USD and $69,642 USD. They also get the break/meal thing and they tend to work the extended hours as well. These are the conditions before they take on any kind of leadership position. (subject coordinator or a year group coordinator) If they take on one of these rolls then they earn around $80,375 USD. If they take on a higher roll like Curriculum Coordinator or Pastoral Coordinator or Vice Principle then they can earn anywhere between $93,585 USD and $123,416. Obviously as you move up you have many more tasks and responsibilities however from what I have read on here there are many teachers in the states who aren't earning what AUS first-year teachers earn. I worked in a school (not as a teacher, IT guy so I was there from JAN4 to DEC23 every year) and I have seen some teachers who were very well organised and in my colleagues shared opinion a very very good teacher, they almost never worked overtime. They just had their stuff sorted. I have seen others that were good teachers too, however they were in every holidays and often stayed back. Then there are the poor teachers who have both of these lifestyles as well. Source: worked in a school, and [link]( URL_0 ) EDIT: Also, I have never heard of any professional development courses having to be paid out of the teachers pocket. In fact its the opposite - meals accommodation and transport all paid by the school. AND the classroom supplies - If a teacher actually did pay for this they would be reimbursed by the school, if the school didn't pay for them first.", "You ever had to give a speech or main in front of a group of people before? Imagine creating one of those lessons each day. Then factor in one kid who watched his parents physically fight all night. Another who didn't get much love or attention so tries to get it out from his peers. Another who doesn't give a shit so is trying the best she can to get in snapchat. Plus a slew of other issues. Then remember your job depends on these kids passing your class and state standardized tests even though you are supposed to differentiate lessons for each of your 34 students. MAlso, you probably got into teaching cause you want to change your students lives for the better, open up new Windows and get them to think critically and struggle against 10 years or enforced memorization day in day out. But you get a few minutes between each class to answer parents emails about why their kid who misses half the days is falling and what you are going to do to fix it. Then once a week have meetings with the entire faculty on how to save the world. This week we are discussing how the majority of our parents are immigrants and have no to little formal education and how we can help them learn to read so they can they cab read to their children as infants. Plus you show up an hour early to work and have two hours after the day is over and remember at your old job , it was 9-5 and never have a second thought to what was going to happen at work on Monday and how you were gonna make the day exciting and memorable for your customers. But you get the summer of, which turns out to be about 5 weeks away from actually work.", "While your numbers are American let me give you the difference a Canadian perspective has. Canadian teachers get paid anywhere between 50 and 58 K starting wage in my province, which is higher than elsewhere but not outrageously so. We face similar social and economic issues to the United States, similar (albeit slightly better) levels of poverty, and similar levels of cultural diversity. On average a Canadian student outperforms an American student by anywhere between 15 and 25% depending on the study. My provinces records are closer to the 25% range for most of the US. Our numbers are beaten only by Norway, which pays their teachers even more and treats them closer to doctors than to 'lesser professionals'. We are one of the few provinces that requires standardized testing and we again consistently outperform you in almost every metric. The reason you pay teachers well is because then they work harder for you, they are less likely to drop out for other jobs (thus leading to brain drain), and you are more likely to attract quality people to the profession. If you pay crap wages you get crap people, simple as that. Finally, the wages of teachers are typically paid over a 10 month (9 month for the US) range and are spread out over 12 months in their contracts. So technically you're only paying for 9 months but you're just spreading that out over 12, the extra work that teachers do in the summer like prep, classes, workshops, research, curricular development, test development, assessment workshops, special needs workshops, dealing with a student with 'XYZ' disorder workshops are all technically on the house; you're welcome. If you were to pay for the full 12 months you'd have to increase their wage by a quarter (a sixth for Canadians).", "the only explanation ive seen in this thread is that teaching is hard, but honestly workers in most industries will think that their job is hard and that they are being unpaid. its kind of a blow to the face when youre basically told how much youre worth. but the problem with teaching is that its value isnt as quantifiable as other jobs. in other industries you can probably see how much a worker is worth based on the money the worker and the company are generating. with teaching, not so much. their value to society is entirely raising the next generation. how do you value that? you cant. thats why its so hard to make any concrete argument FOR AND AGAINST higher wages and why we never hear the end of it. for me, i do think teachers (not the terrible ones) are being underpaid, but at the same time, if teachers got paid as much as lawyers and doctors, imagine the level of competition and educational requirements there would be in the future (just look at the school districts that have high pay). a lot of the teachers now would be out of a job. not to mention the funding that would be needed. why increase teaching salaries when theres already more than enough people filling the positions? as seen in this thread, theres a bunch of people with masters degrees willing to take the position anyways. if anything blame the teachers unions for the dumb pay structure. Edit: went to a public high school which pays its teachers $80k, had to call a few teachers Dr. because they had PhDs", "We should treat teachers like they are responsible for our most important resource, our children. Given that we only pay these same professionals, with graduate degrees, only slightly more than the median wage, apparently we don't think our teachers are much more important than unionized garbage men. In other countries, e.g Korea, and the northern european countries, they do pay teachers accordingly for their important contribution, and the higher education necessary to perform their job. In the US, we have idiot governors shouting them down in town hall meetings as entitled civil servants, and busting unions like they're teamsters with ties. It's fucking embarrassing that we [the US] don't pay teachers in a way that incentivizes our best and brightest to join the profession. People who criticize teachers, are, from what I've seen largely those that have never taught, and think it's glorified babysitting. Teaching basic knowledge, and instilling/nurturing the critical thinking tools, while helping our young people understand how society works is actually an important part of the foundation to modern society. Yes, some are bad, others are terrible, but by and large, they try hard, are competent, earn every cent, and when redidtors are working for 1 - 2 hours a day, commenting on cats and dash cams for 6hrs, teachers are helping to ensure we have a civil, productive, and awesome society. what's next, hating on nurse's pay? WTF? edit: commas, and the like", "In short, both teachers and everyone else work around 2000 hours per year as teachers just work more hours per day for fewer days. Yet, the same degree/college credits can make 30%-40% more in other professions. ***The nitty gritty non-ELI5 answer*** The hours per day on an 8am-3pm teaching schedule are closer to 7am-6pm (11 hours) over 180 school days gives 1980 hours per year not including in-service days . This does not include days spent on professional development conferences either which are out of pocket expenses. So easily rounded to 2100 hours per year. Meanwhile the typical working calendar for everyone else in 2015 is showing 2004 hours for the year ( URL_0 ). On top of that teachers get 10 days of paid leave per year of combined sick/vacation and it is the same for a first year or 30th year teacher. There is no maternity leave or medical leave either as it is expected that anything of that nature should happen during the summer break. In other careers 1-2 weeks of sick leave are accrued over the year plus 2-4 weeks of vacation based on years with the company. On top of that extended medical and disability leave are available at 60% of base pay. Throw vacation/sick days into all of that and the typical 9-5 person will work 10% LESS hours while earning 30% or more.", "Because they don't consider supply and demand. (This applies to the 85% of teachers I've had in my life, or have seen that really don't give much of a shit. To the 15% that do bust their ass and actually care about the kids, you deserve a higher pay because you actually do the job you should be) Teaching isn't a terribly difficult degree to achieve, it's not necessarily a high pressure job, and unless you're totally stupid, minor mistakes aren't going to be costing anyone thousands or millions of dollars. This, combined with the idea of long vacations (even if you have workshops, lesson plans, etc... You're still not 8-5 m-f), decent job security (we'll always need teachers) and enough pay to live on, leads to lots of people choosing this degree. Especially those who were never very math or science inclined, didn't like business, and wanted to avoid a liberal arts degree. With so many teachers, you don't have to pay very much because you know what? If the candidate doesn't accept shit pay, there's 10 other college grads who'd jump someone to get into a decent district with that nice pension, strong union, and solid insurance if they toe the line and follow the red tape for 20 years.", "I see it differently. Teaching should be a valuable profession because education is important. But Americans don't see education that way. While 50k isn't bad, that value is low relative to their contribution to society. Now here's the thing: the low pay dissuades many qualified college students from pursuing teaching. For example, I have a passion for teaching, but I won't chase that dream because I believe with my qualities I have the potential to earn a lot more. I could fathom earning enough in another field, retiring comfortably, then going to teach (which a lot of people do). As a result, we have brilliant minds with great communication skills taking industry jobs because they pay better. Thus, \"good\" teachers are relatively rare to find, and even rarer in poorer neighborhoods. Many teachers do it because they can't do anything else. They hate their job and hate students. It really takes away from truly great teachers and it drags reputations of teachers down the gutter. And thus, the American government sees no need in increasing the pay for teachers (because so many are inept) and the vicious cycle continues.", "Australian teachers starting salary (in my state) is $73000 a year with guaranteed pay rises every year up until $93000. Then there are level 3 teachers that can earn up to $102000 but that requires a lot of work and effort to reach. Teachers have to follow strict curriculum which makes lesson plans a little easier but they still are a pain to set up and be effective. There are also remote allowances if going into the country as well. 73000 is about the median wage in Australia these days so it is great for someone with no work experience and only a degree backing them. The problem a lot of teachers here have is that they have no work experience outside the education system, it has created a militant union culture where some of the demands are unrealistic considering the number of unemployed teachers. The higher wage has lead to larger class sizes which has meant that teaching standards have dropped as well as cuts to support services around teaching staff.", "My girlfriend is an elementary teacher at a lower end school in our county. She has her masters degree (as most teachers do) and averages about 10-11 hours of work a day and at least 6-8 hours on the weekend. In addition to that her job is incredibly stressful dealing with kids whose parents' are struggling, never around, addicted to something, uncaring, or a combination of these. Add to that more than 50% of the parents don't even speak English so she has to schedule a translator or use the kid (bad idea) just to talk to them. My gf has always LOVED kids. She grew up wanting to be a teacher. Now that she is in the system and sees how dysfunctional it is along with how the kids behave (and with no way to discipline them) she hates every day at the job she spent 5 years in college preparing for. TL;DR: You couldn't pay me ENOUGH to be an elementary school teacher.", "I'm starting my first teaching job this year and will be making tens of thousands less than $56,000. Also, keep in mind: - out of pocket classroom materials expenses - paying for continuing education, licensing fees, etc. - pretty much mandatory overtime - dealing with all the work of 200+ kids across five classrooms with only 2 official hours of prep (hence the basically mandatory overtime) - (Edit) Oh yeah, how can I forget paying back $20,000+ in student loans and interest? The first day of the first class I took for my education degree, the professor told us we were all embarking on a wonderful journey like wandering monks, complete with vows of poverty.", "I can go get an associate degree in any blue collar field and make twice that within five years. On top of that, I wouldn't have to deal with other people's children. Teaching has scaled horribly alongside the rising cost of living if you consider the education level required, and then there's the issue of what I understand to be horrible unions that contribute to the contempt some people have for them. I'm just speaking from what I've heard and explaining why I never became one.", "$56K? Where is this magical land? I only make $34K and have been teaching for almost 10 years. I'm thankful my wife is also a teacher, which makes our combined wage at around $65,000. Together, we do ok, but I have friends who are single parents or are the only ones who are getting payed and support a family. It is not very uncommon for teachers to have a second job, too. My wife and I both tutor and work retail jobs as well.", "Not sure why the OP's question was removed. Here it is from my rss reader: > I'm sorry if this comes off malicious but I don't mean to. Just an honest question because my entire life i have heard that teachers were underpaid and assumed they were making 30,000 or so. If teachers only have to work 9/12ths of the year and make 56,356 with a bachelors degree, wouldn't that be considered fairly accurate compensation (If not slightly more than I would expect).", "Also, I don't think that anyone has mentioned this, but a \"median\" salary of $56 356 could be pretty misleading. \"Median\" just means \"the middle number,\" so if out of 100 teachers, you had 25 making $25000, 25 making $30000, 20 making $35000, 10 making $56000, 10 making $60000, 5 making $70000 and 5 making $80000, the median salary would be $56000, but 70% of them would be making $35000 or less.", "In Michigan, 3% of their salary is set aside for retirement funds* *of any state employee Yeah, the governor slipped through legislation where construction workers can get retirement funds from the teacher budget. So there's that. Edit as /u/alexander1701 pointed out too, in Michigan at least, the decent teaching positions that are at that median require masters degrees. And 50k/year is not a great return on a masters degree.", "I feel like you are an American (No offense, I think the American populace has been propagated by their own government to believe that payment for work is lower than it is). 56k is *not* a good living salary. It's actually a considerably LOW **starting** salary for anyone with an education. These people have our children's future's in their hands, something that I think we should consider important.", "Something like 75% of the teachers in colleges and universities are adjuncts. No benefits there, so no health insurance, vacation time, pension, etc. No job security either. You may or may not get an assignment next semester. You may get only one class which may pay you around $1500 for the duration of the semester. Do some reading about adjuncts in The USA today. It'll open your eyes.", "My husband is a high school teacher. He makes about 30k a year. He typically works about nine hours a day, and plans on the weekends. He spends about half of his summer vacations attending workshops. We don't have dental insurance, and our health insurance is very expensive. He loves his job, and coaches quiz bowl in his spare time. In my opinion he is underpaid.", "California Average salary is $75,000 for 10 out of 12 months. Starting $45,000 After 20 years $90k Plus $1300/month in benefits for health, dental. Plus pension that pays 80% of average last 3 year salary. Plus they don't have to pay into social security. I'd say they get paid pretty well. (My wife is a teacher.)", "when i was a teacher, i didn't make nearly that much starting. only 36k/year. and a few thousand of that was spent on class materials and food. it's amazing how many kids come to school with no breakfast. can't concentrate when hungry. also, i'm in SoCal, even 56k isn't considered much.", "Many school districts in the United States are funded by property taxes. This means the higher the property value and tax rate the better the school. Many rural and inner city schools get shafted with low property values and high tax rates that lead to less funding for schools.", "Look, the reality is that there are more people who want to be teachers than there are teaching positions. What does that mean? It means if you don't like how much you're being paid, they'll can easily find someone else to do your job at a lower wage.", "I can guaran-damn-tee you the number of HOURS a teacher works per year is same or more than someone who chills at 40 hours a week through the year. Source: teacher, working 150% of full time hours for 75% of year", "My mother has taught middle and high school for 17 years. You obviously have no idea the shit a good teacher goes through to educate their children. 50k per year is nothing for the work our public educators do every year.", "If you want to find a teacher working, stop at their house between 8pm and midnight. Source: Am teacher + wife teacher + 2 teaching in laws + grandmother teacher + grandfather teacher + about 100 teaching friends.", "Because I worked in a call center for 7 years out of highschool and cleared that easy after the 3rd year doing fuck all. Teachers go to school for years and pay money to do so.", "Lol, my high school physics teacher made 98k my senior year. Taught only 3 classes a day. Tenured as fuck though. Was at a public school too.", "Where I leave teachers average starting salary is 26k. You have to take location into account too. 56k in a big city wont get you very far.", "I think most people agree they should be paid more, considering the fundamental role they play in so many lives.", "Late: because of the service they provide. They educate the next generation. What could be more important than that?", "you can't live off that salary in California these days and raise a family.....at least south of Marin County.", "$56k just out of school, sure. $56k average? That is far too low." ]

[ [ "these improvements have lasting effects on students throughout their lives. Controversy and the overhaul of LIFO Since less experienced teachers typically have lower salaries, it is estimated that if districts in the United States cut 5% of their budget through seniority based layoffs, approximately 79,000 more teachers would lose their jobs versus seniority neutral layoffs.\nIn a survey of New York State parents regarding teacher quality versus seniority, voters said they did not care how long a teacher had taught so long as the teacher was effective and produced good results.\nStarting with Arizona in 2009, certain states and districts have", "-30.507040259428322" ], [ "two or less years of teaching, meaning that under LIFO-based layoffs, schools with larger minority populations would lose 60% more teachers. Finally, teachers in high need areas, such as secondary math and special education, are often less experienced due to the difficulty of recruiting these positions, and districts who adhere strictly to seniority based systems for layoffs face the added burden of recruiting teachers in these areas. In Los Angeles, it was noted that of the hundreds of promising new teachers cut in from the district in 2010 due to LIFO, 190 were in the top fifth overall of teachers", "-29.807776001951424" ], [ "2011, the average teacher earned $44,442 annually, not including benefits. A starting teacher earns $36,000. Top salary was $56,350 after 21 years.\nIn 2011, there was a pool of 1,900 substitute teachers. Using substitutes when required, cost $4.2 million in 2009-10.\nIn 2012, an average principal received $93,000 in salary and benefits annually; a school secretary, $40,000; cafeteria manager, $33,000. The average stipend for middle-school department heads averaged $9,176. The average school office phone bill was $9,317. Estimates of savings for closing four elementary and middle schools to save money was $3.8 million. Class ranking and GPA Brevard County's system for high", "-29.770146392751485" ], [ "before graduating from high school both on reservations and in cities (p. 1).\"\"\nTeachers are also remarkably and especially difficult to retain at reservation schools, which creates problems with regularity in the classroom and many administrative difficulties as well. There are many reasons for poor teacher retention, mainly problems in \"poverty, hunger, ignorance, and disease\", as Reyhner's Teaching American Indian Students book argues, that discourage teachers when students are unable or unwilling to perform or even come to school. One of the implications of high teacher turnover is the lack of administrative stability it causes. Administrative stability is very important to long-range", "-29.66081537224818" ], [ "teachers already since the school year started, the school advertises in hiring another teacher while the deaf headmaster decides to personally teach the class temporarily. He gives them a pop quiz, threatening to expel anyone who fails the quiz. This prompted the class to cheat in which ever way they can to cheat while keeping him blinded and deaf. When this fails, the school decides to offer HKD $500,000 salary to anyone who is able to handle class 5D. Though San encourages Tat to take the job, Tat refuses due to class 5D's reputation with former teachers. San offers", "-29.58117438505724" ], [ "be paid more without having to leave the classroom. This will be particularly important to schools in the most disadvantaged areas as it will empower them to attract and recruit the best teachers.\" Oftentimes teachers that want to be paid more are pushed into primary and secondary administration, opposed to being chairs of departments like advanced educational opportunities like colleges. This causes teachers to be in rotation and can lead to many shortages of quality teachers actually in the classroom. The academic journal suggests that we should rely on a different pay band policy to keep teachers in the classroom", "-29.452792165102437" ], [ "requirements for substitute/temporary teachers are generally not as rigorous as those for full-time professionals. The Bureau of Labor Statistics estimates that there are 1.4 million elementary school teachers, 674,000 middle school teachers, and 1 million secondary school teachers employed in the U.S.\nIn the past, teachers have been paid relatively low salaries. However, average teacher salaries have improved rapidly in recent years. US teachers are generally paid on graduated scales, with income depending on experience. Teachers with more experience and higher education earn more than those with a standard bachelor's degree and certificate. Salaries vary greatly depending on state, relative cost", "-29.158391013628716" ], [ "In schools where 34% or less of the students receive Free and Reduced meals, more than 82% of teachers have 4 or more years of experience. However, in schools where more than 75% of the student body receives Free and Reduced meals, only 77% of the teachers have more than 4 years of experience. Moreover, in California, it was seen that in schools in the lowest quartile of minority students, only 8 of every 100 teachers had two or less years of teaching whereas in schools with the highest quartile of minority students, 13 of every 100 teachers had", "-29.157157629728317" ], [ "on a regular basis and are paying tuition feel that they should be receiving that A, even if they have not deserved it.\" Some professors and administrators believe that inflating grades makes it harder for students to realize their academic strengths and weaknesses and may encourage students to take classes based on grade expectations. The practice also makes it harder for parents and students to determine whether or not the grade was earned. A curriculum committee was set up in 1980 to meet with the academic dean and review the grading policies on a monthly basis. The previous president of", "-29.0315499358112" ], [ "poor. Also, in schools that are composed of 90% or above of minorities, only one half of the teachers are certified in the subjects they teach. As the number of white students increase in a school, funding tends to increase as well. Teachers in elementary schools serving the most Hispanic and African-American students are paid on average $2250 less per year than their colleagues in the same district working at schools serving the fewest Hispanic and African American Students. From the family resources side, 10% of white children are raised in poverty, while 37% of Latino children", "-28.992162002890836" ], [ "other essential schools elsewhere in the country. Though Parker spends a greater percentage of its total funds on its teachers than any school in the state, its teachers are paid less than teachers at other local public schools, in part due to the lack of a teachers' union. This is usually perceived as being a reason for high teacher turnover, but according to a report by former principal Teri Schrader, the vast majority of teacher departures being for other reasons. Extracurricular activities Parker has numerous clubs and activities. There is a student jazz band and there have several", "-28.9357633300242" ], [ "the quality of education. The researchers also found that teachers are paid a competitive salary. Part-time teachers are paid 32% higher than the average full-time worker and full-time teachers are paid 53% higher than the average university graduate who is working full-time.\nThe third index researched whether schools managed for good performance. The researchers found that there were no regular teacher assessments and no incentives for teachers to teach in underprivileged areas. These underprivileged areas encompass rural and/or low income areas. There is a policy in place for poor performing teachers to undergo a year of training and re-evaluation, however, the", "-28.929116904721013" ], [ "by the Pennsylvania Department of Education, 3% of its teachers were rated \"Non-Highly Qualified\" under No Child Left Behind.\nAccording to the National Center for Education Statistics, in 2010, the school reported an enrollment of 430 pupils in grades 7th and 8th, with 185 pupils receiving a federal free or reduced-price lunch due to family poverty. The school employed 28 teachers, yielding a student–teacher ratio of 15:1. According to a report by the Pennsylvania Department of Education, 4 teachers were rated \"Non‐Highly Qualified\" under No Child Left Behind. 2016 School Performance Profile SPP 49.9 out of 100 points. Ambridge Area", "-28.829280298411504" ], [ "the learning outcomes between students; by contrast, less effective teachers tend to leave both low- and high-performing schools within their first year. Studying why exactly teachers at low-performing schools in California are more likely to request transfers, Loeb and her co-authors find low teacher salaries and bad working conditions in schools (e.g. large class sizes, facilities problems, multitrack schools, and lack of textbooks) to be the main reasons besides negative interactions with students, though similar research in New York City by Loeb instead finds that teachers' (negative) perceptions of the school administrations are the main driver behind transfers. The resulting", "-28.70294651511358" ], [ "a teacher can retire with 100% of the average salary of their final 3 years of employment. According to a study conducted at the American Enterprise Institute, in 2011, public school teachers’ total compensation is roughly 50 percent higher than they would likely receive in the private sector. The study found that the most generous benefits that teachers receive are not accounted for in many studies of compensation including: pension, retiree health benefits and job security.\nIn 2009, the district reported employing 130 teachers and administrators with a median salary of $62,473 and a top salary of 108,228. The teacher's work", "-28.593352354277158" ], [ "to at least 2.00% x Final Average Salary x Total Credited Service. (Some teachers benefits utilize a 2.50% benefit factor.) After 40 years of service, Pennsylvania public school teachers and administrators can retire with 100% of the average salary of their final 3 years of employment. According to a study conducted at the American Enterprise Institute, in 2011, public school teachers’ total compensation is roughly 50 percent higher than they would likely receive in the private sector. The study found that the most generous benefits that teachers receive are not accounted for in many studies of compensation including: pension, retiree", "-28.585394118767" ], [ "only worthwhile reforms of teacher compensation are raising teacher wages uniformly, providing recognition and modest bonuses for outstanding teachers, and increasing hiring standards.\"\nIn the same post, he wrote, \"I am not clear what we should think the problem of American education (below the college level) is. Most children of middle-class ... Americans are white or Asian and attend good public or private schools, usually predominantly white. The average white IQ is of course 100 and the Asian (like the Jewish) almost one standard deviation higher, that is, 115. The average black IQ is 85, a full standard deviation below the", "-28.585199253226165" ], [ "principal are more likely to report earning additional pay, feeling autonomy, and experiencing additional support, all of which are linked to overall teacher retention. Race matched teachers are also more likely to report being satisfied with their jobs. Race matching also affects exits from the profession more than transfers to another school. Also, white men are more likely to leave the profession when there are more students of color. In contrast, teachers of color have higher exit rates overall but are less likely to leave when they have more non white students. Retaining effective teachers Federal policy initiatives during the", "-28.515922559658065" ], [ "higher rates than White students, as do those from low-income families, from single-parent households, mentally disabled students, and from families in which one or both parents also did not complete high school. Students at risk for dropout based on academic risk factors are those who often have a history of absenteeism and grade retention, academic trouble, and more general disengagement from school life. High school dropouts in the U.S. are more likely to be unemployed, have low-paying jobs, be incarcerated, have children at early ages and/or become single parents. There is not a single race in the United States", "-28.502095574280247" ], [ "programs to help schoolchildren catch up, rather than allowing them to advance to the next grade level where they may be unprepared. Despite often tense relations with teachers' unions, he avoided a teacher strike by concluding a contract negotiation in which teachers received an average raise of 15% in exchange for givebacks and productivity increases. Teachers overall got a 43 percent salary increase\nBloomberg enforced a strengthened cell-phone ban in city schools that had its roots dating to a 1988 school system ban on pagers. The ban is controversial among some parents, who are concerned with their ability to contact their", "-28.449666497370345" ], [ "Average Salary x Total Credited Service. (Some teachers benefits utilize a 2.50% benefit factor.) After 40 years of service, a teacher can retire with 100% of the average salary of their final 3 years of employment. According to a study conducted at the American Enterprise Institute, in 2011, public school teachers’ total compensation is roughly 50 percent higher than they would likely receive in the private sector. The study found that the most generous benefits that teachers receive are not accounted for in many studies of compensation including: pension, retiree health benefits and job security.\nIn 2011, the average teacher salary", "-28.445224247756414" ], [ "a teacher can retire with 100% of the average salary of their final 3 years of employment. According to a study conducted at the American Enterprise Institute, in 2011, public school teachers’ total compensation is roughly 50 percent higher than they would likely receive in the private sector. The study found that the most generous benefits that teachers receive are not accounted for in many studies of compensation including: pension, retiree health benefits and job security.\nIn 2012, the average teacher salary in Bloomsburg Area School District was $41,841.85 a year, while the cost of the benefits teachers receive was $14,221.35", "-28.440735050913645" ], [ "to a study conducted at the American Enterprise Institute, in 2011, public school teachers’ total compensation is roughly 50 percent higher than they would likely receive in the private sector. The study found that the most generous benefits that teachers receive are not accounted for in many studies of compensation, including: pension, retiree health benefits and job security.\nIn 2009, the district reported employing over 280 teachers with a starting salary of $38,000 to $113,000 for a 190-day work year. The average teacher salary is $59,044. Additionally, the teachers receive a defined benefit pension, health insurance, vision insurance, dental insurance, college", "-28.387588122976013" ], [ "done by researchers from Rice University and University of Texas at Austin, the policy inadvertently encourages students to drop out of high school. Teachers and administrators utilize grade retention as a strategy to improve test scores and ensure positive ratings. Individual High school dropouts are less likely to be active labor force participants and are more likely to be unemployed than their more educated counterparts. The current unemployment rate for high school dropouts is about 56 percent greater than that for high school completers. Lifetime earnings for this group are estimated to be $260,000 less than those for high", "-28.373687733314" ], [ "high school teacher discovered during his time teaching. The issue was on test his students were able to achieve high grades yet when presented with a complex question they couldn't get it correct. Showing him that they only have a general understanding of the material which wasn't reflected by the grades they received.\nA number of liberal arts colleges in the U.S. either do not issue grades at all (such as Alverno College, Antioch College, Bennington College, Evergreen State College, New College of Florida, and Hampshire College), de-emphasize them (St. John's College, Reed College, Sarah Lawrence College, Prescott College, College of", "-28.3556740292388" ], [ "through 8th, with 21% of pupils receiving a federal free or reduced price lunch due to family poverty. The school employed teachers yielding a student-teacher ratio of 13:1. According to a report by the Pennsylvania Department of Education, 4 teachers were rated \"Non‐Highly Qualified\" under the federal No Child Left Behind Act. In 2013, the School continues to employ Non-Highly qualified teachers. The attendance rate was 95% in 2012. 2016 school performance profile SPP 81.6 out of 100 points. Fairfield Area Middle School PSSA mandated testing results were: 61% of students in 8th grade were on grade level in", "-28.298771648442198" ], [ "$52,000. Some contracts may include long-term disability insurance, life insurance, emergency/personal leave and investment options.\nThe American Federation of Teachers' teacher salary survey for the 2006-07 school year found that the average teacher salary was $51,009. In a salary survey report for K-12 teachers, elementary school teachers had the lowest median salary earning $39,259. High school teachers had the highest median salary earning $41,855. Many teachers take advantage of the opportunity to increase their income by supervising after-school programs and other extracurricular activities. In addition to monetary compensation, public school teachers may also enjoy greater benefits (like health insurance) compared to", "-28.277980192942778" ], [ "benefits are equal to at least 2.00% x Final Average Salary x Total Credited Service. (Some teachers benefits utilize a 2.50% benefit factor.) After 40 years of service, Pennsylvania public school teachers and administrators can retire with 100% of the average salary of their final 3 years of employment. According to a study conducted at the American Enterprise Institute, in 2011, public school teachers’ total compensation is roughly 50 percent higher than they would likely receive in the private sector. The study found that the most generous benefits that teachers receive are not accounted for in many studies of compensation", "-28.277693402109435" ], [ "Final Average Salary x Total Credited Service. (Some teachers benefits utilize a 2.50% benefit factor.) After 40 years of service, a teacher can retire with 100% of the average salary of their final 3 years of employment. According to a study conducted at the American Enterprise Institute, in 2011, public school teachers’ total compensation is roughly 50 percent higher than they would likely receive in the private sector. The study found that the most generous benefits that teachers receive are not accounted for in many studies of compensation including: pension, retiree health benefits and job security.\nIn 2009, the district reported", "-28.245743542109267" ], [ "salary of their final 3 years of employment. According to a study conducted at the American Enterprise Institute, in 2011, public school teachers' total compensation is roughly 50 percent higher than they would likely receive in the private sector. The study found that the most generous benefits that teachers receive are not accounted for in many studies of compensation including: pension, retiree health benefits and job security.\nIn November 2012, the Greenwood School Board approved a new 3-year contract with the teacher's union which gives them a 3-percent salary increase for the 2013–14 school year and 2-percent increases in the", "-28.23146495995752" ], [ "According to a study conducted at the American Enterprise Institute, in 2011, public school teachers’ total compensation is roughly 50 percent higher than they would likely receive in the private sector. The study found that the most generous benefits that teachers receive are not accounted for in many studies of compensation including: pension, retiree health benefits and job security.\nIn 2009, the district reported employing 167 teachers and administrators with a median salary of $55,893 and a top salary of 135,926. The teacher's work day is 7.5 hours with 184 days in the contract year. Additionally, the teachers receive a defined", "-28.179220553080086" ], [ "teachers’ total compensation is roughly 50 percent higher than they would likely receive in the private sector. The study found that the most generous benefits that teachers receive are not accounted for in many studies of compensation including: pension, retiree health benefits and job security.\nIn the 2013-14 school year, the average salary of Shikellamy School District educators was $61,935, while the costs of the benefits package had risen to $30,076 per teacher for a total compensation of $92,012 a year. According to a state report, Shikellamy SD has provided raises to its teachers, which exceeded the rate of inflation since", "-28.144800483434665" ], [ "at least 2.00% x Final Average Salary x Total Credited Service. (Some teachers benefits utilize a 2.50% benefit factor.) After 40 years of service, a teacher can retire with 100% of the average salary of their final 3 years of employment. According to a study conducted at the American Enterprise Institute, in 2011, public school teachers’ total compensation is roughly 50 percent higher than they would likely receive in the private sector. The study found that the most generous benefits that teachers receive are not accounted for in many studies of compensation including: pension, retiree health benefits and job security.\nIn", "-28.12377648273832" ], [ "x Final Average Salary x Total Credited Service. (Some teachers benefits utilize a 2.50% benefit factor.) After 40 years of service, Pennsylvania public school teachers and administrators can retire with 100% of the average salary of their final 3 years of employment. According to a study conducted at the American Enterprise Institute, in 2011, public school teachers’ total compensation is roughly 50 percent higher than they would likely receive in the private sector. The study found that the most generous benefits that teachers receive are not accounted for in many studies of compensation including: pension, retiree health benefits and job", "-28.117596273543313" ], [ "Pennsylvania public school teachers and administrators can retire with 100% of the average salary of their final 3 years of employment. According to a study conducted at the American Enterprise Institute, in 2011, public school teachers’ total compensation is roughly 50 percent higher than they would likely receive in the private sector. The study found that the most generous benefits that teachers receive are not accounted for in many studies of compensation including: pension, retiree health benefits and job security. In 2014-15, Pennsylvania public school district mandated teacher pension contribution rose to 21.40% of employee salaries and in 2015-16 it", "-28.091034643060993" ], [ "According to a study conducted at the American Enterprise Institute, in 2011, public school teachers’ total compensation is roughly 50 percent higher than they would likely receive in the private sector. The study found that the most generous benefits that teachers receive are not accounted for in many studies of compensation including: pension, retiree health benefits and job security.\nIn 2009, the district reported employing 85 teachers and administrators with a median salary of $41,729 and a top salary of $92,000. The teacher's work day is 7.5 hours with 186 days in the contract year (180 instructional days). Additionally, the teachers", "-28.073586106998846" ], [ "a federal free or reduced-price lunch due to family poverty. The school employed 44 teachers, yielding a student–teacher ratio of 18:1. According to a report by the Pennsylvania Department of Education, 100% of its teachers were rated \"Highly Qualified\" under No Child Left Behind. In 2010 and 2011, Elementary School achieved AYP status. In 2011, 86% of the students were reading on grade level in grades 3rd through 6th. In math, 93% of the students in 3rd through 6th grades were on grade level and 66% scored advanced. In 4th grade science, 95% of the pupils were on grade level.", "-28.042041126580443" ], [ "participation or might actually not have a need to participate. Yet, employers' view was apparent that they tended to support high-educated because they were more trainable than the low-educated. Therefore, the participation of the less-educated was low since they could not get promotions from their employers.\nAt last, adults who come from a better socio-economic background tend to participate more in AE programs. The OECD data showed that higher the parent' educational level could produce the higher participation rate. \nSummarizing above findings, people, those are young and men, with high levels of education, high-status of jobs are more likely to take", "-28.035072649785434" ], [ "free or reduced-price lunch due to family poverty. The school employed 38 teachers, yielding a student–teacher ratio of 16:1. According to a report by the Pennsylvania Department of Education, 100% of its teachers were rated \"Highly Qualified\" under No Child Left Behind. In 2011, South St Marys Street Elementary School declined to Warning AYP status due to lagging reading skills of its students. In 2010, the school achieved AYP status under No Child Left Behind. In 2011, only 70% of the students were reading on grade level in grades 3rd through 5th. In math, 90% of the students in 3rd", "-28.01656924659619" ], [ "of the benefits teachers receive was $16,762.69 per employee, for a total annual average teacher compensation of $69,525.79. According to a study conducted at the American Enterprise Institute, in 2011, public school teachers’ total compensation is roughly 50 percent higher than they would likely receive in the private sector. The study found that the most generous benefits that teachers receive are not accounted for in many studies of compensation, including: pension, retiree health benefits and job security. In May 2011, the Bellwood-Antis school board approved a one-year wage freeze Tuesday for its teachers and the administrative staff. The freeze is", "-28.013205670300522" ], [ "college graduates are not as skilled as they would be if they had gone to a school with higher-qualified instructors. This leads to education perpetuating a cycle of poverty. People that choose to work in the schools close to them do not adequately supply the school with enough teachers. The schools must then outsource their teachers from other areas. Susanna Loeb from the School of Education at Stanford did a study and found that teachers who are brought in from the suburbs are 10 times more likely to transfer out of the school after their initial year. The fact that", "-27.985565414535813" ], [ "However, if a teacher identifies a student as on track and having a positive attitude towards school, but does not necessarily have personal interaction with the student, that student has a higher chance of dropping out.\nThe relationships students have with their peers also play a role in influencing a student's likelihood of dropping out. Building relationships with anti-social peers was found by Battin-Pearson to be a strong and direct predictor of dropout beyond the influence of poor academic achievement. Students who had deviant friends were more likely to drop out of school early regardless of their achievement in school.\nParent-child relationships", "-27.980479173362255" ], [ "can retire with 100% of the average salary of their final 3 years of employment. According to a study conducted at the American Enterprise Institute, in 2011, public school teachers’ total compensation is roughly 50 percent higher than they would likely receive in the private sector. The study found that the most generous benefits that teachers receive are not accounted for in many studies of compensation including: pension, retiree health benefits and job security. In 2014-15, Pennsylvania public school district mandated teacher pension contribution rose to 21.40% of employee salaries and in 2015-16 it rose again to 25.84% of total", "-27.96750458851602" ], [ "to a study conducted at the American Enterprise Institute, in 2011, public school teachers’ total compensation is roughly 50 percent higher than they would likely receive in the private sector. The study found that the most generous benefits that teachers receive are not accounted for in many studies of compensation, including: pension, retiree health benefits and job security.\nIn 2007 the district employed 156 teachers. The average teacher salary in the district was $56,784 for 180 days worked. As of 2007, Pennsylvania ranked in the top 10 states in average teacher salaries. When adjusted for cost of living Pennsylvania ranked fourth", "-27.93643435125705" ], [ "$8000 and $9000 lower than teachers' salaries in 1990, when adjusted for inflation. Wages for teachers in Arizona are some of the lowest in the United States, averaging $48,372 per year. In 2017, Arizona ranked last of all fifty states for average elementary school pay, and second to last for teacher pay at the secondary level. Since the Great Recession, funding in the state has been cut by 14 percent. Cuts have been further exacerbated by the privatization trend in the state, which has led to job insecurity. Walkout Teachers voted on April 19 to begin a walkout on April", "-27.919516747962916" ], [ "After 40 years of service, a teacher can retire with 100% of the average salary of their final 3 years of employment. According to a study conducted at the American Enterprise Institute, in 2011, public school teachers’ total compensation is roughly 50 percent higher than they would likely receive in the private sector. The study found that the most generous benefits that teachers receive are not accounted for in many studies of compensation including: pension, retiree health benefits and job security. In 2014-15, Pennsylvania Public school district mandated teacher pension contribution rose to 21.40% of employee salaries and in 2015-16", "-27.84679577627685" ], [ "with Marianne Page, Loeb finds that - contrary to earlier estimates - raising teacher wages by 10% reduces high school dropout rates by 3-4% once the true opportunity costs of being a teacher - e.g. alternative wage opportunities and non-pecuniary job attributes - are taken into account. Research on principals A second and more recent area of Loeb's research studies the role of principals with regard to school and student success. In research with Eileen Horng and Daniel Klasik, Loeb finds that the time used by school principals on organization management activities improves school and student outcomes, whereas day-to-day instruction", "-27.843512535706395" ], [ "utilize a 2.50% benefit factor.) After 40 years of service, a teacher can retire with 100% of the average salary of their final 3 years of employment. According to a study conducted at the American Enterprise Institute, in 2011, public school teachers’ total compensation is roughly 50 percent higher than they would likely receive in the private sector. The study found that the most generous benefits that teachers receive are not accounted for in many studies of compensation including: pension, retiree health benefits and job security.\nIn 2011, the average teacher salary in Coudersport Area School District was $46,367 a year,", "-27.8289189256393" ], [ "more positive student-teacher interaction were less likely to drop out. The effect of this relationship was largely determined by the type of school. In small or medium-sized public or Catholic schools, 'positive student-teacher relations led to an 86% decrease in the odds of dropping out\". However, student-teacher relations did not significantly affect small or medium private schools. Role of relationships As mentioned above, teacher-student interactions can have a large influence on the likelihood of a student dropping out of high school. The better the relationships between students and teachers, the less likely the student is to drop out of school.", "-27.822660649806494" ], [ "excluded from the other students in the classroom. SEN students include those with behavioral problems and those with learning difficulties. Students who do not have disadvantages are more inclined to participate as they feel more like they belong and have a higher belief in their academic abilities. Education becomes less of a chore and more enjoyable when students grow as a group which can lead to the reduction of students acting out destructively. In order to affect students, a teacher needs to monitor and modify the influence students have on one another. Teachers are able to help", "-27.81491382594686" ], [ "group makes the teacher's job more difficult by increasing the range of performance of the students in a class.\nThe teachers' perception of a students' academic abilities determines how detracking is carried out in the classroom. For example, in a school with many disadvantaged students, teachers assumed most students had low ability, and therefore the classroom curriculum was easier than what the students were capable of achieving. On the other side, in a wealthy school, teachers typically assumed students were college-bound and intelligent, and followed a creative and challenging curriculum. Proposed reforms Maureen Hallinan offers many suggestions for reforming the tracking", "-27.806787761088344" ], [ "school's faculty held advanced degrees, and 95.2% were designated Highly Qualified Teachers according to the No Child Left Behind Act. However, as of 2008, only 65.8% are licensed in their teaching assignment, below the state average. \nOn average over the past 10 years, 16% of teachers (about 9 out of 56 to 60 each year) have not returned annually, which is less than the 20% national average for public schools. The average years of service for teachers at Parker is 4.5 years, with an average teaching experience of 6.9 years. Some leave to take on leadership roles in", "-27.789334324235824" ], [ "to a study conducted at the American Enterprise Institute, in 2011, public school teachers' total compensation is roughly 50 percent higher than they would likely receive in the private sector. The study found that the most generous benefits that teachers receive are not accounted for in many studies of compensation, including: pension, retiree health benefits and job security.\nIn 2009, Plum Borough School District reported employing 397 teachers and administrators with a median salary of $69,326 and a top salary of $125,000. The teacher's work day is 7 hours 30 minutes with 188 days in the contract year (180 days of", "-27.743246551326592" ], [ "succeed to the levels of the middle income children, who can have a greater sense of entitlement, be more argumentative, or be better prepared for adult life.\nResearch shows that lower SES students have lower and slower academic achievement as compared with students of higher SES. When teachers make judgments about students based on their class and SES, they are taking the first step in preventing students from having an equal opportunity for academic achievement. Educators need to help overcome the stigma of poverty. A student of low SES and low self-esteem should not be reinforced by educators. ", "-27.742433908143994" ], [ "x Total Credited Service. (Some teachers benefits utilize a 2.50% benefit factor.) After 40 years of service, a teacher can retire with 100% of the average salary of their final 3 years of employment. According to a study conducted at the American Enterprise Institute, in 2011, public school teachers’ total compensation is roughly 50 percent higher than they would likely receive in the private sector. The study found that the most generous benefits that teachers receive are not accounted for in many studies of compensation including: pension, retiree health benefits and job security.\nIn 2012, the average teacher salary in Northern", "-27.726840073941275" ], [ "at Bernard Mizeki College. The government argued that teachers at private schools alone gobbled about $70 million United States dollars in salaries and allowances. This move has forced the college to engage parents on how best to reach an agreement on this issue. The agreements have to be presented to the ministry of education. The affected teachers last received their salaries from government Salaries Services Bureau in July 2016", "-27.713496721815318" ], [ "are also more likely to stay when they report being satisfied with their school. School location and student demographics are not major factors in either pushing teachers away or pulling them in. Teacher factors Researchers and policy makers have also collected information about teacher demographics to better understand teachers' choices to stay or leave their schools. Most studies include research on teacher age and gender as well as teacher qualifications. Age and gender Teachers are most likely to stay in their schools if they are between the ages of 30-50. Teachers under 30 are more likely to move schools within", "-27.706335587368812" ], [ "limitation on tuition fee increases, and the teachers clamor for higher wages, the school was beset with survival problems. There were fears and apprehensions of mass transfer of students and teachers to the public schools. However, in contrary to expectations, the school experienced a considerable increase in its student population especially due to the increase of numbers of transferees from the public schools and due to the Education Service Contracting Scheme being provided by the government. Luckily, the school kept 99% of its employees with only two teachers leaving the school for greener pastures.\nIn 2008, La Salette of Roxas celebrated", "-27.702629611681914" ], [ "at the American Enterprise Institute, in 2011, public school teachers’ total compensation is roughly 50 percent higher than they would likely receive in the private sector. The study found that the most generous benefits that teachers receive are not accounted for in many studies of compensation including: pension, retiree health benefits and job security. In 2014-15, Pennsylvania public school district mandated teacher pension contribution rose to 21.40% of employee salaries and in 2015-16 it rose again to 25.84% of total salaries. In 2014-15, the state mandated District contribution to the teacher pension fund rose to 21.40% of employee salaries and", "-27.701882030058187" ], [ "that it didn't matter much whether the pay was tied to the performance of a given teacher or to the team to which that teacher was assigned. They state that \"a merit pay regime need not pit teachers in a given school against each other to get results\".\nScience Daily specifically covers the Fryer study stating that the study showed that \"students gained as much as a 10 percentile increase in their scores compared to students with similar backgrounds -- if their teacher received a bonus at the beginning of the year, with conditions attached.\" It also explains how", "-27.69761145913799" ], [ "2011, public school teachers’ total compensation is roughly 50 percent higher than they would likely receive in the private sector. The study found that the most generous benefits that teachers receive are not accounted for in many studies of compensation, including: pension, retiree health benefits and job security.\nIn 2009, the Claysburg-Kimmel School District reported employing 75 teachers and administrators with a median salary of $47,429 and a top salary of $104,575. The teacher’s work day is 7.5 hours with 180 student days in the contract year. Additionally, the teachers receive a defined benefit pension, health insurance, professional development reimbursement, paid", "-27.696818695694674" ], [ "American Enterprise Institute, in 2011, public school teachers’ total compensation is roughly 50 percent higher than they would likely receive in the private sector. The study found that the most generous benefits that teachers receive are not accounted for in many studies of compensation, including: pension, retiree health benefits and job security.\nIn 2009, the Derry Township School District reported employing over 300 teachers with a salary range of a starting at $40,281 to $130,000. In 2009, the professional employee contract required a modest annual contribution towards the employee's health insurance plan $296 for a single person, $770 for family", "-27.671285811054986" ], [ "their less effective, but more senior, peers continue to teach.\" As of early 2014, two states provided that seniority could not be considered when deciding which teachers to lay off, 18 states and the District of Columbia left the layoff criteria to school district discretion, 20 states provided that seniority could be considered among other factors, and 10 states provided that seniority was the sole factor, or one that had to be considered. Effects of seniority-prioritized layoffs LIFO has a more severe impact in poor or high minority schools, since those schools tend to have newer and less experienced teachers.", "-27.66812106364887" ], [ "for a total annual average teacher compensation of $70,104.51. According to a study conducted at the American Enterprise Institute, in 2011, public school teachers’ total compensation is roughly 50 percent higher than they would likely receive in the private sector. The study found that the most generous benefits that teachers receive are not accounted for in many studies of compensation, including: pension, retiree health benefits and job security.\nIn 2009, the district reported employing 67 teachers and administrators with a median salary of $62,200 and a top salary of $104,282. The teacher’s work day is seven hours and thirty minutes with", "-27.66424262340297" ], [ "factor.) After 40 years of service, Pennsylvania public school teachers and administrators can retire with 100% of the average salary of their final 3 years of employment. According to a study conducted at the American Enterprise Institute, in 2011, public school teachers’ total compensation is roughly 50 percent higher than they would likely receive in the private sector. The study found that the most generous benefits that teachers receive are not accounted for in many studies of compensation including: pension, retiree health benefits and job security. In 2014-15, the state mandated District contribution to the teacher pension fund rose to", "-27.657019356556702" ], [ "school teachers’ total compensation is roughly 50 percent higher than they would likely receive in the private sector. The study found that the most generous benefits that teachers receive are not accounted for in many studies of compensation, including: pension, retiree health benefits and job security.\nIn 2009, the district reported employing 152 teachers and administrators with a median salary of $46,258 and a top salary of $100,000. The teacher's work day is 7 hours and 15 minutes, with 186 days in the contract year. Additionally, the teachers receive a defined benefit pension, health insurance, professional development reimbursement, an Income Protection", "-27.652950421790592" ], [ "graduate from high school and potentially obtain a college degree, which in return increases their chances of a larger salary. The average salary of an individual with a high school diploma is about $35,000, but increases to about $60,000 by obtaining a bachelor's degree after. The gap in salary increases with each additional level of education received. Those in the lower class face more obstacles and have less opportunities to pursue additional education due to their lack of resources. The wage gap is even larger for individuals affected by poverty and racial barriers. Whites have a median income of about", "-27.644727966195205" ], [ "Total Credited Service. (Some teachers benefits utilize a 2.50% benefit factor.) After 40 years of service, a teacher can retire with 100% of the average salary of their final 3 years of employment. According to a study conducted at the American Enterprise Institute, in 2011, public school teachers' total compensation is roughly 50 percent higher than they would likely receive in the private sector. The study found that the most generous benefits that teachers receive are not accounted for in many studies of compensation including: pension, retiree health benefits and job security.\nIn 2011–12, the average teacher salary in Conewago Valley", "-27.642076394855394" ], [ "yielding a student-teacher ratio of 14:1. In 2010, 27 of the teachers were rated \"Non-Highly Qualified\" under No Child Left Behind.\nIn 2012, Northeastern High School declined to School Improvement I AYP status due to a low graduation rate and low student achievement in reading and especially mathematics. The Pennsylvania Department of Education (PDE) required the high school's administration to develop a school improvement plan to address the graduation rate and low student achievement. The plan was required to be submitted to the PDE for approval. Under the Pennsylvania Accountability System, the school must pay for additional tutoring for struggling", "-27.64152507390827" ], [ "to a study conducted at the American Enterprise Institute, in 2011, public school teachers’ total compensation is roughly 50 percent higher than they would likely receive in the private sector. The study found that the most generous benefits that teachers receive are not accounted for in many studies of compensation including: pension, retiree health benefits and job security. In 2014-15, Pennsylvania public school district mandated teacher pension contribution rose to 21.40% of employee salaries and in 2015-16 it rose again to 25.84% of total salaries. In 2014-15, the state mandated District contribution to the teacher pension fund rose to 21.40%", "-27.63823168518138" ], [ "live in poverty.\" \nBoth student and teacher attrition are major issues in reservation schools as well. Censuses have demonstrated the trend in reservation schools that, \"despite a growth in population... enrollment in grades 1 through 12 has steadily declined...\" The High School dropout rate for Native Americans is high, much higher than the national average, and as quoted in a UCLA Civil Rights project report, \"Native students \"...have a dropout rate twice the national average; the highest dropout rate of any United States ethnic or racial group. About three out of every ten Native students drop out of school", "-27.614612966484856" ], [ "paid $35 per hour for required work outside of regular work day. In 2011, the average teacher salary in North Allegheny School District was $71,430.68 a year, while the cost of the benefits teachers receive was $20,076.42 per employee, for a total annual average teacher compensation of $91,506.11. According to a study conducted at the American Enterprise Institute, in 2011, public school teachers’ total compensation is roughly 50 percent higher than they would likely receive in the private sector. The study found that the most generous benefits that teachers receive are not accounted for in many studies of compensation, including:", "-27.609524600891746" ], [ "student. Basis teachers make less than the average for public school teachers in the state, although Basis.ed contends that with bonuses, compensation is competitive.", "-27.597678106627427" ], [ "average monthly salary of local Vietnamese public teachers is between US$60 and US$100, so many supplement their income by moonlighting, working in the private sector or tutoring. Students who do not attend these sessions are always at a disadvantage, as materials appearing on tests and exams are often covered only in tutoring sessions.\nPublic schools are underfunded. Currently, only primary schools are subsidized by the government, to 50% of the total tuition cost. Enrollment rates may be high; however, primary education quality, particularly in poor areas, is below the required standard. Moreover, the drop-out rate after fifth grade is also high,", "-27.589066279662802" ], [ "academic performance. Some parents send their children to such tuition because they are worried that their child would lag behind in class because their classmates have individual tuition themselves, or because they are worried that the teacher does not completely cover the syllabus required for national examinations. Teachers and schools allegedly encouraged weaker students to receive private tuition as well, though the Ministry of Education's official stance is that \"Teachers should not recommend tuition to students or parents as a form of learning support\". Some students who are doing well academically have had requested to have private tuition to further", "-27.582899517190526" ], [ "x Total Credited Service. (Some teachers benefits utilize a 2.50% benefit factor.) After 40 years of service, a teacher can retire with 100% of the average salary of their final 3 years of employment. According to a study conducted at the American Enterprise Institute, in 2011, public school teachers’ total compensation is roughly 50 percent higher than they would likely receive in the private sector. The study found that the most generous benefits that teachers receive are not accounted for in many studies of compensation including: pension, retiree health benefits and job security.\nIn 2009, Portage Area School District reported employing", "-27.577678946370725" ], [ "of living, and grade taught. Salaries also vary within states where wealthy suburban school districts generally have higher salary schedules than other districts. The median salary for all primary and secondary teachers was $46,000 in 2004, with the average entry salary for a teacher with a bachelor's degree being an estimated $32,000. Median salaries for preschool teachers, however, were less than half the national median for secondary teachers, clock in at an estimated $21,000 in 2004. For high school teachers, median salaries in 2007 ranged from $35,000 in South Dakota to $71,000 in New York, with a national median of", "-27.556277217634488" ], [ "a democratization and options exist for those other than the elite. Enrollment has also grown.\nIn 2000, 44.2% of children ages 5 to 14 years were attending school. There is a general lack of facilities, equipment, qualified teachers, textbooks and other resources. Salaries for teachers are often so far in arrears that many refuse to work.\nPrior to 2000, students seeking a university education had to attend school outside of the country, however in the early 2000s a university was created in the country. This served to help economic growth and to fight the \"flight\" of many educated people who were not", "-27.53982834785711" ], [ "total compensation is roughly 50 percent higher than they would likely receive in the private sector. The study found that the most generous benefits that teachers receive are not accounted for in many studies of compensation, including: pension, retiree health benefits and job security.\nIn 2009, Upper Dauphin Area School District reported employing over 100 teachers and administrators with a salary range of $40,000 to $107,500. The median teacher salary was $57,205. Teachers work 7.5 hours a day with a 30-minute paid duty-free lunch period. Additionally, the teachers receive a defined benefit pension, health insurance (with a small employee contribution), dental", "-27.536814553517615" ], [ "students, however this did not result in an increase in academic instructional time. Mainstream students in low-ability classes receive more nonacademic correction from the classroom teacher compared to mainstreamed students in average and above-average classes or regular education students. Resulting in students with special education needs (SEN) spending 25% of their time working outside of the classroom, and a reduction of teacher interaction in a whole class setting from 30% to 22%. Therefore, mainstreamed students will spend time in a resource room where they can receive more individualized attention from teachers. In contrast, there has been an increase of the", "-27.530289449729025" ], [ "x Total Credited Service. (Some teachers benefits utilize a 2.50% benefit factor.) After 40 years of service, Pennsylvania public school teachers and administrators can retire with 100% of the average salary of their final 3 years of employment. According to a study conducted at the American Enterprise Institute, in 2011, public school teachers' total compensation is roughly 50 percent higher than they would likely receive in the private sector. The study found that the most generous benefits that teachers receive are not accounted for in many studies of compensation including: pension, retiree health benefits and job security. In 2014-15, the", "-27.52902254529181" ], [ "teachers with a top salary of $109,200.\nHalifax Area School District teacher and administrator retirement benefits are equal to at least 2.00% x Final Average Salary x Total Credited Service. (Some teachers benefits utilize a 2.50% benefit factor.) After 40 years of service, a teacher can retire with 100% of the average salary of their final 3 years of employment. According to a study conducted at the American Enterprise Institute, in 2011, public school teachers’ total compensation is roughly 50 percent higher than they would likely receive in the private sector. The study found that the most generous benefits that teachers", "-27.518911481951363" ], [ "factors include low salary, student behavior issues, lack of support from school administration, and inability to participate in decision-making.Ingersoll, Richard M. (2001). \"Teacher turnover and teacher shortages: An organizational analysis\". American Educational Research Journal. 38 (3): 499–534. doi:10.3102/00028312038003499.</ref> Teachers may also be more likely to leave if they are resistant to using prescribed curriculums or are discouraged from modifying their instruction. Over time, individual school environments affect teacher attrition more than district measures like teacher salary, student demographics, or urban settings. Pull factors Other factors encourage teachers to stay at their current school. Teachers are more likely to stay in", "-27.516477378463605" ], [ "qualifications and teaching assignments are more likely to leave their schools or the profession. Special education teachers are not more likely to leave teaching, but they are more likely to transfer to positions as general educators. Elementary teachers are more likely to stay than middle and high school teachers. Teacher who feel effective in their jobs are also more likely to continue teaching. Retaining teachers of color Retaining teachers of color is an important element of teacher retention. Students of color perform better with race congruent teachers of color and American students are increasingly non white. In 2014 50.3% of", "-27.51260804431513" ], [ "conducted at the American Enterprise Institute, in 2011, public school teachers’ total compensation is roughly 50 percent higher than they would likely receive in the private sector. The study found that the most generous benefits that teachers receive are not accounted for in many studies of compensation including: pension, retiree health benefits and job security. In 2014-15, Pennsylvania public school district mandated teacher pension contribution rose to 21.40% of employee salaries and in 2015-16 it rose again to 25.84% of total salaries. In 2014-15, the state mandated district contribution to the teacher pension fund rose to 21.40% of employee salaries", "-27.504034516750835" ], [ "study conducted at the American Enterprise Institute, in 2011, public school teachers’ total compensation is roughly 50 percent higher than they would likely receive in the private sector. The study found that the most generous benefits that teachers receive are not accounted for in many studies of compensation including: pension, retiree health benefits and job security.\nIn 2011, the average teacher salary in Southern York County School District was $68,685 a year, while the cost of the benefits teachers received was $18,755 per employee, for a total annual average teacher compensation of $87,440. According to a study conducted at the American", "-27.48356865241658" ], [ "conducted at the American Enterprise Institute, in 2011, public school teachers’ total compensation is roughly 50 percent higher than they would likely receive in the private sector. The study found that the most generous benefits that teachers receive are not accounted for in many studies of compensation including: pension, retiree health benefits and job security.\nIn 2013, the Central Cambria School District and teachers' union entered into fact finding as a part of contract negotiations. Issues included early retirement early buyout, paid days off (sick, bereavement, personal, emergency). The union rejected the report in July 2013.\nIn 2009, the district reported employing", "-27.473439072666224" ], [ "improve on their grades. \nOn the other hand, some have criticised the over-reliance on private tuition, saying that students may not pay attention during lessons as they are able to fall back on their tuition classes later. Students may also be unable to find answers on their own, having relied on their tutors for answers during their school years. Some tuition centres reportedly do schoolwork on their students' behalf. Others have also criticised private tuition for taking up too much of students' free time. Due to the high cost of tuition, there are concerns that low-income families were unable to", "-27.469538851757534" ], [ "average pay for teachers has exceeded the $50,000 mark.\nAccording to the Bureau of Labor Statistics, there are roughly 1.4 million primary school teachers employed in the United States, with average earnings of $55,270, and median earnings of $52,840. Governance Authority to regulate education resides constitutionally with the individual states, with direct authority of the U.S. Congress and the federal U.S. Department of Education being limited to regulation and enforcement of federal constitutional rights. Great indirect authority is, however, exercised through federal funding of national programs and block grants although there is no obligation upon any state to accept these funds. The U.S. government", "-27.459364633250516" ], [ "out of high school as a result of the racial achievement gap demonstrate difficulty in the job market. The median income of young adults who do not finish high school is about $21,000, compared to the $30,000 of those who have at least earned a high school credential. This translates into a difference of $630,000 in the course of a lifetime. Students who are not accepted or decide not to attend college as a result of the racial achievement gap may forgo over $450,000 in lifetime earnings had they earned a Bachelor of Arts degree. In 2009, $36,000 was the", "-27.428275256068446" ], [ "school students tend to overestimate both the tuition rates and rates of return to college education independent of their socioeconomic background, (ii) that the complexity of the financial aid and college application processes often discourages low-income students even if they are qualified and interested in a college education, (iii) and that many public high school students reporting an interest in college education either don't believe they are qualified and/or never wanted to pursue college education anyway. Research on school accountability, competition, quality and charter schools Another substantial body of Kane's research addresses the topics of school accountability, school choice and", "-27.42225065175444" ], [ "plus payment for accumulated sick days. In 2011, the average teacher salary in BASD was $62,287.80 a year, while the cost of the benefits teachers receive was $19,375.21 per employee, for a total annual average teacher compensation of $71,663. According to a study conducted at the American Enterprise Institute, in 2011, public school teachers' total compensation is roughly 50 percent higher than they would likely receive in the private sector. The study found that the most generous benefits that teachers receive are not accounted for in many studies of compensation, including: pension, retiree health benefits and job security.\nIn 2007,", "-27.405725210963283" ], [ "360 teachers with a salary range of $41,580 to $112,303 and a median teacher salary of $63,256. More than 100 teachers earn over $60,000 per year. Teachers work 7 hours 30 minutes per day with a 30 min lunch period and a daily prep period. In addition to salary, the teachers' compensation includes: health insurance, life insurance, 3 days paid bereavement leave, 1 emergency leave day, 11 paid sick days, 3 personal days, and reimbursement for college courses. At retirement, teachers receive payment or $55/day for each unused sick day, taxpayer funded health insurance until age 65 and up to 75%", "-27.397889560525073" ], [ "x Total Credited Service. (Some teachers benefits utilize a 2.50% benefit factor.) After 40 years of service, a teacher can retire with 100% of the average salary of their final 3 years of employment. According to a study conducted at the American Enterprise Institute, in 2011, public school teachers’ total compensation is roughly 50 percent higher than they would likely receive in the private sector. The study found that the most generous benefits that teachers receive are not accounted for in many studies of compensation including: pension, retiree health benefits and job security.\nIn 2007, the district employed 186 teachers and", "-27.393633925777976" ], [ "or less stays the same during their high school career. Those groups are sorted in levels, depending on a test children take at the end of primary school and their teachers' advice. Those levels determine how long you stay in high school and what kind of school you can attend after high school. Usually, the only reason to switch groups is when you go up a level or drop a level at the end of a year, based on your grades and performance. \nSo students always take all classes with exactly the same group, have lunch breaks at the same", "-27.392887616433427" ], [ "Vigdor and Justin Wheeler confirmed that the school personnel serving students in high-poverty schools in N.C. generally have lower qualifications than those in lower poverty schools.* In further research in N.C., Ladd, Clotfelter and Vigdor find that the way how novice teachers are distributed by school administrators across schools and classrooms disadvantages Afro-American students and that the generally positive returns to teacher experience in students' math and reading achievement are much larger with regard to math for socioeconomically advantaged students, possibly explaining why the most highly qualified teachers often teach the most advantaged students. However, they (with Elizabeth Glennie)", "-27.377098988043144" ], [ "ten full days of paid leave each school year to the President and/or other employee representatives of the Association for attendance at conferences or conventions of affiliated organizations. In 2011, the average teacher salary in FASD was $52,262 a year, while the cost of the benefits teachers receive was $15,046 per employee, for a total annual average teacher compensation of $67,308.28. According to a study conducted at the American Enterprise Institute, in 2011, public school teachers’ total compensation is roughly 50 percent higher than they would likely receive in the private sector. The study found that the most generous", "-27.355732209369307" ], [ "elementary schools than middle or high schools. Teachers who earn at least $40,000 per year are most likely to stay through their fifth year at the same school. Teachers stay longer in schools that have missions in alignment with the teacher’s personal mission. One of the most successful strategies used to retain teachers includes mentoring and teacher teaming. Others point to the importance of teachers being treated as professionals who are trusted and collaborate with one another to meet student needs. These professional practices can include individuality, creativity, high expectations for students, and community building with mentors or peers. Teachers", "-27.351179879988194" ], [ "also find that offering higher salaries to teachers in high-poverty schools in N.C. was successful in substantially reducing these schools' teacher turnover rates, with experienced teachers displaying the strongest response. They find that gaps between Caucasian and Afro-American student achievements are large and persistent, Hispanic and Asian students tend to gain on Caucasians over their schooling, with the racial gaps in math typically widening over time for high-performing students and closing for low-performing students. Moreover, they also find that teacher credentials (e.g. licensure or certification systematically and substantially affect student achievement and that the unequal distribution of teacher credentials", "-27.33256438735407" ], [ "middle schools effective July 2011. The budget also froze administration pay and that reduced staffing by 24 positions. Beginning in 2011-12, the sixth grades will remain at the elementary schools, while seventh and eighth grades will be provided at the high school. The high school has been overstaffed, according to Superintendent Robin Musto, with 24 teachers not working a full teaching schedule and having 2 or more planning periods each day. Additionally, class size at the high school has been as low as 9 pupils for 15% of the classes, while many classes have 10-15 students. According to the Pennsylvania", "-27.33240798325278" ] ]

[ "There was a software programmer who testified under oath that US representatives tried to pay him to design software that would flip votes on the voting machines. According to him, the software exists. Strangely, nothing ever came from it; imagine that. [Video here.]( URL_0 )", "Because there are hundreds, if not thousands, of clerks of court. Each of these clerks of court is responsible for voting in their county. Some states will impose a single voting system, but the clerks can still alter things. There might be somewhere in the US where an open source system is used. But there are lots of officials and lots of systems.", "Not really. because lets say the supporters of one party are able to compromise a key state like Texas or California to sway elections towards them. That means when and believe me it will come out, then you have half the country which will be making sure that they get what is coming, and even more if borderline or middle voters are turned off by the wrong doing. To compromise a voting system on any sort of impactful scale requires too much organization and people to ever remain secret.", "The United States does not use such a system. Some *states* do, but the country as a whole does not. It's a good question at the state level but misguided at the federal level.", "Almost as silly and absurd as the electoral college system. Why bother even counting votes when all-in-all it doesn't really matter who the general population chooses?", "A major strategy in software testing is called black-box testing, in which the code is essentially closed-source as far as the tester is concerned. For most purposes, in my SQA engineering days, I wouldn't like it as a sole strategy. But then, most software has a much more complicated UI than voting machines, at least the sort used in my town which use paper ballots on which you fill in the block. For something with a UI that simple, particularly when there's paper backup, black box testing is surely good enough. As for screen-based voting systems - nah, I wouldn't trust those." ]

[ [ "US Supreme Court upheld the constitutionality of non-partisan commissions. Alternative voting systems The predominant voting system in the United States is a first-past-the-post system that uses single-member districts. Various alternative district-based voting systems that do not rely on redistricting, or rely on redistricting minimally, have been proposed that may mitigate against the ability to gerrymander. These systems typically involve a form of at-large elections or multimember districts. Examples of such systems include the single-transferable vote, cumulative voting, and limited voting.\nProportional voting systems, such as those used in all but three European states, would bypass the problem altogether. In these systems,", "-35.72381275839871" ], [ "concern since voting systems emerged in ancient times. The secret ballot is the simplest and most widespread measure to ensure that political views are not known to anyone other than the voters themselves—it is nearly universal in modern democracy, and considered to be a basic right of citizenship. In fact, even where other rights of privacy do not exist, this type of privacy very often does. Unfortunately, there are several forms of voting fraud or privacy violations possible with the use of digital voting machines. United States Department of Commerce Safe Harbor program and passenger name record issues The United", "-34.370058885793696" ], [ "as new opportunities and requirements surface. Appointed or elected boards have more control over quality because of their capabilities to select among various operators, bargain for performance benchmarks, and do away with failing schools. Massive Public Education System The National Education Association (NEA) published an article explaining the main reason of American educators and leaders for visualizing an extensive system for public education. It is essential to train the youth in becoming dynamic contributors in self-government. Casting votes is not enough. Citizens of the United States must help look after the common good which entails nurturing debate proficiency, critical thinking,", "-33.8680139890057" ], [ "which is currently awaiting scheduling for a vote in the US House of Representatives.\nOrganizations promoting changes in redistricting include FairVote and EndGerrymandering.com. Compulsory voting Voting is not required of citizens in any state, so elections are decided by those who show up. Politicians target their message at getting their own supporters out to the polls, rather than winning over the citizens in the middle. One solution to this problem is compulsory voting.\nCompulsory voting has been criticized as \"vaguely un-American\" but potentially beneficial to democracy. Organizations supporting specific reforms Organizations that support some variant of at least one of", "-33.572284502442926" ], [ "with voting systems has not been at the forefront of political agendas. Election officials want citizens showing up to the polls confident about where their vote is going and how it is being interpreted. The Verified Voting Foundation essentially acts a non-governmental advocacy group that attempts address what they see as a voter security issue by pressuring government officials to prioritize election reform in favor of their belief of \"best practices\". The 2000 United States presidential election recount in Florida was a trivial event that forced officials to improve vote accuracy and \"raised concerns about how Americans vote\". The punch", "-33.556769595714286" ], [ "and pressure about how they should vote, from the union, management, or both. The best way to protect employees from coercion is through the continued use of a federally supervised, private-ballot process.\n2. Private ballots are a basic American right.\nThe entire American system is based on respect for individual liberty and democracy. If Congress passes this proposal, they will strip away the protections that federally protected, democratic elections provide for American workers.\n3. An employee’s decision to join a union should be made in private. Employees should not have to reveal to anyone -- employers or unions -- how they exercise their", "-33.16086302952317" ], [ "no districts are present, and the party that gets, for example, 30 percent of the votes gets roughly 30 percent of the seats in the legislature. Although it is common for European states to have more than two parties, the American two-party system could be maintained by implementing a sufficiently high election threshold. Proportional voting systems may break the strong constituency link, a cornerstone of current American politics, by eliminating the dependency of individual representatives on a concrete electorate. Gerrymandering and the Environment Gerrymandering has the ability to create numerous problems for the constituents impacted by the redistricting. A study", "-33.15754369892966" ], [ "favoring only two major parties.\nGary Cox suggested that America's two-party system was highly related with economic prosperity in the country:\nThe bounty of the American economy, the fluidity of American society, the remarkable unity of the American people, and, most important, the success of the American experiment have all mitigated against the emergence of large dissenting groups that would seek satisfaction of their special needs through the formation of political parties.\n— Cox, according to George Edwards\nAn effort in 2012 by centrist groups to promote ballot access by Third Party candidates called Americans Elect spent $15 million to get ballot access but failed", "-33.00996039472375" ], [ "implemented than other alternatives to the winner-takes-all method, in view of major party resistance to relatively enabling third parties under the proportional method. State legislation is sufficient to use this method. Advocates of the congressional district method believe the system would encourage higher voter turnout and incentivize presidential candidates to broaden their campaigns in non-competitive states. Winner-take-all systems ignore thousands of popular votes; in Democratic California there are Republican districts, in Republican Texas there are Democratic districts. Because candidates have an incentive to campaign in competitive districts, with a district plan, candidates have an incentive to actively campaign in over", "-32.96650765533559" ], [ "paths by which plurality voting systems lead to fewer major parties: the \"fusion\" or alliance of weaker parties into more effective factions, and the \"elimination\" of weak parties as voters gradually desert them because they have no chance of winning and influencing governance.\nBecause the system gives only the winner in each district a seat, a party which consistently comes in second or third in every district will not gain any seats in the legislature, even if it receives a large minority of the vote. This puts geographically thinly spread parties at a significant disadvantage to geographically concentrated ones with the", "-32.94864942372078" ], [ "nowadays the overwhelming majority of local Councillors belong to one of the major parties. United States In the United States there is more focus on electoral reform, including a call for instant-runoff voting to be used to select all major executives. This is thought to make it possible for small parties to compete, as in the case of Matt Gonzalez in San Francisco, California. Such a ballot reform is often a complement to moving towards a “strong mayor” system, such as in Baltimore, Maryland or as recently advocated in Oakland, California.\nResidents of Takoma Park, Maryland can vote in municipal elections", "-32.76016905927099" ], [ "party system. A proportional representation (PR) system creates electoral conditions that foster the development of many parties, whereas a plurality system marginalizes smaller political parties, generally resulting in a two-party system.\nIn practice, most countries with plurality voting have more than two parties. While the United States is very much a two-party system, the United Kingdom, Canada and India have consistently had multiparty parliaments. Eric Dickson and Ken Scheve argue that there is a counter force to Duverger's law, that on the national level a plurality system encourages two parties, but in the individual constituencies supermajorities will lead to the vote", "-32.758910418779124" ], [ "the United States generally draw a very low voter turnout. In addition, only a small portion of the public may be educated on the issue stances of all primary candidates, as primary elections typically use little or no mass media advertising. Party activists, ideologues, and local party leaders may constitute an unusually high number of, or exert disproportionate levels of influence on, those who actually vote.\nThis situation provides opportunities for organizations focused on a single issue, such as gun control, taxation, or abortion. Such organizations may be able to convince their supporters to endure the difficulty of voting, while", "-32.739117946242914" ], [ "political system of the United States and does not apply to a parliamentary system (such as Great Britain) since the minority party is not involved in helping write legislation or voting for it. Fallows argues that in a two-party system, the minority party can be obstructionist and thwart the actions of the majority party. However, analyst Anne Applebaum in The Washington Post suggested that partisanship had been rampant in the United Kingdom and described it as \"a country in which the government and the opposition glower at each other from opposite sides of the House of Commons, in which backbenchers", "-32.65060606581392" ], [ "in getting people to vote and not to promote particular candidates or political view, and a group is nonpartisan if it is not directing people how to vote. Nonpartisan groups generally do not distribute literature about candidates or causes when assisting potential voters to register to vote, and also do not focus GOTV efforts on voters who are most likely to agree with their personal views. Reading system The traditional GOTV method used in the UK is the Reading system, developed by the Reading Constituency Labour Party and its MP Ian Mikardo for the 1945 general election. Once canvassing was", "-32.64705545530887" ], [ "political issues within their party is a false assumption. Despite contrary beliefs, there are many liberal Republicans and conservative Democrats in the U.S. who have differing political beliefs within their parties. However, these voters most often align with their party because of the limited choice of candidates, and to do otherwise (i.e. vote for a third-party candidate) is perceived as a waste of time. Issue partisanship Despite various claims that argue American society is more polarized today than leading up to the U.S. Civil War, numerous scholars explain that much evidence shows there is a relatively stable public opinion on", "-32.59885325183859" ], [ "the legislature. Second, voters learn, over time, not to vote for candidates outside of one of the two large parties since their votes for third party candidates are usually ineffectual. As a result, weaker parties are eliminated by voters over time. Duverger pointed to statistics and tactics to suggest that voters tended to gravitate towards one of the two main parties, a phenomenon which he called polarization, and tend to shun third parties. For example, some analysts suggest that the Electoral College system in the United States, by favoring a system of winner-takes-all in presidential elections, is a structural choice", "-32.531516428571194" ], [ "where more important elections still use more traditional counting methods.\nWhile openness and accountability are usually considered cornerstones of a democratic system, the act of casting a vote and the content of a voter's ballot are usually an important exception. The secret ballot is a relatively modern development, but it is now considered crucial in most free and fair elections, as it limits the effectiveness of intimidation. Scheduling The nature of democracy is that elected officials are accountable to the people, and they must return to the voters at prescribed intervals to seek their mandate to continue in office. For", "-32.49282872962067" ], [ "Globe, and the Minneapolis Star Tribune, arguing that the existing system discourages voter turnout and leaves emphasis on only a few states and a few issues, while a popular election would equalize voting power. Others have argued against it, including the Honolulu Star-Bulletin. An article by Pete du Pont, a former Governor of Delaware, in the opinion section of The Wall Street Journal has called the project an urban power grab that would shift politics entirely to urban issues in high population states and allow lower caliber candidates to run. A collection of readings pro and con has been assembled", "-32.4754480572592" ], [ "or policies favoured by few voters is/are adopted. Most importantly, the ability of voters to vote a party in disfavour out of power is curtailed.\nAll these disadvantages, the PR opponents contend, are avoided by two-party plurality systems. Coalitions are rare; the two dominant parties necessarily compete at the centre for votes, so that governments are more reliably moderate; the strong opposition necessary for proper scrutiny of government is assured; and governments remain sensitive to public sentiment because they can be, and are, regularly voted out of power. However, this is not necessarily so; a two-party system can result", "-32.44418990745908" ], [ "have been slandered. Faithful servants of the country have had their motives questioned and their patriotism doubted. It has been led . . . inspired . . . and guided . . . from the highest offices in the land. ... We cannot make America small. ... Ordinarily that division is not between parties, but between men and ideas. But this year the leaders of the Republican party have intentionally made that line a party line. They have confronted you with exactly that choice. Thus – in voting for the Democratic party tomorrow – you cast your vote for trust", "-32.36514531960711" ], [ "the number of Republicans who voted in the Democratic primary and that only Democratic ballots ran out.\nBrunner has spoken out against election officials taking voting machines home with them in the days before an election. Such actions could allow hacking even though it makes transport and delivery to the eventual polling place simpler. Some elections officials say they feel the system is better if elections officials keep an eye on machines the days before the elections. Brunner says poll workers have sometimes cast ballots on machines in their homes. She issued the following directive on the", "-32.339527862350224" ], [ "despite all the cases already having shown substantial and likely majority support for representation.\"\nThey criticized the current system by asking, \"How can anyone who thinks elections are a bulwark of democracy support a system in which a third of those interested in an election never get to hold one? Why would anyone put faith in a process that offers them a 1-in-5 chance of success?\" Kochan and Ferguson thus called for passage of the Employee Free Choice Act along with other reforms. Response by states In 2010, four states passed constitutional amendments guaranteeing a secret ballot on union recognition: Arizona,", "-32.331088122562505" ], [ "explained to them\".\nA 2012 paper by six American political scientists called \"A Theory of Political Parties: Groups, Policy Demands and Nominations in American Politics\" challenged the idea that Republicans want a low-information electorate and argued instead that both major American parties do. Noting that 95% of incumbents in the highly polarized House of Representatives win re-election despite voters' preference for centrist representation, the paper theorizes that voters' infrequent penalizing of extremist behaviour represents not approval, but a lack of attention and information. This, the paper says, is supported by the fact that when congressional districts and media markets overlap to", "-32.28429459503968" ], [ "all helped to clean up politics. Gerrymandering The United States has a long tradition of gerrymandering. In some states, bipartisan gerrymandering is the norm. State legislators from both parties sometimes agree to draw congressional district boundaries in a way that ensures the re-election of most or all incumbent representatives from both parties. Rather than allowing more political influence, some states have shifted redistricting authority from politicians and given it to non-partisan redistricting commissions. The states of Washington, Arizona, and California's Proposition 11 (2008) and Proposition 20 (2010) have created standing committees for redistricting following the 2010 census. Rhode Island", "-32.26057236845372" ], [ "party, the top-two system could result in Democrat- or Republican-only general election races. Supporters claimed it would bring back voter choice across party lines and allow independent voters to participate in the primary; opponents said it would exclude third parties and independent candidates from general election ballots, and would in fact reduce general election voter choice. The initiative was put to a public vote in November 2004, and passed with 60% of the vote. The state Republican, Democratic and Libertarian parties sued, however, and a federal district court judge ruled in 2005 that the measure was unconstitutional because it too", "-32.257943565802634" ], [ "the power of minority groups by depressing voter turnout, proponents argue that by making the votes of a given state an all-or-nothing affair, minority groups can provide the critical edge that allows a candidate to win. This encourages candidates to court a wide variety of such minorities and advocacy groups. Encouragement of stability through the two-party system Proponents of the Electoral College see its negative effect on third parties as beneficial. They argue that the two party system has provided stability because it encourages a delayed adjustment during times of rapid political and cultural change. They believe it protects the", "-32.12824221017581" ], [ "in elections because the state's electoral count remains fixed in any event. According to this view, if elections were by popular vote, then states would be motivated to include more citizens in elections since the state would then have more political clout nationally. Critics contend the electoral college system insulates states from negative publicity as well as possible federal penalties for disenfranching subgroups of citizens.\nLegal scholars Akhil Amar and Vikram Amar have argued that the original Electoral College compromise was enacted partially because it enabled Southern states to disenfranchise their slave populations. It permitted Southern states to disfranchise large numbers", "-32.11247179606289" ], [ "Gordon Lafer, who in testimony before the U.S. Congress stated:\nIn the American democratic tradition the principle of the secret ballot is not simply the fact that you go into a voting booth and pull a curtain and nobody sees what you do. It is your right to keep your political opinion private to yourself before, during and after the act of voting; that you can't be lured or coerced into a conversation that is designed to make you reveal your political preferences. In the NLRB, while the vote does take place in a booth where nobody sees what you're doing,", "-32.109578159986995" ], [ "few decades after the ratification of the Constitution, according to several views. In addition, there has been more speculation that the winner-takes-all electoral system as well as particular state and federal laws regarding voting procedures helped to cause a two-party system.\nPolitical scientists such as Maurice Duverger and William H. Riker claim that there are strong correlations between voting rules and type of party system. Jeffrey D. Sachs agreed that there was a link between voting arrangements and the effective number of parties. Sachs explained how the first-past-the-post voting arrangement tended to promote a two-party system:\nThe main reason for America's majoritarian", "-32.10943176827277" ], [ "government, and encourage dominant parties to make deals with weaker parties to form winning coalitions. Analyst Chris Weigant of the Huffington Post wrote that \"the parliamentary system is inherently much more open to minority parties getting much better representation than third parties do in the American system\". After an election in which the party changes, there can be a \"polar shift in policy-making\" when voters react to changes.\nPolitical analyst A. G. Roderick, writing in his book Two Tyrants, argued that the two American parties, the Republicans and Democrats, are highly unpopular in 2015, and are not part of the political", "-32.08844532200601" ], [ "election process actually makes the process less democratic:\nPeople call the current National Labor Relations Board (NLRB) election system a secret ballot election — but in fact it's not like any democratic election held anywhere else in our society. It's really a management-controlled election process because corporations have all the power. They control the information workers can receive and routinely poison the process by intimidating, harassing, coercing and even firing people who try to organize unions. No employee has free choice after being browbeaten by a supervisor to oppose the union or being told they may lose their job and livelihood", "-32.042938288883306" ], [ "of electoral democracy.\n— Lisa Jane Disch, 2002\nThere have been arguments that the winner-take-all mechanism discourages independent or third-party candidates from running for office or promulgating their views. Ross Perot's former campaign manager wrote that the problem with having only two parties is that the nation loses \"the ability for things to bubble up from the body politic and give voice to things that aren't being voiced by the major parties.\" One analyst suggested that parliamentary systems, which typically are multi-party in nature, lead to a better \"centralization of policy expertise\" in government. Multi-party governments permit wider and more diverse viewpoints in", "-32.00385284004733" ], [ "Firstly, most of the voters think that the marginal contribution of their vote will not make a difference on election outcomes; therefore, they do not find it useful to inform themselves on political matters. In other terms, due to the required time and effort of acquiring new information, voters rationally prefer to remain ignorant. Moreover, it has been shown that most citizens process political information in deeply biased, partisan, motivated ways rather than in dispassionate, rational ways. This psychological phenomenon causes voters to strongly identify themselves with a certain political group, specifically find evidence to support arguments aligning with their", "-31.928869433962973" ], [ "to elect any candidates. The lack of choice in a two-party model in politics has often been compared to the variety of choices in the marketplace.\nPolitics has lagged our social and business evolution ... There are 30 brands of Pringles in our local grocery store. How is it that Americans have so much selection for potato chips and only two brands – and not very good ones – for political parties?\n— Scott Ehredt of the Centrist Alliance Advantages Some historians have suggested that two-party systems promote centrism and encourage political parties to find common positions which appeal to wide swaths of the electorate. It", "-31.88584399363026" ], [ "options since only two choices are permitted on the ballot. She wrote:\nHerein lies the central tension of the two–party doctrine. It identifies popular sovereignty with choice, and then limits choice to one party or the other. If there is any truth to Schattschneider's analogy between elections and markets, America's faith in the two–party system begs the following question: Why do voters accept as the ultimate in political freedom a binary option they would surely protest as consumers? ... This is the tyranny of the two–party system, the construct that persuades United States citizens to accept two–party contests as a condition", "-31.866022587870248" ], [ "Let America Vote Overview Kander first became concerned about voter suppression during his tenure as Missouri Secretary of State, when the Republican-dominated state legislature proposed photo identification laws that could prevent as many as 200,000 eligible voters from voting. Kander founded Let America Vote three months after he had narrowly lost to Roy Blunt in the 2016 Senate race. Responding to the actions taken by the Trump Administration (such as the Voter Fraud Commission), Let America Vote aims to create political consequences for politicians intent on denying certain Americans the right to vote, especially those that target low-income and minority", "-31.860358410689514" ], [ "politicians, policy analysts, thought leaders, and educators. Teachers' unions argued that state tests are an inaccurate way to measure teacher effectiveness, considering the fact that learning gains on assessments is only one component of the evaluation systems. Conservatives complained that it imposes federal overreach on state schools, and others argued that charter schools weaken public education. In explaining why Texas would not be applying for Race to the Top funding, then Governor Rick Perry stated, \"we would be foolish and irresponsible to place our children's future in the hands of unelected bureaucrats and special interest groups thousands of miles away", "-31.837818156578578" ], [ "the previous election (with new parties being placed lowest in random order). Such a system makes high ballot position both a cause and an effect of high electoral support. United States Donkey voting shows up in US state elections that use the \"long ballot\" for numerous offices, or in multi-seat elections where there are several candidates from the same party. In his book The Rise of Guardian Democracy: The Supreme Court's Role in Voting Rights, 1845-1969 (Massachusetts: Harvard UP, 1974), Ward E.Y. Elliott notes:\n\"One long-time Democrat precinct captain in Denver noted that, besides having party or lobby support, a candidate", "-31.750136744987685" ], [ "the move towards the open primary system. The closed primary system had more of an incentive for people to join one of the major parties. This led to people being more involved in the voting process. With the open primary, some argue, more voters become independent and are less likely to participate in the nominating or election processes. Manipulation and dilution Opponents of the open primary believe that the open primary leaves the party nominations vulnerable to manipulation and dilution. First, one party could organize its voters to vote in the other party's primary and choose the candidate that they", "-31.731166172539815" ], [ "argue that the restrictions (such as purging voter rolls, limiting voting locations and prosecuting double voting) are vital to prevent voter fraud, claiming that voter fraud is an underestimated issue in elections. However, research has indicated that voter fraud is very uncommon, as civil and voting rights organizations often accuse Republicans of enacting restrictions to influence elections in the party's favor. Many laws or regulations restricting voting enacted by Republicans have been successfully challenged in court, with court rulings striking down such regulations and accusing Republicans of establishing them with partisan purpose. Composition In the Party's infancy, its base consisted", "-31.72586557432078" ], [ "Voting Rights Act in federal court against the state government to gain polling places on their homelands in 2016. They have been disadvantaged in the past by having to travel excessive distances to vote in elections, which had reduced participation. They argued that the state had set up satellite offices in wealthy, mostly white neighborhoods. The Justice Department sided with the plaintiffs. When the counties said the change would cost too much and the state said that it could not intervene, the Justice Department \"said in a new filing Monday they appear to be confusing voting rights with 'voting convenience.'\"", "-31.72212472628962" ], [ "cities while ignoring rural areas. Candidates might also be inclined to campaign hardest in their base areas to maximize turnout among core supporters. In some cases, they may also see greater opportunities in gaining votes from districts heavily supporting their opponent, the effects of which many feel would come at the expense of those in more closely divided parts of the country. Proponents of direct popular vote argue that the disproportionate influence the electoral college system affords swing states in determining the outcome of elections is unfair and essentially undemocratic.", "-31.648715292452835" ], [ "of voting behavior can also be applied to state and local levels. While straight ticket voting has declined among the general voting population, it is still prevalent in those who are strong Republicans and strong Democrats. According to Paul Allen Beck and colleagues, \"the stronger an individual's party identification was, the more likely he or she was to vote a straight ticket.\"", "-31.62569243973121" ], [ "politician across a number of election cycles, many voters simply trust that the same will continue to be true and \"vote the ticket,\" also referred to as straight-ticket voting, instead of wasting time on a complete investigation. Criticisms Much of the empirical support for the idea of rational ignorance was drawn from studies of voter apathy, which reached particularly strong conclusions in the 1950s. However, apathy appeared to decline sharply in the 1960s as concern about issues such as the Vietnam War mounted, and political polarization increased. This is consistent with expectations from Public Choice Theory; as voters' interest in", "-31.625484977237647" ], [ "of a two-dominant party system creates a great potential for disenfranchisement of minority voters and their opinions. Qualities of “northeasterliness”, “westerliness”, and “southerliness”, which constitute the expectations for Democratic, Republican, and volatile Republican voting results, have been used in order to understand and define the political landscape. However, culturally driven anomalies in this general expectation have been observed.\nDebate has been common in recent elections in regards to the election of the President of the United States via the electoral college. The debate stems from the fact that the electoral college is a malapportioned body., and thus provides for", "-31.606794594961684" ], [ "would make voting for the people in the senate and congress easier. In addition, it would allow different approaches in congress, regarding political parties. However, some people did not like it because they wanted congress to be in their favor so that way when they would vote on things it would go their way, example, either towards the democrats or republicans. Influence in Congress Alexander Hamilton and Thomas Jefferson clearly show what happens when factions are formed within the government.Thanks to Hamilton and Jefferson's constant arguments in which they constantly opposed each other they help crystallized to form the first", "-31.582868689729366" ], [ "its positions. This arrangement strongly favors large and well–organized political parties that are able to appeal to voters in many districts and hence win many seats, and discourages smaller or regional parties. Politically oriented people consider their only realistic way to capture political power is to run under the auspices of the two dominant parties.\nIn the U.S., forty-eight states have a standard winner-takes-all electoral system for amassing presidential votes in the Electoral College system. The winner-takes-all principle applies in presidential elections, since if a presidential candidate gets the most votes in any particular state, all of the electoral votes from", "-31.580975272518117" ], [ "of third parties siphoning votes from major parties, such as Theodore Roosevelt in 1912 and George Wallace in 1968, resulting in the victory of the opposing major party. In presidential elections, the Electoral College system has prevented third party candidates from being competitive, even when they have significant support (such as in 1992). More generally, parties with a broad base of support across regions or among economic and other interest groups have a greater chance of winning the necessary plurality in the U.S.'s largely single-member district, winner-take-all elections.\nThe UK political system, while technically a multi-party system, has functioned generally as", "-31.566849482478574" ], [ "beside the point, because the most beneficial aspect of compulsory voting is that it will improve the caliber of individuals who run for office and the quality of the decisions that they make: \"In a compulsory election, it does not pay to energize your base to the exclusion of all other voters. Since elections cannot be determined by turnout, they are decided by swing voters and won in the center... That is one reason Australia’s version of the far right lacks anything like the power of its European or American counterparts. Australia has had some bad governments, but it hasn’t", "-31.548451404320076" ], [ "drives individuals to participate in the democratic process, either by voting, volunteering for campaigns, signing petitions or protesting. Participation cannot always be explained by rational behavior. The voting paradox, for example, points out that it cannot be in a citizen's self-interest to vote because the effort it takes to vote will almost always outweigh the benefits of voting, particularly considering a single vote is unlikely to change an electoral outcome. Political scientists instead propose that citizens vote for psychological or social reasons. Studies show, for example, that individuals are more likely to vote if they see their friends have voted", "-31.46915662981337" ], [ "this principle has also been empirically supported by the cube rule, which shows how the winning party in a first-past-the-post system is mathematically over-represented in the final chamber of representatives.\nSupporters view this effect as beneficial, as parliamentary governments are typically more stable in two-party systems, and minorities do not have undue power to break a coalition. First-past-the-post minimizes the influence of third parties and thus arguably keeps out extremists. Critics of two-party systems believe that two-party systems offer less choice to voters, create an exaggerated emphasis on issues that dominate more marginal seats, and does not completely remove the possibility", "-31.461740640574135" ], [ "of the high invincibility of House incumbents, very few districts are truly competitive, with elections shifting very few seats from one party to another. One of the most important reasons as to why incumbents are nearly unbeatable is because they normally have much better financed campaigns than their opponents. Other potential theories include the aggressive redrawing of congressional boundaries known as gerrymandering, from a more historical perspective the loss of party alignment, or the simple fact of being an incumbent.\nIn recent years, legislators in the U.S. Senate and in the House, have been championing the Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act as", "-31.452169965486974" ], [ "system, and that it had a tendency to improve the chances of third-party candidates in some situations. Prevention of an urban-centric victory Proponents of the Electoral College claim that it prevents a candidate from winning the presidency by simply winning in heavily populated urban areas, and pushes candidates to make a wider geographic appeal than they would if they simply had to win the national popular vote. They believe that adoption of the popular vote would disproportionately shift the focus to large cities at the expense of rural areas. Maintenance of the federal character of the nation The United States", "-31.388418937218376" ], [ "1960 to 2004, the number of states holding primary contests (which favor public opinion) instead of caucuses (which favor party elites) has more than doubled. Patterson argues that this shift has indirectly strengthened the power of media outlets that have been shown to have much influence over citizens' evaluations of candidates, and as such the media holds much sway in the American political system, despite relatively low levels of political accountability. Potential effects Most researchers who discuss the theory of mediacracy agree that media control of the American political system would lead to a decline in objective, rational information sharing", "-31.37862670479808" ], [ "beliefs and actions remains predominant among American political scientists, those from other countries put less emphasis on it. Voting Those people who identify with a party tend to vote for their party's candidate for various offices in high percentages. Those who consider themselves to be strong partisans, strong Democrats and strong Republicans respectively, tend to be the most faithful in voting for their party's nominee for office. In the case of voting for president, since the 1970s, party identification on voting behavior has been increasing significantly. By the late 1990s, party identification on voting behavior was at", "-31.332260881667025" ], [ "official in charge of elections; in other states it is someone appointed for the job, or a commission. It is this person or commission who is responsible for certifying, tabulating, and reporting votes for the state. Party systems Americans vote for a specific candidate instead of directly selecting a particular political party. The United States Constitution has never formally addressed the issue of political parties. The Founding Fathers such as Alexander Hamilton and James Madison did not support domestic political factions at the time the Constitution was written. In addition, the first president of the United States, George Washington,", "-31.30778879870195" ], [ "prevented, corrupt elections practices such as ballot buying. International examples The United Kingdom continues to use the first-past-the-post electoral system for general elections, and for local government elections in England and Wales. Changes to the UK system have been proposed, and alternatives were examined by the Jenkins Commission in the late 1990s. After the formation of a new coalition government in 2010, it was announced as part of the coalition agreement that a referendum would be held on switching to the alternative vote system. However the alternative vote system was rejected 2-1 by British voters in a referendum held on", "-31.279053985432256" ], [ "a two-party arrangement. The two-party has been identified as simpler since there are fewer voting choices. Disadvantages Two-party systems have been criticized for downplaying alternative views, being less competitive, encouraging voter apathy since there is a perception of fewer choices, and putting a damper on debate within a nation. In a proportional representation system, lesser parties can moderate policy since they are not usually eliminated from government. One analyst suggested the two-party approach may not promote inter-party compromise but may encourage partisanship. In The Tyranny of the Two-party system, Lisa Jane Disch criticizes two-party systems for failing to provide enough", "-31.265544554931694" ], [ "compulsory voting removes this dilemma.\nSupporters of compulsory voting also argue that the secret ballot is designed to prevent interference with the votes actually cast, compelling voters to the polls for an election removes interference with accessing a polling place, reducing the impact that external factors such as the weather, transport, or restrictive employers might have. If everybody must vote, restrictions on voting are identified and steps are taken to remove them.\nThe impact of technology and recent social trends are indicating a growing voter preference towards pre-polling: where the voter fulfils their obligation more at their own convenience prior to polling", "-31.2514666482748" ], [ "country was a single constituency, the electoral majority would have the right to appoint all the deputies, as it appoints the head of the executive power; even in its extreme consequencies, this system does not cause an injustice to the minority, because the majority obtains no more than its right. Current usage Nowadays, at-large majoritarian representation is no longer used for national elections, while it is sometimes still used for local elections organised on non-partisan bases.\nResidual usage in several multi-member constituencies is reduced to the election of the Electoral college of the President of the United States. Block voting is", "-31.16007923892903" ], [ "III, launched an effort in mid-2011 to create a national \"virtual primary\" that would challenge the current two-party system. The group aims to nominate a presidential ticket of centrists with names that would be on ballots in all 50 states. The group banks on broad cultural dissatisfaction with the partisan gridlock in Washington, D.C. The Christian Science Monitor has stated that \"the political climate couldn't be riper for a serious third-party alternative\" such as their effort, but the \"hurdles Americans Elect faces are daunting\" to get on ballots.\nJournalist and political commentator E. J. Dionne wrote in his book Why Americans", "-31.159956600517035" ], [ "day rather than trying to arrange release from their responsibilities on the nominated date of polling.\nOther perceived advantages to compulsory voting are the stimulation of broader interest politics, as a sort of civil education and political stimulation, which creates a better informed population, although no studies have been undertaken to demonstrate that the populations of Belgium or Australia for instance, where compulsory voting has long existed, are better informed and more politically aware than the populations of New Zealand, France, Canada or the Scandinavian countries, where voting has never been compulsory. It is also argued that since campaign funds are", "-31.09140254475642" ], [ "for reform of the system. Polls at the time showed that the vast majority of Americans, over 70%, would support replacing the Electoral College with popular, direct voting as advocated by Birch Bayh, or retaining electoral votes without electors themselves, as proposed by Hale Boggs.", "-31.078137417149264" ], [ "Anti-plurality voting Characteristics As can be seen from the example, in the absence of tactical voting, this system tends to favor middle-of-the-road candidates. However, it is very sensitive to tactical voting, as any candidate perceived beforehand as a potential winner will attract more countervotes from partisans of their opponents. This creates the paradoxical situation for the candidates that, in order to win, you need to appear not to be winning. For this reason, few would advocate this system for general high-stakes use, though for its simplicity it can be useful in specific situations (where voters are not motivated to use", "-31.075704736285843" ], [ "the popular vote, which is the way it is supposed to be done in a democracy, but by \"gaming\" the legal system. Because they know that they will never, ever achieve their goals on Election Day, their strategy is to rely on activist left-wing judges to bring about secular changes in our laws. The most notorious example of this strategy is the gay-marriage ruling in Massachusetts. The ACLU helpfully pointed out to the Supreme Court of the Commonwealth that the state constitution had an apparent loophole: that is, the document failed to define marriage specifically as between one man", "-31.06743029539939" ], [ "in public schools be allowed to choose which bathrooms to use, Roby said the administration had \"lost their minds.\" Vote Smart issue positions Vote Smart, a non-profit, non-partisan research organization that collects and distributes information on candidates for public office in the United States, \"researched presidential and congressional candidates' public records to determine candidates' likely responses on certain key issues.\" According to Vote Smart's 2016 analysis, Roby generally supports pro-life legislation, opposes an income tax increase, opposes federal spending as a means of promoting economic growth, supports lowering taxes as a means of promoting economic growth, opposes requiring states to", "-31.066986475489102" ], [ "commercial voting machines, such as using a default administration password. Cases have also been reported of machines making unpredictable, inconsistent errors. Key issues with electronic voting are therefore the openness of a system to public examination from outside experts, the creation of an authenticatable paper record of votes cast and a chain of custody for records. And, there is a risk that commercial voting machines results are changed by the company providing the machine. There is no guarantee that results are collected and reported accurately.\nThere has been contention, especially in the United States, that electronic voting, especially DRE voting, could", "-31.057958608376794" ], [ "Marginal seat Strategies for securing marginal seats The creation of policy that will benefit a particular seat, at the expense of other taxpayers, is known as pork barreling.\nPolitical parties often face tension between the holders of marginal seats and safe seats. Safe seats tend to be allocated far less discretionary resources—governmental as well as political—from their political party than do marginal seats.\nA similar phenomenon happens in United States presidential elections, where the Electoral College system means that candidates must win states rather than the popular vote. Again, resources are concentrated towards the swing states with the smallest majorities.", "-31.03735878551379" ], [ "Election Alternatives A \"modified closed primary\" was in effect in California from 2001 to 2011. Each political party could decide whether or not they wish to allow unaffiliated voters to vote in their party's primary. This appeared to avoid the constitutional concerns of both the open and the closed primary. In the 2004 and 2006 primary elections, the Republican, Democratic, and American Independent parties all opted to allow unaffiliated voters to request their party's ballot. However, since the 2008 presidential primary election, only the Democratic and American Independent parties took this option, while the Republican party did not.\nIn 2011,", "-31.03073706549185" ], [ "people speaking to the public, providing political information and different political choices and views, declines. Additionally, PAC and interest group spokespeople may not be representative of the public or the groups they claim to speak for, creating disenfranchisement of various (often minority) groups. As independent voting and ticket-splitting rise, parties seek to insulate themselves from the whipsaw effect of elections. The power of incumbency becomes increasingly important, and accessibility by the public declines. Parties seek increasingly moderate positions in order to stay electorally viable, further limiting political choice (\"both parties look and sound the same\"). As the parties distance themselves", "-31.026160836103372" ], [ "cumulative voting and single non transferable vote.\nNonpartisan elections are generally held for municipal and county offices, especially school boards, and are also common in the election of judges. In some nonpartisan elections it is common knowledge which candidates are members of and backed by which parties; in others, parties are almost wholly uninvolved and voters make choices with little or no regard to partisan considerations.\nWhile nonpartisan democracies can allow for a wide selection of candidates (especially within a no-nomination system whereby voters can choose any non-restricted person in their area), such systems are not incompatible with indirect elections (such as", "-31.019186986493878" ], [ "popular vote.\nArguments in favor of caucuses include the belief that they favor more motivated participants than simple ballots and that supporters of non-viable candidates are able to realign with a more popular candidate and still make their vote count. Additionally, many caucus-goers consider them more interesting because of how much more interactive they are than a primary. Lastly, one other argument in favor is that caucus-goers get more information before making their vote so those voting will potentially be more educated about their candidate choices than primary-goers.\nIn 2016 Democratic Party Nevada Convention, an incident occurred, involving Bernie Sanders' and Hillary", "-31.01057793047221" ], [ "voters to present photo identification at polling places, a measure supporters argue prevents voter fraud, but detractors have derided as an attempt to disenfranchise traditionally-Democratic voting blocs. On June 2, Haslam signed a bill replacing public school teachers' collective bargaining rights with a process called \"collaborative conferencing\", effectively bypassing the teachers' union, the Tennessee Education Association.\nOther legislation signed by Haslam included a tort reform measure that limits non-economic damages in civil suits, a bill that lifted the cap on the number charter schools in the state and opened enrollment in charter schools to more students, and a bill that allows", "-31.00859597302042" ], [ "Need A Third Party?\" in which he said: \nAmerica needs a third party. Both the Democratic and Republican parties have repeatedly demonstrated their incapacity to solve the major problems of American life. Both have held political power; yet, under both, large sections of our population have lacked the food, clothing, housing, medical care, and economic security people need and this country can provide. The fundamental cleavages within the two old major parties prevent their effectuating positive programs for achieving full employment, high production levels, and improved living standards. In the Democratic Party, Senators Wagner and", "-30.998525501920085" ], [ "chads).\nA proposed solution to these problems was the installation of modern electronic voting machines. The United States presidential election of 2000 spurred the debate about election and voting reform, but it did not end it.\nIn the aftermath of the election, the Help America Vote Act (HAVA) was passed to help states upgrade their election technology in the hopes of preventing similar problems in future elections. Unfortunately, the electronic voting systems that many states purchased to comply with HAVA actually caused problems in the presidential election of 2004. Exit polling and declaration of vote winners The Voter News Service's reputation was", "-30.981514315375534" ], [ "An analysis in The New York Times in March 2010 suggested that the present state of American politics is marked by oppositional politics which has left the voters cynical about the process. Bipartisanship requires \"hard work\", is \"sometimes dull\", and entails trying to find \"common ground\" but enables \"serious problem solving\", according to editorial writers at the Christian Science Monitor in 2010. Feature of two-party systems According to political analyst James Fallows in The Atlantic (based on a \"note from someone with many decades' experience in national politics\"), bipartisanship is a phenomenon belonging to a two-party system such as the", "-30.980791858557495" ], [ "place not by majority rule, but by plurality, unless the voting system artificially restricts candidates or options to two only. In turn, due to Arrow's paradox, it is not possible to have plurality voting systems with more than two options that retain adherence to both certain \"fairness\" criteria and rational decision-making criteria.\nAnother critical analysis of majoritarianism is that when it emerges as a form of governance that uses nationalist and populist markers of inclusion and exclusion, majoritarianism is \"authoritarian by definition\"; as advocates for a nationalist-populist majoritarianism assert that they are \"the people\" (where only one \"the people\" is allowed)", "-30.977953451685607" ], [ "more likely to succeed. Actual changes (2012) While the concept of non-partisan districting was initially promoted by Republicans under the leadership of Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger, the results were highly unfavorable to the party.\nThe U.S. Congressional, State Assembly, and State Senate were significantly affected by both the non-partisan redistricting and the open primaries. Proposition 40 presented An initiative beneficial to Republicans to repeal the non-partisan redistricting in future State Senate elections was confusingly worded and presented ( voting \"No\" would not continue the current neutral party redistricting to overturn the California State Senate redistricting plan approved by the California", "-30.972629385709297" ], [ "of party list proportional representation sometimes retort that the public often have little control over the selection of local candidates, either — if a voter's preferred party selects a poor candidate, the voter is forced to either vote for a candidate they dislike or vote for a party they dislike. Under a party list system, voters can support their preferred party even if they are unwilling to vote for its local candidate.\nAn open list system, however, may go some way to addressing the concern that voters can only support all the candidates that were proposed by the party. A notable", "-30.960898529097904" ], [ "from the average voter and seem to offer limited policy options, dealignment worsens. As ideology plays less and less a part in elections, it becomes more and more difficult for parties to forge coalitions of like-minded officeholders. Governmental deadlock becomes common, further encouraging independent voting as citizens perceive \"their\" party to be ineffective. As ticket-splitting rises, divided government becomes the norm, making it even more difficult for office-holders to enact and implement policies. Politics becomes increasingly volatile, with first one party and then another governing. Although parties once held politicians accountable for their actions, their increasing irrelevance in politics leads", "-30.9599432812538" ], [ "United Kingdom In the United Kingdom, IRV is commonly known as the alternative vote, which is used to elect the leaders of the Labour Party and the Liberal Democrats. (The leader of the Conservative Party is elected under a similar method, a variant of the exhaustive ballot.) It is also used for by-elections to the British House of Lords, in which hereditary peers are selected for that body. AV is also used by members of parliament to elect the chairmen of select committees and the Speaker of the House of Lords. The Speaker of the House of Commons is elected", "-30.94713195951772" ], [ "preferred ideological inclinations, and eventually vote with a high level of bias. Democracy's susceptibility for bad policies Irrational political behaviors of voters prevent them from making calculated choices and opting for the right policy proposals. On the other hand, many political experiments have shown that as voters get more informed, they tend to support better policies, demonstrating that acquisition of information has a direct impact on rational voting. For example, Martin Gilens notes in his research that low-income democrats tend to have more intolerant thoughts pertinent to LGBT rights, whereas high-income democrats have the opposite preferences. Moreover, supporters of noocracy", "-30.939803724118974" ], [ "see a greater danger in the fact that politicians will actually prefer to implement the policy decisions of citizens to win elections and stabilize their power, without paying particular attention to the content and further outcomes of these policies. In democracies, the problem is thus not only that voters are prone to make bad policy decisions, but also that politicians are incentivized to implement these policies due to personal benefits. Therefore, noocrats argue that it makes sense to limit the voting power of citizens in order to prevent bad policy outcomes. Use of expertise for efficient outcomes According to noocrats,", "-30.9040437360527" ], [ "due to the rise of nation state interest in influencing elections, should be \"discontinue[d].\" Analysis Electronic voting systems may offer advantages compared to other voting techniques. An electronic voting system can be involved in any one of a number of steps in the setup, distributing, voting, collecting, and counting of ballots, and thus may or may not introduce advantages into any of these steps. Potential disadvantages exist as well including the potential for flaws or weakness in any electronic component.\nCharles Stewart of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology estimates that 1 million more ballots were counted in the 2004 USA presidential", "-30.87605964508839" ], [ "election — but in fact it's not like any democratic election held anywhere else in our society. It's really a management-controlled election process because corporations have all the power. They control the information workers can receive and routinely poison the process by intimidating, harassing, coercing and even firing people who try to organize unions. No employee has free choice after being browbeaten by a supervisor to oppose the union or being told they may lose their job and livelihood if workers vote for the union. Opposition Those who oppose card check argue it strips workers of their right to a", "-30.873026529006893" ], [ "constitutionality of district maps. The organization's North Carolina chapter has led a campaign to create a nonpartisan redistricting process, which has bipartisan support in the state. Common Cause is also challenging redistricting in Democratic-controlled states, such as Maryland. Voting machines Common Cause advocates for a voter-verified paper audit trail for election machines in all states. The organization has documented complaints about electronic voting machines. National popular vote Common Cause is in favor of establishing a national popular vote for presidential elections to replace the current electoral college system. Following the November 2016 U.S. presidential election, Common Cause called for the", "-30.859376140520908" ], [ "Proponents argue that this increases the legitimacy—and thus also popular acceptance—of the elections and ensures political participation by all those affected by the political process and reduces the costs associated with encouraging voting. Arguments against include restriction of freedom, economic costs of enforcement, increased number of invalid and blank votes and random voting.\nOther alternatives include increased use of absentee ballots, or other measures to ease or improve the ability to vote, including electronic voting. Ethnic and religious conflicts For historical reasons, many states are not culturally and ethnically homogeneous. There may be sharp ethnic, linguistic, religious and cultural divisions. In", "-30.849898654501885" ], [ "Native village to ensure at least one polling place is located in an area selected by the tribal government. \"[I]t is a tragic irony that in this country—history's greatest democratic experiment—it is First Americans who, for a variety of reasons, have, for decades, too often been deprived the right vote,\" West said in discussing the proposal. \"Standing by as Native voices, for whatever reason, are shut out of the democratic process is not an option.\" Indian Country West championed tribal sovereignty and improved the federal government’s relationship with Native American communities through meaningful and frequent engagement, particularly in the areas", "-30.834919713786803" ], [ "While the states had the right to establish rules for voter registration and elections, the federal government found an oversight role in ensuring that citizens could exercise the constitutional right to vote for federal officers: electors for president and vice president and members of the US Congress. Passage The Democratic Senate Majority Leader, Lyndon B. Johnson of Texas, realized that the bill and its journey through Congress could tear apart his party, as southern Democrats opposed civil rights, and its northern members were more favorable. Southern Democratic senators occupied chairs of numerous important committees because of their long seniority. Johnson", "-30.822588259121403" ], [ "party is the most common ideological breakdown in such a system but in two-party states political parties are traditionally catch all parties which are ideologically broad and inclusive.\nThe United States has gone through several party systems, each of which has been essentially two-party in nature. The divide has typically been between a conservative and liberal party; presently, the Republican Party and Democratic Party serve these roles. Third parties have seen extremely little electoral success, and successful third party runs typically lead to vote splitting due to the first-past-the-post, winner-takes-all systems used in most US elections. There have been several examples", "-30.814537724494585" ], [ "be poorly informed about issues or candidates due to lack of freedom of the press, lack of objectivity in the press due to state or corporate control, and/or lack of access to news and political media. Freedom of speech may be curtailed by the state, favoring certain viewpoints or state propaganda. Unfair rules Gerrymandering, exclusion of opposition candidates from eligibility for office, needlessly high restrictions on who may be a candidate, like ballot access rules, and manipulating thresholds for electoral success are some of the ways the structure of an election can be changed to favor a specific faction or", "-30.812320295430254" ], [ "opposed the creation of the United States Department of Education when it was initially created in 1979. Republicans tend to oppose No Child Left Behind and the Common Core State Standards. Military service Republicans in general tend to be more pro-military than their Democrat counterparts, however, the factions of the Republican party do not see eye-to-eye on this. Neoconservative Republicans and subscribers to other such ideologies tend to advocate for more interventionist foreign policies, a bigger military, and using the military to promote American values around the world, while the more libertarian and paleoconservative factions of the party advocate for", "-30.7833552013617" ], [ "voting power in the Electoral College system, every state, with the exceptions of Maine and Nebraska, has adopted a winner-take-all system, where the candidate who wins the most popular votes in a state wins all of that state's electoral votes. The expectation was that the candidates would look after the interests of the states with the most electoral votes. However, in practice, most voters tend not to change party allegiance from one election to the next, leading presidential candidates to concentrate their limited time and resources campaigning in those states that they believe they can swing towards them or stop", "-30.780811503878795" ], [ "\"open primary\" that does not require specific affiliation.\nIn some states, such as Massachusetts, citizens can choose to refer to themselves specifically as unenrolled voters. Many people refer to an unenrolled voter as being synonymous with an Independent. However, this group should not be confused with preference towards the United Independent Party — a Massachusetts-specific \"independent party\" — or other Independent political parties. These unenrolled voters may be listed on an Unenrolled list in their state. There are political chapters of unenrolled voters in various states, such as Massachusetts.\nUnenrolled voters tend to support voting for whichever candidate, party or philosophy they", "-30.738941137038637" ], [ "Right cannot, or will not, honestly face the real danger confronting these United States. . . . On the whole, they fail to understand the issues that are critical to our nation's—and their own—survival. . . . Sadly, this is what the Christian Right just doesn't get: ninety percent of the time, it doesn't matter to a tinker's dam whether a Republican or Democrat wins the White House. . . . All the pro-life, pro-family, traditional-values, conservative talk is just that: talk. Republicans use conservative rhetoric the same way Democrats use liberal rhetoric. Neither party believes what they are telling", "-30.731410429812968" ], [ "political observers may see the presence of religious conservatives in the Republican Party as a threat. My former friend Kevin Phillips [author of American Theocracy], who in the early days of the New Right was so helpful, now acts as if a theocracy governs the nation. Phillips was the architect of President Richard M. Nixon's Southern strategy, which worked brilliantly until Nixon did himself in. Now that the South does have the upper hand in the Republican Party Phillips is bitter about it. I see no theocracy here. As someone who has helped the religious right transition to the political", "-30.731363370992767" ], [ "is part of the reason why voters ignore political parties and why candidates try an appeal to voters' material desires and relationships instead of political parties. [...] Moreover, this system creates a political environment where a Member is elected by a relatively small number of voters with the effect that this Member is then expected to ignore his party’s philosophy and instead look after that core base of voters in terms of their material needs. Another relevant factor that I see in relation to the electoral system is the proven fact that it is rather conducive, and thus has not", "-30.711480734869838" ], [ "power from special interest lobbying, versus the \"ordinary\" US citizen within the US political system. They found that the US was looking more like an oligarchy than a real representative democracy; thus eroding a government of the people, by the people, for the people as stated by Abraham Lincoln in his Gettysburg Address. In fact, the study found that average citizens had an almost nonexistent influence on public policies and that the ordinary citizen had little or no independent influence on policy at all.\nThere were many US presidential elections in which foreign countries manipulate the voters. The Electoral College is", "-30.675201833830215" ], [ "and the direct election of US Senators, were the core achievements of 'direct democracy' by the Progressive generation during the first two decades of the twentieth century.\nProgressives fought for women's suffrage to purify the elections using supposedly purer female voters. Progressives in the South supported the elimination of supposedly corrupt black voters from the election booth. Historian Michael Perman says that in both Texas and Georgia, \"disfranchisement was the weapon as well as the rallying cry in the fight for reform\"; and in Virginia, \"the drive for disfranchisement had been initiated by men who saw themselves as reformers, even progressives.\"\nWhile", "-30.66379128175322" ] ]

[ "Our current levels of food production are still very new. And basically only a tiny blip on the timescale that evolution works on.", "Essentially, humans are designed to like sugar. Sugar and saturated fats mean calories. It's the easy way to tell something like a berry (full of calories and nutrients) apart from something such as lettuce (mostly water). In nature, it works pretty well. We eat berries, the seeds then are fertalized, plant grows more, we stay healthy and eat more berries. All parties benefit. Now that food is more and more processed, we add sugar and fats after the fact to make it taste better, which puts the whole system out of balance. Too much of a good thing is a very bad thing.", "Kills you slow (sugar + fats) vs kills you fast (starvation). And as many other people here have mentioned, our period of not being able to eat food as fast as we can grow it is very recent.", "Long ago, we evolved to find certain kinds of food \"tasty\". These criteria were mostly determined by blind natural selection, so there *was* a loose correspondence between the \"tasty\" stuff, and the \"if you eat this you will survive\" stuff. Over time, we've developed and refined how we make food, to the point where we can essentially make whatever we want. Consequently, lots of experimentation is made possible. Now, the economic system we live in has a sort of selection process — lots of different food is being sold, but it's the food that people *like* that makes more profit, and is thus sold more, and thus becomes more popular. The effect this has is that, out of all the aforementioned experimentation, different foods emerge: some of them tasty, some of them not. Some of them healthy, some of them not. The thing is, what people *like* is tasty food. So if you're someone who sells food, the tastier it is, the more money you'll make. So *everyone* does this, and everyone keeps trying to optimize *taste*, since that's what sells. This brings us to the reason why we have an apparent divide between \"tasty\" and \"healthy\" foods — everyone's been optimizing for *taste*, which is only *loosely* correlated to what's actually healthy for you. It's kind of related to what was once foodstuffs that would likely help your ancestors live long enough to reproduce, but not only is the correlation *loose*, but much of that \"survivability\" food doesn't really fit our idea of a \"balanced, healthy diet\". People have been making ever-tastier foods, because that's what everyone is genetically programmed to like, but with the unintended side effect of neglecting healthiness and nutritional content. As a result, we have lots of different types of food that are *really* tasty, but at best \"meh\" for your health. This isn't to say that there doesn't exist healthy *and* tasty stuff. It's just that so many people are making *really tasty* and not particularly healthy foods, that it might be a bit harder to find tasty *and* healthy foods.", " > why didn't we adapt to consider low-calorie food tasty very broadly speaking, adaptation happens when not adapting kills you before you have babies. eating fast food all day will kill you, but it won't kill you until you're a bit older, so there's no strong selection pressure selecting for eating salads all the time. so for the most part, we're left with bodies that think that fat, sugar and salt are in rare supply, and that's why we want to eat them so much.", "In the grand scheme of things, humans change societally much, MUCH faster than evolution. This includes food production, food substitutes and fillers, etc. All these new things we are putting into our bodies are being used more often/ invented faster (pink slime, soy filler, artificial ingredients, etc) than it takes for us to adapt to a lower calorie diet.", "if our weight determined if we could have offspring, we would have adapted quicker. but fat people do still have children. Give it a few million years. oh wait no, by then we will be silicon based robots traveling through space at warp speed. Just wait for a better diet pill.", "The natural biological evolution takes place in cycles of at least 20,000 years. Fun fact: human civilization is only a few thousand years old and the age of modern technology is only two hundred. This means that the study of modern science is done by the brain of primitive humans", "People who die of obesity related diseases have usually had children first, so their deaths don't affect human evolution as much. People who die of starvation are much less likely to reach a fertile age.", "Adaptations like that take at least tens of thousands of years to happen. Our current calorie intake needs haven't been current for nearly that long." ]

[ [ "in food properly, their health is effected drastically and their food preferences are limited greatly (to soft or liquids only).\nDeclines in physical health can cause deterioration in diet due to difficulties in preparing and eating food as a result of conditions like arthritis.\nAt the 2010 \"Providing Healthy and Safe Foods As We Age\" conference sponsored by the Institute of Medicine, Dr. Katherine Tucker noted that the elderly are less active and have lower metabolism with a consequent lower need to eat. Also, they tend to have existing diseases and/or take medications that interfere with nutrient absorption. With changing", "-35.73662993017206" ], [ "of important nutrients, meat thus became a staple in the diet of early humans. By increasing digestibility, cooking allowed hominids to maximize the energy gained from consuming foods. Studies show that caloric intake from cooking starches improves 12-35% and 45-78% for protein. As a result of the increases in net energy gain from food consumption, survival and reproductive rates in hominids increased. By propitiating a lowering in food toxicity, and increased nutritive yield, cooking allows for an earlier weaning age, permitting females to have more children. In this way too it facilitates population growth. Biological changes Before their use of", "-35.36855691364326" ], [ "good diets were correlated with an increase in infant length and weight. Edwards noted that the dietary supplements used in this experiment were both relatively inexpensive and common. She suggested that pregnant women of lower incomes maintain a highly nutritive diet based on these cheap and available foods.\nAnother key point of Edward's focus was on the amino acid composition of foods, especially vegetables, with the goal of finding low-cost foods that were optimal for protein production. Based on a study performed in India, where school children who consumed dietary supplements of the aforementioned nature had favorable gains in height,", "-35.242114482214674" ], [ "in abundance, our bodies, for the most part, can't say no. \n. . . to put it simply, human beings are evolving much more slowly than the food we eat. And the food is tricking us. We think it's what we need, but it's just what we want. What can we do? Eat sensibly and exercise, of course. One thing we have to do, though, is not to “listen to your body\" – because it craves food that, in abundance, is bad for it. . . This is a clear, well-written and thoughtful guide to the fat crisis.\" - The", "-35.157645486382535" ], [ "of more sedentary lifestyles and convenience foods. People are sitting more throughout their days, whether it be in their cars during rush hour or in their cubicles during their full-time jobs. Less physical activity in general means fewer calories burned throughout the day. Human diets have changed considerably over the 10,000 years since the advent of agriculture, with more processed foods in their diets that lack nutritional value and lead them to consume more sodium, sugar, and fat. These high calorie, nutrient-deficient foods cause people to consume more calories than they burn. Fast food combined with decreased physical activity means", "-34.43610917931073" ], [ "were able to dedicate more time to researching nutrition as well as have the monetary resources to afford foods such as lean organic meats and vegetables. Such foods can be made into nourishing meals from scratch, without relying on pre-packaged foods for conveniences, providing a nutrient dense, low kilo joule intake. The lack of health consciousness among people of lower socioeconomic groups, thus stems from the higher costs of nutritious food in relation to inferior food options as well as for convenience.\nFurthermore, a 2013 Public Health and Nutritional Organisation study, explored the inferior nutrition standards of lower socioeconomic groups", "-34.322258756437805" ], [ "that cooked food played a pivotal role in human evolution. Evidence of a cooked diet, according to Wrangham, can be seen as far back as 1.8 million years ago in the anatomical adaptations of Homo erectus. Reduction in the size of teeth and jaw in H. erectus indicate a softer diet, requiring less chewing time. This combined with a smaller gut and larger brain indicate to Wrangham that H. erectus was eating a higher quality diet than its predecessors. To explain a decreased gut providing the amount of energy required for an increased brain size, Wrangham links his research on", "-34.28593326424016" ], [ "better to eat wheaten bread, roast meat, and few vegetables; whereas in summer it is appropriate to eat barley cake, barley meat and softer foods,” (qtd. in Wilkins et al., p. 346). Food and Diet in the Hippocratic Aphorisms Food and diet feature prominently in the aphorisms of the Hippocratic Corpus. For example, in one aphorism in the first section, Hippocrates states, “Things which are growing have the greatest natural warmth and, accordingly, need most nourishment. Failing this the body becomes exhausted. Old men have little warmth and they need little food which produces warmth; too much only extinguishes the warmth", "-34.27636975967107" ], [ "food advice given by the science community. Pollan holds that consumption of fat and dietary cholesterol does not lead to a higher rate of coronary disease, and that the reductive analysis of food into nutrient components is a mistake. He questions the view that the point of eating is to promote health, pointing out that this attitude is not universal and that cultures that perceive food as having purposes of pleasure, identity, and sociality may end up with better health. He explains this seeming paradox by vetting, and then validating, the notion that nutritionism and, therefore, the whole Western framework", "-34.216342522442574" ], [ "world, where calorie-packed foods are readily available, stem not from deviations from a specific diet but from an imbalance between the energy humans consume and the energy humans spend.\" Historical diet Adoption of the Paleolithic diet assumes that modern humans can reproduce the hunter-gatherer diet. Molecular biologist Marion Nestle argues that \"knowledge of the relative proportions of animal and plant foods in the diets of early humans is circumstantial, incomplete, and debatable and that there are insufficient data to identify the composition of a genetically determined optimal diet. The evidence related to Paleolithic diets is best interpreted as supporting the", "-34.19187806530681" ], [ "a diet for health is thought to be 50-55%. Foodstuffs There is evidence that the quality, rather than the quantity, of carbohydrate in a diet is important for health, and that high-fiber slow-digesting carbohydrate-rich foods are healthful while highly-refined and sugary foods are less so. People choosing diet for health conditions should have their diet tailored to their individual requirements. For people with metabolic conditions, a diet with approximately 40-50% carbohydrate is recommended.\nMost vegetables are low- or moderate-carbohydrate foods (in some low-carbohydrate diets, fiber is excluded because it is not a nutritive carbohydrate). Some vegetables, such as potatoes, carrots, maize", "-34.17393442755565" ], [ "meaning you retain more of the calories they contain. Processed foods also tend to be more allergenic than whole foods, according to a June 2004 \"Current Opinion in Allergy and Clinical Immunology\" article. Although the preservatives and other food additives used in many processed foods are generally recognized as safe, a few may cause problems for some individuals, including sulfites, artificial sweeteners, artificial colors and flavors, sodium nitrate, BHA and BHT, olestra, caffeine and monosodium glutamate.", "-34.15144209022401" ], [ "handling and storage of perishables, and as such, promoted output growth, consumption, and the availability of nutrition. The change in our method of food preservation moved us away from salts to a more manageable sodium level. The ability to move and store perishables such as meat and dairy led to a 1.7% increase in dairy consumption and overall protein intake by 1.25% annually in the US after the 1890s.\nPeople were not only consuming these perishables because it became easier for they themselves to store them, but because the innovations in refrigerated transportation and storage led to less spoilage and waste,", "-34.11902509993524" ], [ "was \"plenty of time\" for an evolutionary change in human digestive abilities to have taken place. On this basis Zuk dismisses Cordain's claim that the paleo diet is \"the one and only diet that fits our genetic makeup\". Diseases of affluence Advocates of the diet argue that the increase in diseases of affluence after the dawn of agriculture was caused by changes in diet, but others have countered that it may be that pre-agricultural hunter-gatherers did not suffer from the diseases of affluence because they did not live long enough to develop them. Based on the data from hunter-gatherer populations", "-34.0957558486989" ], [ "Why We Get Fat Synopsis Analyzing anthropological evidence and modern scientific literature, Taubes contends that the common “calories in, calories out” model of why we get fat is overly simplistic and misleading because it ignores the multiple complex physiological responses to different foods. It is a more powerful issue than just the calories which would be released as heat by burning the food in a lab calorimeter. Instead, Taubes notes the advantages of a low carbohydrate diet. He argues that the consumption of carbohydrates drives the body to release insulin, which in turn can lead to insulin resistance", "-34.073596071160864" ], [ "trait serves as the main basis for the \"thrifty gene hypothesis\", the idea that \"feast-or-famine conditions during human evolutionary development naturally selected for people whose bodies were efficient in their use of food calories\". Hunter-gatherers, who used to live under environmental stress, benefit from this trait; there was an uncertainty of when the next meal would be, and they would spend most of their time performing high levels of physical activity. Therefore, those that consumed many calories would store the extra energy as fat, which they could draw upon in times of hunger.\nHowever, modern humans have evolved to a world", "-34.05721712036757" ], [ "all be improved through Tai Chi, yoga, and water aerobics. Diets containing foods with calcium, fiber, and potassium are especially important for good health while eliminating foods with high sodium or fat content. A well-balanced diet can increase resistance to disease and improve management of chronic health problems thus making nutrition an important factor for health and well-being in adulthood. \nMental stimulation and optimism are vital to health and well-being in late adulthood. Adults who participate in intellectually stimulating activities every day are more likely to maintain their cognitive faculties and are less likely to show a decline in memory", "-33.98383504580124" ], [ "food security for developing countries, the ongoing trend of eating in a more Western fashion has caused increased rates of adverse health and childhood obesity. Biopsychosocial forces The desires for these new diets and lifestyles are very understandable from a biological and psychosocial perspective. For example, humans have an innate preference for sweets dating back to hunter-gatherer populations. These sweets signaled a good source of energy for hunter-gatherers that were not food secure. This same concept also relates to human predisposition for energy-dense fatty foods. These foods were needed to sustain long journeys and provided a safety net for times", "-33.857660822512116" ], [ "approaches to helping people eat a healthy, balanced diet are ineffective because of \"adherence problems\" with behavior changes. Dietary adherence is influenced by habits that develop over a lifetime.\nIt is especially difficult to \"adhere\" to a prescribed diet and lifestyle (ex. low salt diet, low fat diet, low carbohydrate diet, low sugar diet) when living in a food desert without enough access to items needed. When high sugar, high fat, and high salt items are the only foods available to people living in a food desert, dietary adherence requires (a) shift in lifestyle/ eating habits and (b) access to fresh,", "-33.819766525470186" ], [ "associated with increased mortality, but they may miss the health advantages – such as increased intake of dietary fiber – afforded by high-quality carbohydrates found in legumes and pulses, whole grains, fruits, and vegetables. Disadvantages of the diet might include halitosis, headache and constipation, and in general the potential adverse effects of carbohydrate-restricted diets are under-researched, particularly for possible risks of osteoporosis and cancer incidence.\nCarbohydrate-restricted diets can be as effective as low-fat diets in helping achieve weight loss over the short term when overall calorie intake is reduced. An Endocrine Society scientific statement said that \"when calorie intake is", "-33.75895862381094" ], [ "to have higher calorie and lower calorie days to maintain a balance between gain and loss. Many clean bulk diets start off with a moderate amount of carbs, moderate amount of protein, and a decently low amount of fats. \"Gaining lean muscle means going for leaner cuts of meat, like flank steaks and fillets, chicken, and, of course, fish,\" says White. \"Enjoy your meat with some starch: rice, beans, quinoa, whole-grain couscous, or sweet potato, for example\". To maintain a clean bulk it is important to reach calorie goals every day. Macronutrient goals will be different for each person, but,", "-33.697894815199106" ], [ "available, and the neurological system that once helped people recognize the survival advantages of essential eating has now become disadvantageous as it promotes overeating. This has become especially dangerous after the rise of processed foods, as the popularity of foods that have unnaturally high levels of sugar and fat has significantly increased. Non-human examples Evolutionary mismatch can occur any time an organism is exposed to an environment that does not resemble the typical environment the organism adapted in. Due to human influences, such as global warming and habitat destruction, the environment is changing very rapidly for many organisms, leading to", "-33.56250071569957" ], [ "prevalent in those that consume diets high in saturated fats, and it increases risk for coronary heart disease in those individuals. The use of fat substitutes in food products allows for maintenance of the food’s original quality characteristics without the associated risks of fat consumption. In the absence of energy-dense fat molecules, products utilizing fat substitutes are generally lower in calories than their full-fat counterparts. Potential benefits Consumption of fat substitutes can assist in lowering total overall fat and calorie intake from foods. This has positive implications for those looking to reduce either one of these, especially when in a", "-33.55825603444828" ], [ "paradigm about what constitutes healthful eating. Taubes argues that — contrary to accepted nutritional science — it is refined carbohydrates, especially sugar, that are responsible for heart disease, type 2 diabetes, obesity, cancer, and many other \"maladies of civilization.\" In the Epilogue to Good Calories, Bad Calories on page 454, Taubes sets out ten \"inescapable\" conclusions, the first of which is, \"Dietary fat, whether saturated or not, is not a cause of obesity, heart disease, or any other chronic disease of civilization.\"\nReviewing Good Calories, Bad Calories, obesity researcher George A. Bray, wrote that the book \"...has much useful information and", "-33.55728058582463" ], [ "by Rubin directly clashed with scientific literature. For example, Rubin's diet calls for using extra-virgin coconut oil, which has been found by scientific studies to be made mostly of artery clogging saturated fat. Dr. Ruth Kava, director of nutrition at the industry advocacy organization American Council on Science and Health, criticized Rubin's diet for its recommendations to avoid electromagnetic fields or fluoride. She also noted that there is little evidence as to whether people were healthier during biblical times (as claimed by Rubin), and that nutritional science has come a long way in the intervening millennia, including the discovery of", "-33.52962377722724" ], [ "their food intake. He asserts that this trio of elements in restaurant and processed foods conditions us to eat more in a manner that changes our brain circuitry and that children may develop a pattern of overeating and obesity that they might retain for life. He stresses that this outcome of lifelong obesity is not genetic but environmental and avoidable.", "-33.52936318724733" ], [ "digestive effort, which vary substantially from instance to instance.\nVitamins, minerals, fiber, and water do not provide energy, but are required for other reasons. A third class of dietary material, fiber (i.e., nondigestible material such as cellulose), seems also to be required, for both mechanical and biochemical reasons, though the exact reasons remain unclear. For all age groups, males need to consume higher amounts of macronutrients than females. In general, intakes increase with age until the second or third decade of life.\nMolecules of carbohydrates and fats consist of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms. Carbohydrates range from simple monosaccharides (glucose, fructose, galactose)", "-33.5269372050534" ], [ "in Break the Trance, health philosophy of eating like our paleolithic ancestors is found in a variety directions including mineral intake. Contrast Processed foods get celebration along with trepidation in newer periodicals in 2013. Scientific American and Wired devote entire issues to food content and philosophy of nutrition.\nParticularly, the scientific basis is now better understood and psychological remediation or behavior patterns are more amenable to that of a reader in modern times contrasted with processed food celebration by. The continued strength of industrialized food troubles some people though.", "-33.452877620235085" ], [ "osmoticum. Brain and Gut Regulation of Food Intake Maintaining a careful balance between stored energy and caloric intake is important to ensure that the body has enough energy to maintain itself, grow, and engage in activity. When balanced improperly, obesity and its accompanying disorders can result.", "-33.432989967026515" ], [ "a world without carbohydrate-rich diets, obesity would be a rare condition as well.\"\nAlthough Taubes points out his beliefs regarding consumption of carbohydrates, he clarifies by saying, “this is not a diet book, because it’s not a diet we’re discussing, this is a way of life.\" Reception Harvard pulmonologist Dennis Rosen reviewed Why We Get Fat in a positive light, calling it a “well-researched and thoughtful book.” In The New York Times, Abigail Zugar characterizes Why We Get Fat\nas “a sort of CliffsNotes version” of Taubes’s Good Calories, Bad Calories, resulting in a “particularly intriguing and readable synthesis.”", "-33.422597601558664" ], [ "extent that, research suggests, humans cannot live without cooking. A study on 513 individuals consuming long term raw diets found that as the percentage of their diet which was made up of raw food and/or the length they had been on a diet of raw food increased, their BMI decreased. This is despite access to many non thermal processing, like grinding, pounding or heating to 48 deg. c. (118 deg. F). With approximately 86 billion neurons in the human brain and 60–70 kg body mass, an exclusively raw diet close to that of what extant primates have would be not viable", "-33.41388589312919" ], [ "provide \"enough calories or protein for most people to sustain.\"", "-33.31561863706156" ], [ "and properties of natural foods and recipes would be a book most useful to society.\"\nAt an 1889 congress, Favre recommended that young girls be given instruction in preparing foods for infants, adults, those in their declining years, and the old. By keeping food fresh and clean and following hygienic methods, they could use without danger the immense resources of nature.\nHe said, \"there is an abyss between the greed of the Romans, who had to vomit before they could enjoy fresh gorging; the gluttonous gastronomy whose effects are indigestion, disorders and gout; and culinary science, which aims to achieve health through", "-33.26755680158385" ], [ "Diet (nutrition) Health A healthy diet may improve or maintain optimal health. In developed countries, affluence enables unconstrained caloric intake and possibly inappropriate food choices.\nHealth agencies recommend that people maintain a normal weight by limiting consumption of energy-dense foods and sugary drinks, eating plant-based food, limiting consumption of red and processed meat, and limiting alcohol intake.\nThe Dietary Guidelines for Americans is an evidence-based information source that policy makers and health professionals use to advise the general public about healthy nutrition. Dietary choices Many people choose to forgo food from animal sources to varying degrees (e.g. flexitarianism, pescetarianism, vegetarianism, veganism) for", "-33.24672763887793" ], [ "health reasons, issues surrounding morality, or to reduce their personal impact on the environment, although some of the public assumptions about which diets have lower impacts are known to be incorrect. Raw foodism is another contemporary trend. These diets may require multivitamin supplements to meet ordinary nutritional needs. Weight management A particular diet may be chosen to seek weight loss or weight gain. Changing a subject's dietary intake, or \"going on a diet\", can change the energy balance and increase or decrease the amount of fat stored by the body. Some foods are specifically recommended, or even altered, for conformity", "-33.236684615316335" ], [ "preparing and cooking \"natural\" unprocessed foods. The increase in free time allows people much more choice in life style than previously allowed. In many families the adults are working away from home and therefore there is little time for the preparation of food based on fresh ingredients. The food industry offers products that fulfill many different needs: e.g. fully prepared ready meals that can be heated up in the microwave oven within a few minutes.\nModern food processing also improves the quality of life for people with allergies, diabetics, and other people who cannot consume some common food elements. Food", "-33.214238079039205" ], [ "carbohydrate in the food is still the strongest and most important indicator, and that everyone should make their own custom method that works best for them.\nThe International Life Sciences Institute concluded in 2011 that because there are many different ways of lowering glycemic response, not all of which have the same effects on health, \"It is becoming evident that modifying the glycemic response of the diet should not be seen as a stand-alone strategy but rather as an element of an overall balanced diet and lifestyle.\"\nA systematic review of few human trials examined the potential of low GI diet to", "-33.15771120932186" ], [ "1985, Fit for Life promotes a diet forbidding complex carbohydrates and proteins in the same meal. In 1992, 1995 and 2003, the Atkins, Zone diet and South Beach diets appear successively.\nThe 20th century also saw the faint appearance of other fad diets and related products in the USA, such as a soap which \"never fails to reduce flesh\", a salt to \"wash away your fat\", laxative pills that only resulted in dehydration and an exercise machine to \"jiggle the pounds\". Some diet theories went beyond food, such as breatharianism, an ancient belief which claims that food and water are unnecessary", "-33.12265551469318" ], [ "necessary to meet caloric intake needs would be required. This is not an issue when eating a varied diet. Amino acids are not stored and may be excreted sooner than complemented, under limiting conditions.", "-33.10825382870644" ], [ "typically are inexpensive or readily available foods that supply one or more of the macronutrients needed for survival and health: carbohydrates, proteins, and fats. Typical examples include tubers and roots, grains, legumes, and seeds.\nEarly agricultural civilizations valued the foods that they established as staples because, in addition to providing necessary nutrition, they generally are suitable for storage over long periods of time without decay. Such nonperishable foods are the only possible staples during seasons of shortage, such as dry seasons or cold temperate winters, against which times harvests have been stored. During seasons of plenty, wider choices of foods may", "-33.05419603674454" ], [ "a wide variety of diets and that humans have evolved to be flexible eaters. Lactose tolerance is an example of how some humans have adapted to the introduction of dairy into their diet. While the introduction of grains, dairy, and legumes during the Neolithic revolution may have had some adverse effects on modern humans, if humans had not been nutritionally adaptable, these technological developments would have been dropped.\nEvolutionary biologist Marlene Zuk writes that the idea that our genetic makeup today matches that of our ancestors is misconceived, and that in debate Cordain was \"taken aback\" when told that 10,000 years", "-32.98457333323313" ], [ "an issue. Many parts of the world have access to a surplus of non-nutritious food, in addition to increased sedentary lifestyles. Yale psychologist Kelly Brownell calls this a \"toxic food environment\" where fat and sugar laden foods have taken precedence over healthy nutritious foods.\nThe issue in these developed countries is choosing the right kind of food. More fast food is consumed per capita in the United States than in any other country. The reason for this mass consumption of fast food is its affordability and accessibility. Often fast food, low in cost and nutrition, is high in calories and heavily", "-32.88142172789958" ], [ "Engineering, and Medicine recommends that older adults improve their diet by consuming more fish, low-fat dairy products, and whole grains (such as fortified breakfast cereals). Older adults can also improve their diet by snacking on nuts and legumes as well as ensuring that they include fruit and vegetables at the center of their diet.", "-32.8460118692019" ], [ "what foods they eat for reasons of morality, or other habit. For instance, vegetarians choose to forgo food from animal sources to varying degrees. Others choose a healthier diet, avoiding sugars or animal fats and increasing consumption of dietary fiber and antioxidants. Obesity, a serious problem in the western world, leads to higher chances of developing heart disease, diabetes, cancer and many other diseases. More recently, dietary habits have been influenced by the concerns that some people have about possible impacts on health or the environment from genetically modified food. Further concerns about the impact of industrial farming (grains) on", "-32.81053103512386" ], [ "Good Calories, Bad Calories Synopsis Taubes points to biological, epidemiological, and anthropological evidence to back up his assertions. The human body secretes insulin in response to the consumption of carbohydrates in order to regulate blood sugar. This process, in turn, drives the body to store fat. Taubes elaborates by examining evidence of the effects of carbohydrates on tribes with a \"traditional\" diet high in meat or fat and low in carbohydrates. He finds that the introduction of refined carbohydrates in the diets in these cultures resulted in increased prominence of diseases of civilization like obesity and heart disease. Reception Reviews", "-32.80704403927666" ], [ "34 Calories per 100g \nDiets based on negative-calorie food do not work as advertised but can lead to weight loss because they satisfy hunger by filling the stomach with food that is not calorically dense. A 2005 study based on a low-fat plant-based diet found that the average participant lost 13 pounds (5.9 kg) over fourteen weeks, and attributed the weight loss to the reduced energy density of the foods resulting from their low fat content and high fiber content, and the increased thermic effect. Nevertheless, these diets are not \"negative-calorie\" since they bear energy. Another study", "-32.77585881854429" ], [ "Ranges (AMDR) for adults identified by the Food and Nutrition Board of the United States Institute of Medicine as \"associated with reduced risk of chronic diseases while providing adequate intakes of essential nutrients,\" which are 45-65% carbohydrate, 10-35% protein, and 20-35% fat as a percentage of total energy. However, the nutritional quality of the specific foods comprising those macronutrients is often poor, as with the \"Western\" pattern discussed above. Complex carbohydrates such as starch are believed to be more healthy than the sugar so frequently consumed in the Standard American Diet.\nA review of eating habits in the United States in", "-32.76942864722514" ], [ "of a mismatch between Stone Age genes and modern lifestyles.\" Advocates of the modern paleo diet have formed their dietary recommendations based on this hypothesis. They argue that modern humans should follow a diet that is nutritionally closer to that of their Paleolithic ancestors.\nThe evolutionary discordance is incomplete, since it is based mainly on the genetic understanding of the human diet and a unique model of human ancestral diets, without taking into account the flexibility and variability of the human dietary behaviors over time. Studies of a variety of populations around the world show that humans can live healthily with", "-32.71305240399306" ], [ "because of its limited food options and deter people from sticking to the diet. The diet has been criticised for being too low in protein, fiber, vegetables, and fruits. The diet does not include guidance on how to change unhealthy overeating or lack of exercise and their importance to permanent weight loss. Nutrition In the United States, Special K Original has 120 Cal per 31g cup serving. One serving contains 0.5g fat, 23g carbohydrates, 4g sugar, and 6g protein. In the United Kingdom, Special K Original is 17% sugar, meaning a 30g serving contains 5g of sugar.\nIn the UK, an", "-32.71133166991967" ], [ "local environments. These foods therefore shaped the nutritional needs of Paleolithic humans. They argue that the physiology and metabolism of modern humans have changed little since the Paleolithic era. Natural selection is a long process, and the cultural and lifestyle changes introduced by western culture have occurred quickly. The argument is that modern humans have therefore not been able to adapt to the new circumstances. The agricultural revolution brought the addition of grains and dairy to the diet.\nAccording to the model from the evolutionary discordance hypothesis, \"many chronic diseases and degenerative conditions evident in modern Western populations have arisen because", "-32.68892583693378" ], [ "humans.\nThe results from Atwater’s calorimetry study influenced many areas of American life. Most importantly, the calorimeter was a great influence to the growing awareness of the food calorie as a unit of measure both in terms of consumption and metabolism. Atwater reported on the weight of the calorie as a means to measure the efficiency of a diet. He stated different types of food produced different amounts of energy. He stressed the importance of an inexpensive and efficient diet that included more proteins, beans, and vegetables in place of carbohydrates.\n\"His careful studies of nutrition and those that followed", "-32.686272985476535" ], [ "feed the population. By canning or drying fruits and vegetables to try and preserve them, some of the nutrients are lost and oftentimes sugar is added, making the produce less healthy than when it was fresh. Similarly, with meats that are dried, there is salt added to help preserve it but results in the consumer having a higher sodium intake. The ultra-processed foods were not made to be nutrient rich, but rather to satisfy cravings with high amounts of salts or sugars, so they result in people eating more than they should of food that has no nutritional value. Processed", "-32.65063108356844" ], [ "well as the elimination of much hard labor gives the modern eater easy access to a wide variety of food unimaginable to their ancestors.\nThe act of processing can often improve the taste of food significantly.\nMass production of food is much cheaper overall than individual production of meals from raw ingredients. Therefore, a large profit potential exists for the manufacturers and suppliers of processed food products. Individuals may see a benefit in convenience, but rarely see any direct financial cost benefit in using processed food as compared to home preparation.\nProcessed food freed people from the large amount of time involved in", "-32.601112473290414" ], [ "disease state associated with high fat diets. While fat substitution alone can reduce the percentage of kilocalories ingested from dietary fat, it may not reduce an individual’s total energy intake (in terms of kilocalories) unless the rest of the diet is of high quality and low energy density. Safety Few concerns have been raised about the safety of fat substitutes. Carrageenan, olestra, and polydextrose have been approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for use as food additives, a title which requires both intensive testing over a wide demographic and the ability to meet strict, pre-determined, FDA criteria.", "-32.58661548735108" ], [ "maintain a strong immune system and build strong muscles and bones. A diet of fruits, vegetables, whole grains, and low-fat meat and dairy products, avoiding foods with high levels of refined sugars and salt is recommended.", "-32.566627754538786" ], [ "calorie diets provided 200–800 kcal/day, maintaining protein intake but limiting calories from both fat and carbohydrates. They subject the body to starvation and produce an average weekly weight loss of 1.5–2.5 kilograms (3.3–5.5 lb). These diets are not recommended for general use as they are associated with adverse side effects such as loss of lean muscle mass, increased risks of gout, and electrolyte imbalances. Total diet replacement programs are the modern formulations regulated in Europe and Canada to ensure the recommended daily intake of necessary nutrients, vitamins and electrolyte balance. Compared to older VLCDs formulas, the total diet replacements better preserve lean", "-32.48759442787559" ], [ "amounts of calories in the form of fat and added sugars yet provide very limited amounts of essential micronutrients. These foods are thus said to provide \"empty calories.\" Children In 2011 16.7 million children lived in food-insecure households, about 35% more than 2007 levels, though only 1.1% of U.S. children, 845,000, saw reduced food intake or disrupted eating patterns at some point during the year, and most cases were not chronic.\nAlmost 16 million children lived in food-insecure households in 2012. Schools throughout the country had 21 million children participate in a free or reduced lunch program and 11 million children", "-32.45225566718727" ], [ "spoilage than fresh foods and are better suited for long-distance transportation from the source to the consumer. When they were first introduced, some processed foods helped to alleviate food shortages and improved the overall nutrition of populations as it made many new foods available to the masses.\nProcessing can also reduce the incidence of food-borne disease. Fresh materials, such as fresh produce and raw meats, are more likely to harbour pathogenic micro-organisms (e.g. Salmonella) capable of causing serious illnesses.\nThe extremely varied modern diet is only truly possible on a wide scale because of food processing. Transportation of more exotic foods, as", "-32.427409787807846" ], [ "intake. In much of Asia, fat intake is around ten percent of total food energy consumed, and heart disease there is almost nonexistent. Kurzweil goes on to show that in America, closer to forty percent of caloric intake is from fat.\nNumerous agencies such as the American Dietetic Association, American Heart Association and U.S. Surgeon General advocate thirty percent of caloric intake from fat. However, Kurzweil says this causes a comparatively slight reduction in atherosclerosis levels. He says that he thinks these agencies use an artificially high figure because they assume that nobody would even attempt to attain a lower level", "-32.390489280282054" ], [ "behavioral problems. The science of nutrition attempts to understand how and why specific dietary aspects influence health.\nNutrients in food are grouped into several categories. Macronutrients are fat, protein, and carbohydrates. Micronutrients are the minerals and vitamins. Additionally, food contains water and dietary fiber.\nAs previously discussed, the body is designed by natural selection to enjoy sweet and fattening foods for evolutionary diets, ideal for hunters and gatherers. Thus, sweet and fattening foods in nature are typically rare and are very pleasurable to eat. In modern times, with advanced technology, enjoyable foods are easily available to consumers. Unfortunately, this promotes obesity in", "-32.38264540585806" ], [ "calorie intake requirement. Other aspects of losses surrounding dry matter came at each stage in the food system, the highest amount being from livestock production at 43.9%, transportation accounted for 18% and consumer waste accounting for 12.2% loss. When the consumer takes in too much, this not only explains losses at the beginning of the stage at production (and overproduction) but also lends itself to overconsumption of energy and protein, having harmful effects on the body.\nThe scale of modern life's overconsumption has enabled an overclass to exist, displaying affluenza and obesity. However once again both of these claims are controversial", "-32.26323352055624" ], [ "and doubly labeled water have demonstrated that there is no metabolic advantage to eating more frequently. Dietary supplements The important role of nutrition in building muscle and losing fat means bodybuilders may consume a wide variety of dietary supplements. Various products are used in an attempt to augment muscle size, increase the rate of fat loss, improve joint health, increase natural testosterone production, enhance training performance and prevent potential nutrient deficiencies. Performance-enhancing substances Some bodybuilders use drugs such as anabolic steroids and precursor substances such as prohormones to increase muscle hypertrophy. Anabolic steroids cause hypertrophy of both types (I and", "-32.24600110540632" ], [ "lactic acid fermentation and alcoholic fermentation, which have been used for centuries. Through fermentation, products such as wine, cheese, yogurt, pickles, and preserved lemons are produced. Several health benefits are associated with fermented foods such as an increase in the production of B vitamins. Through fermentation B vitamins, omega-3 fatty acids, and probiotics are made. Additionally, food that is normally indigestible can be digested once the food has been fermented due to bacterial synthesis which allows the digestive tract to absorb more nutrients from the food (increased bioavailability). Roles of minerals, macronutrients, acids, and antioxidants in fermentation A common macronutrient", "-32.24293414216663" ], [ "and argued this was due to the NIA's apportioned feeding protocol in contrast to Wisconsin's truly unrestricted ad libitum feeding protocol. They conclude that moderate calorie restriction rather than extreme calorie restriction is sufficient to produce the observed health and longevity benefits in the studied rhesus monkeys.\nIn his book How and Why We Age, Hayflick says that caloric restriction may not be effective in humans, citing data from the Baltimore Longitudinal Study of Aging which shows that being thin does not favour longevity. Similarly, it is sometimes claimed that moderate obesity in later life may improve survival, but newer research", "-32.21463577647228" ], [ "the digestive effects of cooked versus raw foods with the lower reproductive abilities of female raw foodists, and BMI in both sexes, to support his hypothesis that cooked starches provided the energy necessary to fuel evolution from H. erectus to H. sapiens.\nTheories opposed to Wrangham's include that of Leslie Aiello, professor of biological anthropology at University College London, and physiologist Peter Wheeler. Aiello and Wheeler believe it was soft animal foods, including bone marrow and brains, which contributed to humans developing the characteristics Wrangham attributes to cooked foods. Further, archaeological evidence suggests that cooking fires began in earnest only", "-32.21124982077163" ], [ "the diet is created around a total intake of 2,500 calories a day. But the main focus is on greatly reducing meat, eggs, dairy, and starchy vegetables. Response The UK newspaper The Guardian and US news outlet CNN have given the diet positive coverage. In Poland, shopping list app site Listonic says, “it’s a win-win for both your health and the environment”. \nHarry Harris, writing in The New Statesman, was wary of claims that the diet could transform the world's food system, saying, “It seems churlish to keep placing the onus for climate change onto individual’s behaviour, when we", "-32.20567119629413" ], [ "vegetables, reduced-fat dairy, and whole grains and low in red and processed meat, fast food, and soda.\nA 2011 study suggests that dietary pattern high in fruit and dairy and low in white bread, processed meat, margarine, and soft drinks may help to prevent abdominal fat accumulation.", "-32.186015285144094" ], [ "other preventable diseases. In low income areas diets that are affordable and accessible are generally high in refined grains, added grains, and added fats which might fill up someone’s stomach for a short time but are extremely nutrient poor, often leading to higher risk of disease and higher mortality. These nutrient poor diets have also been an independent predictor in many studies of obesity and metabolic syndrome. Ken Shandy and Phat Beets Phat Beets believes that these diets are not being consumed by choice, and that physical proximity to healthy food choices is a huge indicator in diet quality. In", "-32.17565379542066" ], [ "fraction of their day chewing compared to other extant primates living on raw diets. American girls and boys spent on average 8 and 7 percent of their day chewing respectively, compared to chimpanzees who spend more than 6 hours a day chewing. This frees up time which can be used for hunting. A raw diet means hunting is constrained since time spent hunting is time not spent eating and chewing plant material, but cooking reduces the time required to get the day's energy requirements, allowing for more subsistence activities. Digestibility of cooked carbohydrates is approximately on average 30% higher than", "-32.16300965641858" ], [ "Academic, Rowman & Littlefield, Berg, Earthscan, Routledge, Prospect, and Equinox Publishing. Food insecurity and health outcomes In America, almost 50 million people are considered food insecure. This is because they do not have the means to buy healthy food, therefore, lead an unhealthy lifestyle. At least 1.4 times more children who are food insecure are likely to have asthma, compared to food-secure children. And older Americans who are food-insecure will tend to have limitations in their daily activities. When a household is lacking the means (money) to buy proper food, their health ultimately suffers. Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP, formerly", "-32.15484797465615" ], [ "supply Since 1961, human diets across the world have become more diverse in the consumption of major commodity staple crops, with a corollary decline in consumption of local or regionally important crops, and thus have become more homogeneous globally. The differences between the foods eaten in different countries were reduced by 68% between 1961 and 2009. The modern \"global standard\" diet contains an increasingly large percentage of a relatively small number of major staple commodity crops, which have increased substantially in the share of the total food energy (calories), protein, fat, and food weight that they provide to the world's", "-32.118473925453145" ], [ "safe. Cultural and religious diets Many cultures hold some food preferences and some food taboos. Dietary choices can also define cultures and play a role in religion. For example, only kosher foods are permitted by Judaism, halal foods by Islam, and in Hinduism beef is restricted. In addition, the dietary choices of different countries or regions have different characteristics. This is highly related to a culture's cuisine. Diet deficiencies Dietary habits play a significant role in the health and mortality of all humans. Imbalances between the consumed fuels and expended energy results in either starvation or excessive reserves of adipose", "-32.11250542779453" ], [ "still tasty to the consumer by reducing fat and sugar to meet a lower caloric content. Web Video Changing the Way – and what- we eat. Why is it hard to resist certain foods? is an interview by Lisa Meyers for NBC Nightly News with Brian Williams, where Civille gave details about how the consumer demands are forcing food companies to change the way they engineer food and how food panelists using descriptive analysis help to decode what the consumer really wants. Publications Civille, G. V. (2011), \"Food texture: pleasure and pain\", Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 59, 1487-1490.\nCiville,", "-32.08931188628776" ], [ "may be effective at improving weight gain and recovery when compared to alternative dietary approaches. The effectiveness of ready to use therapeutic food on potential relapses or on overall mortality is not clear.\nAs of 2013, Plumpy'nut had been used to relieve malnutrition in thousands of African children, gaining approval as a therapeutic food from the World Health Organization.", "-32.07061851123581" ], [ "Food self-sufficiency was 73% in 1965 and steeply declined as government promotion of manufactured goods led to rapid urbanization and an aging rural population who increasingly had to supplement their incomes with outside work. Young people have tended to avoid agricultural work due to stereotypes of it being laborious and biased against women. Faced with an aging population reliant on food imports has prompted the Japanese government to invest in agriculture and to raise awareness of women's rights in farming, such as the rights to land ownership and income. History Nahoko Takahashi returned to her parents' home after", "-32.06969146481424" ], [ "there is a corresponding decrease in the concentration of elements such as nitrogen, phosphorus, zinc and iodine. Of significant concern is the protein content of plants, which also decreases in relation to elevating carbon content. \nIrakli Loladze explains that the lack of essential nutrients in crops contributes the problem of micronutrient malnutrition in society, commonly known as “hidden hunger”; despite adequate caloric intake, the body still is not nutritionally satisfied and therefore continues to be “hungry”. This problem is aggravated by the rising cost of food, resulting in a global shift towards diets which are less expensive, but high in", "-32.03285181519459" ], [ "meats, sweets, and sugar. It is also \"rich in potassium, magnesium, and calcium, as well as protein\".\nThe Mediterranean diet, which includes limiting consumption of red meat and using olive oil in cooking, has also been shown to improve cardiovascular outcomes. Obesity Most people who are overweight or obese can use dieting in combination with physical exercise to lose weight.\nDiets to promote weight loss are divided into four categories: low-fat, low-carbohydrate, low-calorie, and very low calorie. A meta-analysis of six randomized controlled trials found no difference between the main diet types (low calorie, low carbohydrate, and low fat), with a 2–4", "-32.01040386821842" ], [ "their diet by eliminating carbohydrate-rich food. Low-carbohydrate diet proponents emphasize research saying that low-carbohydrate diets can initially cause slightly greater weight loss than a balanced diet, but some studies suggest that such an advantage does not persist. In the long-term successful weight maintenance is determined by calorie intake, and not by macronutrient ratios.\nThe public has become confused by the way in which some diets, such as the Zone diet and the South Beach diet are promoted as \"low-carbohydrate\" when in fact they would more properly be termed \"medium\" carbohydrate diets. Carbohydrate-insulin hypothesis Low-carbohydrate diet advocates including Gary Taubes and David", "-32.002706562387175" ], [ "2007.\nThe first weight-loss book to promote calorie counting, and the first weight-loss book to become a bestseller, was the 1918 Diet and Health: With Key to the Calories by American physician and columnist Lulu Hunt Peters. Low-fat Low-fat diets involve the reduction of the percentage of fat in one's diet. Calorie consumption is reduced because less fat is consumed. Diets of this type include NCEP Step I and II. A meta-analysis of 16 trials of 2–12 months' duration found that low-fat diets (without intentional restriction of caloric intake) resulted in average weight loss of 3.2 kg (7.1 lb) over habitual eating. Low-carbohydrate Low-carbohydrate", "-31.984352893792675" ], [ "cholesterol, salt, and sugar; relatively more complex carbohydrates, fish and poultry; and less red meat.\" Though this recommended diet consisted of more processed foods rather than fresh produce, the report advised for consumers to \"be wary of processed foods\". The goals were subsequently updated for Healthy People 2000, Healthy People 2010, and Healthy People 2020.\nHealthy People 2010, started in January 2000 by the United States Department of Health and Human Services, was a set of nationwide health-promotion and disease-prevention goals to be achieved by the year 2010. Programs such as HealthCorps grew out of this plan. Healthy People 2010 and", "-31.98145658004796" ], [ "exhausted, it is then unable to produce the same amount of food as before, and is overall less productive. Therefore, by using resources beyond a sustainable level, the resource become nullified and ineffective, which further increases the disparity between the demand for a resource and the availability of a resource. There must be a shift to provide adequate recovery time to each one of the supplies in demand to support contemporary human lifestyles.\nDavid Pimentel has stated that \"With the imbalance growing between population numbers and vital life sustaining resources, humans must actively conserve cropland, freshwater, energy, and biological resources. There", "-31.98060541166342" ], [ "vegetables, and coarse grains are disappearing in all regions and countries. Taking their place are diets characterized by fat-rich edible and vegetable oils, cheap animal-source foods high in fat and protein, and artificially sweetened foods high in sugar and refined carbohydrates. Consumption of caloric beverages such as soda represented 21% of all calorie intake in Mexico from 1996 to 2002. Processes of globalization that have influenced food markets have made these products much cheaper, flavorful, and easier to produce which has in turn driven up their demand. So while globalization and the accompanying economic development has created higher levels of", "-31.980014527362073" ], [ "of one's caloric intake, though the effect varies substantially for different food components. For example, dietary fat is very easy to process and has very little thermic effect, while protein is hard to process and has a much larger thermic effect. Factors that affect the thermic effect of food The thermic effect of food is increased by both aerobic training of sufficient duration and intensity or by anaerobic weight training. However, the increase is marginal, amounting to 7-8 calories per hour. The primary determinants of daily TEF are the total caloric content of the meals and the macronutrient composition of", "-31.96197618645965" ], [ "saturated fat and excess protein. Eating fruits and vegetables also helps prevent bone loss and the developing of kidney stones. A well balanced diet also contributes to healthy hair, skin, nails and improved mood.\nReduction of meat consumption and an increase in the consumption of whole and natural foods helps to support a healthy immune system and reduces the risk of disease. Controversy For many, the choice to eat meat is a matter of ethics, religion and personal responsibility and for some it’s a right. Vegetarians contend that any argument to cut back on meat is an argument", "-31.958604116298375" ], [ "diets are relatively high in protein and fats. Low-carbohydrate diets are sometimes ketogenic (i.e., they restrict carbohydrate intake sufficiently to cause ketosis). Low-calorie Low-calorie diets usually produce an energy deficit of 500–1,000 calories per day, which can result in a 0.5 to 1 kilogram (1.1 to 2.2 pounds) weight loss per week. One of the most commonly used low-calorie diets is Weight Watchers. The National Institutes of Health reviewed 34 randomized controlled trials to determine the effectiveness of low-calorie diets. They found that these diets lowered total body mass by 8% in the short term, over 3–12 months. Women doing", "-31.954360611796346" ], [ "restrictions in humans can lead to deficiency diseases; however, stable human groups have adapted to many dietary patterns through both genetic specialization and cultural conventions to use nutritionally balanced food sources. The human diet is prominently reflected in human culture, and has led to the development of food science.\nUntil the development of agriculture approximately 10,000 years ago, Homo sapiens employed a hunter-gatherer method as their sole means of food collection. This involved combining stationary food sources (such as fruits, grains, tubers, and mushrooms, insect larvae and aquatic mollusks) with wild game, which must be hunted and killed in order to", "-31.95432584829541" ], [ "were mixed for Good Calories, Bad Calories. Physician Tony Miksanek, writing in the Chicago Sun-Times, calls the book \"well-researched\" and opines that Taubes’s conclusions are \"somewhat startling yet surprisingly convincing.\" Journalism professor and food author Michael Pollan describes Good Calories, Bad Calories as \"valuable\" but believes that it \"does not escape the confines of nutritionism.\"\nNew York Times medical reporter Gina Kolata concluded that she was ultimately \"not convinced\" by Taubes’s arguments, writing that \"the problem with a book like this one, which goes on and on in great detail […] is that it can be hard to know what has", "-31.9454695743334" ], [ "Guiliano's 2006 book French Women Don't Get Fat). French cuisine and eating habits have however come under great pressure in recent years from modern fast food, such as American products and the new global agricultural industry. While French youth culture has gravitated toward fast food and American eating habits (with an attendant rise in obesity), the French in general have remained committed to preserving certain elements of their food culture through such activities as including programs of taste acquisition in their public schools, by the use of the appellation d'origine contrôlée laws, and by state and European subsidies to the", "-31.90226392587647" ], [ "diseases and health conditions. The complexity of food science should not be taken as a reason to abandon systematic investigation of it. Daniel Engber also argues that Pollan over idealizes the diet of our ancestors, and believes that it may not be well suited to our modern needs.", "-31.8856430152955" ], [ "considered healthy and nutritious among the upper classes. One's lifestyle—including diet, exercise, appropriate social behavior, and approved medical remedies—was the way to good health, and all types of food were assigned certain properties that affected a person's health. All foodstuffs were also classified on scales ranging from hot to cold and moist to dry, according to the four bodily humours theory proposed by Galen that dominated Western medical science from late Antiquity until the 17th century.\nMedieval scholars considered human digestion to be a process similar to cooking. The processing of food in the stomach was seen as a continuation of", "-31.876672390964814" ], [ "balance makes the food simple in appearance but rich in flavor.\nDue to economic conditions, maximizing the use of ingredients to save money has become a tradition in Vietnamese cooking. In earlier decades and even nowadays in rural areas, every part of a cow is used, from the muscle meat to the intestines; nothing is wasted. The higher quality cuts from farmed animals (cows, pigs) would be cooked in stirfry, soup or other dishes, while the secondary cuts would be used in blood sausages or soup. The same goes for vegetables like scallions: the leafy part is diced into small bits", "-31.865482494045864" ], [ "lard and sugar. These options were much cheaper but contained proportionally lower nutritional value. These foods became the new staple for American Indians as they developed a taste for the only foods available to them by law. Overtime, these foods were introduced to subsequent generations and the food became socialized into the household. Access to food Near many Indian reservations, the access to healthy food can be a big challenge. Areas surrounding many reservations are large food deserts, which are defined as communities without ready access to healthy and affordable food. Food deserts shift the consumer focus of eating healthier", "-31.852306739798223" ], [ "digestibility of non cooked carbohydrates. This increased energy intake, more free time and savings made on tissue used in the digestive system allowed for the selection of genes for larger brain size.\nDespite its benefits, brain tissue requires a large amount of calories, hence a main constraint in selection for larger brains is calorie intake. A greater calorie intake can support greater quantities of brain tissue. This is argued to explain why human brains can be much larger than other apes, since humans are the only ape to engage in food processing. The cooking of food has influenced genes to the", "-31.822247747637448" ], [ "used. One aspect of a healthy diet that is often lacking in the Western-pattern diet is fiber and other complex carbohydrates that a healthy gut flora require flourishing; changes to gut flora in response to a Western-pattern diet appear to increase the amount of energy generated by the gut flora which may contribute to obesity and metabolic syndrome. There is also evidence that microbiota influence eating behaviours based on the preferences of the microbiota, which can lead to the host consuming more food eventually resulting in obesity. It has generally been observed that with higher gut microbiome diversity, the microbiota", "-31.806851212721085" ], [ "are recommended in the diet, such as carnitine, are thought useful for survival and health, but these are not \"essential\" dietary nutrients because the human body has some capacity to produce them from other compounds. Moreover, thousands of different phytochemicals have recently been discovered in food (particularly in fresh vegetables), which may have desirable properties including antioxidant activity (see below); experimental demonstration has been suggestive but inconclusive. Other essential nutrients not classed as vitamins include essential amino acids (see above), essential fatty acids (see above), and the minerals discussed in the preceding section.\nVitamin deficiencies may result in disease conditions: goiter,", "-31.785733870143304" ], [ "and fresh vegetable juices. The book advocates a diet of 75% raw food, which it claims will prevent degenerative diseases, slow the effects of aging, provide enhanced energy, and boost emotional balance; it cites examples such as the sprouted-seed-enriched diets of the long-lived Hunza people and Gerson therapy, an unhealthy, dangerous and potentially very harmful raw juice-based diet and detoxification regime claimed to treat cancer. Health effects A raw food diet is likely to impair the development of children and infants. Care is required in planning a raw vegan diet, especially for children, as there may not be enough vitamin", "-31.77500608536866" ], [ "sharper increase and slower-digesting complex carbohydrates, such as whole grains, a slower one.\nIn 1992, Atkins published an update from his 1972 book, Dr. Atkins New Diet Revolution, and other doctors began to publish books based on the same principles. During the late 1990s and early 2000s, low-carbohydrate diets became some of the most popular diets in the US. By some accounts, up to 18% of the population was using one type of low-carbohydrate diet or another at the peak of their popularity. Food manufacturers and restaurant chains noted the trend, as it affected their businesses. Parts of the", "-31.773815774021614" ], [ "relative importance of NCS within caloric sweetener consumption. This is part of broader changes in global food consumption patterns characterized by a large increase in refined foods, especially fats, sugar and flours. This pattern, part of a more general nutrition transition, has been linked to the development of diseases such as obesity, diabetes and strokes, which have taken on epidemic proportions in many countries. Increasing recognition of the negative impacts of current dominant diets and sedentary behavioral patterns may help reverse such a pattern and hopefully allow better health upon aging. \"Natural\" and \"organic\" products appear increasingly popular, attaining significant", "-31.760371569471317" ], [ "CRON-diet The CRON-diet (Calorie Restriction with Optimal Nutrition) is a nutrient-rich, reduced calorie diet developed by Roy Walford, Lisa Walford, and Brian M. Delaney. The CRON-diet involves calorie restriction in the hope that the practice will improve health and retard aging, while still attempting to provide the recommended daily amounts of various nutrients. Other names include CR-diet, Longevity diet, and Anti-Aging Plan. The Walfords and Delaney, among others, founded the CR Society International to promote the CRON-diet. Context There is experimental evidence that calorie restriction can slow biological aging in mammals such as mice and monkeys, but the long-term effects", "-31.736474363104207" ], [ "are not about supply or the lack of nutritional value available in foods, but rather, poor income distribution and market shifts leading to populations unable to afford food.", "-31.722241211333312" ] ]

[ "It basically 'flushes the buffers\" of your brain, clears out short-term memory and plaques that accumulate. NASA did a wonderful study on it: URL_0 They found a 20 minute nap is better than 200mg of caffeine.", "A “power nap” as it is called is usually between 15-30 minutes, and when done correctly, avoids the deep sleep stages. The first 30ish minutes of sleep are spent in Stage 1 and 2, which are the lighter phases. During these, the brain is semi-relaxed, slows down signals, and gets some rest. It is important to wake up before Stage 3 and 4 because waking up during those leaves the person dazed and more tired, because the body was interrupted during its shut off stage. Power naps are like trying to reap as many benefits of sleep as possible without actually becoming fully asleep, meaning one feels more alert in less time. It can be compared to putting on a bandage when you’re really busy until you have time to get stitches.", "There isn’t a perfect correlation between feeling states and physiological states. When you exercise, you start feeling fatigue long before your muscles physically run out of energy to burn. Obese people feel hungry at mealtimes even though it would take weeks of total starvation to kill them. And when you’re mildly sleep deprived, your brain purposely creates a state of sleepiness and exhaustion even though it is physically capable of continuing operation. You feel more tired than your brain actually is. The evolutionary reason for this is probably just to motivate humans to emphasize sleep in their daily routines and not go too long without it. So, a short nap is enough to reverse acute feelings of sleepiness. The brain is programmed to return to a restful feeling state even after a short period of sleep. But only in the short term. If you sleep poorly for 10 days in a row, you’ll find that a 20-minute power nap won’t rejuvenate you nearly as well as on day 1. At that point, your brain really is physically incapable of operating at full levels without sleeping to recover.", "Imagine you start everyday with an empty trailer behind your car. You spend all day in your car. As you go about your day the trailer is filled with stuff you accumulate from daily experiences. A nap can empty some of the load from your trailer. Deep sleep on the other hand is car maintenance plus emptying of trailer. It takes longer and if your car functions fine, you won't feel much difference between just emptying the trailer and both maintenance and emptying the trailer.", "Apparently it's built into our circadian rhythm through evolution. There's a dip around lunch time which allows a nap to be had because we probably all did this thousands of years ago like most animals. That dip is different depending if your circadian rhythm is different like a night owl. So the dip could be are around 5 o'clock for someone else. You get about 20 minutes, anymore and you've ruined it.", "You probably do drop into REM sleep briefly. When the cells in your brain create energy, they release adenosine as a byproduct. This normally gets processed in other parts of your body, but it can't penetrate your blood brain barrier while you are awake. It's the main reason you get tired from being awake as it is a central nervous system depressant. Caffeine acts as an adenosine receptor inhibitor. So you aren't solving the problem, but you are less sensitive to it. When you drop into REM sleep, your body starts purging the adenosine in your brain through some process that causes wild hallucinations (dreams). When you have a higher quantity of adenosine, more gets processed faster. So the first 10 minutes of REM sleep do more than the last hour in terms of purging your brain. Some people have experimented with great success splitting up sleep to sleep twice a day for less time, and it turns out to be more effective than sleeping in one large block. For example, you sleep 3 hours twice a day or 2 hours 2-3 times a day instead of once for 8 hours. This is because you are maximizing the efficiency of the purging mechanism and minimizing adenosine accumulation.", "If you think of a human as a computer, this is much more helpful. \\n So in a computer, Ram is Random Access Memory. What it does is store data temporary, and upon the command of the CPU (the brain of the computer that does all the thinking), the Ram flushes the data and shoots it to the CPU so that the CPU can process the data to display information on the screen. \\n Heres the Problem: When the CPU is asking for a lot of things to be done, Ram starts to pile up and tends to reach its threshold on the amount of data it can hold directly. When this happens, data will have to be retrieved from the memory itself which could take forever and waste a lot of time and effort. Its ineffecient, and makes the screen display things slowly and lag. To solve this issue, the computer needs to unload its resources to stop the straining of ram. How? By shutting down short term memories and processes that are not essential. Its important that you dont have the computer shut down all the way: it can take a long time to jumpstart, boot, and load windows or mac os for you again. But do it just right (via task manager or killing programs) and you have free ram to work freely. \\n The Human mind is no different. We are task orientated species that have multiple tasks for the day. Even if we complete a task, we still keep the task in our mind, and as a result, the mind is cluttered with incohrent shit. Solution? Power napping. We shut down the body by purging all the short term stuff and wake up just before shutting down completely to avoid the shitting feeling, which occurs because the body has to use resources to restart the brain. So really, power napping is the crux of effeciency: reallocating and reprioritizing resources that matter.", "As you'll notice, no one actually has a conclusive answer. You get some guesses, correlations, and anecdotes that don't actually explain \"how\" it is possible. \"We tried giving people naps and coffee and the nap people felt better\" is not an explanation of \"how\". The simple fact is that we have no idea. We don't have a clue how the activity of the body leads to certain first-person experiences like \"alertness\". We can say there are certain brain regions that show activity, and certain chemicals increase or decrease, affecting certain \"pathways\", but that's not an answer to the \"how\" question - it's just observing some correlations. These types of questions get asked all the time and none of the top answers ever seem to address this, probably because we value black-white answers with an air of \"knowledge\" to them, even if they don't actually answer the original question. Just thought I would point this out for anyone who's willing to be puzzled by things, rather than accepting things that sound like answers but actually aren't. Keep being puzzled.", "A 15min nap is the 2min power cycle equivalent of our brain. Just enough time to \"reset\" and get going again." ]

[ [ "is a logical prophylactic measure. However, naps that are too long (over 30 minutes) may generate sleep inertia, a groggy feeling after awakening that can impair performance. Therefore, brief naps (10 to 30 minutes) are preferred to longer naps (over 30 minutes). Also, long naps may also interfere with the main sleep bout.\nIn the transportation industry, safety is a major concern, and mandated hours of service rules attempt to enforce rest times. Bright light treatment The light-dark cycle is the most important environmental time cue for entraining circadian rhythms of most species, including humans, and bright artificial light exposure has", "-36.715125566057395" ], [ "hours at a stretch, so the agency needs to know about the optimal length, timing and effect of naps. Professor David Dinges of the University of Pennsylvania School of Medicine led research in a laboratory setting on sleep schedules which combined various amounts of \"anchor sleep\", ranging from about four to eight hours in length, with no nap or daily naps of up to 2.5 hours. Longer naps were found to be better, with some cognitive functions benefiting more from napping than others. Vigilance and basic alertness benefited the least while working memory benefited greatly. Naps in the individual subjects'", "-34.65165062968299" ], [ "the 5-minute nap produced few benefits in comparison with the no-nap control; the 10-minute nap produced immediate improvements in all outcome measures (including sleep latency, subjective sleepiness, fatigue, vigor, and cognitive performance), with some of these benefits maintained for as long as 155 minutes; the 20-minute nap was associated with improvements emerging 35 minutes after napping and lasting up to 125 minutes after napping; and the 30-minute nap produced a period of impaired alertness and performance immediately after napping, indicative of sleep inertia, followed by improvements lasting up to 155 minutes after the nap.\nThe NASA Ames Fatigue Countermeasures Group studied", "-34.43637484421197" ], [ "of consolidation which—once triggered—remains effective even if sleep is terminated.\nAccording to clinical studies among men and women, power nappers of any frequency or duration had a significantly lower coronary mortality ratio (MR) than those not napping. Specifically, those occasionally napping had a 12% lower coronary mortality, whereas those systematically napping had a 37% lower coronary mortality.\nA Flinders University study of individuals restricted to only five hours of sleep per night found a 10-minute nap was overall the most recuperative nap duration of various nap lengths they examined (lengths of 0 min, 5 min, 10 min, 20 min, and 30 minutes):", "-33.862822927942034" ], [ "will frequently advise that these hours of sleep are obtained at night instead of through napping, because while naps can be helpful after sleep deprivation, under normal conditions naps may be detrimental to nighttime sleep. Negative effects of napping on sleep and performance have been found to depend on duration and timing, with shorter midday naps being the least disruptive. There is also focus on the importance of awakening around the same time every morning and generally having a regular sleep schedule. Activities Exercise is an activity that can facilitate or inhibit sleep quality; people who exercise experience better", "-33.78345457371324" ], [ "circumstances where sleep cannot be achieved continuously, research on napping shows that 10- to 20-minute naps at regular intervals during the day can help relieve some of the sleep deprivation and thus maintain ... performance for several days. However, researchers caution that levels of performance achieved using ultrashort sleep (short naps) to temporarily replace normal sleep are always well below that achieved when fully rested. NASA NASA, in cooperation with the National Space Biomedical Research Institute, has funded research on napping. Despite NASA recommendations that astronauts sleep eight hours a day when in space, they usually have trouble sleeping eight", "-33.65067055329564" ], [ "the effects of sleep loss and jet lag, and conducts training to counter these effects. A major fatigue countermeasures recommendation consists of a 40-minute nap (\"NASA nap\") which empirically showed to improve flight crew performance and alertness with a 22% statistical risk of entering SWS.\nFor several years, scientists have been investigating the benefits of napping, both the power nap and much longer sleep durations as long as 1–2 hours. Performance across a wide range of cognitive processes has been tested. Studies demonstrate that naps are as good as a night of sleep for some types of memory tasks.\nA NASA study", "-33.55828335632032" ], [ "be beneficial for psychological and physical health, as it helps the brain to encode incoming information and may lead to higher levels of creativity. Payne notes that it is important to limit naps to 20 minutes to avoid the risk of falling into a deep sleep and waking amidst slow-wave sleep. Naps are an effective way to compensate for sleep debt, i.e., the cumulative effect of not getting enough sleep. As alternative strategies to enhance brain activity. Payne suggests engaging in five-minute meditation exercises, engaging in diaphragmatic breathing, taking walks, and changing one's environmental surroundings.", "-33.38741335768282" ], [ "oxybate are the most effective treatment of sleepiness although it is only moderately effective. Several studies also showed that sodium oxybate is effective to treat cataplexy.\nAnother drug that is used is atomoxetine, a non-stimulant and a norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor (NRI), which has no addiction liability or recreational effects. In many cases, planned regular short naps can reduce the need for pharmacological treatment of the EDS, but only improve symptoms for a short duration. A 120-minute nap provided benefit for 3 hours in the person's alertness whereas a 15-minute nap provided no benefit. Daytime naps are not a replacement for night time", "-32.52821974596009" ], [ "naps are generally very long (up to several hours) and are also unrefreshing, as opposed to the short refreshing naps associated with narcolepsy.\nSeveral studies have shown increased frequencies of other symptoms in patients with idiopathic hypersomnia, although it is not clear whether these symptoms are caused by the idiopathic hypersomnia. These symptoms include palpitations, digestive problems, difficulty with body temperature regulation, and cognitive problems, especially deficits in memory, attention, and concentration. Anxiety and depression are often increased in idiopathic hypersomnia, most likely as a response to chronic illness. A large case series in 2010 found that peripheral vascular symptoms, such", "-32.51482837088406" ], [ "desirable, or is required, to do so. In extreme situations In crises and other extreme conditions, people may not be able to achieve the recommended eight hours of sleep per day. Systematic napping may be considered necessary in such situations.\nClaudio Stampi, as a result of his interest in long-distance solo boat racing, has studied the systematic timing of short naps as a means of ensuring optimal performance in situations where extreme sleep deprivation is inevitable, but he does not advocate ultrashort napping as a lifestyle. Scientific American Frontiers (PBS) has reported on Stampi's 49-day experiment where a young man napped", "-32.4803182247997" ], [ "to the cognitive and motor deficits that may be present. Napping When a person is sleep deprived, re-entering sleep may provide a viable route to reduce mental and physical fatigue but it can also induce sleep inertia. In order to limit sleep inertia, one should avoid waking from the deeper stages of slow-wave sleep. The onset of slow-wave sleep occurs approximately 30 minutes after falling asleep, therefore a nap should be limited to under 30 minutes to prevent waking during slow-wave sleep and enhancing sleep inertia. Furthermore, self-awakening from a short nap was shown to relieve disorientation of sleep inertia", "-32.212491845712066" ], [ "that a midday snooze reverses information overload. Reporting in Nature Neuroscience, Sara Mednick, PhD, Stickgold and colleagues also demonstrated that \"burnout\" irritation, frustration and poorer performance on a mental task can set in as a day of training wears on. This study also proved that, in some cases, napping could even boost performance to an individual's top levels. The NIMH team wrote: \"The bottom line is: we should stop feeling guilty about taking that 'power nap' at work.\"\nSara Mednick conducted a study experimenting on the effects of napping, caffeine, and a placebo. Her results showed that a 60–90-minute nap is", "-31.722052426579467" ], [ "more effective than caffeine in memory and cognition. Stimulant nap A brief period of sleep of around 15 to 20 minutes, preceded by consuming a caffeinated drink or another stimulant, may combat daytime drowsiness more effectively than napping or drinking coffee alone. A stimulant nap (or coffee nap, caffeine nap, occasionally napuccino) was discovered by British researchers, Horne and Reyner, to be more effective than regular naps in improving post-nap alertness and cognitive functioning. In a driving simulator and a series of studies, Horne and Reyner investigated the effects of cold air, radio, a break with no nap, a nap,", "-31.66741490154527" ], [ "nap periods. A mean sleep onset latency of less than 10 minutes is suggestive of excessive daytime sleepiness. Home sleep test (HST) These typically include the individual whose sleep is being studied receiving a portable monitor and may include other items such as a finger clip and an airflow sensor. Items measured include oxygen saturation, heart rate, airflow, body movement, time spent snoring, sleep position, and brain waves. Sleep study in psychology Sleep studies have been imperative for the empirical research of sleep psychology. The area of sleep psychology evaluates the physiological, and behavioral factors of normal sleep and sleep", "-31.325939973117784" ], [ "16 hours to 24 hours.\nDespite the sleep deprivation medical residents constantly experience due to long working hours, a minority of residents still wish to not have work hour regulations at all. In the survey of 4510 obstetric-gynecologic residents, about one in five opposed any limits on their work hours. These residents cited \"additional experience\" as the most common reason (69.0%), followed by \"opportunity to see rare cases\" (46.5%) and \"continuity with patients\" (31.8%). Coping mechanisms Although strategic napping is recommended by the ACGME, no studies have assessed the effect of napping as a fatigue mitigation technique. Requiring naps during long", "-31.31666770717129" ], [ "led by David F. Dinges, professor at the University of Pennsylvania School of Medicine, found that naps can improve certain memory functions. In that NASA study, volunteers spent several days living on one of 18 different sleep schedules, all in a laboratory setting. To measure the effectiveness of the naps, tests probing memory, alertness, response time, and other cognitive skills were used.\nPower Napping Enablers and sleep timers allow properly timed power napping.\nThe National Institute of Mental Health funded a team of doctors, led by Alan Hobson, MD, Robert Stickgold, PhD, and colleagues at Harvard University for a study which showed", "-31.20661954813113" ], [ "naps during the day, consuming alcohol near bedtime, and consuming large amounts of caffeine during the day. In addition to sleep hygiene education, bright light therapy can be a useful treatment for individuals with depression. Not only can morning bright light therapy help establish a better sleep-wake schedule, but it also has been shown to be effective for treating depression directly, especially when related to seasonal affective disorder.\nIndividuals with breathing difficulties due to asthma or allergies may experience additional barriers to quality sleep that can be addressed by specific variations of sleep hygiene recommendations. Difficulty with breathing can cause disruptions", "-30.981848531402647" ], [ "of SWS results in sleep inertia, a phenomenon associated with grogginess, disorientation, and even more fatigue than prior to napping. Since sleep is the most effective and beneficial recovery method from fatigue, experts recommend considering duration vs. risk of entering SWS. Benefits Power naps restore alertness, performance, and learning ability. A nap may also reverse the hormonal impact of a night of poor sleep or reverse the damage of sleep deprivation. A University of Düsseldorf study found superior memory recall once a person had reached 6 minutes of sleep, suggesting that the onset of sleep may initiate active memory processes", "-30.946178097859956" ], [ "hour naps two to three times a day, with the third nap dropped by about nine months. By one year of age, the amount of sleep that most infants get nightly approximates to that of adults. Good sleep conditions Many parents try to understand, once the baby is asleep, how to keep them sleeping through the night. It is thought that it is important to have structure in the way a child is put to sleep so that he or she can establish good sleeping patterns. Dr Sylvia Bell of Johns Hopkins University reported: by the end of the first", "-30.80592139690998" ], [ "Sara Mednick Sara C. Mednick is a sleep researcher at the University of California, Riverside. Her research focuses on the relationship between napping and performance. She is the author of several papers and a mass market book, Take a Nap! Change Your Life. She graduated with her PhD in psychology from Harvard University studying under Ken Nakayama and Robert Stickgold.\nMednick contends that humans have a biological need for an afternoon nap. \"There's actually biological dips in our rhythm and in our alertness that seem to go along with the natural state of the way we used to", "-30.609105597250164" ], [ "side-effects including sleep disruption. Children Pre-pubertal children are advised to have the school contacted and alert the teachers to their problems, as well as taking a nap at lunchtime and around 4 or 5 pm. They can take medications like modafinil, sodium oxybate, methylphenidate and atomoxetine against sleepiness and sodium oxybate, venlafaxine, fluoxetine and clomipramine against cataplexy. None of these medications have been tested by the FDA and none of them have been approved for younger children.\nPubertal children are also advised to contact the school and inform their teachers. They, too, should plan on taking a nap at lunch and", "-30.599440937279724" ], [ "Excessive daytime sleepiness Diagnosis An adult who is compelled to nap repeatedly during the day may have excessive daytime sleepiness; however, it is important to distinguish between occasional daytime sleepiness and excessive daytime sleepiness, which is chronic.\nA number of tools for screening for EDS have been developed. One is the Epworth Sleepiness Scale which grades the results of a questionnaire. The ESS generates a numerical score from zero (0) to 24 where a score of ten [10] or higher may indicate that the person should consult a specialist in sleep medicine for further evaluation.\nAnother tool is the Multiple Sleep Latency", "-30.555730989784934" ], [ "naps.\nA component of stimulus control therapy is sleep restriction, a technique that aims to match the time spent in bed with actual time spent asleep. This technique involves maintaining a strict sleep-wake schedule, sleeping only at certain times of the day and for specific amounts of time to induce mild sleep deprivation. Complete treatment usually lasts up to 3 weeks and involves making oneself sleep for only a minimum amount of time that they are actually capable of on average, and then, if capable (i.e. when sleep efficiency improves), slowly increasing this amount (~15 min) by going to bed earlier", "-30.54275798809249" ], [ "rhythm sleep disorders. Naps The siesta habit has recently been associated with a 37% lower coronary mortality, possibly due to reduced cardiovascular stress mediated by daytime sleep. Short naps at mid-day and mild evening exercise were found to be effective for improved sleep, cognitive tasks, and mental health in elderly people.\nMany people experience a temporary drop in alertness in the early afternoon, commonly known as the \"post-lunch dip\". While a large meal can make a person feel sleepy, the post-lunch dip is mostly an effect of the circadian clock. People naturally feel most sleepy at two times of the day", "-30.47569291095715" ], [ "and wakefulness including sleep latency and other functions - both physiological, behavioral, and cognitive. Human health Timing of medical treatment in coordination with the body clock, chronotherapeutics, may significantly increase efficacy and reduce drug toxicity or adverse reactions.\nA number of studies have concluded that a short period of sleep during the day, a power-nap, does not have any measurable effect on normal circadian rhythms but can decrease stress and improve productivity.\nHealth problems can result from a disturbance to the circadian rhythm. Circadian rhythms also play a part in the reticular activating system, which is crucial for maintaining a state of", "-30.300064030576323" ], [ "take afternoon naps. Her latest study, published in the technical journal \"Behavioural Brain Research,\" is in my opinion irrefutable. Naps, she found, improve cognitive performance better than caffeine and better than placebos -- and ... for even the most expensive medical intervention, to exceed the effectiveness of a placebo is quite impressive. Mednick is now campaigning for naps and even engaged in corporate nap consulting -- there's a 21st century field! She believes companies that allow employees to nap will realize improved productivity in the same number of work hours, a proposition that makes intuitive sense to me. Modern globalized", "-30.246320447855396" ], [ "minutes. In contrast, a child’s longest self-regulated sleep period (LSRSP) is the period of time where a child, without sleep problems, is able to self-initiate sleep without parental intervention upon waking. This self-regulation, also called self-soothing, allows the child to consistently use these skills during the nocturnal period. LSRSP dramatically increases in length over the first four months, plateaus, and then steadily increases at nine months. By about six months, most infants can sleep eight hours or more at night uninterrupted or without parental intervention upon awaking.\nIn terms of actual numbers, an infant from one to three months of age", "-30.051191091770306" ], [ "sleep times for two weeks: 8 hours, 6 hours, 4 hours, and total sleep deprivation. Each day they were tested for the number of lapses on the PVT. The results showed that as time went by, each group's performance worsened, with no sign of any stopping point. Moderate sleep deprivation was found to be detrimental; people who slept 6 hours a night for 10 days had similar results to those who were completely sleep deprived for 1 day. Evaluation Sleep debt has been tested in a number of studies through the use of a sleep onset latency test. This test", "-29.7781188437948" ], [ "taken an hour or so before the usual bedtime may induce sleepiness. Taken this late, it does not, of itself, affect circadian rhythms, but a decrease in exposure to light in the evening is helpful in establishing an earlier pattern. In accordance with its phase response curve (PRC), a very small dose of melatonin can also, or instead, be taken some hours earlier as an aid to resetting the body clock; it must then be small enough not to induce excessive sleepiness.\nSide effects of melatonin may include sleep disturbance, nightmares, daytime sleepiness, and depression, though the current tendency to use", "-29.734185315668583" ], [ "REM sleep early, and may often awaken during the night. The polysomnogram also helps to detect other possible sleep disorders that could cause daytime sleepiness.\nThe Epworth Sleepiness Scale is a brief questionnaire that is administered to determine the likelihood of the presence of a sleep disorder, including narcolepsy. For the multiple sleep latency test, a person is given a chance to sleep every two hours during normal wake times. The person is taken in usually for an overnight sleep study. The following day the person will have multiple tests where they will be told to nap after a full nights", "-29.600603669532575" ], [ "quality of sleep than those who do not, but exercising too late in the day can be activating and delay falling asleep. Increasing exposure to bright and natural light during the daytime and avoiding bright light in the hours before bedtime may help promote a sleep-wake schedule aligned with nature's daily light-dark cycle.\nActivities that reduce physiological arousal and cognitive activity promote falling asleep, so engaging in relaxing activities before bedtime is recommended. Conversely, continuing important work activities or planning shortly before bedtime or once in bed has been shown to delay falling asleep. Similarly, good sleep hygiene involves minimizing time", "-29.594423068978358" ], [ "waking, it is critical to consider the dosage given, the time of day, and the length of the sleep period. A non-medication approach involves healthy sleep practices, naps, exercise, and nutrition. The subcommittee suggested that the quality of sleep can be as important as the quantity, and that taking a nap before a night shift can increase pilot performance. In addition, proper exercise and nutrition help pilots maintain their physical health, which can reduce the negative effects of sleep loss. Temperature Stress caused by ambient temperature is called thermal stress and is normally experienced by military pilots. Although military aircraft", "-29.472713225637563" ], [ "taking a short nap during the day (20 minutes) especially in warm climates and seasons is highly recommended to them.\nBesides, those with cold and wet Mizaj should not sleep much as long sleep would increase wetness in the body. People with phlegmatic temperament should cut down on food items cold and wet temperament to sleep shorter and get up easily and not having trouble waking up. They had better wake up once or twice during the night so that wetness would not build up in their bodies. Age range Although each person is born with a fixed and unique temperament,", "-29.457456659991294" ], [ "improve the amount and quality of sleep which the child is getting. It is also important to have a good sleep hygiene, if a child has night terrors parents could try to change their sleep hygiene. Another option could be to adapt child's naps so that they are not too long or too short. Then, excessive stress or conflicts in a child's life could also have an impact on their sleep too, so to have some strategies to cope with stress combined with psychotherapy could decrease the frequency of the episodes. A polysomnography can be recommended if the child continues", "-29.455495387199335" ], [ "for sleep deprivation in college students. Napping may improve certain memory tasks as students who were excelling in their academics were more likely to nap than those who had low academic success. Sleep Courses In one study, participants took a two-credit, 18-week course that included group discussions, lectures, and self-evaluation of topics that included circadian rhythms, sleep hygiene, muscle relaxation, and public sleep education. Participants reported that they had improved sleep quality and sleep hygiene throughout the course. Cognitive Behavioral Therapy In one study, a revised type of cognitive behavioral for treating insomnia was sent to participating students by email.", "-29.397844610590255" ], [ "post-deprivation sleep shows a marked drop in IL-6 and an increase in slow wave sleep / \"deep sleep\". Similarly napping during the day time has been shown to decrease IL-6 and reduce tiredness. When humans are injected with exogenous IL-6 they display an increase in fatigue and other sickness behaviour.\nThis IL-6 increase is also observed during times of increased psychological stress. In a laboratory setting, individuals exposed to psychological stressors have had raised IL-6 (and acute phase protein CRP) measured especially in those who displayed anger or anxiety in response to stressful stimulus. Just as the human body responds to", "-29.39375062903855" ], [ "caffeine pill vs. placebo and a short nap preceded by caffeine on mildly sleep-deprived subjects. A nap with caffeine was by far the most effective in reducing driving accidents and subjective sleepiness as it helps the body get rid of the sleep-inducing chemical compound adenosine. Caffeine in coffee takes up to half an hour to have an alerting effect, hence \"a short (<15min) nap will not be compromised if it is taken immediately after the coffee.\" One account suggested that it was like a \"double shot of energy\" from the stimulating boost from caffeine plus better alertness from napping. This", "-29.185507180853165" ], [ "is achieved in a short nap, a typical indication of narcolepsy.\nImaging studies may be performed if a patient is to be evaluated for neurodegenerative disease or to determine the obstruction in obstructive sleep apnea. Treatments When sleep complaints are secondary to pain, other medical or psychiatric diagnoses, or substance abuse, it may be necessary to treat both the underlying cause and the sleep problems.\nWhen the underlying cause of sleep problems is not immediately obvious, behavioral treatments are usually the first suggested. These range from patient education about sleep hygiene to cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT). Studies of both younger and older", "-29.185056626971345" ], [ "the sleep onset latency at that particular hour on that particular day.\nDement advises against doing these evaluations at night when sleep onset latency can naturally be lower, particularly in older people. Instead, he suggests testing sleep onset latency during the day, ideally at 10:00 a.m., 12:30 p.m. and 3:00 p.m. A sleep onset latency of 0 to 5 minutes indicates severe sleep deprivation, 5 to 10 minutes is \"troublesome,\" 10 to 15 minutes indicates a mild but \"manageable\" degree of sleep debt, and 15 to 20 minutes is indicative of \"little or no\" sleep debt. Biomarkers of sleepiness Contemporary sleep researchers, including Paul", "-29.135916228871793" ], [ "sleep propensity.\nIn average, the latency in healthy adults decreases by a few minutes after a night without sleep, and the latency from sleep onset to slow-wave sleep is halved. Sleep latency is generally measured with the multiple sleep latency test (MSLT). In contrast, the maintenance of wakefulness test (MWT) also uses sleep latency, but this time as a measure of the capacity of the participants to stay awake (when asked to) instead of falling asleep. On sleep-wake cycle Research studying sleep deprivation show its impact on mood, cognitive and motor functioning, due to dysregulation of the sleep-wake cycle and augmented", "-29.08554222807288" ], [ "was even more pronounced on the second day of extended wakefulness. Duration The wake maintenance zone generally lasts 2 to 3 hours, during which one is less inclined to fall asleep. While potentially useful for completing urgent tasks, it may have a potentially unwanted side-effect of keeping one awake for several hours after the task has been completed. The hypervigilance and stimulation brought on by a second wind can cause fatigue, which, in the case of infants, can be literally painful. Thus, an infant may begin crying when sleep habits are disrupted.\n\nOne can avoid \"getting a second wind\" by practicing", "-29.075846530497074" ], [ "a quarter of them have previously shown symptoms of DSPS.\nThe term free-running sleep has occasionally been used by non-scientists to indicate intentional facilitation of the natural sleep/wake cycle. In this context, free-running sleep means that a person chooses to sleep when sleepy and to awaken spontaneously (specifically without an alarm clock or reference to the time of day).", "-28.979615488369745" ], [ "limit stimulating activity such as watching television, using a computer or being around bright lights. Relaxation training Relaxation training is a collection of practices that can help people to relax throughout the day and particularly close to bedtime. It is useful for insomnia patients with difficulty falling asleep. However it is unclear whether or not it is useful for those who tend to wake up in the middle of the night or very early in the morning. Techniques include hypnosis, guided imagery and meditation. Paradoxical Intention Paradoxical Intention is a treatment method which involves around telling the patient to", "-28.97893773947726" ], [ "sleeping schedule to its intrinsic late times.\nLong-term success rates of treatment have seldom been evaluated. However, experienced clinicians acknowledge that DSPD is extremely difficult to treat. One study of 61 DSPD patients, with average sleep onset at about 3:00 am and average waking time of about 11:30 am, was followed with questionnaires to the subjects after a year. Good effect was seen during the six-week treatment with a large daily dose of melatonin. Follow-up showed that over 90% had relapsed to pre-treatment sleeping patterns within the year, 29% reporting that the relapse occurred within one week. The mild cases retained changes significantly", "-28.97509536747384" ], [ "suggests that social media and internet use, 30 minutes before bed, is associated with disturbances in sleep patterns of children. Use within two hours of bedtime is associated with less total sleep and a later bedtime as well. Screen time and development A January 2019 study of 2,441 children in Canada found that compared to children exposed to relatively low levels of screen time, children exposed to higher levels of screen time at ages of 24 and 36 months correlated to low scores on developmental tests at ages of 36 and 60 months, respectively. The authors did not observe the", "-28.95192787225824" ], [ "around 4 or 5 pm. Further, it should be explained to them, how important a regular nocturnal sleep schedule is and that they should aim for 9 hours of sleep at night. Pubertal children can take several medications like modafinil, sodium oxybate, methylphenidate and atomoxetine against sleepiness and sodium oxybate, venlafaxine and fluoxetine against cataplexy. Epidemiology In the United States, it is estimated that this condition afflicts as many as 200,000 Americans, but fewer than 50,000 are diagnosed. It is as widespread as Parkinson's disease or multiple sclerosis and more prevalent than cystic fibrosis, but it is less well known.", "-28.913774606771767" ], [ "with irritability: people who get angry shortly before sleeping tend to suffer from sleep drunkenness. \nAccording to the American Academy of Sleep Medicine, hypersomniac patients often take long naps during the day that are mostly unrefreshing. Researchers found that naps are usually more frequent and longer in patients than in controls Furthermore, 75% of the patients report that short naps are not refreshing, compared to controls. Diagnosis \"The severity of daytime sleepiness needs to be quantified by subjective scales (at least the Epworth Sleepiness Scale) and objective tests such as the multiple sleep latency test (MSLT).\" ", "-28.909916328368126" ], [ "indicating long term potentiation.\nMoreover, observations include the importance of napping: improved performance in some kinds of tasks after a 1-hour afternoon nap; studies of performance of shift workers, showing that an equal number of hours of sleep in the day is not the same as in the night. Current research studies look at the molecular and physiological basis of memory consolidation during sleep. These, along with studies of genes that may play a role in this phenomenon, together promise to give a more complete picture of the role of sleep in memory. Renormalizing the synaptic strength Sleep can also serve", "-28.85336426887079" ], [ "of pregnancy. The United States Preventive Services Task Force recommends a low-dose regimen for women at high risk beginning in the 12th week. Benefits are less if started after 16 weeks. Physical activity There is insufficient evidence to recommend either exercise or strict bedrest as preventive measures of pre-eclampsia. Smoking cessation In low-risk pregnancies, the association between cigarette smoking and a reduced risk of pre-eclampsia has been consistent and reproducible across epidemiologic studies. High-risk pregnancies (those with pregestational diabetes, chronic hypertension, history of pre-eclampsia in a previous pregnancy, or multifetal gestation) showed no significant protective effect. The reason for this", "-28.789411805337295" ], [ "by way of short naps unsound, arguing that there is no brain control mechanism that would make it possible to adapt to the \"multiple naps\" system. Woźniak says that the body will always tend to consolidate sleep into at least one solid block, and he expresses concern that the ways in which the polyphasic sleepers' attempt to limit total sleep time, restrict time spent in the various stages of the sleep cycle, and disrupt their circadian rhythms, will eventually cause them to suffer the same negative effects as those with other forms of sleep deprivation and circadian rhythm sleep disorder.", "-28.6991969011724" ], [ "Free-running sleep Free-running sleep is a sleep pattern that is not adjusted (entrained) to the 24-hour cycle in nature nor to any artificial cycle.\nIt occurs as the sleep disorder non-24-hour sleep-wake disorder or artificially as part of experiments used in the study of circadian and other rhythms in biology. Study subjects are shielded from all time cues, often by a constant light protocol, by a constant dark protocol or by the use of light/dark conditions to which the organism cannot entrain such as the ultrashort protocol of one hour dark and two hours light. Also, limited amounts of food may", "-28.540137756906915" ], [ "caused sleep deprivation. The study concluded that the people with a broadband connection tend to sleep 25 minutes less than those without the broadband connection, hence they are less likely to get the scientifically recommended 7–9 hours of sleep. Treatment Sleep deprivation is not a disease but rather a symptom of illnesses such as insomnia. Several strategies are common in attempting to increase alertness and counteract the effects of sleep deprivation. Caffeine is often used over short periods to boost wakefulness when acute sleep deprivation is experienced; however, caffeine is less effective if taken routinely. Other strategies recommended by the", "-28.525677757762423" ], [ "rise before about 8 a.m. In addition, they need to sleep in until 8 a.m. or so to get the 9 or more hours of sleep that most sleep research suggests they need. As a result, many teenagers arrive at school sleep-deprived. The most recent data from the Youth Risk Behavior Survey show that 70% of American high school students are sleep-deprived and about 40% get six or fewer hours of sleep per night. Health and safety impact of early school hours Due to the fact that almost 70% of teens don't get enough sleep, there are increases in stimulant", "-28.52024167799391" ], [ "during NREM sleep in adolescence. School schedules are often incompatible with a corresponding delay in sleep offset, leading to a less than optimal amount of sleep for the majority of adolescents. Hospital stay A study performed nationwide in the Netherlands found that general ward patients staying at the hospital experienced shorter total sleep (83 min. less), more night-time awakenings, and earlier awakenings compared to sleeping at home. Over 70% experienced being woken up by external causes, such as hospital staff (35.8%). Sleep disturbing factors included noise of other patients, medical devices, pain, and toilet visits. Sleep deprivation is even", "-28.488123104991246" ], [ "shown significance in treating middle of night insomnia.\nSome studies have shown that zaleplon, which has a short elimination half-life, may be suitable for middle-of-the-night administration because it does not impair next day performance. Prevalence Waking up in the middle of the night, or nocturnal awakening, is the most frequently reported insomnia symptom, with approximately 35% of Americans over 18 reporting waking up three or more times per week. Of those who experience nocturnal awakenings, 43% report difficulty in resuming sleep after waking, while over 90% report the condition persisting for more than six months. Greater than 50% contend with MOTN", "-28.374591273488477" ], [ "that controls the sleep-wake cycle of the circadian rhythm. Reducing the amount of melatonin produced makes it harder to fall and stay asleep. In a 2011 poll conducted by the National Sleep Foundation, it reported that approximately 90% of Americans used technology in the hour before bed. The poll noted that young adults and teenagers were more likely to use cell phones, computers, and video game consoles. Additionally, the authors of the poll found that technology use was connected to sleep patterns. 22% of participants reported going to sleep with cell phone ringers on in their bedroom and 10% reported", "-28.371719201328233" ], [ "time between eliminations will increase. By six months, it is not uncommon for babies to go an hour or more without urinating while awake (babies, like adults, rarely urinate during a deep sleep). Timing varies radically for defecation, as some infants may have several bowel movements a day, while others may only have one every few days. Parents report that some babies as young as three months will appear to hold all their bowel movements until they are held in a particular squat position, as long as this is offered regularly enough. Parents also offer the potty at various times", "-28.22823528945446" ], [ "course of the day. NPH/isophane, lente, ultralente, glargine, and detemir may be used for this purpose. The advantage of NPH is its low cost, the fact that you can mix it with short-acting forms of insulin, thereby minimizing the number of injections that must be administered, and that the activity of NPH will peak 4–6 hours after administration, allowing a bedtime dose to balance the tendency of glucose to rise with the dawn, along with a smaller morning dose to balance the lower afternoon basal need and possibly an afternoon dose to cover evening need. A disadvantage of bedtime", "-28.097116041877598" ], [ "which shares some characteristics with DSPD. A number of clinicians prescribe it for DSPD patients, as it may improve a sleep-deprived patient's ability to function adequately during socially desirable hours. It is generally not recommended to take modafinil after noon; modafinil is a relatively long-acting drug with a half-life of 15 hours, and taking it during the later part of the day can make it harder to fall asleep at bedtime.\nVitamin B₁₂ was, in the 1990s, suggested as a remedy for DSPD, and is still recommended by some sources. Several case reports were published. However, a review for the American", "-28.01141619781265" ], [ "phase-advance portion of the light PRC.Though quite limited in terms of the total number of DSPD patients studied, such data seem to contradict the notion that DSPD is merely a disorder of sleep timing, rather than a disorder of the sleep system itself.\nPeople with normal circadian systems can generally fall asleep quickly at night if they slept too little the night before. Falling asleep earlier will in turn automatically help to advance their circadian clocks due to decreased light exposure in the evening. In contrast, people with DSPD have difficulty falling asleep before their usual sleep time, even if they", "-27.990504526766017" ], [ "that when I have people not drink caffeine but take a nap instead, they actually perform much better on a wide range of memory tasks,\" she told Neil Conan on NPR's Talk of the Nation. A video of her short Science Network lecture on nap research, at the Salk Institute in February 2007, can be viewed online.\nJournalist Gregg Easterbrook named Dr. Mednick \"2008 Tuesday Morning Quarterback Person of the Year\", (although this doesn't appear to be an official award of any kind), citing her work to improve people's lives through napping:\n\"Mednick has produced scientific proof that people ought to", "-27.965480631333776" ], [ "at least two weeks: one night with a total sleep time of seven hours, one night with a total sleep time of 4.5 hours, and one night with total sleep deprivation (SD).\nOn a standard symptom-rating scale, subjects rated markedly stronger feelings of hunger after total SD than after seven hours of sleep (3.9 ± 0.7 versus 1.7 ± 0.3; P = 0.020) or 4.5 hours sleep (2.2 ± 0.5; P = 0.041). Plasma ghrelin levels were 22 ± 10% higher after total SD than after seven hours of sleep (0.85 ± 0.06 versus 0.72 ± 0.04 ng mL(−1); P = 0.048)", "-27.90338567562867" ], [ "self-reported sleep duration is only moderately correlated with actual sleep time as measured by actigraphy, and those affected with sleep state misperception may typically report having slept only four hours despite having slept a full eight hours.\nResearchers have found that sleeping 6–7 hours each night correlates with longevity and cardiac health in humans, though many underlying factors may be involved in the causality behind this relationship.\nSleep difficulties are furthermore associated with psychiatric disorders such as depression, alcoholism, and bipolar disorder. Up to 90 percent of adults with depression are found to have sleep difficulties. Dysregulation detected by EEG includes disturbances", "-27.88346421197639" ], [ "significant clinical ramifications for a young adults health and well-being. In a recent study, we have learned that people in the highest quartile for social media use per week report the most sleep disturbance. The median number of minutes of social media use per day is 61 minutes. Lastly, we have learned that females are more inclined to experience high levels of sleep disturbance than males. Changes in mood Many teenagers suffer from sleep deprivation as they spend long hours at night on their phones, and this, in turn, could affect grades as they will be tired and unfocused in", "-27.878319846873637" ], [ "relax. Sleep Sleep is a behavior that is provoked by the body initiating the feeling of sleepiness in order for people to rest for usually several hours at a time. During sleep, there is a reduction of awareness, responsiveness, and movement. On average, an adult human sleeps between seven and eight hours per night. There is a minute percentage that sleeps less than five to six hours, which is also a symptom of sleep deprivation, and an even smaller percentage of people who sleep more than ten hours a day. Oversleeping has been shown to have a correlation with higher", "-27.87779829549254" ], [ "morning can lengthen daytime sleep; however, some studies have shown that nighttime sleepiness may be unaffected. Zopiclone has been shown to be ineffective in increasing sleep in shift workers.", "-27.855128593626432" ], [ "sleep deprivation as well. Researchers from the Imperial College School of Medicine conducted a randomized controlled study to investigate the effects of a night of sleep deprivation on the physical performance in students. The participants were randomized into two conditions, normal sleep or one night of sleep deprivation. Sleep deprivation was monitored using an online time-stamped questionnaire at 45-minute intervals, done in the participants' homes. The results show that reaction time and exercise performance were significantly affected by sleep deprivation. The researchers concluded that sleep deprivation can affect physical performance in university students. Naps Daytime naps offer a potential intervention", "-27.833091904059984" ], [ "latencies are typically short in idiopathic hypersomnia, the clinical severity may not correlate closely with the MSLT results. In fact, \"latencies above 5 minutes are not uncommon in patients with clinically severe hypersomnia.\" When sleep latency is below 10 minutes, the presence of sleep-onset REM periods (SOREMPs) in two or more of the MSLT naps suggests a diagnosis of narcolepsy, whereas sleep periods lacking rapid eye movement (NREM sleep) in the various naps suggests a diagnosis of idiopathic hypersomnia. However, the importance of this differentiation between REM and NREM has been called into question. (See Classification.)\nAlthough the MSLT is", "-27.807489873317536" ], [ "the amount and/or quality of sleep in adolescents – among them, biological changes in sleep associated with puberty, lifestyle choices, and academic demands – it considers school start times before 8:30 a.m. (\"earlier school start times\") to be a key modifiable contributor to insufficient sleep, together with circadian rhythm disruption. It also recognizes that a substantial body of research has demonstrated that delaying the start of the school day is an effective countermeasure to chronic sleep loss and has a wide range of potential benefits to the physical and mental health, safety, and academic achievement of students – including reduced obesity", "-27.797134596505202" ], [ "Richard Ferber, Director of the Center for Pediatric Sleep Disorders at Children's Hospital Boston, concurs with Baby Wise regarding some of its sleep advice, but he warns against expecting too much. Baby Wise predicts that the 8-week-old child will be sleeping 7 to 8 hours in a row at night, and the 13-week-old child increasing the nighttime sleep period to as much as 11 hours. Ferber said, \"Parents shouldn't expect babies to sleep that long that early, although a very few will on their own\" and says that the book may frustrate parents of babies that are not sleeping", "-27.785180840466637" ], [ "NPH is that if not taken late enough (near midnight) to place its peak shortly before dawn, it has the potential of causing hypoglycemia. One theoretical advantage of glargine and detemir is that they only need to be administered once a day, although in practice many patients find that neither lasts a full 24 hours. They can be administered at any time during the day as well, provided that they are given at the same time every day. Another advantage of long-acting insulins is that the basal component of an insulin regimen (providing a minimum level of insulin throughout the", "-27.744384812918724" ], [ "desired bedtime is reached, and it often must be repeated every few weeks or months to maintain results. Its safety is uncertain, notably because it has led to the development of non-24-hour sleep-wake rhythm disorder, a much more severe disorder.\nA modified chronotherapy is called controlled sleep deprivation with phase advance, SDPA. One stays awake one whole night and day, then goes to bed 90 minutes earlier than usual and maintains the new bedtime for a week. This process is repeated weekly until the desired bedtime is reached.\nEarlier exercise and meal times can also help promote earlier sleep times. Pharmacologic Melatonin", "-27.740378548041917" ], [ "the drivers' working hours regulations in the European Union and hours of service regulations in the United States. On sleep transition Sleep propensity (SP) can be defined as the readiness to transit from wakefulness to sleep, or the ability to stay asleep if already sleeping. Sleep deprivation increases this propensity, who can be measured by polysomnography (PSG) as a reduction in sleep latency (the time needed to fall asleep). An indicator of sleep propensity can also be seen in the shortening of transition from light stages of non-REM sleep to deeper slow-waves oscillations can also be measured as indicator of", "-27.668211884767516" ], [ "the sleep-wake cycle several hours later during the adolescent years. This same shift to a delayed phase in the release of melatonin during puberty has also been seen in other mammals.\nThe shifted circadian rhythms associated with puberty make it difficult, if not impossible, for many teenagers—who may have to rise at 5 or 6 a.m. to get ready and commute to school in time for 7 a.m. school bells—to get sufficient sleep on school nights. Even discounting for the distractions of homework and extracurricular demands and electronics, most adolescents find it difficult to fall asleep before about 11 p.m. or", "-27.668031248031184" ], [ "a chronic sleep debt. By the fourth week, the subjects slept an average of eight hours a night – but across two separate blocks, not unbroken. First, subjects tended to lie awake for one to two hours and then fall quickly asleep. Onset of sleep was linked to a spike in the hormone melatonin. Melatonin secretion by the brain's pineal gland is triggered by darkness. After an average of three to five hours of sleep, the subjects would awaken and spend an hour or two in quiet wakefulness before a second three- to five-hour sleep period. It was thus suggested that", "-27.645441367378226" ], [ "the morning has been proven to be effective. A prolongation of slow-wave sleep increases glymphatic clearance of metabolic waste products, which can lead to improvements of sleep disorders. Furthermore, studies showed ameliorated sleep pattern due to acupuncture of patients with TBI. Sleep apnea due to TBI can be treated through positive airway pressure, which helps with the development of a regular breathing pattern during sleep and prevents waking up. Cognitive behavioral therapy for insomnia also have been shown to effectively improve sleep in TBI patients. It aims to improve sleep habits and behaviors by identifying and changing the thoughts and", "-27.588082500267774" ], [ "on sleep disorders. Management Treatment, a set of management techniques, is specific to DSPD. It is different from treatment of insomnia, and recognizes the patients' ability to sleep well on their own schedules, while addressing the timing problem. Success, if any, may be partial; for example, a patient who normally awakens at noon may only attain a wake time of 10 or 10:30 with treatment and follow-up. Being consistent with the treatment is paramount.\nBefore starting DSPD treatment, patients are often asked to spend at least a week sleeping regularly, without napping, at the times when the patient is most comfortable.", "-27.571403781854315" ], [ "American Academy of Sleep Medicine include prophylactic sleep before deprivation, naps, other stimulants, and combinations thereof. However, the only sure and safe way to combat sleep deprivation is to increase nightly sleep time.\nRecovery of cognitive function is accomplished more rapidly after acute total sleep deprivation than after chronic partial sleep restriction. Chronic deprivation is the more common in everyday life. Just one night of recovery sleep can reverse adverse effects of total sleep deprivation [citation needed]. Recovery sleep is more efficient than normal sleep with shorter sleep latency and increased amounts of deep and REM sleep.\nFor long term involuntary sleep", "-27.55245401104912" ], [ "televisions and work materials out of the sleeping area.\nA 2010 review of published scientific research suggested that exercise generally improves sleep for most people, and helps sleep disorders such as insomnia. The optimum time to exercise may be 4 to 8 hours before bedtime, though exercise at any time of day is beneficial, with the exception of heavy exercise taken shortly before bedtime, which may disturb sleep. However, there is insufficient evidence to draw detailed conclusions about the relationship between exercise and sleep. Sleeping medications such as Ambien and Lunesta are an increasingly popular treatment for insomnia. Although these nonbenzodiazepine", "-27.511996600500424" ], [ "of action, one would not expect naproxen to be useful in treating non-inflammatory causes of pain (e.g., diabetic nerve pain).\nNaproxen sodium is used as a \"bridge therapy\" in medication-overuse headache to slowly take patients off of other medications. Available formulations Naproxen sodium is available as both an immediate release and as an extended release tablet. The extended release formulations (sometimes called \"sustained release,\" or \"enteric coated\") take longer to take effect than the immediate release formulations, and therefore are less useful when immediate pain relief is desired. Extended release formulations are more useful for the treatment of chronic, or long-lasting,", "-27.48660357252811" ], [ "the 24-hour cycle, those experiencing extended sleep deprivation over multiple days have been known to experience a \"Fifth day turning point\". Characteristics The \"second wind\" phenomenon may have evolved as a survival mechanism as part of the fight or flight response, allowing sleep-deprived individuals briefly to function at a higher level than they would without sleep deprivation. Performance enhancing One study presented a series of tasks of increasing difficulty to 16 young adults who had not slept in 35 hours and observed heightened activity in several brain regions using magnetic resonance imaging. Researcher Sean P.A. Drummond commented that the ability", "-27.457020835368894" ], [ "trouble internalizing and/or externalizing problems according to the study done by Justin Parent. Some research suggests that the light from electronic screens can affect the circadian rhythm of children and disrupt alertness. These same studies found that for young children ages 3–7, the amount of sleep disturbances greatly increases after six hours of screen time, and for children 8–12 the amount of sleep disturbances greatly increased after the 10-hour mark. After four or six hours of daily screen time, sleep duration drops for adolescents.\nSome research suggests that screen time close to bedtime prevents children from getting adequate sleep. Research", "-27.44579337799223" ], [ "from the circadian clock, this tells the body it needs to sleep. A person who regularly awakens at an early hour will generally not be able to sleep much later than his or her normal waking time, even if moderately sleep-deprived. The timing is correct when the following two circadian markers occur after the middle of the sleep episode and before awakening: maximum concentration of the hormone melatonin, and minimum core body temperature. Ideal duration Human sleep needs vary by age and amongst individuals; sleep is considered to be adequate when there is no daytime sleepiness or dysfunction. Moreover,", "-27.414533173199743" ], [ "phase angle of several hours, DSPD patients may have a reduced capacity to achieve such a change in phase angle in response to entrainment. \nPossibly as a consequence of these altered internal phase relationships, that the quality of sleep in DSPD may be substantially poorer than that of normal subjects, even when bedtimes and wake times are self-selected. A DSPD subject exhibited an average sleep onset latency twice that of the 3 control subjects and almost twice the amount of wakefulness after sleep onset (WASO) as control subjects, resulting in significantly poorer sleep efficiency. Also, the temporal distribution of slow", "-27.40325521855266" ], [ "no account of the heterogeneity of both clinical presentations and disease pathways that come under the umbrella diagnosis of ME/CFS\". Exercise therapy In 2017, the CDC recommended light exercises and stretching but not in the four hours before bed to help with sleep. Stretching and movement therapies are also recommended for pain. Previously, a 2014 National Institutes of Health report concluded that while Graded Exercise Therapy (GET) could produce benefits, it may not yield improvement in quality of life and that because of this limitation, GET should not be considered as a primary treatment, but instead be used only as", "-27.380911553744227" ], [ "significant effects on the energy balance the next morning, including reduced energy expenditure, enhanced hedonic stimulus processing in the brain underlying the drive to consume food, and overeating that goes beyond satiety. Further recent studies have shown that a reduction of sleep duration to four hours for two consecutive nights has been shown to decrease circulating leptin levels and to increase ghrelin levels, as well as self-reported hunger. Similar endocrine alterations have been shown to occur even after a single night of sleep restriction.\nIn a balanced order, nine healthy normal-weight men spent three nights in a sleep laboratory separated by", "-27.352835129830055" ], [ "is the Multiple Sleep Latency Test (MSLT). It assesses the sleep onset latency during the course of one day - often from 8:00 to 16:00. An average sleep onset latency of less than 5 minutes is an indication of pathological sleepiness. Severity A number of diagnostic tests, including the Epworth Sleepiness Scale, are available to help ascertain the seriousness and likely causes of abnormal somnolence. Treatment Somnolence is a symptom, so the treatment will depend on its cause. If the cause is the behavior and life choices of the patient (like working long hours, smoking, mental state), it may help", "-27.270684034214355" ], [ "during the sleep deprived stage. The reaction times to warning lights increased from 1.5 to 2.5 seconds, and the number of errors doubled in the cockpit. However, tasks that were engaging and required more concentration were found to not be significantly affected by sleep deprivation. The study concluded that \"...fatigue effects can produce impaired performance. The degree of performance impairment seems to be a function of the numbers of hours awake and the 'engagement' value of the task.\" \nOne United States Air Forces study found significant discrepancies regarding how fatigue affects different individuals. It tracked the performance of ten", "-27.265642433834728" ], [ "Wake therapy Wake therapy is a form of sleep deprivation used as a treatment for depression. The subject stays awake all night, or is woken at 1AM and stays awake all morning, and the next full day. While sleepy, patients find that their depression vanishes, until they sleep again. Combining this with bright light therapy make the beneficial effects last longer than one day. Partial sleep deprivation in the second half of the night may be as effective as an all-night sleep deprivation session.\nWake therapy is a therapy that falls under chronotherapeutics. Chronotherapy (treatment scheduling) is a process to", "-27.260804349265527" ], [ "asked not to wake up an hour early but 3–4 hours early, while waking up \"normally\" may already be an unrecognized challenge imposed by the environment.\nThe bias toward early morning can also adversely affect adolescents in particular. Teenagers tend to require at least 9 full hours of sleep each night, and changes to the endocrine system during puberty shift the natural wake time later in the morning. Enforcing early start times despite this can have negative effects on mood, academic performance, and social skills.", "-27.2580342804431" ], [ "more enjoyable, such as a decent amount of sleep on their bed or a decent sized portion of real food items (usually in the form of a well rounded meal consisting of the Test winner's favorite foods).\nThe \"Treatment\" phase is generally a more painful endurance exercise, such as sleeping on a bed of small rods, spinning quickly around in a chair, or \"jumping\" a heavy rope. Some Treatments are simply endurance tests with no set bounds, while other Treatments are broken into a number of rounds with increasingly more difficult goals to achieve. In the latter case, if", "-27.251726947026327" ], [ "are also indicative of the non-specific nature of the product and reflect the considerations due for a flammable mixture of hydrocarbons: flammability, carcinogenicity, skin and airway irritation, etc.\nHumans can be exposed to naphtha in the workplace by inhalation, ingestion, dermal contact, and eye contact. The US Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) has set the permissible exposure limit for naphtha in the workplace as 100 ppm (400 mg/m³) over an 8-hour workday. The US National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) has set a recommended exposure limit (REL) of 100 ppm (400 mg/m³) over an 8-hour workday. At levels of", "-27.227185666852165" ], [ "found to be around (or less than) 8 minutes in idiopathic hypersomnia patients. Some patients might even have a sleep onset latency of 5 minutes or less. These patients are often even more aware of sleeping during naps than narcolepsy patients. Actigraphy Actigraphy is used to record the sleep and wake cycles, by analyzing the patient’s limb movements. In order to report them, the patient has to wear continuously a device on his or her wrist, which looks like a watch and doesn't contain any electrodes.\nThe advantage actigraphy shows over polysomnography is that it is possible to record for 24-hours", "-27.22552154067671" ], [ "maintaining any good effects of treatment. With treatment, some people with mild DSPD may sleep and function well with an earlier sleep schedule. Caffeine and other stimulant drugs to keep a person awake during the day may not be necessary and should be avoided in the afternoon and evening, in accordance with good sleep hygiene. A chief difficulty of treating DSPD is in maintaining an earlier schedule after it has been established. Inevitable events of normal life, such as staying up late for a celebration or deadline, or having to stay in bed with an illness, tend to reset the", "-27.200139531079913" ], [ "James J. McKenna (University of Notre Dame) has discovered that co-sleeping mothers and infants not only synchronize their sleep-wake-rhythm, but their breathing, too; he therefore reasons that co-sleeping lowers the SIDS risk. Nonetheless, studies that investigate SIDS directly have shown that permanent co-sleeping rather raises the SIDS risk than lowering it; it is worth noting that in the study, the increased risk of SIDS occurred in infants younger than four months when the parents were especially tired, had consumed alcohol, were smokers, slept on a sofa, or the baby was in a duvet. Otherwise, no increased risk was associated with", "-27.19850540421612" ], [ "is roughly 15 nmol/l; 30 minutes later it may be 23 nmol/l, though there are wide variations. The cortisol awakening response reaches a maximum approximately 30 minutes after awakening though it may still be heightened by 34% an hour after waking. The pattern of this response to waking is relatively stable for any individual. Twin studies show its pattern is largely genetically determined since there is a heritability of 0.40 for the mean cortisol increase after awakening and 0.48 for the area under the cortisol rise curve.\nNormally, the highest cortisol secretion happens in the second half of the night with peak cortisol production occurring", "-27.169985905115027" ], [ "abuse, weight gain, risk of diabetes, immune disorders, mood swings, depression, and suicidal ideation, as well as reduced impulse control. In addition, early school start times have been associated with drowsy driving in new teen drivers and higher car crash rates. Schools ending early in the afternoon may also increase the risk of engaging in unhealthy, risky behaviors among sleep-deprived adolescents. Sending children to school before sunrise also means they must wait or walk in dark, with low visibility. Impact on school performance Sleep deprivation can result in low motivation, difficulty concentrating, restlessness, slowed reaction times, lack of energy, frequent", "-27.165936085199064" ], [ "hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis, whereas imipramine and other antidepressants tend to increase nocturnal cortisol secretion.\nIn clinical studies, trimipramine has been found in doses of 50 to 200 mg/day to significantly increase sleep efficiency and total sleep time and to decrease waking time for up to 3 weeks in patients with insomnia. It also improved subjectively perceived sleep quality and well-being during daytime. Monitoring of patients upon discontinuation of trimipramine found that it did not cause rebound insomnia or worsening of sleep quality in subjective evaluations of sleep, although objective measurements found total sleep time below baseline in a subset of patients during trimipramine withdrawal.", "-27.163654297357425" ], [ "the morning. The reliance on technology, specifically in the bedroom, which should be associated with sleep, created the difficulty with separating waking and sleeping activities. When measuring the amount of sleep during the week compared to the weekend, students with four or more technological devices in their bedroom had significantly less sleep compared to those with three or fewer devices. Since many students do not utilize sleep mode or do not disturb or silence their phones at night, each notification and alert from their phones disrupts their sleep in terms of sleep quality and duration of sleep. Caffeine A study", "-27.161581804568414" ] ]

[ "Giving two weeks notice is a courtesy. You don't *have* to give a two weeks notice, you can text your boss \"I quit\" and never come in to work again. There are no repercussions, they still owe you whatever outstanding pay you have, etc. Just don't expect a good reference.", "Because it's a relationship with a power imbalance​. I don't do it though. Seen too many people let go as soon as they give notice. Happened at my last job. My supervision and the owner said he was a moron to give notice. They were them surprised when I failed to give notice. Huh.", "Employees that are being fired aren't known for being particularly productive or honest. (*edit: I'm not saying only bad people get fired, I'm saying good people get angry when they get fired, and might use their two weeks left to act against the company's interest out of spite*) I wouldn't want to tell someone that I'm putting their entire livelihood and future into question and then also give them two weeks of access to all my data, systems, server, financials, trade secrets, etc. Not everyone is a bad sport about things like that, but even if it's 1/50 that's a lot of issues caused by the courtesy of a grace period.", "In Australia, you can't fire someone on the spot. You have to give warnings, etc. The question, I assume, is coming from America, where the power of companies in politics is much stronger. here's a piece (which I wrote a few years ago) about an employment law example from Australia > Managing underperformance is not as simple as on TV. It requires preparation and understanding, and the legal consequences of skipping those steps can be severe. Yelling \"You're fired!\" makes for a good dramatic scene. But in the real world, if those words are uttered, an employer can quickly find themselves stuck in a court-room saga, cast as the bad guy. > Take the case of fashion designer Danae Moumtzis. She got the surprise of her working life in August 2012, receiving a letter from her employer stating she was unfit to keep her job and telling her she was fired. > But her employer, Dolina Fashion Group, had failed to follow proper process, an omission that ended up being very costly when the courts finally ruled. \"The evidence does not establish that Ms Moumtzis had been warned about the unsatisfactory performance,\" noted the decision by Fair Work Commission Vice President Watson, made in 2013. \"I find that the dismissal was harsh, unjust and unreasonable.\" > Dolina was required to pay Ms Moumtzis 22 weeks' salary in compensation - equal to around $50,000. The employer's allegations that Ms Moumtzis' was not contributing to the firm's profit margins and that her designs were not selling were aired in court, but did not contribute to the finding. The Judge reminded the employer that performance inadequacies need to be discussed, and employees need to be helped to meet the standards, before action can be taken.", "Both scenarios are allowed and \"okay\", but obviously better companies treat their employees better and give them chances or warnings. Likewise, better employees treat their employers better and give them two week's notice. At my company (typically we hire high school and college students), even if someone gives two weeks notice, we usually have them work the rest of their scheduled shifts and stop scheduling them on the following week. If they work too much longer after their statement of wanting to quit, two things happen. First, their productivity drastically decreases because they no longer have motivation to work hard. Second, they infect other employees with their attitude and brag about their quitting with statements such as \"This is my last shift and then I'm OUTTA THIS PLACE!!!\" It's not unlikely that another employee will want to quit too or lose motivation because of this.", "An employee who quits without notice can be viewed as unreliable, as a sudden departure can upset many things and be costly. The employer can fire you at will because they have determined you are not necessary (or in some cases a liability) and they won't need a job reference from you down the road.", "It's absolutely not OK to fire people on the spot in continental Europe. Unless it's disciplinary. So I would say it's a cultural thing.", "That moment when you live in France and both employees & employers need a 3 months notice (except some rare cases).", "If it is amicable both ways, notice should be given.. Usually, when someone is fired, it is because the employee has wronged them for some reason. Conversely, if an employee is wronged by his/her company, it is okay to abruptly quit, if the wrongdoing is eggregious enough. However, there is often litigation involved with these types of cases.", "Well, to put it simply from an employee's perspective, you want to give a 2 weeks notice so that you could put them down as a reference for future jobs, and if you were a respectable person and employee and politely followed the steps in leaving your job, you're likely to get better references. If you up and quit on the spot, it doesn't make you look like a great guy and probably won't get good \"reviews\" if another job you interview for decides to call your past employer. I'm not really sure how it goes from an employer stand point though, however depending on the job, you may have signed something that would make you liable for the missing work to some degree if you didn't follow proper quitting protocol. I'm not positive but I feel like that's a thing.", "Is two weeks notice and on-the-spot-firing really how it is done in america? I am stunned. In Norway it is usually stated in the contract: 1-6 months notice, regardless of if you are being fired or quit yourself. 3 months being more common in my experience. It gives both time to find a replacement, say goodbye, settle whatever undone tasks or projects you have going. If you get fired because of disloyalty or something makes you untrustworthy you'd have to go immediately, but I know of that happening once in my entire professional carrier. Your job is where you spend a BIG portion of your life, quitting so suddenly seems a bit inhumane. I think more of you american workers should join a union, demand some rights. Letting the rich corporate leaders decide on all the rules is destructive for all of you.", "Assuming we're talking about normal separation, not separation for cause where some law or policy has been violated, most any reputable employer has in place some sort of separation payment that helps with the transition. Absent that there is unemployment insurance", "It's important to note, it's *recommended* to leave with notice, but it's not required. Similarly, it's *recommended* to fire people with notice, but it's not required. When my mom was let go, she was given a month's notice and a severance package. One of my coworkers was let go because of upcoming budget changes and was given two weeks to plan ahead for it. When I was let go, though, it was because my company literally couldn't afford payroll, so I got ten minutes notice.", "I don't know how such things are managed in the land of peanut butter and jelly but in the civilised world you can't just fire an employee on the spot, except in cases of gross misconduct, criminal acts and so on. A contract of employment generally includes specified periods of notice for both the employer and the employee.", "I had this happen to me. No prior warning, I was just fired on the spot. (later found out the boss' son needed a job & was given mine.) Luckily, the company had a lot of.. *shady* discrepancies in their earnings. Long story short, made a few calls to the police, they directed me to the correct divisions & less than 6 months later, that boss was put on trial for embezzlement. I also banged his son's fiance, but that's neither here nor there.", "When a company fires you, they probably don't want you back and also don't need you as a reference... When you quit, and later try to get a new job, you stand a greater chance of needing the old company as a reference", "Do you mean as in slave/owner relationships, or as an actual employee of a modern company? Because companies can totally not fire employees on the spot in Austria. (atleast not under normal circumstances)", "Here in Argentina, employers can't fire their employees without a 1 month warning. Otherwise they have to pay them a whole month of work when they are made to leave. From the employee side I think there's a 2 week warning by law, but nothing happens if you don't call it. It's more like the right thing to do in order to keep in good terms with your former employer.", "They're usually very different scenarios. Someone being fired on the spot is indicative of a problem. Perhaps not always, but the vast majority of instantaneous firings are reactionary. The employee did something bad/stupid/illegal and must be removed from their position immediately. Letting them stick around for 2 more weeks is just asking for trouble. The best middle ground is a severance package. They're still fired and have to leave right now, but they still get paid for a little while, so that they can try to find a new job. A two-week-notice is a more amicable breakup. Perhaps not always, but this usually means that you have a new job lined up already. If you like your current job, but need to move on to something better, giving notice can help ease that transition. Even if you don't like your current job, it shows the new employer you aren't the kind of person to up and quit. It's the professional and polite thing to do. That said, it's not technically required, and depending on the job you're planning to leave, it may or may not work out in your favor. If you have a particularly vindictive boss, giving your 2 weeks might get you canned immediately, or might get you stuck with 2 weeks of crap work. edit: I accidentally a grammar", "Because it looks better to the next potential employer. Even if the current job is crap, giving 2 weeks, and having that documented is better for you professionally in the future, so people tend to do it. The next company may not suck, but you may just get a better opportunity and need to leave that job, and they want to know that you'll give them notice so that they aren't left undermanned. In contrast, an applicant for a company isn't going to call former employees to get a reference for the company, so firing you on the spot has less of a negative impact on them. This in addition to not wanting someone hanging around who knows they are out of job to be able disrupt the other workers or cause other issues, as others have said.", "This literally happened to me today. 10 years with the company and I was let go with no notice due to \"restructuring\" of the department of which I am the head. No notice. No warning. Out of the clear blue sky. I was escorted from the building 15 minutes after I arrived and didn't get to say goodbye to my staff, many of whom I hired and worked alongside for a decade. Don't kid yourself that you are anything but a number on a ledger sheet. These hoes ain't loyal.", "Scale. That's all it is. Joe Schmoe talks shit about BigCorp Inc. No one cares about Joe Schmoe. He's just one guy. BigCorp Inc. Talks shit about Joe Schmoe. BigCorp has money. They buy our products. They have influence. Let's listen to BigCorp.", "Because we don't have a robust labor movement. Because we have a political system when multi-national corporations are more powerful that the governments of nation-states. Because Capitalism turns workers into commodities. Because you've been duped into fearing socialism.", "When you look for a job, you don't get to talk to former employees. When you're looking to hire, you do talk to former employers.", "Because we have little to no collective bargaining power in America thanks to the destruction/demonization of unions.", "I think comments already covered it, but: - Giving two weeks notice is a recommended/respected practice, as the boss typically doesn't know it is happening and has to have time to organize your replacement/shift cover. - Fired on the spot has two types: Cause and without cause. Regardless of type, as others have said you've just terminated someones livelihood and many times the individual is upset/etc (See Up in the Air). You do not exactly want an emotionally unstable person having access to your customers and data. Could have crippling effects. - Cause means you have given the employer grounds to fire you. Something that would hold up if a legal dispute were to come about. Here the employer typically has no obligation to provide any sort of compensation and pay is halted immediately. This doesn't happen much these days, and is reserved for serious offenses they know wouldn't be fought in court. - Without cause means they do not have to give a reason on paper and you generally cannot fight your dismissal. It also means the employer is typically legally obligated to provide some sort of minimum compensation for terminating your employment. This is usually controlled by state/province or federal laws based on company hq. Most cases this is two weeks or x weeks for every consecutive year worked. This is where the two weeks notice comes from. Note: Many employers will walk you out the door the second you give your two weeks notice, due largely in part of the security concern. This is dependent on the employee/employer relationship and how desperate they are for you to complete the work you've been assigned.", "Because employers and employees are dumb—or have a good reason to... If an employee or an employer is breaking the law, conducting acts of misconduct, doesn't appear to be viable (not performing), the employee or the employer should \"fire\" the other in the relationship. This burns a bridge and hurts reputations if it happens without notice and leaves the other hanging (either without coverage if an employer or by losing the income stream of the employment if an employee) so if it isn't the other's fault, it shouldn't be done. However, if a circumstance beyond the other's control appears (better opportunities, the business is changing, etc.) the other should give the other notice or make special accommodations (ie, I won the lottery but I will pay for temps for you for a few weeks). 2 weeks seems to have been adopted as a \"standard\", but I've given employers months of notice before \"firing\" them. In the past this resulted in better opportunities for me later on because they know I am not dumb. However, people seem to give the employee/employer this \"magical\" status and hand all of the power to employers. Mostly by having difficult to market/low demand/high supply skillsets or living in areas where demand for their skillsets are low.", "Some infractions are just too bad and if an employee is a position of trust they can do way more damage to the company if allowed to remain in their jobs for two weeks. What we do is let them go immediately but will still pay them for a certain amount of time. So no they are no longer working in the office but still getting paid. We usually do 1 month salary plus any holiday days they have earned but not used. In my industry it costs around 25k to put a bum in a seat. Firing someone costs not far off of that. Depending on the role firing can cost way more than that in lost productivity for the company. Much easier to try and fix a problem than to fire someone. But some things cannot be fixed.", "My friend was let go from a job recently after he gave his 2weeks notice. 4 other people were quitting soon, within a few weeks to a month of this, but they all decided to leave the same date as the last person was going to leave, and didn't give any notice of it. They saw what management did to that one guy, and it left a sour taste in their mouth. In the grand scheme of things, it wasn't a big impact, it was a business that employed about 40 people, but I'm sure losing 4 people had some impact. He heard from a former coworker that management was NOT happy, and sent out a email reminding people about professional courtesy.", "It's not okay everywhere. Mostly the US is known for it but over here in Germany it is rather hard to fire an employee at all. If the employee didn't slap someone or stole someone or displayed unacceptable behaviour then he vsn only be fired for economical/restructuring reasons and if that's the case the company has to do a social plan and have to fire the youngest people with the least amount of company membership and no family members (husband/wife, children, sick relative s/he takes care off, etc). So losing your job is near impossible and usually only happens during acquisitions when whole departmens are (re)moved. The notice will help you to not burn bridges and not ruin your written work reference.", "it's also to do that if the employer gives you notice they may fear that you won't give then your 100% the remaining time or that you may even wreck a bit of havoc. I did business with a branch that I knew was going to get shut (the company owed a lot of money and was going to liquidation) and till the last days as the stock was getting depleted and the store emptied the employees thought and had been told the store would just move to a different location nearby. I guess it kept them motivated right till the end.", "The downside to not giving notice is that it will anger the person being affected. If an employee doesn't get notice they will then complain to their friends not to work at so and so company. If an employee doesn't give notice so and so company might tell whoever asks not to hire them. The second scenario is much scarier for the employee than the first is to the employer, so unless there's regulations against letting employees go at the drop of a hat, the employee has bigger incentives to be nice and give notice before leaving.", "When you quite a job, the company/your supervisor has something to offer you - a good reference for future employers. If you try to make your resignation as easy as possible on the company/your coworkers you will likely receive this in return. When a company fires you, the company has already deemed that you have nothing to offer, and they have no incentive to keep you around. If you have economic opportunity that involves quitting earlier than two weeks, then do so. A company would fire you in the same manner.", "In the US we have \"at will\" employers who can fire anyone for any reason at any time without prior warning. Your employer is required to have you sign something when you take a job with them and it should say this somewhere on it; this may be given to you in tandem with something that explains your workers' comp rights and things like that.", "Being fired and quitting aren't quite the same. The two week notice equivalent for the company is informing the workforce of upcoming layoffs or providing some form of pay in the case of layoffs. Quitting without notice is more like a company locking its doors at 5 on Friday after the pay periods and telling you not to bother come back in Monday.", "Putting aside courtesy and niceties, the best reason is that nobody is going to call you and ask about Company X, but someone will call Company X to ask about you, and you don't want them to say you aren't eligible for rehire, were a poor team player, whatever euphemism they come up with.", "Because you're wanting to keep the relations with your coworker's good, specially if you're in an industry where your network matters or might work with them later.", "You don't have to give 2 weeks notice, its just considered polite just as it's polite for a company to let an employee go with notice...", "Because in America, people have been brainwashed into thinking they need to have some sort of loyalty to their company." ]

[ [ "or for no reason at all (see Foley v. Interactive Data Corp., 47 Cal.3d 654,665 (Cal. 1988) ). An employer may not, however, fire an employee for a reason which violates public policy (Ibid,; see also Tameny v. Atlantic Richfield, 27 Cal.3d 167, 178 (Cal. 1980); Petermann v. International Brotherhood of Teamsters, 174 Cal.App.2d 184, 188 (Cal. Ct. App. 1959) ).\nThe court argued that a claim for wrongful termination in violation of public policy necessarily requires a violation of public policy; however, as concluded in section I., Nissan's actions in reviewing plaintiffs' E-mail messages did not violate their constitutional right", "-27.494634691625834" ], [ "or supervisor wanting to retaliate against an employee. Often, this is because the worker reported wrongdoing (often, but not always sexual harassment or other misconduct) on the part of the supervisor. Such terminations are often illegal. Many successful lawsuits have resulted from discriminatory or retaliatory termination.\nUnder US law, workers are entitled to workplace decisions that do not discriminate against their membership in a protected group such as national origin, but they are not entitled to overall fairness. It is legal for an American employee to be fired for things such as disagreeing with the employer or not getting along well", "-26.869655252463417" ], [ "person. An employer can be held liable for failing to prevent these workplace conditions, unless it can prove that it attempted to prevent the harassment and that the employee failed to take advantage of existing harassment counter-measures or tools provided by the employer.\nA hostile work environment may also be created when management acts in a manner designed to make an employee quit in retaliation for some action. For example, if an employee reported safety violations at work, was injured, attempted to join a union, or reported regulatory violations by management, and management's response was to harass and pressure the employee", "-26.82598866074113" ], [ "is to convince these errant – or simply useless – employees to quit (and typically people last three days at most) due to the monotonous and meaningless nature of the job, just so that the company, headed by sex-crazed executives and a Personnel Section willing to stoop to any means, will save on the costs of firing them.\nHowever, the employees posted to GA-2 exhibit no intention to quit, to the chagrin of the Personnel Section Chief Torao Terasaki (寺崎寅男 Terasaki Torao) and his assistant Nonomura (野々村), since the people at Shomuni are happy their menial jobs give them more than", "-26.63089989812579" ], [ "employment, where outplacement is hard, and the employees tend to obey any and all unreasonable demands made by their companies so as not to be fired.\". \nYuki Honda, a professor at the University of Tokyo's Graduate School of Education, has said \"Whether they get a job when they graduate decides their whole life\". Ken Mogi, a Japanese brain scientist, points out that limiting job opportunities would lead to a human rights issue and that Japanese companies cannot secure non-traditional competent people in the current job hunting system.", "-26.602887865621597" ], [ "priority of rehiring, and lawful reasons for termination (restricted to redundancy and personal reasons like misconduct). In case of termination due to redundancy, the law requires workplaces to fire their staff according to a list of seniority (Swedish: turordningslista). Given similar tasks, the last employee to be hired will be the first to be fired. In the case of similar age amongst employees, priority is given to older employees.\nThe Employment Protection act primarily protects employees hired on indefinite contracts (Swedish: tillsvidareanställning). Employees on contracts with predefined limited times of employment may still be terminated outside the seniority hierarchy of their", "-26.506641874089837" ], [ "be used only to advance the socioeconomic interests of the employees. Employees who were already employed when the closed-shop agreement came into effect, along with conscious objectors, may not be dismissed for refusing to join the union which is a party to a closed-shop agreement. A closed-shop agreement may be terminated if a majority of the employees votes for its termination. It is not unfair to dismiss an employee for refusing to join a union which is a party to a closed-shop agreement, or who is refused union membership, or has been expelled from a union which is a party", "-26.041999429886346" ], [ "workers from discrimination. For example, those forms of discrimination are prohibited by the California’s Fair Employment and Housing Act (FEHA).\nMany laws also prohibit termination, even of at-will employees. For example, whistleblower laws may protect an employee who reports a legal or safety violation by the employer to an appropriate oversight agency. Most states prohibit employers from firing employees in retaliation for filing a workers' compensation claim, or making a wage complaint over unpaid wages. Working notice Working notice is legal in Canada. Therefore, if the employee is provided a reasonable amount of working notice, the employer owes the employee no", "-25.251506663800683" ], [ "breaks A short break to allow an employee to use a restroom or WC and will generally last less than 10 minutes. Many employers expect their employees to use the facilities during their regularly scheduled breaks and lunches. Denying employees rights to use the facilities as needed could adversely affect workplace sanitation and workers' health and could create legal issues for both these and other reasons. Employers and co-workers often frown on employees who are seen as taking too many of these breaks, and this could be a cause for progressive discipline from a written warning up to termination. In", "-25.158329455880448" ], [ "This phenomenon harms both the company and the other employees, including those who are not direct targets. Co-workers are distracted by drama, gossip and by choosing sides in the ongoing animosity. This can translate into lost productivity. While employees are distracted by this activity, they cannot devote time and attention to the achievement of business goals. Positively motivated and ethical employees may try to speak up to a toxic employee but this can make them a target (see whistleblower). Managers of toxic employees can feel intimidated by a toxic employee and try to appease the employee in an effort to", "-25.08402546547586" ], [ "employees are covered by the Rehabilitation Act of 1973, which offers inferior protection.\nWorkers who report crime or incompetence may get injured while at work. Federal workers, energy workers, long shoremen, and coal workers injured at work should contact the US Department of Labor, Office of Workers Compensation. Private companies and non-profit organizations Employees working for private companies notify organizations like the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA). Even though EPA and OSHA may provide no direct services for government workers, a report should be filed.\nGovernment ethics laws are a complicated maze with unpredictable combinations. As", "-24.94757504016161" ], [ "the employee and the trade union. Division V.1 prohibits work stoppages \"to the extent necessary to prevent an immediate and serious danger to the safety or health of the public.\" [s.87.4(1)] Part 2: Occupational Health and Safety This part of the Code deals with maintaining the health and safety of workers in the workplace. It focuses on the recognition and prevention of hazards. The beginning of this part states the purpose here \"is to prevent accidents and injury to health arising out of, linked with or occurring in the course of employment.\" [s.122.1]\nSections 124 and 125 set out the duties", "-24.93269102857448" ], [ "to spying, threats, intimidation, harassment and other illegal activity in their campaigns to oppose unions. The penalty for illegal activity, including firing workers for engaging in protected activity, is so weak that it does little to deter law breakers.\nEven when employers don't break the law, the process itself stacks the deck against union supporters. The employer has all the power; they control the information workers can receive, can force workers to attend anti-union meetings during work hours, can force workers to meet with supervisors who deliver anti-union messages, and can even imply that the business will close if the union", "-24.860897786478745" ], [ "an employer to terminate or refuse to hire an employee for having reported a workplace injury or filed a workers' compensation claim. However, it is often not easy to prove discrimination on the basis of the employee's claims history. To abate discrimination of this type, some states have created a \"subsequent injury trust fund\" which will reimburse insurers for benefits paid to workers who suffer aggravation or recurrence of a compensable injury. It is also suggested that laws should be made to prohibit inclusion of claims history in databases or to make it anonymous. (See privacy laws.) Employer liability Although", "-24.6558200228028" ], [ "outlaws the open shop in its extreme form: it prohibits private sector employers from refusing to hire employees because they are union members just as it prevents discrimination against employees who do not wish to join unions.\nThe open shop in its milder form, in which the open shop represents only an employer's refusal to favor union members for employment, is legal. Although the National Labor Relations Act permits construction employers to enter into pre-hire agreements, in which they agree to draw their workforces from a pool of employees dispatched by the union, employers are under no legal compulsion to enter", "-24.586559711489826" ], [ "named occupation at the place of employment and that, if such a strike, lockout, or work stoppage occurs after the application is submitted, the employer will notify ETA within three (3) days of such occurrence and\nthe application will not be used to file a work authorization petition until the ETA has determined that the work stoppage has ceased. #4: Notice The employer must attest that as of the date of application, notice of the application has been or will be provided both to workers within the company in the said application. Also, the (prospective) workers on whose behalf the application", "-24.54575865487277" ], [ "employer that he will comply. If he refuses, the inspector may issue a compliance order, to which the employer may object within 21 days. Common law The common law afforded the employee virtually no protection against unfair dismissal. Before the Labour Relations Act (LRA), as long as the employer gave the required period of notice, dismissal or probation was acceptable. The common law focused only on the lawfulness of the employment contract itself; the reason for the dismissal was irrelevant. The employer was not required to give the employee an explanation for the termination; nor was there any requirement that", "-24.4999194748234" ], [ "there is a problem in the workplace, employees have two options: remain silent or speak up. Unfortunately, many employees choose to remain silent because they do not want to share information that could be interpreted as negative or threatening. Employees typically remain silent about conflicts with co-workers, disagreements about organizational decisions, potential weaknesses in work processes, illegal or dangerous behaviors, and individual/personal grievances. Their silence keeps management from receiving critical information that would allow their organizations to improve or address problems before they have adverse effects.\nThe question of why employees choose to communicate or not in an organizational setting", "-24.419368801638484" ], [ "due to the fact that transition times between classes and other brief periods of time throughout the working day are scheduled as breaktimes. Employers often have employees sign such contracts in an effort to avoid paying into the employer based Social Insurance program, or Shakai hoken. While Social Insurance law states that all regular employees should be enrolled by their employer in Shakai Hoken, companies consistently tell their employees that they are ineligible. Their reasoning is that the 29.5 hours a week working time written into the contracts fall below an erroneous minimum of 3/4 full-time necessary for eligibility. The", "-24.34518109363853" ], [ "week. Oftentimes, because of his busy work schedule, the salaryman does not have time to raise a family and his work becomes a lifelong commitment. Companies typically hire the salarymen straight after high school, and they are expected to stay with the company until retirement, around the time they reach the age between 55 and 60. As a reward for the demonstration of their loyalty, companies rarely fire the salarymen unless it is under special \"dire\" circumstances. There is also a belief that the \"amount of time spent at the workplace correlates to the perceived efficiency of the employee.\" As", "-24.26417877408676" ], [ "to make such an important decision; especially when that decision is exceptionally hard to revoke. Due process restriction protect tenured teachers from being wrongfully fired; however these restrictions can also prevent administrators from removing ineffective or inappropriate teachers. A 2008 survey conducted by the US Department of Education found that, on average, only 2.1% of teachers are dismissed each year for poor performance.\nIn October 2010 Apple Inc. CEO Steve Jobs had a consequential meeting with U.S. President Barack Obama to discuss U.S. competitiveness and the nation's education system. During the meeting Jobs recommended pursuing policies that would make it easier", "-24.150137983757304" ], [ "still awaiting treatment.\nA VA department handbook on administrative policies indicates that employees have 30 days to appeal any disciplinary action before it can be taken and have all disciplinary actions or reprimands removed from their records after two years. The Department has to meet high standards for doing things like separately proving an employee was absent each and every day if the employee quits showing up to work and proving that there is a direct relationship between the misconduct and their own efficiency.\nData provided by the Office of Personnel Management shows that only 7,349 federal employees were fired in 2013", "-24.142495407839306" ], [ "term of mutual trust which prevents the employer from sending an employee to the other side of the country without adequate notice or from doing anything which makes it impossible for the employee to keep his side of the bargain. Insufficient grounds There is no right to automatic pay rises. Nor is a smoking ban a breach. Compensation The employee's conduct is irrelevant to liability, although it can affect quantum; in other words it cannot get the employer off the hook, but could reduce compensation if he helped bring about his own downfall. Employee must resign quickly The employee has", "-24.125702150093275" ], [ "management is allowed to engage in a series of behaviors in the lead up to the vote that force the vast majority of workers to reveal how they're going to vote long before they ever step into the booth.\nA U.S. House Committee on Education & Labor report asserted that the overall purpose of the Employee Free Choice Act is \"allowing employees to make their own decision about whether they want to bargain together — to advocate for fairer wages, benefits and working conditions — without the threat or fear of harassment and retribution and fear of losing their livelihood.\"\nThe committee's", "-24.069983559893444" ], [ "workers because it saves the company money.\nUsually, a fly-in fly-out job involves working a long shift (e.g., 12 hours each day) for a number of continuous days with all days off spent at home rather than at the work site. As the employee's work days are almost entirely taken up by working, sleeping, and eating, there is little need for any recreation facilities at the work site. However, companies are increasingly offering facilities such as pools, tennis courts, and gyms as a way of attracting and retaining skilled staff. Employees like such arrangements since their families are often reluctant to", "-24.018171389820054" ], [ "they will request an internal review from that agency or department. If necessary, an employee may then have administrative action taken against them. If the department or agency do not take action, then they must inform the notify the Inspector General who has jurisdiction over the agency or department, and they must give reasons to them why they did not take action. (see for a similar part of the Act) Section 225: Immunity for compliance with FISA wiretap Section 225 (Immunity for compliance with FISA wiretap) gives legal immunity to any provider of a wire or electronic communication service, landlord,", "-23.980713094584644" ], [ "administrative leave when an allegation of misconduct is made against an employee, either by a co-worker, student, parent, an alleged victim, or a police officer. During the leave, employers may investigate the situation before determining an appropriate course of action. Administrative leave does not in itself imply that an employee will be disciplined or that an allegation is credible, which is why pay and benefits are not discontinued. It simply allows the employer to investigate the incident, maintaining the employee's status while at the same time removing them from work, eventually leading to either their return or dismissal.\nPolice officers are", "-23.96097916481085" ], [ "if the employer did not ensure that the working conditions were safe and healthy, but this was viewed to be imprecise, and the Legislature intervened. The situation is now governed by the Occupational Health and Safety Act, which implements strict liability on the employer, and states how much must be paid to the employee if accidents occur. Remedies If the breach is material, the employee may claim damages. Provided it is a material breach, the employee may also cancel the contract of employment.\nThe employee may also claim specific performance. This was seldom granted in the past but is now considered", "-23.937002756632864" ], [ "to date, it appears that managers at your agency have been acting appropriately, using existing legal authorities to investigate and take action on these cases. We want bad employees to be rooted out as quickly as possible because they give a bad name to the vast majority of federal workers who devote their entire careers and lives to this nation. We also want to protect the rights of employees accused of misconduct to ensure that they have due process to defend themselves against accusations that are false.\nCummings went on to commend Allison for taking disciplinary action, which \"not all agencies", "-23.929236612515524" ], [ "union may prefer them to be spread over a period of time, or that they take place at a later stage. Measures to mitigate the adverse effects of the dismissals The employer may, for example, assist the employee in finding alternative work by giving the employee time without loss of pay to search for alternative work.\nThe employer may also make an office available in which to complete job applications and arrange interviews.\nThe employer may provide a reference for the employee.\nIn Sikhosana v Sasol Synthetic Fuels, the court noted that the LRA contemplates a hierarchy of consulting parties, each if applicable", "-23.92714032297954" ], [ "certain cases, these may also be a fair and valid reason for dismissal.\nAccording to section 213 of the LRA, \"operational requirements\" are requirements based on the economic, technological, structural or similar needs of an employer.\nThere are four categories of operational requirements. From these categories it is clear that the reason for the dismissal does not relate to the employee; it is due to the needs of the employer, and therefore reason for the dismissal is the employer's.\nAn employer’s economic needs, for example, include those needs and requirements relating to the economic well-being of the enterprise. One of the most common", "-23.92647411285361" ], [ "employees may be protected from abuses of power by the employer, and provides means of redress to employees who are aggrieved by some conduct of the employer” In some instances however the availability of redress may be less certain, for example a bonus payment made be left to the discretion of the employer, or the promises of fair treatment may be contained solely in policies of the employer. The employee trusts that the employer will deliver on that expectation or promise. The question arising in Mr Barker's case was whether the expectation or promise in the Bank's policies were legally", "-23.880640337825753" ], [ "entitled to a reasonable amount of time to prepare the response, and to the assistance of a trade union representative or fellow employee. After the enquiry, the employer should communicate the decision taken, and preferably furnish the employee with written notification of that decision.\nDiscipline against a trade union representative, or against an employee who is an office-bearer or official of a trade union, should not be instituted without first informing and consulting the trade union. If the employee is dismissed, the employee should be given the reason for dismissal and reminded of any rights to refer the matter to a", "-23.831862224265933" ], [ "employee’s length of service, status within the undertaking, previous disciplinary record and personal circumstances.\nYears of service generally count in the employees favor. It must be noted, however, that the employer often puts a great deal of trust in an employee with long service; therefore, it could count against the employee if he breaches this trust after many years of service.\nThe employer will also expect a higher degree of responsible behavior from a supervisor or manager than from an ordinary worker.\nIf there is a previous warning on the employee’s personnel file, stating that he will be dismissed if the same offence", "-23.827942526433617" ], [ "working for a business that had more than 100 employees, and served a qualifying period of 6 months to claim unfair dismissal. Other reasons that excluded an employee from taking unfair dismissal action included where an employee was employed on a seasonal basis or on a contract of employment for a specified period or task, employed on a probationary period that was reasonable and determined in advance, a short-term casual employee, a trainee engaged for a specific period, or an employee not employed under an award or workplace agreement and earning more than $101,300 per year.\nSignificantly, the Act also excluded", "-23.693250584998168" ], [ "harassment situations.\nFurther, it demonstrates that employer liability extends beyond even employer-provided blogs as long as they are considered sufficiently integral to the workplace (since technically a third party operated the bulletin board in this case).\nWith that said, the court acknowledged that clear privacy concerns arise from such ruling. The court's decision emphasizes that the intent is not to make companies monitor all employee communications, but rather to make clear that companies must take all necessary steps to stop harassment if the company has reason to believe it is occurring, whether it is online or in person.", "-23.635710803675465" ], [ "some employees. Furthermore, until 2011, the company attempted to skirt minimum wage and overtime laws by classifying their on-site exclusive long-term employees as independent contractors, which is illegal in the United States.\nWhen presented with the opportunity to go to court or pay the fine assessed by USDOL, Friedlinghaus chose to pay the fine, which amounted to $157,592 in back wages for the wronged employees and $16,830 in civil penalties. In an interview with The Press-Enterprise after the fine was paid, Daniel Pasquil, the director for the wages and hour division of the West Covina office of the USDOL, noted that", "-23.553222669346724" ], [ "effect in practice. In view, however, of the obligations placed on employers in terms of the EEA and Skills Development Act, it may become more important in the future.\nGenerally employees may challenge the denial of training where such training is a prerequisite for advancement in the workplace. Other disciplinary action short of dismissal Other disciplinary actions, like warnings, suspensions with or without pay, demotions and transfers, must also meet the requirement of fairness. The employer must be able to show that the warning, demotion or other disciplinary action was fair and appropriate in the circumstances. Failure or refusal to reinstate", "-23.520186323090456" ], [ "the suspension of an employee, suspected of some form of grave misconduct, while the matter is being investigated, but the employee is entitled to his remuneration during the period of suspension.\nEmployers may deny their employees access to the workplace, or otherwise prevent them from working, in the course of collective bargaining. This is known as a \"lock out,\" and is the employer’s equivalent of the employees’ strike. If a lock out is lawful—if, that is, it complies with the Labour Relations Act 1995—the employer is relieved of its obligation to pay the locked-out employees their wages.\nSince the contract of employment", "-23.51903482889611" ], [ "in pay and job satisfaction attendant on promotions, the hours and maintenance expenses that are consumed by long daily commutes, and even their jobs if they are not rehired after a \"temporary\" layoff.\nIn conclusion, the Court determined that promotions, transfers, and recalls after layoffs based on political affiliation or support are an impermissible infringement on the First Amendment rights of public employees. The Court decided that whether the four employees were in fact denied promotions, transfers, or rehire for failure to affiliate with and support the Republican Party was for the District Court to decide in the first instance. Justice", "-23.481736827874556" ], [ "is committed in future, dismissal may be fair if this occurs. A warning does not remain valid indefinitely. The employer and trade union may agree on the period for which a warning will remain valid, or the employer’s code may stipulate this. In the absence of such agreement or stipulation, the default position is that the warning remains valid for six months, unless the infraction is particularly serious, in which case it may remain valid for the duration of the employee’s service.\nOther personal circumstances which may be important include the employee’s age, marital status and number of dependents. Other employees", "-23.47519715502858" ], [ "of notice of termination or payment in lieu of this notice. Where this was not provided to an employee, an unlawful termination application could have been lodged. In certain circumstances where a business terminates 15 or more employees, the business needed to give written notice to a body prescribed by the Workplace Relations Regulations 2006, currently Centrelink.\nProhibited reasons for termination included discriminatory reasons such as age, race, national extraction, political opinion, sex, sexual preference, religion, marital status, disability, pregnancy and family responsibilities; refusal to sign an Australian workplace agreement (AWA) (however, it was not prohibited to deny employment to a", "-23.46249740954954" ], [ "process that fair decisions are generally reached. If the dismissal was procedurally unfair, the courts have often been reluctant to reinstate the employee, choosing rather to award the employee compensation. Dismissal as last resort No employee may be dismissed for poor work performance without first being made aware of the standards required and then being given an opportunity to improve. The employer is expected to make a reasonable accommodation for an employee and offer the employee alternative employment in some circumstances. Incompatibility There was great debate regarding whether or not an employee’s incompatibility (his inability to work harmoniously with other", "-23.449688240885735" ], [ "“the services of an employee who has been engaged on a probationary basis may be terminated for a just cause or when he fails to qualify as a regular employee in accordance with reasonable standards made known by the employer to the employee at the time of his engagement.” If an employee is unable to show that he/she possesses the necessary skills to keep the job, he/she may be terminated from employment.\" \nEffectively, Article 281 and its legal loophole was spotted by companies and since then has been used as a main basis for laying off workers in order to", "-23.447464392578695" ], [ "to at-will employment depend largely on state law. Generally, at-will employment allows the employer to terminate the employee for good or even no reason, and allows the employee to resign for any reason. There are no duties of continued employment in the future. Therefore, when an employee demands a raise, there is no issue with consideration because the employee has no legal duty to continue working. Similarly, when an employer demands a pay-cut, there is also no contractual issue with consideration, because the employer has no legal duty to continue employing the worker. However, certain", "-23.441929988373886" ], [ "in Finland, and it is seen as a secondary duty as well. Unfair dismissal and managerial prerogative Managers use their prerogatives to dismiss or fire employees for reasons specified by them. If these reasons are not enough to defend the dismissal, then this situation is considered an unfair dismissal. Managerial prerogatives give managers the ability to dismiss employees. These prerogatives vary from country to country. Manager rights sometimes from company to company within the same country.", "-23.438288266581367" ], [ "new employee who refuses to sign an AWA); being involved in proceedings against an employer for alleged breach of the law; membership or non-membership of a union or participation in union activities; and absence from work due to illness or injury, parental leave or emergency management activities. Unlike unfair dismissal provisions, there were no restrictions on employees who can lodge unlawful termination claims for prohibited reasons. Removing the \"No Disadvantage Test\" for agreements Prior to the WorkChoices coming into force, certified agreements, subsequently called Collective Agreements (CAs) and individual Australian workplace agreements (AWAs), had to pass a No Disadvantage Test.", "-23.344377829227597" ], [ "for employment may be frustrated. Notcutt v Universal Equipment Co shows that the inability of an employee to perform contractual duties – due to, in this case, a heart attack – frustrates his contract of employment. Such a principle terminates a contract for employment immediately; the employee is not entitled to the same protection under employment protection legislation, as demonstrated in Notcutt, where Mr Notcutt was not allowed to pursue sick pay under the Employment Protection (Consolidation) Act 1978. Delay If an event occurs which causes an excessive delay in the performance of the contract, frustration may be held. However,", "-23.22018376912456" ], [ "to reduce the level of violence. Research suggests that there continue to be difficulties in successfully \"screening out applicants [for jobs] who may be prone to engaging in aggressive behavior,\" suggesting that aggression-prevention training of existing employees may be an alternative to screening. Only a small number of studies evaluating the effectiveness of training programs to reduce workplace violence currently exist. Total Worker Health™ Because many companies have implemented worker safety and health measures in a fragmented way, a new approach to worker safety and health has emerged in response, driven by efforts advanced by NIOSH. NIOSH trademarked that approach,", "-23.16375373804476" ], [ "an option.\nFinally, the employee may refuse to work, withholding labour until the contract is performed. Entering and remaining in service The main obligation of the employee under the contract is to place his personal services at the disposal of his employer.\nThe tender of service is a prerequisite to and the corollary of the employee’s right to claim payment of wages: \"no work, no pay.\" The reverse also applies: \"no pay, no work,\" so that employees who have not been paid may legitimately refuse to work without breaching their contracts.\nIf a number of workers engage in a concerted cessation of work", "-23.13880682247691" ], [ "terminated may not be eligible for being rehired by the same employer. If the decision to terminate was the employee's, the willingness of the employer to rehire is often contingent upon the relationship the employee had with the employer, the amount of notice given by the employee prior to departure, and the needs of the employer. In some cases, when an employee departed on good terms, they may be given special priority by the employer when seeking rehire.\nAn employee may be terminated without prejudice, meaning the fired employee may be rehired for the same job in the future. This is", "-23.11737885896582" ], [ "into signing the agreements and were allegedly told if they refuse to sign the IFAs they were warned that their hours would be cut or that they would be refused overtime hours which they have enjoyed under the Cleaning Services Award. \nUnited Voice will also claim Spotless misrepresented the IFAs to its workers. The Union says Spotless' use of IFAs in these circumstances is contrary to the spirit and intent of the Individual Flexibility provisions under the Fair Work Act and that Spotless are trying to re-introduce WorkChoices AWAs by the back door.\nThe case was due to go to before", "-23.109019275492756" ], [ "federal Code, non-unionized employees with more than twelve months of continuous employment, other than managers, have the ability to file complaints for unjust dismissal within 90 days of being so dismissed. In making the complaint, the employee has the right to \"make a request in writing to the employer to provide a written statement giving the reasons for the dismissal,\" which must be supplied within 15 days of the request. Complaints are initially investigated by an inspector, who will then work towards a settlement within a reasonable time, failing which the Minister of Employment and Social Development may refer the", "-23.09984750908916" ], [ "she will be fired if he or she doesn't sleep with him or her. Quid pro quo harassment also occurs when an employee makes an evaluative decision, or provides or withholds professional opportunities based on another employee's submission to verbal, nonverbal or physical conduct of a sexual nature. Quid pro quo harassment is equally unlawful whether the victim resists and suffers the threatened harm or submits and thus avoids the threatened harm. Hostile environment sexual harassment This occurs when an employee is subjected to comments of a sexual nature, unwelcome physical contact, or offensive sexual materials as a regular part", "-23.098807214875706" ], [ "job, but its occurrence no longer warranted a reporting. The same report noted that underreporting drastically affects the ability of the Occupational Safety and Health Administration to track these occurrences. Many qualitative studies done on nurses suggest that there is frequent discouragement by hospital officials and legal officers to not press charges against abusive patients or their families related to an understanding that violence is a part of the job. Lasting effects of violence The effects of patient initiated violence has been found correlate to lasting symptoms of post traumatic stress disorder, acute stress disorder, and high rates of burnout.", "-23.01328791596461" ], [ "Tribunal, in an unfair dismissal case, ruled that, in preparing a reference, it was not reasonable to provide details of complaints against an employee of which the employee was not aware.\nThe Court of Appeal has further held that, if an employee leaves when an investigation is ongoing but has not been concluded, or where issues arise after an employee leaves that have not been investigated, employers can disclose this information but should do so in a measured and fair way, which will be particularly important if to omit this information would mean providing a misleading reference.", "-22.95630172661913" ], [ "to receive employees into service does not mean that employers must necessarily provide employees with work to keep them busy, although this general rule is subject to some exceptions: where, for example, remuneration is based on the volume of work done, as in the case of piece-workers or salespersons working on commission, or where the failure to allow the employee to work degrades his status. A duty to provide work may also arise where the employer has contracted to train the employee in a particular profession or trade, as in the case of article clerks and apprentices.\nThe common law permits", "-22.954969034617534" ], [ "violation of criminal law, or if serious damages are caused to the employer as a result of the employee's actions. Such ex-employees may face criminal prosecution, a civil lawsuit, or a reporting to a database of those who have engaged in serious misconduct in such a position, so that the chances of ever obtaining a similar position with another employer are less likely (blacklisting). Some examples are a caregiver who engages in abuse, a bank teller who has stolen money from the cash drawer, or a member of law enforcement who has committed police brutality.\nFor the most serious violations, especially", "-22.859568164829398" ], [ "Job lock The term job lock is used to describe the inability of an employee to freely leave a job because doing so will result in the loss of employee benefits (usually health or retirement related). In a broader sense, job lock may describe the situation where an employee is being paid higher than scale or has accumulated significant benefits, so that changing jobs is not a realistic option as it would result in significantly lower pay, less vacation time, etc. Overview Because the greatest source of insurance for most Americans is Employer Provided Health Insurance (EPHI) and", "-22.852981614414603" ], [ "Worker Adjustment and Retraining Notification Act of 1988 Penalty for violating the WARN Act An employer who violates the WARN provisions is liable to each employee for an amount equal to back pay and benefits for the period of the violation, up to 60 days. The liability may be reduced by the period of any notice that was given and any voluntary payments that the employer made to the employee, sometimes referred to as \"pay in lieu of notice.\"\nU.S. district courts enforce WARN requirements. Workers, representatives of employees, and units of local government may bring individual or class action suits.", "-22.84005074214656" ], [ "Disclosure and Barring Service Legal context It is a legal requirement in the UK for regulated activity employers to notify the DBS if a person leaves or changes their job in relation to having harmed someone. It is an offence for any person who has been barred by the DBS to work or apply to work with the group (children or adults) from which they are barred. It is also an offence for an employer to knowingly employ a barred person in regulated activity with the group from which they are barred.\nAn organisation which is entitled to ask exempted questions", "-22.832029781886376" ], [ "training for all new employees due to the nonexistence of tertiary based courses for the cleaning industry. A trend in the cleaning industry is the elimination of the usage of more hazardous chemicals such as drain cleaners due to liability and environmental concerns. Individuals employed in commercial cleaning typically hold the job title of janitor, custodian, or day porter.\nIn Australia, the US, and Europe, commercial cleaning companies are encouraged to screen all employees for evidence of a criminal background. In some countries, such as the United Kingdom, cleaners working in schools, children's care homes and childcare premises are required by", "-22.823446726542898" ], [ "inclusion.\nThe Board also excludes temporary employees and, unless both employers agree, the employees of subcontractors and temporary agencies who work alongside the employees of the primary employer.\nThe employer must ordinarily raise these issues before the election is scheduled; it cannot later refuse to bargain on the theory that the unit is inappropriate on grounds it did not make in a timely manner. That rule does not, on the other hand, bar the employer from later challenging an individual employee's ballot on the ground that he or she is not an employee within the meaning of the Act, as for example", "-22.82237036782317" ], [ "Closed shop United States The Taft–Hartley Act outlawed the closed shop in the United States in 1947. The union shop was ruled illegal by the Supreme Court. States that have passed right-to-work laws go further by not allowing employers to require employees to pay a form of union dues called an agency fee. An employer may not lawfully agree with a union to hire only union members, but it may agree to require employees to join the union or pay the equivalent of union dues to it, within a set period after starting employment. Similarly, while a union could require", "-22.815524948528036" ], [ "restricted to free time from siviilipalvelus. Finnish law forbids companies from firing employees merely because they have started siviilipalvelus, although it does not force companies to renew fixed-term contracts, which is a common occurrence.", "-22.76146099437028" ], [ "harassment and even violence. All these deviant behaviors create problems for the organization. It is costly for an organization to pay employees who are not working efficiently.", "-22.73378445697017" ], [ "the US for example, the majority of state laws allow for employment to be \"at will\", meaning the employer can terminate an employee from a position for any reason, so long as the reason is not explicitly prohibited, and, conversely, an employee may quit at any time, for any reason (or for no reason), and is not required to give notice.\nOne example of employment terms in many countries is the duty to provide written particulars of employment with the essentialia negotii (Latin for \"essential terms\") to an employee. This aims to allow the employee to know concretely what to expect", "-22.730313964450033" ], [ "dismissal if there is a lack of substantial justification for the termination of an employee contract. Unfair dismissal can be justified if the employer can prove the decision was based on the capability and or the competence of in the qualifications of the employee for the work they were employed to do, the employee's conduct, redundancy, or the fact that the continuation of the employment would contravene another statutory requirement. \nAdditionally, employees are protected if the employer did not follow fair and legal procedures during the process of dismissal. If either of these two conditions are met, an employee may", "-22.727846464607865" ], [ "were \"tagging\" employees with GPS and subjecting them to harsh working conditions.\nWorkers subject to zero-hour contracts are vulnerable to exploitation as they may be denied work at any time for any reason, including declining to respond to a demand to work. A refusal to work in any one instance for any reason can result in a prolonged period of lack of work. In 2014, millions of workers were still trapped in low-paid, highly insecure jobs, where mistreatment is the norm and where there is limited prospect of escape, said the Trade Union Congress. Due to the uncertainty of the workers'", "-22.722768468585855" ], [ "terms of a contract of employment is sufficient. The examples given on this page for actions by an employer likely to constitute grounds for constructive dismissal under Canadian law also almost certainly hold true under English law.\nThe Department of Trade and Industry states:\nA tribunal may rule that an employee who resigns because of conduct by his or her employer has been 'constructively dismissed'. For a tribunal to rule in this way the employer's action has to be such that it can be regarded as a significant breach of the employment contract indicating that he or she intends no longer to", "-22.697405777449603" ], [ "15 years, but large sectors of the economy (including small businesses, agricultural concerns, and family-owned enterprises) are exempted. Dismissal of an employee An employee may only be dismissed upon approval of the Islamic Labor Council or the Labor Discretionary Board. Grounds for dismissal include an employee's neglect in carrying out his/her duties or violation of disciplinary by-laws of the employer. The employer must have provided written prior notice of the employee's violations. If the board is not convinced that the employee's dismissal is justified, the employer must reinstate the employee. Once an employee is dismissed, the employer is obligated to", "-22.692227415856905" ], [ "adhering to the common-law duty to act in good faith towards and in the best interests of the business.\nIf the facts show that this duty is breached, the employee is guilty of misconduct and, if sufficiently serious, may be dismissed.\nIf the employer is unable to prove such a breach on a balance of probabilities, the employee may not be dismissed for misconduct, but may be dismissed for operational reasons, as such mistrust is counter-productive to the operation of the business.\nIn Food & Allied Workers Union v Amalgamated Beverage Industries, the Industrial Court accepted that the dismissal of a number of", "-22.680543476250023" ], [ "employee and then benefit from such illegitimate and unlawful conduct. The proposition that even if the court concluded that the employee was indeed dismissed for an illegitimate and unlawful or unconstitutional reason, he must still lose his job because the illegitimate conduct of the employer has destroyed such trust relationship is, in my view, unacceptable as a matter of policy. An employer who acts in breach of such fundamental rights must, as a matter of policy, not be allowed to benefit from his unacceptable conduct. An approach of a court which allows such conduct to prevail may itself be in", "-22.66147843748331" ], [ "likely.\nA toxic work environment is classically defined as unjustified criticism as well as vague and unfounded accusations of poor performance, especially where authority and respect with co-workers had been seriously undermined and compromised. Another example of toxic work environment is where the employer fails to prevent workplace harassment. UK law In United Kingdom law, constructive dismissal is defined by the Employment Rights Act 1996 section 95(1)c:\nThe employee terminates the contract under which they are employed (with or without notice) in circumstances in which they are entitled to terminate it without notice by reason of the employer's conduct.\n The circumstances", "-22.657105265650898" ], [ "the employer in sexual harassment cases. They called out the fact that there is no stipulated liability for employers in cases of employee-to-employee harassment, something upheld in many other countries. They also viewed the provision that employers are obligated to address grievances in a timely manner at the workplace as problematic because of potentially uncooperative employees. Furthermore, the law requires a third-party non-governmental organisation to be involved, which could make employers less comfortable in reporting grievances, due to confidentiality concerns.\nCompliance to this statute has so far been left to the vagaries of the employers and government has not taken", "-22.65330089768395" ], [ "to do work in a specific way.\nIf the employees are contractually obliged to perform the work demanded of them, and the employer's instructions are reasonable, the employees' refusal amounts to insubordination. It is not unfair to dismiss employees for refusing to comply with their employers' instructions to perform the work required by their contracts.\nWhat if the employee refuses to carry out an order not in accordance with the contract, but with how the employer runs his business? This will depend on the facts: If the instructions are reasonable, such refusal could amount to insubordination.\nIn Kroukam v SA Airlink, Kroukam", "-22.641932601036387" ], [ "sue their former employer in court for wrongful dismissal\" . Dismissal with cause and termination without cause In Canadian common law, there is a basic distinction as to dismissals. There are two basic types of dismissals, or terminations: dismissal with cause (Just cause) and termination without cause. An example of cause would be an employee's behavior which constitutes a fundamental breach of the terms of the employment contract. Where cause exists, the employer can dismiss the employee without providing any notice. If no cause exists yet the employer dismisses without providing lawful notice, then the dismissal", "-22.637910689227283" ], [ "to disrupt company's reputation. Among the violations are: mobbing, insulting, cursing and even physical attacks such as slapping and other forms of harassment.\nIn 2015, there were even reports that the workers are not allowed to use the toilets due to decreased production productivity, and that instead they are using diapers.", "-22.637004313524812" ], [ "organization is to implement exit interviews. This is a way that companies can gain true, raw knowledge of what is really taking place within the organization, often because the exiting employee is no longer censored by a fear of possible organization retaliation. Retaliation: work related vs. social Acts of retaliation within an organization can be categorized in two ways: work related retaliation and social retaliation. \"Work retaliation victimization involves adverse work-related actions that have the purpose or effect of negatively altering the target’s job and that are intended by the instigator or perceived by the target to be a reprisal", "-22.613727395189926" ], [ "same category or engaging in business of the same category as this employer shall not exceed two years. \nIf the parties have reached an agreement on non-competition and compensation, unless another agreement is in place, the employer is entitled to ask the employee to comply with the non-competition obligations when the employment contract is ended, and the People’s Court shall support this request. The employee, after complying with the non-competition obligations, is entitled to request the agreed compensation from the employer, and the People’s Court shall support this request. \nIf during the period of non-competition, the employer asks to terminate", "-22.589961826473882" ], [ "employee may be dismissed immediately. Due to illness An employee may be dismissed due to medical reasons. In some countries, the employer must pay for the employee whilst dismissed for a period not exceeding 20 weeks. The employer may wish to provide the employee with alternative work for the period of time, which is suited to your medical needs. Redundancy Redundancy is when you dismiss an employee because you no longer need anyone to do their job.", "-22.56013999087736" ], [ "company because they can cover more areas than just the tasks in their job description. On-the-job training creates a culture which extends past the bare minimum required by the job and allows continuing education as part of the working process. As a result, an uninterrupted production process increases the company’s gains when opting out from the need of an initial investment for an off-site training. On-the-job training is cost-effective.\nFor employees, on-the-job training is beneficial because it allows them to learn a new skill or qualification within their field of work in a timely matter. During on-the-job training, they are", "-22.515296164434403" ], [ "Employer's Liability (Defective Equipment) Act 1969 The Employer's Liability (Defective Equipment) Act 1969 (c. 37) is a short statute which makes employers strictly liable for defective equipment that causes any injury. The purpose was to ensure that employers fully insure their staff for all health and safety risks, and are encouraged to put in place preventative measures.", "-22.471420605143066" ], [ "to prevent the resulting harm. Extreme examples would likely find the employer is liable for the employee using a gun which was permitted on the job, but perhaps not if strict instructions against carrying guns on the job had been given to the employee who ignored them.", "-22.46541216445621" ], [ "Further, workplace harassment lawsuits are prevalent, and one way for them to protect themselves from liability is to monitor and prevent any harassment in the first place. Many employers run software that searches for offensives words and highlights problematic emails. The other main concern with liability is that old emails may be used against the employer years down the road in a lawsuit. So the employers need to impose an established and reasonable practice of screening and purging its emails. Government employees and email Government employees have further reduced privacy than the private sector employees. Under various public records acts", "-22.454901787103154" ], [ "Control of fines and deductions from wages applies only in factory industries and shops employing at least 20 workers. Shop hours are regulated by requiring shops to be closed generally between 9 P.M. and 5 A.M., by requiring a fixed midday rest of t 2 hours and at least 10 hours' rest in the 24 for assistants. These limits can be modified by administrative authority. Notice of hours and working rules must be affixed. During the hours of compulsory closing sale of goods on the streets or from house to house is forbidden. Under the Commercial Code, as under the", "-22.45278480858542" ], [ "enforce contracts In June 2018 the NSW Supreme Court ruled that IR provider Employsure cannot enforce a contract that locked an employer into a five-year deal for its services. Employsure sued its customer, Italian food importer and supplier Zintix, after it attempted to quit the contract after eight months, owing $18,463.00. Fair Work Commission and Unfair Dismissal On 11 December 2015 the Fair Work Commissioner Michelle Bissett issued an unfair dismissal decision in which the commission determined Ms S (name withheld) had been unfairly dismissed from her employment at Employsure. The FWC at Employsure's request did agree to prohibit the", "-22.438567744451575" ], [ "of the Regulation serve as a further protection for the employees by giving them the right to choose the competent court where to initiate proceedings. In this regard it is important to mention that the employer may be sued in the courts of the place where the employee habitually carries out his work or has lastly done so.", "-22.428784640069352" ], [ "protective promotion, remitting the matter back to the employer for reconsideration, and reinstatement to a previous position (in the case of demotion). Probation Guidelines may be gathered from the rules which govern the obligations of the employer before a fair decision to dismiss on the grounds of poor performance is reached, and also from the Code of Good Practice: Dismissals.\nIn this context, unfair conduct may include the failure to inform the employee properly about required performance standards, and the failure by an employer to afford the employee reasonable guidance, evaluation, training, counselling and instruction. Training This prohibition has had little", "-22.418172524427064" ], [ "a subordinate position.\nEmployers can avoid liability for discrimatory harassment if they can prove that they took such steps that were reasonably practical to prevent harassment from occurring.\nHowever, employers cannot use this defence to a claim of harassment under the Protection from Harassment Act 1997, under which they will have vicarious liability for the actions of their employees. Legislation The United Kingdom has a \"rag bag of statutes\" relating to harassment. Administration of Justice Act 1970 Section 40 of the Administration of Justice Act 1970 creates the offence of harassing a contract debtor. Protection from Eviction Act 1977 The marginal note", "-22.403975548921153" ], [ "is about employees who break \"the law of silence\" to denounce acts of corruption or negligence in their companies.", "-22.396425652783364" ], [ "employee a certain number of hours pay if, once the temporary employee arrives, there is no work or the work is not as described. Most agencies do not require an employee to continue work if the discrepancies are enough to make it difficult for the employee to actually do the work.\nA temporary work agency may have a standard set of tests to judge the competence of the secretarial or clerical skills of an applicant. An applicant is hired based on their scores on these tests, and is placed into a database. Companies or individuals looking to hire someone temporarily contact", "-22.392711942869937" ], [ "business executives would be held liable for actions taken by managers who weren't leading the company anymore: \"At the end of the day, such a loophole conceivably could allow a retiring employee to seek damages against a company now led by executives who had nothing to do with the initial act of discrimination\".\nThe American Bar Association passed a resolution supporting the new bill. Neal Mollen, who represented the United States Chamber of Commerce in the Ledbetter case, argued that extending the term limit would put a strain on the chances of an adequate defense for the employers, as to defend", "-22.385619256761856" ], [ "services that they have sold. In some fields and professions (e.g., executive jobs), employees may be eligible for a bonus if they meet certain targets. Some executives and employees may be paid in stocks or stock options, a compensation approach that has the added benefit, from the company's point of view, of helping to align the interests of the compensated individual with the performance of the company.\nUnder the faithless servant doctrine, a doctrine under the laws of a number of states in the United States, and most notably New York State law, an employee who acts unfaithfully towards his employer", "-22.37113297492033" ], [ "allow a misbehaving employee to insulate themselves from adverse action by engaging in protected conduct.\nThe constitutional principle at stake is sufficiently vindicated if such an employee is placed in no worse a position than if he had not engaged in the conduct. A borderline or marginal candidate should not have the employment question resolved against him because of constitutionally protected conduct. But that same candidate ought not to be able, by engaging in such conduct, to prevent his employer from assessing his performance record and reaching a decision not to rehire on the basis of that record, simply because the", "-22.368978475089534" ], [ "be retaliated against because they acted as an informant to the EPA. The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) defines retaliation as: loss of employment, blacklisting, demotion, denying overtime, benefits, or promotion, discipline, failure to hire or rehire, intimidation, threatening, reassignment which affects promotion prospects, reduction of pay or shifts. The whistleblower clause excludes employees who violate the law without being directed to do so by the company. Enforcement The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) is responsible for enforcing environmental laws in the United States. This includes the SWDA and all of its amendments.", "-22.351538472576067" ], [ "of people on zero-hour contracts are happy with the hours they work. Trade union groups and others have raised concerns about the possibility of exploitation and the use of such contracts by management as a tool to reward or reprimand employees for any reason, meaningful or trivial. They also raise concerns about how workers can adequately assert their employment rights or maintain decent employment relations.\nA Channel 4 documentary broadcast on 1 August 2013 employed secret cameras in Amazon UK's Rugeley warehouse to document worker abuses and claimed that Amazon used \"controversial\" zero-hour contracts as a tool to reprimand staff, and", "-22.34980822505895" ], [ "The employees themselves should recognize their needs to take rests promptly and take preventative measures as needed.\nAs a formal response to this proposal, the Industry Safety and Health Act was revised in 2006. The Act established various terms that focus on work-related health issues, including mandatory health checks and consultations with professional medical personnel for employees who work long hours and have a higher possibility of having work related illness. It might seem to be an odd decision, speaking from an economic standpoint, to use government policy to force companies to reduce work hours. It seems to be counterproductive of", "-22.349726598942652" ], [ "only the former still applies. \nIt is sometimes unclear what forms \"know how\" that was divulged to an employee in order to carry out their functions and then becomes their own knowledge rather than a secret of their previous employer. Some employers will specify in their employment contracts that a \"grace period\" will apply to know how that starts when a person leaves them as an employee. \nSpecifying exactly what information this includes would increase the likelihood of it being upheld in court in the event of a breach, i.e. saying \"when your employment contract is terminated, you must keep", "-22.34731813077815" ], [ "of applying economic pressure to support the employer’s bargaining position. However, the employer cannot hire permanent replacements, only temporary ones. The high court further extended the \"Mackay doctrine\" in NLRB v. Brown Food Stores, holding that an employer could lock out its employees in advance of a whipsaw strike so long as the employer only utilized temporary replacements and locked out all workers (not just those who supported the union). These cases did not address the partial lockout, however. The Court addressed that issue in 1967. In NLRB v. Great Dane Trailers, Inc., the Supreme Court held that an employer", "-22.34600804792717" ] ]

[ "Besides everyone saying that either they don't, or that it's based just on voltage- modern devices use something called a Coulomb Counter which actually measures the quantity of charge leaving or entering the battery. Imagine you have a water tank. Every few seconds, you check a meter to see how fast water is coming out of the tap. Then you can add up these measurements to figure out pretty closely how much is left in the tank! Technically speaking, the device measures current consumption rapidly and performs integration to give a figure of amp-hours or watt-hours consumed.", "They don't, it's just an estimation. As charge level decreases, so does the voltage the battery outputs. The device can measure this and use it along with other factors (how long since charger disconnect, age of battery, number of charging cycles it's gone through, etc.) to estimate how much charge it has. It's just that, though, an estimation, not an actual measurement.", "Not an expert here (thus I may get this wrong) - but I am an EE with a pretty good idea of what makes stuff chooch. Two ways it could be done (or a mixture of them both). Most obvious way is voltage monitoring and abusing the discharge curve of Lithium based batteries. Lithium batteries don't produce a constant voltage as they discharge. Most start at somithing in the 4.0-4.2 Volts/Cell at full charge, and are \"dead\" at around 3.0 Volts/Cell. Discharging past that ~3.0 V number can actually destroy the battery so the device shuts it self off at a preset safe point. The trickery happens in the way Lithium batteries discharge. [As you can see in this shitty graph I just found on Google]( URL_0 ), as the battery depletes to something in the 3.4 V/Cell range, the voltage starts dropping off, and dropping off ***FAST***. So basically the device can monitor the voltage of the battery, but once it detects that its come upon that cliff in the discharge curve (or a preset low voltage), it declares the battery dead. Incidentally that discharge curve is why the last 10% of your battery seems to go away instantly. Smart batteries (like you find in a laptop) might contain something like a teensy current shunt so it can get a real-time picture of how much current is flowing. A current shunt is basically a very small resistance put in between the battery and load, when current flows through said teensy resistance it creates a teensy voltage drop. Using ~~witchcraft~~ math and some formuolis you can figure out exactly how much current is going through the teensy resistor. That information combined with voltage monitoring of the battery can be used to paint a very accurate picture of exactly what the battery is doing, and how healthy the battery is (they do wear out), and how much juice is left in the box. Well that's probably a bit much for a 5 year old but w/e. Hope at least something in that mess is right and you found it marginally useful. Now we just wait for the guy that works at the battery factory to come correct me. Merry Christmas!", "They estimate it with the voltage that the battery outputs. When its full, it has a different voltage that when is 50%, and the cellphone sguts down before it reaches a dangerous voltage level(some batteries might be unable to recharge if they drop too low)", "My phone doesn't. As soon as it reaches 20% it goes straight to 1% and shuts off a few seconds later. If I then plug it back in and turn it on while charging, it will show about a 45% charge.", "The (edit: formerly top) answer saying they do not is wrong, except maybe for the cheapest shittiest phone in existence. They use gas gauge chips which are cheap and plentiful. See for example URL_1 . Some integrated phone chipsets have this built in. Good gas gauges have coulomb counters that estimate joules in and out and know the behaviour for each battery chemistry. The better ones will let you run calibration cycles first prior to production to generate a master profile, and will refine that in real-time on th target device. An example of this is a BQ78PL116 (though that is not intended for use in phones; it's a multi-cell chip). These chips also generally handle the protection side of the circuit too, and sometimes even the charge control. They usually communicate via SMBus using the SBS ([smart battery system]( URL_0 )). Source: have designed equipment that uses gas gauges for cell management.", "There are three techniques to know the actual remaining charge. First is to measure the voltage of battery. The value is then compared to the voltage vs charge curve, there are no li-ion batteries that increase voltage when discharged. Of course when chemistry of a specific battery ages, the curve slips, and differs from standard one by increasing amount. Second is to profile the battery, it's really evolution of the first. If you do charge cycle two or three times, you know it pretty well. Modern devices have pretty decent idea how much energy they need, so the curve can be adjusted with time. This is more precise and takes into account aging battery. Third technique is to keep close track of energy spent, down to last milijoule. In newest mobile devices SoCs usually get detailed reports on energy use for each controller. They can add it up, and when actual max capacity of battery is known it can literally describe when it will need to shut down down to one second accuracy. When combined with above mentioned technique it's by far the most precise. There is fourth method, that can be used in lab, not in devices, that is to directly measure specific for battery chemistry ion densities inside the cell, and report that. It's more accurate, but probably less useful for everyday use." ]

[ [ "cell battery provides for 1–3 months of life, which increases to 2–3 years as advertising interval is increased to 900 ms.\nBattery consumption of the phones is a factor that must be taken into account when deploying beacon enabled apps. A recent report has shown that\nolder phones tend to draw more battery power in the vicinity of iBeacons, while the newer phones can be more efficient in the same environment. In addition to the time spent by the phone scanning, number of scans and number of beacons in the vicinity are also significant factors for battery drain, as pointed out by", "-28.877624359563924" ], [ "power. A study on 16 different iBeacon vendors reports that battery life can range between 1–24 months. Apple's recommended setting of 100 ms advertising interval with a coin cell battery provides for 1–3 months of life, which increases to 2–3 years as advertising interval is increased to 900 ms.\nBattery consumption of the phones is a factor that must be taken into account when deploying beacon-enabled apps. A recent report has shown that\nolder phones tend to draw more battery in the vicinity of iBeacons, while the newer phones can be more efficient in the same environment. In addition to the", "-28.522324670484522" ], [ "battery packs in the United States were recalled; an additional 700,000 were sold outside the U.S.\nThese batteries were manufactured by Sony. Sony, Dell, Toshiba, Lenovo, HP, Fujitsu and Acer laptops were also affected by the defective batteries. Discontinuation At the 2006 Macworld Conference & Expo, the MacBook Pro was introduced. The new notebooks, however, only came in 15.4-inch models and the 12-inch and 17-inch PowerBooks remained available for sale at Apple stores and retailers, as well as the 15-inch model, which was sold until supplies ran out. On April 24, 2006 the 17-inch PowerBook G4 was replaced by a 17-inch", "-27.07615051785251" ], [ "13-inch and 8–9 hours on the 15- and 17-inch MacBook Pros. This was achieved through both greater power efficiency and adding more battery capacity. One reviewer reported about six hours of battery life through a continuous video battery stress test in the 15-inch and another, who called the battery life \"unbeatable\", reported nearer to eight in the 13-inch through their \"highly demanding battery drain test\".\nThunderbolt technology, Sandy Bridge dual core Intel Core i5 and i7 (on the 13-inch model) or quad-core i7 (on the 15- and 17-inch models) processors, and a high definition FaceTime camera were added on February 24,", "-26.922673310153186" ], [ "electronics such as mobile phones and laptops) which are currently served by high cost and high energy density lithium-ion batteries.", "-26.431083891646267" ], [ "updates as much as 60 percent smaller, and app launches up to twice as fast. Battery lifespan extender Similar to many laptops, iOS 13 has a feature to limit the battery charging percentage to 80%.\nThis feature allows leaving the mobile phone charging overnight without needing a timeclocked power outlet for preserving battery lifespan.\nKeeping the battery percentage more centered instead of complete charges and discharges reduces strain onto the battery. This reduces the battery aging of the lithium-ion battery and extends its lifespan, which is a severe issue of mobile phones with non-replaceable batteries. Haptics iOS 13 introduced a new Core Haptics", "-26.255724565315177" ], [ "have stated that the storage ROM for the phone isn’t stable enough for full customer reliability. Battery life The battery life span of the Meizu M9 is comparable to that of most modern smartphones. When fully charged, it can last up to a day with normal usage, and it can last up to two days with minimal usage. There is speculation that the Android 2.3 update will improve the Meizu M9's battery life.\nWith the Android 2.3 beta firmware, battery life can last up to two days with normal usage and three days with minimal usage. These durations are expected to", "-26.175116408699978" ], [ "or RAID0 100Gb hard drives and 1GB of RAM.\nThese computers have a 17-inch widescreen LCD display and weigh 8.8 pounds (4 kg); because of this, they are the largest of the Sony VAIO computers and are considered to be desktop replacement computers. Being somewhere between a notebook computer and a desktop computer, it has exceptional functionality, considering they have the specifications equivalent to that of a desktop computer. However, as a result of its large size, it has a battery life between 1.5 hours and three hours; this is considered low for a notebook computer but sufficient for a desktop replacement", "-26.047111844294704" ], [ "This version diverged from its 15-inch sibling with an anti-glare \"matte\" screen option (with the glossy finish standard) and a non user-removable lithium polymer battery. Instead of traditional round cells inside the casing, the lithium-ion polymer batteries are shaped and fitted into each laptop to maximally utilize space. Adaptive charging, which uses a chip to optimize the charge flow to reduce wear and tear, extends the battery's overall life. Battery life for the 17\" version is quoted at eight hours, with 80 percent of this charge remaining after 1,000 charge-discharge cycles.\nAt Apple's Worldwide Developers Conference (WWDC) on June 8, 2009, it", "-26.04560094885528" ], [ "charger has no visual indicator. Instead, the MacBook Pro emits a chime when connected to power. The Macintosh startup chime that has been used since the first Macintosh in 1984 is now disabled by default. The laptop now boots automatically when the lid is opened. Battery life The battery life of the new models also received mixed reception, with outlets reporting inconsistent battery life and inaccurate estimates of time remaining on battery by the operating system. Apple addressed the latter by hiding the display of estimated battery time remaining entirely in a macOS update. Consumer Reports did not initially recommend", "-26.000745859084418" ], [ "a poll on its website, 70% of 9to5Mac visitors reported decreased battery life after updating to the new operating system. However, in an article featuring Twitter complaints of battery life, Daily Express wrote that \"honestly, this is to be expected. It happens every year, and it's completely normal. Major iOS releases will hammer the battery on your device much faster during the first few days of use\", with Forbes stating in an article that \"The days after you install a new version of iOS, your iDevice is busy doing all sorts of housekeeping. Practically all of your apps have updates,", "-25.89137757381104" ], [ "between. The device relies on the capacitance of the chips to store information when there is no power, and 1.7 microseconds proved sufficient for the chip to carry out a single change of state of the electronics. Any calculation can be done in 1000 such changes. This had the effect of extending battery life to about 20 hours of continuous use with three small hearing aid batteries, equivalent to about four months of normal usage. Screen The screen on the Executive was a monolithic seven-segment gallium arsenide light emitting diode display, bought from a Canadian firm. The small screen reduced", "-25.52228289510822" ], [ "530Wh/kg compared to 44 Wh/kg for lithium ion batteries. However, while the weight of fuel cell systems offer a distinct advantage the current costs are not in their favor. while a battery system will generally cost around $1.20 per Wh, fuel cell systems cost around $5 per Wh, putting them at a significant disadvantage.\nAs power demands for cell phones increase, fuel cells could become much more attractive options for larger power generation. The demand for longer on time on phones and computers is something often demanded by consumers so fuel cells could start to make strides into laptop and cell", "-25.473597497679293" ], [ "notebooks, this model had a widescreen display, in this case with a resolution of 1366×768 pixels and 11.1 inches diagonally which gives it a 16:9 aspect ratio vs 16:10 for most other widescreen notebooks. It weighs 1.25 kg. Within the Vaio range, its weight is undercut by the Vaio PCG-X505, which weighs only 780 g and the recently released Vaio G series. However, these latter models do not have a built-in optical drive.\nThe TX also can be fitted with an extended battery which has roughly twice the capacity as its standard battery. The standard battery has roughly 7800 mAh capacity.\nThe final release of the", "-25.420816392928828" ], [ "The standard life on Windows Phone 7.5 was reported at around 5 hours of heavy usage. Windows Phone 7.8 however has increased battery life up to 10 hours on heavy usage. Announcement Announced at the Windows Phone event in New York City on October 11, 2010.", "-25.209239858289948" ], [ "be turned off between calculations, which did not prove to be the case. Advertisements suggested that the batteries would last \"about a year\" under normal use, but in reality the small button cell batteries and comparatively high power consumption meant a short battery life compared to the competition.", "-24.993837798385357" ], [ "worldwide in 2007, a growth of 33% compared to 2006. In 2008 it was estimated that 145.9 million notebooks were sold, and that the number would grow in 2009 to 177.7 million. The third quarter of 2008 was the first time when worldwide notebook PC shipments exceeded desktops, with 38.6 million units versus 38.5 million units.\nMay 2005 was the first time notebooks outsold desktops in the US over the course of a full month; at the time notebooks sold for an average of $1,131 while desktops sold for an average of $696. When looking at operating systems, for Microsoft Windows", "-24.874315079214284" ], [ "(0.5 amps). As a result, if the iPad is in use while powered by a computer, it may charge very slowly, or not at all. High-power USB ports found in newer computers and accessories provide full charging capabilities. Apple claims that the battery can provide up to 10 hours of video, audio playback, or web surfing on Wi-Fi, 9 hours of web surfing over a cellular connection, or one month on standby. Like any rechargeable battery, the iPad's battery loses capacity over time. However, the iPad's battery is not user-replaceable. In a program similar to iPod and iPhone battery-replacement programs, Apple promised to", "-24.810409849975258" ], [ "battery could power the device from several hours up to several days while running, or between a week and a year in standby mode. Combined with the instant-on/off feature, a battery would typically last from a week up to several months in practical use as PDA.\nHandheld computer, Palm PC, Palmtop and Personal Digital Assistant (PDA) were used concurrently and almost interchangeably. to describe these pocket-sized computing devices. The acronym PIM referred to Personal Information Manager, a similar type of device that often came with a stylus interface instead of a keyboard. None of these, at the time, were intended", "-24.711414651421364" ], [ "cable to charge directly from an AC outlet. Some models of the iPhone support wireless charging.\nApple runs tests on preproduction units to determine battery life. Apple's website says that the battery life \"is designed to retain up to 80% of its original capacity after 400 full charge and discharge cycles\", which is comparable to iPod batteries.\nThe battery life of early models of the iPhone has been criticized by several technology journalists as insufficient and less than Apple's claims. This is also reflected by a J. D. Power and Associates customer satisfaction survey, which gave the \"battery aspects\" of the iPhone", "-24.70977503096219" ], [ "manufacturers, where the most efficient chargers consume less than 0.03 watts and obtain a five-star rating.\nGet to know about the best and fastest phone chargers. Battery A popular early mobile phone battery was the nickel metal-hydride (NiMH) type, due to its relatively small size and low weight. Lithium ion batteries are also used, as they are lighter and do not have the voltage depression due to long-term over-charging that nickel metal-hydride batteries do. Many mobile phone manufacturers use lithium–polymer batteries as opposed to the older lithium-ion, the main advantages being even lower weight and the possibility to make the battery", "-24.5823252487462" ], [ "as opposed to the megabytes (or even gigabytes) of memory available on a regular home PC or more modern smart devices.", "-24.58062884793617" ], [ "in just 3 minutes. Even users with the health of the battery measuring 96% noticed iPhones draining at around 1% per minute. In addition to battery drains, some iPhone users noticed their devices having excessive heat buildup.\nIt has been recommended by technology experts that users not upgrade their software until the release of a version subsequent to 11.3.1 unless specifically plagued by the 'third party display issue'. Calculator bug In October 2017, users reported on Reddit that quickly typing in an equation in the built-in iOS calculator app gives incorrect answers, most notably making the query \"1+2+3\" result in \"24\"", "-24.54064565442968" ], [ "Windows took a distant third with the remaining 9%. In 2018, out of 4.4 billion computing devices Android accounted for 2 billion, iOS for 1 billion, and the remainder were PCs, in various forms (desktop, notebook, or tablet), running various operating systems (Windows, macOS, ChromeOS, Linux, etc.).\nIn late 2017, the iPad Pro received the iOS 11 update, adding the ability to run multiple windows, drag and drop from one app to another, and browse a user's files. Types Tablets can be loosely grouped into several categories by physical size, kind of operating system installed, input and output technology, and uses.", "-24.498459487147557" ], [ "Several pages have \"Write your text message here\" along with To, From and Message lines and a dotted vertical line for cutting them out. When the 1,200 mAh battery is full, the display will show the word \"JOHNS\" along the right. The lower the battery, the fewer letters are displayed. The battery lasts about 3 weeks in standby mode or 6 hours of calling time. The device supports ringing and vibration. Although it has no speakerphone, it does come with an earphone / microphone headset that can be plugged into its micro-USB port. It has a capacity of 10 numbers in", "-24.475587911671028" ], [ "cards is PCI Express, which comes in both mini and even smaller M.2 sizes. In newer laptops, it is not uncommon to also see Micro SATA (mSATA) functionality on PCI Express Mini or M.2 card slots allowing the use of those slots for SATA-based solid state drives. Battery and power supply 2016-era laptops use lithium ion batteries, with some thinner models using the flatter lithium polymer technology. These two technologies have largely replaced the older nickel metal-hydride batteries. Battery life is highly variable by model and workload and can range from one hour to nearly a day. A battery's performance", "-24.46979048263165" ], [ "utilize the Qualcomm Snapdragon 855. All models are sold with 256 GB of internal Universal Flash Storage 3.0, with the Note 10+ & Note 10+ 5G also being sold in a 512 GB model. They respectively contain 3500 and 4300 mAh batteries, supporting Samsung Super Fast Charging for Note 10/ Note 10 5G and Super Fast Charging 2.0 for Note 10+/ Note 10+ 5G, Qi inductive charging, and the ability to charge other Qi-compatible devices from their own battery power.\nThe Note 10 and Note 10+ are the first Note series smartphones to omit the 3.5 mm headphone jack. The sleep/wake power", "-24.390136381873162" ], [ "revision. The part numbers for third generation cells are HR-3UTGB (AA) and HR-4UTGB (AAA). At the same time, the C- and D-sized Eneloop batteries' stated minimum capacities were increased to 3,000 mAh and 5,700 mAh respectively. They were available in Japan from November 2011.\nEuropean models went on sale from the beginning of October 2012. 4th generation Following the acquisition of Sanyo by Panasonic, a fourth generation was introduced in April 2013. The number of charges per cell was increased from 1800 to 2100 cycles for both AA (BK-3MCC) and AAA (BK-4MCC) models. In some countries the batteries are branded as Panasonic. 1st", "-24.390026470879093" ], [ "a significant phenomenon. Market size In 2001, 125 million personal computers were shipped in comparison to 48,000 in 1977. More than 500 million PCs were in use in 2002 and one billion personal computers had been sold worldwide since mid-1970s till this time. Of the latter figure, 75 percent were professional or work related, while the rest sold for personal or home use. About 81.5 percent of PCs shipped had been desktop computers, 16.4 percent laptops and 2.1 percent servers. United States had received 38.8 percent (394 million) of the computers shipped, Europe 25 percent and 11.7 percent had gone", "-24.3876817082637" ], [ "NEC e616 Usage notes Batteries should always be recharged in the recharger and not within the mobile phone. Recharging in the mobile takes longer and the standby time will be halved. The short standby time and recharging error may be caused by faulty firmware or a faulty 3G network. In addition the battery time can be increased by turning off the GPS and vibra call alert, and by turning down the backlight of the display. Testing has revealed that using the phone in 2G network will provide 3-4 times the standby time than using it in 3G networks. Wallpapers The", "-24.28705455036834" ], [ "July 2016, up 33.7% year-on-year. Sales also surged in the U.S. with 1,479 units sold in July 2016, up 58.2% from July 2015, and 143.3% from June 2016. Both variants with the improved battery were scheduled to be available in the UK, Germany and France starting in July 2016. Owners of previous i3 models in selected markets have the option to retrofit their vehicles with the improved battery. BMW plans to use the used 22 kWh batteries in the manufacturing of stationary power storage units. The battery retrofit option is not available in the U.S. 2018 model and i3s In", "-24.24269667523913" ], [ "time, though the battery cover does not fit. The batteries take about 1.5 hours to charge and last for between four-and-a-half and seven hours depending on factors such as screen brightness settings, the use of WLAN, and volume levels. In March 2008, Sony released the Extended Life Battery Kit in Japan, which included a bulkier 2200 mAh battery with a fitting cover. In Japan, the kit was sold with a specific-colored cover matching the many PSP variations available. The North American kit released in December 2008 was supplied with two new covers; one black and one silver. Demos and emulation In", "-24.23834376235027" ], [ "incapable of lasting one day of normal use. This has spawned the creation of pages dedicated to explaining how to optimize the battery life, and even an aftermarket extra large battery that enlarges the unit. In addition, there is a software error that causes a severely depleted battery to become unable to be charged in the phone. The OTA upgrade to Android 2.3.3 fixes this issue along with improving device battery life on the whole. Design The EVO's design is derived from its Windows Mobile-based brother, the HTC HD2, which also has a 4.3-inch (110 mm) multi-touch capacitive touchscreen, nearly the", "-24.160802874677756" ], [ "battery life lasts up to 30 days on a single charge, plus 20 more with time and activity tracking only.\nSome watches use a button battery for time, with longer lasting periods. Wear OS Wear OS, previously known as Android Wear, is a smartwatch operating system developed by Google Inc. watchOS watchOS is a proprietary mobile operating system developed by Apple Inc. to run on the Apple Watch. Tizen Tizen is a Linux-based operating system for various platforms including smartwatches. Tizen is a project within the Linux Foundation and is governed by a Technical Steering Group (TSG) composed of Samsung and", "-24.13989914418198" ], [ "30GB model for US $499. All iPods were now compatible with Mac and Windows out of the box, was simply requiring Windows users to reformat the iPod before use on a PC and both iTunes and Musicmatch Jukebox were bundled with all iPods. The battery life was reduced to 8 hours, partially due to the use of a lithium-ion battery as opposed to a lithium polymer battery.\nThe 15GB model was replaced by a 20GB model and the 30GB model was upgraded to 40 GB on September 8, 2003. The Windows-based Musicmatch Jukebox software was made obsolete and replaced by iTunes 4.1,", "-24.123469922342338" ], [ "Mobile 6.0, 6.1 and 6.5. Internal Li-ion battery iPAQ models 3100–3700 are fitted with internal Li-ion battery PN 167648 3.7 V 1500 mAh which can be replaced with a 2200 mAh unit. The same battery is used in the iPAQ jacket PN 173396-001 PCMCIA (PC port), which may also be upgraded to a 2200 mAh unit. The 3800/3900 series are fitted with a 1700 mAh cell as standard, also upgradeable to 2200 mAh. Compaq presumably upgraded the battery to cope with the faster CPU's power requirements. RAM upgrade info It is possible to have the internal RAM of an iPAQ H3970 and hx4700 upgraded to 128 MB", "-24.104806499741244" ], [ "the standard battery and the lithium is the extended battery. The standard battery provides from 30 minutes to 1 hour talk time and 15–60 hours stand-by time, whereas the extended battery provides 1 hour 40 minutes – 2 hours 50 minutes talk time and 36–133 hours stand-by time. Applications The Nokia 8810 has a calculator which was an advanced feature in 1998, but a simple and basic feature by today's standards. It also has a currency converter which enables the user to convert one currency to another. This is also very basic, however, as the user is required to enter", "-24.097938664512185" ], [ "C battery The 'C' battery (or R14 battery) is a standard size of dry cell battery typically used in medium-drain applications such as toys, flashlights, and musical instruments.\nAs of 2007, C batteries accounted for 4% of alkaline primary battery sales in the United States. In Switzerland as of 2008, C batteries totalled 5.4% of primary battery sales and 3.4% of secondary battery sales. Properties A 'C' battery measures 50 millimetres (1.97 in) length and 26.2 millimetres (1.03 in) diameter.\nThe voltage and capacity of a 'C'-size battery depends on the battery chemistry and discharge conditions. The nominal voltage is 1.5V. Alkaline 'C' batteries", "-24.08866153215058" ], [ "have a 15-inch or larger display. Desktop replacement laptops' operation time on batteries is typically shorter than other laptops; in rare cases they have no battery at all. In the past, some laptops in this class used a limited range of desktop components to provide better performance for the same price at the expense of battery life, although this practice has largely died out. The names Media Center Laptops and Gaming Laptops are used to describe specialized notebook computers, often overlapping with the desktop replacement form factor. Rugged laptop A rugged laptop is designed to reliably operate in harsh usage", "-24.075677342596464" ], [ "The battery life of the BL-4U (1100 mAh) as claimed by Nokia is 7.2 hours of talk time, from 711 to 781 hours of standby and 40 hours of music playback depending on actual usage.\nThe SIM card is located under the battery which can be accessed by removing the back panel of the device. No tool is necessary to remove the back panel. Storage The phone has 140 MB of available non-removable storage. Additional storage is available via a microSDHC card socket, which is certified to support up to 32 GB of additional storage..", "-24.069468752713874" ], [ "of personal computers surpassed the 100-million mark in 1999, growing to 113.5 million units from 93.3 million units in 1998. In 1999, Asia had 14.1 million units shipped.\nAs of June 2008, the number of personal computers in use worldwide hit one billion, while another billion is expected to be reached by 2014. Mature markets like the United States, Western Europe and Japan accounted for 58% of the worldwide installed PCs. The emerging markets were expected to double their installed PCs by 2012 and to take 70% of the second billion PCs. About 180 million computers (16% of the existing installed base) were expected", "-24.059273315651808" ], [ "charged by an older USB port from a computer, these are limited to 500 milliamps (0.5 amps). As a result, if the iPad is in use while powered by a computer, it may charge very slowly, or not at all. High-power USB ports found in newer computers and accessories provide full charging capabilities.\nApple claims that the battery can provide up to 10 hours of video, 140 hours of audio playback, or one month on standby; people say the battery lasts about 8 hours doing normal tasks. Like any rechargeable battery, the iPad's battery loses capacity over time. However, the iPad's battery is not user-replaceable. In", "-24.031846168625634" ], [ "4 readily available and easily replaceable AA batteries. Data is protected by a built-in rechargeable (Ni-Cd) battery when the AA batteries discharge or are removed for replacement. There are several simple programs available on the Internet for transferring files between a Model 100 and a modern personal computer (or a vintage one).\nThe Model 100 was also used for industrial applications and in science laboratories as a programming terminal for configuration of control systems and instruments. Its compactness (ease of handling and small space requirements), low maintenance needs, lack of air vents (a plus for dusty or dirty", "-23.987032183009433" ], [ "a battery, allowing operation away from AC outlets.\nNotebook computers such as the TRS-80 Model 100 and Epson HX-20 had roughly the plan dimensions of a sheet of typing paper (ANSI A or ISO A4). These machines had a keyboard with slightly reduced dimensions compared to a desktop system, and a fixed LCD display screen coplanar with the keyboard. These displays were usually small, with 8 to 16 lines of text, sometimes only 40 columns line length. However, these machines could operate for extended times on disposable or rechargeable batteries. Although they did not usually include internal disk drives,", "-23.839075659110676" ], [ "The Tesla Roadster (2008) and other cars produced by the company used a modified form of traditional lithium-ion \"laptop battery\" cells that can be replaced individually as needed.\nRecent EVs are utilizing new variations on lithium-ion chemistry that sacrifice specific energy and specific power to provide fire resistance, environmental friendliness, rapid charging (as quickly as a few minutes), and longer lifespans. These variants (phosphates, titanates, spinels, etc.) have been shown to have a much longer lifetime, with A123 types using lithium iron phosphate lasting at least 10+ years and 7000+ charge/discharge cycles, and LG Chem expecting their lithium-manganese", "-23.827787347860294" ], [ "pounds (1.1 kg), measured 10 inches (25 cm) long and was dubbed \"the brick\" or \"the shoe\" phone. A very substantial part of the DynaTAC was the battery which weighed four to five times more than a modern cell phone. The phone had only 20 minutes of talk time before requiring a 10-hour recharge but according to Cooper, \"The battery lifetime wasn't really a problem because you couldn't hold that phone up for that long!\" By 1983 and after four iterations, the handset was reduced to half its original weight.\nCooper is the lead inventor named on \"radio telephone system\" filed on October", "-23.77010423061438" ], [ "was accomplished through the metal case design. Battery life cycle As the Prius reached ten years of being available in the US market, in February 2011 Consumer Reports examined the lifetime and replacement cost of the Prius battery. The magazine tested a 2002 Toyota Prius with over 200,000 miles on it, and compared the results to the nearly identical 2001 Prius with 2,000 miles tested by Consumer Reports 10 years before. The comparison showed little difference in performance when tested for fuel economy and acceleration. Overall fuel economy of the 2001 model was 40.6 miles per US gallon (5.79 L/100 km; 48.8 mpg‑imp)", "-23.76816549547948" ], [ "innovations and market expansion of computer equipment and software, PCs are now becoming obsolete at increasing rates and are globally one of the fastest growing components of municipal waste streams. The average first life, the amount of time the PC is useful to its original owner, is now 2–4 years. In the year 2005, a PC's first life was decreased by another year. Considering reuse and storage options, the total lifespan, the period from manufacture to disposal, of a PC is estimated at 3–6 years.\nSome materials in computer equipment, such as heavy metals, including lead, mercury, hexavalent chromium,", "-23.734747541253455" ], [ "Apple products, namely mobile phones, despite their previous devices still work as intended, or for new features (e.g. the iPhone 7's water resistance, 2160p video recording since iPhone 6s, wireless charging, fast charging speeds, more internal storage, larger display surfaces, multi-camera system, larger batteries), which other mobile phones (e.g. Galaxy Note 3, Galaxy S5) already were equipped with years earlier.\nSome smartphone manufacturers release a marginally updated model every 5 or 6 months compared to the typical yearly cycle, leading to the perception that a one year-old handset can be up to two generations old. Systemic obsolescence Planned systemic obsolescence", "-23.625705931102857" ], [ "HTC Startrek Specifications (for Cingular 3125) Size: 98 mm (l) x 51 mm (w) x 16 mm (d)\n\nWeight: 108.5 g with battery\n\nOperating System: Windows Mobile 5.0 for Smartphones\n\nProcessor: TI OMAP 850 195 MHz\n\nMemory: 128 MB ROM, 64 MB RAM\n\nExtra storage: MicroSD\n\nOperating Frequency: GSM 850/900/1800/1900 MHz\n\nCellular data: EDGE Class 10\n\nCamera: 1.3-megapixel CMOS\n\nScreens: 2.2 inch internal LCD, 1.2 inch external\n\nData transfer: Bluetooth 1.2, USB 1.1\n\nBattery: 1100 mA·h Specifications (for Dopod S300) Size: 98.5 mm (l) x 51.4 mm (w) x 15.8 mm (d)\n\nWeight: 99 g with battery\n\nOperating System: Windows Mobile 5.0 for Smartphones\n\nProcessor: TI OMAP 850 195 MHz\n\nMemory: 64 MB ROM, 64 MB RAM\n\nExtra storage: MicroSD\n\nOperating Frequency: GSM 850/900/1800/1900 MHz\n\nCellular data: EDGE Class 10\n\nCamera:", "-23.61238588776905" ], [ "of laptop computers weighing around 1 kg manufactured by LG electronics.\nThe Gram was announced in September 2015 with two screen sizes available: 13.3\" and 14\". A 15.6\" model was introduced during CES 2016. During CES 2017, the 2017 edition of the Gram was introduced. During CES 2018, the 2018 edition of the Gram was introduced. During CES 2019, a larger 17\" Gram alongside a 14\" 2-in-1 Gram was introduced. Gram's marketing is held with the light weight of it. As the weight 980 gram is the maximum weight that it could have in all condition, LG was famous for its modest", "-23.59750648320187" ], [ "was announced that the 13-inch unibody MacBook would be upgraded and re-branded as a MacBook Pro, leaving only the white polycarbonate MacBook in the MacBook line. It was also announced that the entire MacBook Pro line would use the non user-removable battery first introduced in the 17-inch MacBook Pro. The updated MacBook Pro 13- and the 15-inch would each have up to a claimed seven hours of battery life, while the 17-inch would keep its eight-hour capacity. Some sources even reported up to eight hours of battery life for the 13- and 15-inch MacBook Pros during casual use, while others", "-23.497979320120066" ], [ "(AA) and HR-4UTGA (AAA).\nSanyo introduced C- and D-sized Eneloop batteries with a minimum capacity of 2,700 mAh and 3,000 mAh respectively in 2009, along with a new universal charger. As these sizes were only available in Japan and Singapore, Sanyo offered adapter sleeves to fit AA batteries in devices that take C or D batteries. 3rd generation In October 2011 the batteries were again improved to retain up to 90% of their capacity after one year, 80% after three years and 70% after five years. The batteries can be recharged up to 1,800 times, rather than the 1,500 times of the previous", "-23.49184871581383" ], [ "smartphone supports external microSD/microSDHC card of a capacity up to 32 GiB.\nThe Li-Ion battery capacity is 2000 mAh.\nThe phone dimensions are 135 x 68.2 x 9.9 mm (5.32 x 2.68 x 0.39 inch) with the weight being 145 g (5.11 oz).\nStock A820 is running Android 4.1.2 Jelly Bean operating system, although unofficial alternative ROMs exist using various Android OS versions. Reviews Lenovo A820 received a very warm reception across the world, despite the fact that it is directly available only in China, India, Indonesia, Russia, the Philippines, and Vietnam. In a review for Mobile Network Comparison the author summarized that Lenovo A820", "-23.472027450916357" ], [ "by beacon software company, Aislelabs, reported that peripherals, such as proximity beacons, usually function for 1–2 years with a 1,000mAh coin cell battery. This is possible because of power efficiency of Bluetooth Low Energy protocol which only transmits small packets as compared to Bluetooth Classic which is also suitable for audio and high bandwidth data.\nIn contrast, a continuous scan for the same beacons in central role can consume 1,000 mAh in a few hours. Android and iOS devices also have very different battery impact depending on type of scans and number of Bluetooth Low Energy devices in the vicinity. With", "-23.44161568171694" ], [ "they were built to, because owners will install roughly 14 car batteries, and a balancing charger, rather than the original batteries that weighed much less. Cars today must have their battery sets changed relatively frequently. For example, a private owner whom is only the 3rd owner of his car, has changed batteries 3 times since purchasing his vehicle in 1988.\nThe Detroit Electric was mainly sold to women drivers and physicians who desired the dependable and immediate start without the physically demanding hand cranking of the engine that was required with early internal combustion engine autos. A statement of the car's", "-23.426384045393206" ], [ "because its capacity decreases over time. There are various manuals for battery replacement on the internet and many outlets selling compatible Lithium-ion batteries for those who wish to avoid the expensive charge for sending the iPod back to Apple. Many such batteries are of higher capacity than the original – some are up to 2000mAh while the stock battery is around 400mAh.\nThe iPod Mini could be flashed to run iPodLinux or Rockbox firmware which has support for extra codecs, games and various other plugins and allowed music placed directly on the iPod to be played without using iTunes. Users have", "-23.41835810855264" ], [ "the biggest passenger car battery built in the world, both in terms of capacity and power, with 71kWh overall capacity and 388V DC nominal power. The power pack is expected to deliver a range of up to 200 km with a 0-60 mph acceleration time of under 8 seconds. The batteries can be recharged via a plug in cable or in eight hours by using a wireless induction charging system.\nAt Indaba 2011, one of Africa’s largest tourism events, Land Rover South Africa unveiled the Electric Defender Game Viewer Concept with an Axeon battery pack. The vehicle was built for the Londolozi Private", "-23.35437517921673" ], [ "charge capacity in just 10 minutes.\nSCiB batteries are used in the Schwinn Tailwind electric bike. Toshiba has also demonstrated its use as a prototype laptop battery. Toshiba SCiB batteries are used in a Japan-only version of Mitsubishi's i-MiEV and Minicab MiEV electric vehicles, and Honda uses them in its EV-neo electric bike and Fit EV, which launched in the summer of 2012. Samsung The Bluetooth-enabled S-Pen in the Samsung Galaxy Note 10 and 10+ contains a lithium-titanate battery which has a stand-by time of 10 hours. Seiko Seiko uses lithium-titanate batteries in its Kinetic (automatic quartz) wristwatches. Earlier Kinetic", "-23.285203799896408" ], [ "1.3-megapixel CMOS\n\nScreens: 2.2 inch internal LCD, 1.2 inch external\n\nData transfer: Bluetooth 1.2, USB 1.1\n\nBattery: 750 mA·h", "-23.25795015595213" ], [ "40% of homes in United Kingdom, compared with only 13% in 1985.\nThe global personal computer shipments were 350.9 million units in 2010,\n308.3 million units in 2009\nand 302.2 million units in 2008.\nThe shipments were 264 million units in the year 2007, according to iSuppli, up 11.2% from 239 million in 2006. In 2004, the global shipments were 183 million units, an 11.6% increase over 2003. In 2003, 152.6 million computers were shipped, at an estimated value of $175 billion. In 2002, 136.7 million PCs were shipped, at an estimated value of $175 billion. In 2000, 140.2 million personal computers were shipped, at an estimated value of $226 billion. Worldwide shipments", "-23.240594698363566" ], [ "the Aislelabs report. \nIn a follow up report, Aislelabs found a drastic improvement in battery consumption for iPhone5S, iPhone 5C versus the older model iPhone 4S.\nAt 10 surrounding iBeacons, iPhone 4S can consume up to 11% of battery per hour whereas iPhone5S consumes a little less than 5% battery per hour.\n \nAn energy efficient iBeacon application needs to consider these aspects in order to strike a good balance between app responsiveness and battery consumption. USB powered Bluetooth beacons can also come in the form of USB dongles. These small USB beacons can be powered by a standard USB port which", "-23.23484404804185" ], [ "the new models. Some users noted a slight flickering when the screen was on lower brightness settings. Apple increased the battery capacity by 10 Wh, going from 50 in the PowerBook G4 to 60, but the more powerful Core Duo CPU required more power. Battery life therefore remained about the same as in previous models, at three-plus hours. Second generation (Unibody) On October 14, 2008, in a press event at company headquarters, Apple officials announced a new 15-inch MacBook Pro featuring a \"precision aluminum unibody enclosure\" and tapered sides similar to those of the MacBook Air. Designers shifted the MacBook Pro's", "-23.217534220108064" ], [ "process of the phone through machine learning. It recognizes the user's charging habits for a certain period and automatically adjusts itself to the pattern, for example an overnight charge, by stopping the initial charging to about 80–90 percent, and then continuing it until full from where it left off the next day. This effectively prevents the unnecessary damage to the battery's cells from excessive heat and current due to overcharging, further increasing the battery's life span. Audio and connectivity The Xperia 1, like the Xperia XZ2 that started it, has the standard 3.5 mm audio jack omitted in favor of", "-23.21301577135455" ], [ "two parts. In the first part, he tested battery life, stating \"the M9 posts a result that is a concerning regression from the M8\" and that \"battery life regresses around 18% when the battery is now 9% bigger.\" He also noted temperature concerns during web browsing, stating \"the M9 start to get warm in the hands, with skin temperatures of around 30 to 40 degrees Celsius, which is a bit concerning as I don’t recall the same being true for the M8.\" Additionally, the phone supports Qualcomm's Quick Charge 2.0, however, \"the charger in the box is a rather conventional", "-23.19065423356369" ], [ "customizable, Linux-based Mobile Internet Device (MID) platform the laptop is able to boot almost instantly and view Email, document reader, calendar, contacts and access the Internet.\nFirst laptop models to include Latitude ON were E4200 and E4300 released in February 2009. Last laptop model introduced so far is Latitude Z600. Dell claims that battery life can be extended to days.\nLatitude ON Reader is similar to Dell's MediaDirect where the software is located in a separate partition on the system hard drive and has a dedicated button to power on.", "-23.184802914736792" ], [ "power efficiency of smartphone displays, began to fuel competition in the market from other smartphone manufacturers, including Lenovo, LG, HTC, Huawei, Micromax, and Sony; IHS, Samsung reported that 25.6 million phablets were sold in 2012 alone. Due to the market's growth, Reuters called 2013 the \"Year of the Phablet\". In 2014, noting that phablets had overtaken laptops and desktops in global sales, The New York Times said \"phablets could become the dominant computing device of the future – the most popular kind of phone on the market, and perhaps the only computer many of us need\". Definition The definition of a", "-23.151367724436568" ], [ "Nine-volt battery History Historically, the now popular PP3 battery size was a member of the PP (Power Pack) battery series that was originally manufactured by Ever Ready in the United Kingdom and Eveready in the United States. The company claims that it introduced the PP3 battery in 1956, then it was added as an ANSI standard in 1959, currently known as ANSI-1604A. The PP (Power Pack) battery series consisted of PP1, PP3, PP4, PP6, PP7, PP8, PP9, PP10, PP11. The PP1 and PP8 were 6 volt, the PP11 was two 4.5 volt batteries, and other PP members", "-23.13465609322884" ], [ "Bluetooth, there is the ability to send and receive data files from the addition of IrDA. The phone had an exceptional battery life, with a standby life of 400 hours, unlike other camera phones released around the same period.", "-23.12468717709271" ], [ "SoC of the fourth-generation iPad is able to perform CPU-reliant tasks more than twice as fast as that of the third-generation iPad. A series of benchmark tests conducted on the graphics performance of the fourth-generation iPad by Anandtech resulted in the device achieving the highest score compared to other consumer mobile devices, including the Samsung Galaxy S III, Nexus 10 and third-generation iPad. The performance increase of the fourth-generation iPad varies between tests, however an increase is nonetheless evident. Furthermore, battery longevity tests conducted by the same organization suggests that the battery of the fourth-generation iPad is able to last", "-23.11793789814692" ], [ "AIFF, and WAV. A preliminary tear-down of the third-generation iPad by IHS iSuppli showed the likely costs for a 16 GB Wi-Fi + Cellular model at $358.30, 32 GB at $375.10, and 64 GB at $408.70 respectively.\nThis iPad uses an internal rechargeable lithium-ion polymer (LiPo) battery. The batteries are made in Taiwan by Simplo Technology (60%) and Dynapack International Technology. The iPad is designed to be charged with a high current of 2 amps using the included 10 W USB power adapter and USB cord with a USB connector at one end and a 30-pin dock connector at the other end. While it can be", "-23.109205690809176" ], [ "reported that 31% of U.S. Internet users owned a tablet, used mainly for viewing published content such as video and news. The top-selling line of devices was Apple's iPad with 100 million sold between its release in April 2010 and mid-October 2012, but iPad market share (number of units) dropped to 36% in 2013 with Android tablets climbing to 62%. Android tablet sales volume was 121 million devices, plus 52 million, between 2012 and 2013 respectively. Individual brands of Android operating system devices or compatibles follow iPad with Amazon's Kindle Fire with 7 million, and Barnes & Noble's Nook with 5 million.\nThe BlackBerry", "-23.078500213683583" ], [ "them, however, that number may decrease due to a variety of companies and software solutions specializing in laptop recovery. In the 2010s, the common availability of webcams on laptops raised privacy concerns. In Robbins v. Lower Merion School District (Eastern District of Pennsylvania 2010), school-issued laptops loaded with special software enabled staff from two high schools to take secret webcam shots of students at home, via their students' laptops. Market Share Battery-powered portable computers had just 2% worldwide market share in 1986. However, laptops have become increasingly popular, both for business and personal use. Around 109 million notebook PCs shipped", "-23.07030613582174" ], [ "nomenclature for the battery will fully specify the size, chemistry, terminal arrangements and special characteristics of a battery. The same physically interchangeable cell size may have widely different characteristics; physical interchangeability is not the sole factor in substitution of batteries.\nNational standards for dry cell batteries have been developed by ANSI, JIS, British national standards, and others. Civilian, commercial, government and military standards all exist. Two of the most prevalent standards currently in use are the IEC 60086 series and the ANSI C18.1 series. Both standards give dimensions, standard performance characteristics, and safety information.\nModern standards contain both systematic names", "-23.04956954298541" ], [ "smartphones of all time. In Nokia's Q1 report released on 16 April 2009 it was announced the company had shipped 2.6 million units during the quarter, with cumulative shipments of more than 3 million units since the smartphone's launch. Q2 results released 16 July 2009 reports 3.7 million units shipped during the quarter and more than 6.8 million units total have shipped since the release. As of November 2009, over 8 million units had been sold.", "-23.04136003018357" ], [ "Batteries Included (company) History Batteries Included was founded by siblings Alan Krofchick, Robbie Krofchick and Marcie Swartz in 1978 as a calculator and personal computer retail store. The hand-held electronic devices they sold were always advertised as \"batteries not included,\" so they included the batteries for free and named themselves Batteries Included. The company began to develop its own computer software and hardware and became a multimillion-dollar multi-faceted company, charging its way into the international computer software and accessory market. Michael Reichmann joined the company in its early years and eventually became its president in the mid-1980s.\nThe company's first", "-23.021391562768258" ], [ "rather than a Core 2 chip, arguably places the device in the netbook class, however its pricing at over $1000, and other hardware aspects, such as the high resolution screen, Windows 7 on all models, and SSD usage suggest that it is a full notebook.\nThe device features an SD and Memory Stick reader, Bluetooth support, 2 USB ports, and a VGA port. Due to its thickness (thinner than a MacBook Air ), the ethernet port is angled, as a square-on port would be taller than the laptop.\nUsers wanting extended battery life can use the included extended battery, which is described", "-23.018119195883628" ], [ "unofficially adapted for use with the standard 6.0.7 allowing many users to run System 6 on their PowerBooks, rather than upgrading on-board RAM with an expensive proprietary RAM card (a 2 MB card was US $300). Design Though released at the same time as the PowerBook 170 and PowerBook 100, both the 140 and 170 were designed entirely by Apple, while the 100 was miniaturized by Sony from the full-sized Macintosh Portable. As a result, the 140 represents the very first notebook computer created by Apple, with the 100 actually representing the first design improvements, though its internal architecture is the", "-23.013965896636364" ], [ "23, 2014, Apple announced a program to replace batteries of iPhone 5 models that \"may suddenly experience shorter battery life or need to be charged more frequently\" which were sold between September 2012 and January 2013. Accessories The iPhone 5, as well as the iPod Touch (5th generation), iPod Nano (7th generation), iPad (4th generation), and iPad Mini feature a new dock connector named Lightning, which replaces the 30-pin Apple Dock connector introduced in 2003 by Apple on the iPod (3rd generation). The Apple Lightning connector has eight pins and all signaling is digital. This new connector is smaller than", "-22.945030451461207" ], [ "require a paired connection like previous Bluetooth devices so they have new useful applications. Battery powered Bluetooth beacons operate using the Bluetooth 4.0 Low Energy standard so battery powered devices are possible. Battery life of devices varies depending on manufacturer. The Bluetooth LE protocol is significantly more power efficient than Bluetooth Classic. Several chipsets makers, including Texas Instruments and Nordic Semiconductor now supply chipsets optimized for iBeacon use. Power consumption depends on iBeacon configuration parameters of advertising interval and transmit power. Battery life can range between 1–48 months. Apple's recommended setting of 100 ms advertising interval with a coin", "-22.92162821366219" ], [ "part of the southbridge chipset and it may not be a standalone chip on modern motherboards. CMOS battery The memory battery (aka motherboard, CMOS, real-time clock (RTC), clock battery) is generally a CR2032 lithium coin cell. This cell battery has an estimated life of 3 years when power supply unit (PSU) is unplugged or when the PSU power switch is turned off. This battery type, contrary to popular belief, is not rechargeable and trying to do so may result in an explosion. Motherboards have circuitry preventing batteries from being charged and discharged when a motherboard is powered on.", "-22.883079253438154" ], [ "the fact, that this phone does not have a memory expansion slot; the device only has 80 MB of built-in memory.\nThe major deficiency turned out to be the phone's case design, which was weak enough to allow the device to break into two parts with little effort. For many users, this fault would not manifest itself until after extensive use. Successors After the release of X820, the world's slimmest mobile phone record has since been surpassed by Samsung's Ultra Edition II 5.9mm (U100). Samsung later created a slimmer phone called the Samsung U108.", "-22.877650593523867" ], [ " Typical use life is about one day for maybe less than an hour of overall use, about 2–3 days if on standby. As it uses an unusually high-performance CPU for a watch, certain applications will drain the battery much quicker. Batteries charge roughly within an hour. There is also a known issue where the ZGPAX S5 will lose connection with the Network Operator at random, this is likely the cause of poor manufacturing of the ZGPAX S5's radio. Additionally, at random, phone calls to the watch may result in the watch restarting.", "-22.875829684198834" ], [ "256GB, 512GB and 1TB configurations. The laptop has no option for expandable storage. Features The default operating system is Windows 10 Home. The display is a 13.5 inch 2256 x 1504 pixel 10-point touch screen with a front 720p HD camera. The laptop weighs 2.76 pounds for the Intel Core i5 models and 2.83 pounds for the Intel Core i7 model. Sound This laptop has two omnisonic speakers, a stereo, some microphones to collect audio, and a headset jack that is located on the left-hand side of the computer. Battery The battery life on this laptop has about 14 hours", "-22.860447129467502" ], [ "OS V10, with minor version updates from time to time. It is based on Android Pie(P). Xiaomi has confirmed that this phone will be upgraded to Android 10 by 2020. Hardware The Redmi Note 7 Pro includes a 6.3-inch full HD+ (2340x1080 pixels) display with a 19.5:9 aspect ratio. It is powered by an 11nm Octa-Core Snapdragon 675 processor, making it the first Xiaomi device to use the chip. The device runs on Adreno 612 GPU and a 4000 mAh battery, and supports Quick Charge 4. Various versions are fitted with 3, 4, or 6GB of RAM, with 32, 64,", "-22.835954676382244" ], [ "6 hours battery life and it got extended to 12 in its more advanced version. This device got better when IBM added a accelerometer, a vibrating mechanism and a fingerprint sensor. IBM joined with Citizen Watch Co. to create the WatchPad. It features a 320x240 QVGA monochrome touch sensitive display and it ran Linux version 2.4. It displayed calendar software, Bluetooth, 8 MB RAM and 16 mb of flash memory. They targeted this device at students and businessmen at a price of about $399. Fossil released the Wrist PDA, a watch that ran Palm OS and contained 8 MB of", "-22.821686711744405" ], [ "laptop by dialing up on a mobile phone wirelessly (tethering) and PAN profile for networking using Bluetooth are also supported. The device also functions as a FM Receiver, allowing one to listen to the FM radio by using headphones connected to the 3.5 jack as antenna. Battery and SIM The battery life of the BP-3L (1300 mAh) as claimed by Nokia is from 7 to 8 hours of talk time, from 30 to 35 days of standby and 47 hours of music playback depending on actual usage.\nThe SIM card is located under the battery which can be accessed by removing", "-22.813306720461696" ], [ "(MP2100 with two 20 MB Linear Flash memory PC Cards, no backlight usage) and up to 24 hours with backlight on. While adding more weight to the handheld Newton devices than AAA batteries or custom battery packs, the choice of an easily replaceable/rechargeable cell format gives the user a still unsurpassed runtime and flexibility of power supply. This, together with the flash memory used as internal storage starting with the Apple MessagePad 120 (if all cells lost their power, no data was lost due to the non-volatility of this storage), gave birth to the slogan \"Newton never dies, it only gets", "-22.805946099106222" ], [ "in the small enclosure. It uses a new 39.7 watt-hour lithium-polymer terraced battery cell which was advertised to provide \"all day\" battery life. Apple claimed nine hours of Internet browsing or ten hours of iTunes movie playback. The battery was improved in the 2016 refresh, with Apple claiming ten hours for Internet browsing, and eleven hours of iTunes movie playback. The MacBook did not include any beryllium, BFRs, or PVCs in its construction. The display was made of arsenic-free glass and contains no mercury. It was made of recyclable materials such as aluminum and glass, meets Energy Star 6.1 standards,", "-22.80458716856083" ], [ "to 1200 mAh in 2013 rev.). The device is charged via a USB cable. TI claims that the battery requires four hours to charge, that a full charge powers the device for up to two weeks under normal daily use, and that the battery should last up to 3 years before it requires replacement. The battery is user-replaceable.\nWith the exception of interchangeable TI-84 keypads, the CX series retain all features of the previous TI-Nspire models. The colors of the calculator are still the same as those of the TI-Nspire models; the CX is white and dark blue, while the CX", "-22.802292187698185" ], [ "a device of its capabilities, and praised the ten-hour battery life. Others, including PC Advisor and the Sydney Morning Herald, wrote that the iPad would also compete with proliferating netbooks, most of which use Microsoft Windows. The base model's $499 price was lower than pre-release estimates by the tech press, Wall Street analysts, and Apple's competitors, all of whom were expecting a much higher entry price point.\nCNET also criticized the iPad for its apparent lack of wireless sync which other portable devices such as Microsoft's Zune have had for a number of years. The built-in iTunes app is able to", "-22.799940593657084" ], [ "is shorter on HDD configurations with Windows XP, at approximately 2.5 hours for the three cell. Although the standard three cell battery is 2.2 Ah, some users have reported 2.4 Ah and 2.9 Ah batteries from the factory. Various suppliers online now carry aftermarket batteries, including the six cell. Aftermarket nine cell batteries are available though they are quite heavy, and also protrude out of the back, reducing the aesthetics but improving airflow. Additional hardware Since November 2008 the 3G-enabled model Aspire One A150X-3G is available in Europe, while models with 3G modems began shipping in the United Kingdom in December", "-22.76951488418854" ], [ "“last standing” manufacturers to offer flagship devices with user-replaceable batteries.\nBut in 2015, Samsung succumbed to the minimalism trend set by Apple, introducing the Galaxy S6 with a non-user-replaceable battery.\nIn addition, Samsung was criticised for pruning long-standing features such as MHL, MicroUSB 3.0, water resistance and MicroSD card support, of which the latter two came back in 2016 with the Galaxy S7 and S7 Edge.\nAs of 2015, the global median for smartphone ownership was 43%. Statista forecast that 2.87 billion people would own smartphones in 2020. 2016 Major technologies that began to trend in 2016 included a focus on virtual reality", "-22.744268811118673" ], [ "shape, dimensions, and special characteristics. Certain cell designations from earlier revisions of the standard have been retained.\nThe first IEC standards for battery sizes were issued in 1957.\nSince 1992, International standard IEC 60086 defines an alphanumeric coding system for batteries.\nBritish standard 397 for primary batteries was withdrawn and replaced by the IEC standard in 1996. Modifiers After the package size code(s), additional letters may optionally appear. Terminal styles and variants of the same battery can be designated with the letters X or Y. Performance levels may also be designated with a C, P, S, CF, HH, or HB or other letter", "-22.736692506819963" ], [ "1.2 megapixels. The rechargeable lithium-ion battery with a charge capacity of 1440mAh is built in and cannot be replaced by the user; it is rated at ≤225 hours of standby time and ≤8 hours of talk time. There are three separate models of the phone available: one supporting CDMA and two GSM versions. This can have knock-on effects for which version of the device will actually work in which countries/regions. The phone takes a nano-SIM, smaller than the micro-SIM of the iPhone 4 and iPhone 4s.\nHardware benchmarking conducted using Geekbench and GLBenchmark validates several claims that Apple included on their website and", "-22.717568618099904" ], [ "fast charging. The battery is the largest ever for a Samsung smartphone, and the largest for a smartphone released in India. A fingerprint scanner is mounted in the back. The phone has an octa-core 10 nm Exynos 9611 system on chip with a central processing unit of 4×2.3 GHz Cortex-A73 & 4×1.7 GHz Cortex-A53. It also has a Mali-G72 MP3 GPU. Camera The rear camera array is mounted on a rectangular bump. There is one 48 MP f/2.0 wide angle camera with a pixel size of 0.8 µm and phase-detection autofocus. There is a 8 MP f/2.2 ultra-wide angle lens with a focal length", "-22.71245940728113" ], [ "cars. Derived vehicles At the end of 2014 the Volar-e was put on the market. The company Applus+ IDIADA built this vehicle based on the Rimac Concept One, however, the battery size was reduced in order to save weight (38 kWh). The car had a range of 200 km (120 miles). The battery could be recharged in 15 minutes. Reception Dan Prosser, in a 2016 review for the British magazine EVO, praised the vehicle's performance, styling, and torque vectoring system, but criticized its small cabin size and the brake pedal feel, giving it 3½ out of 5 stars. He nonetheless stated", "-22.70447042289743" ], [ "and it is very rare to find an original battery that will hold charge and allow the computer to start. It is possible to repack the battery with new cells, or use alternative 6 V batteries. There were three lead-acid cells inside the battery; each were manufactured by Gates Energy Products (now EnerSys) and they were also used in Quantum 1 battery packs for photographic flash use.\nDespite the dramatic improvement in terms of ergonomics offered by the responsiveness, sharpness, and uniformity of its active matrix panel, one of the drawbacks of the Portable was poor readability in low light situations.", "-22.698832065798342" ], [ "which according to Renault, was the UK's most affordable electric car. By not having to purchase the battery - a value in excess of GB£7,000 - any issues with the battery over dead cells or depleted range issues are dealt with by an immediate exchange at no additional cost to the owner.", "-22.69155851448886" ], [ "were upgraded to the GeForce GT 330M, with either 256 or 512 MB of dedicated memory. The 15- and 17-inch models also have an integrated Intel GPU that is built into the Core i5 and i7 processors. The 15-inch model also gained 0.1 pounds (0.045 kg). Save for a third USB 2.0 slot, all the ports on the 17-inch MacBook Pro are the same in type and number as on the 15-inch version. All models come with 4 GB of system memory that is upgradeable to 8 GB. Battery life was also extended further in this update, to an estimated ten hours for the", "-22.65089444309706" ] ]

[ "Osmosis. During a deep periodontal cleaning, the water jet blasts lots of bacteria and other debris off your teeth and into your gums, creating lots of micro-abrasions in the process. Salt water creates negative osmotic pressure, which draws water from your blood and lymph fluids through those micro-abrasions and cleans all the junk out of them. Clean wounds heal faster.", "I believe it prevents bacteria from lodging in there and doing bad stuff to your gums (Because not many things can survive in such a saline environment)", "Osmosis. In simple terms, the concentration of water inside the bacterium is greater than its outside environment. Therefore, water moves out of the cell into the environment by the laws of osmosis. Less water results In the death of the cell." ]

[ [ "which undergo lysis. The heat of the solution produces a therapeutic increase in blood flow (hyperemia) to the surgical site, promoting healing. Hot salt water mouthwashes also encourage the draining of pus from dental abscesses. Conversely, if heat is applied on the side of the face (e.g., hot water bottle) rather than inside the mouth, it may cause a dental abscess to drain extra-orally, which is later associated with an area of fibrosis on the face (see cutaneous sinus of dental origin). Gargling with salt water is said to reduce the symptoms of a sore throat.\nHot salt water mouth baths", "-32.76115248649148" ], [ "acid erosion. Mouthwash There are three commonly used kinds of mouthwash: saline (salty water), essential oils (Listerine, etc.), and chlorhexidine gluconate. Saline Saline (warm salty water) is usually recommended after procedures like dental extractions. In a study completed in 2014, warm saline mouthrinse was compared to no mouthrinse in preventing alveolar osteitis (dry socket) after extraction. In the group that was instructed to rinse with saline, the prevalence of alveolar osteitis was less than in the group that did not. Essential oils (EO) or cetyl pyridinium chloride (CPC) Essential oils, found in Listerine mouthwash, contains eucalyptol, menthol, thymol, and methyl", "-32.58630707161501" ], [ "(or hot salt water mouth washes, sometimes abbreviated to \"HSWMW\") are also routinely used after oral surgery, to keep food debris out of healing wounds and to prevent infection. Some oral surgeons consider salt water mouthwashes the mainstay of wound cleanliness after surgery. In dental extractions, hot salt water mouthbaths should start about 24 hours after a dental extraction. The term mouth bath implies that the liquid is passively held in the mouth rather than vigorously swilled around, which could dislodge a blood clot. Once the blood clot has stabilized, the mouth wash can be used more vigorously. These mouthwashes", "-31.553620177990524" ], [ "mineral from enamel produces a cavity, through which bacteria can infect the inner tooth and destroy the latticework.This process requires many months or years. Although a key feature of tooth decay is the increase of bacteria such as Streptococcus mutans and Lactobacillus in dental plaque, it is not considered an infectious disease. Tooth Remineralisation Treatments & Preventative Strategies Besides professional dental care, there are other ways for promoting tooth remineralisation: Effect of fluoride The presence of fluoride in saliva and plaque fluid interacts with remineralisation process in many ways and thus exerts a topical or surface effect. A person", "-30.797000702441437" ], [ "be replanted with little signs of resorption. Hank's Balanced Salt Solution is found in a Save-A-Tooth, a storage device for the storage, preservation, and regeneration of tooth root cells.\nHBSS also has been shown to be capable of replacing lost cell metabolites. Since a cell that has been cut off from its blood supply depletes its stored metabolites after fifteen minutes, a tooth that has been extra-oral for one hour has less vital cells to reconnect with the bone ligament cells.\nSome studies in dental research have shown that knocked out teeth that have been dry for up to one hour will", "-30.69127175831818" ], [ "plaque removal effect\nthan toothpastes without it.\nSodium bicarbonate is also used as an ingredient in some mouthwashes. It has anticaries and abrasive properties. It works as a mechanical cleanser on the teeth and gums, neutralizes the production of acid in the mouth, and also acts as an antiseptic to help prevent infections. Sodium bicarbonate in combination with other ingredients can be used to make a dry or wet deodorant. Sodium bicarbonate may be used as a buffering agent, combined with table salt, when creating a solution for nasal irrigation.\nIt is used in eye hygiene to treat blepharitis. This is done by", "-30.66604102140991" ], [ "chlorhexidine mouthwash before a tooth extraction reduces the risk of dry socket, a painful condition where the blood clot is lost from an extraction socket and bone is exposed to the oral cavity. Other uses of chlorhexidine mouthwash include prevention of oral candidiasis in immunocompromised persons, treatment of denture-related stomatitis, mucosal ulceration/erosions and oral mucosal lesions, general burning sensation and many other uses.\nChlorhexidine has good substantivity (the ability of a mouthwash to bind to hard and soft tissues in the mouth). However, chlorhexidine binds to tannins, meaning that prolonged use in persons who consume coffee, tea or red wine is", "-30.5590439044463" ], [ "laxative and digestive aid. It is also believed to relieve flatulence and heartburn. It is used in Jammu to cure goitres. This salt is also used to treat hysteria and for making toothpastes by combining it with other mineral and plant ingredients.", "-30.143833527341485" ], [ "Curing salt Curing salt is used in meat processing to generate a pinkish shade and to extend shelf life. It is both a color agent and a means to facilitate food preservation as it prevents or slows spoilage by bacteria or fungus. Curing salts are generally a mixture of table salt and sodium nitrite and are used for pickling meats as part of the process to make sausage or cured meat such as ham, bacon, pastrami, corned beef, etc. The reason for using nitrite-curing salt is to inhibit the growth of bacteria, specifically Clostridium botulinum in an effort to prevent", "-30.01296624087263" ], [ "fresh, it contains sodium ions at its active sites. When in contact with a solution containing magnesium and calcium ions (but a low concentration of sodium ions), the magnesium and calcium ions preferentially migrate out of solution to the active sites on the resin, being replaced in solution by sodium ions. This process reaches equilibrium with a much lower concentration of magnesium and calcium ions in solution than was started with.\nThe resin can be recharged by washing it with a solution containing a high concentration of sodium ions (e.g. it has large amounts of common salt (NaCl) dissolved in it).", "-29.949231148159015" ], [ "little gain of minerals over a long period of time, which can ultimately cause what is known as tooth decay.\nDental sealants are a preventive treatment that is part of the minimal intervention dentistry approach to dental care. These sealants are a plastic material placed in the pits and fissures (the recesses on the chewing surfaces) of primary (baby) or permanent (adult) molar and premolar teeth at the back of the mouth. These molar teeth are considered the most susceptible teeth to dental caries due to the anatomy of the chewing surfaces of these teeth, which inhibits protection from saliva and", "-29.92720282654045" ], [ "professionals. Dental sealants have been shown to be more effective at preventing occlusal decay when compared to fluoride varnish applications.\nCalcium, as found in food such as milk and green vegetables, is often recommended to protect against dental caries. Fluoride helps prevent decay of a tooth by binding to the hydroxyapatite crystals in enamel. Streptococcus mutans is the leading cause of tooth decay. Low concentration fluoride ions act as bacteriostatic therapeutic agent and high concentration fluoride ions are bactericidal. The incorporated fluorine makes enamel more resistant to demineralization and, thus, resistant to decay. Fluoride can be found in either topical or", "-29.84315136782243" ], [ "effects, but there is insufficient medical evidence to support general claims for its use as a therapeutic. Toothache Particularly in South Korea and India, eugenol, a phytochemical extracted from clove oil, is used to relieve toothache. Applied to a cavity in a decayed tooth or tooth socket remaining after extraction, eugenol or clove oil can relieve toothache temporarily.\nIn the United States, the FDA considers eugenol ineffective for treating dental pain, and has downgraded clove oil as an analgesic due to insufficient evidence to rate its effectiveness. Use on fish Clove oil is commonly used to anesthetize or euthanize laboratory or", "-29.72044857504079" ], [ "tissue swells, it no longer provides an effective seal between the tooth and the outside environment. Vertical space is created between the tooth and the gum, allowing new bacterial plaque biofilm to begin to migrate into the sulcus, or space between the gum and the tooth. In healthy individuals, the sulcus is no more than 3 mm deep when measured with a periodontal probe. As the gingivitis stage continues, the capillaries within the sulcus begin to dilate, resulting in more bleeding when brushing, flossing, or at dental appointments. This is the body's attempt to clear the infection from the tissues. Thus,", "-29.689641795004718" ], [ "plaque removal above the gum line can affect the ecology of the microbes below the gums and may reduce the number of pathogens in pockets up to 5 mm in depth.\nToothpaste (dentifrice) with fluoride is an important tool to readily use when tooth brushing. The fluoride in the dentifrice is an important protective factor against caries, and an important supplement needed to remineralize already affected enamel. However, in terms of preventing gum disease, the use of toothpaste does not increase the effectiveness of the activity with respect to the amount of plaque removed. Manual tooth brush The modern manual tooth brush", "-29.593270640354604" ], [ "and digestive systems. External uses Externally, the oil is used for rheumatic pain and, like clove oil, can be applied as an emergency treatment to dull toothache. In France, it is given in drop doses in honey for digestive upsets and used for bad breath. \nIn case of dental problems it is recommended to use one or two drops on a cotton swab which is to be applied to the gums around an aching tooth until dental treatment can be obtained; or three to five drops on a sugar lump or in a teaspoon of honey for nausea, gastroenteritis, chronic", "-29.48247265414102" ], [ "prevent the build-up of dental plaque. The reason for chlorhexidine's effectiveness is that it strongly adheres to surfaces in the mouth and thus remains present in effective concentrations for many hours.\nSince then commercial interest in mouthwashes has been intense and several newer products claim effectiveness in reducing the build-up in dental plaque and the associated severity of gingivitis, in addition to fighting bad breath. Many of these solutions aim to control the Volatile Sulfur Compound (VSC)-creating anaerobic bacteria that live in the mouth and excrete substances that lead to bad breath and unpleasant mouth taste. For example, the number of", "-29.30057867441792" ], [ "series of progressively stronger concentrations of salt are added until the product is fully stabilized and ready to be eaten.\nWater-cured type (olives with fermentation): Applied to green, semiripe, or ripe olives, these are soaked in water or weak brine and this solution is changed on a daily basis for 10–14 days. The oleuropein is naturally dissolved and leached into the water and removed during a continual soak-wash cycle. Fermentation takes place during the water treatment stage and involves a mixed yeast/bacteria ecosystem. Sometimes, the olives are lightly cracked with a hammer or a stone to trigger fermentation and speed up", "-29.297051544388523" ], [ "involves the placement of rounded ice chips in the mouth, which cools the oral tissues and causes vasoconstriction. This decreases blood flow to the region and, hence, also restricts the amounts of the chemotherapy drugs delivered to the tissues. Treatment Treatment of mucositis is mainly supportive. Oral hygiene is the mainstay of treatment; patients are encouraged to clean their mouth every four hours and at bedtime, more often if the mucositis becomes worse.\nWater-soluble jellies can be used to lubricate the mouth. Salt mouthwash can soothe the pain and keep food particles clear so as to avoid infection. Patients are also", "-29.276178176281974" ], [ "matter which type of jewelry is used, the jewelry's diameter and length will be intentionally oversized to allow room for initial swelling. After healing, the jewelry can be replaced with a closer-fitting piece.\nA home-made saline solution made from non-iodized sea salt and hot distilled or filtered water is a common way to heal a lip piercing and avoid infection. This solution can be used to rinse out the mouth after eating (or the mouth can be rinsed with non-alcoholic, non-antimicrobial mouth wash) and to soak the outside of the piercing. Anything with alcohol, peroxide, iodine, or any strong soaps should", "-29.221088870894164" ], [ "to use toothpaste that contains fluoride as this has proved to be the most efficient in fighting oral infections and tooth decay. Flossing must be done at least once a day, as well because it is helpful in preventing oral problems by removing the plaque between the teeth, which is not removed when brushing.\nDiabetic patients must get professional dental cleanings every six months. In cases when dental surgery is needed, it is necessary to take some special precautions such as adjusting diabetes medication or taking antibiotics to prevent infection. Looking for early signs of gum disease (redness, swelling, bleeding gums)", "-29.202456044091377" ], [ "sodium chloride in aqueous solution are marketed, although pharmacists will easily be able to produce such a formulation from the base ingredients when required. Sodium bicarbonate mouthwash is sometimes used to remove viscous saliva and to aid visualization of the oral tissues during examination of the mouth. Sodium chloride (salt) Salt water mouth wash is made by dissolving 0.5–1 teaspoon of table salt into a cup of water, which is as hot as possible without causing discomfort in the mouth. Saline has a mechanical cleansing action and an antiseptic action as it is a hypertonic solution in relation to bacteria,", "-29.175350982863165" ], [ "Dental hygienist Periodontal Treatment Gum disease is caused by a sticky film of bacteria called plaque. Plaque is always forming on teeth, but if they aren’t cleaned well, the bacteria in plaque can cause gums to become inflamed. When this happens, the gums pull away from the teeth and form spaces called pockets. Plaque then gets trapped in these pockets and cannot be removed with regular brushing. Untreated gum disease can lead to bone and tooth loss. If the periodontal pockets are too deep a deep cleaning (scaling and root planing) is necessary to remove the plaque in these pockets.\nScaling", "-29.125808196375147" ], [ "soaking the tooth in an active medicament before re-implantation. It has been shown that soaking the avulsed tooth in an immune-modulating drug prior to re-implantation can increase periodontal healing and tooth survival, compared to a saline control. Biologic basis for success of replantation following avulsion Every tooth is connected to its surrounding bone by the periodontal ligament. The tooth receives its nourishment through this ligament. When a tooth is knocked-out, this ligament is stretched and splits in half; half stays on the tooth root and half stays on the socket wall. If these two halves can be kept alive, the", "-28.988650697883713" ], [ "\nGingivitis: \nThe reversible inflammation of the gums, is easily maintained and easily done by patients alone. After the removal of the inflammatory product, usually plaque or calculus, this allows the gums room to heal. This is done by patients thoroughly cleaning teeth every day with a soft bristle toothbrush and an interdental aid. This can be floss, flosset, pikster or what is preferred by patient. Without patient compliance and constant removal of plaque and calculus, gingivitis cannot be treated completely and can progress in to periodontitis that is irreversible.\nNecrotising ulcerative gingivitis (NUG):\nAlso Acute necrotising ulcerative gingivitis and necrotising ulcerative periodontitis,", "-28.954402716786717" ], [ "no sugars or artificial colours and does not contain Sodium Lauryl Sulphate (SLS).\nSarakan Mouthwash is an alcohol-free anti-plaque mouth rinse which contains the same natural oil flavourings as the toothpaste, and an anti-plaque bacterial agent to get rid of micro-organisms in the mouth and help promote better gum health. The history of the Sarakan brand Sarakan toothpaste was developed after a British Army doctor who was serving in India noticed that his patients’ teeth and gum health were comparatively very good despite the general low quality of nutrition. He discovered that many used a \"chewing stick\" to clean and massage", "-28.782291267678374" ], [ "can cause damage to clothes if accidentally spilt and could cause corrosion of cobalt-chromium or stainless steel if immersed in the acid often and over long periods of time. Other denture cleaning methods Other denture cleaning methods include enzymes, ultrasonic cleansers and microwave exposure. A Cochrane Review found that there is weak evidence to support soaking dentures in effervescent tablets or in enzymatic solutions and while the most effective method for eliminating plaque is not clear, the review shows that brushing with paste eliminates microbial plaque better than inactive methods. There is a need for studies to provide reports about", "-28.606826541479677" ], [ "for remineralisation of the non-cavitated areas. Remineralisation of non-cavitated lesions Various techniques exists for remineralisation, varying from simple application of fluoride to using special substances for filling materials that interact with the tooth to aid the process from within. Glass Ionomer Cements (GICs) have been shown to undergo ion exchange with the surrounding tooth structure, and also engage in fluoride feeding. Research by Prof. Hien Ngo and others has shown that these methods can in practice heal some non-cavitated lesions. Prevention The same methods for cure of the disease can be used for prevention, as well as other techniques such", "-28.548789280466735" ], [ "too, according to al-Tamimi, is said to have certain medicinal properties, said to prevent tooth decay, as well as in assuaging blood loss from the gums. \nIt is also said to be useful in removing halitosis. When the substance congeals, stirring ceases, and the substance is then allowed to burn completely while remaining in the ceramic skillet. It is then taken up while still hot and is pounded by mortar and pestle, until one is left with a fine powder. It is then sifted in a sieve and stored until ready for use. A quantity of one dirham-weight (about 3.31", "-28.535487991466653" ], [ "saltpeter.\" Salt curing Salt (sodium chloride) is a primary ingredient used to cure fish and other foods. Removal of water and addition of salt to fish creates a solute-rich environment where osmotic pressure draws water out of microorganisms, retarding their growth. Doing this requires a concentration of salt of nearly 20%. Iodized table salt may be used, but the iodine generally causes a dark end product and a bitter taste. Non-iodized salts like those used for canning and pickling foods and sea salt are the preferred types of salt to use for curing meats. Sugar curing Sugar is sometimes", "-28.525730305642355" ], [ "fluoride and instead favours plaque accumulation. This approach facilitates prevention and early intervention, in order to prevent or stop the dental caries process before it reaches the ends stage of the disease, which is also known as the \"hole\" or cavitation of a tooth. Once the tooth is cavitated, it requires a dental restoration in order to repair the damage, which emphasizes the importance of prevention in preserving teeth for a lifetime of chewing.\nPreventing tooth decay from the pits and fissures of the teeth is achieved by dental sealants providing a physical barricade to protect natural tooth surfaces and grooves,", "-28.516101602232084" ], [ "the cell fluid tries to move to the outside pressure environment and burst. Water with table salt in it is damaging to the knocked out teeth.\nSaliva, that is placing the tooth under the accident victim’s tongue or in the cheek, has been recommended. Saliva, as a storage media, causes twice damage as water. Its osmolality is very low, causing bursting of the tooth root cells, but additionally, because saliva is filled with its normal flora of microorganisms, it will severely infect the tooth root cells. When the tooth is replanted, not only will the cells be necrotic but they will", "-28.506441632693168" ], [ "Gingival sulcus Pathology When the sulcular depth is chronically in excess of three millimeters, regular home care may be insufficient to properly cleanse the full depth of the sulcus, allowing food debris and microbes to accumulate, forming dental biofilm. This poses a danger to the periodontal ligament (PDL) fibers that attach the gingiva to the tooth. If accumulated microbes remain undisturbed in a sulcus for an extended period of time, they will penetrate and ultimately destroy the delicate soft tissue and periodontal attachment fibers. If left untreated, this process may lead to a deepening of the sulcus, recession,", "-28.4428066983819" ], [ "peroxide-based mouth rinse can remove teeth stain and reduce gingivitis.\nBased on a limited evidence, mouthwashes with essential oils may also be useful, as they contain ingredients with anti-inflammatory properties, such as thymol, menthol and eucalyptol.\nThe bacteria that causes gingivitis can be controlled by using an oral irrigator daily with a mouthwash containing an antibiotic. Either amoxicillin, cephalexin, or minocycline in 500 grams of a non-alcoholic fluoride mouthwash is an effective mixture.\nOverall, intensive oral hygiene care has been shown to improve gingival health in individuals with well-controlled type 2 diabetes. Periodontal destruction is also slowed down due to the extensive oral", "-28.434831637190655" ], [ "of appropriate mouthwash can significantly reduce the number of oral bacteria, including S. mutans and inhibit their proliferation. S. mutans often live in dental plaque, hence mechanical removal of plaque is an effective way of getting rid of them. The best toothbrushing technique to reduce plaque build up, decreasing caries risk, is the modified Bass technique. Brushing twice daily can help decrease the caries risk. However, there are some remedies used in the treatment of oral bacterial infection, in conjunction with mechanical cleaning. These include fluoride, which has a direct inhibitory effect on the enolase enzyme, as well as chlorhexidine,", "-28.411228572455002" ], [ "used in curing is salt, which increases the osmolarity of the liquid to inhibit the growth of certain classes of microorganisms. This effect creates a difficult environment for those bacteria to survive in and allows the growth of salt-tolerant microbes. Salt also helps extend shelf life. The juice from the lemon is acidic and contains citric acid that helps lower the pH, which additionally restricts microbes that can cause spoilage and disease. For preservation of lemons, the use of antioxidants as a food additive is used to prevent lipid peroxidation and the fading of food color.\nAlthough lemons contain citric acid,", "-28.32810754503589" ], [ "mouthwashes may make dry mouth and halitosis worse since it dries out the mouth. Soreness, ulceration and redness may sometimes occur (e.g. aphthous stomatitis, allergic contact stomatitis) if the person is allergic or sensitive to mouthwash ingredients such as preservatives, coloring, flavors and fragrances. Such effects might be reduced or eliminated by diluting the mouthwash with water, using a different mouthwash (e.g. salt water), or foregoing mouthwash entirely.\nPrescription mouthwashes are used prior to and after oral surgery procedures such as tooth extraction or to treat the pain associated with mucositis caused by radiation therapy or chemotherapy. They are also prescribed", "-28.316109105944633" ], [ "hence oral ulceration as well. Advise the person to use warm salt water mouth rinses and a betamethasone rinse can heal ulcer. Review of persisting oral ulcerations for more than 3 weeks is recommended. Tooth loss People can become entirely edentulous (without teeth) for many reasons, the most prevalent being removal due to dental disease, which typically relates to oral flora control, i.e., periodontal disease and tooth decay. Other reasons include pregnancy, tooth developmental defects caused by severe malnutrition, genetic defects such as dentinogenesis imperfecta, trauma, or drug use.\nPeriodontitis is defined as an inflammatory lesion mediated by host-pathogen interaction that", "-28.223211651435122" ], [ "used as an adjunct to prevent dental caries and to treat gingivitis periodontal disease, although it does not penetrate into periodontal pockets well. Chlorhexidine mouthwash alone is unable to prevent plaque, so it is not a substitute for regular toothbrushing and flossing. Instead, chlorhexidine is more effective used as an adjunctive treatment with tooth brushing and flossing. In the short term, if toothbrushing is impossible due to pain, as may occur in primary herpetic gingivostomatitis, chlorhexidine is used as temporary substitute for other oral hygiene measures. It is not suited for use in acute necrotizing ulcerative gingivitis, however. Rinsing with", "-28.216747982776724" ], [ "have dextrose (glucose) added to maintain a safe osmolality while providing less sodium chloride.\nThe amount of normal saline infused depends largely on the needs of the person (e.g. ongoing diarrhea or heart failure).\nSaline is also often used for nasal washes to relieve some of the symptoms of the common cold. The solution exerts a softening and loosening influence on the mucus to make it easier to wash out and clear the nasal passages for both babies and adults. In this case \"home-made\" saline may be used: this is made by dissolving approximately half a teaspoon of table salt into 240ml", "-28.20907720928517" ], [ "Denture cleaner A denture cleaner (also termed denture cleanser), is used to clean dentures when they are out of the mouth. The main use is to control the growth of microorganisms on the dentures, especially Candida albicans, thereby preventing denture-related stomatitis. When dentures are worn in the mouth, a biofilm develops which may be similar to dental plaque. It may become hardened and mineralized as dental calculus. Denture cleansers are also used to remove stains and other debris that may be caused by diet, tobacco use, drinking coffee, drinking tea, etc.\nSome chemical denture cleaners can come in cream and liquid", "-28.170574401839986" ], [ "for water reabsorption. Through unknown mechanisms, activation of the sympathetic nervous system leads to enhanced proximal tubular reabsorption of salt and water, as well as urea (BUN), calcium, uric acid, and bicarbonate. The net result of these 4 mechanisms of salt and water retention is decreased output and decreased urinary excretion of sodium (< 20 mEq/L). The increased reabsorption of Na leads to increased water and urea reabsorption from the proximal tubules of the kidney back into the blood. In contrast, creatinine is actually secreted in the proximal tubule. This generally leads to a BUN:Cr ratio > 20 and a", "-28.112416045507416" ], [ "lactate to food. Calcium lactate added to toothpaste has reduced calculus formation. One study has shown that calcium lactate enhances enamel remineralization when added to xylitol-containing gum, but another study showed no additional remineralization benefit from calcium lactate or other calcium compounds in chewing-gum.\nOther studies indicated that the caries preventive effect of chewing sugar-free gum is related to the chewing process itself rather than being an effect of gum sweeteners or additives, such as polyols and carbamide. A study investigated the in situ effect of casein phosphopeptide–amorphous calcium phosphate (CPP–ACP) found that its incorporation into a sugar-free gum increases the", "-28.030004187108716" ], [ "as a wine, beer, and juice fining agent. It has the E number reference E551.\nIn pharmaceutical products, silica aids powder flow when tablets are formed. Personal care In cosmetics, it is useful for its light-diffusing properties and natural absorbency.\nHydrated silica is used in toothpaste as a hard abrasive to remove tooth plaque. Other Hydrophobic silica is used as a defoamer component.\nIn its capacity as a refractory, it is useful in fiber form as a high-temperature thermal protection fabric.\nSilica is used in the extraction of DNA and RNA due to its ability to bind to the nucleic acids under the presence", "-28.029451765003614" ], [ "0.1% to 0.2% recommended for mouth-rinse solutions with a duration of at least 30 seconds. Such mouthwash also has a number of adverse effects including damage to the mouth lining, tooth discoloration, tartar build-up, and impaired taste. Extrinsic tooth staining occurs when chlorhexidine rinse has been used for 4 weeks or longer.\nMouthwashes containing chlorhexidine which stain teeth less than the classic solution have been developed, many of which contain chelated zinc.\nUsing chlorhexidine as a supplement to everyday mechanical oral hygiene procedures for 4 to 6 weeks and 6 months leads to a moderate reduction in gingivitis compared to placebo, control", "-27.979945213184692" ], [ "Gingival disease Causes Dental plaque accumulates at the surfaces when proper cleaning and maintaining is not done. There is inflammation due to the bacteria released from the toxins. calculus forms and if not removed, causes this disease.", "-27.955506163008977" ], [ "using any product on dental restorations. Soft Tissues Trauma to soft tissues may result from improper technique or prior inflammation of tissues. Particles within the prophylactic paste can go below the gumline and cause inflammation or delayed healing. Environment Aerosols are produced during tooth polishing and may transmit infectious diseases to other people in the dental office. This can become problematic because some microorganisms remain in the air for an extended period of time and can contaminate hard surfaces. Occupational injuries are also possible for the clinician due to improper technique, ergonomics and the weight of the handpiece. Precautions There", "-27.948781036102446" ], [ "is why regular brushing is encouraged. A high-sugar diet encourages the formation of plaque. Sugar (fermentable carbohydrates), is converted into acid by the plaque. The acid then causes the breakdown of the adjacent tooth, eventually leading to tooth decay.\nIf plaque is left on a subgingival (under the gum) surface undisturbed, not only is there an increased risk of tooth decay, but it will also go on to irritate the gums and make them appear red and swollen. Some bleeding may be noticed during tooth brushing or flossing. These are the signs of inflammation which indicate poor gum health (gingivitis). Calculus", "-27.946039015369024" ], [ "of refrigeration. Method Salting is the preservation of food with dry edible salt. It is related to pickling (preparing food with brine, i.e. salty water), and is one of the oldest methods of preserving food. Salt inhibits the growth of microorganisms by drawing water out of microbial cells through osmosis. Concentrations of salt up to 20% are required to kill most species of unwanted bacteria. Smoking, often used in the process of curing meat, adds chemicals to the surface of meat that reduce the concentration of salt required. Salting is used because most bacteria, fungi and other potentially pathogenic organisms", "-27.945048857236543" ], [ "example to components in toothpastes is the Biotene, which has proved its efficiency in relieving the symptoms of dry mouth in people who suffer from xerostomia according to the results of two randomized clinical trials.\nChlorohexidine mouthwash has been popular for its positive effect on controlling plaque and gingivitis, however, a systemic review studied the effects of chlorohexidine toothpastes and found insufficient evidence to support its use, tooth surface discoloration was observed as a side effect upon using it, which is considered a negative side effect that can affect patients' compliance.\nSodium hydroxide, also known as lye or caustic soda, is listed", "-27.941316351061687" ], [ "the lack of pulp pressure in dentinal tubules once the pulp is removed, leading to incorporation of dietary stains in dentin. Amalgam fillings Amalgam fillings often stain the tooth they are placed in. This is most noticeable in very old fillings, as pigment slowly leaches out of the amalgam filling material and its associated corroded surfaces. In addition, metallic fillings cast a shadow that can be visible through the tooth and make it appear darker. Tetracycline and tetracycline-derivatives Tetracycline is a broad spectrum antibiotic, and its derivative minocycline is common in the treatment of acne. The drug is able to", "-27.881575636598427" ], [ "Dentyl pH History The use of oil in a mouthwash product was proposed by Mel Rosenberg, following his study of bacteria that break down oil spills. Dentyl pH was first launched in the UK in 1997, through Fresh Breath Limited, as part of a patients' programme that aimed to prevent or treat bad breath, plaque and gum disease.\nIn 2007, Dentyl pH released Icy-Fresh Mint and Icy-Fresh Cherry flavours to be sold alongside the original Smooth Mint flavoured mouthwash. In July 2007, the brand was bought by Blistex Inc.\nA new flavour, Minty Citrus Splash, was launched in 2008, the first", "-27.85170752494014" ], [ "and an increased tendency to bleed, suggest an inflammation that is possibly due to the accumulation of bacterial plaque. Overall, the clinical appearance of the tissue reflects the underlying histology, both in health and disease. When gum tissue is not healthy, it can provide a gateway for periodontal disease to advance into the deeper tissue of the periodontium, leading to a poorer prognosis for long-term retention of the teeth. Both the type of periodontal therapy and homecare instructions given to patients by dental professionals and restorative care are based on the clinical conditions of the tissue.\nThe gums are divided anatomically", "-27.834759907680564" ], [ "as magic mouthwash in pain relief or shortening of healing time of oral mucositis from cancer therapies. History The first known references to mouth rinsing is in Ayurveda for treatment of gingivitis. Later, in the Greek and Roman periods, mouth rinsing following mechanical cleansing became common among the upper classes, and Hippocrates recommended a mixture of salt, alum, and vinegar. The Jewish Talmud, dating back about 1,800 years, suggests a cure for gum ailments containing \"dough water\" and olive oil.\nBefore Europeans came to the Americas, Native North American and Mesoamerican cultures used mouthwashes, often made from plants such as Coptis", "-27.78880876954645" ], [ "salts include both sodium and glucose. For each cycle of the transport, hundreds of water molecules move into the epithelial cell to maintain osmotic equilibrium. The resultant absorption of sodium and water can achieve rehydration even while diarrhea continues. Definition In the early 1980s, \"oral rehydration therapy\" referred only to the preparation prescribed by the World Health Organization (WHO) and UNICEF. In 1988, the definition changed to encompass recommended home-made solutions, because the official preparation was not always readily available. The definition was again amended in 1988 to include continued feeding as an appropriate associated therapy. In 1991, the definition", "-27.764528934396367" ], [ "dental plaque can give rise to tooth decay – the localised destruction of the tissues of the tooth by acid produced from the bacterial degradation of fermentable sugar – and periodontal problems such as gingivitis and periodontitis; hence it is important to disrupt the mass of bacteria and remove it. Plaque control and removal can be achieved with correct daily or twice-daily tooth brushing and use of interdental aids such as dental floss and interdental brushes.\nOral hygiene is important as dental biofilms may become acidic causing demineralization of the teeth (also known as dental caries) or harden into dental calculus", "-27.707788148225518" ], [ "hydrogen peroxide mouthwash, analgesics and, when the pain has subsided sufficiently, cleaning below the gumline, both professionally and at home. Antibiotics are not indicated in ANUG management unless there is underlying systemic disease. Pericoronitis Pericoronitis is inflammation of the soft tissues surrounding the crown of a partially erupted tooth. The lower wisdom tooth is the last tooth to erupt into the mouth, and is, therefore, more frequently impacted, or stuck, against the other teeth. This leaves the tooth partially erupted into the mouth, and there frequently is a flap of gum (an operculum), overlying the tooth. Bacteria and food debris", "-27.69798736467783" ], [ "eliminated from the oral cavity. In general, the more effective one's brushing, flossing, and other oral homecare practices, the less plaque will accumulate on the teeth.\nHowever, if, after 24 hours in the oral environment, biofilm remains undisturbed by brushing or flossing, it begins to absorb the mineral content of saliva. Through this absorption of calcium and phosphorus from the saliva, oral biofilm is transformed from the soft, easily removable form into a hard substance known as calculus. Commonly known as 'tartar', calculus provides a base for new layers of plaque biofilm to settle on and builds up over time. Calculus", "-27.66712332656607" ], [ "denture at night, cleaning and disinfecting it, and storing it overnight in an antiseptic solution. This is important as the denture is usually infected with C. albicans which will cause re-infection if it is not removed. Substances which are used include solutions of alkaline peroxides, alkaline hypochlorites (e.g. hypochlorite, which may over time corrode metal components of dental appliances), acids (e.g. benzoic acid), yeast lytic enzymes and proteolytic enzymes (e.g. alcalase protease). The other aspect of treatment involves resolution of the mucosal infection, for which topical antifungal medications are used (e.g. nystatin, amphotericin, miconazole, fluconazole or itraconazole). Often an antimicrobial", "-27.640599189850036" ], [ "remineralization / protection of eroded enamel surface significantly.\nGum chewing is regarded as a helpful way to cure halitosis (bad breath). Chewing gum not only helps to add freshness to breath but can aid in removing food particles and bacteria associated with bad breath from teeth. It does this by stimulating saliva, which essentially washes out the mouth. Chewing sugar-free gum for 20 minutes after a meal helps prevent tooth decay, according to the American Dental Association, because the act of chewing the sugar-free gum produces saliva to wash away bacteria, which protects teeth. Chewing gum after a meal replaces brushing", "-27.62832512058958" ], [ "Cetylpyridinium chloride mouthwash has less anti-plaque effect than chlorhexidine and may cause staining of teeth, or sometimes an oral burning sensation or ulceration. Chlorhexidine digluconate and Hexetidine (antiseptic) Chlorhexidine digluconate is a chemical antiseptic and is used in a 0.12–0.2% solution as a mouthwash. However, there is no evidence to support that higher concentrations are more effective in controlling dental plaque and gingivitis. It has anti-plaque action, but also some anti-fungal action. It is especially effective against Gram-negative rods. The proportion of Gram-negative rods increase as gingivitis develops so it is also used to reduce gingivitis. It is sometimes", "-27.60555967647815" ], [ "Either borax or calcium can cross-link guar gum, causing it to gel. In water, it is nonionic and hydrocolloidal. It is not affected by ionic strength or pH, but will degrade at extreme pH and temperature (e.g. pH 3 at 50 °C). It remains stable in solution over pH range 5-7. Strong acids cause hydrolysis and loss of viscosity and alkalies in strong concentration also tend to reduce viscosity. It is insoluble in most hydrocarbon solvents. The viscosity attained is dependent on time, temperature, concentration, pH, rate of agitation and particle size of the powdered gum used. The lower the temperature,", "-27.54461634787731" ], [ "fluoride during the years of tooth development. Fluoride is a naturally occurring mineral in water, although some regions have higher levels than others, and in some areas fluoride is added to water supplies in low levels to help prevent tooth decay. Exposure can also occur via bottled water and fluoride toothpaste. In its mildest form, fluorosis appears as small opaque white flecks on the enamel surface. More severe cases show severely hypoplastic patches of enamel, which are also prone to accumulation of surface stains. Chronological, fine white bands of fluorosis may be seen that correspond to the times of high", "-27.52225011223345" ], [ "mouthwash in cases of bleeding gums.", "-27.519949889363488" ], [ "very well and are likely to cause abrasion of the denture acrylic resin. If a patient finds it difficult to utilise a toothbrush e.g. patients with arthritis, a brush with easy grip modifications can be used.\nDisclosing solutions can be used at home to make the less obvious plaque deposits more visible to ensure thorough cleaning of plaque. Food dyes can be utilised as a disclosing solution when used correctly.\nInstead of brushing their dentures with soap and water, patients can use pastes designed for dentures or conventional toothpaste to clean their dentures. However, the American Dental Association advises against using toothpaste", "-27.50873127533123" ], [ "more damage to enamel and the dentin, compared to waiting 30 minutes. Flushing the acid away with water or dissolved baking soda could help reduce acid damage exacerbated by brushing. The same response was recommended for acid re-flux and other acidic meals. Toothbrush A toothbrush is an instrument used to clean teeth, consisting of a small brush on a handle. Toothpaste, often containing fluoride, is commonly added to a toothbrush to aid in cleaning. Toothbrushes come in manual and electric varieties. Although there is conflicting evidence as to which is more effective, most evidence points to electric toothbrushes", "-27.504254938918166" ], [ "the amount of bacteria in the mouth that are responsible for tooth decay. After a wave of empirical studies on the efficacy of Xylitol (a sugar alcohol) a consensus report in the British Dental Journal considered it to give a reduction in the risk of caries. There is also increasing use of newer technologies such as photo-activated disinfection and treating with ozone.\nThere is also an aspect of minimising the effect of the caries to control the symptoms of decay. Constant remineralisation (hardening) with continuous application of fluoride toothpaste is highly common practice that reduces the impact of the caries on", "-27.502029950061115" ], [ "and possibly promote calcium fluoride deposits to a higher degree than after the use of traditional fluoride containing dentifrices. However, these effects must be balanced with the increased risk of harm at higher concentrations. Surfactants Many, although not all, toothpastes contain sodium lauryl sulfate (SLS) or related surfactants (detergents). SLS is found in many other personal care products as well, such as shampoo, and is mainly a foaming agent, which enables uniform distribution of toothpaste, improving its cleansing power. Antibacterial agents Triclosan, an antibacterial agent, is a common toothpaste ingredient in the United Kingdom. Triclosan or zinc chloride prevent gingivitis", "-27.487656905082986" ], [ "can harbour greater accumulations of plaque with more virulent changes in bacterial composition, which can ultimately cause a reduction in periodontal health as indicated by increased gingival recession, bleeding on probing, and plaque retention measurements. Furthermore, fixed appliances makes plaque control more challenging and restricts the natural cleaning action of the tongue, lips, and cheek to remove food and bacterial debris from tooth surfaces, and also creates new plaque stagnation areas that stimulate the colonisation of pathogenic bacteria. It is the general consensus among dental academia that patients undergoing orthodontic treatment maintain a high level of plaque control through not", "-27.480196750169853" ], [ "since it is chemically fairly inert. Sodium sulfate is added to the solution until the crystals no longer clump together; the two video clips (see above) demonstrate how the crystals clump when still wet, but some crystals flow freely once a sample is dry.\nGlauber's salt, the decahydrate, is used as a laxative. It is effective for the removal of certain drugs such as paracetamol (acetaminophen) from the body, for example, after an overdose.\nIn 1953, sodium sulfate was proposed for heat storage in passive solar heating systems. This takes advantage of its unusual solubility properties, and the high heat of crystallisation", "-27.45576828555204" ], [ "vinegar is unavailable. Rubbing wounds, or using alcohol, ammonia, fresh water, or urine is not advised as they can encourage the release of more venom. Clearing the area of jelly and tentacles reduces nematocyst firing. Scraping the affected skin, such as with the edge of a credit card, may remove remaining nematocysts. Once the skin has been cleaned of nematocysts, hydrocortisone cream applied locally reduces pain and inflammation. Antihistamines may help to control itching. Immunobased antivenins are used for serious box jellyfish stings. Mechanical issues Jellyfish in large quantities can fill and split fishing nets and crush captured fish. They", "-27.421634436992463" ], [ "\"sour salt\", due to its physical resemblance to table salt. It has use in culinary applications, as an alternative to vinegar or lemon juice, where a pure acid is needed.\nCitric acid can be used in food coloring to balance the pH level of a normally basic dye. Cleaning and chelating agent Citric acid is an excellent chelating agent, binding metals by making them soluble. It is used to remove and discourage the buildup of limescale from boilers and evaporators. It can be used to treat water, which makes it useful in improving the effectiveness of soaps and laundry detergents. By", "-27.418750932789408" ], [ "cleansing action when it froths as it comes into contact with debris in mouth. It is often used in the short term to treat acute necrotising ulcerative gingivitis. Side effects with prolonged use might occur, including hypertrophy of the lingual papillae. Lactoperoxidase (saliva substitute) Enzymes and proteins such as Lactoperoxidase, Lysozyme, Lactoferrin have been used in mouthrinses (e.g. Biotene) to reduce oral bacteria and hence the acid produced by bacteria. Lidocaine/xylocaine Oral lidocaine is useful for the treatment of mucositis symptoms (inflammation of mucous membranes) that is induced by radiation or chemotherapy. There is evidence that lidocaine anesthetic mouthwash", "-27.411326912464574" ], [ "reduction of tooth decay in children’s permanent teeth. After a fluoride mouthrinse treatment, the fluoride in the mouthrinse is retained in the saliva which helps prevent tooth decay.\nFluoride mouth rinses are recommended for use in conjunction with other fluoride therapies, but is usually contraindicated for children under 6 years old as they may swallow the rinse and increase their risk of dental fluorosis. In areas without fluoridated drinking water, these rinses are recommended for children.\nMany brands of topical fluoride exist. They are not recommended if a person is drinking water that already contains sufficient fluoride. Gels/foams There are several", "-27.40403034875635" ], [ "alone does not act via prevention of plaque build-up mechanism or antimicrobial chemotherapeutic mechanism. Biotène brand products The product line includes toothpaste, mouthwash, spray and gel. Mechanism of action Biotène mouthwash is especially beneficial to individuals experiencing dry mouth or having oral irritations. The main goal of Biotène products is to provide dry mouth relief. The three primary enzymes in Biotène are Glucose Oxidase, Lactoperoxidase, and Lysozyme. Through antibacterial and healing properties creating a natural protection within the oral cavity, these enzymes are balanced to function to boost and replenish an individual’s salivary defenses.\nThe reduced antibacterial actions of saliva due", "-27.347891061464225" ], [ "Health effects of salt The health effects of salt are the conditions associated with the consumption of either too much or too little salt. Salt is a mineral composed primarily of sodium chloride (NaCl) and is used in food for both preservation and flavor. Sodium ions are needed in small quantities by most living things, as are chloride ions. Salt is involved in regulating the water content (fluid balance) of the body. The sodium ion itself is used for electrical signaling in the nervous system.\nThe Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) states that excess sodium can increase blood pressure", "-27.302629854300903" ], [ "mouth and make tooth-destroying acids. In any case, it is only the fluoride that is directly present in the mouth (topical treatment) that prevents cavities; fluoride ions that are swallowed do not benefit the teeth.\nWater fluoridation is the controlled addition of fluoride to a public water supply in an effort to reduce tooth decay in people who drink the water. Its use began in the 1940s, following studies of children in a region where water is naturally fluoridated. It is now used widely in public water systems in the United States and some other parts of the world, such that", "-27.29714006758877" ], [ "added to mouthwash not to destroy bacteria but to act as a carrier agent for essential active ingredients such as menthol, eucalyptol and thymol which help to penetrate plaque. Sometimes a significant amount of alcohol (up to 27% vol) is added, as a carrier for the flavor, to provide \"bite\". Because of the alcohol content, it is possible to fail a breathalyzer test after rinsing although breath alcohol levels return to normal after 10 minutes. In addition, alcohol is a drying agent, which encourages bacterial activity in the mouth, releasing more malodorous volatile sulfur compounds. Therefore, alcohol-containing mouthwash may temporarily", "-27.29124517003038" ], [ "towards preventative care in regards to periodontal disease. Dental diets not only try to combat the buildup of plaque physically, but attempt to reduce plaque build up chemically as well. Chemical compounds such as anti-microbial elements are added to some dental diets to directly target the oral cavity in order to prevent gingivitis. Chemical compounds in kibble Excessive plaque formation can lead to severe inflammation of the gums which may result in the loss of teeth. This plaque is also able to mineralize on the teeth, creating a crystallized calcium phosphate build up known as tartar. Ingredients such as", "-27.289820028934628" ], [ "slicing easier, or enzymes to increase gas production. Salt Salt (sodium chloride) is very often added to enhance flavor and restrict yeast activity. It also affects the crumb and the overall texture by stabilizing and strengthening the gluten. Some artisan bakers forego early addition of salt to the dough, whether wholemeal or refined, and wait until after a 20-minute rest to allow the dough to autolyse.\nMixtures of salts are sometimes employed, such as employing potassium chloride to reduce the sodium level, and monosodium glutamate to give flavor (umami). Leavening Leavening is the process of adding gas to a dough before", "-27.28178852018027" ], [ "the reformation of enamel. Miscellaneous components Agents are added to suppress the tendency of toothpaste to dry into a powder. Included are various sugar alcohols, such as glycerol, sorbitol, or xylitol, or related derivatives, such as 1,2-propylene glycol and polyethyleneglycol. Strontium chloride or potassium nitrate is included in some toothpastes to reduce sensitivity. Two systemic meta-analysis reviews reported that arginine, and calcium sodium phosphosilicate - CSPS containing toothpastes are also effective in alleviating dentinal hypersensitivity respectively. Another randomized clinical trial found superior effects when both formulas were combined together.\nSodium polyphosphate is added to minimize the formation of tartar. Other", "-27.281137247220613" ], [ "teeth. Such stimulators help to increase circulation to the gum line and to clear away bacteria which might not be removed by brushing and flossing alone. Food and drink Foods that help muscles and bones also help teeth and gums. Vitamin C is necessary, for example, to prevent scurvy which manifests as serious gum disease.\nEating a balanced diet and limiting sugar intake can help prevent tooth decay and periodontal disease. The Fédération dentaire internationale (FDI World Dental Federation) has promoted foods such as raw vegetables, plain yogurt, cheese, or fruit as dentally beneficial—this has been echoed by the American", "-27.272675636428175" ], [ "only for short cures. The brine trickles down, the air is enriched near the salt works with the salt, the water droplets bind particles in the air. Inhaling salty air moistens the respiratory tract and positively affects the walls of the respiratory organs. In addition, the fine salt crystals have an expectoprant action on secretions, which intensively cleanse the respiratory of bacteria and can reduce swelling of the mucous membranes.\nHealth resort and spa in the city theater, Parkstraße and Wandelhalle (1960-1961) and Konzerthalle (1962-1963) in the park are excellent examples of resort architecture of the 1960s. Kurgastzentrum (1980-1983) designed by", "-27.272274926799582" ], [ "the toothpaste contained diethylene glycol, a chemical used to thicken antifreeze that can cause liver damage.\nOn December 18, 2014, in cooperation with an enforcement action of the FDA, Gilchrist & Soames initiated a worldwide recall of numerous lots of several different products in its lines, including certain conditioning shampoos, mineral baths, shower gels and body washes. According to the FDA, all the products \"may be contaminated with Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Enterobacter gergoviae,\" potentially dangerous bacteria. Gilchrist & Soames said that all recipients were notified of the recall of the dangerous products and they were able to recall up to 75", "-27.271770852268673" ], [ "mouth moist in xerostomia (dry mouth). Cosmetic mouthrinses temporarily control or reduce bad breath and leave the mouth with a pleasant taste.\nRinsing with water or mouthwash after brushing with a fluoride toothpaste can reduce the availability of salivary fluoride. This can lower the anti-cavity re-mineralization and antibacterial effects of fluoride. Fluoridated mouthwash may mitigate this effect or in high concentrations increase available fluoride. A group of experts discussing post brushing rinsing in 2012 found that although there was clear guidance given in many public health advice publications to \"spit, avoid rinsing with water/excessive rinsing with water\" they believed", "-27.268306226178538" ], [ "removal of dental plaque and food from the teeth, it can aid in the elimination and/or masking of halitosis when tonsil stones are not the cause, and it can deliver active ingredients such as fluoride to prevent tooth and gum (gingiva) disease.\nThere is evidence that the addition of xylitol to fluoride-containing toothpastes reduces incidence of tooth decay by about 13%. Tooth powder Tooth powder (or 'toothpaste powder') is an alternative to toothpaste. It may be recommended for people with sensitive teeth. Tooth powder typically does not contain the chemical sodium lauryl sulphate which can be a skin irritant.", "-27.26502006687224" ], [ "vulnerable and must be protected from moisture. If contamination occurs, the chains will degrade and the GIC lose its strength and optical properties. Conversely, dehydration early on will crack the cement and make the surface porous.\nOver the next twenty four hours maturation occurs. The less stable calcium polyacrylate chains are progressively replaced by aluminium polyacrylate, allowing the calcium to join the fluoride and phosphate and diffuse into the tooth substrate, forming polysalts, which progressively hydrate to yield a physically stronger matrix.\nThe incorporation of fluoride delays the reaction, increasing the working time. Other factors are the temperature of the cement, and", "-27.26286258467735" ], [ "cannot be removed by brushing or flossing. Plaque build up and bone loss Plaque accumulation tends to be thickest along the gumline. Because of the proximity of this area to the gum tissue, the bacterial plaque begin to irritate and infect the gums. This infection of the gum causes the gum disease known as gingivitis, which literally means inflammation of the gingiva, or gums. Gingivitis is characterized by swelling, redness and bleeding gums. It is the first step in the decline of periodontal health, and the only step which can be fully reversed to restore one's oral health.\nAs the gingival", "-27.217609882081888" ], [ "is some evidence that chlorhexidine mouthwash used prior to extractions prevents alveolar osteitis. Dental trauma and cracked tooth syndrome Cracked tooth syndrome refers to a highly variable set of pain-sensitivity symptoms that may accompany a tooth fracture, usually sporadic, sharp pain that occurs during biting or with release of biting pressure, or relieved by releasing pressure on the tooth. The term is falling into disfavor and has given way to the more generalized description of fractures and cracks of the tooth, which allows for the wide variations in signs, symptoms, and prognosis for traumatized teeth. A fracture of a tooth", "-27.20006228669081" ], [ "caries but only if the depth of sulcus has not been compromised. Additional aids include interdental brushes, water picks, and mouthwashes. The use of rotational electric toothbrushes might reduce the risk of plaque and gingivitis, though it is unclear whether they are of clinical importance.\nHowever oral hygiene is effective at preventing gum disease (gingivitis / periodontal disease). Food is forced inside pits and fissures under chewing pressure, leading to carbohydrate-fuelled acid demineralisation where the brush, fluoride toothpaste, and saliva have no access to remove trapped food, neutralise acid, or remineralise tooth enamel. (Occlusal caries accounts for between 80 and 90%", "-27.198292731132824" ], [ "tooth pain.\nSome Sensodyne products contain calcium sodium phosphosilicate CSPS (Novamin), which appears to help with tooth sensitivity. A randomized clinical trial published in 2015 demonstrated that dentifrices containing 5% CSPS may have the potential to mineralize and occlude the dentine in the oral environment. Sensodyne has removed the calcium sodium phosphosilicate from their US products. History Sensodyne is a brand of toothpaste that was first sold by Block Drug, a Brooklyn, New York-based company established in 1907 by pharmacist Alexander Block.\nBy 1925, manufacturing dental care products had become the company’s focus. Leonard N. Block followed his father into", "-27.196378183434717" ], [ "and enhance flavor. Salty Saltiness is the taste of alkali metal ions such as sodium and potassium. It is found in almost every food in low to moderate proportions to enhance flavor, although to eat pure salt is regarded as highly unpleasant. There are many different types of salt, with each having a different degree of saltiness, including sea salt, fleur de sel, kosher salt, mined salt, and grey salt. Other than enhancing flavor, its significance is that the body needs and maintains a delicate electrolyte balance, which is the kidney's function. Salt may be iodized, meaning iodine has been", "-27.138108435785398" ], [ "inhibiting build-up of bacteria and food trapped within such fissures and grooves. Dental sealants also provide a smooth surface that is easily accessible for both our natural protective factor, saliva and the toothbrush bristles when cleaning our teeth. Multiple oral health care professionals including dentists, dental therapists, dental hygienists, oral health therapists and dental assistants (in some states in the USA) are able to apply dental sealants to teeth.\nPreventive treatment options for dental caries besides dental sealants, involve promoting and education on toothbrushing technique with fluoride toothpaste, use of fluoride supplements and application of topical fluorides onto tooth surfaces. History", "-27.102504894835874" ], [ "if careful periodontal examination is not carried out.\nFactors indicating infection include movement of fluid in the tissues during palpation (fluctuance), swollen lymph nodes in the neck, and fever with an oral temperature more than 37.7 °C. Prevention Since most toothache is the result of plaque-related diseases, such as tooth decay and periodontal disease, the majority of cases could be prevented by avoidance of a cariogenic diet and maintenance of good oral hygiene. That is, reduction in the number times that refined sugars are consumed per day and brushing the teeth twice a day with fluoride toothpaste and interdental cleaning. Regular visits", "-27.09781310112885" ], [ "developing countries.\nA lack of fluorine in the diet is the cause of a greatly increased incidence of dental caries. Fluoride salts can be added to table salt with the goal of reducing tooth decay, especially in countries that have not benefited from fluoridated toothpastes and fluoridated water. The practice is more common in some European countries where water fluoridation is not carried out. In France, 35% of the table salt sold contains added sodium fluoride. Other kinds Unrefined sea salt contains small amounts of magnesium and calcium halides and sulfates, traces of algal products, salt-resistant bacteria and sediment particles. The", "-27.092954249237664" ], [ "attempts to increase the flow of saliva, halt tooth decay, and encourage behavioral changes.\nToothpaste with fluoride is very important to the restoration of dental health. Prescription fluoride rinses can adequately treat the condition as well. Sialogogues, drugs that increase the amount of saliva in the mouth, can be used to treat dry mouth and protect against dental health problems. Pilocarpine and cevimeline are sialogogues approved by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) to treat low salivation caused by Sjogren's syndrome and may have the potential to effectively treat dry mouth caused by methamphetamine use. Uncertainty There have not been any", "-27.09286746394355" ], [ "mouthwash variants in the United States of America has grown from 15 (1970) to 66 (1998) to 113 (2012). Research Research in the field of microbiotas shows that only a limited set of microbes cause tooth decay, with most of the bacteria in the human mouth being harmless. Focused attention on cavity-causing bacteria such as Streptococcus mutans has led research into new mouthwash treatments that prevent these bacteria from initially growing. While current mouthwash treatments must be used with a degree of frequency to prevent this bacteria from regrowing, future treatments could provide a viable long-term solution. Alcohol Alcohol is", "-27.091909029113594" ], [ "of pH levels in the saliva. This can be sugary/ acidic foods and liquids. The reasoning behind this is that an increase in acidity of saliva can induce demineralization and therefore compromising the tooth structure to abrasive factors such as tooth brushing or normal wear from mastication. When the tooth structure is compromised, this is where the mineral content of the saliva can create shallow depressions in the enamel and thus, when brushed can cause irreparable damage on tooth surface. The dental abrasion process can be further stimulated and accelerated through the effects of dental Acid erosion. Removal of Causes", "-27.090356367756613" ], [ "method of food preservation historically; the salt draws water out of bacteria through osmotic pressure, keeping it from reproducing, a major source of food spoilage. Even though more effective desiccants are available, few are safe for humans to ingest. Water softening Hard water contains calcium and magnesium ions that interfere with action of soap and contribute to the buildup of a scale or film of alkaline mineral deposits in household and industrial equipment and pipes. Commercial and residential water-softening units use ion-exchange resins to remove the offending ions that cause the hardness. These resins are generated and regenerated using sodium", "-27.08498120389413" ], [ "salicylate. CPC containing mouthwash contains cetyl pyridinium chloride, found in brands such as Colgate Plax, Crest Pro Health, Oral B Pro Health Rinse. In a meta-analyses completed in 2016, EO and CPC mouthrinses were compared and it was found that plaque and gingivitis levels were lower with EO mouthrinse when used as an adjunct to mechanical plaque removal (toothbrushing and interdental cleaning). Chlorhexidine Chlorhexidine gluconate is an antiseptic mouthrinse that should only be used in two-week time periods due to brown staining on the teeth and tongue. Compared to essential oils, it is more efficacious in controlling plaque levels, but", "-27.012702554908174" ] ]

[ "The format (apart from the tool standard) follows function and/or aesthetics - conic flat heads for when they need to be flush with the surface for example. Now, for the tool standard, they differ due to cost, application, evolution, competing standards, etc. The old simple slotted head is cheap to make and good for hand turning, but when you use an electric tool, they make it dufficult to keep the driver centered, so you start needing something different. The phillips type was developed with this in mind; it's self-centering, but they are also more prone to get damaged if the tool slips or a lot of torque is needed. For this case, the allen is better (albeit not self centering, but good for automated robot assembly). But hey, with excess torque it's also possible to damage the screw head - specially with the wrong size due to the metric/imperial mess of allen tools. Let's come up with an evolution - torx. No slipping, single size standard, more self-centering than allen (IMO, the best, we should only have torx). But that's more expensive to make than the old single slot, I guess, and relatively \"new\". Then there are the ones specifically made to avoid tinkering (require special, not easily available tools), and the opposite: ones made so you can use either a phillips or a standard slot screwdriver (I suppose for stuff designed to be self assembled by the average consumer who doesn't have dozens of screwdrivers).", " > Why there has to be these many types? Lots of reasons. For example, I believe Phillips head was created to solve the problem of your driver slipping out of a slot head screw. Phillips head is the most common, probably just from being grandfathered in as much as anything, but there's a more modern drive geometry called [Torx]( URL_1 ) (or generically \"hexalobular\"). One of the big advantages of Torx drives comes from a design feature of the Phillips head drive. Phillips head screws were designed so that your driver bit will slip out of the screw when you apply too much torque in order to prevent over-torquing your screws. This was a great feature at the time, but in the modern era of torque-controlled electric screwdrivers, it's a pain in the ass more than anything else. Torx-style screws were designed to prevent your driver from slipping out with too much torque, and also to allow more efficient torque-transmission in general. Another type of screw that intentionally causes your screwdriver to slip is the [one way screw]( URL_2 ). This geometry allows you to tighten the screw without difficulty, but your screwdriver will slip right out if you try to loosen it. Most other drive types are primarily to prevent people from tampering with things. For example, I work for a company that makes traffic products that go out on the street, and we use a security screw called [pinned torx]( URL_0 ) (which are just torx but with a pin in the center to prevent people from using a regular torx driver) to prevent some punk-ass kid with a screwdriver from taking our stuff apart. There are all kinds of weird drive types out there, but for the most part their purpose is to prevent tampering. My only other observation is about the screw in the OP's picture with the embossed \"+\" and \"-\". I'm guessing this attaches to something like a potentiometer--i.e. an electrical resistor whose resistance changes when you turn a knob. Potentiometers are often used for things like volume knobs, so the \"+\" and \"-\" tell you which direction to turn to make things louder or quieter. The point on one side gives you a reference so you can tell which positions of the screw give maximum and minimum volume. > Why not only one type so we dont have to use many screw drivers? Even if there were only one drive type, there would still need to be different *sizes* of screwdriver due to the need for different sizes of screw. For the most part, you can get away with using whatever screwdriver is lying around for a Phillips head screw, but using the wrong size will make you more likely to strip out the head. In some contexts this doesn't matter too much, but there are a lot of situations where it does. Also, other drive types (e.g. torx) are quite a bit more sensitive to using the wrong driver size. **EDIT:** Just a couple more, I promise... Two more notable ones are an inset hexagon screwhead and an embossed hexagon (or embossed square--both are in OP's picture). The inset hexagon allows you to drive with an Allen wrench, and the embossed hexagon/square allow you to use a socket wrench/ratchet, both of which give you a much larger lever arm than a screwdriver would. This means in theory they can drive more torque than a regular screwdriver--the issue is a little more subtle than this due to the rather inefficient way that a hex driver transmits force, but for socket and Allen wrenches the answer is to make your lever arm long enough to offset the inefficiency.", "Remember that items like screw head formats are a product of hundreds of years of evolution, with each new generation/system improving on the previous standards and having issues of their own... Flat headed screws were simple and basic, but annoying to centre. Philips used modern/improved production techniques to make a more easily driven screw (albeit at the expense of being more easily stripped) Hex head made a system that allowed for a more positive connection, but had more reliance on correct sized drivers (which gives issues and potential problems when you also add a mix of metric and imperial) Torx and Robertson introduced more upgrades and simpler sizing, but are currently more of a niche product and typically more expensive... You also get the additional collection of less common systems designed as tamper proof or for specific uses like tri-wing screws or security bits. The biggest issue is that we don't instantly switch standards - we have old products requiring old standards, different systems will be more suitable in different products and even when there are clear benefits, big companies are slow to adapt thanks to costs, backward compatibilities and a whole myriad of other reasons, so we end up stuck with a myriad of competing and incompatible systems. While it would be lovely to come to a planet wide agreement to use torx, somehow I can't see us getting rid of the whole array of screwdrivers anytime soon...", "There are a few reasons. First, innovation. For most purposes, the Phillips screw (+) is an improvement on the slotted screw, because the Phillips will stay centered on its own. Robertson (square), Torx (star) or Allen (hexagon) screws are all improvements over Phillips for most purposes, because they are less likely to slip, but these each came from different sources who probably didn't consult each other and each had different ideas on how to solve this problem. Second, \"security\". A screw head might have an rare or modified form to it that is hard to work with unless you have the right special screwdriver. There is, for instance, a modified Torx screw that has bump in the middle that keeps a regular Torx bit from being able to fit in there far enough to turn the screw. For the same reason, there are things like Apple's infamous \"pentalobe\" screws, which look like a flower. Third, purpose. In some applications, it may be okay for a screw head to sit up on the surface of the thing it is screwed into, in others you might want it to sink partway into the surface, or all the way, or even below the surface in order for you to be able to put a cap on top of it to give it whatever look the designer thinks is appropriate. Edit: Some of the screws in your photo are actually designed to be driven by more than one kind of screwdriver, as well. Notably, the second and third in the top row can be driven by a Phillips or by a coin, and the middle two in the bottom row can be driven by a flathead, or a nut driver, or a wrench, or in the one more to the right, a Phillips.", "Honestly it's all preference of the engineer who designs it. I'm a mech engineer who makes control panels that are commonly serviced by clueless service techs. So any fastener that is going on something like plastic has to be Philips otherwise it will be over tightened and crack the plastic. I mostly design sheet metal structures so I use machine bolts (hex heads) for just about everything. But thats only because I used to be an auto tech so anything I design has to have machine bolts, because that's my preference. Yea you could also use torx or allen keys for high torque application but it's not efficient to have your service tech switching tools so often, and they are less likely to have them on hand. That's why I love Japanese vehicles. Everything is a 10mm. Have you ever worked on a Harley? That's why I design fasteners as consistently and conveniently as possible.", "It's a balance between strength of the connection and cost. Screws with a flathead connection are extremely cheap to make, but the flathead connection 1) is difficult to deliver a lot of force to and 2) doesn't handle repeated insertion/removal well. The philips head connection, on the other hand, can easily delivery significantly more force and can handle repeated insertion/removal, but it costs more. When you can get away with it, you'd rather use the flathead to save money, but the philips head (or something even stronger) may be required depending on the application. There's other factors as well, such as size/shape of the screw head and, as /u/SinkTube mentioned, security concerns.", "Relevant [xkcd]( URL_0 ) But jokes aside, different screws are less/more prone to stripping at different levels of torque (say, torx vs philips), do/do not self-center (flathead vs allen), and also offer security due to irregular shape (all of the apple ones or security torx).", "I sell fasteners for (mostly) old Euro car restorations, so can help with the answer... When you need a screw in most industries, it needs to be the same screw as the one that was broken/lost.... A lot of times, machines and equipment have spec sheets that call out for (example) a slotted.counter sunk screw. You could easily use a phillips drive, counter sunk, or robinson, or pozi drive, or hex drive etc..but in these instances, the person sourcing the fasteners MUST stick to what was required. Another example is the classic auto industry. People want what was time period correct. To summarize - We didn't always have 15 different types. The slotted head, preceded the phillips, and the phillips the torx, and so on... It only appears that we now how this huge choice as fastener suppliers still make the old styles as there is still a demand for the above reasons (and many more). Now...go find me a pentalobe drive cheesehead nickel over brass screw for my 19th century telescope...!!!", "Originally there was the flat type screw and driver which had a number of problems such as camming out which damages the screw head. A Canadian inventor, P. L. Robertson created and patented his square drive screw and driver manufacturing process that uses a cold forming double press on the screw head in 1908 that solved the camming problem as well as made the screw stay on the tip of the screw driver as well. Additionally he gave away the screw driver as a method of boosting sales. Henry Ford liked the design so well he offered Robertson $10,000.00 for the patent but Robertson refused to sell. Ford then said he would insure that no Robertson screws would ever be sold in the U.S. and used his influence to make sure that happened. The Phillips design was created to work around the camming problem but that didn't allow the screw to stay on the tip of the driver either so it was only a partial improvement.", "There are so many different head designs because of the huge number of applications in machinery like automobiles, aircraft, etc. The head type is going to be dependent on the characteristics of the joint you are trying to assemble with the installation of the screw. You can torque socket head cap screws more than a Phillips head screw which will result in more tensile preload in the joint.", "And why do they put flat head screws on socket covers? One slip and you're done", "To add to the answers already posted, the type of screw head that is best for the job depends on a few factors. Type of material (wood, metal, plastic, composite, etc...) is a big consideration. If you want the screw to sit flush, but you're not going to fill the hole, you'd want something like a square head or Torx bit. [This illustration shows the benefits of Torx screws]( URL_0 ). When I worked construction, we would use size M 25 screw heads to fasten deck boards to the floor joyce that underneath the boards. We used a really nice, very hard type of wood called Balau. Torx screws were chosen because they can handle an immense amount of torque without stripping. Moreover, the Torx design allows the screw head to be very small in diameter compared to a Phillips screw of the same length (about 3 inches). The Phillips screw head would have to be much larger diameter to handle the amount of torque necessary to drive the screw down flush with the wood. You would also have to countersink the hole before drilling the Phillips screw since the screw head would be a cone, and the base of the cone is the circumference of your screw head. On a deck surface, you don't want any screws poking their heads up, and Torx screws were the best choice in our case. My favorite decks are made with hidden fasteners. Those are a bitch to construct, but they look so great when complete. Phillips screws are very common and inexpensive conspired to their newer, sexier screw-head counterparts. They are best for all-around applications like drywall, where you're using a lot of screws, but the screw heads won't be visible. So for me, the biggest considerations when choosing a screw head are type of materials, location, and cost.", "This is more of a history lesson, but the real question should be \"Why do manufacturers STILL make many different screw heads?\" Unfortunately, in this modern world, there are still idiotic countries, like the cocky (ignorant) assholes in America, my home country, and very nostalgic ones in other countries, and legacy industries that figure, \"if it ain't broke, don't fix it.\" In America, we've refused to adopt the MUCH simpler, universal Metric system. The metric system was created to standardize everything in the simplest way possible. They chose what was the most cost effective, yet functional design across the engineering spectrum. Nearly every other design came from the legacy industry that they originated in. Slotted screws can be easily blacksmithed, so they were first. Then people realized they sucked to use, so put an + so they screw driver wouldn't slip out. Then they stripped, so they came out with a socket head. Then, those stripped, so they came out with Torx. Those are the best we have commercially available. But, for the most strength, there's always been the bolt, which needs a wrench. But, only because of America, do we have so many stupid sizes that you can't remember. They refuse to give up on the imperial system, when even the country that invented them, England, thought it was stupid in the modern age. It just makes everything more expensive to keep going with two systems.", "Lots of reasons. Flatheads generally need to keep the torque low. Fine for little plastic pieces, but bad for anything that's gonna need to be tightened down hard, you know, stuff that would take a beating, like cars, bikes, etc. But they're simple to use, difficult to strip, and cheap to make. Phillips tend to run into the same issue with *higher* torques. But generally are a lot better than flatheads. But they're easier to strip, slightly more costly to make, but still simple to use. Hex/Alan can withstand a lot of torque, pretty useful for your rough and tumble applications. But will get stripped real easily if you use the wrong bits, generally slightly more costly to make, and also use the least common type of bit. Anything Else: Security reasons. They're frequently called \"security screws\" this has the potential upside of no one being able to undo it and fuck with your stuff. It has the down side of you can't fuck with your own stuff, and who is gonna fuck with something rather than just steal it in that sort of situation anyway? To be fair, sometimes the security bit is included in the packaging. However, some companies use these *cough cough* APPLE *cough cough* so that home repairs or upgrades are impossible and you have to take them to a licensed repairs shop to actually work on it.", "Once upon a time all screws were flat head, flat head screws are easy to make you just cut a grove on top. Then Philips thought with a self centering design it would be easier to keep the screws in line with your screwdriver and came up with the cross head, with a magnetised head the screw stays just where needs to as you line it up with your holes. But cross heads slip easily which can quickly turn a stubborn screw into a cone head which is imposible to remove. So people came up with more durable desighns and this happened: URL_0 Then there are companies which deliberatly use proprietry screw heads to stop their customers from fixing their devices themselves. Such as those awful one way screws if they don't even want to fix it themselves.", "I've worked in a factory with a lot of automation and injection molding machines and 90% of all the screws are socket heads or \"Umbrako\" as we normally called them. They are versatile because there are various wrenches designs that you can choose depending of the work you are doing. Even the molds that I worked with, only had socket heads, but in that case you have to choose the best quality screws, otherwise if you damage the screw head (like when using a pneumatic screwdriver), then it's a pain in the ass to remove them.", "I csn semi-answer. I work in automotive manufacturing, and we use weird screws for any exposed screws .... it's to save people from themselves. You need a semi-hard to find screwdriver head to remove them.... it's to prevent anyone besides proper mechanics from taking their car apart. Also on a warranty front, a customer could damage their automotive part and then claim the warranty for repairs. They could claim the screw was improperly assembled in the plant.", "And for that matter, why do car manufacturers use different size bolt heads on the same part of the engine? I mean, why do I have to swap sockets three times when removing an engine mount?", "Some are more suitable to a task than others. In most cases, its to screw with you, like manufacturers that insist on using proprietary connectors for their electronic devices.", "cause the guys selling the screw heads are selling the screw drivers too. The real question is what type of head is at the top of this conspiracy.", "If the world was a sane place where everyone used the superior Robertson bit, everyone could live in harmony." ]

[ [ "head and a square protrusion on the tool. Both the tool and the socket have a taper, which makes inserting the tool easier, and also tends to help keep the screw on the tool tip without the user needing to hold it there. (The taper's earliest reason for being was to make the manufacture of the screws practical using cold forming of the heads, but its other advantages helped popularize the drive.) Robertson screws are commonplace in Canada, though they have been used elsewhere, and have become much more common in other countries in recent decades. Robertson screwdrivers are easy", "-32.44850210356526" ], [ "are required to get all of the features into the screw head. This production method is used because heading has a very high production rate, and produces virtually no waste material. Slotted head screws require an extra step to cut the slot in the head; this is done on a slotting machine. These machines are essentially stripped down milling machines designed to process as many blanks as possible.\nThe blanks are then polished again prior to threading. The threads are usually produced via thread rolling; however, some are cut. The workpiece is then tumble finished with wood and leather media to", "-32.31743024394382" ], [ "important part of a set of pistols. The name was common in earlier centuries, used by cabinetmakers, shipwrights, and perhaps other trades. The cabinetmaker's screwdriver is one of the longest-established handle forms, somewhat oval or ellipsoid in cross section. This is variously attributed to improving grip or preventing the tool rolling off the bench. The shape has been popular for a couple of hundred years. It is usually associated with a plain head for slotted screws, but has been used with many head forms. Modern plastic screwdrivers use a handle with a roughly hexagonal cross section to", "-32.059605901507894" ], [ "are widely used in Europe and most of the Far East. While Pozidriv screws have cross heads like Phillips and are sometimes thought effectively the same, the Pozidriv design allows higher torque application than Phillips. It is often claimed that they can apply more torque than any of the other commonly used cross-head screwdriver systems, due to a complex fluting (mating) configuration.\nJapanese Industrial Standard (JIS) cross-head screwdrivers are still another standard, often inaccurately called Japanese Phillips. Compatible screw heads are usually identifiable by a single depressed dot or an \"X\" to one side of the cross slot.", "-31.387072746874765" ], [ "on them.\nThe hardline mechanic's tools (wrenches, ratchets, and sockets) that make up the core of the brand have been made by a variety of manufacturers over the years, including New Britain, Moore Drop Forging, Stanley, Easco Hand Tools, Danaher Corporation, and most recently Apex Tool Group. Screwdrivers have been manufactured by Pratt-Read and Western Forge, but are now supplied mostly exclusively by Western Forge, who also supply pliers and adjustable wrenches.\nBeginning in 2010, hand tools manufactured for Craftsman by Apex Tool Group (formerly known as Danaher) such as ratchets, sockets, and wrenches began to be sourced overseas (mainly in China,", "-31.386672221444314" ], [ "than an external wrench. Screwdrivers are applied in-line with the fastener, rather than from the side. These are smaller than most wrench heads and cannot usually apply the same amount of torque. It is sometimes assumed that screwdriver heads imply a screw and wrenches imply a bolt, although this is incorrect. Coach screws are large square-headed screws with a tapered wood screw thread, used for attaching ironwork to timber.\nHead designs that overlap both are the Allen or Torx heads; hexagonal or splined sockets. These modern designs span a large range of sizes and can carry a considerable torque.", "-31.032338183140382" ], [ "out at lower torque levels than other \"cross head\" designs, an effect caused by the tapered profile of the flutes which makes them easier to insert into the screw than other similar styles. There has long been a popular belief that this was actually a deliberate feature of the design. Evidence is lacking for this specific narrative and the feature is not mentioned in the original patents. However, a subsequent refinement to the original design described in US Patent #2,474,994 describes this feature.\nRobertson, also known as a square, or Scrulox screw drive has a square-shaped socket in the screw", "-31.02013951423578" ], [ "thread rolling, and coating. Screws are normally made from wire, which is supplied in large coils, or round bar stock for larger screws. The wire or rod is then cut to the proper length for the type of screw being made; this workpiece is known as a blank. It is then cold headed, which is a cold working process. Heading produces the head of the screw. The shape of the die in the machine dictates what features are pressed into the screw head; for example a flat head screw uses a flat die. For more complicated shapes two heading processes", "-30.775141419027932" ], [ "couldn't secure licensing for them in the United States, limited their production use to his Canadian division. Robertson-head screwdrivers are available in a standard range of tip-sizes, from 1.77mm to 4.85mm.\nReed and Prince, also called Frearson, is another historic cross-head screw configuration. The cross in the screw head is sharper and less rounded than a Phillips, and the bit has 45° flukes and a sharper, pointed end. Also, the Phillips screw slot is not as deep as the Reed and Prince slot. In theory, different size R&P screws fit any R&P bit size.\nPozidriv and the related Supadriv", "-30.66536906833062" ], [ "both use spindles in production. The use of spindles, which are able to drill, bore and cut the workpiece, allows several functions simultaneously on both machines. A key difference between the machines is that the automatic chucker handles larger work, which due to its size is more often chucking work and less often bar work. The Fay automatic lathe was a variant that specialized in turning work on centers. While a screw machine is limited to around 80 millimetres (3.1 in) practice, automatic chuckers are available that can handle up to 300 millimetres (12 in) chucks. The chucks are air-operated. Many of", "-30.50122897187248" ], [ "groove in a softer material as the screw is inserted. The most common uses of screws are to hold objects together and to position objects.\nA screw will usually have a head on one end that contains a specially formed shape that allows it to be turned, or driven, with a tool. Common tools for driving screws include screwdrivers and wrenches. The head is usually larger than the body of the screw, which keeps the screw from being driven deeper than the length of the screw and to provide a bearing surface. There are exceptions; for instance, carriage bolts have", "-30.40750972519163" ], [ "can only be truly understood within the context of screw making in general. Thus the discussion below begins with a simple overview of screw making in prior centuries, and how it evolved into 19th-, 20th-, and 21st-century practice.\nHumans have been making screws since ancient times. For most of those centuries, screw making generally involved custom cutting of the threads of each screw by hand (via whittling or filing). Other ancient methods involved wrapping wire around a mandrel (such as a stick or metal rod) or carving a tree branch that had been spirally wrapped by a vine.\nVarious machine elements that", "-30.193302589002997" ], [ "conical helix. The brothers Job and William Wyatt found a way to produce a screw on a novel machine that first cut the slotted head, and then cut the helix. Though their business ultimately failed, their contribution to low-cost manufacturing of the screw ultimately led to a vast increase in the screw and the screwdriver's popularity. The increase in popularity gradually led to refinement and eventually diversification of the screwdriver. Refinement of the precision of screws also significantly contributed to the boom in production, mostly by increasing its efficiency and standardizing sizes, important precursors to industrial manufacture.\nCanadian P.L. Robertson, though", "-30.142846677044872" ], [ "the screw themselves can be used as implants. For example, dental implants can be found in the form of screws. There are two type of screw designs that are suitable as dental implants, screw-root form and plateau-root form designed screws. The two screw designs have different osseointegration outcomes, longevity and healing processes. The screw-root form design is directly threaded into bone and has macroscopic retentive elements for initial bone fixation. A direct connection between bone and the implant provides high initial stability. Over time, screw-root form designs experience bone resorption and “bone modelling and remodelling at the bone to implant", "-30.123545234790072" ], [ "were produced with this method. These cut wood screws are almost invariably tapered, and even when the tapered shank is not obvious, they can be discerned because the threads do not extend past the diameter of the shank. Such screws are best installed after drilling a pilot hole with a tapered drill bit. The majority of modern wood screws, except for those made of brass, are formed on thread rolling machines. These screws have a constant diameter, threads with a larger diameter than the shank, and are stronger because the rolling process does not cut the grain of the metal.", "-30.057045652763918" ], [ "between the screw's threads), the greater the mechanical advantage (the ratio of output to input force). Screws are widely used in threaded fasteners to hold objects together, and in devices such as screw tops for containers, vises, screw jacks and screw presses.\nOther mechanisms that use the same principle, also called screws, don't necessarily have a shaft or threads. For example, a corkscrew is a helix-shaped rod with a sharp point, and an Archimedes' screw is a water pump that uses a rotating helical chamber to move water uphill. The common principle of all screws is that", "-30.024172143894248" ], [ "screw heads that are often installed or removed with screwdriver type handles and appropriate type tip have socket varieties that fit the various screw head types and a can be attached to a socket wrench. Conversely, for low torque situations, a \"socket spinner\" screwdriver handle with a socket wrench type fitting on one end can be attached to many different types of sockets, bit drivers and extensions.", "-29.974728857399896" ], [ "first screw machine and make its screws in-house, which soon led to SPS's foray into fastener sales (for which it later became well known within the metalworking industries). Hallowell said that \"[for] a while we experimented with a screw containing a square hole like the British screw but soon found these would not be acceptable in this country [the U.S.]. Then we decided to incorporate a hexagon socket into the screw […].\" Hallowell does not elaborate on why SPS found that the square hole \"would not be acceptable in this country\", but it seems likely that it would have to", "-29.93865417665802" ], [ "nut. Screws are then defined as headed, externally threaded fasteners that do not meet the above definition of bolts. These definitions of screw and bolt eliminate the ambiguity of the Machinery's handbook distinction. And it is for that reason, perhaps, that some people favor them. However, they are neither compliant with common usage of the two words nor are they compliant with formal specifications.\nA possible distinction is that a screw is designed to cut its own thread; it has no need for access from or exposure to the opposite side of the component being fastened to. This", "-29.81465553684393" ], [ "Screw (simple machine) A screw is a mechanism that converts rotational motion to linear motion, and a torque (rotational force) to a linear force. It is one of the six classical simple machines. The most common form consists of a cylindrical shaft with helical grooves or ridges called threads around the outside. The screw passes through a hole in another object or medium, with threads on the inside of the hole that mesh with the screw's threads. When the shaft of the screw is rotated relative to the stationary threads, the screw moves along", "-29.760697829711717" ], [ "signature headstock designs that make their guitars or guitar series easily recognizable. As seen in a section below, even \"copied\" at the first glance designs retain clear visible changes in dimensions, proportions of elements, etc., so it is almost always possible to tell a major brand of a guitar by looking at headstock. Matching headstock On some electric guitars and basses the finish used on the body is also applied to the face of the headstock. Generally, matched-headstock models carry a price premium over their plain counterparts due to the extra processes involved in the finishing process.\nAlthough Fender no longer", "-29.715178812039085" ], [ "that such screws were probably not manufactured until around 1910. Rybczynski (2000) describes a flurry of patents for alternative drive types in the 1860s to the 1890s in the US, which are confirmed to include internal-wrenching square and triangle types (that is, square and triangular sockets) (U.S. Patent 161,390), but he explains that these were patented but not manufactured because of the difficulties and expense of doing so at the time. P. L. Robertson, of Milton, Ontario, Canada, first commercialized the square socket in 1908, having perfected and patented a suitable cold forming method, using the right material and the", "-29.585041773796547" ], [ "called a screw. This is most obviously so when the thread is tapered (i.e. traditional wood screws), precluding the use of a nut, or when a sheet metal screw or other thread-forming screw is used.\nA screw must always be turned to assemble the joint. Many bolts are held fixed in place during assembly, either by a tool or by a design of non-rotating bolt, such as a carriage bolt, and only the corresponding nut is turned. Bolt heads Bolts use a wide variety of head designs, as do screws. These are designed to engage with the tool used to tighten", "-29.448587966850027" ], [ "a \"head\"; it does not. Such a flat-headed screw may have a slotted, cross, square recessed, or combination head. Before the development of the newer bit types, the flat-blade was called the \"Common-Blade\", because it was the most common one. Depending on the application, the name of this screwdriver may differ. Within the automotive/heavy electric industries, it is known as a \"flat head screwdriver\"; within the avionics and mining industries, it is known as a \"standard screwdriver\". Though there are many names, the original device from 1908 was known as a \"flat-head screw turner\".\nAmong slotted screwdrivers, variations at the blade", "-29.349517676979303" ], [ "This is a screw standard throughout the Asia market and Japanese imports. The driver has a 57° point with a flat tip.\nMany modern electrical appliances, if they contain screws, use screws with heads other than the typical slotted or Phillips styles. Torx is one such pattern that has become widespread. It is a spline tip with a corresponding recess in the screw head. The main cause of this trend is manufacturing efficiency: Torx screwdriver tips do not slip out of the fastener as easily as would a Phillips or slotted driver. (Slotted screws are rarely used in mass-produced", "-29.252170134946937" ], [ "Screw A screw is a type of fastener, in some ways similar to a bolt (see Differentiation between bolt and screw below), typically made of metal, and characterized by a helical ridge, known as a male thread (external thread). Screws are used to fasten materials by digging in and wedging into a material when turned, while the thread cuts grooves in the fastened material that may help pull fastened materials together and prevent pull-out. There are many screws for a variety of materials; those commonly fastened by screws include wood, sheet metal, and plastic. Explanation A screw is a", "-29.16633213701425" ], [ "Headstock A headstock or peghead is part of a guitar or similar stringed instrument such as a lute, mandolin, banjo, ukulele and others of the lute lineage. The main function of a headstock is to house the pegs or mechanism that holds the strings at the \"head\" of the instrument. At the \"tail\" of the instrument the strings are usually held by a tailpiece or bridge. Machine heads on the headstock are commonly used to tune the instrument by adjusting the tension of strings and, consequentially, the pitch of sound they produce. Signature headstock outlines Most major guitar brands have", "-29.142741170711815" ], [ "the screw was used in the form of the screw press and the Archimedes' screw.\nGreek philosophers defined the screw as one of the simple machines and could calculate its (ideal) mechanical advantage. For example, Heron of Alexandria (52 AD) listed the screw as one of the five mechanisms that could \"set a load in motion\", defined it as an inclined plane wrapped around a cylinder, and described its fabrication and uses,\nincluding describing a tap for cutting female screw threads.\nBecause their complicated helical shape had to be laboriously cut by hand, screws were only used as linkages in a few machines", "-29.126517958473414" ], [ "the making of screws. The 1760–1840 development arc was a tremendous technological advance, but later advancements would make screws even cheaper and more prevalent yet again. These began in the 1840s with the adaptation of the engine lathe with a turret-head toolholder to create the turret lathe. This development greatly reduced the time, effort, and skill needed from the machine operator to produce each machine screw. Single-pointing was forgone in favor of die head cutting for such medium- and high-volume repetitive production. Then, in the 1870s, the turret lathe's part-cutting cycle (sequence of movements) was automated by being put under", "-28.959738000121433" ], [ "the tip of the blade, which, due to the taper, increases its thickness and consequently allows more precise engagement with the slot in the screw. This approach creates a set of graduated slotted screwdrivers that fit a particular screw for a tighter engagement and reduce screw head deformation. However, many better-quality screwdriver blades are already induction-hardened (surface heat-treated), and tip grinding after manufacture compromises their durability. Thus, it is best to select a tip made to fit precisely to begin with, and avoid weakening the factory heat-treatment.\nPhillips screwdrivers come in several standard sizes, ranging from tiny \"jeweler's\" to those", "-28.95928121585166" ], [ "might today best call a screw machine of an early and prescient sort. It made use of a leadscrew to guide the cutter to produce the desired pitch, and the slot was cut with a rotary file while the main spindle held still (presaging live tools on lathes 250 years later). Not until 1776 did the Wyatt brothers have a wood-screw factory up and running. Their enterprise failed, but new owners soon made it prosper, and in the 1780s they were producing 16,000 screws a day with only 30 employees—the kind of industrial productivity and output volume that would later", "-28.868454473325983" ], [ "achieve these same two goals, a far cry from the pear-shaped handle of the original 15th-century screwdriver. Handle The handle and shaft of screwdrivers have changed considerably over time. The design is influenced by both purpose and manufacturing requirements. The \"Perfect Pattern Handle\" screwdriver was first manufactured by HD Smith & Company, which operated from 1850 to 1900. Many manufacturers adopted this handle design. The \"flat bladed\" screwdriver was another design composed of drop-forged steel with riveted wood handles.\nThe shape and material of many modern screwdriver handles are designed to fit comfortably in the user's hand, for user comfort", "-28.861435280108708" ], [ "took on many shapes and sizes, though all for slotted screws. There were large, heavy-duty screwdrivers for building and repairing large machines, and smaller screwdrivers for refined cabinet work.\nThe screwdriver depended entirely on the screw, and it took several advances to make the screw easy enough to produce to become popular and widespread. The most popular door hinge at the time was the butt-hinge, but it was considered a luxury. The butt-hinge was handmade, and its constant motion required the security of a screw.\nScrews were very hard to produce before the First Industrial Revolution, requiring manufacture of a", "-28.85224400588777" ], [ "and Vander Woerd in various ways, albeit approaching the problem of automated screw production from a different commercial angle. All of the above machine tools (i.e., screw-cutting lathes; suitably equipped engine lathes and bench lathes; turret lathes; turret-lathe-derived screw machines; and wood-screw-factory screw machines) were sometimes called \"screw machines\" during this era (logically enough, given that they were machines tailored to screw making). The nomenclatural evolution whereby the term \"screw machine\" is often used more narrowly than that is discussed above.\nSpencer patented his idea in 1873; but his patent failed to protect the cam drum, which Spencer called the 'brain", "-28.607956676976755" ], [ "Lag screws (US) or coach screws (UK, Australia, and New Zealand) (also referred to as lag bolts or coach bolts, although this is a misnomer) are large wood screws. Square-headed and hex-headed lag screws are covered by ASME B18.2.1 standards, and the head is typically an external hex. A typical lag screw can range in diameter from ¹⁄₄ to 1 ¹⁄₄ in (6.35 to 31.75 mm), and lengths from ¹⁄₄ to 6 in (6.35 to 152.40 mm) or longer, with the coarse threads of a wood-screw or sheet-metal-screw threadform (but larger).\nThe materials are usually carbon steel substrate with a coating of zinc galvanization (for corrosion", "-28.603771346242866" ], [ "of the square edges of the Torx™. This is called a Pentalobe.\nSpecialized patterns of security screws are also used, such as the Line Head (LH) style by OSG System Products, Japan, as used in many Nintendo consoles, though drivers for the more common security heads are, again, readily available. Another type of security head has smooth curved surfaces instead of the slot edges that would permit loosening the screw; it is found in public rest room privacy partitions, and cannot be removed by conventional screwdrivers. Torque screwdrivers Screwdrivers are available—manual, electric, and pneumatic—with a clutch that slips at a preset", "-28.567643028800376" ], [ "to use a multi-purpose CNC machine, which now is commonly used in the business to maintain consistency in manufacturing. Tom Anderson and Bob Taylor worked together to adapt ultra-violet lighting to use for curing painted instruments, and the process is now used by several high-end acoustic guitar manufacturers. In 2006 their models started featuring a new neck joint called A-Wedgie, a compound wedge that requires little pressure to keep the neck in place and thus only uses two screws while most common joints use four. The company has also used the Buzz Feiten tuning system on their guitars for many", "-28.463027490244713" ], [ "development of machine heads and the use of embedded metal frets.\nBy 1825/30, the instruments usually had a headstock in a figure eight shape (similar in shape to the guitar's body). In 1825 Stauffer invented the machine heads named after him: a metal plate with an asymmetrical \"scroll\" headstock, machine heads with worm gears mounted on the plate, arranged in a single line on the upper side of the head stock (six-in-line). This \"Stauffer\" headstock and design was reproduced by his son Anton, and copied by many luthiers in the 19th century. The asymmetrical headstock is variously referred to as being", "-28.434603510191664" ], [ "that were built with an oval body. Head The head or \"headstock\" is located at the end of the guitar neck farthest from the body. Modern instruments are fitted with machine head tuners, though older instruments (particularly from the 19th century) sometimes used friction pegs. The traditional tuner layout is \"4+3\", with four tuners on the bass-string side of the head and three on the treble string side. The nut is a small strip traditionally of bone, but plastic, brass, and other materials are also sometimes seen. Neck Headstock, fingerboard (fretboard), and truss rod (if present), all attached", "-28.410597255569883" ], [ "The \"heads\" of the screws are fixed to the two objects whose spacing is to be adjusted. Each rotation of the fixture holding the nuts moves one screw into its nut by a small amount and moves the other screw out of its nut by a slightly larger amount. The total spacing between the screws, and thus the objects, will be slightly changed based on the difference in travel between the two screws.\nMore arrangements are possible. Two nuts can be fixed to each of two objects to be adjusted and the two screw heads attached to each other in the", "-28.378901480318746" ], [ "which employ a \"semi-solid\" body that is more solid than a traditional semi-hollow design, but chambered, and thus less solid than a typical solid body.\nHeritage guitars are made without the use of CNC machines for woodworking, utilizing a crude carver machine built by the original employees. Heritage is clear about the fact that their guitars are manufactured with no claims that they are handmade (although the website states \"The art of handcrafting fine American made instruments continues...\"). Such claims tend to arise from the company's fans and advocates, who are a small, but enthusiastic and loyal bunch.\nDuring the first", "-28.349703829939244" ], [ "Screw thread A screw thread, often shortened to thread, is a helical structure used to convert between rotational and linear movement or force. A screw thread is a ridge wrapped around a cylinder or cone in the form of a helix, with the former being called a straight thread and the latter called a tapered thread. A screw thread is the essential feature of the screw as a simple machine and also as a fastener.\nThe mechanical advantage of a screw thread depends on its lead, which is the linear distance the screw travels in one revolution. In most applications, the", "-28.333622890670085" ], [ "Herbert screw The Herbert screw (invented by Timothy Herbert) is a variable pitch cannulated screw typically made from titanium for its stainless properties as the screw is normally intended to remain in the patient indefinitely. It became generally available in 1978. It is also called as headless compression screw and is used to achieve interfragmentary compression through its differential pitch(distance between adjacent threads of screw).\nIt is used in scaphoid, capitellum, radial head and in osteochondral fractures. Other uses include osteochondritis dissecans & small joint arthodesis.", "-28.319875259127002" ], [ "of screws continued to push unit prices lower and lower for decades to come, throughout the 19th century.\nThe American development of the turret lathe (1840s) and of automatic screw machines derived from it (1870s) drastically reduced the unit cost of threaded fasteners by increasingly automating the machine tool control. This cost reduction spurred ever greater use of screws.\nThroughout the 19th century, the most commonly used forms of screw head (that is, drive types) were simple internal-wrenching straight slots and external-wrenching squares and hexagons. These were easy to machine and served most applications adequately. Rybczynski describes a flurry of", "-28.316819482759456" ], [ "screw tops have multiple pieces. For example, a mason jar often has a lid with a built in rubbery seal and a separate threaded ring or band. Crown cap Beverage bottles are frequently closed with crown beverage caps. These are shallow metal caps that are crimped into locking position around the head of the bottle. Snap on Some closures snap on. For opening, the top is designed to pry off or, break off, or have a built in dispenser. Friction fit Some containers have a loose lid for a closure. Laboratory glassware often has", "-28.27624091063626" ], [ "in tool and die work and later in other manufacturing fields such as defense (aircraft, tanks, submarines), civilian aircraft, automobiles, bicycles, furniture and others.\nConcerning the dissemination of the screws and wrenches, Hallowell said that \"the transition from a square head set screw [Hallowell refers here to the then-ubiquitous external-wrenching square drive] to a hexagon socket head hollow set screw[,] for which had to be developed special keys or wrenches for tightening or loosening the screw, was the cause of more profanity among the mechanics and machine manufacturers than any other single event that happened. […] I am sure that the", "-28.24598665087251" ], [ "Screw cap A screw cap or closure is a common type of closure for bottles, jars, and tubes. Usage A screw closure is a mechanical device which is screwed on and off of a \"finish\" on a container. Either continuous threads or lugs are used. It must be engineered to be cost-effective, to provide an effective seal (and barrier), to be compatible with the contents, to be easily opened by the consumer, often to be reclosable, and to comply with product, package, and environmental laws and regulations. Some closures need to be tamper resistant and have child-resistant packaging", "-28.138645765720867" ], [ "chute by gravity and the rotation of the drum where it is broken up by the steel blades. The drum type is noisy and creates large uneven chips but are more energy efficient than the disk type. Screw-type A screw-type wood chipper contains a conical, screw-shaped blade. The blade rotation is set parallel to the opening so wood is pulled into the chipper by the spiral motion. Screw-type, also called high-torque rollers, are popular for residential use due to being quiet, easy to use and safer than disk and drum types. Applications Woodchips are used primarily as a raw material", "-27.9559499573661" ], [ "position, making a fixed, smaller opening which the material must pass through. More commonly found however, the screw press has the cone pushed into the point of discharge via a hydraulic or air cylinder. Specialized types Some other types of presses are vapor-tight presses, and twin-screw presses. Vapor-tight presses are used during the production of soybean protein concentrate (SPC), citrus and apple pectin, bioresin, and Xanthan gum. Twin-screw presses contain two overlapping compression screws. This is more complicated on a mechanical level because the screws must remain synchronized in order for them to work properly. ", "-27.945305352681316" ], [ "of what is a screw and what is a bolt is not completely resolved with Machinery's Handbook distinction, however, because of confounding terms, the ambiguous nature of some parts of the distinction, and usage variations. Some of these issues are discussed below: Wood screws Early wood screws were made by hand, with a series of files, chisels, and other cutting tools, and these can be spotted easily by noting the irregular spacing and shape of the threads, as well as file marks remaining on the head of the screw and in the area between threads. Many of these screws had", "-27.94000575733662" ], [ "combination of simple machines—it is in essence an inclined plane wrapped around a central shaft, but the inclined plane (thread) also comes to a sharp edge around the outside, which acts a wedge as it pushes into the fastened material, and the shaft and helix also form a wedge in the form of the point. Some screw threads are designed to mate with a complementary thread, known as a female thread (internal thread), often in the form of a nut, or object that has the internal thread formed into it. Other screw threads are designed to cut a helical", "-27.919658771832474" ], [ "Machine screws ASME standards specify a variety of \"Machine Screws\" in diameters ranging up to 0.75 in (19.05 mm). These fasteners are often used with nuts but also often driven into tapped holes (without nuts). They might be considered a screw or a bolt based on the Machinery's Handbook distinction. In practice, they tend to be mostly available in smaller sizes and the smaller sizes are referred to as screws or less ambiguously as machine screws, although some kinds of machine screw can be referred to as stove bolts. Hex cap screws ASME standard B18.2.1-1996 specifies Hex Cap Screws", "-27.81430770255247" ], [ "Torx Principles of operation By design, Torx head screws resist cam-out better than Phillips head or slot head screws. Whereas the tendency of Phillips drivers to cam out under excessive torque has been listed as a feature preventing damage to the screw-head or driver, Torx heads were designed to prevent cam-out. The development of better torque-limiting automatic screwdrivers for use in factories allowed this change. Rather than rely on the tool to slip out of the screw head when a desired torque level is reached (which risks damage to the driver tip, screw head, and/or workpiece), torque-limiting driver", "-27.810669295024127" ], [ "British Association screw threads British Association screw threads, or BA screw threads, are a largely obsolete set of small screw threads, the largest being 0BA at 6 mm diameter. They were, and to some extent still are, used for miniature instruments and modelling.\nThey are unusual in that they were probably the most \"scientific\" design of screw, starting with 0BA at 6.0 mm diameter and 1.0 mm pitch and progressing in a geometric sequence where each larger number was 0.9 times the pitch of the last size. They then rounded to 2 significant figures in metric and then converting to inches and rounding to", "-27.80547529042815" ], [ "usually made by chipping and filing (that is, with skilled freehand use of chisels and files). Nuts were rare; metal screws, when made at all, were usually for use in wood. Metal bolts passing through wood framing to a metal fastening on the other side were usually fastened in non-threaded ways (such as clinching or upsetting against a washer). Maudslay standardized the screw threads used in his workshop and produced sets of taps and dies that would make nuts and bolts consistently to those standards, so that any bolt of the appropriate size would fit any nut of the same", "-27.78163780044997" ], [ "lathe models \"screw machines\", but most machinists reserved the term for automatics.) Within this class called screw machines there were variations, such as single-spindle versus multispindle, horizontal-turret versus vertical-turret, etc.\nWith the advent of NC, screw machines diverged into two classes, mechanical and NC. This distinction continues today with mechanical screw machines and CNC screw machines. However, in shop-floor jargon, the term screw machine by itself is still often understood in context to imply a mechanical screw machine, so the retronym mechanical screw machine is not consistently used. Automatic chucker An automatic chucking machine is similar to an automatic screw machine;", "-27.77242466248572" ], [ "Screw joint A screw joint is a one-degree-of-freedom kinematic pair used in mechanisms. Screw joints provide single-axis translation by utilizing the threads of the threaded rod to provide such translation. This type of joint is used primarily on most types of linear actuators and certain types of cartesian robots.\nA Screw joint is sometimes considered as a separate type but it is actually a variation of bolted joint. The difference is that a screw is used rather that bolt, thus requiring an internal thread in one of the jointed parts. This can save space, however, continuous reuse of", "-27.74170565149325" ], [ "in factories of the day. The headless set screws would be less likely to catch the clothing of workers and pull them into injurious contact with the running shaft.\nSPS at the time was a prominent maker of shaft hangers and collars, the latter of which were set in place with set screws. In pursuit of headless set screws with a better drive than a straight slot, Hallowell said, SPS had sourced set screws of square-socket drive from Britain, but they were very expensive. (This was only 2 years after Robertson's Canadian patent.) This cost problem drove SPS to purchase its", "-27.682499283168" ], [ "more torque to turn than a simple, single lead screw with an equivalent pitch. Examples Many differential screw configurations are possible. The micrometer adjuster pictured uses a nut sleeve with different inner and outer thread pitches to connect a screw on the adjusting rod end with threads inside the main barrel; as the thimble rotates the nut sleeve, the rod and barrel move relative to each other based on the differential between the threads.\nAnother arrangement holds the two \"nuts\" co-axially in a single fixture and has two separate screws with slightly different pitches (length between threads) entering from opposite ends.", "-27.644320365288877" ], [ "guitar tops or veneers.\nOther parts of the modern guitar such as tuners, frets, the bridge, and the pickups are made out of metals and plastics. These materials offer increased performance and strength over wood or other organic material and are easy to obtain and machine.\nWith modern machining methods luthiers and companies are no longer confined to working with woods. In addition, as tonal woods that offer the best sound quality become increasingly hard to come by, manufacturers are exploring different materials for the neck and body of guitars.\nAluminum has become one of the most popular alternative materials for crafting bodies", "-27.644104273000266" ], [ "Sharples. The production of each instrument is done using hand tools and traditional methods without the use of electric tools or machines. CNC, side bending machines nor electric saws or drills are used in the construction of the instruments. The company’s instrument production is structured to allow their luthiers to create an instrument from beginning to completion without the use of a factory line structure.\nThe company appeared in Acoustic (magazine) in the March 2014 issue in the section In the Workshop. Later, in October 2014, Sharples provided the afterword in Acoustic Magazine's 'Book of British Guitar Making'.\nThe company attended South", "-27.58811620490451" ], [ "applied torque. The offset screwdriver has a handle set at right angles to the small blade, providing access to narrow spaces and giving extra torque. Drive tip Screwdrivers come in a large range of sizes to accommodate various screws—from tiny jeweller's screwdrivers up. A screwdriver that is not the right size and type for the screw may damage the screw in the process of tightening it.\nSome screwdriver tips are magnetic, so that the screw (unless non-magnetic) remains attached to the screwdriver without requiring external force. This is particularly useful in small screws, which are otherwise difficult to handle. Many screwdriver", "-27.54256999725476" ], [ "guitars. C.F. Martin uses the machines because of the precision and quality of cutting that CNC offers. The Plek machine is a CNC machine currently being implemented by a large number of guitar manufacturing companies. The machine is a time saving way to level and shape fret boards through a process called fret dressing.\nCNC machining does not do all of the work however. It is merely a tool to reduce variance between guitars, allowing craftsman to do their jobs more efficiently and quickly. Gibson Guitar Corporation has had 2 policies relating to the manufacturing of quality instruments throughout their 100", "-27.501210260234075" ], [ "screwdriver. One disadvantage of this design is that if the bit slips out of the screw, the resultant sudden extension of the spring may cause the bit to scratch or otherwise damage the workpiece.\nOnce very popular, versions of these spiral ratchet drivers using proprietary bits have been largely discontinued by manufacturers such as Stanley. Some companies now offer a modernized version that uses standard 1/4-inch hex shank power tool bits. Since a wide variety of drill bits are available in this format, the tool can do double duty as a \"push drill\" or Persian drill. Misuse Manual straight screwdrivers are", "-27.495665008755168" ], [ "all \"Omen\", \"C\", \"Hellraiser\" and \"Damien\" basses have the same body shape, although some have set necks rather than bolt on necks, different finish colors, and different woods. However, Schecter produces many different guitars from a smaller number of core parts. This mix and match culture has the benefit of allowing guitarists to find a Schecter to fit their exact requirements, but negatively gives less of a 'core product' range as shown by Gibson Guitars who only have a small range of guitars available.\nSome of the best known guitars made by Schecter are the 'C Series' in various configurations such", "-27.397313433204545" ], [ "he was not the first person to patent the idea of socket-head screws, was the first to successfully commercialize them, starting in 1908. Socket screws rapidly grew in popularity, and are still used for their resistance to wear and tear, compatibility with hex keys, and ability to stop a power tool when set. Though immensely popular, Robertson had trouble marketing his invention to the newly booming auto industry, for he was unwilling to relinquish his patents.\nMeanwhile, in Portland, Oregon, Henry F. Phillips patented his own invention, an improved version of a deep socket with a cruciform slot, today known as", "-27.26287065539509" ], [ "screw-in insert nuts come in various sizes and take different screw sizes. For example, a \"1/4-20\" insert nut will take a 1/4-20 inch bolt. The pre-drilled hole must be as deep as the length of the insert nut plus any portion of the bolt that may be screwed past the end of the nut in the work piece. Hammer-in type Hammer-in insert nuts, also known as knock-in nuts, are lined with barbs and are hammered in. They are often made of steel, brass or nylon. They are designed to work in wood and particle board.", "-27.207267257152125" ], [ "machining distorts the work-piece. Hard whirling is a recent (2008) precision machining technique that minimizes heating of the work, and can produce precision screws from case-hardened bar stock.\nInstrument quality screw shafts are typically precise to 250 nanometers per centimeter. They are produced on precision milling machines with optical distance measuring equipment and special tooling. Similar machines are used to produce optical lenses and mirrors. Instrument screw shafts are generally made of Invar, to prevent temperature from changing tolerances too much. Ball return systems The circulating balls travel inside the thread form of the screw and nut,", "-27.148976456548553" ], [ "screwdriver is forged out of \"Sheffield steel\". Commercial product Ownership of the sonic screwdriver was retained by the BBC. Victor Pemberton told an interviewer for Doctor Who Magazine, \"I'm very cross that the sonic screwdriver—which I invented—has been marketed with no credit to myself. … It's one thing not to receive any payment, but another not to receive any credit.\"\nThe toy version of the new series design (made by Character Options Ltd.) was slightly larger than the on screen version to accommodate a working sound chip. It also includes an ultraviolet light and changeable invisible ink nib for viewing messages", "-27.135457513497386" ], [ "Polyaxial screw A polyaxial screw is used for connecting vertebrae to rods in spinal surgery. It is essentially a screw whose spherical head is enclosed on a housing, which allows the screw a range of motion along several different axes relative to the housing. The ball joint allows the surgeon some flexibility in placing the screws.\nIt has also been hypothesized that polyaxial screws add a safety benefit by failing in the housing/screw interface before breaking in the shaft of the bone screw or in the orthopaedic rod. Unlike standard lateral mass plate and screw systems, the new cervical polyaxial screw", "-27.10328588890843" ], [ "the idea to make a [hex] socket head cap screw (SHCS). Hallowell said, \"Up to this moment none of us had ever seen a socket head cap screw, and what I am about to relate concerns what I believe was the first socket head cap screw ever made in this country [the U.S.].\" SPS gave their line of screws the Unbrako brand name, chosen for its echoing of the word unbreakable.\nHallowell said that acceptance of the internal-wrenching hexagon drive was slow at first (painfully slow for SPS's sales), but that it eventually caught on quite strongly. This adoption occurred first", "-27.072981085977517" ], [ "to use one-handed, because the tapered socket tends to retain the screw, even if it is shaken. They also allow for the use of angled screw drivers and trim head screws. The socket-headed Robertson screws are self-centering, reduce cam out, stop a power tool when set, and can be removed if painted-over or old and rusty. In industry, they speed up production and reduce product damage. One of their first major industrial uses was the Ford Motor Company's Model A & Model T production. Henry Ford found them highly reliable and saved considerable production time, but when he", "-27.050340324873105" ], [ "and to facilitate maximum control and torque. Designs include indentations for the user's fingers, and surfaces of a soft material such as thermoplastic elastomer to increase comfort and grip. Composite handles of rigid plastic and rubber are also common. Many screwdriver handles are not smooth and often not round, but have flats or other irregularities to improve grip and to prevent the tool from rolling when on a flat surface.\nSome screwdrivers have a short hexagonal section at the top of the blade, adjacent to the handle, so that a ring spanner or open wrench can be used to increase the", "-27.049309447174892" ], [ "in nominal major diameter, 20 threads per inch, and a class-1 fit. An arrow points from this designation to the surface in question. Generation There are many ways to generate a screw thread, including the traditional subtractive types (e.g., various kinds of cutting [single-pointing, taps and dies, die heads, milling]; molding; casting [die casting, sand casting]; forming and rolling; grinding; and occasionally lapping to follow the other processes); newer additive techniques; and combinations thereof. Inspection Another common inspection point is the straightness of a bolt or screw. This topic comes up often when there are assembly issues with predrilled holes", "-27.031008580008347" ], [ "creates gaming headsets for consoles such as the Xbox One, PlayStation 4, Nintendo Switch, PC, mobile and tablet devices. It is considered one of the leading gaming audio brands.\nGaming headsets have been Turtle Beach's primary product offering since around 2005. It initially began releasing headsets for PCs and consoles of that generation including the Xbox 360, Wii, and the PlayStation 3. The early models were often given the Ear Force branding with a letter or number designation to differentiate between consoles (e.g. headsets for the Xbox 360 were a part of the \"Ear Force X\" series while those for the", "-27.029353810241446" ], [ "Differential screw A differential screw is a mechanism used for making small, precise adjustments to the spacing between two objects (such as in focusing a microscope, moving the anvils of a micrometer, or positioning optics). A differential screw uses a spindle with two screw threads of differing leads (aka thread pitch), and possibly opposite handedness, on which two nuts move. As the spindle rotates, the space between the nuts changes based on the difference between the threads. These mechanisms allow extremely small adjustments using commonly available screws. A differential screw mechanism using two nuts incurs higher friction and therefore requires", "-27.021067679379485" ], [ "After failing to interest manufacturers, Thompson sold his self-centering design to Phillips in 1935. Phillips formed the Phillips Screw Company in 1934. After refining the design (U.S. Patent #2,046,343, U.S. Patents #2,046,837 to 2,046,840) for the American Screw Company of Providence, Rhode Island, Phillips succeeded in bringing the design to industrial manufacturing and promoting its rapid adoption as a machine screw standard. One of the first customers was General Motors who used the innovative design in 1936 for its Cadillac assembly-lines. By 1940, 85% of U.S. screw manufacturers had a license for the design. Due to failing health, Phillips retired", "-27.020482304214966" ], [ "Screwdrivers were joined by push drills, breast drills, hand drills (also called egg beater drills), hand powered bench drills, bit and braces, ratcheting tap wrenches, vises, cutting tools and small tool kits.", "-27.019079952850007" ], [ "fact, various Romance words for \"screw\" come from the word root referring to vines.) Walking sticks twisted by vines show how suggestive such sticks are of a screw. Early metal screws Early machine screws of metal, and early wood screws [screws made of metal for use in wood], were made by hand, with files used to cut the threads. One method for making fairly accurate threads was to score a rod using an inclined knife with a wrap half way around the rod, the knife being precisely angled for the proper pitch. This was one of the methods Maudslay", "-27.017654253868386" ], [ "edition high-end or custom-made guitars have artistic inlay designs that span the entire front (or even the back) of the guitar. These designs use a variety of different materials and are created using techniques borrowed from furniture making. While these designs are often just very elaborate decorations, they are sometimes works of art that even depict a particular theme or a scene. Although these guitars are often constructed from the most exclusive materials, they are generally considered to be collector's items and not intended to be played. Large guitar manufacturers often issue these guitars to celebrate a significant historical", "-27.00605072756298" ], [ "of finish and ornament to match. Boutique luthiers such as Roger Borys and Bob Benedetto brought the aesthetics of the instrument to even greater heights, making them attractive to collectors, and also continuing to innovate in technical design. The Benedetto style of acoustic/electric archtop has itself been copied by luthiers such as Dale Unger and Dana Bourgeois. Most of the accessories (pickguard, bridge, tuner buttons, knobs, etc.) are made of wood (ebony or rosewood) instead of metal and have a clean acoustic look. It is estimated there are nearly 100 archtop guitar luthiers in North America alone.\nContrastingly, mass-market archtop guitars", "-26.989113790448755" ], [ "commonly abused as improvised substitutes for other tools, such as crow bars or chisels. Screwdrivers are not designed for these purposes, and such use can damage the tip, bend the shaft, or injure the user if the screwdriver slips or breaks.\nScrewdrivers have also been used as stabbing weapons, and are usually tightly restricted in prisons.\nIncredibly, screwdrivers have also been used as a tool to avoid radioactive material from becoming critical.", "-26.98896874045022" ], [ "Lute guitar Headstock The headstock commonly ends in two styles, either a head (representing animals or humanoids) or a curve (into a flat finial, carved or undecorated). Less commonly, instead of gears, wooden pegs may be used to tune the strings. Lute guitar headstocks are thinner and more curved than their modern guitar counterparts. Neck and fretboard While the neck of a lute guitar is very similar to that of a modern classical guitar, the fretboard (or fingerboard) design is often different. The fretboard of a modern guitar extends down over the soundboard all the way to the sound hole.", "-26.962610999296885" ], [ "tankards. They will typically be equipped with a computer dedicated to graphic design that will enable the operator to easily design a text or picture graphic which the software will translate into digital signals telling the engraver machine what to do. Unlike industrial engravers, retail machines are smaller and only use one diamond head. This is interchangeable so the operator can use differently shaped diamonds for different finishing effects. They will typically be able to do a variety of metals and plastics. Glass and crystal engraving is possible, but the brittle nature of the material makes the process more time", "-26.956589539069682" ], [ "of each guitar is strictly hand done thus limiting the company’s output. Joseph Lukes Guitars produces instruments in the UK without the use of offshore production or manufacture. Series FE Series\nThe FE Series features hybrid bracing™ and a sound port. The sound-hole is removed from the top, keeping the soundboard intact. The Grand Concert is the first model in the series, it has a 630mm scale length and the neck joins the body at the 12th fret with a total of 18 frets. The FE Series is available in either American Mahogany or East Indian Rosewood, with a choice of", "-26.91673034755513" ], [ "(eg: the Fay automatic lathe). Regarding bar work of large diameter (for example, 150 millimetres (5.9 in) or more), it is merely an academic point whether it is called \"screw machine work\" or just \"automatic work\". Screw machine Screw machines, being the class of automatic lathes for small- to medium-sized parts, are used in the high-volume manufacture of a vast variety of turned components. During the Swiss screw machining process, the workpiece is supported with a guide bushing, near the cutting tool. Screw machine nomenclature Speaking with reference to the normal definition of the term screw machine, all screw machines are", "-26.915093253890518" ], [ "left-handed. With the increased use of the more versatile CNC machines, their use is less common than when specialized machines were required for machining tasks.\nScrew extractors are essentially left-hand bits of specialized shape, used to remove common right-hand screws whose heads are broken or too damaged to allow a screwdriver tip to engage, making use of a screwdriver impossible. The extractor is pressed against the damaged head and rotated counter-clockwise and will tend to jam in the damaged head and then turn the screw counter-clockwise, unscrewing it. For screws that break off deeper in the hole, an extractor set", "-26.843760635936633" ], [ "Interface Standard. Cottered One of the earliest standards of crank interface, cottered cranks are now considered obsolete in Western countries, but are still in common use in China, India and other developing nations. The spindle is a cylinder and has a flat region across it (a land). The crank has a hole through it to fit onto the spindle, with a transverse hole for the cotter pin. The cotter pin is cylindrical with one side flattened at an angle to form a wedge to match the spindle land. When tightened, this produces a simple and effective interface. The problem", "-26.81227596779354" ], [ "a blunt end, completely lacking the sharp tapered point on nearly all modern wood screws. Eventually, lathes were used to manufacture wood screws, with the earliest patent being recorded in 1760 in England. During the 1850s swaging tools were developed to provide a more uniform and consistent thread. Screws made with these tools have rounded valleys with sharp and rough threads. Some wood screws were made with cutting dies as early as the late 1700s (possibly even before 1678 when the book content was first published in parts).\nOnce screw turning machines were in common use, most commercially available wood screws", "-26.81164403964067" ], [ "slotted screws came into being. Rybczynski spends some time discussing the Canadian invention, the Robertson screwdriver.", "-26.808955837623216" ], [ "designs have a handle with detachable tip (the part of the screwdriver that engages the screw), called bits as with drill bits. This provides a set of one handle and several bits that can drive a variety of screw sizes and types. Drive types The tool used to drive a slotted screw head is called a standard, common blade, flat-blade, slot-head, straight, flat, flat-tip, or \"flat-head\" screwdriver. This last usage can be confusing, because the term flat-head also describes a screw with a flat top, designed to install in a countersunk hole. Furthermore, the term implies that a screwdriver has", "-26.77758949168492" ], [ "inlay, the headstock and sound hole are also commonly inlaid. The manufacturer's logo is commonly inlaid into the headstock and pickguard, if present. Sometimes a small design such as a bird or other character or an abstract shape also accompanies the logo. The sound hole designs found on acoustic guitars vary from simple concentric circles to delicate fretwork. Many high-end guitars have more elaborate decorative inlay schemes. Often the edges of the guitar around the neck and body and down the middle of the back are inlaid.\nBecause some electric guitars (like the Fender Telecaster and Stratocaster) do not have a", "-26.77587053028401" ], [ "to be fitted on vehicles from virtually all brands and manufacturers without screws.", "-26.76331906521409" ], [ "distortion in a thin-walled workpiece, compared to a three-jawed chuck.\nTwo-jaw chucks are available and can be used with soft jaws (typically an aluminium alloy) that can be machined to conform to a particular workpiece. It is a short conceptual leap from these to faceplates holding custom fixtures, wherein the part is located against fixed stops and held there with toggle clamps or toe clamps. Jaw construction Many chucks have removable jaws (often the top part is removable leaving the base or 'master jaw' assembled with the scroll), which allows the user to replace them with new jaws, specialised jaws, or", "-26.758259198977612" ], [ "port soldered into your neck. Slightly painful, but a useful way to get two different operating systems to interface effectively*.\nThe other model is to use it as a kind of robo-polyfilla, where all vocal cracks are given a smooth metallic outer coating because the voice inside would simply collapse without it. If asked, all singers and producers will claim that this model does not actually exist, and that they are all dabbling with this hot new production technique for genuine artistic reasons. And because everyone else is. The song was awarded a 4 star. Music video The music video for", "-26.725188718177378" ], [ "are generated by other, faster processes, such as thread forming and rolling and cutting with die heads. The latter processes are the ones employed in modern screw machines. These machines, although they are lathes specialized for making screws, are not screw-cutting lathes in the sense of employing single-point screw-cutting.", "-26.700139749911614" ], [ "who briefly wrote on spirals as well as designed several simple devices applying the screw principle. Leonardo Da Vinci understood the screw principle, and left drawings showing how threads could be cut by machine. In the 1500s, screws appeared in German watches, and were used to fasten suits of armor. In 1569 Besson invented the screw-cutting lathe, but the method did not gain traction and screws continued to be made largely by hand for another 150 years. In the 1800s, screw manufacturing began in England during the Industrial Revolution. In these times, there was no such thing as standardization. The", "-26.69005287330583" ], [ "Bending machine (manufacturing) A bending machine is a forming machine tool (DIN 8586). Its purpose is to assemble a bend on a workpiece. A bend is manufactured by using a bending tool during a linear or rotating move.\nThe detailed classification can be done with the help of the kinematics. CNC bending CNC bending machines are developed for high flexibility and low setup times. Those machines are able to bend single pieces as well as small batches with the same precision and efficiency as series-produced parts in an economical way. Universal bending machines – modular construction Universal bending machines consists of", "-26.688414416392334" ], [ " Screws as mechanical fasteners date to the first century BC. Although screws were tremendously useful, the difficulty in making them prevented any widespread adoption. Early wooden screws The earliest screws tended to be made of wood, and they were whittled by hand, with or without the help of turning on a lathe with hand-controlled turning tools (chisels, knives, gouges), as accurately as the whittler could manage. It is likely that sometimes the wood blanks that they started from were tree branches (or juvenile trunks) that had been shaped by a vine wrapped helically around them while they grew. (In", "-26.65807043510722" ], [ "Insert nut An insert nut provides a threaded socket for a wooden workpiece, similar to a wall anchor. Insert nuts are inserted into a pre-drilled hole by one of two means: screw in and hammer in. In both cases, the external protrusions bite into the wood, preventing the nut from either turning or pulling out.\nInsert nuts are advantageous over barrel nuts and T-nuts, because they can be installed from one side of the workpiece. Screw-in type Screw-in insert nuts have an external thread and hex head and are screwed in with a Flat Blade Screwdriver or an Allen wrench. The", "-26.64974006928969" ] ]

[ "Infinite doesn't mean everything. It just means that counting it doesn't ever come to an end. I'll give you a simple example. You know that the integers are infinite. If you start counting 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, ...., you'll never come to an end. But it's also true that if you just count the evens 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, ...., you'll also never come to an end. So the evens are infinite too, even though it is missing ALL the odd numbers. So the first thing to erase in your head is that \"infinite\" means \"everything\".", "Hey, current mathematics student here, I'll do my best. So, in your question, you specified \"between 1 and 2\", and asked, \"why doesn't that include 3?\", and that's sort of like asking \"When I go hunting for mammals, why don't I ever get any fish?\" and the answer is, fish aren't in the set of things known as mammals, just like the number 3 isn't in the set of numbers between 1 and 2 edit:words", "You may be confusing \"infinity\" with \"everything.\" You can think of infinity as uncountable. If something is infinite, no matter how many you count, there are more. For example, if you count natural numbers (1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6...) you can never reach the end because there is always more to count! No matter how big the number, you could always add 1 more. Therefore, the set of natural numbers is *infinite*. But notice, the \"infinite set of natural numbers\" is not *everything*. It doesn't include 1.5, pi, *i* - and those are all numbers. It also doesn't include you, me, the colour purple, the sound of laughter. Likewise, when you look at the numbers between 1 and 2, you can always find another fraction that fits between any two. For example, 1.1, 1.01, 1.001, 1.0001, etc. You can keep finding smaller and smaller bits between 1 and 2 and never run out -- it's *infinite*. However, it's not *everything* and you will not find 2.1 or the colour red, or 3.", "Infinity is a very complicated topic in maths, and often counter intuitive. An easy way to visualise your example is by construction: 1. Start with a list of numbers containing just 1 and 2 2. Pick 2 consecutive numbers in the list and take the average (eg. 1 & 2 becomes 1.5) 3. This is clearly always between 1 and 2 so add to the list 4. Go to step 2 From this simple algorithm, you should hopefully be able to see that at no point you would have any trouble finding a new number between 1 and 2, hence the list is infinite. --- But, if you find that confusing, consider the fact that there are *more* numbers between 1 and 2 than there are natural numbers (1, 2, 3, 4,...) despite the latter being infinite. A quick way to visualise this is to take any number, n, and consider 1 + 1/n. So you would have 1.5, 1.33..., 1.25, and so on. This new list of numbers has a one-to-one ratio with the natural numbers, but you can see the gaps between this and the list you mentioned. (note: this isn't a proof; the proof involves irrational numbers and is a bit more complicated) Generally, we consider two lists to be equally infinite if there is a one-to-one link between them. But, again, this is counter intuitive! The natural numbers (1, 2, 3, ...) is equally infinite with the even numbers (2, 4, 6, ...) because there is a one-to-one link: natural 1 maps to even 2; natural 2 maps to even 4; etc. Source: I'm a mathematician [Numberphile]( URL_0 ) is probably better at explaining it than me!", "Everything is by definition finite, as it includes all there is. Infinity can be a tricky concept, specially because depending on the context its used, there are different types or definitions for infinity. This introduces concepts like one type of infinity being larger that another, which may sound counterintuitive at first. There are many good articles about it, but this video is a good simple explanation. URL_0 ", "BS in Mathematics here... This one always helped me. 1+0.1+0.01+0.001.... This series will infinitely grow in size but never reach 2.. that idea kind of blew my mind... Here's another example: URL_0 This koch snowflake has a finite area yet an infinite perimeter. Crazy stuff.", "It's a harder topic than you think, because there are \"levels of infinity,\" described by the transfinite mathematics of Cantor. Levels of infinity are designated by the Hebrew letter aleph and a number. Aleph-0 is the infinity you find in integers {...-2, -1, 0, 1, 2,...} There are an infinite (aleph-0) number of integers. But between *every pair of integers,* there is an infinite number of real numbers (...1.000001, 1.000002,...}. That's aleph-1, and it's a \"bigger infinity\" than aleph-0. It's \"infinity squared,\" if you will. Things get a little weird after that. The most common mistake laymen make about infinity is assuming that it MUST be all-inclusive. That is, if time and space are infinite (they are not), then somewhere, there MUST be a planet that is exactly like Earth in every last detail, except you have brown eyes instead of blue eyes. The formal term mathematicians apply to this argument is \"bullshit.\" It's trivial to make an infinite list of integers that doesn't contain a single odd number, nor any number evenly-divisible by 6,280,324. This fact does not change even when you toss in some vague concept of \"random.\" An infinite, genuinely-random list of integers MIGHT contain numbers divisible by 6,280,324, but there is no guarantee of it.", " > Infinite means \"never ending\" right? Close enough. So that gives us: \"there is a never-ending amount of numbers between 1 and 2\". Which basically means \"make up any list of numbers between 1 and 2 you like - you'll have missed some\". Here's one such list of numbers: 1.1 1.11 1.111 1.1111 ...etc... All those numbers are between 1 and 2. There is a never ending amount of them. None of them is 3. (There's more to say on this subject, but hopefully the above helps with your specific question).", "The most interesting thing I've ever heard about infinity is that the numbers 1 and 1,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 or any number are the same distance away from infinity", "Pick a number. Infinity is bigger than any number you might pick. Also, infinity is itself not a number so you cannot pick infinity." ]

[ [ "Infinity Infinity (symbol: ) is a concept describing something without any bound, or something larger than any natural number. Since the 4th century BC, philosophers have speculated about the nature of the infinite. Aristotle's Physics, for example, treats extensively both of infinite extension and of infinite divisibility. However, the notion of passing to the limit—which lies at the basis of the infinitesimal calculus—was never formulated in ancient Greece.\nAt the end of 19th century AD, Georg Cantor introduced and studied infinite sets and infinite numbers, which can be of various sizes. For example, in modern mathematics, a line is commonly viewed", "-30.942171138725826" ], [ "given in 1930 with:\nMathematics is the science of the infinite. Infinity symbol The infinity symbol (sometimes called the lemniscate) is a mathematical symbol representing the concept of infinity. The symbol is encoded in Unicode at U+221E ∞ INFINITY (HTML &#8734; · &infin;) and in LaTeX as \\infty.\nIt was introduced in 1655 by John Wallis, and, since its introduction, has also been used outside mathematics in modern mysticism and literary symbology. Calculus Leibniz, one of the co-inventors of infinitesimal calculus, speculated widely about infinite numbers and their use in mathematics. To Leibniz, both infinitesimals and infinite quantities were ideal entities, not", "-29.822787042037817" ], [ "history of infinity from 1991 (4 years before Toy Story), by Eli Maor, uses the phrase for its title. Lucia Hall of The Humanist linked the film's plot to an interpretation of humanism. She compared the phrase to \"All this and heaven, too!\", indicating one who is happy with a life on Earth as well as having an afterlife. The 2008 quadruple platinum song \"Single Ladies\" by Beyoncé includes the lyric \"...and delivers me to a destiny, to infinity and beyond.\" Astronauts used the phrase while sending the Buzz Lightyear figure into space. The action figure was used for experiments", "-29.758712167691556" ], [ "Infinity symbol The infinity symbol ∞ (sometimes called the lemniscate) is a mathematical symbol representing the concept of infinity. History The shape of a sideways figure eight has a long pedigree; for instance, it appears in the cross of Saint Boniface, wrapped around the bars of a Latin cross. However, John Wallis is credited with introducing the infinity symbol with its mathematical meaning in 1655, in his De sectionibus conicis. Wallis did not explain his choice of this symbol, but it has been conjectured to be a variant form of a Roman numeral for 1,000 (originally CIƆ, also CƆ), which", "-29.650577863154467" ], [ "beginning of the world is therefore a necessary condition of the world's existence.\n— Immanuel Kant, First Antinomy, of Space and Time\nModern mathematics generally incorporates infinity. For most purposes it is simply used as convenient; when considered more carefully it is incorporated, or not, according to whether the axiom of infinity is included. This is the mathematical concept of infinity; while this may provide useful analogies or ways of thinking about the physical world, it says nothing directly about the physical world. Georg Cantor recognized two different kinds of infinity. The first, used in calculus, he called the variable finite, or potential", "-29.614510070779943" ], [ "still what remains is infinity.\" Infinity was a popular topic of philosophical study among the Jain mathematicians c. 400 BC. They distinguished between five types of infinity: infinite in one and two directions, infinite in area, infinite everywhere, and infinite perpetually.\nAristotle defined the traditional Western notion of mathematical infinity. He distinguished between actual infinity and potential infinity—the general consensus being that only the latter had true value. Galileo Galilei's Two New Sciences discussed the idea of one-to-one correspondences between infinite sets. But the next major advance in the theory was made by Georg Cantor; in 1895 he published a book about", "-29.455239181945217" ], [ "of God includes both his eternity and his immensity. Isaiah 40:28 says that \"Yahweh is the everlasting God,\" while Solomon acknowledges in 1 Kings 8:27 that \"the heavens, even the highest heaven, cannot contain you\". Infinity permeates all other attributes of God: his goodness, love, power, etc. are all considered to be infinite.\nThe relationship between the infinity of God and mathematical infinity has often been discussed. Georg Cantor's work on infinity in mathematics was accused of undermining God's infinity, but Cantor argued that God's infinity is the Absolute Infinite, which transcends other forms of infinity. Jealousy Exodus 20:5-6, of the", "-29.08827257907251" ], [ "as far as the walls of my room.\n... what is infinite about endlessness is only the endlessness itself. Emmanuel Levinas The philosopher Emmanuel Levinas ( January 1906, Lithuania - December 25 1995, Paris ) uses infinity to designate that which cannot be defined or reduced to knowledge or power. In Levinas' magnum opus Totality and Infinity he says :\n...infinity is produced in the relationship of the same with the other, and how the particular and the personal, which are unsurpassable, as it were magnetize the very field in which the production of infinity", "-28.645425048595826" ], [ "One Two Three... Infinity Overview Beginning with an exploration of elementary numbers, the book opens with a description of the \"Hottentots\" (Khoikhoi), said to have words only for \"one\", \"two\", \"three\", and \"many\", and builds quickly to explore Georg Cantor's theory of three levels of infinity—hence the title of the book. It then describes a simple automatic printing press that can in principle (given enough paper, ink, and time) print all the English works that have ever been, or ever will be, printed (a more-systematic version of the infinite monkey theorem). The author notes that if all the", "-28.37865549857088" ], [ "is enacted...\nThe idea of infinity is not an incidental notion forged by a subjectivity to reflect the case of an entity encountering on the outside nothing that limits it, overflowing every limit, and thereby infinite. The production of the infinite entity is inseparable from the idea of infinity, for it is precisely in the disproportion between the idea of infinity and the infinity of which it is the idea that this exceeding of limits is produced. The idea of infinity is the mode of being, the infinition, of infinity... All knowing qua intentionality already presupposes the idea of", "-28.359986993458733" ], [ "was sometimes used to mean \"many\", or of the Greek letter ω (omega), the last letter in the Greek alphabet.\nLeonhard Euler used an open variant of the symbol in order to denote \"absolutus infinitus\". Euler freely performed various operations on infinity, such as taking its logarithm. This symbol is not used anymore, and is not encoded as a separate character in Unicode. Modern symbolism In modern mysticism, the infinity symbol has become identified with a variation of the ouroboros, an ancient image of a snake eating its own tail that has also come to symbolize the infinite, and the ouroboros is", "-27.740334569622064" ], [ "allows artists to create paintings that realistically render space, distances, and forms. Artist M.C. Escher is specifically known for employing the concept of infinity in his work in this and other ways.\nVariations of chess played on an unbounded board are called infinite chess.\nCognitive scientist George Lakoff considers the concept of infinity in mathematics and the sciences as a metaphor. This perspective is based on the basic metaphor of infinity (BMI), defined as the ever-increasing sequence <1,2,3,...>.\nThe symbol is often used romantically to represent eternal love. Several types of jewelry are fashioned into the infinity shape for this purpose.", "-27.639516659990477" ], [ "do with them. For example, Wiles's proof of Fermat's Last Theorem implicitly relies on the existence of very large infinite sets for solving a long standing problem that is stated in terms of elementary arithmetic.\nIn physics and cosmology, whether the Universe is finite is an open question; see Universe § Size and regions. History Ancient cultures had various ideas about the nature of infinity. The ancient Indians and Greeks did not define infinity in precise formalism as does modern mathematics, and instead approached infinity as a philosophical concept. Early Greek The earliest recorded idea of infinity may be that of Anaximander", "-27.55937101476593" ], [ "If infinity exists, it would be the indivisible, immobile, eternal unity of being. In other words, it would be finite. Zeno's examples of flying arrows and Achilles chasing a tortoise show that motion over an infinite space would be impossible. But we do experience motion. The world does exhibit finite infinity. Parmenides rejects, then, the perceivable world of motion and asserts that reality agrees only with his logical concepts, which do not include finite infinity. For him, thinking and being are the same. What he thinks is what exists.\nObjections can be raised against Parmenides's principles that sensual perception does not", "-27.535019285453018" ], [ "infinity, which is preeminently non-adequation.\n— p. 26-27\nLevinas also wrote a work entitled Philosophy and the Idea of Infinity, which was published during 1957.", "-27.399904394696932" ], [ "of the same nature as appreciable quantities, but enjoying the same properties in accordance with the Law of Continuity. Complex analysis In complex analysis the symbol , called \"infinity\", denotes an unsigned infinite limit. means that the magnitude  of x grows beyond any assigned value. A point labeled can be added to the complex plane as a topological space giving the one-point compactification of the complex plane. When this is done, the resulting space is a one-dimensional complex manifold, or Riemann surface, called the extended complex plane or the Riemann sphere. Arithmetic operations similar to those given above for", "-27.39774396273424" ], [ "the axiom of infinity is probably that we feel it absurd to think that the process of adding only one set at a time can exhaust the entire universe. Similarly with the higher axioms of infinity. Now is the cardinality of the set of countable ordinals, and this is merely a special and the simplest way of generating a higher cardinal. The set [the continuum] is, in contrast, generated by a totally new and more powerful principle, namely the power set axiom. It is unreasonable to expect that any description of a larger cardinal which attempts to build", "-27.2888824633701" ], [ "even not as a number at all.\nIndependent studies also occurred at around the same time in India, China, and Mesoamerica. Infinity The set of natural numbers is an infinite set. This kind of infinity is, by definition, called countable infinity. All sets that can be put into a bijective relation to the natural numbers are said to have this kind of infinity. This is also expressed by saying that the cardinal number of the set is aleph-naught (ℵ₀). Addition One can recursively define an addition operator on the natural numbers by setting a + 0 = a and a +", "-27.25968682655366" ], [ "middle option between strict finitism and actual infinity (the latter being an actualization of something never-ending in nature, in contrast with the Cantorist actual infinity consisting of the transfinite cardinal and ordinal numbers, which have nothing to do with the things in nature):\nBut on the other hand to suppose that the infinite does not exist in any way leads obviously to many impossible consequences: there will be a beginning and end of time, a magnitude will not be divisible into magnitudes, number will not be infinite. If, then, in view of the above considerations, neither alternative seems possible, an arbiter", "-27.136534011835465" ], [ "the extended real numbers can also be defined, though there is no distinction in the signs (therefore one exception is that infinity cannot be added to itself). On the other hand, this kind of infinity enables division by zero, namely for any nonzero complex number z. In this context it is often useful to consider meromorphic functions as maps into the Riemann sphere taking the value of at the poles. The domain of a complex-valued function may be extended to include the point at infinity as well. One important example of such functions is the group of Möbius transformations.", "-27.113010755419964" ], [ "the Infinity is the Goragora, the ability to exchange their universe with another, by causing a forced quantum overlapping. Dr. Hell plans to use it, as he believes this world is not worth existing.\nDr. Nossori and Dr. Sewashi build a new Mazinger Z using a giant photonic energy 3D Printer. Koji and Lisa in the new Mazinger Z infiltrate the invaded Photon Institute, battling the Mechanical Beasts inside. After defeating Baron Ashura and Count Brocken, Mazinger Z confronts Dr. Hell's robot, but is gravely damaged. Shiro rescues Great Mazinger, and they stop the Goragon countdown but Dr. Hell has a", "-27.067012079409324" ], [ "It is therefore to receive from the Other beyond the capacity of the I, which means exactly: to have the idea of infinity. (p. 51) Presence Levinas places heavy emphasis on the physical presence involved in meeting the other. He argues that only a face-to-face encounter allows true connection with Infinity, because of the incessance of this type of interaction. Written words and other words do not suffice because they have become past by the time the subject perceives them. That is: they have fallen into the register of totality.\nJacques Derrida, in \"Violence and Metaphysics,\" takes Levinas to task for", "-27.04531394006335" ], [ "the mind rests and terminates in that idea; which is contrary to the idea of infinity, which consists in a supposed endless progression.\n— Essay, II. xvii. 7., author's emphasis\nHe considered that in considerations on the subject of eternity, which he classified as an infinity, humans are likely to make mistakes. Modern philosophical views Modern discussion of the infinite is now regarded as part of set theory and mathematics. Contemporary philosophers of mathematics engage with the topic of infinity and generally acknowledge its role in mathematical practice. But, although set theory is now widely accepted, this was not always so. ", "-26.944495993782766" ], [ "is mistaken. An infinity does not imply at all that any arrangement is present or repeated. [...] The assumption that all possible worlds are realized in an infinite universe is equivalent to the assertion that any infinite set of numbers contains all numbers (or at least all Gödel numbers of the [defining] sequences), which is obviously false.” Theory of rationality Kant had distinguished theoretical from practical reason. Rationality theorist Jesús Mosterín makes a parallel distinction between theoretical and practical rationality, although, according to him, reason and rationality are not the same: reason would be a psychological faculty, whereas rationality", "-26.920789677416906" ], [ "as the set of all of its points, and their infinite number (the cardinality of the line) is larger than the number of integers. Thus the mathematical concept of infinity refines and extends the old philosophical concept, in particular by introducing infinitely many different sizes of infinite sets. Much of mathematics can be developed in terms of Zermelo–Fraenkel set theory, which has the existence of infinite sets as one of its axioms.\nThe mathematical concept of infinity and the manipulation of infinite sets are used everywhere in mathematics, even in areas such as combinatorics that may seem to have nothing to", "-26.897461623444542" ], [ "of infinity was made by Anaximander who considered infinity to be a foundational and primitive basis of reality. Anaximander was the first in the Greek philosophical tradition to propose that the universe was infinite. Anaxagoras Anaxagoras (500–428 BCE) was of the opinion that matter of the universe had an innate capacity for infinite division. The Atomists A group of thinkers of ancient Greece (later identified as the Atomists) all similarly considered matter to be made of an infinite number of structures as considered by imagining dividing or separating matter from itself an infinite number of times. Aristotle and after Aristotle,", "-26.848514449084178" ], [ "distinguish it both from monism and pluralism, as a description of the nature of the universe, and our relationship to 'God' or 'absolute sentient power' (see above) (A.S.P.). \"Infinity is not comprehensible in a monistic concept, for monism implies circumscription, which is encapsulation or finitisation [making finite]. Non-dualism and Non-pluralism refer to the Infinity of the Absolute Sentient Power (A.S.P.), the infinite modalising activities of which generate all noumena and phenomena. Monism is an attempt to grasp in a knowable concept that which is of itself unknowable, for to know is to finite form within the A.S.P.\"\nAccording to Adi Shankara's", "-26.5704198434687" ], [ "is. Moreover, they deem all manifestations of actual infinity to be instances of what they call the \"Basic Metaphor of Infinity\", as represented by the ever-increasing sequence 1, 2, 3, ...\nWMCF emphatically rejects the Platonistic philosophy of mathematics. They emphasize that all we know and can ever know is human mathematics, the mathematics arising from the human intellect. The question of whether there is a \"transcendent\" mathematics independent of human thought is a meaningless question, like asking if colors are transcendent of human thought—colors are only varying wavelengths of light, it is our interpretation of physical stimuli that make them", "-26.453706912245252" ], [ "on by Simplicius. Plotinus Plotinus considered infinity, while he was alive, during the 3rd century A.D. Simplicius Simplicius, alive circa 490 to 560 AD, thought the concept \"Mind\" was infinite. Augustine Augustine thought infinity to be \"incomprehensible for the human mind\". Thomas Hobbes Famously, the ultra-empiricist Hobbes ( April 1588 - December 1679 ) tried to defend the idea of a potential infinity in light of the discovery, by Evangelista Torricelli, of a figure (Gabriel's Horn) whose surface area is infinite, but whose volume is finite. Not reported, this motivation of Hobbes came too late as", "-26.44378731242614" ], [ "Infinity Plus Infinity Plus (sometimes stylized as infinity plus and infinityplus) was a science fiction webzine active from 1997 to 2007, specializing in reviews, interviews, and professionally-written fiction. It was founded by Keith Brooke (who took a \"deliberately elitist approach\"); Nick Gevers and Paul Barnett were associate editors. As of 2018, it continues to exist as a small press.\nBrian Stableford declared it to be the \"leading sf site in the United Kingdom\", and SF Signal called it \"informative and insightful\".", "-26.318808730895398" ], [ "they are still finite; but when we suppose an inexhaustible remainder, from which we remove all bounds, and wherein we allow the mind an endless progression of thought, without ever completing the idea, there we have our idea of infinity... yet when we would frame in our minds the idea of an infinite space or duration, that idea is very obscure and confused, because it is made up of two parts very different, if not inconsistent. For let a man frame in his mind an idea of any space or number, as great as he will, it is plain", "-26.286378380315" ], [ "Digital infinity Digital infinity is a technical term in theoretical linguistics. Alternative formulations are \"discrete infinity\" and \"the infinite use of finite means\". The idea is that all human languages follow a simple logical principle, according to which a limited set of digits—irreducible atomic sound elements—are combined to produce an infinite range of potentially meaningful expressions. \nLanguage is, at its core, a system that is both digital and infinite. To my knowledge, there is no other biological system with these properties....\n— Noam Chomsky\n‘It remains for us to examine the spiritual element of speech ... this marvelous invention of composing from twenty-five", "-26.206647980288835" ], [ "(c. 610 – c. 546 BC) a pre-Socratic Greek philosopher. He used the word apeiron, which means \"unbounded\" and perhaps can be translated \"infinite\".\nIn accordance with the traditional view of Aristotle, the Hellenistic Greeks had a \"horror of the infinite\" and generally preferred to distinguish the potential infinity from the actual infinity; for example, instead of saying that there are an infinity of primes, Euclid said that there are more prime numbers than contained in any given collection of prime numbers. 17th century European mathematicians started using infinite numbers and expressions in a systematic fashion in the 17th century. In 1655 John", "-26.17830991926894" ], [ "is a mere tautology, which does not allow us to explain anything or to predict anything that we did not already know. In its strong version, it is a gratuitous speculation\". A further criticism by Mosterín concerns the flawed \"anthropic\" inference from the assumption of an infinity of worlds to the existence of one like ours:\nThe suggestion that an infinity of objects characterized by certain numbers or properties implies the existence among them of objects with any combination of those numbers or characteristics [...] is mistaken. An infinity does not imply at all that any arrangement is present or repeated.", "-26.066184033756144" ], [ "alive for the period 384–322 BCE, is credited with being the root of a field of thought, in his influence of succeeding thinking for a period spanning more than one subsequent millennium, by his rejection of the idea of actual infinity.\nIn Book 3 of the work entitled Physics, written by Aristotle, Aristotle deals with the concept of infinity in terms of his notion of actuality and of potentiality.\n... It is always possible to think of a larger number: for the number of times a magnitude can be bisected is infinite. Hence the infinite is potential, never actual; the number", "-26.046365686983336" ], [ "diagonal argument) asking, \"what had it done to anyone to make them angry with it?\" Others have also taken issue with Cantor's proof regarding the cardinality of the power set. Mathematician Solomon Feferman has referred to Cantor's theories as “simply not relevant to everyday mathematics.”\nBefore Cantor, the notion of infinity was often taken as a useful abstraction which helped mathematicians reason about the finite world; for example the use of infinite limit cases in calculus. The infinite was deemed to have at most a potential existence, rather than an actual existence. \"Actual infinity does not exist. What we call", "-26.003018460876774" ], [ "by a single paper in 1874 by Georg Cantor: \"On a Property of the Collection of All Real Algebraic Numbers\".\nSince the 5th century BC, beginning with Greek mathematician Zeno of Elea in the West and early Indian mathematicians in the East, mathematicians had struggled with the concept of infinity. Especially notable is the work of Bernard Bolzano in the first half of the 19th century. Modern understanding of infinity began in 1870–1874 and was motivated by Cantor's work in real analysis. An 1872 meeting between Cantor and Richard Dedekind influenced Cantor's thinking and culminated in Cantor's 1874 paper.\nCantor's work initially", "-25.821013200129528" ], [ "Infinity and the Mind Synopsis The book contains accessible popular expositions on the mathematical theory of infinity, and a number of related topics. These include Gödel's incompleteness theorems and their relationship to concepts of artificial intelligence and the human mind, as well as the conceivability of some unconventional cosmological models. The material is approached from a variety of viewpoints, some more conventionally mathematical and others being nearly mystical. There is a brief account of the author's personal contact with Kurt Gödel.\nAn appendix contains one of the few popular expositions on set theory research on what are known", "-25.746208107157145" ], [ "subsume it within \"true infinity\", the \"Concept\" (or \"Notion\": Begriff), \"Spirit\" and \"ethical life\" in such a way that the Kantian duality is rendered intelligible, rather than remaining a brute \"given\".\nThe reason why this subsumption takes place in a series of concepts is that Hegel's method in his Science of Logic and his Encyclopedia is to begin with basic concepts like \"Being\" and \"Nothing\" and to develop these through a long sequence of elaborations, including those already mentioned. In this manner, a solution that is reached in principle in the account of \"true infinity\" in the Science of Logic's chapter", "-25.720087558904197" ], [ "Main goal is to get hold on infinity........ In very simple structural combinations I find billions of possibilities. For me this is a metaphore for infinity. \"If in nothing (a choice for black or white; material or non-material) already we can find endless amounts of possibilities, how complex then is the universe, and how humble we should be.\"\nIn the early 1990s he developed all this works towards the concept of The Stone Company, with and exhibition of the work in the RAM gallery in 1995. About his working process of Rutger van Houten explained that this \"process that takes place", "-25.609893504704814" ], [ "then and so on. Continuing in this manner, it is possible to define a cardinal number for every ordinal number , as described below.\nThe concept and notation are due to Georg Cantor, who defined the notion of cardinality and realized that infinite sets can have different cardinalities.\nThe aleph numbers differ from the infinity () commonly found in algebra and calculus. Alephs measure the sizes of sets; infinity, on the other hand, is commonly defined as an extreme limit of the real number line (applied to a function or sequence that \"diverges to infinity\" or \"increases without bound\"), or", "-25.59672143701755" ], [ "as \"strong axioms of infinity.\" Reception Infinity and the Mind was reviewed by the New Yorker, which asserted that \"Rudy Rucker's Infinity and the Mind is a terrific study with real mathematical depth.\" Martin Gardner described the book as \"Informal, amusing, witty, profound... In an extraordinary burst of creative energy, Rudy Rucker has managed to bring together every aspect of mathematical infinity.... A dizzying glimpse into that boundless region of blinding light where the mysteries of transcendence shatter the clarity of logic, set theory, proof theory, and contemporary physics.\" Marketing The dust jacket of the original (Birkhäuser) edition had a", "-25.565471159425215" ], [ "real ε > 0, converges.\nThe apparent paradox formed part of a dispute over the nature of infinity involving many of the key thinkers of the time including Thomas Hobbes, John Wallis and Galileo Galilei.\nThere is a similar phenomenon which applies to lengths and areas in the plane. The area between the curves and from 1 to infinity is finite, but the lengths of the two curves are clearly infinite. Painter's paradox Since the horn has finite volume but infinite surface area, there is an apparent paradox that the horn could be filled with a finite quantity of", "-25.562463696449413" ], [ "infinite is only the endless possibility of creating new objects no matter how many exist already\". Carl Friedrich Gauss's views on the subject can be paraphrased as: 'Infinity is nothing more than a figure of speech which helps us talk about limits. The notion of a completed infinity doesn't belong in mathematics'. In other words, the only access we have to the infinite is through the notion of limits, and hence, we must not treat infinite sets as if they have an existence exactly comparable to the existence of finite sets.\nCantor's ideas ultimately were largely accepted, strongly supported by David", "-25.35497123899404" ], [ "to classify numbers into three classes: enumerable, innumerable and infinite. Not content with a simple notion of infinity, their texts define five different types of infinity: the infinite in one direction, the infinite in two directions, the infinite in area, the infinite everywhere, and the infinite perpetually. In addition, Jain mathematicians devised notations for simple powers (and exponents) of numbers like squares and cubes, which enabled them to define simple algebraic equations (beejganita samikaran). Jain mathematicians were apparently also the first to use the word shunya (literally void in Sanskrit) to refer to zero. More than a", "-25.17611847389344" ], [ "the book he would like to write on infinity: “five or seven years of metaphysical, theological, and mathematical training would prepare me (perhaps) for properly planning that book.” \n \nIn Borges' 1941 story, \"The Library of Babel\", the narrator declares that the collection of books of a fixed number of orthographic symbols and pages is unending. However, since the permutations of twenty-five orthographic symbols is finite, the library has to be periodic and self-repeating. \nIn his 1975 short story \"The Book of Sand\" (El Libro de Arena), he deals with another form of infinity; one whose elements are a dense", "-25.158426531561418" ], [ "they contain, and can be standardized by choosing the first ordinal number of a certain size to represent the cardinal number of that size. The smallest ordinal infinity is that of the positive integers, and any set which has the cardinality of the integers is countably infinite. If a set is too large to be put in one-to-one correspondence with the positive integers, it is called uncountable. Cantor's views prevailed and modern mathematics accepts actual infinity. Certain extended number systems, such as the hyperreal numbers, incorporate the ordinary (finite) numbers and infinite numbers of different sizes. Cardinality of the", "-25.10552868724335" ], [ "which the infinity in the momentum scale is cut off by an ultra-large regulator, Λ (which could ultimately be taken to be infinite — infinities reflect the pileup of contributions from an infinity of degrees of freedom at infinitely high energy scales.). The dependence of physical quantities, such as the electric charge or electron mass, on the scale Λ is hidden, effectively swapped for the longer-distance scales at which the physical quantities are measured, and, as a result, all observable quantities end up being finite instead, even for an infinite Λ. Gell-Mann and Low thus realized in these results that,", "-25.06228411203483" ], [ "a larger one: \"There are not so many (in number) that there are no more.\"\nAristotle's views on the continuum foreshadow some topological aspects of modern mathematical theories of the continuum. Aristotle's emphasis on the connectedness of the continuum may have inspired—in different ways—modern philosophers and mathematicians such as Charles Sanders Peirce, Cantor, and LEJ Brouwer.\nAmong the scholastics, Aquinas also argued against the idea that infinity could be in any sense complete or a totality.\nAristotle deals with infinity in the context of the prime mover, in Book 7 of the same work, the reasoning of which was later studied and commented", "-25.02817956259969" ], [ "Infinity (film) Plot The film follows the book What Do You Care What Other People Think? fairly closely in terms of the stories told.\nThe film starts in 1924 with Richard and his father Melville walking through the woods where Melville shows his scientific inspiration for Richard.\nIn 1934, Richard and Arline are in high school and their romantic relationship starts.\nThe story then jumps to his college years and Arline getting sick with lymphatic tuberculosis.\nIt continues to his move west to Los Alamos National Laboratory in Los Alamos, New Mexico, where Arline follows him later to a hospital in Albuquerque, New Mexico,", "-25.000797820903244" ], [ "Axiom of infinity Independence The axiom of infinity cannot be derived from the rest of the axioms of ZFC, if these other axioms are consistent. Nor can it be refuted, if all of ZFC is consistent.\nIndeed, using the Von Neumann universe, we can make a model of the axioms where the axiom of infinity is replaced by its negation. It is , the class of hereditarily finite sets, with the inherited element relation. If allowed, the empty domain also satisfies the axioms of this modified theory, as all of them are universally quantified, and thus trivially satisfied if no set", "-24.982538892778393" ], [ "of parts that can be taken always surpasses any assigned number.\n— Physics 207b8\nThis is often called potential infinity; however, there are two ideas mixed up with this. One is that it is always possible to find a number of things that surpasses any given number, even if there are not actually such things. The other is that we may quantify over infinite sets without restriction. For example, , which reads, \"for any integer n, there exists an integer m > n such that P(m)\". The second view is found in a clearer form by medieval writers such as William of Ockham:\nSed", "-24.955979113990907" ], [ "while [−∞, +∞] denotes the extended reals. \nEven in the context of the ordinary reals, one may use an infinite endpoint to indicate that there is no bound in that direction. For example, (0, +∞) is the set of positive real numbers also written ℝ⁺. The context affects some of the above definitions and terminology. For instance, the interval (−∞, +∞) =  is closed in the realm of ordinary reals, but not in the realm of the extended reals. Integer intervals When a and b are integers, the notation ⟦a, b⟧, or [a .. b] or {a .. b} or just a ..", "-24.905431517079705" ], [ "of infinity going beyond the finite (a process that Hegel in fact relates to \"freedom\" and the \"ought\"), the universal going beyond the particular (in the Concept) and Spirit going beyond Nature. Hegel renders these dualities intelligible by (ultimately) his argument in the \"Quality\" chapter of the \"Science of Logic\". The finite has to become infinite in order to achieve reality. The idea of the absolute excludes multiplicity so the subjective and objective must achieve synthesis to become whole. This is because as Hegel suggests by his introduction of the concept of \"reality\", what determines itself—rather than depending on its", "-24.83190981129883" ], [ "given set. Furthermore, the axiom of infinity guarantees the existence of at least one infinite set, namely a set containing the natural numbers. There are alternative set theories, e.g. \"general set theory\" (GST), Kripke–Platek set theory, and pocket set theory (PST), that deliberately omit the axiom of power set and the axiom of infinity and do not allow the definition of the infinite hierarchy of infinites proposed by Cantor.\nThe cardinalities corresponding to the sets N, P(N), P(P(N)), P(P(P(N))), … are the beth numbers , , , , …, with the first beth number being equal to (aleph naught),", "-24.81935132748913" ], [ "tends to plus infinity as does, as well as, in collaboration with Edward Linfoot, that there are at most ten quadratic number fields of the form , a natural number, with class number 1. On invitation of Louis Mordell he moved back to Manchester in 1934, but left again only one year later, accepting the Bevan Fellowship at Trinity College, Cambridge. In Cambridge Heilbronn published several joint papers with Harold Davenport, in one of which they devised a new variant of the Hardy-Littlewood circle method, now sometimes referred to as the Davenport-Heilbronn method, proving that for any", "-24.79252627538517" ], [ "diverges to infinity and environments emulated with that computational capacity last for an infinite duration as the universe attains a solitary-point cosmological singularity. This singularity is Tipler's Omega Point. With computational resources diverging to infinity, Tipler states that a society far in the future would be able to resurrect the dead by emulating all alternative universes of our universe from its start at the Big Bang. Tipler identifies the Omega Point with God, since, in his view, the Omega Point has all the properties of God, claimed by most of the traditional religions.\nTipler's argument that the omega point cosmology", "-24.773037038515213" ], [ "example of this is Hilbert's paradox of the Grand Hotel.\nIndeed, Dedekind defined an infinite set as one that can be placed into a one-to-one correspondence with a strict subset (that is, having the same size in Cantor's sense); this notion of infinity is called Dedekind infinite. Cantor introduced the cardinal numbers, and showed that (according to his bijection-based definition of size) some infinite sets are greater than others. The smallest infinite cardinality is that of the natural numbers ().", "-24.65681969729485" ], [ "\"The Infinity\" was featured in the films, Resident Evil and Huevos 5.", "-24.603062978421804" ], [ "Reach for Infinity Critical reception In 2015, Reach for Infinity was nominated for a Locus Award for Best Anthology, an Aurealis Award for Best Anthology and the Philip K. Dick Award.", "-24.534205274147098" ], [ "by ;] \n \netc... \nSumming this to infinity causes all terms on the right hand side to cancel apart from the 1, i.e., \nThis can also be shown with the common ratio, where:\n \nWhen r = Solutions Let us take the first example, where the target square is in the first row above the red line. We now consider the maximum possible initial score, that is when every square has a soldier on it. The sum of the squares on the first row below the red line, is . [Drawing a diagram helps to visualise this]. In the next", "-24.52954669560131" ], [ "reals The existence of transcendental numbers was first established by Liouville (1844, 1851). Hermite proved in 1873 that e is transcendental and Lindemann proved in 1882 that π is transcendental. Finally, Cantor showed that the set of all real numbers is uncountably infinite but the set of all algebraic numbers is countably infinite, so there is an uncountably infinite number of transcendental numbers. Infinity and infinitesimals The earliest known conception of mathematical infinity appears in the Yajur Veda, an ancient Indian script, which at one point states, \"If you remove a part from infinity or add a part to infinity,", "-24.507637017406523" ], [ "to proceed into the countless eons of time which lie ahead in my future in the pursuance and usage of knowledge of Infinity, which is the recreative, interdimensional energy.\nThe vast and staggering proportions of this great energy — Infinity — cannot be assimilated in a few months or even a few years; in fact, it is in the gradual learning of, and its usage, which gradually begins to supplant the old material drive or libido with a calm, dedicated assurance of this immortal posterity which is inherent and inherited by those who become aware and who begin its pursuance.\nYour letter", "-24.50604559889325" ], [ "be magnified indefinitely without losing their structure and becoming \"smooth\"; they have infinite perimeters—some with infinite, and others with finite surface areas. One such fractal curve with an infinite perimeter and finite surface area is the Koch snowflake. Mathematics without infinity Leopold Kronecker was skeptical of the notion of infinity and how his fellow mathematicians were using it in the 1870s and 1880s. This skepticism was developed in the philosophy of mathematics called finitism, an extreme form of mathematical philosophy in the general philosophical and mathematical schools of constructivism and intuitionism. Physics In physics, approximations of real numbers are used", "-24.418149300770892" ], [ "infinite, represented by the sign (known as the lemniscate), and the actual infinite, which Cantor called the \"true infinite.\" His notion of transfinite arithmetic became the standard system for working with infinity within set theory. David Hilbert thought that the role of the actual infinite was relegated only to the abstract realm of mathematics. \"The infinite is nowhere to be found in reality. It neither exists in nature nor provides a legitimate basis for rational thought... The role that remain for the infinite to play is solely that of an idea.\" Philosopher William Lane Craig argues that if the", "-24.34537006361643" ], [ "hence density, between two regions of the earth. Torricelli's work in mathematics Torricelli is also famous for the discovery of the Torricelli's trumpet (also - perhaps more often - known as Gabriel's Horn) whose surface area is infinite, but whose volume is finite. This was seen as an \"incredible\" paradox by many at the time, including Torricelli himself, and prompted a fierce controversy about the nature of infinity, also involving the philosopher Hobbes. It is supposed by some to have led to the idea of a \"completed infinity\". Torricelli tried several alternative proofs, attempting to prove that its surface", "-24.312700549839064" ], [ "may mean infinite space, or a formless matter which can be differentiated. The notion of temporal infinity was familiar to the Greek mind from remote antiquity in the religious conception of immortality. The conception of the \"divine\" as an origin influenced the first Greek philosophers.\nIn the Orphic cosmogony, the unaging Chronos produced Aether and Chaos and made in divine Aether a silvery egg, from which everything else appeared.\nIn the mythological cosmogonies of the Near East, the universe is formless and empty and the only existing thing prior to creation was the water abyss. In the Babylonian creation story, Enuma Elish", "-24.312011333284318" ], [ "an extension of the background logic.\nInfinity: There exists at least one limit level. (See Axiom of infinity.)\nRemark: Among the sets Separation allows, at least one is infinite. This axiom is primarily mathematical, as there is no need for the actual infinite in other human contexts, the human sensory order being necessarily finite. For mathematical purposes, the axiom \"There exists an inductive set\" would suffice. Discussion The von Neumann universe implements the \"iterative conception of set\" by stratifying the universe of sets into a series of \"levels,\" with the sets at a given level being the members of the sets", "-24.281806440412765" ], [ "infinity sitting between the smaller infinity of all the fractions and the larger infinity of the decimals? Cantor believed, in what became known as the Continuum Hypothesis, that there is no such set. This would be the first problem listed by Hilbert. Poincaré conjecture Next Marcus discusses Henri Poincaré's work on the discipline of 'Bendy geometry'. If two shapes can be moulded or morphed to each other's shape then they have the same topology. Poincaré was able to identify all possible two-dimensional topological surfaces; however in 1904 he came up with a topological problem, the Poincaré conjecture, that he could", "-24.26466108841123" ], [ "too. Imagine measuring infinity! That's a laugh.\nIn response, Angoff said: \"Well, without mathematics there wouldn't be any engineering, no chemistry, no physics.\" Mencken responded: \"That's true, but it's reasonable mathematics. Addition, subtraction, multiplication, fractions, division, that's what real mathematics is. The rest is baloney. Astrology. Religion. All of our sciences still suffer from their former attachment to religion, and that is why there is so much metaphysics and astrology, the two are the same, in science.\"\nElsewhere, he spoke of the nonsense of higher mathematics and \"probability\" theory, after he read Angoff's article for Charles S. Peirce in the American Mercury.", "-24.244324480416253" ], [ "ends to represent a familiar system: the real numbers. Ultrafinitism The philosophy of ultrafinitism rejects as meaningless concepts dealing with infinite sets, such as idea that the notation might stand for a decimal number with an infinite sequence of nines, as well as the summation of infinitely many numbers corresponding to the positional values of the decimal digits in that infinite string. In this approach to mathematics, only some particular (fixed) number of finite decimal digits is meaningful. Instead of \"equality\", one has \"approximate equality\", which is equality up to the number of decimal digits that one", "-24.15443400089862" ], [ "Infinity Science Fiction Infinity Science Fiction (also known as Infinity) was a short-lived American science fiction magazine. It was published from November 1955 to November 1958 and released a total of 20 issues. The editor of the magazine was Larry T. Shaw. Beginning in 1970, using the \"Infinity\" title, Lancer Books issued a series of anthologies of (mostly) original short sf stories edited by Robert Hoskins, which were presented as \"the lineal descendant of Infinity Science Fiction of fond memory.\"", "-24.055673726004898" ], [ "Totality and Infinity The Other Levinas advances the thesis that all ethics derive from a confrontation with an other. This other, with whom we interact concretely, represents a gateway into the more abstract Otherness.\nThe distinction between totality and infinity divides the limited world, which contains the other as a material body, from a spiritual world. Subjects gain access to this spiritual world, infinity, by opening themselves to the Otherness of the other. For example:\nTo approach the other in conversation is to welcome his expression, in which at each instant he overflows the idea a thought would carry away from it.", "-23.992980052455096" ], [ "L-infinity Applications One application of ℓ∞ and L∞ is in economies with infinitely many commodities. In simple economic models, it is common to assume that there is only a finite number of different commodities, e.g. houses, fruits, cars, etc., so every bundle can be represented by a finite vector, and the consumption set is a vector space with a finite dimension. But in reality, the number of different commodities may be infinite. For example, a \"house\" is not a single commodity type since the value of a house depends on its location. So the number of different commodities is the", "-23.88724000210641" ], [ "came from Thomas Digges in 1576. Eight years later, in 1584, the Italian philosopher and astronomer Giordano Bruno proposed an unbounded universe in On the Infinite Universe and Worlds: \"Innumerable suns exist; innumerable earths revolve around these suns in a manner similar to the way the seven planets revolve around our sun. Living beings inhabit these worlds.\"\nCosmologists have long sought to discover whether infinity exists in our physical universe: Are there an infinite number of stars? Does the universe have infinite volume? Does space \"go on forever\"? This is an open question of cosmology. The question of being infinite is", "-23.841263036432792" ], [ "actually infinite and potentially infinite. He argues against the actually infinite in any form, including infinite bodies, substances, and voids. Aristotle here says the only type of infinity that exists is the potentially infinite. Aristotle characterizes this as that which serves as \"the matter for the completion of a magnitude and is potentially (but not actually) the completed whole\" (207a22-23). The infinite, lacking any form, is thereby unknowable. Aristotle writes, \"it is not what has nothing outside it that is infinite, but what always has something outside it\" (6.206b33-207a1-2). Book IV (Δ; 208a–223b) Book IV", "-23.757496898120735" ], [ "or thirty sounds an infinite variety of words, which, although not having any resemblance in themselves to that which passes through our minds, nevertheless do not fail to reveal to others all of the secrets of the mind, and to make intelligible to others who cannot penetrate into the mind all that we conceive and all of the diverse movements of our souls.’\n— Antoine Arnauld and Claude Lancelot\nNoam Chomsky cites Galileo as perhaps the first to recognise the significance of digital infinity. This principle, notes Chomsky, is \"the core property of human language, and one of its most distinctive properties: the", "-23.750611493596807" ], [ "of infinity (or an undefined one). Since the death of Paul Erdős, the lowest Erdős number that a new researcher can obtain is 2.\nThere is room for ambiguity over what constitutes a link between two authors. The American Mathematical Society collaboration distance calculator uses data from Mathematical Reviews, which includes most mathematics journals but covers other subjects only in a limited way, and which also includes some non-research publications. The Erdős Number Project web site says:\n... Our criterion for inclusion of an edge between vertices u and v is some research collaboration between them resulting in a published work. Any", "-23.746373881032923" ], [ "Eternity Philosophy Aristotle argued that the cosmos has no beginning. In Aristotle's Metaphysics, eternity is the unmoved mover (God), understood as the gradient of total synergy (\"produces motion by being loved\"). Boethius defined eternity as \"simultaneously full and perfect possession of interminable life\". Symbolism Eternity is often symbolized by the image of a snake swallowing its own tail, known as the Ouroboros (or Uroboros). The circle is also commonly used as a symbol for eternity, as is the mathematical symbol of infinity, . Symbolically, it suggests that Eternity has no beginning or end.", "-23.683365272940136" ], [ "sometimes drawn in figure-eight form to reflect this identification, rather than in its more traditional circular form.\nIn the works of Vladimir Nabokov, including The Gift and Pale Fire, the figure-eight shape is used symbolically to refer to the Möbius strip and the infinite, for instance in these books' descriptions of the shapes of bicycle tire tracks and of the outlines of half-remembered people. The poem after which Pale Fire is entitled explicitly refers to \"the miracle of the lemniscate\". Graphic design The well known shape and meaning of the infinity symbol have made it a common typographic element of graphic", "-23.65526426967699" ], [ "Riemann sphere In mathematics, the Riemann sphere, named after Bernhard Riemann, is a model of the extended complex plane, the complex plane plus a point at infinity. This extended plane represents the extended complex numbers, that is, the complex numbers plus a value ∞ for infinity. With the Riemann model, the point \"∞\" is near to very large numbers, just as the point \"0\" is near to very small numbers.\nThe extended complex numbers are useful in complex analysis because they allow for division by zero in some circumstances, in a way that makes expressions such as well-behaved. For", "-23.628457171464106" ], [ "setting the trajectory of his professional life. Cognitive scientist Steven Pinker read the book as a child, and has cited it as contributing to his interest in popular science writing. Astrophysicist and science popularizer Neil deGrasse Tyson identified One Two Three... Infinity as one of two books which had the greatest impact on him, the other being Edward Kasner and James Newman's Mathematics and the Imagination.", "-23.621778389933752" ], [ "independent, they are simultaneously and inevitably interdependent. The model is graphically presented as the infinity symbol (∞), also as a Möbius strip, visualizing the twofold movement between the self and the other that allows for both unity and uniqueness.", "-23.599211424283567" ], [ "from the literal to the metaphorical. To Hasidism and Schneur Zalman, it is unthinkable for the \"withdrawal\" of God that \"makes possible\" Creation, to be taken literally. The oyxmoron of Tzimtzum only relates to the Ohr Ein Sof (\"Infinite Light\"), not the Ein Sof (Divine essence) itself. God's infinity is revealed in both complementary infinitude (infinite light) and finitude (finite light). The \"withdrawal\" was only a concealment of the Infinite Light into the essence of God, to allow the latent potentially finite light to emerge after the God limiting tzimtzum. God himself remains unaffected (\"For I, the Lord, I have", "-23.560849370624055" ], [ "De analysi per aequationes numero terminorum infinitas De analysi per aequationes numero terminorum infinitas (or On analysis by infinite series, On Analysis by Equations with an infinite number of terms,On the Analysis by means of equations of an infinite number of terms,About completely loosening infinity by way of number equalisations limits)\ncf. (aequatio, analysi = ἀναλύω and de) \nis a mathematical work of Isaac Newton. Content The exponential series, i.e. tending toward infinity, was discovered by Newton and is contained within the Analysis. The treatise contains also the sine series and cosine series and arc series, the logarithmic series", "-23.528962765005417" ], [ "Ad infinitum Ad infinitum is a Latin phrase meaning \"to infinity\" or \"forevermore\".", "-23.426208407210652" ], [ "curves having infinite length yet bounding finite areas were known much before. John Locke Locke ( August 1632 - October 1704 ) in common with most of the empiricist philosophers, also believed that we can have no proper idea of the infinite. They believed all our ideas were derived from sense data or \"impressions,\" and since all sensory impressions are inherently finite, so too are our thoughts and ideas. Our idea of infinity is merely negative or privative.\nWhatever positive ideas we have in our minds of any space, duration, or number, let them be never so great,", "-23.421674583049025" ], [ "him special powers by touching the mother boxes and reciting the word \"Taaru.\" This ritual causes the Forever People to enter a state of limbo which lasts until Infinity-Man returns them their power. \nIn one story, Darkseid believes Infinity-Man to be a threat and places him in another dimension. Infinity-Man makes a temporary home on a planet called Adon until the Forever People free him from this prison.\nA later storyline focuses on Devilance the Pursuer and his vendetta against the Forever People and Infinity-Man. Devilance tracks down Infinity-Man to an island, where the two engage in a duel that results", "-23.313568259589374" ], [ "- ²/₁; 3 - ¹/₂ ... etc. through to ∞; i.e. the infinities of both fractions and whole numbers were shown to have the same size.\nBut when the set of all infinite decimal numbers was considered, Cantor was able to prove that this produced a bigger infinity. This was because, no matter how one tried to construct such a list, Cantor was able to provide a new decimal number that was missing from that list. Thus he showed that there were different infinities, some bigger than others.\nHowever, there was a problem that Cantor was unable to solve: Is there an", "-23.285220442339778" ], [ "also goes to positive infinity. As x goes to negative infinity, the slope of the same line goes to negative infinity.\nCompare this to the variety V(y − x³). This is a cubic curve. As x goes to positive infinity, the slope of the line from the origin to the point (x, x³) goes to positive infinity just as before. But unlike before, as x goes to negative infinity, the slope of the same line goes to positive infinity as well; the exact opposite of the parabola. So the behavior \"at infinity\" of V(y − x³) is different from the behavior \"at infinity\" of V(y − x²).\nThe consideration", "-23.183573185408022" ], [ "literary mystery published by Five Star/Cengage, and Twerp, a middle grade novel published by Random House. Finding the Worm, a sequel to Twerp, was published by Random House in 2015. Theology In a pair of essays for the British journal Philosophy Now, Goldblatt addressed the subject of rational language and the existence of God.\nIn \"Did the World Have a Beginning?\" he argues that the temporal world cannot always have existed. An actual infinity is impossible, he reasons, because infinity is a potential value that cannot be reached. A line, for example, may be extended infinitely—that is, without a limit—but at", "-23.158808443389717" ], [ "Infinity-Man recreates in the form of his reflection using his own Plasma. When the latter retorts that his rage is an integral part of him that defines his own character, the strange being complies and sends the red energy back into his face. Noting the turn of events, Green Lantern's B'ox, B'dg and Stel combine their rings to create a giant mechanized Darkseid construct to combat the Infinity Man. Though intrigued by their choice of design, the agent of the source remains undaunted all the same. He increases his own size to match their creation, recounting that nothing will prevent", "-23.141728043410694" ], [ "later by Tofu Records. The infinity symbol (∞), when facing vertically or turned sideways, looks like the number 8. That is also the number of original studio albums Nishikawa has released to date as T.M.Revolution. vertical infinity included album mixes of \"Web of Night\" (both Japanese and English versions) and \"ignited\". It also included two English-language tracks, \"Bring It On\" (written by Nishikawa) and \"Chase / The Thrill\" (written by Hobday). \"Chase / The Thrill\" was used as the Japanese theme song of the X Games. vertical infinity marked a significant change in T.M.Revolution's musical style, as only half of", "-23.022313282766845" ], [ "L'infinito \"L'infinito\" ([liɱfiˈniːto]; English: The Infinite) is a poem written by Giacomo Leopardi probably in the autumn of 1819. The poem is a product of Leopardi's yearning to travel beyond his restrictive home town of Recanati and experience more of the world which he had studied. It is widely known within Italy. Themes The poem, though vague and ethereal in its composition, conveys elements of the philosophical and classical worlds, the latter visible in the selection of the word ermo, from ancient Greek rather than using a more conventional 'solitario' to convey the isolatedness of this hill. This personification of", "-23.01548641041154" ], [ "infinite. This infinite substance is what Spinoza calls God, or better yet nature, and it possesses both unlimited extension and unlimited consciousness. Infinite divisibility Infinite divisibility refers to the idea that extension, or quantity, when divided and further divided infinitely, cannot reach the point of zero quantity. It can be divided into very small or negligible quantity but not zero or no quantity at all. Using a mathematical approach, specifically geometric models, Gottfried Leibniz and Descartes discussed the infinite divisibility of extension. Actual divisibility may be limited due to unavailability of cutting instruments, but its possibility of breaking into smaller", "-22.98365291441587" ], [ "at infinity. This set is analogous to the projectively extended real line, except that it is based on the field of complex numbers. In the Riemann sphere, , but is undefined, as is . Higher mathematics Although division by zero cannot be sensibly defined with real numbers and integers, it is possible to consistently define it, or similar operations, in other mathematical structures. Non-standard analysis In the hyperreal numbers and the surreal numbers, division by zero is still impossible, but division by non-zero infinitesimals is possible. Distribution theory In distribution theory one can extend the function to a", "-22.97006321401568" ], [ "no point will the actual measure of the line become infinite. Likewise, time itself, whether measured by minutes or millennia, cannot comprise an actual infinity. Therefore, the temporal world cannot have existed forever.\nIn a follow up article, \"Talking About God\", Goldblatt teases out the ramifications of his conclusion about the impossibility of an actual infinity with respect to the concept of an infinite God. Since we know that the temporal world cannot have existed forever, it therefore must have come into existence \"in the beginning\". It cannot have come into existence without an efficient cause (since that would violate the", "-22.964788250275888" ], [ "the Source Wall. Infinity-Man pushes Mister Miracle into battle, duping him into blasting away the Second Wall, and letting the Source and the Anti-Life reunite. Infinity-Man is seemingly destroyed by Mister Miracle's attack. New 52 The being known as Infinity-Man is an abstract of the Source itself and the moral consciousness of a once kind and idealistic monarch. This entity of a higher power didn't appear before anyone until The Forever People were on a planet-side expedition to better the underdeveloped culture of Earth as a school curriculum. They came under the onslaught of a mutated human scientist by the", "-22.945721231299103" ], [ "on the sphere. This topological space, the complex plane plus the point at infinity, is known as the extended complex plane. We speak of a single \"point at infinity\" when discussing complex analysis. There are two points at infinity (positive, and negative) on the real number line, but there is only one point at infinity (the north pole) in the extended complex plane.\nImagine for a moment what will happen to the lines of latitude and longitude when they are projected from the sphere onto the flat plane. The lines of latitude are all parallel to the equator, so they will", "-22.89260506997016" ], [ "Introducing Relativity Reception Marcus Chown, writing in New Scientist, describes the volume as, \"a very attractive illustrated guide to arguably the greatest ever achievement by a single human mind,\" which, according to Professor Nigel Henbest, writing in Sky at Night Magazine, \"has all the answers you need.\" Science writer Brian Clegg, author of Introducing Infinity (2012) in the same series, however finds the book, \"good on content, not so good on bringing it down to the right level.\"\n\"Cosmologist Bruce Bassett and mathematician-cartoonist Ralph Edney are awe-inspiring,\" according to Henbest, \"in their attempts at a popular explanation of one of the", "-22.862351764037157" ] ]

[ "You don't. You use a process called \"tacking\" which means you sail a zig zag pattern to get where you are going. Much like a switch back when climbing a steep hill. Putting the bow (front) of the boat straight into the wind puts you \"in irons\" (i.e. the sails are not catching the wind and you don't go anywhere). Edit: I've also heard the process called \"beating.\"", "When sailing into the wind a yachts sail works exactly like an aeroplanes wing rotated through 90 degrees. What generates the forward momentum is the sideways lift being created by the aerofoil shape of the sail. This is aided by the keel cutting through the water, which helps convert this sideways lift into forward momentum. The sail speed record is currently held by [Sailrocket 2]( URL_0 ) which can sail at about 75 mph in 29 mph winds. This is possible because rather than just being blown along, the boat is powered by the lift its sail generates. Sailing boats can only sail so close to the direction the wind is coming from though. Any closer than about 45 degrees from the wind (less for high tech race yachts) and the sails will stall, stopping the boat in the water. Edit: Link to [Sailrocket 2 taking the record]( URL_1 ) Edit: 29mph winds not 20mph , its good, but not that good!", "Most modern sail boats can sail within about 45° of the wind. Square-riggers can only come within about 60°. The closer you try to go to the wind, the slower you sail, so there's a skill in knowing the angle to use to make best progress upwind. Go too close and the sails flap about and you stop. If you want to go directly upwind you need to alternately sail to starboard (right) and to port (left) of the wind. When you change direction, the most common way these days is to turn briefly directly into the wind, hoping your momentum will keep you going until you can start sailing on the other side; this is called \"tacking\". Alternatively, you can turn away from the wind, through a bigger angle; this is called \"wearing\". Either way, you're \"beating\" upwind. When you're sailing to the starboard of the wind you're said to be on the port tack, because in square riggers, the rope holding the bottom corner of the sail forward is called the \"tack\". The port side tack is in use sailing to the starboard of the wind and the starboard side tack is in use sailing to the port side of the wind.", "You can sail to a limited degree (both senses of the word can apply here) against the wind. The sail can catch the wind at certain angles to go basically sideways, like east while the wind blows north, in a similar way to how you can hit a ball in the game of pool/billiards. With steering the boat can get a few more degrees and sail slightly against the wind. Zig zags happen because the movement is mostly sideways (like west or east for the boat while the wind is blowing north or south) .", "Oooh finally a question I can answer! Short answer is: you don't. If you point your sailboat straight in to the wind it's called \"getting caught in irons\". Most often your boat just drifts to a stop but sometimes the wind will actually push you backwards if you're light enough. If you want to reach an upwind destination you have to do something called \"tacking\", which is basically just a fancy term for \"do zigzags.\" So how small of an angle can you get to the wind before you get stuck in irons? It depends on a lot of factors - the wind speed, how light your boat is, how good you are at trimming your sails, etc. In the environment I usually sail in (very light 15 ft boat on a lake with average 5-8knot wind) I can usually safely tack about 20ish degrees in to the wind. I know sailors much better than me who can do better though.", "If you try to sail directly into wind you will be in a \"No Go Zone\". To avoid this you sail at the Close Hauled position (This area is as close to the no go zone as you can get) with your sails trimmed in tightly. If you are in a close Hauled position but want to be on the other side of the wind you will have to go through the \"No Go Zone\" using the Tacking maneuver. Once that is accomplished you can take up the close Hauled position on the opposite side of the wind. If you ever need to stop a sail boat suddenly the best thing to do is to put the Bow of the boat directly into the wind. Check this [page]( URL_0 ) out for more info." ]

[ [ "Sailing Sailing \nemploys the wind—acting on sails, wingsails or kites—to propel a craft on the surface of the water (sailing ship, sailboat, windsurfer, or kitesurfer), on ice (iceboat) or on land (land yacht) over a chosen course, which is often part of a larger plan of navigation.\nA course defined with respect to the true wind direction is called a point of sail.\nConventional sailing craft cannot derive power from sails on a point of sail that is too close into the wind. On a given point of sail, the sailor adjusts the alignment of each sail with respect to the", "-30.169515383720864" ], [ "Outline of sailing The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to sailing:\nSailing – the use of wind to provide the primary power via sail(s) or wing to propel a craft over water, ice or land. A sailor manages the force of the wind on the sails by adjusting their angle with respect to the moving sailing craft and sometimes by adjusting the sail area. Rigging Rigging – apparatus through which the force of the wind is used to propel sailboats and sailing ships forward. This includes spars (masts, yards, etc.), sails, and cordage.", "-29.803411550728924" ], [ "can use lift to move across or into the wind. However, for most sailboats the boat speed drops if sailing closer than 45 degrees to the wind. The highest speed for most sailboats is reaching with the wind from the side or the aft quarter (a beam reach or a broad reach).\nIf the destination is upwind but the sailboat goes fastest heading away from this direction, this poses a significant problem: how to choose tack headings with the best tradeoff between maximimizing speed and minimizing distance. The ability to define an efficient tacking route is an important issue in sailboat", "-29.641906472388655" ], [ "sailing close-hauled (also called beating or working to windward) when its sails are trimmed in tightly, are acting substantially like a wing, and the craft's course is as close to the wind as allows the sail(s) to generate maximum lift. This point of sail lets the sailing craft travel diagonally to the wind direction, or 'upwind'. Sailing to windward close-hauled and tacking is called 'beating'. On the last tack it is possible to 'fetch' to the windward or weather mark. A fetch is sailing close hauled upwind to a mark without needing to tack.\nThe smaller the angle between the direction", "-29.544288020188105" ], [ "sails depend on wind speed and direction and the speed and direction of the craft. The direction that the craft is traveling with respect to the \"true wind\" (the wind direction and speed over the surface) is called the point of sail. The speed of the craft at a given point of sail contributes to the \"apparent wind\"—the wind speed and direction as measured on the moving craft. The apparent wind on the sail creates a total aerodynamic force, which may be resolved into drag—the force component in the direction of the apparent wind—and lift—the force component normal (90°) to", "-28.590390609577298" ], [ "Point of sail A point of sail is a sailing craft's direction of travel under sail in relation to the true wind direction over the surface.\nThe principal points of sail roughly correspond to 45° segments of a circle, starting with 0° directly into the wind. For many sailing craft 45° on either side of the wind is a \"no-go\" zone, where a sail is unable to mobilize power from the wind. Sailing on a course as close to the wind as possible—approximately 45°—is termed \"close-hauled\". At 90° off the wind, a craft is on a \"beam reach\". At 135° off", "-28.50245340494439" ], [ "type, running symmetrical alongside the boat controlled by lines known as a sheet and a guy running from the lower two corners of the sail. The windward line, or guy, is attached to the corner called the tack of the sail, and is stabilized by a spinnaker pole. The leeward (downwind) line is called the sheet. It attaches to the clew of the spinnaker and is used to control the shape of the sail. The spinnaker pole must be moved in each gybe, and is quite difficult for beginners to use. However, it can be sailed in all downwind wind", "-28.389700120605994" ], [ "it. On this sail, the sheets are led aft, and pull the clews back as well as down, taking the place of the braces of the non-existent sail below. This works perfectly well when the wind is aft of the beam, but as the ship heads further to windward the sheets become less and less effective for controlling the windward clew. \nRather than being a simple \"bag of wind\" held from behind, the sail must be pulled into a (fairly poor) approximation of an aerofoil, like a modern triangular sail, by hauling the windward leech as far forward and as", "-28.28325048921397" ], [ "sail up, seamen on the yardarm pull on reef tackles, attached to reef cringles, to pull the sail up and secure it with lines, called reef points. Dana spoke of the hardships of sail handling during high wind and rain or with ice covering the ship and its rigging. Changing tack Sailing vessels cannot sail directly into the wind. Instead, square-riggers must sail a course that is between 60° and 70° away from the wind direction and fore-and aft vessels can typically sail no closer than 45°. To reach a destination, sailing vessels may have to change course and allow", "-28.116014477564022" ], [ "to 50 degrees either side of the wind, or a 60- to 100-degree area centered on the wind direction. In irons A sailing craft is said to be \"in irons\" if it is stopped with its sails unable to generate power in the no-go zone. If the craft tacks too slowly, or otherwise loses forward motion while heading into the wind, the craft will coast to a stop. This is also known as being \"taken aback,\" especially on a square-rigged vessel whose sails can be blown back against the masts, while tacking. Close-hauled A sailing craft is said to be", "-27.923904346098425" ], [ "Spinnaker A spinnaker is a sail designed specifically for sailing off the wind from a reaching course to a downwind, i.e. with the wind 90–180° off bow. The spinnaker fills with wind and balloons out in front of the boat when it is deployed, called flying. It is constructed of lightweight fabric, usually nylon, and is often brightly coloured. It may be optimised for a particular range of wind angles, as either a reaching or a running spinnaker, by the shaping of the panels and seams.\nThe spinnaker is often called a kite, or a chute (as in cruising chute)", "-27.91743901465088" ], [ "of the true wind and the course of the sailing craft, the higher the craft is said to point. A craft that can point higher (when it is as close-hauled as possible) is said to be more weatherly. Reaching When the wind is coming from the side of the sailing craft, this is called reaching.\nA \"beam reach\" is when the true wind is at a right angle to the sailing craft.\nA \"close reach\" is a course closer to the true wind than a beam reach but below close-hauled; i.e., any angle between a beam reach and close-hauled. The sails", "-27.914110869169235" ], [ "position and steered by pedals or hand levers. Land sailing works best in windy flat areas, and races often happen on beaches, airfields, and dry lake beds in desert regions. Modern land sailors, generally known as \"pilots\", can go three to four times faster than the wind speed. A gust of wind is considered more beneficial in a land sailing race than a favorable windshift. A similar sport, known as ice yachting, is practiced on frozen lakes and rivers. Another variation is the Whike, which combines land sailing with bicycling and can therefore also be used in everyday traffic because", "-27.879484632168896" ], [ "is effectively folded in two. In this state the sail is said to be \"in its gear\", that is ready for setting or stowing. To set the sail the clewlines and buntlines are let go, and the sheets (attached to the bottom corners - clews - of the sail) are adjusted to shape the sail to best catch the wind. A device called a \"tye\", a \"tye chain\", or a \"tye rope\" is used for lifting a given yard to the top of its travel to set the sail.\nTo stop using (i.e., to \"hand\") the sail, the sheets are", "-27.766824041842483" ], [ "the boats have to tack back and forth to advance through the course. This course configuration provides a measure of traffic safety between competitors. Also, by directing the iceboat straight upwind or straight downwind, the sailor can best control the sail and limit the aerodynamic force; these are the slowest directions of travel. Recorded racing speeds for an International DN in 9 knots (17 km/h; 10 mph) winds are 26 knots (48 km/h; 30 mph) upwind, and 35 knots (65 km/h; 40 mph) downwind. A downwind speed of 49 knots (91 km/h; 56 mph) was recorded at a World Championship in winds of just 13 to 15 knots", "-27.55135677754879" ], [ "theoretically. Sailing craft orient their sails with a favorable angle of attack between the entry point of the sail and the apparent wind even as their course changes. The ability to generate lift is limited by sailing too close to the wind when no effective angle of attack is available to generate lift (luffing) and sailing sufficiently off the wind that the sail cannot be oriented at a favorable angle of attack (running downwind). Instead, past a critical angle of attack, the sail stalls and promotes flow separation. Sail interactions Sailboats often have a jib that overlaps the mainsail—called a", "-27.42563251464162" ], [ "to have the other vertical edge of the square sail to the wind, the other clew becomes the tack. Wind direction on sailing vessel As a point of reference, tack is the alignment of the wind with respect to a sailing craft under way. If the wind is from starboard side of the sailing craft, it is on starboard tack, and if from port, on port tack. The International Regulations for Preventing Collisions at Sea for vessels underway declare that when the courses of two sailing vessels converge, the vessel on port tack must give way to a vessel on", "-27.180364277679473" ], [ "who must be fully synchronised in all their actions on board. Upwind, the boat is able to plane under ideal conditions, however, the best point of sail for a B&R 23 is downwind. Being an apparent wind boat, it will rarely if ever be sailed directly downwind, instead, optimum downwind performance is achieved by gybing downwind while reaching somewhere around 150 degrees TWA, which typically results in AWA’s forward of beam. In most conditions, boat speed will easily exceed wind speed, and in favorable conditions, getting close to factor 2.\nAs soon as the wind exceeds light breeze, the boat", "-27.086144075845368" ], [ "Velella, the by-the-wind sailor, is a cnidarian with no means of propulsion other than sailing. A small rigid sail projects into the air and catches the wind. Velella sails always align along the direction of the wind where the sail may act as an aerofoil, so that the animals tend to sail downwind at a small angle to the wind.\nWhile larger animals such as ducks can move on water by floating, some small animals move across it without breaking through the surface. This surface locomotion takes advantage of the surface tension of water. Animals that move in such a way", "-27.062785774935037" ], [ "resistance by the sailing craft against being blown off course, which is provided in the water by the keel, rudder, underwater foils and other elements of the underbody of a sailboat, on ice by the runners of an ice boat, or on land by the wheels of a sail-powered land vehicle.\nForces on sails depend on wind speed and direction and the speed and direction of the craft. The speed of the craft at a given point of sail contributes to the \"apparent wind\"—the wind speed and direction as measured on the moving craft. The apparent wind on the sail creates", "-27.005369413178414" ], [ "out to yard below. Under way, the crew manages reef tackles, haul leeches, reef points, to manage the size and angle of the sail; bowlines pull the leading edge of the sail (leech) taut when close hauled. When furling the sail, the crew uses clewlines, haul up the clews and buntlines to haul up the middle of sail up; when lowered, lifts support each yard.\nIn strong winds, the crew is directed to reduce the number of sails or, alternatively, the amount of each given sail that is presented to the wind by a process called reefing. To pull the", "-26.81392567383591" ], [ "released and the clewlines and buntlines are pulled tight. The sail folds in half - back in its gear - and so no longer catches the wind. Unless the sail is to be used again very soon, the next step is to \"stow\" it. To do this, the crew must go out along the yard in order to bundle the sail up tightly and tie it down with gaskets. Manning the yards When coming into port, especially during the Tall Ships' Races many modern square riggers will 'man the yards'. All the crew not required on deck to handle the", "-26.301895037817303" ], [ "speed record of 65.45 knots on water, at around 2.5 times the speed of the wind. Iceboats Iceboats can typically sail at five times the speed of the wind. Land sailing craft By sailing downwind at 135° off the wind, a sand yacht can sail much faster than the wind. The velocity made good downwind is often over twice as fast compared to the same land yacht sailing directly downwind. In 2009, the world land speed record for a wind-powered vehicle was set by the sand yacht Greenbird sailing at about three times the speed of the wind with a", "-26.229999100090936" ], [ "Two hang from ropes and harnesses attached to the top of the mast and work the rigging; three stand in the rear, steering the craft with a 2-metre (6.6 ft) long paddle; two stand amidships and adjust the sail, and up to seven additional crew members sit on wooden poles jutting from the windward side. The pole-sitters move inboard and outboard as needed, allowing the sail to make maximum use of the wind and preventing the boat from capsizing. If wind conditions are right, a second square sail may be added to the front of the boat and the main mast", "-26.101176934724208" ], [ "recorded top speed of 202.9 kilometres per hour (126.1 mph). Points of sail The points of sail at which sailing craft can achieve highest speeds span between a beam reach (90° to the true wind) and a broad reach (about 135° away from the true wind). Normal cruising boats yachts can sail at about 45° off the apparent wind (50° to 60° off the true wind). High performance racing yachts at about 27° (35° off the true wind). High-performance multihulls can sail at 20° off the apparent wind. Iceboats can sail even closer to the apparent wind. According to the data", "-26.05738075004774" ], [ "and keep the boat from crabbing, or slipping sideways from the force of the wind. Both jib and main sails are fully battened and total 218 square feet (20 m²). A trapeze is usually used by the crew and helmsman.\nOne notable difficulty in sailing this boat is the tendency of the boat to 'pitchpole' when running downwind; the sail plan and distribution of the flotation of the hulls is such that it can push the bows down far enough to dip them under the water, stopping the front of the boat and leading to a cartwheel or somersault and subsequent capsize", "-25.920884445571573" ], [ "Sail A sail is a tensile structure—made from fabric or other membrane materials—that uses wind power to propel sailing craft, including sailing ships, sailboats, windsurfers, ice boats, and even sail-powered land vehicles. Sails may be made from a combination of woven materials—including canvas or polyester cloth, laminated membranes or bonded filaments—usually in a three- or four-sided shape.\nA sail provides propulsive force via a combination of lift and drag, depending on its angle of attack—its angle with respect to the apparent wind. Apparent wind is the air velocity experienced on the moving craft and is the combined effect of the", "-25.887614449253306" ], [ "be used for transshipment (or transfer to and from shore by lighters) of goods and stores or troops.\nIn the days of sailing ships, some voyages could only easily be made with a change in wind direction, and ships would wait for a change of wind in a safe anchorage, such as the Downs or Yarmouth Roads. Robinson Crusoe Daniel Defoe has Robinson Crusoe recall an early journey in the coastal trade: \"The sixth day of our being at sea we came into Yarmouth Roads; the wind having been contrary, and the weather calm, we had made but little way since", "-25.71223105234094" ], [ "are trimmed in, but not as tight as for a close-hauled course.\nA \"broad reach\" is a course further away from the true wind than a beam reach, but above a run. In a broad reach, the wind is coming from behind the sailing craft at an angle. This represents a range of wind angles between beam reach and running downwind. On a sailboat (but not an iceboat) the sails are eased out away from the sailing craft, but not as much as on a run or dead run (downwind run). This is the furthest point of sail, until the sails", "-25.643436558544636" ], [ "Bunt (sail) The bunt of a sail is the middle part of it, which is purposely formed into a kind of curved bag, or cavity, so that the sail might receive more wind. It is chiefly used in topsails, for courses are for the most part cut square, or at least with a small allowance, for bunt or compass.\nSailors would say, \"the bunt holds much leeward wind\", meaning that the bunt hangs too much to leeward.\nThe buntlines are small lines fastened to the bottom of the sails, in the middle part of the bolt rope, to the cringle; and so", "-25.641629394958727" ], [ "the addition of a keel to the bottom, which impeded sliding. A ship could thus be constructed that could sail to some degree against the wind, never directly into it, but angling side to side, or tacking, in a zig-zag into the direction of the wind. It only worked for normal winds. In a gale, the ship could only run before the wind, as before.\nSails became elaborate; oars were dropped. Masts multiplied. A nao had three: a main, a mizzen (rear), and a fore. In addition a bowsprit projected forward, to which a number of foresails could be secured. Dozens", "-25.521643331681844" ], [ "be communicated across the creature’s complex surface layer\". Sailing Velella, the by-the-wind sailor, is a cnidarian with no means of propulsion other than sailing. A small rigid sail projects into the air and catches the wind. Velella sails always align along the direction of the wind where the sail may act as an aerofoil, so that the animals tend to sail downwind at a small angle to the wind.", "-25.483036924677435" ], [ "the back of the boat. The head (top corner) is attached to the spinnaker halyard, which is used to raise the sail up the mast.\nSymmetric spinnakers have the windward clew secured to a spinnaker pole. The pole is attached to the mast and holds the windward edge of the sail in position. Lines that control the spinnaker pole are called guys or braces. The spinnaker pole may be allowed to raise and lower with the force of the wind, or it may have lines attached to it to raise (the topping lift) and lower (the foreguy", "-25.441014555748552" ], [ "vessel to the other. Setting sail A sailing ship crew manages the running rigging of each square sail. Each sail has two sheets that control its lower corners, two braces that control the angle of the yard, two clewlines, four buntlines and two reef tackles. All these lines must be manned as the sail is deployed and the yard raised. They use a halyard to raise each yard and its sail; then they pull or ease the braces to set the angle of the yard across the vessel; they pull on sheets to haul lower corners of the sail, clews,", "-25.436773595254635" ], [ "can pass through a narrow gap between moored vessels. Loose-footed sails do suffer from sail twist, which reduces their aerodynamic efficiency when sailing off the wind, which usually is not a commercial issue. Vangs control the head of the mainsail and act a sheets for the topsail, which can be set so as to make use of the air above the wind-shadow of moored ships, warehouses and local features.\n Sail could be shortened rapidly by the two-man crew in the most difficult seas. The topsail was on hoops, so the halyard was let go and the sail rucked (dropped) to", "-25.43321218714118" ], [ "high enough so that the wind will finish in lifting the sailor's weight up and onto the board.\nMastering this technique is imperative when sailing in high winds or in large swell, when uphauling the sail would be difficult or impossible. It is also necessary when sailing on smaller boards, when the board does not have enough buoyancy for the sailor to stand on it with enough stability to uphaul the sail.\nMany sailors practice waterstarting in shallow waters, where it is easier to maneuver the board and rig into the correct position. When a beginner sails in windier conditions and falls", "-25.425179001616925" ], [ "Windsurfing and makes commonly use of a skateboards or inline skates.\nSkate sailing is using a sail and the wind to propel oneself across any relatively flat, hard surface. Skate sailing can be done in summer on roller blades, roller skis, cross skates, etc. Winter sailing can be enjoyed on downhill skis, snow blades, ice skates, or any other sliding footwear.", "-25.421802227618173" ], [ "as in the weather gage. Nautical and naval Windward and leeward directions are important factors (points of sail) to consider when sailing a sailing ship. Other terms with broadly the same meaning are widely used, particularly upwind and downwind.\nThe windward vessel is normally the more maneuverable vessel. For this reason, rule 12 of the International Regulations for Preventing Collisions at Sea, applying to sailing vessels, stipulates that where two are sailing in similar directions in relation to the wind, the windward vessel gives way to the leeward vessel. Naval warfare In warfare, a square rigged warship would often try to", "-25.41042106623354" ], [ "Hamme, if the wind came from an easterly direction, the skipper could use sail. But in North Germany the wind comes mostly from the west, so for the most part the skipper could set the sails only on the way back, when the barges were empty. On the way to Bremen they mostly had to punt or to scull.\nThe peat barge traffic reached its peak at the end of the 19th century. For example, in the year 1880, 25,000 shiploads reached Bremen. About 5,000 to 6,000 of these shiploads used the Semkenfahrt. The cargo was in total approximately 30,000 to", "-25.35932660230901" ], [ "the boat. In a good breeze the crew lie out on the windward side of the runner-plank to balance the boat, and reduce the pressure on the leeward runner. A course of 20 miles (32 km) with many turns has been sailed on the Hudson in less than 48 minutes, the record for a measured mile with flying start being at the rate of about 72 miles (116 km) an hour. In a high wind, however, ice yachts often move at the rate of 85 and even 90 miles (145 km) an hour.\nOn the bays near New York, a peculiar kind of iceboat", "-25.312878708704375" ], [ "starboard tack. The maneuver of changing a sailing craft's course from one tack to the other with the wind coming across the bow is called tacking or with the wind coming across the stern is called jibing for fore-and-aft rigged sailing craft or wearing ship for square-rigged vessels.", "-25.31133744935505" ], [ "with the hind-most fore-and-aft sail (the spanker), pulled to windward to help turn the ship through the eye of the wind. Once the ship has come about, all the sails are adjusted to align properly with the new tack. Because square-rigger masts are more strongly braced from behind than from ahead, tacking is a dangerous procedure in strong winds; the ship may lose forward momentum (become caught in stays) and the rigging may fail from the wind coming from ahead. The ship man also lose momentum at wind speeds of less than 10 knots (19 km/h). Under these conditions, the choice", "-25.230971085024066" ], [ "and by 21:30 the winds were south at 50–60 knots (93–111 km/h; 58–69 mph), gusting to 70 kn (130 km/h; 81 mph), with 10-foot (3.0 m) seas. At 22:00 the chief mate went to the wheelhouse and told the captain that there was a slight starboard list (which was consistent with the stability letter). The wind and seas were also pushing the barge to the north, and that strain on the tow wire may have increased the list. At 22:15 the Captain ordered the chief engineer to pump water for 15 minutes into the #18 port ballast tank to correct for the starboard list. Because of", "-25.225506645045243" ], [ "Sailing ship A sailing ship uses sails, mounted on one or more masts, to harness the power of wind and propel the vessel. There is a variety of sail plans that propel sailing ships, employing square-rigged or fore-and-aft sails. Some ships carry square sails on each mast—the brig and full-rigged ship, said to be \"ship-rigged\" when there are three or more masts. Others carry only fore-and-aft sails on each mast—schooners. Still others employ a combination of square and fore-and aft sails, including the barque, barquentine, and brigantine. Sailing ships developed differently in Asia, which produced the junk and dhow—vessels", "-25.194782231294084" ], [ "the windward mark, the fleet now heads towards the leeward mark. The leeward mark is positioned directly downwind from the windward mark, below the start/finish line. Sailors also round this mark counter-clockwise. After rounding, competitors head upwind to cross the finish line. Bermuda Fitted Dinghy racing In Bermuda, the Bermuda rig, now almost universal on small sailing vessels, can still be seen in its purest form in the Bermuda Fitted Dinghy, used for a series of races contested each year by the colony's yacht clubs. The first race of this type was held in 1880, as a way of reducing", "-25.149458849802613" ], [ "points in a current. A floating \"drift line\" (also \"tag line\", \"current line\" or \"trail line\") may be streamed from the stern or boarding platform to assist divers who drift astern of the vessel, and for something to hold onto while waiting to use the ladder. They can either hold onto the line and be pulled in by the crew, or pull themselves along the line. The far end of the line is usually marked with a brightly coloured buoy to show divers where it is and to help other boats avoid crossing the line. If there is any significant", "-25.145040431292728" ], [ "in the Texeira planisfere (among others). Use of rhumblines To calculate on a portolan chart the course to follow from a point of origin to a point of destination, one should transfer — using a parallel rule — the \"line of course\" drawn from the point of origin to the point of destination, on top of the Compass rose closest to the ship's position, obtaining on it the theoretical course to be followed when sailing towards the destination. This theoretical course may have to be modified (as many times as needed) when tacking if the wind is right ahead of", "-25.129541353904642" ], [ "western direction; the use of the trade winds makes it a relatively easy sail, although it passes through a number of zones of calms or light winds.\nIn yacht racing, a round-the-world route approximating a great circle would be quite impractical, particularly in a non-stop race where use of the Panama and Suez Canals would be impossible. Yacht racing therefore defines a world circumnavigation to be a passage of at least 21,600 nautical miles (40,000 km) in length which crosses the equator, crosses every meridian and finishes in the same port as it starts. The second map on the right shows the route", "-25.11150331632234" ], [ "the wind is pressing against the forward side of the cloth, rather than the aft side as it normally would for the sail to drive the vessel forwards. On large square rigged, multi-masted vessels the procedures can be quite complex and varied, but on a modern two-sailed sloop, there is only the jib and the mainsail. A cutter may have more than one headsail, and a ketch, yawl or schooner may have more than one sail on a boom. In what follows, the jibs and boomed sails on such craft can either be treated as one of each, or lowered", "-24.949041962623596" ], [ "climbs onto the board, grabs the pulling rope (uphaul), makes sure the mast foot is placed between his/her two feet, pulls the sail about one third out of the water, lets the wind turn the sail-board combination till he/she has the wind right in the back, pulls the sail all the way out, places the \"mast hand\" (hand closest to the mast) on the boom, pulls the mast over the center line of the board, places the \"sail hand\" (hand furthest from the mast) on the boom, then pulling on it to close the sail and power it. Under Planing", "-24.894579767016694" ], [ "windward, and has no bad tack Proa In a proa, the forward intersection of the spars is placed towards the bow. The sail is supported by a short mast attached near the middle of the upper spar, and the forward corner is attached to the hull. The lower spar, or boom, is attached at the forward intersection, but is not attached to the mast. The proa has a permanent windward and leeward side, and exchanges one end for the other when coming about.\nTo tack, or switch directions across the wind, the forward corner of the sail is loosened", "-24.8656618706882" ], [ "further off the wind. As an iceboat sails further from the wind, the apparent wind increases slightly and the boat speed is highest on the broad reach. In order to act like an airfoil, the sail on an iceboat is sheeted in for all three points of sail. Lift and drag on sails Lift on a sail, acting as an airfoil, occurs in a direction perpendicular to the incident airstream (the apparent wind velocity for the head sail) and is a result of pressure differences between the windward and leeward surfaces and depends on angle of attack, sail shape, air", "-24.856993448833236" ], [ "aid of a joystick, or simultaneously. It can berth in wind speeds of 50 knots without tug assistance. Sister ship MS Côte des Dunes (ex. Seafrance Rodin)", "-24.812566708686063" ], [ "Knud Reimers argued that in offshore race sailing, the final test is to create boats that can travel at sea in any weather, and said (loosely translated): \"The boat is the means to reach the treasure beyond the horizon\".", "-24.809999612050433" ], [ "Town, participants head north-west towards the island of Ilha Trindade, and south-west from there towards South America. As they near the coast, skippers need to decide whether to take the longer route with stronger winds, or a more direct route with the chance for lighter winds.\nPrizes are awarded to the first competitor across the line, new records being set, as well as the first three across the line in 3 handicap classes.", "-24.70361218691687" ], [ "east-north-east, these are most frequently starboard tack down-the-line conditions (wind from right when standing on the beach). Yet further west, past the rocky point, is Lanes, which generally breaks as a left. Under relatively rare conditions, known as Kona, the prevailing winds become southwest, creating port tack down-the-line conditions at Lanes (wind from left when standing on the beach). This only occurs a few days out of every year. Attractions Over the years Ho'okipa has been the site for organized windsurfing competitions in the Wave discipline. A long-running annual event is the Aloha Classic, a Pro-Am competition with age categories", "-24.615544778527692" ], [ "and downwind at 1.6 times the speed of the true wind. They proved to be faster, averaging about 1.8 times the speed of the wind with peaks slightly over 2.0. \nThe Extreme 40 catamaran can sail at 35 knots (65 km/h; 40 mph) in 20–25-knot (37–46 km/h; 23–29 mph) winds. The high-performance International C-Class Catamaran can sail at twice the speed of the wind. \nIn 2009, the world speed sailing record on water was set by a hydrofoil trimaran sailing at 1.71 times the speed of the wind. In late 2012, the Vestas Sailrocket 2 skippered by Paul Larsen achieved a new outright world", "-24.60405137775524" ], [ "aft of the beam. Since the sails are fully battened and may be set almost at a right angle to the boat, they were able to set the Topan sail to windward, sailing wing to wing as soon as the wind was well aft of the beam. Going to windward was not the strong point of those junk rigged vessels, since the junk rig performs not as efficiently to windward as the modern Bermuda sail or the Gaff sail and the hulls of the cargo freighters were well rounded and offered not much lateral resistance.\nThe clipper type bow of the", "-24.552695531601785" ], [ "Riding the Wind Plot A cowboy fights against a schemer who is manipulating water rights.", "-24.51488442067057" ], [ "had to be supplemented with conventions for power-driven vessel navigation. Sailing vessels are limited as to their manoeuvrability in that they cannot sail directly into the wind and cannot be readily navigated in the absence of wind. On the other hand, steamships can manoeuvre in all 360 degrees of direction and can be manoeuvred irrespective of the presence or absence of wind.\nIn 1840 in London, the Trinity House drew up a set of regulations which were enacted by Parliament in 1846. The Trinity House rules were included in the Steam Navigation Act 1846, and the Admiralty regulations regarding lights for", "-24.50831608196313" ], [ "must be entered and exited using engine power. Large stretches of the canal can be crossed under sail power.\nSailing around the world can be done by two directions: eastward or westward. The dominant winds and currents (outside tropical areas) make the voyage eastwards on the Southern hemisphere faster, most skippers and yachts who race prefer this route. Today, the multihulls perform much better than monohulls and hold the best times. Leisure yacht skippers who prefer tropical seas more often go westward, using the trade winds (and the Panama canal).\nThe Jules Verne Trophy is awarded to the skipper who breaks the", "-24.48944650035628" ], [ "configuration of the keel and rudder and the state of the wind and sea, each skipper will have to experiment. After this the boat can be left indefinitely, only keeping a lookout for other approaching vessels.\nWhen hove to, the boat will heel, there will be some drift to leeward and some tendency to forereach, so adequate seaway must be allowed for. In rough weather, this leeway can actually leave a 'slick' effect to windward, in which the waves are smaller than elsewhere. This can make a rest or meal break a little more comfortable at times.\nTo come out from the", "-24.476585454307497" ], [ "which usually is not a commercial issue. It can be an advantage in light air. The vangs control the head of the sail which can be set so as to make use of the air above the wind-shadow of moored ships, warehouses and so on.\nThis fine control of the sail without need for the crew to leave the deck, is achieved by brailing up. Rather than lowering the mainsail, it is gathered up against its own luff and head by means of lines called brails. This technique is an effective way of stowing the mainsail and gives fine control", "-24.46632119541755" ], [ "a tabletop.\nWind speed and direction are determined by a roll of the dice; sail ships can only make slow progress against the wind by tacking. A protractor is used to measure the angle between the wind direction and the ship direction, and this determines ship speed.\nThe protractor is also called into use to determine which cannons can fire on an enemy ship. Cannons can aim at the masts or at the hull, and the chance of hitting is 5 in 6 at short range (4\") and 1 in 6 at long range (16\"). The amount of damage", "-24.45695071760565" ], [ "to 12 knots of wind and flat water, we logged 7 knots of boatspeed and tacked through 80 degrees. It took some time to accelerate out of the tacks, but once we got the sails dialed in, the boat tracked well and held consistent speed. Broad- and beam-reaching through the night, with winds in the high 20s, speeds were consistently in the 8-to-9-knot range and occasionally topped 10 knots. Some trouble with the autopilot had us hand-steering through the windiest hours.\" He found some faults with the design, \"the steering did feel a bit stiff, the grabrails in the saloon", "-24.432230050035287" ], [ "at times fitted with mast and sails, their primary propulsion was either oars or poles. The sails were merely supplemental for traveling down wind. Their inefficiency at beating to windward made them impractical as sailing vessels, and they were not very safe in open water. Below Niagara Falls: first ships on Lake Ontario James Mansfield says that in the fall of 1678, La Salle built a vessel of about 10 tons burden at Fort Frontenac and that this vessel, named Frontenac, was the first real sailing vessel on the Great Lakes; specifically, on Lake Ontario (which some at the time", "-24.383446174033452" ], [ "are familiar with the procedure and may recover.\nMost small monohull sailboats can normally be righted by standing or pulling down on the centreboard, daggerboard (or bilgeboard in a scow) to lift the mast clear of the water. Depending on the design of the hull, the boat's righting moment will normally take effect once the mast is around 30 degrees from horizontal and help pull the boat vertical. Righting a catamaran that is lying on its side involves using a righting line fed over the upper hull. The crew stands on the lower hull and pulls back on the righting line.", "-24.355990543495864" ], [ "his port three days. Then he was as far north as whale hunters furthest travel. Then he traveled still north as far as he might sail in another three days. Then the land bowed east (or the sea into the land — he did not know which). But he knew that he waited there for west winds (and somewhat north), and sailed east by the land so as he might sail in four days. Then he had to wait for due-north winds, because the land bowed south (or the sea into the land — he did not know which). Then", "-24.203893839381635" ], [ "with them and bore up before the wind to attack, they moved onwards. The attacking fleet had then to advance, not directly before the wind with its ships moving along lines perpendicular to the line attacked, but in slanting or curving lines. The assailants would be thrown into \"a bow and quarter line\" – with the bow of the second level with the after part of the first and so on from end to end. In the case of a number of ships of various powers of sailing, it was a difficult formation to maintain.\nThe result was often that the", "-24.191141196875833" ], [ "for day sailing and cruising; formerly being used mainly for long distance ocean passages. The increased low wind capabilities of optimized, modern devices enable downwind steering down to 1.3 m/s apparent wind and 1.5 kn of boat speed – properties that make an electronic steering device nearly redundant and enable crossing the doldrums under wind vane self-steering. An increasing number of long distance regatta sailors are using wind vane self-steering because of the fact, that the sails are always kept in optimal angle towards the wind, and hence the speed of the boat is kept at the possible maximum.\nThe mathematical description of", "-24.11934506635589" ], [ "Clewlines and buntlines Clewlines and buntlines are lines used to handle the sails of a square rigged ship.\nAlthough the common perception of a traditionally rigged ship is that the sails are handled from \"up in the rigging\", the majority of the work is actually carried out from the deck. In particular, when sailors go aloft to stow the square sails by bundling them up and tying them to the yard (with gaskets) they don't have to pull the whole weight of the sail up towards them. That work has already been carried out from the deck using the clewlines and", "-24.111012853332795" ], [ "jetty. The speed of boats or ships approaching the harbour is limited to 4 knots.\nOther safety precautions prescribed relate to watching the approach conditions from the Swinge or the Race ends of the harbour as the tidal conditions at these locations are in the range of 9 knots and 11 knots respectively. The most preferred option is to negotiate these two approaches during low tide conditions. All moorings are essentially on buoys, within the protection of the breakwater. Since there is no slipway, it would be necessary to use \"dingy to get ashore to where there is a public pontoon", "-24.007598463460454" ], [ "used for inter-island travel.\nParaws can sail between 11 and 17 knots (20~31 km/h). The outriggers (ama), or katig, are made of wood or bamboo, and may be straight or curved upward much like skis. Construction Traditionally these boats have been made from dungon, guisoc, ipil, duca, baslayan, obacya, bayog, Philippine mahogany (lawaan), basa and molave. Modern versions use plywood. The ropes of the boats are traditionally made from abaca (Manila hemp), but are now often synthetic rope.\nThe boat or canoe without outriggers is called a bangka (vanca) or baroto (also baloto) and may be dug out from solid tree trunk or", "-23.91248678136617" ], [ "shorthanded handling under sail ... A serious cruising boat must function as well bashing to windward for days on end as it does at the dock. Above all, it must keep its crew dry and comfortable. We have yet to find the perfect cruising boat, but many of the things we’d look for are found in the Landfall 38. We wish they were all there, but the fact that they aren’t is what keeps designers and builders in business.\"", "-23.85548066732008" ], [ "craft cannot sail is called the \"no-go\" zone. In the no-go zone the craft's sails cease producing enough drive to maintain way or forward momentum; therefore, the sailing craft slows down towards a stop and steering becomes progressively less effective at controlling the direction of travel. The span of the no-go zone varies among sailing craft, depending on the design of the sailing craft, its rig, and its sails, as well as on the wind strength and, for boats, the sea state. Depending on the sailing craft and the conditions, the span of the no-go zone may be from 30", "-23.75584843038814" ], [ "to nautical terminology referring to direction, rather than location. In the warm months most suitable for sailing, the prevailing winds along the coast of New England and Canada blow from the southwest, meaning ships sail downwind to go east. As such, the northeastern stretches were said to be \"Down East\" in relation to major western cities such as Boston. Correspondingly, sailors spoke of going \"up to Boston\" from Down East ports, a phrase still common in Maine, despite the fact that Boston is around fifty miles to the south of Maine. The term can be used as an adverb, adjective,", "-23.733076482662" ], [ "Drift boat A Drift Boat is an evolution of the open-water dory, converted for use in rivers. The design is characterized by a wide, flat bottom, flared sides, a narrow, flat bow, and a pointed stern. A Rocker is used along an arc from bow to stern along the bottom of the boat. It is this constant rocker that allows the boat to spin about its center for ease in maneuvering in rapids. Boat Hull Materials The earliest drift boats were made out of various types of wood. Later boats were made with lower maintenance materials like aluminum, fiberglass, or", "-23.7192588201724" ], [ "the ship to glide automatically when the ship is off the tow. The auxiliary slipway shall be determined according to the ship type, the water level at time of launching, the diameter of the air bags, and the safety requirements. Towing arrangement A windlass shall be used to control the movement of the ship. Tow system that comprises windlass, steel wire rope and pulley set shall be securely fastened to the ground anchor in front of the berth.\nIn general, a slow windlass shall be selected for ship launching. The veering speed of the windlass shall be 9 m/min to 13", "-23.63634288510366" ], [ "into the wind when steaming at low speed. The ships had a crew of 9 officers and 152 enlisted men. They carried a number of smaller boats, including one picket boat, one cutter, two yawls, and two dinghies. Propulsion Their propulsion system consisted of two horizontal 3-cylinder triple-expansion steam engines powered by four coal-fired cylindrical boilers; the engines were rated at 2,800 indicated horsepower (2,100 kW) and were placed in their own engine rooms. The engines drove a pair of 3-bladed screws that were 3 m (9 ft 10 in) wide in diameter. The boilers were divided into two boiler rooms and were trunked into a", "-23.610354540520348" ], [ "Speed sailing Speed sailing is the art of sailing a craft as fast as possible over a predetermined route, and having its overall or peak speed recorded and accredited by a regulatory body. The term usually refers to sailing on water, even though sailing on land and ice is progressively faster because of the lower friction involved. The World Sailing Speed Record Council is the body authorized by the International Sailing Federation to confirm speed records of sailing craft (boats or sailboards) on water (not on ice or land). Sailing craft used The craft used vary from single sailor windsurfers", "-23.59830582808354" ], [ "to leeward on a seat designed to let the helmsman lean back against the lifelines and pushpit with feet inboard and a knee on either side of the wheel, I found the boat a pleasure to sail. The helm was balanced, and the boat tracked nicely on a close reach through confused seas with the GPS at 7 knots and better in about 17 knots of true wind.\"", "-23.588505596620962" ], [ "sails have a span of 21.20 metres (69 ft 7 in) and are carried in a cast-iron windshaft. The windshaft also carries the brake wheel which has 71 cogs. This drives the wallower (38 cogs) at the top of the upright shaft. At the bottom of the upright shaft, the great spur wheel, which has 97 cogs, drives the 1.30 metres (4 ft 3 in) diameter French Burr stones via a lantern pinion stone nut with 28 staves. The mill formerly drove three pairs of millstones. Public access De Hoop is open to the public daily but only working on Saturdays.", "-23.549309168593027" ], [ "she carried a bowsprit. As a result she was better balanced, needing very little helm. She sailed best on the sheet, with a freeish sprit. On the bowsprit, she could carry both a jib and a topmast staysail, but it was usual only to set the former. She-would carry full sail (i.e. without the staysail) in a Force 5 wind, although in associated sea conditions offshore the skipper would be looking for shelter if deep-laden. When reducing sail due to weather the jib came in first, followed by the topsail and then if necessary the first few cloths of the", "-23.510234071291052" ], [ "sails, fitted with the Van Bussel system on their leading edges, and a pair Ten Have sails. They have a span of 23.00 metres (75 ft 6 in). They are carried on a cast iron windshaft, which was cast by the IJzergieterij De Prins van Oranje, 's Gravenhage, South Holland in 1873. The windshaft also carries the brake wheel, which has 60 cogs. This drives a wallower with 31 teeth, which is situated at the top of the upright shaft. At the bottom of the upright shaft is the great spur wheel, which has 78 cogs. This drives a pair of 1.40", "-23.462995687965304" ], [ "into the wind. The crew of the barge saw the lights of the tug for about 15 minutes after the tow line broke. When the barge crew was able to raise all the sails, the barge could still make no headway to windward, and instead drifted in a northwesterly direction for about 35 hours. Wheeler made a zig-zag course, governed by the wind strength and direction, back east towards the Oregon coast, eventually spotting the Yaquina Head Light at about 7:00 pm on Tuesday.\nWhen the crew on Wheeler decided to attempt to enter Yaquina Bay, the", "-23.445643472776283" ], [ "narrow band of the equatorial counter current going west to east. These can make a difference of 40 miles per day.\nThe prime method of coping with currents is by taking backsights on the land when leaving so as to be able to estimate the current and also the leeway (the angle the boat is drifting off the wind). On many islands, leading marks are set up to aid in this. The course is then adjusted to suit the conditions. There can be daily fluctuations in current but these are generally random and do not accumulate. Expert navigators can also detect", "-23.433738150808495" ], [ "the sailing performance Simon wrote: \"Out on the water, the boat tacked handily, even in the 8 to 10 knots of wind we experienced during our test sail on the Chesapeake. The near-plum stem extends the waterline length to 34 feet 8 inches, resulting in a moderate displacement-to-length ratio of 220 that indicates that the boat should be able to muscle through some chop. And the sail area-to-displacement ratio of 19.4 suggests the boat will deliver a good turn of speed in stronger winds. Overall, it should prove weatherly, especially if fit with the deep keel.\"", "-23.432548894226784" ], [ "and allows the boat to be sailed up to 30 knots of wind by a person with reasonable skills while its strong hull and no centre board allows it to sail over shallow water and contact reefs with only very minor damage. Other Challenges There are racing classes all around the world for a range of Hobie Sailboats. These include the Fiji Hobie Challenge which is an annual race held over a similar format and the Tanzacat Challenge and Zanzibar Raid held in Tanzania, East Africa.", "-23.419972353352932" ], [ "design of the sail, where the head of the sail is set at a different angle of attack from the foot of the sail in order to change the lift distribution with height. The effect of wind gradient can be factored into the selection of twist in the sail design, but this can be difficult to predict since the wind gradient may vary widely in different weather conditions. Sailors may also adjust the trim of the sail to account for wind gradient, for example using a boom vang.\nAccording to one source, the wind gradient is not significant for sailboats when", "-23.39043617103016" ], [ "on the pole shining inside it. Function Wind direction is the opposite of the direction in which the windsock is pointing (note that wind directions are conventionally specified as being the compass point from which the wind originates; so a windsock pointing due north indicates a southerly wind). Wind speed is indicated by the windsock's angle relative to the mounting pole; in low winds, the windsock droops; in high winds it flies horizontally.\nAlternating stripes of high visibility orange and white were initially used to help to estimate the speed of wind. Each stripe adds up 3 knots to the estimated", "-23.381591259483685" ], [ "away for that. In this case, the mainsail is sheeted in hard and the turn continued until the boat circles, the wind is jibed across the stern and the boat is sailed downwind, past the casualty again and finally brought to rest by turning upwind again. It is recommended not to adjust the sails for efficient downwind sailing, so that too much speed is not built up when approaching the casualty.\nThe main advantages of this method are its simplicity (making it ideal for short-handed crews), and the fact that the boat does not need to be maneuvered far away of", "-23.379984725208487" ], [ "cargo (250-1000 tons according to various interpretations). These ships came from K'un-lun, meaning \"Southern country\" or \"Islands below the wind.\" The ships called K'un-lun po (or K'un-lun bo), could be more than 50 meters in length and had a freeboard of 4-7 meters. Wan Chen explains the ships' design as follows:\nThe four sails do not face directly forward, but are set obliquely, and so arranged that they can all be fixed in the same direction, to receive the wind and to spill it. Those sails which are behind the most windward one receiving the pressure of the wind, throw", "-23.308331673666544" ], [ "he sailed from there south by the land so as he might sail in five days. Then a large river lay there up into the land. Then they turned up into the river, because they dared not sail forth past the river for hostility, because the land was all settled on the other side of the river. He had not encountered earlier any settled land since he travelled from his own home, but all the way waste land was on his starboard (except fishers, fowlers and hunters, who were all Finns). And the wide sea was always on his port.", "-23.289125909330323" ], [ "and to provide a superior platform from which to shoot.\nAll ancient ships had sails and a mainmast (usually the only mast), but the sailors little understood the use of sails as airfoils. They could only sail downwind, requiring them to spend much time in port waiting for a breeze in the right direction. This cumbersome requirement was transcended in the larger vessels by a complex system or oars. The crewmen were basically citizens trained as rowers. The sail was only used for long runs before prevailing winds. In battle the mast was sometimes cut and thrown overboard to lighten the", "-23.280127727310173" ], [ "8–9-knot (15–17 km/h; 9.2–10.4 mph) winds, so her average velocity made good was 16 knots (30 km/h), about 1.9 times the wind speed. Alinghi 5 sails so fast downwind that the apparent wind she generates is only 5–6 degrees different from when she is racing upwind; that is, Alinghi 5 is always sailing upwind with respect to the apparent wind. An explanation of this phenomenon can be found in the article on sailing faster than the wind.\nThe design of the yacht was influenced by that of racing catamarans developed for regattas on Lake Geneva.", "-23.258367112954147" ], [ "provided on p. 406 of the cited book High Performance Sailing, a fast keelboat such as a Soling can sail at 30° off the apparent wind, an 18ft Skiff at 20°, and an iceboat at 7°. Beta Theorem Garrett describes the Beta Theorem as the result of the net effect of two counteracting foils, the sail in the air and the keel in the water. When one resolves the ratio of lift to drag for each in its medium, the resulting motion of the sailing vessel resolves to an angle, beta (β), between the apparent wind and the course over the", "-23.25218469731044" ], [ "cutter would pull-in on the lee-side. The apprentice would then row the pilot in the punt to the vessel, whilst the captain would sail-clear. The cutter would return once the pilot was on board and the vessel underway. If the cutter had two pilots on board, the sequence would be repeated for a second vessel. If not, she would race home.\nOnce steam power began to replace sail in cargo vessels some cutters would be towed back in, a practice unpopular with both the vessels' and the cutters' crews. Off duty When not racing into the Western Approaches, cutter captains would", "-23.25113451341167" ], [ "galley owner. Propulsion The keelboat could be propelled by oars, sails, poles and towlines. When using the setting poles, the crew put the poles in the bottom of the river and pushed off while walking from the bow to the stern. Towlines were used by men, horses, or oxen pulling the boat. Crew According to the standing orders of the expedition, one of the commanding officers should always be in the keelboat as commander. One sergeant was to be at the helm, one amidships, and one at the bow. The helmsman was steersman, supervised the cargo on deck, and was", "-23.24550350033678" ], [ "and reaching the so-called \"trade winds\"; thus arriving in the Caribbean rather than going straight west to the North American mainland. Returning from North America, it is easiest to follow the Gulf Stream in a northeasterly direction using the westerlies. A similar triangle to this, called the volta do mar was already being used by the Portuguese, before Christopher Columbus' voyage, to sail to the Canary Islands and the Azores. Columbus simply expanded this triangle outwards, and his route became the main way for Europeans to reach, and return from, the Americas. New England New England also made rum from", "-23.235907761380076" ], [ "to be deliberately rowed across was the Atlantic by Frank Samuelsen and George Harbo, two Norwegian-born Americans, in June 1896. The pair left Battery Park, Manhattan, on 6 June 1896, arriving on the Isles of Scilly, 55 days and 13 hours later, having covered 3,250 nautical miles (3,740 mi; 6,020 km). They continued to row to Le Havre, France.\nThe first solo crossing of an ocean was completed by John Fairfax of Britain on 19 July 1969. He rowed from Gran Canaria in the Canary Islands to Hollywood Beach, Florida in 180 days. In the same year Tom McClean, also of Britain, rowed", "-23.231006453734153" ] ]

[ "If somebody could answer this question, they'd probably win a nobel prize. Seriously, there's a lot we don't know about sleep. The short answer is basically \"genetics\". But exactly how that works for some people is largely a mystery.", "There's [some research]( URL_0 ) that shows that a certain genetic mutation, related to the part you that controls how much you sleep, causes some people to be react better when they're sleep-deprived. Basically, the people with this mutation will perform better when sleep-deprived than those without. But it's not clear if people with the mutation also avoid the health risks that come along with prolonged sleep deprivation.", "I think a lot can even have to do with how you are feeling that day or what your motivations are. I know I rarely am tired when i spring up at 6am for snowboarding, but if i were awakened for almost any other reason i would feel like death itself.", "Sleep cycles / stages. If our sleep is interrupted in one of the early stages, we can feel groggy and tired even if we've had 'enough' sleep. People who 'get by' on less sleep are accessing sleep cycles more efficiently, as opposed to someone like me who tosses & turns all night meandering between stages 1-3 with v little 4-5.* *Hopefully someone with those delightful letters after their name can confirm / expand on this, on mobile after heavy night so expecting some holes!", "Hello, I work in a psychology research lab studying sleep and memory, so this isn't exactly what I work on, but I feel its close enough that I can give an educated answer. There are a number of interactions that lead to your observation, but the simple answer is that they aren't functioning fine, they only appear to be. With the right measures, a person missing only 1 hour of sleep can easily be identified. First, its important to distinguish between functioning fine after one night of only a few hour's sleep and repeated nights of only a few hour's sleep. While its possible to function relatively normally with one night of little sleep, repeated nights of little sleep will build a sleep debt in 99.9% of people. Your body will start prioritizing different sleep cycles as you become more indebted, and when you finally have the opportunity to catch up, you'll find your self sleeping 10-12 hours. Its also important to know that its not a straight 1-1 ratio of sleep debt to sleep catch up, and you'll often need more nights of catch up sleep than you missed. Second, your body has two sleep clocks that are used to determine if you are tired. The first is based on how long its been since you were asleep. While your awake, a chemical (melatonin) is released that slowly builds up in your body. The more of this chemical you have built up, the more the urge to sleep grows. When you do go to sleep, the chemical build up reverses and the clock resets. The second clock is based on light exposure which is normally anchored to the night day cycle. In the morning, when your body detects an increase of light, it releases a different chemical (cortisol), that works to prepare your body for action. If these two clocks get desynced, it can lead to a state where you feel energized because its time to be awake, but your body still needs more sleep. This is often the case with frequent nappers, the melatonin build up was not completely reset because they did not get enough sleep. The third reason people may not notice they need more sleep is that the part of the brain that is responsible for judgement (prefrontal cortex) is one of the first parts of the brain to be affected by lack of sleep. Simply put, you've lost the ability to accurate tell how tired you are. There is a similar effect that occurs when people drive drunk. They are too drunk to realize how drunk they are and so they make judgement that there safe to drive. Finally, people can seem to function fine with little sleep because we are rarely pushed hard enough to notice. You might feel like this is an argument towards not needing sleep, but in certain situations, your lack of sleep will become painfully obvious. Take for example an ER doctor who has only slept for 2-3 hours each night for the past few days. It might seem like he is doing fine since it would be obvious, and dangerous, if we wasn't, but most of his job is automatic. If a person comes in with a gun shot wound, the steps to save this person's life are already procedure and the physical motions are well practiced. Where you do see these doctors make life threatening mistakes, is in situations that require attention like prescribing conflicting medications or responding to atypical situations. Another example is a student who stays up all night partying and then aces a test the next morning. Recall is relatively easy, so if you were well rested when you learned the material, you should be fine, but learning new material while sleep deprived can be impossibly difficult. **Edit** Another point to consider is that many people get more sleep than they claim. Studies have been done where people are hooked up to a machine that measures brain activity (EEG) and then asked to push a button if they had been asleep when a buzzer sounded. The buzzer went off at different time intervals (1min, 5min, 10min, etc.) after they have fallen asleep according to the EEG, or randomly while still awake. Some participants who had slept up to an hour claimed that they were not asleep when the buzzer went off. Now at the begining, I said this was true for 99.9% of people. There are case studies of a family who only sleeps about 2-3 hours a night, every night. When given memory/alertness/health measures, they perform about the same as people who have gotten the standard 8 hours. Last I knew, the mechanisms of this were not understood, but given that it is most likely genetic, as it runs families, I think its easy to imagine that some lesser form of these genes could be at work in the average population. Not everyone needs 8 hours. Some need more and some need less, but it is incredibly rare to be healthy outside of 7-9 hours of sleep. If you think your one of these people, its much more likely that you've been tired for so long, you think its normal. TLDR: The vast majority of people can't function well on a few hours of sleep for multiple nights, they only appear to be. You can go a while with little to no sleep, but you will need to catch up eventually. There are extremely rare cases of families only needing 2-3 hour sleep. No one knows why this is yet. You are not one of these people!", "There's definitely differences in ability to function versus amount of sleep each night, but I think a lot of instances of this are that these people probably aren't functioning as fine as they think. And these people are probably underestimating how much sleep they are getting. Things like \"Oh I only get 5 hours of sleep a night and I'm fine.\" Except they probably get 6 hours or maybe 7, they probably sleep in on the weekend. They probably drink caffeine like crazy all damn day. They probably have irritability, difficulty concentrating, distraction, inattention, etc. They are also probably completely wiped out in the evening and/or dozing off while sitting watching TV.", "Diet is very important. It plays a vital part of your body's ability to sleep when it should, stay asleep, and wake up promptly once you are fully charged.", "Honestly I feel so much better with 4-5 hours of sleep. But yeah the brain and body are just odd." ]

[ [ "11% of surveyed residents who slept for more than seven hours a night.\nTwenty-four hours of continuous sleep deprivation results in the choice of less difficult math tasks without decreases in subjective reports of effort applied to the task. Naturally caused sleep loss affects the choice of everyday tasks such that low effort tasks are mostly commonly selected. Adolescents who experience less sleep show a decreased willingness to engage in sports activities that require effort through fine motor coordination and attention to detail.\nGreat sleep deprivation mimics psychosis: distorted perceptions can lead to inappropriate emotional and behavioral responses.\nAstronauts have reported performance errors", "-32.62098735355539" ], [ "significant clinical ramifications for a young adults health and well-being. In a recent study, we have learned that people in the highest quartile for social media use per week report the most sleep disturbance. The median number of minutes of social media use per day is 61 minutes. Lastly, we have learned that females are more inclined to experience high levels of sleep disturbance than males. Changes in mood Many teenagers suffer from sleep deprivation as they spend long hours at night on their phones, and this, in turn, could affect grades as they will be tired and unfocused in", "-32.31831402736134" ], [ "self-reported sleep duration is only moderately correlated with actual sleep time as measured by actigraphy, and those affected with sleep state misperception may typically report having slept only four hours despite having slept a full eight hours.\nResearchers have found that sleeping 6–7 hours each night correlates with longevity and cardiac health in humans, though many underlying factors may be involved in the causality behind this relationship.\nSleep difficulties are furthermore associated with psychiatric disorders such as depression, alcoholism, and bipolar disorder. Up to 90 percent of adults with depression are found to have sleep difficulties. Dysregulation detected by EEG includes disturbances", "-31.822889284812845" ], [ "sleep times for two weeks: 8 hours, 6 hours, 4 hours, and total sleep deprivation. Each day they were tested for the number of lapses on the PVT. The results showed that as time went by, each group's performance worsened, with no sign of any stopping point. Moderate sleep deprivation was found to be detrimental; people who slept 6 hours a night for 10 days had similar results to those who were completely sleep deprived for 1 day. Evaluation Sleep debt has been tested in a number of studies through the use of a sleep onset latency test. This test", "-31.340572506447643" ], [ "14 days of sleep restriction, subjects in the 4- and 6-hour sleep period conditions reported feeling only slightly sleepy. As these reports were taken when performance was at its lowest level, this indicates that the subjects may no longer have been aware of their performance deficits because of inadequate recovery sleep (figure 3-2).\nSubjects who spent 4 hours in bed reached levels of impairment at 6 days and of severe impairment at 11 days. Subjects who spent 6 hours in bed reached levels of impairment t 7 days. It appears that subjects who spent 8 hours in bed approached levels of", "-31.318328747991472" ], [ "restrictions\nMany studies have found performance impairment in medical residents due to sleep deprivation. The average sleep time was less for the same emergency department residents working night shifts than when working day shifts, and they took longer to intubate a mannequin and made more errors in a triage simulation when working on the night shift than the day shift. First year medical residents given an EKG arrhythmia-detection task performed significantly worse while sleep-deprived than when well-rested. Medical residents were also found to take more time and make more errors on laparoscopic procedures after one night on call.\nA 2004 landmark study", "-31.304792753071524" ], [ "will frequently advise that these hours of sleep are obtained at night instead of through napping, because while naps can be helpful after sleep deprivation, under normal conditions naps may be detrimental to nighttime sleep. Negative effects of napping on sleep and performance have been found to depend on duration and timing, with shorter midday naps being the least disruptive. There is also focus on the importance of awakening around the same time every morning and generally having a regular sleep schedule. Activities Exercise is an activity that can facilitate or inhibit sleep quality; people who exercise experience better", "-30.974846813391196" ], [ "up during a single night. Poor sleep quality disrupts the cycle of transition between the different stages of sleep. Subjective sleep quality in turn refers to a sense of being rested and regenerated after awaking from sleep. A study by A. Harvey et al. (2002) found that insomniacs were more demanding in their evaluations of sleep quality than individuals who had no sleep problems.\nHomeostatic sleep propensity (the need for sleep as a function of the amount of time elapsed since the last adequate sleep episode) must be balanced against the circadian element for satisfactory sleep. Along with corresponding messages", "-30.969477062812075" ], [ "16 hours to 24 hours.\nDespite the sleep deprivation medical residents constantly experience due to long working hours, a minority of residents still wish to not have work hour regulations at all. In the survey of 4510 obstetric-gynecologic residents, about one in five opposed any limits on their work hours. These residents cited \"additional experience\" as the most common reason (69.0%), followed by \"opportunity to see rare cases\" (46.5%) and \"continuity with patients\" (31.8%). Coping mechanisms Although strategic napping is recommended by the ACGME, no studies have assessed the effect of napping as a fatigue mitigation technique. Requiring naps during long", "-30.604105246602558" ], [ "relax. Sleep Sleep is a behavior that is provoked by the body initiating the feeling of sleepiness in order for people to rest for usually several hours at a time. During sleep, there is a reduction of awareness, responsiveness, and movement. On average, an adult human sleeps between seven and eight hours per night. There is a minute percentage that sleeps less than five to six hours, which is also a symptom of sleep deprivation, and an even smaller percentage of people who sleep more than ten hours a day. Oversleeping has been shown to have a correlation with higher", "-30.42185867310036" ], [ "hormone and increasing blood levels of cortisol. Sleeping more to promote weight loss A regular sleep schedule can contribute to weight loss. While sleeping more than an average of 6.5 hours per night may have beneficial effects on weight, sleeping over 8.5 hours per night has been shown to contribute negatively to weight. Getting adequate sleep may also reduce snacking that occurs throughout the course of the day due to feeling lethargic.\nAccording to a recent study at Brigham Young University, a regular sleep schedule can make an almost immediate difference on the body's ability to metabolize fat cells. In this", "-30.41832189023262" ], [ "residents, may be actively desired.\nThere is also a belief that long hours do, or can, improve training. The ability to follow a patient from admission through the next 30 or 40 hours may be valued more than observing several patients for shorter periods.\nThe desire to continue caring for a patient frequently leads doctors to work for longer than is permitted. Effects of sleep deprivation on residents The evidence for harm to people who are deprived of sleep, or work irregular hours, is robust.\nResearch from Europe and the United States on nonstandard work hours and sleep deprivation found that late-hour workers", "-30.30741443808074" ], [ "sleep propensity.\nIn average, the latency in healthy adults decreases by a few minutes after a night without sleep, and the latency from sleep onset to slow-wave sleep is halved. Sleep latency is generally measured with the multiple sleep latency test (MSLT). In contrast, the maintenance of wakefulness test (MWT) also uses sleep latency, but this time as a measure of the capacity of the participants to stay awake (when asked to) instead of falling asleep. On sleep-wake cycle Research studying sleep deprivation show its impact on mood, cognitive and motor functioning, due to dysregulation of the sleep-wake cycle and augmented", "-30.302014896995388" ], [ "with lapses in responses increasing steadily across the 7 days of sleep restriction. Subjects who spent 3 hours in bed reached levels of severe impairment at 5 days, while subjects who spent 5 hours in bed reached levels of impairment at 4 days.\nThese Category I laboratory studies by Van Dongen et al. and Belenky et al. clearly show that subjects suffered performance impairments resulting from total sleep deprivation and/or chronic sleep restriction.\nCognitive impairments are present even after an individual has been awake for approximately 17 hours; in fact, recent studies have shown that these decrements are similar to those that", "-30.271097797434777" ], [ "significant effects on the energy balance the next morning, including reduced energy expenditure, enhanced hedonic stimulus processing in the brain underlying the drive to consume food, and overeating that goes beyond satiety. Further recent studies have shown that a reduction of sleep duration to four hours for two consecutive nights has been shown to decrease circulating leptin levels and to increase ghrelin levels, as well as self-reported hunger. Similar endocrine alterations have been shown to occur even after a single night of sleep restriction.\nIn a balanced order, nine healthy normal-weight men spent three nights in a sleep laboratory separated by", "-30.222035349404905" ], [ "hour less talking to family, and it's an hour less exercise and it's an hour less sleep. And of course it is a lack of sleep that research is showing can have a damaging effect on a child's mental health.\"\nThe schools did notice that the positive impact was greater for students under the age of eleven rather than the older students. In fact, it was shown that older students actually suffered from a restricted use of learning platforms on their phones such as educational apps assisting in studying or learning skills. Students that were caught with their mobile phones between", "-30.076273811922874" ], [ "a lack of sleep can impact cognitive performance. For example, it might become difficult to stay focused and concentrate, and reaction times might also be slowed down. All these factors can affect work efficiency and cause accidents. All these consequences are dangerous for the individual but also for others, as many jobs involve taking care of or protecting others. In addition, SWSD might interfere with making decisions quickly, driving, or flying safely.\nTo promote a healthy lifestyle, the American Academy of Sleep Medicine recommended that an adult have 7 or more hours of sleep per day. Each year there are", "-29.994676744914614" ], [ "with irritability: people who get angry shortly before sleeping tend to suffer from sleep drunkenness. \nAccording to the American Academy of Sleep Medicine, hypersomniac patients often take long naps during the day that are mostly unrefreshing. Researchers found that naps are usually more frequent and longer in patients than in controls Furthermore, 75% of the patients report that short naps are not refreshing, compared to controls. Diagnosis \"The severity of daytime sleepiness needs to be quantified by subjective scales (at least the Epworth Sleepiness Scale) and objective tests such as the multiple sleep latency test (MSLT).\" ", "-29.980939010740258" ], [ "sleep deficit is not instantly reduced by one night's sleep; it may take two or three conventional sleep cycles for an individual to return to unimpaired performance.\nIndustrial or \"time-on-task\" fatigue describes fatigue that is accumulated during the working period, and affects performance at different times during the shift. Performance declines the longer a person is engaged in a task, gradually during the first few hours and more steeply toward the end of a long period at work. Reduced performance has also been observed in the first hour of work as an individual adjusts to the working environment. Property-carrying vehicles FMCSA", "-29.96451414823241" ], [ "using simple tools—mostly through instinct and mimicry—human technology is vastly more complex, and is constantly evolving and improving through time. Sleep and dreaming Humans are generally diurnal. The average sleep requirement is between seven and nine hours per day for an adult and nine to ten hours per day for a child; elderly people usually sleep for six to seven hours. Having less sleep than this is common among humans, even though sleep deprivation can have negative health effects. A sustained restriction of adult sleep to four hours per day has been shown to correlate with changes in physiology and", "-29.856686480503413" ], [ "specific study design, 300 college aged women (19–26 years old) were followed for a week and given an activity tracker which not only monitored movements, but also sleep patterns. The study also found that participants with lower BMI had higher quality of sleep, while those with higher BMI's had lower quality of sleep. But was the reverse relationship also true?\nWhile health professionals almost unanimously agree that if an individual is already getting 8 hours of sleep, then another half hour won't make them lose weight; however, in cases where a person is used to getting 5 hours of sleep per", "-29.84898568999779" ], [ "of total sleep deprivation). Mean body temperature falls continually during this period.\nIt has been suggested that acute REM sleep deprivation can improve certain types of depression when depression appears to be related to an imbalance of certain neurotransmitters. Although sleep deprivation in general annoys most of the population, it has repeatedly been shown to alleviate depression, albeit temporarily. More than half the individuals who experience this relief report it to be rendered ineffective after sleeping the following night. Thus, researchers have devised methods such as altering the sleep schedule for a span of days following a REM deprivation period and", "-29.84460442850832" ], [ "out of 1,004 (0.4%) among patients with sleep and/or wake problems over a 1-year period. A previous study in Japan found an incidence of 25 out of 15,052 (0.17%) among patients with sleep and/or wake problems over a 10-year period. Management Sleeping in a more upright position seems to lessen catathrenia (as well as sleep apnea). Performing regular aerobic exercise, where steady breathing is necessary (running, cycling etc.) may lessen catathrenia. Strength exercise, on the other hand, may worsen catathrenia because of the tendency to hold one's breath while exercising. Yoga and/or meditation focused on steady and regular breathing", "-29.827209914801642" ], [ "resulting insomnia and sleep deprivation can cause exhaustion, changes in mood, sleepiness, impaired productivity, fatigue, increased risk of accidents, and cognitive dysfunction. 25% of falls that older individuals experience happen during the night, of which 25% occur while waking up to void.\nA quality of life test for people who experience nocturia was published in 2004. The pilot study was conducted only on men. Prevalence Studies show that 5-15% of people who are 20–50 years old, 20-30% of people who are 50–70 years old, and 10-50% of people 70+ years old, urinate at least twice a night. Nocturia becomes more", "-29.78278082815814" ], [ "time. The problem is that, despite sleeping for multiple hours each night and typically not experiencing significant daytime sleepiness or other symptoms of sleep loss, they do not feel like they have slept very much, if at all. Because their perception of their sleep is incomplete, they incorrectly believe it takes them an abnormally long time to fall asleep, and they underestimate how long they remain asleep. Genetics Heritability estimates of insomnia vary between 38% in males to 59% in females. A genome-wide association study (GWAS) identified 3 genomic loci and 7 genes that influence the risk of", "-29.766222555947024" ], [ "televisions and work materials out of the sleeping area.\nA 2010 review of published scientific research suggested that exercise generally improves sleep for most people, and helps sleep disorders such as insomnia. The optimum time to exercise may be 4 to 8 hours before bedtime, though exercise at any time of day is beneficial, with the exception of heavy exercise taken shortly before bedtime, which may disturb sleep. However, there is insufficient evidence to draw detailed conclusions about the relationship between exercise and sleep. Sleeping medications such as Ambien and Lunesta are an increasingly popular treatment for insomnia. Although these nonbenzodiazepine", "-29.74833019298967" ], [ "during NREM sleep in adolescence. School schedules are often incompatible with a corresponding delay in sleep offset, leading to a less than optimal amount of sleep for the majority of adolescents. Hospital stay A study performed nationwide in the Netherlands found that general ward patients staying at the hospital experienced shorter total sleep (83 min. less), more night-time awakenings, and earlier awakenings compared to sleeping at home. Over 70% experienced being woken up by external causes, such as hospital staff (35.8%). Sleep disturbing factors included noise of other patients, medical devices, pain, and toilet visits. Sleep deprivation is even", "-29.68651169547593" ], [ "quality of sleep than those who do not, but exercising too late in the day can be activating and delay falling asleep. Increasing exposure to bright and natural light during the daytime and avoiding bright light in the hours before bedtime may help promote a sleep-wake schedule aligned with nature's daily light-dark cycle.\nActivities that reduce physiological arousal and cognitive activity promote falling asleep, so engaging in relaxing activities before bedtime is recommended. Conversely, continuing important work activities or planning shortly before bedtime or once in bed has been shown to delay falling asleep. Similarly, good sleep hygiene involves minimizing time", "-29.638065449136775" ], [ "the following day. Not getting enough sleep a couple days cumulatively builds up a deficiency and that's when all the symptoms of sleep deprivation come in. When one is well rested and healthy, the body naturally spends not as much time in the REM stage of sleep. The more time one's body spends in REM sleep, causes one to be exhausted, less time in that stage will promote more energy when awakened. Voluntary Sleep deprivation can sometimes be self-imposed due to a lack of desire to sleep or the habitual use of stimulant drugs. Sleep deprivation is also self-imposed to", "-29.625357594311936" ], [ "in order to see the screen better. From this, neck and back pains and problems increase, commonly referred to as repetitive strain injuries. Using electronics before going to bed makes it difficult for people to fall asleep, which has a negative effect on human health. Sleeping less prevents people from performing to their full potential physically and mentally and can also “increase rates of obesity and diabetes,” which are “long-term health consequences”. Obesity and diabetes are more commonly seen in students and in youth because they tend to be the ones using electronics the most. “People who frequently use their", "-29.60028893011622" ], [ "sleepiness rating. When scientists deprived subjects of sleep, they found sleep latency levels could drop below 1, i.e., subjects could fall asleep in less than a minute. The amount of sleep loss was directly linked to changes in sleep latency scores.\nThe studies eventually led Dement and Carskadon to conclude that \"the brain keeps an exact accounting of how much sleep it is owed\". Not getting enough sleep during any given period of time leads to a phenomenon called sleep debt, which lowers sleep latency scores and makes sleep-deprived individuals fall asleep more quickly. Home testing of sleep latency For home-testing", "-29.53993810492102" ], [ "studies to characterize the effects of sleep deprivation on specific types of human performance. Motor skills, cognitive skills, and mood were assessed in terms of: partial sleep derivation (also known as sleep deprivation), which is defined as fewer than 5 hours of sleep in a 24-hour period for 1 or more days; short-term total sleep deprivation (no sleep attained for fewer than 45 hours); and long-term sleep deprivation (no sleep attained for a period in excess of 45 hours). These researchers found that sleep-deprived subjects performed considerably worse on motor tasks, cognitive tasks, and measures of mood than did non-sleep-deprived", "-29.517461323470343" ], [ "of the hormones ghreline and Leptin that control appetite and reduce physical activity levels.\nNot only sleep reduction, also disruption of the circadian clock can have a negative impact on sleep architecture and metabolism, as shown in mouse models. In adolescence late bedtimes are  related to a higher risk of getting obese and great bedtime shifts between weekdays and weekend were associated with greater severity of overweight and longer screen time use. In general, sleeping less than 7 hours per night increases the risk to be obese.\nAnother plausible explanation is that fatigue because of limited sleep reduces physical activity and thus", "-29.467516740129213" ], [ "concentration of roughly 0.10%. In a meta-analysis of 959 physicians, staying awake for a continuous 24 to 30 hours decreased physicians' overall performance by nearly 1 standard deviation and clinical performance by more than 1.5 standard deviations.\nSchedule details matter. Competence is affected by the number of work hours, number of continuous work hours, regularity of sleep, and frequency and speed of handovers to the next shift. \"Night float\" seems to have particularly bad effects, due to the circadian misalignment cause by abrupt switches between day and night shifts, but is the most commonly used method of adapting to duty hour", "-29.38215550070163" ], [ "Sleep deprivation can cause people to intake food for emotional/psychological need rather than caloric need of the body.\nChronic sleep deprivation (less than 8 hours of sleep) was associated with increase in body mass index (BMI). In the Wisconsin sleep cohort study of 1024 patients, the shorter sleep durations showed reduced levels of leptin and elevated levels of ghrelin. In a study with 3000 patients, it has been found that men and women who sleep less than 5 hours have elevated body mass index (BMI). In another study that followed about 70.000 women for 16 years, there was a significant increase", "-29.280348395619512" ], [ "from the circadian clock, this tells the body it needs to sleep. A person who regularly awakens at an early hour will generally not be able to sleep much later than his or her normal waking time, even if moderately sleep-deprived. The timing is correct when the following two circadian markers occur after the middle of the sleep episode and before awakening: maximum concentration of the hormone melatonin, and minimum core body temperature. Ideal duration Human sleep needs vary by age and amongst individuals; sleep is considered to be adequate when there is no daytime sleepiness or dysfunction. Moreover,", "-29.18130785333051" ], [ "is a logical prophylactic measure. However, naps that are too long (over 30 minutes) may generate sleep inertia, a groggy feeling after awakening that can impair performance. Therefore, brief naps (10 to 30 minutes) are preferred to longer naps (over 30 minutes). Also, long naps may also interfere with the main sleep bout.\nIn the transportation industry, safety is a major concern, and mandated hours of service rules attempt to enforce rest times. Bright light treatment The light-dark cycle is the most important environmental time cue for entraining circadian rhythms of most species, including humans, and bright artificial light exposure has", "-29.12197632942116" ], [ "questionnaire that measures the general level of sleepiness in a day The patients have to rate specific daily situations by means of a scale going from 0 (would never doze) to 3 (high chance of dozing). The results found in the ESS correlate with the sleep latency indicated by the Multiple Sleep Latency Test. Treatment Although there has been no cure of chronic hypersomnia, there are several treatments that may improve patients' quality of life, depending on the specific cause or causes of hypersomnia that are diagnosed.\nBecause the causes of hypersomnia are unknown, it is only possible to treat", "-29.080356883845525" ], [ "are sleep-deprived. Sleep deprivation does not reset the circadian clock of DSPD patients, as it does with normal people.\nPeople with the disorder who try to live on a normal schedule cannot fall asleep at a \"reasonable\" hour and have extreme difficulty waking because their biological clocks are not in phase with that schedule. Non-DSPD people who do not adjust well to working a night shift have similar symptoms (diagnosed as shift-work sleep disorder).\nIn most cases, it is not known what causes the abnormality in the biological clocks of DSPD patients. DSPD tends to run in families, and a growing body", "-29.0623549092561" ], [ "circumstances where sleep cannot be achieved continuously, research on napping shows that 10- to 20-minute naps at regular intervals during the day can help relieve some of the sleep deprivation and thus maintain ... performance for several days. However, researchers caution that levels of performance achieved using ultrashort sleep (short naps) to temporarily replace normal sleep are always well below that achieved when fully rested. NASA NASA, in cooperation with the National Space Biomedical Research Institute, has funded research on napping. Despite NASA recommendations that astronauts sleep eight hours a day when in space, they usually have trouble sleeping eight", "-29.052851945707516" ], [ "total sleep deprivation, or a series of less drastic, but more chronic, restricted sleep hours. A 1997 study by Dinges et al. revealed that when sleep is restricted to the level that is commonly experienced by astronauts, a \"sleep debt\" accrues and, in less than 1 week, performance deficits during waking hours reach levels of serious impairment.\nChronic reduction of sleep can impact performance in a manner that is similar to that of total sleep deprivation. A study by Van Dongen et al., which used 48 subjects, evaluated the specific performance effects of chronic sleep restriction in comparison to the effects", "-29.037002012104494" ], [ "the basic metabolic functions of storing carbohydrates and regulating hormones. Reduction of sleep from eight hours to four hours produces changes in glucose tolerance and endocrine function. Researchers from the University of Chicago Medical Center followed 11 healthy young men for 16 consecutive nights. The first 3 nights, the young men slept for the normal 8 hours. The next 6 nights, they slept for 4 hours. The next 7 nights, they spent 12 hours in bed. They all had the same diet. They found that there were changes in glucose metabolism that resemble that of type 2 diabetes patients. When", "-29.02638004059554" ], [ "and wakefulness including sleep latency and other functions - both physiological, behavioral, and cognitive. Human health Timing of medical treatment in coordination with the body clock, chronotherapeutics, may significantly increase efficacy and reduce drug toxicity or adverse reactions.\nA number of studies have concluded that a short period of sleep during the day, a power-nap, does not have any measurable effect on normal circadian rhythms but can decrease stress and improve productivity.\nHealth problems can result from a disturbance to the circadian rhythm. Circadian rhythms also play a part in the reticular activating system, which is crucial for maintaining a state of", "-28.95494058865006" ], [ "impairment. Figure 3-3, which is from Belenky et al., however, demonstrates that subjects who spent 9 hours in bed did not approach these levels of impairment, indicating that 9 hours in bed may be needed to alleviate the risk of performance errors.\nSimilar performance effects resulting from chronically restricted can also be seen in the Category I study by Belenky et al. and in figure 3-3. This study involved 66 subjects who were observed in four conditions (i.e., 3, 5, 7 and 9 hours in bed) for 7 days. PVT testing showed severe impairments in reaction time under the 3-hour condition,", "-28.936728958738968" ], [ "the starting time of a work shift by more than these amounts will reduce attentiveness, which is common after the first night shift following a \"weekend\" break during which conventional sleep times were followed.\nSleep deprivation and cumulative fatigue effects describe how individuals who fail to have an adequate period of sleep (7–8 hours in 24 hours) or who have been awake longer than the conventional 16–17 hours will suffer sleep deprivation. A sleep deficit accumulates with successive sleep-deprived days, and additional fatigue may be caused by breaking daily sleep into two shorter periods in place of a single unbroken period of sleep. A", "-28.88693978972151" ], [ "young men slept for the normal 8 hours. The next 6 nights, they slept for 4 hours. The next 7 nights, they spent 12 hours in bed. They all had the same diet. They found that there were changes in glucose metabolism that resemble that of type 2 diabetes patients. When the participants were tested after sleep deprivation, they took 40% longer than normal to regulate blood sugar levels after a high-carbohydrate meals. The secretion of insulin and the body's response to insulin decrease by 30%. Sleep deprivation also alters the productions of hormones, lowering the secretion of thyroid stimulating", "-28.885744906729087" ], [ "Effects of sleep deprivation on college students Sleep Hygiene Inadequate sleep hygiene is one primary cause as to why college students experience sleep deprivation. Sleep hygiene is defined as habits or practices that allow for healthy amounts of sleep on a daily basis. Good sleep hygiene habits include keeping a consistent sleep schedule, having a quiet sleep environment, and avoiding consuming caffeine and alcohol before sleeping. Many students have inadequate sleep hygiene that leads to sleep deprivation. Technology The blue light that is emitted from the screens of phones, computers and other devices stops the production of melatonin, the hormone", "-28.876975952647626" ], [ "During eight hours' sleep, Van Cauter, Leproult, and Plat found that the men with a high percentage of slow-wave sleep (SWS) (average 24%) also had high growth hormone secretion, while subjects with a low percentage of SWS (average 9%) had low growth hormone secretion. Memory processing It has been widely accepted that sleep must support the formation of long-term memory, and generally increasing previous learning and experiences recalls. However, its benefit seems to depend on the phase of sleep and the type of memory. For example, declarative and procedural memory recall tasks applied over early and late nocturnal sleep, as", "-28.84920143331692" ], [ "healthy sleep-wake schedule due to night or irregular work hours. Shift workers need to be strategic about napping and drinking caffeine, as these practices may be necessary for work productivity and safety, but should be timed carefully. Because shift workers may need to sleep while other individuals are awake, additional sleeping environment changes should include reducing disturbances by turning off phones and posting signs on bedroom doors to inform others when they are sleeping.\nDue to symptoms of low mood and energy, individuals with depression may be likely to have behaviors that are counter to good sleep hygiene, such as taking", "-28.764080952852964" ], [ "the opposite end of the spectrum, other patients may report feeling that they have slept much longer than is observed. It has been proposed that this experience be subclassified under sleep state misperception as \"positive sleep state misperception\", \"reverse sleep state misperception\", and \"negative sleep state misperception\". Diagnostic criteria The patient has a complaint of insomnia while sleep quality and duration are normal. Polysomnographic monitoring demonstrates normal sleep latency, a normal number of arousals and awakenings, and normal sleep duration with or without a multiple sleep latency test that demonstrates a mean sleep latency of greater than 10 minutes. No", "-28.76285966562864" ], [ "classify sleep stages. Normal sleep Cycles of REM and non-REM stages make up sleep. A normal healthy adult requires 7–9 hours of sleep per night. The number of hours of sleep is variable, however the proportion of sleep spent in a particular stage remains mostly consistent; healthy adults normally spend 20–25% of their sleep in REM sleep. During rest following a sleep-deprived state, there is a period of rebound sleep which has longer and deeper episodes of SWS to make up for the lack of sleep.\nOn a hypnogram, a sleep cycle is usually around 90 minutes and there are four", "-28.698450969961414" ], [ "deprivation are reduced glucose tolerance, elevated evening cortisol levels, and increased sympathetic nervous system activity. Sleep quality at an old age is just as important as sleep duration to avoid lack of sleep. Research shows that feelings of loneliness and depression can result in poor sleep quality and daytime dysfunctions. These daytime impairments include physical and intellectual fatigue, irritability, and low cognitive abilities. Dementia Dementia is a variety of symptoms that apply to a decline in mental ability, not a specific disease. Geriatric psychologists work with dementia by aiding in the diagnosis of this disease. This is done through various", "-28.68041244277265" ], [ "hours at a stretch, so the agency needs to know about the optimal length, timing and effect of naps. Professor David Dinges of the University of Pennsylvania School of Medicine led research in a laboratory setting on sleep schedules which combined various amounts of \"anchor sleep\", ranging from about four to eight hours in length, with no nap or daily naps of up to 2.5 hours. Longer naps were found to be better, with some cognitive functions benefiting more from napping than others. Vigilance and basic alertness benefited the least while working memory benefited greatly. Naps in the individual subjects'", "-28.6330369177158" ], [ "cycle, one experiences reduced attentiveness. During the high points, it is difficult to sleep soundly. The cycle is anchored in part by ambient lighting (darkness causes a person's body to release the hormone melatonin, which induces sleep), and by a person's imposed pattern of regular sleeping and waking times. The influence of the day-night cycle is never fully displaced (standard artificial lighting is not strong enough to inhibit the release of melatonin), and the performance of night shift workers usually suffers. Circadian rhythms are persistent, and can only be shifted by one to two hours forward or backward per day. Changing", "-28.626766085420968" ], [ "be recommended to people who are willing, motivated, and physically healthy enough to participate in an exercise program as treatment.\nThere is a small amount of evidence that skipping a night's sleep may improve depressive symptoms, with the effects usually showing up within a day. This effect is usually temporary. Besides sleepiness, this method can cause a side effect of mania or hypomania.\nIn observational studies, smoking cessation has benefits in depression as large as or larger than those of medications.\nBesides exercise, sleep and diet may play a role in depression, and interventions in these areas may be an effective add-on to", "-28.573641213552037" ], [ "the sleep onset latency at that particular hour on that particular day.\nDement advises against doing these evaluations at night when sleep onset latency can naturally be lower, particularly in older people. Instead, he suggests testing sleep onset latency during the day, ideally at 10:00 a.m., 12:30 p.m. and 3:00 p.m. A sleep onset latency of 0 to 5 minutes indicates severe sleep deprivation, 5 to 10 minutes is \"troublesome,\" 10 to 15 minutes indicates a mild but \"manageable\" degree of sleep debt, and 15 to 20 minutes is indicative of \"little or no\" sleep debt. Biomarkers of sleepiness Contemporary sleep researchers, including Paul", "-28.55780831698212" ], [ "extremity symptoms than men.\", and that women may assume more taxing positions while working than men do due to differences in anthropometrics. Sleep disorders A study with 4100 young adults revealed that intensive use of cell phones and computers can be linked to an increase in stress, sleep disorders and depressive symptoms in young adults. It’s been shown that the light from TV and computer screens affects melatonin production and melanopsin stimulation, and throws off our circadian rhythms. This interrupts or prevents deep, restorative sleep, causing an increase in stress and depressive symptoms. Mental problems Public Health England said children", "-28.43943619068159" ], [ "the morning. The reliance on technology, specifically in the bedroom, which should be associated with sleep, created the difficulty with separating waking and sleeping activities. When measuring the amount of sleep during the week compared to the weekend, students with four or more technological devices in their bedroom had significantly less sleep compared to those with three or fewer devices. Since many students do not utilize sleep mode or do not disturb or silence their phones at night, each notification and alert from their phones disrupts their sleep in terms of sleep quality and duration of sleep. Caffeine A study", "-28.413871498662047" ], [ "to obtain their sleep needs, and may be able to deal with sleepiness better than younger adults. Various practices are recommended to mitigate sleep disturbances in the elderly, such as having a light bedtime snack, avoidance of caffeine, daytime naps, excessive evening stimulation, and tobacco products, and using regular bedtime and wake schedules. Other disorders Sleep disorders include narcolepsy, periodic limb movement disorder (PLMD), restless leg syndrome (RLS), upper airway resistance syndrome (UARS), and the circadian rhythm sleep disorders. Fatal familial insomnia, or FFI, an extremely rare genetic disease with no known treatment or cure, is characterized by increasing", "-28.387867563957116" ], [ "rhythm sleep disorders. Naps The siesta habit has recently been associated with a 37% lower coronary mortality, possibly due to reduced cardiovascular stress mediated by daytime sleep. Short naps at mid-day and mild evening exercise were found to be effective for improved sleep, cognitive tasks, and mental health in elderly people.\nMany people experience a temporary drop in alertness in the early afternoon, commonly known as the \"post-lunch dip\". While a large meal can make a person feel sleepy, the post-lunch dip is mostly an effect of the circadian clock. People naturally feel most sleepy at two times of the day", "-28.37099655548809" ], [ "noisy sleep environments, alcohol consumption in the hours before sleep, engaging in mentally difficult tasks before sleep, and trying too hard to fall asleep. There is a lack of evidence for the effects of certain sleep hygiene recommendations, including getting a more comfortable mattress, removing bedroom clocks, not worrying, and limiting liquids. Other recommendations, such as the effects of napping or exercise, have a more complicated evidence base. The effects of napping, for example, seem to depend on the length and timing of napping, in conjunction with how much cumulative sleep an individual has had in recent nights.\nThere is support", "-28.348475335194962" ], [ "for every score increase of 10 on the scoring index, the student had an average increase of 0.10 of their GPA. The researchers concluded that college students who do not go to bed or wake up at consistent time are likely to have lower GPAs. The study suggests that irregular sleeping schedules do indeed affect student's GPA and academic performance. It was proven that those students who were sleep deprived performed worse on tests and received lower scores than those college students who received the adequate amount of sleep per night. Physical Student's physical shape seems to be affected by", "-28.3421010334132" ], [ "influence of universal indoor lighting. Even if they have sleep debt, or feel sleepy, people can have difficulty staying asleep at the peak of their circadian cycle. Conversely they can have difficulty waking up in the trough of the cycle. A healthy young adult entrained to the sun will (during most of the year) fall asleep a few hours after sunset, experience body temperature minimum at 6 a.m., and wake up a few hours after sunrise. Process S Generally speaking, the longer an organism is awake, the more it feels a need to sleep (\"sleep debt\"). This driver of sleep", "-28.316066674742615" ], [ "examination. On the other hand, there have been studies that have looked into the potential physical side effects of oversleeping on weight and weight – related conditions. A study of the life habits of 276 subjects over a 6-year period and found that about 20% of those with long (9+ hours) of sleeping time developed type 2 diabetes or impaired glucose tolerance as compared to 7% in those that slept an average amount of time.\nLong-duration sleepers (9–10 hours) were 25% more likely to experience a 5-kg weight gain, and a 21% increase in risk of obesity, when adjusted for age,", "-28.280775157967582" ], [ "spent thinking about worries or anything emotionally upsetting shortly before bedtime. Trying purposefully to fall asleep may induce frustration that further prevents falling asleep, so in such situations a person may be advised to get out of bed and try something else for a brief amount of time.\nGenerally, for people experiencing difficulties with sleep, spending less time in bed results in deeper and more continuous sleep, so clinicians will frequently recommend eliminating use of the bed for any activities except sleep (or sex). Foods and substances A number of foods and substances have been found to disturb sleep, due to", "-28.23768121539615" ], [ "REM sleep early, and may often awaken during the night. The polysomnogram also helps to detect other possible sleep disorders that could cause daytime sleepiness.\nThe Epworth Sleepiness Scale is a brief questionnaire that is administered to determine the likelihood of the presence of a sleep disorder, including narcolepsy. For the multiple sleep latency test, a person is given a chance to sleep every two hours during normal wake times. The person is taken in usually for an overnight sleep study. The following day the person will have multiple tests where they will be told to nap after a full nights", "-28.208005477965344" ], [ "6 minutes. Ramelteon, a melatonin receptor agonist, does not appear to speed the onset of sleep or the amount of sleep a person gets.\nMost melatonin drugs have not been tested for longitudinal side effects. Prolonged-release melatonin may improve quality of sleep in older people with minimal side effects.\nStudies have also shown that children who are on the Autism spectrum or have learning disabilities, Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) or related neurological diseases can benefit from the use of melatonin. This is because they often have trouble sleeping due to their disorders. For example, children with ADHD tend to have trouble falling", "-28.138727485376876" ], [ "rise before about 8 a.m. In addition, they need to sleep in until 8 a.m. or so to get the 9 or more hours of sleep that most sleep research suggests they need. As a result, many teenagers arrive at school sleep-deprived. The most recent data from the Youth Risk Behavior Survey show that 70% of American high school students are sleep-deprived and about 40% get six or fewer hours of sleep per night. Health and safety impact of early school hours Due to the fact that almost 70% of teens don't get enough sleep, there are increases in stimulant", "-28.121557624894194" ], [ "sex, and baseline BMI, as compared to average duration sleepers (7–8 hours). Even after adjusting for energy expenditure and physical activity levels (among other covariates), these relationships remained significant. A U-shaped relationship between hours of sleep and type 2 diabetes, coronary heart disease and weight is observed, but the metabolic mechanisms affected by long sleep duration are less clear than with sleep restriction and remain somewhat speculative.\nA Nurses’ Health Study analyzed a group of about 72,000 US women who did not report having coronary heart disease at the onset of the study, and assessed the relationship between their reported sleep", "-28.106772471626755" ], [ "naps during the day, consuming alcohol near bedtime, and consuming large amounts of caffeine during the day. In addition to sleep hygiene education, bright light therapy can be a useful treatment for individuals with depression. Not only can morning bright light therapy help establish a better sleep-wake schedule, but it also has been shown to be effective for treating depression directly, especially when related to seasonal affective disorder.\nIndividuals with breathing difficulties due to asthma or allergies may experience additional barriers to quality sleep that can be addressed by specific variations of sleep hygiene recommendations. Difficulty with breathing can cause disruptions", "-28.08433349156985" ], [ "that controls the sleep-wake cycle of the circadian rhythm. Reducing the amount of melatonin produced makes it harder to fall and stay asleep. In a 2011 poll conducted by the National Sleep Foundation, it reported that approximately 90% of Americans used technology in the hour before bed. The poll noted that young adults and teenagers were more likely to use cell phones, computers, and video game consoles. Additionally, the authors of the poll found that technology use was connected to sleep patterns. 22% of participants reported going to sleep with cell phone ringers on in their bedroom and 10% reported", "-28.074210495571606" ], [ "nap periods. A mean sleep onset latency of less than 10 minutes is suggestive of excessive daytime sleepiness. Home sleep test (HST) These typically include the individual whose sleep is being studied receiving a portable monitor and may include other items such as a finger clip and an airflow sensor. Items measured include oxygen saturation, heart rate, airflow, body movement, time spent snoring, sleep position, and brain waves. Sleep study in psychology Sleep studies have been imperative for the empirical research of sleep psychology. The area of sleep psychology evaluates the physiological, and behavioral factors of normal sleep and sleep", "-28.04841385916916" ], [ "sleep deprivation as well. Researchers from the Imperial College School of Medicine conducted a randomized controlled study to investigate the effects of a night of sleep deprivation on the physical performance in students. The participants were randomized into two conditions, normal sleep or one night of sleep deprivation. Sleep deprivation was monitored using an online time-stamped questionnaire at 45-minute intervals, done in the participants' homes. The results show that reaction time and exercise performance were significantly affected by sleep deprivation. The researchers concluded that sleep deprivation can affect physical performance in university students. Naps Daytime naps offer a potential intervention", "-28.03204073687084" ], [ "associated with habitual short sleep is associated with increased appetite and energy expenditure with the equation tipped towards food intake rather than expenditure in societies where high-calorie food is freely available.\nSeveral large studies using nationally representative samples suggest that one of the causes of high obesity rates in the United States might be a corresponding decrease in the average number of hours that people are sleeping. The findings suggest that this might be happening because sleep deprivation could be disrupting hormones that regulate glucose metabolism and appetite. Leptin is one of the hormones that communicate with one's brain to indicate", "-28.030595443211496" ], [ "Excessive daytime sleepiness Diagnosis An adult who is compelled to nap repeatedly during the day may have excessive daytime sleepiness; however, it is important to distinguish between occasional daytime sleepiness and excessive daytime sleepiness, which is chronic.\nA number of tools for screening for EDS have been developed. One is the Epworth Sleepiness Scale which grades the results of a questionnaire. The ESS generates a numerical score from zero (0) to 24 where a score of ten [10] or higher may indicate that the person should consult a specialist in sleep medicine for further evaluation.\nAnother tool is the Multiple Sleep Latency", "-28.002520859707147" ], [ "Index, Sleep Hygiene Awareness and Practice Scale, or the Sleep Hygiene Self-Test. For younger individuals, sleep hygiene can be assessed by the Adolescent Sleep Hygiene Scale or the Children's Sleep Hygiene Scale. Recommendations Clinicians choose among recommendations for improving sleep quality for each individual and counselling is presented as a form of patient education. Sleep schedule One set of recommendations relates to the timing of sleep. For adults, getting less than 7–8 hours of sleep is associated with a number of physical and mental health deficits, and therefore a top sleep hygiene recommendation is allowing enough time for sleep. Clinicians", "-27.995572079438716" ], [ "hypersomnia or excessive sleepiness should only go to bed to sleep or for sexual activity. All other activities such as eating or watching television should be done elsewhere. For those patients, it is also important to go to bed only when they feel tired, than trying to fall asleep for hours. In that case, they probably should get out of bed and read or watch television until they get sleepy. Epidemiology Hypersomnia affects approximately 5% - 10% of the general population, \"with a higher prevalence for men due to the sleep apnea syndromes\".", "-27.986266856387374" ], [ "during the sleep deprived stage. The reaction times to warning lights increased from 1.5 to 2.5 seconds, and the number of errors doubled in the cockpit. However, tasks that were engaging and required more concentration were found to not be significantly affected by sleep deprivation. The study concluded that \"...fatigue effects can produce impaired performance. The degree of performance impairment seems to be a function of the numbers of hours awake and the 'engagement' value of the task.\" \nOne United States Air Forces study found significant discrepancies regarding how fatigue affects different individuals. It tracked the performance of ten", "-27.973379728966393" ], [ "eight hours' sleep, Van Cauter, Leproult, and Plat found that the men with a high percentage of SWS (average 24%) also had high growth hormone secretion, while subjects with a low percentage of SWS (average 9%) had low growth hormone secretion.\nThere is some supporting evidence of the restorative function of sleep. The sleeping brain has been shown to remove metabolic waste products at a faster rate than during an awake state. While awake, metabolism generates reactive oxygen species, which are damaging to cells. In sleep, metabolic rates decrease and reactive oxygen species generation is reduced allowing restorative processes to take", "-27.916273798589827" ], [ "deprived, homeostatic pressure accumulates to the point that waking functions will be degraded even at the highest circadian drive for wakefulness. Other effects In addition, as a result of continuous muscular activity without proper rest time, effects such as cramping are much more frequent in sleep-deprived individuals. Extreme cases of sleep deprivation have been reported to be associated with hernias, muscle fascia tears, and other such problems commonly associated with physical overexertion.\nA 2006 study has shown that while total sleep deprivation for one night caused many errors, the errors were not significant until after the second night of total sleep", "-27.905823797977064" ], [ "discrepancy between subjective and objective reports, clinicians may conclude that the perception of poor sleep is primarily illusionary.\nAlternatively, some people may report excessive daytime sleepiness or chronic disabling sleepiness, while no sleep disorder has been found to exist. Methods of diagnosing sleepiness objectively, such as the Multiple Sleep Latency Test do not confirm the symptom—\"true\" sleepiness is not observed despite the complaint. (It may be speculated that such reports of daytime sleepiness may be a result of the nocebo response —the reverse of the placebo effect—due to patient expectations of adverse effects from their subjective perception of poor sleep.)\nFinally, on", "-27.901509548624745" ], [ "to five hours a night over the course of a week causes significant increases in self-reports of subjective mood disturbance and sleepiness. Sleep, emotions, and psychiatric ailments Deficient sleep patterns are prominent in many psychiatric ailments. Insomnia increases the risk of a depressive episode, sleep deprivation influences the onset of hypomania, and sleep disturbance contributes to the maintenance of mood disorders. Amongst manic bipolar patients, sleep loss may act as a trigger in the onset of a manic episode. \nSleep patterns are affected by behavioral and emotional disorders, and aspects of emotional and cognitive well-being are influenced by sleep patterns. Scientists", "-27.887548185157357" ], [ "temperature: a very excited person often has an elevated temperature.\nWearing more clothing slows daily temperature change and raises body temperature. Similarly, sleeping with an electric blanket raises the body temperature at night.\nSleep disturbances also affect temperatures. Normally, body temperature drops significantly at a person's normal bedtime and throughout the night. Short-term sleep deprivation produces a higher temperature at night than normal, but long-term sleep deprivation appears to reduce temperatures. Insomnia and poor sleep quality are associated with smaller and later drops in body temperature. Similarly, waking up unusually early, sleeping in, jet lag and changes", "-27.853004842691007" ], [ "as of 2019. This can be due to practical difficulties in designing and implementing adequate studies. Personal belief in stress as a risk factor for cancer was common in the UK, though awareness of risk factors overall was found to be low. Sleep Sleep allows people to rest and re-energize for another day filled with interactions and tasks. If someone is stressed it is extremely important for them to get enough sleep so that they can think clearly. Unfortunately, chemical changes in the body caused by stress can make sleep a difficult thing. Glucocorticoids are released by the body in", "-27.82983556186082" ], [ "indicating long term potentiation.\nMoreover, observations include the importance of napping: improved performance in some kinds of tasks after a 1-hour afternoon nap; studies of performance of shift workers, showing that an equal number of hours of sleep in the day is not the same as in the night. Current research studies look at the molecular and physiological basis of memory consolidation during sleep. These, along with studies of genes that may play a role in this phenomenon, together promise to give a more complete picture of the role of sleep in memory. Renormalizing the synaptic strength Sleep can also serve", "-27.8264413876459" ], [ "compared with that which is exhibited in daily life, is open to debate. However, the comparative literature strongly suggests that shorter, polyphasically-placed sleep is the rule, rather than the exception, across the entire animal kingdom (Campbell and Tobler, 1984; Tobler, 1989). There is little reason to believe that the human sleep/wake system would evolve in a fundamentally different manner. That people often do not exhibit such sleep organization in daily life merely suggests that humans have the capacity (often with the aid of stimulants such as caffeine or increased physical activity) to overcome the propensity for sleep when it is", "-27.745333890954498" ], [ "to rule out common causes of fatigue. These include blood tests to check for infection or anemia, a urinalysis to look for signs of liver disease or diabetes mellitus, and other tests to check for kidney and liver function, such as a comprehensive metabolic panel. Other tests may be chosen depending on the patient's social history, such as an HIV test or pregnancy test. Comparison with sleepiness Fatigue is generally considered a more long-term condition than sleepiness (somnolence). Although sleepiness can be a symptom of a medical condition, it usually results from lack of restful sleep, or a lack of", "-27.742466518160654" ], [ "taking a short nap during the day (20 minutes) especially in warm climates and seasons is highly recommended to them.\nBesides, those with cold and wet Mizaj should not sleep much as long sleep would increase wetness in the body. People with phlegmatic temperament should cut down on food items cold and wet temperament to sleep shorter and get up easily and not having trouble waking up. They had better wake up once or twice during the night so that wetness would not build up in their bodies. Age range Although each person is born with a fixed and unique temperament,", "-27.716749765269924" ], [ "taken an hour or so before the usual bedtime may induce sleepiness. Taken this late, it does not, of itself, affect circadian rhythms, but a decrease in exposure to light in the evening is helpful in establishing an earlier pattern. In accordance with its phase response curve (PRC), a very small dose of melatonin can also, or instead, be taken some hours earlier as an aid to resetting the body clock; it must then be small enough not to induce excessive sleepiness.\nSide effects of melatonin may include sleep disturbance, nightmares, daytime sleepiness, and depression, though the current tendency to use", "-27.692169719623053" ], [ "suggests that social media and internet use, 30 minutes before bed, is associated with disturbances in sleep patterns of children. Use within two hours of bedtime is associated with less total sleep and a later bedtime as well. Screen time and development A January 2019 study of 2,441 children in Canada found that compared to children exposed to relatively low levels of screen time, children exposed to higher levels of screen time at ages of 24 and 36 months correlated to low scores on developmental tests at ages of 36 and 60 months, respectively. The authors did not observe the", "-27.689118017617147" ], [ "increasing unemployment and declining wages, one needs to worry more about \"bad policy that fails to offset the imbalances in demand, trade, income, and opportunity.\"\nFor people who use both the Internet and mobile devices in excessive quantities it is likely for them to experience fatigue and over exhaustion as a result of disruptions in their sleeping patterns. Continuous studies have shown that increased BMI and weight gain are associated with people who spend long hours online and not exercising frequently. Heavy Internet use is also displayed in the school lower grades of those who use it in excessive amounts.", "-27.66258040620596" ], [ "improve the amount and quality of sleep which the child is getting. It is also important to have a good sleep hygiene, if a child has night terrors parents could try to change their sleep hygiene. Another option could be to adapt child's naps so that they are not too long or too short. Then, excessive stress or conflicts in a child's life could also have an impact on their sleep too, so to have some strategies to cope with stress combined with psychotherapy could decrease the frequency of the episodes. A polysomnography can be recommended if the child continues", "-27.584078986823442" ], [ "to go to bed early in the evening and wake earlier in the morning than younger adults. Furthermore, the elderly often wake several times throughout the night and have difficulty falling asleep. They are prone to taking numerous naps during the day. Furthermore, constant lighting in assisted living facilities has been demonstrated to impair sleep ability.\nIn persons with Alzheimer's Disease, sleep disturbances are much more frequent and tend to be more severe. These patients exhibit intermittent sleep throughout the 24-hour day, instead of consolidated sleep at night and wakefulness during the day.\nPoor sleep is one of the largest", "-27.571952171393605" ], [ "a significant contributor to fatigue, a diagnostic evaluation considers the quality of sleep, the emotional state of the person, sleep pattern, and stress level. The amount of sleep, the hours that are set aside for sleep, and the number of times that a person awakens during the night are important. A sleep study may be ordered to rule out a sleep disorder.\nDepression and other psychological conditions can produce fatigue, so people who report fatigue are routinely screened for these conditions, along with drug abuse, poor diet, and lack of physical exercise, which paradoxically increases fatigue.\nBasic medical tests may be performed", "-27.53567153069889" ], [ "sleeping schedule to its intrinsic late times.\nLong-term success rates of treatment have seldom been evaluated. However, experienced clinicians acknowledge that DSPD is extremely difficult to treat. One study of 61 DSPD patients, with average sleep onset at about 3:00 am and average waking time of about 11:30 am, was followed with questionnaires to the subjects after a year. Good effect was seen during the six-week treatment with a large daily dose of melatonin. Follow-up showed that over 90% had relapsed to pre-treatment sleeping patterns within the year, 29% reporting that the relapse occurred within one week. The mild cases retained changes significantly", "-27.533678157662507" ], [ "for sleep deprivation in college students. Napping may improve certain memory tasks as students who were excelling in their academics were more likely to nap than those who had low academic success. Sleep Courses In one study, participants took a two-credit, 18-week course that included group discussions, lectures, and self-evaluation of topics that included circadian rhythms, sleep hygiene, muscle relaxation, and public sleep education. Participants reported that they had improved sleep quality and sleep hygiene throughout the course. Cognitive Behavioral Therapy In one study, a revised type of cognitive behavioral for treating insomnia was sent to participating students by email.", "-27.529078204141115" ], [ "a chronic sleep debt. By the fourth week, the subjects slept an average of eight hours a night – but across two separate blocks, not unbroken. First, subjects tended to lie awake for one to two hours and then fall quickly asleep. Onset of sleep was linked to a spike in the hormone melatonin. Melatonin secretion by the brain's pineal gland is triggered by darkness. After an average of three to five hours of sleep, the subjects would awaken and spend an hour or two in quiet wakefulness before a second three- to five-hour sleep period. It was thus suggested that", "-27.511038927172194" ], [ "the ACGME. In neither study were residents and patients necessarily told they were part of a human subjects experiment and informed consent was not required, which caused some controversy. Effects of duty hour restrictions Regulatory duty hour restrictions, in theory, should reduce the number of duty hours worked. In practice, they may not because the restrictions are not always followed. Studies to evaluate the effects of duty hour restrictions on patient outcomes have been somewhat mixed.\nMany of the studies rely on self-reported hours, self-reported errors, and self-reported sleep deprivation, with large opportunities for bias. More objective measures, such as tracking,", "-27.49406784120947" ], [ "the demands of society. It is often due to a psychosocial stressor (an event in a person's environment that causes stress or discomfort), especially for adolescents. The delayed sleep-wake cycle leads to chronic sleep deprivation and habitually late sleeping hours. Individuals with this type often have difficulty changing their sleeping patterns to an earlier and more socially acceptable time. Their actual sleep, once it begins, is normal. It is the timing of their sleeping and waking that is persistently delayed.\nThe jet lag type of circadian rhythm sleep disorder is characterized by disruptions arising from a mismatch between a person's circadian", "-27.476347375835758" ], [ "infants. \nLastly, temperament also seems to yield correlations with sleep patterns. Researchers believe that infants classified as “difficult,” as well as those who are very sensitive to changes in the environment, tend to have a harder time sleeping through the night. Parents whose infants sleep through the night generally rate their infant’s temperaments more favorably than parents whose infant continue to wake; however, it is hard to determine if a given temperament causes sleep problems or if sleep problems promote specific temperaments or behaviors.", "-27.45872151083313" ] ]

[ "Your example is just a movie lot. With fancy editing, a very enclosed space can seem much more expansive. The same can be done when shooting on location: close off half a block of city street and shoot it from three different angles, you can make it seem like you're shooting across half a mile of city. But CGI is used a LOT more than you might think to replace backgrounds and add detail. Check out [this video.] ( URL_0 ) I'm willing to bet you never would have guessed that most or even all of those were entirely faked.", "The Walking Dead is mostly filmed on location in Georgia. The scenes in the first season were filmed on location in Atlanta, possibly with a few shots done on a movie lot. Woodbury was filmed in Senoia, Georgia. If you google it, you can see. I was surprised because they basically made it look like the shittiest backlot in the world. Some of the suburbs scenes were filmed around there too. They used a real prison for the prison, obviously. Edit: The redditor who said it's mostly green screen is talking complete shit.", "I was re-watching *Band of Brothers* recently and noticed - because it had been pointed out to me - that every time you see a town or village, it's the *same one*. In this case, the producers leased a bit of land near Pinewood Studios in England and built a couple of streets of Generic European Housing to film in. They shoot from different angles, dress things differently but once you've noticed that distinctively-shaped house, or whatever, you have a hard time not seeing it.", "It's so cool to see people taking interest in VFX. I am a film director and I do visual effects work as well. Yeah, a lot of it is matte painting and rotoscoping. Think of it as photoshop with motion. Most of the time they just take really high res photos of existing places and create a brand new place. They then roughly model the geometry in their 3D program of choice and camera map the photoshopped image onto the geometry. You add in green screened actors, elements and give it a camera move with some color correction. Now you have a final shot. Watch this video, it shows you the general process of how it's done. Hope that helps. :) URL_0 ", "Real locations. Many shows that are based in NYC are shot on location with locals that are hired/cast as extras, so the locations are the real and authentic. Examples of shows shot in NYC: Gossip Girl, Nurse Jackie, Elementary, Law and Order (all, and currently SVU), Blue Bloods, and more. Other shows are shot chiefly on studio lots. A show like Buffy the Vampire Slayer could build a mini-Sunnydale and use it for most of their needs, though I am sure they did location shooting, too. It is possible to dress a set (either a real place, or a built set on a lot) to make it look fairly different so it can be more than one location in different episodes.", "You might enjoy this. Lots of the crazy realistic areas are realistic because they are real. Many of the shots in Walking Dead are real locations just made dirty and shot from an angle to hide the living city from view. URL_0 Up until recently, I actually lived in 'Woodbury' under the control of the Governor. The town is actually a place called Senoia, Georgia. It was funny to see how they hid the really nice homes from view with giant tire barricades. Maybe they were worried that people would recognize the homes from Driving Miss Daisy, Footloose, or some other movies.", "This is mostly accomplished, especially on The Walking Dead, by shooting on location. Their backdrops of Georgia look so realistic because it actually is Georgia. In other circumstances, it can be accomplished either by dressing a set to look extremely realistic or via green screen and CGI. Hollywood has employed many tricks of the trade for years to make even the shittiest of studios look real.", "This is Fairlie Street in downtown Atlanta. It is pretty deserted right there. They were shooting films near this corner all the time back in 2010-2011. It is easy to close off that particular block since the U.S. Court of appeals has the other side of Fairlie controlled with bollard posts. URL_0 EDIT: It was also shot on the weekend when downtown is nearly empty.", "Here's an example you might be interested in, to shoot the London scenes in 28 Days Later the production [was given permission to close off streets in central London for an hour at dawn]( URL_0 ). For the scene with the overturned London bus they were able to lower the bus onto its side, shoot the scene and raise the bus back up again within the space of 20 minutes.", "if you've seen The Great Gatsby, 90% of the sets in the movie are CGI." ]

[ [ "town.\nFollowing its first season, principal production of The Walking Dead has been filmed in Riverwood Studios (doing business as Raleigh Studios Atlanta), a plot of land about 140 acres (0.57 km²) outside of Senoia. Downtown Senoia itself served as the set for a fictionalized version of the community of Woodbury during the third season of the show. Fans of the show have flocked to try to catch shooting, a development that has met with a negative reception from some town residents, while others have found the added tourists helpful for business growth.", "-35.72360986279091" ], [ "Somewhere Street Format In each episode, the program visits a different city around the world. The program is shot nearly entirely from the first person perspective by steadicam. The single camera travels entirely on foot throughout the city each episode, occasionally stopping to admire a tourist attraction or stop to talk to local people. The episode shoots over a single day, usually from mid-morning to sunset. The program is narrated by a presenter who is always behind the camera, and is never shown or seen. The narrator gives a walking commentary about where he or she currently is and the", "-34.17331738764187" ], [ "city's sights, trying exotic food, and interacting with locals in his unique style. Through his experiences and misadventures, however, specific travel information about local hotels, restaurants, and attractions is conveyed, often with the help of animated maps and graphics. Many episodes also feature a scripted opening sequence, such as Jensen being made to walk the plank by the pirates of Treasure Island in Las Vegas, being psychoanalyzed by Sigmund Freud in Vienna, and impersonating James Bond and Crocodile Dundee in London and Melbourne, respectively.", "-33.296651012817165" ], [ "neighborhood has often been featured in various media; in film and television, the area is either featured as Astoria or as a setting for another location in New York City.", "-33.24471179873217" ], [ "the town that draw on the aesthetic values have appeared in a number of books, and have been used as the backdrop to several films.\nThe place is important in demonstrating aesthetic characteristics and/or a high degree of creative or technical achievement in New South Wales.\nWithin the town are several particularly attractive streetscapes, including the Wallace Street vista up Jew's Hill, the Wallace Street vistas north and south, some of the side streets, in particular those that retain soft edging to their roadside verge, period buildings and attractive landscaping.\nA number of streetscapes frame vistas to the pastoral landscape beyond and this", "-33.20382286142558" ], [ "up \"a mishmash of Toronto streets and also made-up names and numbered streets so nobody could ever watch the movie and try to correlate it with extant geography.\" Cockburn told Norman Wilner why this was done and that Toronto's relatively anonymous cityscape made this relatively easy:\nIt was part of the concept of the movie that the audience isn't supposed to know when or where it's taking place... So had we been shooting in New York or Istanbul or Reykjavik, I still would have been working to make sure we were dealing with non-existent intersections... I think it worked out well", "-33.168474512465764" ], [ "ghost towns, national monuments, state parks, tourist attractions, and state historical sites. The series was shot on 16 mm film. Cast members The cast included Milas and Peggy Hinshaw, and Buddy and Ginger Noonan. Director David Dunn scored the show with Roger Miller's song, King of the Road. Later, Roger Miller went on to produce his own series and decided to use the song for his series.", "-32.870078064734116" ], [ "as he was acting in Apatow's television series, Freaks and Geeks. Filming Around 250 sets were employed during photography, with art director Carl Sprague saying the crew avoided sites that would identify New York City, even altering street signs. The house used in the film is located near the famous Sugar Hill in the Hamilton Heights section of Harlem in Manhattan at 339 Convent Avenue. For the \"quintessential New York story,\" Anderson went location scouting in May 2000, spotted the house and admired what he described as its \"storybook quality\". The owner, Willie Woods, was planning to remodel it, but", "-32.50311261735624" ], [ "and cultural position has served as a model for many urban parks. Many of its features were incorporated, and in several cases improved upon, when Olmsted and Vaux constructed Brooklyn's Prospect Park in the 1860s.\nAn icon of New York City, Central Park is the most filmed location in the world. A December 2017 report found that 231 movies have used it for on-location shoots, more than the 160 movies that have filmed in Greenwich Village or the 99 movies that have filmed in Times Square. Some of these movies, such as the 1993 film The Age of Innocence, reflect", "-32.37825862743193" ], [ "the downtowns of different cities. Its immediate followup was The Avenue (aka 4th Ave Inc), a Tucson documentary directed by Alan Williams and edited by Chris Valentine (editor and co-producer of Mill Ave Inc, Beneath the Beauty), which won AIFF’s “Best AZ Film of 2011” award. St Louis’s Delmar Inc, Austin’s 6th St Inc, and several other cities have begun shooting their segments in the series, as of this writing. In 2008, he was elected to the Board of the Arizona Music and Entertainment Hall of Fame.\nIn 2009, he was asked to film a documentary investigating and exposing", "-32.35483763762022" ], [ "seen as the center of the entertainment industry. In a 2014 interview, Reitman said he chose New York because \"I wanted the film to be…my New York movie.\"\nThe building at 55 Central Park West served as the home of Weaver's character and the setting of the Ghostbusters' climactic battle with Gozer. The art department added extra floors and embellishments using matte paintings, models, and digital effects to create the focal point of ghostly activity. During shooting of the final scene at the building, city officials allowed the production to close down the adjacent streets during rush hour. This impacted traffic", "-32.34985129151028" ], [ "to the news by saying: \nIt’s a Dead man’s party. Who could ask for more? Enormous thanks to our friends and executive producers Robert Kirkman, Scott Gimple, Greg Nicotero – who also directed last night’s terrific premiere – Gale Anne Hurd, Dave Alpert and Tom Luse and all of their fellow producers, cast and crew for everything they do to make the #1 show on television such a unique and incredible experience for the fans. ‘The Walking Dead’ is one of those increasingly rare shows today that can command a live audience not significantly cannibalized by time-shifted viewing. Who would", "-32.325412658261484" ], [ "to vehicular traffic in 2009, to facilitate the large crowds). The other difference is the show is scripted but does not use live actors, instead relying on video projections and animatronics. In style, the show is more of a \"ghost show\", lacking any sort of blood, shock or gore. Technology The show is a recorded show that repeats every fifteen minutes, similar to many amusement park rides. Instead of live actors, the show uses high-definition projections of the characters to tell the story using several magician's illusions such as Pepper's ghost along with other high-tech projection and lighting", "-32.295057548893965" ], [ "major motion pictures and TV series such as Walking Dead' being filmed in the area; the now well-known Castleberry Hill Art Stroll, which is held on the second Friday of each month, has become yet another popular event in this area.", "-32.221537409350276" ], [ "streets of downtown LA with her internationally acclaimed Wallpaper Dumpster Project to create an urban intervention by transforming environmental activism into unexpected beauty.\" The show took place from March 31- April 4, 2015. \"The show will extend from the walls of Superchief Gallery, spilling out the front door into the downtown L.A. neighborhood where the artist will alter the most overlooked, and undesirable but necessary object – the trash dumpster.\" Same Bed, Different Dreams \"C. Finley debuts Same Bed, Different Dreams, a cycle of large scale paintings in dialogue with the universal nature of dreaming and the human desire to", "-32.08618099242449" ], [ "A City Is Beautiful at Night Plot The film is based on the eponymous book by Richard Bohringer, an autobiography mixing reality and imagination, Africa and travel, drugs and alcohol, actor and musician, family and love, Richard is revealed..", "-31.8648068143375" ], [ "montage of New York City being overrun by ghosts in Ghostbusters II (also directed by Reitman), Cannibal Girls is the film showing at a cinema where movie-goers are chased out by a winged ghost.", "-31.82006624742644" ], [ "Fiction 2004 – present, photography with digital manipulation\nIn Urban Fiction, the city becomes unreal, synthetic, and almost empty of its inhabitants. The artist inserts theatrical scenes into a series of photographs of promotional models used by real estate companies, with her as the main actor in playful, fictitious incidents. Hovering between reality and fantasy, the scenes compensate for the sense of emptiness in exponentially-expanding cities. Wall House 2007, Multimedia installation with photographs & video projection\nIn Wall House, Xing stages herself inside a building designed by John Hejduk in the Netherlands, and her lonely presence draws its magic from the urban", "-31.711879522554227" ], [ "since they would not be able to show people or cars driving past the window that you would see on an actual street. It was decided that a real location be found that is below street level so that scenes could be filmed on the street there, but would not have to match inside scenes filmed on the set because of the obstructed view of the street. To emphasize this, the set was built even lower than the actual store and a fake wall was added to the location. Coker instructed the series' prop master to carefully choose a selection", "-31.695658182696206" ], [ "Hall.\nAlthough the Ghostbusters concept was tinkered with, the finalized show does feature many tie-ins from the films. In the season 1 episode \"Take Two\", the Ghostbusters fly to Hollywood to visit the set of a movie based on their adventures, which is revealed to be the 1984 movie at the end of the episode. The Stay Puft Marshmallow Man makes numerous appearances. During the third season, Walter Peck, the Environmental Protection Agency antagonist from the original film, reappears. The uniforms and containment unit are redesigned, and Slimer is changed from a bad ghost to a resident and friend, events which", "-31.673819426447153" ], [ "Deer Hill Avenue Deer Hill Avenue is a reality series that pokes fun at the suburban way-of-life: a combination of comedy, audacity, and confrontations delivered by guests from all walks-of-life. The series revolves around two experienced personalities; Kirk Rundhaug, a well known real estate guru, featured on the HGTV series \"Selling New York\" and Lou Milano, the group mischief maker and well known radio show personality on WRKI, i95, ”The Home of Rock’n’Roll.” Also featured are Kirk’s daughters, actresses Grace Rundhaug and Sophie Rundhaug, both of whom sing, act, and dance. Grace was featured in “The Sound of Music” live", "-31.57070725277299" ], [ "haunted houses. In series such as Celebrity Paranormal Project, the stated aim is investigation, and some series like Scariest Places on Earth challenge participants to survive the investigation; whereas others such as Paranormal State and Ghost Hunters use a recurring crew of paranormal researchers. In general, the shows follow similar stylized patterns of night vision, surveillance, and hand held camera footage; odd angles; subtitles establishing place and time; desaturated imagery; and non-melodic soundtracks. Noting the trend in reality shows that take the paranormal at face value, New York Times culture editor Mike Hale characterized ghost hunting shows as \"pure theater\"", "-31.539411500561982" ], [ "documentaries on the Discovery Channel and PBS member station WNET in New York City. Produced by James Nicoloro, the PBS documentaries are a series of \"Walk Through\" documentaries about various communities around New York City, which include A Walk Down 42nd Street (August 1998), A Walk Up Broadway (March 1999), A Walk Through Harlem (December 1999), A Walk Around Brooklyn with David Hartman and Historian Barry Lewis (2000), A Walk Through Greenwich Village (2001), A Walk Through Central Park (2001), A Walk Through Newark (2002), A Walk Through Hoboken (2003), A Walk Through Queens (2004), A Walk Through", "-31.51647010500892" ], [ "The Out-of-Towners (1970 film) Origins Originally, playwright Neil Simon planned his tale of a suburban Ohio couple's misadventures in New York City to be one of a quartet of vignettes in his Broadway play Plaza Suite. He quickly realized, however, the comic possibilities were numerous enough to warrant a full-length treatment, and the action was more suitable for the screen than the stage. During filming in the spring of 1969, Hiller took full advantage of Manhattan, including Grand Central Station, Central Park, and the Waldorf-Astoria Hotel, in his location shooting. Scenes were also filmed at Logan International Airport", "-31.481061266269535" ], [ "on the theme that big cities are more conducive to loneliness than small towns. It stars local artists, and utilizes Union City landmarks almost exclusively as shooting locations, such as St. John's Episcopal Church, and Hackensack Reservoir No. 2. (Only one location outside of the city, a property in North Bergen, was used for a cemetery scene in order to avoid disturbing a real cemetery.) Fernandez and Karabin hoped the film might inspire other filmmakers to consider Union City as a shooting location. The world premiere was held on September 3, 2010, at the Summit Quadplex on Summit Avenue,", "-31.388296547927894" ], [ "several well-known ones also use trolleys and even converted hearses to take their audience out. Some other tours combine special packages that may include dining, pub visits, or other specialized privileges like a visit to a more restricted location.\nAs The Mount Dora Ghost Walk main objective is to educate people about the history of a city already well known for its tourist appeal, the creators had the challenge to offer not only a tour through a historical trail, but a solid venue that could be compared in reputation to the many festivals traditionally offered. For this purpose they had to", "-31.333229037838464" ], [ "selection and collaboration of filmmakers and artists - is one of New York, I Love You's main assets. And there's no question that Manhattan looks ever-vibrant and beautiful.\" Box office The film grossed $1,588,015 in the United States. In popular culture An episode of the Netflix series Master of None is named and structured after New York, I Love You. Like the film, the episode follows the intersecting lives of various New Yorkers, although the episode's stories are not exclusively about romance.", "-31.282019183854572" ], [ "find a reason to move on. Great scenes with all of these duos, and it really goes to show just how fantastic The Walking Dead cast is, both in the loud and quiet moments.\" Zack Handlen from The A.V. Club awarded the episode a 'B+' grade, and felt that the episode was superior to the previous episode. In contrast, Aaron Rutkoff of The Wall Street Journal was less enthusiastic about the episode, expressing, \"truth be told, after three episodes very little has happened so far this season.\" TV Fanatic's Sean McKenna asserted that despite not having any direction, \"Save the", "-31.27409139631345" ], [ "remarked “through his own vision of the modern urban impoverished, Azank emphasizes the humanity of Godot and makes it timely.\"\nAdrian McCoy (Pittsburgh Post-Gazette) said of the show, “While Waiting for Godot adds unexpected elements, such as a funny line followed by a drum roll and laugh track, mysterious text messages and a great soundtrack, a modern layer of social commentary -- specifically the issue of urban homelessness -- it incorporates real images of life on the street, giving it a gritty documentary feel at times. The camera pans through streets lined with homeless people sleeping, sitting, going nowhere, just like", "-31.165305123315193" ], [ "This Beautiful City Soundtrack The film's soundtrack includes songs by Bry Webb, Sunparlour Players, Buck 65, Jewish Legend and Sebastien Grainger, Andre Ethier, Shad, The Ghost Is Dancing, Emilie Mover and Dave MacKinnon. Critical reception The Hollywood Reporter said \"The film is contrived but powerful. A mood of underlying dread gives each scene extra tension and its gritty portrait of how urban life at all levels can ground people down is striking.\" Awards and nominations The film was nominated for four Genies at the 29th Genie Awards, including Best Actor (Poole), Best Original Song (Bry Webb, \"Big Smoke\"), Best Sound", "-31.128063975542318" ], [ "[...] brings the city's streets and inhabitants into the frame, not as touristy backdrops but as integral elements in an ongoing pageant\", which \"comes as a breath of fresh air\".\nThe film has a 62% fresh rating on Rotten Tomatoes.", "-31.113886427832767" ], [ "series marks the return of people to his images, including at least one portrait. \n\"Screen Pictures\" (2017-2018) is a series of city portraits of Los Angeles that were photographed through the metal mesh of bus stops. The depicted places look abstract. The human figures present blur due to the abstraction that results from the capture through the metal mesh and the focus on it. Only when you look closely, you see what the pictures actually depict: a tent on the edge of a lawn, a lonely figure walking past a gas station, and various architectural details throughout the city. The", "-31.11172290414106" ], [ "City presents a new version of the Imaginary Couples Exhibition. All visitors heard interviews of the artist and the models while they were discovering the pictures in the exhibition. Videos were adding to the presentation with making of images .", "-31.108277275576256" ], [ "television locations, i.e. the places used for filming a film or a television series. In addition to organized tours (and not) to film locations lately has widened the tendency to a type of tourism, linked to the cinema, which relates to events, conventions and more like the case of the Dizionario del Turismo Cinematografico. Dizionario del Turismo Cinematografico The Dizionario del Turismo Cinematografico is an artistic costume movement originally born as a journalistic column on various online and paper publications officially in 2012 (with a genesis formed in the previous decade) but, in the following years, it has become a", "-31.100129667727742" ], [ "from railway stations.\nUnlike similar series, Walks Around Britain doesn't concentrate on \"walks with a view\", but instead aims to tell stories. So, a walk in the programme could well have any elements of British heritage, social history and the natural environment, but could just as well include physical health, mental health, wellbeing, engineering, archaeology, popular history and biological anthropology. In that way, the series is more akin to BBC Two's Coast, than other walking series.\nAgain, like Coast, the series features one lead presenter - currently Andrew White - who introduces the walks and links the programme together. The walks are", "-31.069092075347726" ], [ "building on Broome and Ludlow street on June 28 – July 1, from 9–11pm, and again from July 5–8. The same film is set to music on the website at HBOVoyeur The site's slogan was \"See what people do when they think no one is Watching.\" The residences and their respective stories appear in New York City. HBO Voyeur On Demand HBO Subscribers can also watch additional materials related to the online site via HBO On Demand, including an additional story \"The Watcher\", trailers for the online site, and paired apartment storylines from \"Ludlow & Broome\". Development The Project was", "-31.051195162930526" ], [ "to the hill itself?\nAs the neighbors eagerly await the completion of Kevin's work, Rachel must convince him to leave this place before the powerful Ghosts of Edendale reach through time to possess his very soul. Production The Ghosts of Edendale as a film is an interesting retracing of film history in the actual locations it was shot.\nThe story of Tom Mix, his life and death is an integral part of the story, and also an interesting history lesson in Hollywood Lore.", "-31.04596004553605" ], [ "seen at various points in the series, and geographic clues indicate the show's setting is in New York or that vicinity. The show was taped at various locations in North Jersey.", "-30.95728899264941" ], [ "Vancouver was \"the next best location\" to Santa Barbara.\nAlthough Franks chose to film the show in Vancouver, most of the show is filmed in the surrounding communities. Approximately 40% of the pilot was filmed in the Vancouver suburb of White Rock, including most scenes focusing on coastal areas. Several other scenes were filmed in regional mountains. The entire episode was filmed in real-life locations, instead of the sets used for every episode since. The show had to use real locations due to uncertainty on whether the show would succeed. Not being able to use a stage for filming created several", "-30.90571071091108" ], [ "My Kind of Town (TV series) Music Sung by Johnny Vaughan\nTheme Song Lyrics\nI like the kind of place, where you know everybody's face.\n'cos I'm a small town (Small Town!) kind of guy!\nI like a neighborhood that's cozy, 'cos as a neighbor, I'm quite nosy.\nI'm a small town (Small Town!) kind of guy!\nI've been to New York, London, Paris, but I'm not a bit embarrassed\nTo admit I'm more at ease, to fewer people and more trees!\nWhere you can get to know each other, there's so much to discover.\nIf you're not shy, That's why...\nI'm a small town kind of guy!\n(insert town and", "-30.898094735806808" ], [ "The Street (2000 TV series) Premise The series was about a small brokerage house called Belmont Stevens located in New York City and the lives of its employees. Reception Dalton Ross of Entertainment Weekly gave the series premiere a grade of D+, stating that the \"Darren Star created drama plays like a bad Melrose Place episode with obligatory IPO terminology thrown in\". Howard Rosenberg of Los Angeles Times was lukewarm on the show, calling it \"passable but hardly a highlight\".", "-30.871565524023026" ], [ "and out à la Charles Eames’s Powers of Ten film.\nAspen was filmed in early fall and winter. The user was able to in situ change seasons on demand while moving down the street or looking at a façade. A three-dimensional polygonal model of the city was also generated, using the Quick and Dirty Animation System (QADAS), which featured three-dimensional texture-mapping of the facades of landmark buildings, using an algorithm designed by Paul Heckbert. These computer-graphic images, also stored on the laserdisc, were also correlated to the video, enabling the user to view an abstract rendering of the city in real", "-30.856840236810967" ], [ "People & Places The People & Places series is a collection of short subject documentary films produced by Walt Disney Productions roughly between the years 1953 and 1960. The series (except The Alaskan Eskimo) was filmed in CinemaScope and filming location were countries around the world the Disney staff visited.\nIn October 2019, it was announced that the series would be revived for the Disney+ streaming service. Supper Club is producing the series under its April 2019 first look deal with Disney+. DVD release There are currently no plans to release People & Places on DVD or Blu-ray. However \"Disneyland", "-30.848142516915686" ], [ "encouraged participants and spectators to view the city as an artistic canvas, with each specific location a place of dialogue and encounter.", "-30.839794219995383" ], [ "directly engage the cameras in one-on-one interviews with the documentary crew members. The episodes were scripted, but the production encouraged the cast to improvise, and dialogue or performances the actors made up during filming often made the final cut of the episodes. Schur said he believes the mockumentary style is particularly fitting for a show about city government because, \"It's a device for showing the ways people act and behave differently when they're in public and private [and] the difference between what goes on behind closed doors and what people present to the public is a huge issue.\"\nThe Parks and", "-30.811077991216735" ], [ "moments. That’s always the challenge of serialization on television: trying to make table-setting hours into something like a full meal.\"\nErik Kain of Forbes gave the episode a negative review regarding the show's presentation of the characters, saying \"All told, a decent but irritating episode of The Walking Dead, bogged down once again by the show’s oldest problems. I know this is a TV series about zombies, but I’d really like to see the living, breathing, human characters start acting like real people at some point. I’m still enjoying The Walking Dead, but as a character drama it’s coming up short", "-30.809962346800603" ], [ "attraction of this town is that it is a \"town-museum\". Every two years, artists from all over gather here, for a week, doing different pieces of art that then leave permanently exposed in the town streets. Genalguacil is therefore an open-air museum, and walking along cobbled streets finds paintings on the walls, sculptures, carved trunks, etc.; that integrate with the environment (such as a sculpture of a little old lady under a hill, called \"Hasta el moño de tanta cuesta\" (sick and tired of such slopes). Every detail (house numbers, street names, benches, fireplaces) are finished some something artistic way,", "-30.80935027054511" ], [ "pedestrians in shots of New York. Workers visible in windows, spectators, and moving cars in the distance were all removed. In his vision of an empty New York, Lawrence cited John Ford as his influence: \"We didn't want to make an apocalyptic movie where the landscape felt apocalyptic. A lot of the movie takes place on a beautiful day. There's something magical about the empty city as opposed to dark and scary that was the ideal that the cast and crew wanted.\" Release I Am Legend was originally slated for a November 21, 2007, release in the United States and", "-30.788182559073903" ], [ "has continued providing a very creative entertaining production that has influenced and inspired others to bring more \"scary\" venues, particularly around Halloween. However, The Mount Dora ghost Walk continues as the only year around macabre show in their area, and the only one that has served as a platform to bring new entertainment options like the Cracker Gothic Acting Group producing dinner theater and parlor theater performances at the historical Lakeside Inn, The Story Line Most known ghost tours in the United States are guided excursions of the hosting city. More often than not they are just walking experiences although", "-30.782651393856213" ], [ "continued this project after the residency and added shooting ranges located in the Angeles National Forest. This series, \"Shooting Sites,\" signaled a shift in his artistic vision toward capturing scenes suggesting abandonment and desolation absent of human players yet charged with intrigue about their involvement. The pictures also reveal another signature tactic of his compositions, which is to offer visual allure that draws a viewer into troubling subject matter. The photographer likens this series with his earlier \"Automobile Landscapes.\"\nHis \"Landscapes for the Homeless\" series, which he produced from 1988–1991, captured images of homelessness sites located near and under Los Angeles", "-30.771701281395508" ], [ "a good job of unwisely grabbing one another by the shoulders.\" Entertainment Weekly's Ty Burr wrote of the film: \"Proficiently filmed and utterly uninspired, it at least features a ghostly lead performance by Cybill's Alicia Witt and a final twist that's entertainingly stupid. But why do all the characters have to be such nasty little dorks? Oh, right, otherwise we'd care about them.\" Kim Newman of the British publication Sight & Sound wrote: \"Urban Legend manages somehow to be rather endearing, from Natasha Gregson Wagner's opening bit (what must now, after Scream, be called 'the Drew Barrymore position') to the", "-30.75159845489543" ], [ "film to the work of Thornton Wilder and Dylan Thomas: \"The pattern is cyclic... A year in the life of a coastal village, with due emphasis on the seasons, and the births, marriages and deaths. It is an Our Town or Under Milk Wood of the Adriatic seaboard, concocted and displayed in the Roman film studios with the latter-day Fellini's distaste for real stone and wind and sky. The people, however, are real, and the many non-actors among them come in all the shapes and sizes one cares to imagine without plunging too deep into Tod Browning freak territory.\"\nRapidly picked", "-30.73085030686343" ], [ "series of films and images of deconstructed cityscapes, eliminating distinctions between design, painting, photography and architecture (New York City Suite (2005), Deconstructed Cities (2007), London, (2007), Katrina, (2008), and Deconstructed Reality(2009)). The first city-related photo-video project, New York City Suite, was shown in galleries and museums in 2006, as well as ArtMiami 2007. There, the artist not only explored the structures of New York's landscape, the face of the city, in concrete, steel, and glass, but he also offered a psychological portrait of New York City residents he saw in the streets, neither friends nor important personae. Based on", "-30.669921505555976" ], [ "rhythm of the streets\". For example, the production had the opportunity to film at a barbershop in Greenwich Village \"that would've been a little easier for us to shoot in\", but Coker said \"the opportunity to film it in Harlem was irresistible. I didn't want us to talk about Harlem and then not film in Harlem.\" Sound stage work also takes place in New York. Manuel Billeter serves as director of photography for the series, after doing the same for Jessica Jones. Visual effects Visual effects for the series were completed by FuseFX, with Greg Anderson serving as visual effects", "-30.650880836365104" ], [ "way the cities in which they are set become characters in themselves.\nIn 2016 Young released the science fiction short film Where The City Cant See The short is the first fiction film to be shot entirely using laser scanning technology (Lidar), the same vision system that driverless cars use to navigate. The story follows a group of young factory workers across a single night as they drift through a near future Detroit in a driverless taxi. They are part of an underground community that has developed new textiles for digital camouflage which they use to escape the surveillance systems of", "-30.6353480150392" ], [ "ghosts from different historical periods haunting a country house while sharing the house with its new living occupants. The series is written and performed by many of the cast members of the 2009 Children's BBC series Horrible Histories. \nThe series is the first post-watershed comedy by the ensemble, although some television critics noted that the series was suitable for adults and children alike. Reviews of the series have been positive, with critics appreciating the high joke rate, the premise and the strength of the acting ensemble. The series was made by the production company Monumental Pictures, part of ITV Studios.", "-30.626838649950514" ], [ "Which Way You Can (1980), Rocky IV (1985), Ghosts Can't Do It (1990) and Django Unchained (2012).\nThe town gained significant fame when a livestream of the town square went viral on YouTube in 2016, leading to much fascination with the town's elk antler arch, its law enforcement, and its prevalence of red trucks.", "-30.62376132106874" ], [ "actual community—the Washington Heights neighborhood of Upper Manhattan. Maeve's parish sat in the shadow of the George Washington Bridge, on 178th St. References were often made to Central Park (Delia's Crystal Palace restaurant), Sheepshead Bay in Brooklyn (mob-owned fishing boats), and other localities to provide a sense of place. \"We wanted to show how New York has communities,\" Labine said.\nLabine and Mayer also served as the executive producers of the show at this point, with George Lefferts as the producer. Lefferts was soon replaced by Robert Costello, who remained with the show until 1978. Nancy Ford", "-30.60781097470317" ], [ "town, featuring Pino's nest, Sien's store, a workshop, two houses, an apartment building, a trailer and a treehouse. The insides of the house sets could be decorated in different ways, so that the viewers would never be certain about who lived where.\nThis are edited episodes are Elmo's World, as well as Global Grover.\nFor the 2005/2006 season, Sesamstraat moved into new scenery. The set became completely abstract, with toy block-like buildings, broccoli for trees, and a tower with a giant light-up clock. The scenery was introduced with a TV special. Bert, Ernie, Cookie Monster, and Elmo flew over to the Netherlands", "-30.605272257700562" ], [ "Cities (TV series) Cities is a Canadian documentary television series broadcast on CBC Television from 1979 to 1980. Produced and directed by John McGreevy, the series featured a celebrity who would appear in an episode profiling a personal favourite city or more specific location.\nThe series premiere featured Peter Ustinov profiling Leningrad, Russia. Later episodes included Glenn Gould in Toronto, Elie Wiesel in Jerusalem, R. D. Laing in Glasgow, Anthony Burgess in Rome, Mai Zetterling in Stockholm, George Plimpton in New York City, Germaine Greer in Sydney, John Huston in Dublin, Jonathan Miller in London, Melina Mercouri in Athens, Studs Terkel", "-30.591754435634357" ], [ "more painterly. If we get it right, it will be a cross between Blade Runner and Clockwork Orange.\" Garland was a constant presence on the shoot; Urban turned to Garland for direction instead of Travis. Post-production The filmmakers experimented with the visuals of Mega-City One, including the design and positioning of the city's tower blocks, to create the impression that the city had risen out of the remains of another. They found that replicating the comic visuals of blocks close together made the blocks appear small. Instead they allowed more space between the buildings to emphasise the larger buildings and", "-30.55214200273622" ], [ "Faces Places (film) Synopsis Varda and JR visit villages and small towns throughout France to meet communities of people and create large portraits of them to plaster on the surroundings. Critical reception Faces Places received widespread acclaim from critics. Amy Taubin of Film Comment called the film an \"unassuming masterpiece\", describing it as \"both personal and populist, a celebration of artisanal production (including cinema), worker solidarity, and the photographic arts in the face of mortality.\"\nOn Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 99% based on 142 reviews, with an average rating of 8.84/10. The website's critical consensus reads,", "-30.54769252362894" ], [ "Citywalk also has an outdoor area called the Eastwood Central Plaza, which regularly hosts live performances, fairs, pet activities and other outdoor events.\nIt also features the Eastwood City Walk of Fame which is directly inspired by the Hollywood Walk of Fame in California, USA. This landmark was launched by Filipino entertainment icon ‘Master Showman’ German Moreno as a tribute to the men and women from the Philippine entertainment industry. Eastwood Cyber and Fashion Mall Eastwood Cyber and Fashion Mall houses a host of establishments that cater to different lifestyles, from fashion stores, book stores, beauty and wellness and more. The", "-30.440377005550545" ], [ "theme parks. Media and awards The 2009 Movie Zombieland had portions filmed inside of Netherworld, and members of the Netherworld crew participated in the films production. Rob Zombie's HALLOWEEN 2 2009 film also rented props from the event and used Haunted House staff. Many Netherworld crew are now involved with production of the AMC TV series, The Walking Dead. Several key staff are members of the Special Effects Makeup and Costuming unions.\nNetherworld won the #1 haunted house in America for 2017, according to Hauntworld.com, in their selection of the top 13 scariest haunted houses.", "-30.373929807101376" ], [ "episodes frequently take the form of a conversation between the two hosts and are often centered on a particular place or person. For instance, their 50th episode concerns the history of Collect Pond, while their 100th episodes regards the life of Robert Moses. They are also known for their annual Halloween episode, which usually focuses on New York City ghost stories, sometimes dating as far back as the 17th century. There are also shorter episodes featuring Young alone, expounding on smaller topics. Recognition The Bowery Boys: New York City History was awarded the Guides Association of New York City (\"GANYC\")", "-30.364985078860627" ], [ "receive a less than friendly welcome. Upon returning home to Cleveland, Drew convinces his friends to attend a midnight showing of The Rocky Horror Picture Show, but they find the movie theater is showing The Adventures of Priscilla, Queen of the Desert, which Drew's arch-enemy Mimi and her friends are there to see. After an argument about which film is better, a dance-off then ensues between the rival fans set to the \"Time Warp\" and \"Shake Your Groove Thing\".\n\"New York and Queens\" was not the first episode of The Drew Carey Show to feature the cast taking part in a", "-30.363253141753376" ], [ "behind the dead bodies on cop shows. We've never seen the city from the point of view of teenagers. It felt like a world with high stakes for young people.\" Schwartz added, \"What's funny about these teenagers is they grew up watching Sex and the City, even though it wasn't about them. And I think they've probably incorporated that into how they mythologize New York. I fought really hard to shoot the show in New York because we want New York to be a character in the show.\" Many scenes were filmed in the Empire Hotel on the Upper West", "-30.332942987559363" ], [ "a list would include towns famous for theatrical events (Stratford, Niagara on the Lake), musical events (Tanglewood, Woodstock), high concentrations of artisans working in one artistic area (Nelsonville, Ohio; Northport, Alabama; Portland, Maine; Oxford, Mississippi; Brattleboro, Vermont); or which host large numbers of artists, actors, or writers (Nantucket, Martha's Vineyard, Northampton, Provincetown, in Massachusetts). \nCertain university towns that are in rural areas, through sheer number of cultural events, as well have achieved world reputations as arts towns (Ithaca, NY; Chapel Hill, NC; Taos, New Mexico; Yellow Springs, Ohio; and Jackson, Wyoming). Contemporary arts towns in Canada The most recognized arts", "-30.289052046311554" ], [ "streets of a New York City intended to represent all cities everywhere. Scorsese calls attention to improvization in the film, such as in the scene between De Niro and Cybill Shepherd in the coffee shop. The director also cites Alfred Hitchcock's The Wrong Man and Jack Hazan's A Bigger Splash as inspirations for his camerawork in the movie.\nIn writing the script, Schrader was inspired by the diaries of Arthur Bremer (who shot presidential candidate George Wallace in 1972), by Jean-Paul Sartre's existential novel Nausea and John Ford's film The Searchers. The writer also used himself as inspiration; in a 1981", "-30.285157939835017" ], [ "2015, with filming taking place between then and October 2015. Three Northern Ontario municipalities — the cities of Sudbury and Sault Ste. Marie and the town of Parry Sound — would stand in for the show's fictitious location, the town of Waterbury. Unlike most television series that film their episodes in order, under the direction of Craig David Wallace, the series was shot as if it were a \"super-sized\" movie. Scenes from multiple episodes were filmed simultaneously, with the availability of locations and cast being factored in. The out-of-order schedule allowed the actors to acknowledge their characters's fates, especially those", "-30.25788600425585" ], [ "on the streets of contemporary New York, as a camera moseys down a street and then crawls up the side of a building, peering into several windows as various apartment dwellers play out their lives. It's as if Mr. Manchevski were thumbing through a selection of stories as we watch, deciding which appeal to him the most.\"\nLater, though, the film was reassessed in a number of essays focusing on its complex fractured narrative.", "-30.249453716089192" ], [ "George Clarke's Amazing Spaces Background The show follows people who turn unconventional things, such as old boats, into places to live, with a particular emphasis on creative use of small spaces. It is presented by George Clarke.", "-30.211549387779087" ], [ "by Kort Falkenberg III and was actually filmed in Los Angeles during the summer of 1984. Although some people understandably have mistaken the street scene for New York City or London, the director intentionally looked for a location in downtown Los Angeles where there was \"no Stucco\" on the walls which would have been a dead giveaway that it was shot in the southwest U.S. He wanted it to look neutral and not be identifiable as any particular city.\nTo start the clip, John Waite is sitting in a chair, and after seeing a picture of a woman with whom he", "-30.16790478695475" ], [ "that Vancouver was \"the next best location\" to Santa Barbara. Although he chose to film the show in Vancouver, most of the show is actually filmed in the surrounding communities. About half of each episode is filmed in the Vancouver suburb of White Rock, including most scenes focusing on coastal areas. Portions of the episodes are also filmed in the mountain ranges surrounding Vancouver, and occasionally in the Pacific Ocean around the city.\nThe episode \"Pilot\" was filmed entirely on location in and around Vancouver. Due to uncertainty about the show succeeding, producers decided to film the episode at actual locations", "-30.138522724271752" ], [ "The Corner Reception A review by Hugh K. David of DVD Times praised The Corner as \"raw, gritty, uncompromising, realistic, smartly directed, supremely well-acted, compulsively watchable, but harrowing and with little light at the end of the tunnel\", comparing it to the television equivalent of such films as Last Exit to Brooklyn (1989) and Requiem for a Dream (2000; also adapted from novels), with elements in common with both La Haine (1995) and City of God (2002). Awards The miniseries received three Emmy awards at the 52nd Primetime Emmy Awards. It won for Outstanding Miniseries; Outstanding Directing for a Miniseries,", "-30.132799400933436" ], [ "were hazardous. However, the tour brought them to over twenty-one different ghost towns, including Bodie, California, Tombstone, Arizona, and Deadwood, South Dakota, and it was all tracked and filmed. Many landmarks and monuments were also reached, such as Cathedral Gorge State Park and the Sonoran Desert. The soundtrack album was released October 22, 2013, on Tee Pee Records and the feature film companion, directed by Burke Roberts, is set to follow in 2014. Directly following the Ghost Town Tour of October 2012, keyboardist-vocalist Michelle Vidal replaced Sasha Vallely due to her inability to tour from a recent back surgery. In", "-30.1218429355431" ], [ "its residents to promote its idea of being a place for all. It does this through cultural, entertainment and institutional activities in hopes its residents will find one or more of these events attractive. Activities are also free to take place on streets and squares where people live, work, shop and play to make events more accessible for its residents. Its buildings and public transportation are designed with an attractive and inviting attitude in mind to create a more comfortable space. The City also values the importance of a “walkable” downtown as it allows its residents to enjoy buildings and", "-30.121764661860652" ], [ "dramatic sense of light and shadow depict cities strangely devoid of people, or solo figures dwarfed by their majestic surroundings.\" Also in 2018, Andrew Berman of the Greenwich Village Society for Historic Preservation wrote that The Metropolis of Tomorrow \"influenced a generation of architects who created some of the most striking and memorable buildings of the era, including the Empire State and Chrysler Buildings.\"", "-30.12113731374268" ], [ "A Place in Time Plot The film takes a look at the daily lives of people in more than two dozen countries around the world during the course of a week. In the film, celebrity friends of Jolie visit orphanages, refugee camps and other areas of concern in an effort to raise awareness and encourage cultural understanding. It is an experimental documentary that seeks to capture both the diversity of life around the globe and the similarities of the human spirit by filming in many places in the world at precisely the same moment. Production The film was shot in", "-30.11036186433921" ], [ "to the several retakes and rewrites of the script.\nAlthough the producers always wanted to find the right stories to take advantage of being on location, Friends was never shot in New York. Bright felt that filming outside the studio made episodes less funny, even when shooting on the lot outside, and that the live audience was an integral part of the series. When the series was criticized for incorrectly depicting New York, with the financially struggling group of friends being able to afford huge apartments, Bright noted that the set had to be big enough for the cameras, lighting, and", "-30.105680056512938" ], [ "Night Walk (TV series) Production Each of the shows was a first-person view of a trip through part of Toronto during the late-night hours, accompanied by jazz music. The original Night Walk strolled through the Yorkville district of the city and the Yorkdale subway station; Night Ride drove down the Don Valley Parkway and the Gardiner Expressway, thence onto King Street and ended in the city's Chinatown; Night Moves followed Queens Quay to Front Street, ending in a hotel nightclub. Night Ride also included a brief segment during which the film crew was stopped by a police officer. The second", "-30.100853918353096" ], [ "Cities of Love Cities of Love is a series of motion pictures illustrating the universality of love in major cities around the world. Each episode is a collective feature film comprising no fewer than 10 segments created by separate directors. Three such pictures have already been completed: Paris, je t'aime in 2006, New York, I Love You in 2009, and \"Rio, Eu Te Amo\" \"Rio, I Love You\" in 2014. Episodes are planned for Shanghai, Jerusalem, Venice, Delhi, Marseille, Berlin and New Orleans.", "-30.07369379067677" ], [ "were going to do. We had chosen a city to make a movie about -- not a school in a city, or a dude in a city -- [so] we had to talk to a city, ask a city questions. It became a very organic, long, many-rabbit-holes, never-stop-casting sort of film. There are certain things we captured just because we were living there. We knew [the film] had to be a chorus, it had to be a poem, it had to be a butterfly, going from place to place. You can't just hang a city on one person, or one", "-30.070226637413725" ], [ "series would require the filming of the integral scenes on-location as opposed to what the producers have done for Encantadia (a television series) a previous high fantasy production which was shot mostly in soundstages. However, to avoid the need for the reconstruction of some of the sets as the on-location shoots are usually ravaged by storms, and also to lessen maintenance cost as well as for the production to avoid acoustic issues by shooting in a controlled environment, they also used the network's temporary soundstages at Marilao, Bulacan for most of the indoor scenes.\nThe production gave much attention to details", "-30.06890798683162" ], [ "show's tendency to wander into cul-de-sacs in the first season, mainly because so much of it felt redundant, the work of writers who had no real idea how to construct narrative television. But this season, I'm starting to think they're getting a handle on things, and \"Cherokee Rose\" is the sort of episode I'd like to see more off [sic] as The Walking Dead continues.\" Paste's Josh Jackson asserted that the episode was superior to preceding installments, describing it as \"simply a catch of breath.\" Similarly, Josh Wigler of MTV evaluated that despite less violence than usual, the quality of", "-30.06015744766046" ], [ "opposed to a constructed set, and shadows and streaks of light are painted directly onto the sets, further distorting the viewer's sense of perspective and three-dimensionality. Buildings are clustered and interconnected in a cubist-like architecture, surrounded by dark and twisted back alleys. Lotte Eisner, author of The Haunted Screen, writes that objects in the film appear as if they are coming alive and \"seem to vibrate with an extraordinary spirituality\". Rudolf Kurtz, screenwriter and author of Expressionismus und Film, likewise wrote \"the dynamic force of objects howls their desire to be created\". The rooms have radically offset windows with distorted", "-30.040056703262962" ], [ "that I was shooting this in Toronto... Had I been shooting in New York City, we would have been at every corner trying to run away from landmarks that would de-anonymize it, you know? I don't want to say that Toronto is devoid of globally recognizable cultural and architectural landmarks. But if you want to make a movie that's spatially anonymous, it'll work for you. Editing Editing the work took a year, during which time \"a lot changed\". An example of this is the film's opening lecture: as written in the script, it was not at the beginning, but rather", "-30.03931060078321" ], [ "they are given a comfortable lifestyle.\nThe exact size of the environs of the Village is never established on screen. Besides the main Village setting, which is known to include a hospital building, there are woods, mountains and coastal areas. The Village is large enough that one episode (\"Living in Harmony\") established that an entire Old West town and environs was built somewhere in the vicinity. In \"Arrival\", \"Many Happy Returns\" and other episodes, Number Six actually views the Village from the air, yet is apparently unable to spot any surrounding towns or cities. In other episodes (depending upon the camera", "-30.01713897351874" ], [ "You're the One (TV series) Premise A landscape architect from the American South falls in love with a website designer from New York City, despite coming from different backgrounds and cultures.", "-30.010865492164157" ], [ "wines, and also rents out rooms for parties and receptions. It has a local reputation as a haunted house, and was featured on the television series Ghost Hunters and Most Terrifying Places in America.", "-29.999201609753072" ], [ "a city far away from home, dealing with different cultures and making the difficult decision to stop putting real life on hold and move back home.\nIn 2005 the show had a 12-week sell-out season at the Riverside Studios, a London arts venue well known for its international theatre programme.\nIn 2006 the production made its successful West End debut at The Venue (now The Leicester Square Theatre). That season featured Blair McDonough (ex Neighbours and Australian Big Brother).\nIn 2007 the production had its second West End season at The Venue from 26 July to 27 October.\nOther cast members have included Jonathon", "-29.976330254983623" ], [ "has notably set and shot many of his films in the city. The city has also been featured in various television programs, notably the IFC sketch comedy series Portlandia. The series, which ran for eight seasons from 2011 to 2018, was shot on location in Portland, and satirized the city as a hub of liberal politics, organic food, alternative lifestyles, and anti-establishment attitudes. MTV's long-time running reality show The Real World was also shot in Portland for the show's 29th season: The Real World: Portland premiered on MTV in 2013. Other television series shot in the city include Leverage, The", "-29.96377214381937" ], [ "for housing, shopping, green parks and sports facilities. As of 2018, most of the park remained largely undeveloped in such a way that all the site looked like a ghost town. Some people of Coimbra area used the infrastructure available for jogging, hiking, biking and dog walking.", "-29.959127258392982" ], [ "find a non-alcoholic happy hour to the most haunted houses in their city. Participants can view episodes on Comcast On Demand and interact with the host and fellow viewers (both local and in other cities) through Facebook, Twitter and the host's personal blogs, vlogs and fansites. Vidblogger Nation is the first television network to actively encourage participation in its programming whereby the audience assists the VidBloggers in discovering their local market and bringing them along for the experience Incubus HQ Live Scarpa collaborated with rock band Incubus for Incubus HQ Live, a participatory media exhibit and real-time documentary that", "-29.951335172750987" ], [ "cliché. You will invariably build a real person.\" Filming and locations The series filmed in New York City at Eastern Effects Studios in Gowanus, Brooklyn, with Brooklyn street locations in Boerum Hill, Carroll Gardens and Cobble Hill. Other shooting locations included: Prospect Park, Astoria, Washington Heights, Mamaroneck, Coney Island Avenue, Kew Gardens, Morningside Heights, Farmingdale, and Staten Island. Shooting of the pilot episode began in May 2012 and lasted until mid-June. Filming began for the rest of the first season in November 2012 in the New York City area. The production used location shots to simulate a dramatic setting of", "-29.93406716361642" ], [ "as the University of London’s Senate House, corresponded to those specified in the book. Many of the locations used during filming can be located by studying the street names and other signs which appear in the show. For example, Jo’s family home appears to be 2 Heath Side, which is adjacent to Hampstead Heath in London NW3. Jo and Bill first meet in a stairwell on the Theseus Estate in London N1, and the couple run along Theseus Walk past the street sign, at the beginning of Episode 3. The street sign for Remington Street can also be seen in", "-29.915471584768966" ], [ "a model for many different fictional ghost towns and manifestations of Hell. Prominent examples include Dean Koontz's Strange Highways and David Wellington's Vampire Zero.\nScreenwriter Roger Avary researched Centralia while working on the screenplay for the Silent Hill film adaptation.\nThe 1982 PBS documentary Centralia Mine Fire contains interviews with residents and relates the story of the mine fire.\nThe 1987 film Made in U.S.A. opens in Centralia and the surrounding coal region of Pennsylvania.\nThe 2007 documentary The Town That Was is about the history of the town and its current and former residents.\nCentralia had a segment entitled \"City on Fire\" on the", "-29.88973079167772" ], [ "sights surrounding him or her throughout the episode, and also talks to some locals to ask questions about the area. The narrator is dubbed when speaking the local language to a local citizen while any locals are subtitled.\nFour episodes, around 15 minutes long each, were also produced, called \"Somewhere Street: A Little Stroll.\"\nThere are also a few segments each episode called 'information corner', where a local tour guide or tourist official explains things about the history of the city or a particular attraction. These segments are delivered straight to camera, unlike the rest of the program. English edition While the", "-29.88710752001498" ], [ "cities was planned for May 9, 2008. The film was released to digital-projection cinemas, and was marketed \"direct-to-churches\", which one reverend remarked upon as \"relatively new.\" The film made $58,662 on its opening weekend, and $84,093 total. Reception Ken Hanke of the Mountain Xpress described the technical aspects of the film as \"competent\", but action locations as \"blandest, least interesting settings imaginable\". He continued, \"I don’t know when I’ve ever seen a less interesting or more dramatically neutered movie,\" commenting specifically on many overlong simple action sequences which could have been easily trimmed. In a roundup of the best", "-29.886651117762085" ], [ "also show elements of its main cast members' personal and professional lives; these shows include Hardcore Pawn and Comic Book Men. Such shows have some antecedent in the British series Antiques Roadshow, which began airing in 1979 and has since spawned numerous international versions, although that show includes only appraisals and does not include bargaining or other dramatic elements. \"Structured reality\" While for \"documentary-style\" shows it is implied that the events shown would still be taking place even if the cameras were not there, in other shows the events taking place are done overtly for the sake of the show.", "-29.87087627526489" ] ]

[ "[I can tell you in one word!]( URL_0 ) (warning: musical on the other side of this link).", "Because it's continuous, it's generally faster to write. Also, it looks nice and takes effort - but not as much as say calligraphy. Most people today have the handwriting of a spastic 5 year old because they type or text everything.", "I sort of use a hybrid between print and cursive. It's basically printing but I lift the pen up as little as possible to maximize writing speed.", "English teacher here. Pretty much every aspect of language and writing can be traced to (im)balances of power among people. Cursive doesn't just exist because it's efficient. It lingers because it was once a strong indicator of three things: * social class - good penmanship demonstrated that one was literate, educated, and--depending on the script used--a member of a certain professional community. * authenticity - before the age of photography, a particular handwriting, and especially one's signature were signs (identifiers) of a specific person. (As you know, signatures have survived as a quick but not foolproof method of authentication.) * a particular attention to style - our current models of education are based on Victorian principles. One of the many principles was the attention to refinement in one's expressions. Handwriting, according to this mentality, should be read as an expression of one's self, and that's why it has been taught to children for a long time. Basically, people used to read *a lot* more into a person's handwriting. The invention of reproductive technologies has eliminated many old [customs]( URL_4 ). (This actually happens all the time with the invention of new communicative technologies. [Here's]( URL_2 ) another interesting old custom that was made extinct by the invention of the telephone. If you want to dig deeper, check out: * [the history of typography]( URL_1 ). Every type (aka font) has a history, and some are pretty exciting to read. * the development of [modern models of education]( URL_3 ). * Tamara Plakins Thorton's [*Handwriting in America: A Cultural History*]( URL_0 )", "I use it because I'm a goddamn gentleman.", "Cursive is for writing with quill pens, so that you make one continuous line and minimize removing your pen from and contacting your pen to the paper, minimizing ink spills and blotches. Yosemighty_sam has the right of why we still use it.", "What the fuck? Who doesn't use cursive writing? I'm not american, but in my school you needed to WRITE in notebooks, it was MUCH faster to use cursive writing.", "That's just how I learned to write (UK)", "I love cursive writing; I think it looks so pretty and you can write much faster. I am so sad to see that it is being weaned out of our schools though, pretty much every school in my home city has now stopped teaching cursive writing :(. I agree that it isn't a necessary thing, but it's so strange to know that kids won't be taught how to do a cursive zed (it was always the hardest one!)", "We don't really use it today here in the US. A lot of schools have stopped teaching it. As a person with family members in the teaching, alternative teaching, and specialty teaching fields I can say that despite the illegible nature of most people's cursive - it *does* have a positive strengthening effect on the way the brain makes connections and learns. This is the only benefit I see to continuing teaching it. Not for practical use, but as an outstanding exercise.", "I haven't seen anyone mention the primary use for cursive in the US yet: signatures. We learn to write in cursive and then develop our own signatures with exaggerated forms of cursive so that we can authenticate documents quickly.", "It's a good skill to teach little kids -- hand/eye coordination as well as a \"rite of passage\" so to speak.", "I still use it, today, because it is faster and easier. It took a little practice, but it's totally great now.", "Because little Bryan, in High School, all the teachers require you write in pen and cursive. LIES.", "Doesn't cursive writing derive from facilitating the use of quill pens?", "Because we older people like having a secret language only we can read.", "When you get to around about university, your writing just looks like that anyway. you print so fast that it devolves into a continuous unintelligible scribble. Teaching you cursive writing means that when it does, your muscle memory that was tortured into you in elementary school comes back into play, and everyone's random scribbles are sort of standard.", "Back when people used to write with pens dipped in inkwells, it was easier to write in a continuous line. If the pen was lifted off the page to form each individual letter, ink would drip onto the page and ruin the message. It was easier, neater, and the best way to write for its time.", "We never even call it cursive in the UK. We were taught 'joined-up' writing at an early age because printing was for children or for people that could only think one letter at a time.", "Handwriting matters ... But does cursive matter? Research shows: the fastest and most legible handwriters avoid cursive. They join only some letters, not all of them: making the easiest joins, skipping the rest, and using print-like shapes for those letters whose cursive and printed shapes disagree. (Citation on request— and there are actually handwriting programs that teach this way.) Reading cursive still matters -- this takes just 30 to 60 minutes to learn, and can be taught to a five- or six-year-old if the child knows how to read. The value of reading cursive is therefore no justification for writing it. Remember, too: whatever your elementary school teacher may have been told by her elementary school teacher, cursive signatures have no special legal validity over signatures written in any other way. (Don't take my word for this: talk to any attorney.) Yours for better letters, Kate Gladstone - URL_0 ", "Well, it exists because it's faster to write since you can write a whole word without lifting your pen and the letters flow together. This made sense to use more when there were no typewriters nor computers. Now that most communication is done by typing block letters, cursive use is fading. The older generations still use and teach cursive because that's what they grew up with, but it's use is fading now. They taught me cursive in elementary school, but after that they didn't care.", "As well as allowing you to write more quickly and without looking at your paper, using it and developing the skill benefits a child's fine motor skills, meaning the child has more dexterity with things like using scissors, paintbrushes, colouring in neatly, etc. As long as it's introduced when the child's ready and is given a suitable persistance with appropriate progression, it's a useful skill to develop.", "If it helps, most high school English teachers nowadays don't teach it, demand it, or even give extra credit for it. Generation Z (my generation) is very likely going to be the last generation that will use cursive at all, I'd guess that the next generation will hardly even know it.", "I've always considered it the \"human text\". Printing is for code / math / acronyms / etc. It's nice to be able to use it a lot like how on computers we use monospace text or even simply *italics*.", "I've thought about starting an \"over 30\" subreddit. To prove you're over 30 you have to read a captcha written in cursive." ]

[ [ "Roman cursive Roman cursive (or Latin cursive) is a form of handwriting (or a script) used in ancient Rome and to some extent into the Middle Ages. It is customarily divided into old (or ancient) cursive, and new cursive. Old Roman cursive Old Roman cursive, also called majuscule cursive and capitalis cursive, was the everyday form of handwriting used for writing letters, by merchants writing business accounts, by schoolchildren learning the Latin alphabet, and even by emperors issuing commands. A more formal style of writing was based on Roman square capitals, but cursive was used for quicker, informal writing. It", "-24.4831616878364" ], [ "writing. Several students interviewed said they enjoy writing in cursive for reasons such that \"you can write faster than normal,\" \"you can use it as you get older,\" and \"it helps you learn more.\" Students in Atlantic Shores Christian School, in Virginia, say that there is no substitute for cursive handwriting instruction. Cursive is something you need to sign your name in a legal document, \"it teaches you to get more muscles in your hand,\" and \"because it's fun...you get to do different symbols than normal.\"\nMany schools have adopted keyboarding as an alternative to cursive handwriting instruction. Because cursive handwriting", "-23.92363812844269" ], [ "Punctuation History The first writing systems were either logographic or syllabic—for example, Chinese and Mayan script—which do not necessarily require punctuation, especially spacing. This is because the entire morpheme or word is typically clustered within a single glyph, so spacing does not help as much to distinguish where one word ends and the other starts. Disambiguation and emphasis can easily be communicated without punctuation by employing a separate written form distinct from the spoken form of the language that uses slightly different phraseology. Even today, written English differs subtly from spoken English because not all emphasis and disambiguation is possible", "-23.087733346532332" ], [ "writing systems for languages that do not have any. It is a purely phonemic system, using exactly one symbol for each phoneme, and marking the pitch accent using diacritics. It was created for Eleanor Harz Jorden's system of Japanese language teaching. Its principle is that such a system enables students to internalize the phonology of Japanese better. Since it does not have any of the other systems' advantages for non-native speakers, and the Japanese already have a writing system for their language, JSL is not widely used outside the educational environment. Non-standard romanization In addition to the standardized systems above,", "-22.80417073715944" ], [ "place. Writing was then able to record grammatical elements of the language and thus to record complete phrases, a possibility which was not properly exploited until some centuries later.\nA more recent theory, defended by Jean-Jacques Glassner, argues that from the beginning writing was more than just a managerial tool; it was also a method for recording concepts and language (i.e. Sumerian), because from its invention the signs did not only represent real objects (pictograms) but also ideas (ideograms), along with their associated sounds (phonograms). This theory presents writing as a radical conceptual change, resulting in a change in the way", "-22.666395675449166" ], [ "has recently evolved to include an informal, colloquial written style, in which an everyday conversation can occur through writing rather than speaking. Written communication can also be delivered with minimal time delay (e-mail, SMS), and in some cases, with an imperceptible time delay (instant messaging). Writing is a preservable means of communication. Writing materials There is no very definite statement as to the material which was in most common use for the purposes of writing at the start of the early writing systems. In all ages it has been customary to engrave on stone or metal, or other durable material,", "-22.642841480555944" ], [ "Travis Jeppesen have found the term asemic to be problematic because \"it seems to infer writing with no meaning.\" Styles of asemic writing Asemic writing exists in many different forms. It is often created with a pen or brush, but can range from being hand drawn in the sand with a stick and documented by photography, or to works on canvas, paper, computer images, and animations. The key to asemic writing is that even though it is traditionally \"unreadable\" it still maintains a strong attractive appeal to the reader's eye. Various asemic writing includes pictograms, or ideograms the meanings of", "-22.584504047772498" ], [ "not indicating word separation. Modern usage Though used for manuscripts, letters, and personal records since the 19th century, the need for special type long restricted printed syllabics to missionary publications. However, with the development of syllabic typewriters and, later, word processors, control of the script passed to native speakers, and it is now used for schoolbooks, periodicals, and official documents.", "-22.495663960493403" ], [ "writing by using a sharp stylus to indicate what was being counted. Round-stylus and sharp-stylus writing were gradually replaced around 2700–2500 BC by writing using a wedge-shaped stylus (hence the term cuneiform), at first only for logograms, but developed to include phonetic elements by the 29th century BC. About 2600 BC, cuneiform began to represent syllables of the Sumerian language. Finally, cuneiform writing became a general purpose writing system for logograms, syllables, and numbers. From the 26th century BC, this script was adapted to the Akkadian language, and from there to others, such as Hurrian and Hittite. Scripts similar in", "-22.457026598160155" ], [ "Cursive Hebrew Cursive Hebrew (Hebrew: כתב עברי רהוט‎ ktav ivri rahut, \"Flowing Hebrew Writing\", or כתב יד עברי ktav yad 'ivri, \"Hebrew Handwriting\", often called simply כתב ktav, \"Writing\") is a collective designation for several styles of handwriting the Hebrew alphabet. Modern Hebrew, especially in informal use in Israel, is handwritten with the Ashkenazi cursive script that had developed in Central Europe by the 13th century. This is also a mainstay of handwritten Yiddish. It was preceded by a Sephardi cursive script, known as Solitreo, that is still used for Ladino.", "-22.279467150452547" ], [ "use of writing adds another variety of the language to the community's repertory. Although written language is often viewed as secondary to spoken language, the vocabulary, grammatical structures and phonological structures of a language often adopt characteristics in the written form that are distinct from the spoken variety. Second, the use of writing often leads to a folk belief that the written language is the 'real' language, and speech is a corruption of it. Written language is viewed as more conservative, while the spoken variety is more susceptible to language change. Isolated relic areas of the spoken language may be", "-22.168586843064986" ], [ "Writing Writing is a medium of human communication that represents language with signs and symbols. For languages that utilize a writing system, inscriptions can complement spoken language by creating a durable version of speech that can be stored for future reference or transmitted across distance. Writing, in other words, is not a language, but a tool used to make languages readable. Within a language system, writing relies on many of the same structures as speech, such as vocabulary, grammar, and semantics, with the added dependency of a system of signs or symbols. The result of the activity of writing is", "-22.091060397971887" ], [ "period, two different styles of handwriting had developed, both suitable to the act of writing with quill and ink on soft materials (paper or parchment). The uncial script consisted of large upright letter glyphs, similar to those used in inscriptions on stone and to the modern uppercase glyphs. It was used mainly for carefully produced book manuscripts. For other types of writing, for instance private letters, documents and other types of everyday writing, a cursive script had developed that used slanted, interconnected glyphs and many ligatures.\nFrom the mid-9th century AD onwards, the uncial script was replaced in book writing by", "-22.08753658720525" ], [ "various forms of word processors have subsequently become widespread writing tools, and various studies have compared the ways in which writers have framed the experience of writing with such tools as compared with the pen or pencil. Mesopotamia While neolithic writing is a current research topic, conventional history assumes that the writing process first evolved from economic necessity in the ancient Near East. Writing most likely began as a consequence of political expansion in ancient cultures, which needed reliable means for transmitting information, maintaining financial accounts, keeping historical records, and similar activities. Around the 4th millennium BC, the complexity of", "-22.080753508169437" ], [ "other hand, such as braille, are not composed of lines, no matter what instrument is used to write them.\nCuneiform was probably the earliest non-linear writing. Its glyphs were formed by pressing the end of a reed stylus into moist clay, not by tracing lines in the clay with the stylus as had been done previously. The result was a radical transformation of the appearance of the script.\nBraille is a non-linear adaptation of the Latin alphabet that completely abandoned the Latin forms. The letters are composed of raised bumps on the writing substrate, which can be leather (Louis Braille's original material),", "-21.96164172166027" ], [ "type of cursive script was also in use by the Han by at least as early as 24 BC (during the very late Western Han period), incorporating cursive forms popular at the time, well as many elements from the vulgar writing of the Warring State of Qin. By around the time of the Eastern Jin dynasty, this Han cursive became known as 章草 zhāngcǎo (also known as 隶草 / 隸草 lìcǎo today), or in English sometimes clerical cursive, ancient cursive, or draft cursive. Some believe that the name, based on 章 zhāng meaning \"orderly\", arose because the script was a more", "-21.805516414126032" ], [ "a base line. Since many letters in the cursive script are extremely similar in form, to the point of being indistinguishable, it is the most difficult to read of the three varieties. As the Sogdian alphabet became more cursive and more stylized, some letters became more difficult to distinguish, or were distinguished only in final position, e.g. n and z. Source materials The Sogdian script is known from religious texts of Buddhism, Manichaeism, and Christianity, as well as from secular sources such as letters, coins, and legal documents. The oldest known Sogdian documents are the Ancient Letters,", "-21.655264745058957" ], [ "Mater lectionis Overview Because the scripts used to write some Semitic languages lack vowel letters, unambiguous reading of a text might be difficult. Therefore, to indicate vowels (mostly long), consonant letters are used. For example, in the Hebrew construct-state form bēt, meaning \"the house of\", the middle letter י in the spelling בית acts as a vowel, but in the corresponding absolute-state form bayit (\"house\"), which is spelled the same, the same letter represents a genuine consonant. Matres lectionis are extensively employed only in Hebrew, Aramaic, Syriac and Arabic, but the phenomenon is also found in the", "-21.639804567908868" ], [ "cursive form began to develop, which gave rise to a variety referred to as Neo-Punic and existed alongside the more conservative form and became predominant some time after the destruction of Carthage (c. 149 BC). Neo-Punic, in turn, tended to designate vowels with matres lectionis (\"consonantal letters\") more frequently than the previous systems had and also began to systematically use different letters for different vowels, in the way explained in more detail below. Finally, a number of late inscriptions from what is now Constantine, Algeria dated to the first century BC make use of the Greek alphabet to write Punic,", "-21.59735298792657" ], [ "Gothic. Cursiva Cursiva refers to a very large variety of forms of blackletter; as with modern cursive writing, there is no real standard form. It developed in the 14th century as a simplified form of textualis, with influence from the form of textualis as used for writing charters. Cursiva developed partly because of the introduction of paper, which was smoother than parchment. It was therefore, easier to write quickly on paper in a cursive script.\nIn cursiva, descenders are more frequent, especially in the letters f and s, and ascenders are curved and looped rather than vertical (seen especially in the", "-21.40148651720665" ], [ "Middle Ages for rapidly written vernacular documents roman cursive or even a form of shorthand, called tironian notes, were used. Secretary hand Whereas the meticulously drawn textualis quadrata was the most common script for religious works, starting from the 13th century a common style of handwriting for vernacular work, which were written at speed, was Secretary hand, a cursive script, which features amongst several ligatures and contraction distinctive strong \"elephant's ear\" ascenders and descenders Italic script In the 16th–17th century secretary hand was slowly replaced by italic scripts, a semi-cursive group of scripts. Early italic hand, dating from the 15th", "-21.261579440557398" ], [ "language saying that a conversation with her advisor about the multiple writing systems of the Mi'kmaq language inspired her to research the histories of these writing systems. There are three different methods for writing with two still in use the first and most commonly used is the Pacifique system and the second and more controversial method being the Francis-Smith system. According to Battiste the Francis-Smith system of writing comes with more controversy for many reasons but the primary reason being, as she puts it, \"reflecting the fact that we are now using English as a second language in most of", "-21.073695498285815" ], [ "and efficient means of printing coupled with computer technology have pushed stylistic and complex handwriting techniques to the backdrop of linguistic aspects, the aforementioned practices remain in use often in the fields of academia for study. Calligraphy remains a commonplace facet of many modern East Asian languages as well as forms of cursive Arabic. However dated they may seem, they are necessary in order to grasp archaic or other older forms of current languages in the field of linguistics, as there are still mysteries to resolve (such as the near indecipherable Indus Script).", "-21.069222788559273" ], [ "as it involves areas of the brain whose functions are not directly connected to language and writing (typically motor areas).\nThe history of agraphia dates to the mid-fourteenth century, but it was not until the second half of the nineteenth century that it sparked significant clinical interest. Research in the twentieth century focused primary on aphasiology in patients with lesions from strokes. Characteristics Agraphia or impairment in producing written language can occur in many ways and many forms because writing involves many cognitive processes (language processing, spelling, visual perception, visuospatial orientation for graphic symbols, motor planning, and motor control of handwriting).\nAgraphia", "-21.050385024864227" ], [ "History of writing Inventions of writing It is generally agreed that true writing of language (not only numbers, which goes back much further) was independently conceived and developed in at least two ancient civilizations and possibly more. The two places where it is most certain that the concept of writing was both conceived and developed independently are in ancient Sumer (in Mesopotamia), between 3400 and 3300 BC, and much later in Mesoamerica (by 300 BC) because no precursors have been found to either of these in their respective regions. \nAlthough writing systems also arose in Egypt around 3100 BC and", "-21.034393043606542" ], [ "He believed that writing was given too much attention in the field of linguistics. In Course in General Linguistics, Saussure argued that \"language and writing are two distinct systems of signs.\" He believed that both systems influenced each other, but that writing could obscure language. He argued that writing obscures how pronunciation forms because of its influence on pronunciation. Saussure drew a distinction between phonetic languages and languages such as Chinese in which a single character represents a word. He believed that only phonetic languages cause problems for linguists.\nOng has argued that American society is particularly opposed to phonocentrism. He", "-20.95591883094312" ], [ "zhāngcǎo (章草), and variously also termed ancient cursive, draft cursive or clerical cursive in English, to differentiate it from modern cursive (今草 jīncǎo). Modern cursive evolved from this older cursive in the Wei Kingdom to Jin dynasty with influence from the semi-cursive and standard styles. Styles Beside zhāngcǎo and the \"modern cursive\", there is the \"wild cursive\" (Chinese and Japanese: 狂草; pinyin: kuángcǎo; rōmaji: kyōsō) which is even more cursive and difficult to read. When it was developed by Zhang Xu and Huaisu in the Tang dynasty, they were called Diān Zhāng Zuì Sù (crazy Zhang and drunk Su, 顛張醉素).", "-20.91532146348618" ], [ "linked grammatically to those immediately after the comma than they might be otherwise. The comma performs a number of functions in English writing. It is used in generally similar ways in other languages, particularly European ones, although the rules on comma usage – and their rigidity – vary from language to language. Before quotations Some writers precede quoted material that is the grammatical object of an active verb of speaking or writing with a comma, as in Mr. Kershner says, \"You should know how to use a comma.\" Quotations that follow and support an assertion are often preceded by a", "-20.90020421659574" ], [ "of signs, in contrast to the other widely used writing systems at the time, Cuneiform, Egyptian hieroglyphs, and Linear B. The Phoenician script was probably the first phonemic script and it contained only about two dozen distinct letters, making it a script simple enough for common traders to learn. Another advantage of Phoenician was that it could be used to write down many different languages, since it recorded words phonemically.\nThe script was spread by the Phoenicians across the Mediterranean. In Greece, the script was modified to add vowels, giving rise to the ancestor of all alphabets in the West. It", "-20.8328343158355" ], [ "is called Al-Qalam. Even in pre-Islamic societies, writing was widely used for commercial and occasionally legislative purposes. It is a commonly held belief amongst the Muslim population that disrespect of calligraphy as a tradition would reveal a person as being uneducated and unwise. In Islam, the physical presence of the written letters of the Quran functioned the way icons did to the Byzantines, as a blessing and protection. Because of this, Islamic calligraphers often had a high place in society, while their counterparts in regions like Byzantium would only be known to their family and patrons.\nCalligraphy holds a central position", "-20.819088947726414" ], [ "ancient languages. It is presumed to be a translation of humanity’s first ancient attempt at writing. But because of the many ancient translations, no one is really sure which actually came first. Kermit’s discussion even takes in a theory by an actual archaeologist who did her work in the early eighties, Denise Schmandt-Besserat, which proposes an earlier \"token\" writing using sculpted beads for words and ideas; according to Schmandt-Besserat, the earliest cuneiform writing that we have today is a matter of these \"tokens\" first pressed into clay to leave an imprint. Later the same marks were drawn on soft clay", "-20.815571855979215" ], [ "Miꞌkmaq hieroglyphic writing Classification Scholars have debated whether the earliest known Miꞌkmaq \"hieroglyphs\" from the 17th century qualified fully as a writing system, rather than as a pictographic mnemonic device. In the 17th century, French missionary Chrétien Le Clercq adapted the Míkmaq characters as a logographic system for pedagogical purposes.\nIn 1978, Ives Goddard and William Fitzhugh of the Department of Anthropology at the Smithsonian Institution, contended that the pre-missionary system was purely mnemonic, as it could not be used to write new compositions. Schmidt and Marshall argued in 1995 that the missionary system of the 17th century was able to", "-20.80416023125872" ], [ "are many cases, however, where older declined forms are retained (especially in idiomatic expressions and the like), and \"person\"-enclitics are widely used to \"decline\" prepositions. Writing system Modern Hebrew is written from right to left using the Hebrew alphabet, which is an \"impure\" abjad, or consonant-only script, of 22 letters. The ancient paleo-Hebrew alphabet is similar to those used for Canaanite and Phoenician. Modern scripts are based on the \"square\" letter form, known as Ashurit (Assyrian), which was developed from the Aramaic script. A cursive Hebrew script is used in handwriting: the letters tend to be more circular in", "-20.757491302210838" ], [ "which are used in South and Southeast Asia, but which have wider historical use elsewhere, even as far as Mongolia and perhaps even Korea, according to one theory of the origin of Hangul. The Brāhmī numeral system is the ancestor of the Hindu-Arabic numerals, which are now used worldwide.\nBrāhmī is generally believed to be derived from a Semitic script such as the Imperial Aramaic alphabet, as was clearly the case for the contemporary Kharosthi alphabet that arose in a part of northwest Indian under the control of the Achaemenid Empire. Rhys Davids suggests that writing may have been introduced to", "-20.741119006997906" ], [ "the diversification of the alphabet to codify the phonologies of the various languages.\nThe nature of writing has been constantly evolving, particularly due to the development of new technologies over the centuries. The pen, the printing press, the computer and the mobile phone are all technological developments which have altered what is written, and the medium through which the written word is produced. Particularly with the advent of digital technologies, namely the computer and the mobile phone, characters can be formed by the press of a button, rather than making a physical motion with the hand.\nThe nature of the written word", "-20.72409169515595" ], [ "now use portable typewriters to prepare letters for their clients. However, in areas with very high literacy rates, they are almost non-existent. Etymology The word comes from Middle English scriveiner, an alteration of obsolete scrivein, from Anglo-French escrivein, ultimately from Vulgar Latin *scriban-, scriba, itself an alteration of Latin scriba (scribe).\nIn Japan, the word \"scrivener\" is used as the standard translation of shoshi (書士), in referring to legal professions such as judicial scriveners and administrative scriveners.\nIn the Irish language, a scríbhneoir is a writer, or a person who writes. Similarly, in Welsh, ysgrifennu is 'to write', ysgrifennwr is 'writer' and", "-20.70367091585649" ], [ "the Jin period, in two phases. First, an early form of cursive developed as a cursory way to write the popular and not-yet-mature clerical script. Faster ways to write characters developed through four mechanisms: omitting part of a graph, merging strokes together, replacing portions with abbreviated forms (such as one stroke to replace four dots), or modifying stroke styles. This evolution can best be seen on extant bamboo and wooden slats from the period, on which the use of early cursive and immature clerical forms is intermingled. This early form of cursive script, based on clerical script, is now called", "-20.678615186725438" ], [ "writing was developed.\nThe Sumerians are regarded as the first everyday users (in agricultural applications) of pictographs (of which scholars have catalogued some 15,000 individual symbols). Contextual handwriting/cuneiform Contextual handwriting is said to have begun with the development of Cuneiform (from the Latin Cuneus and referring to the styluses used in creating the pictographs of the aforesaid). Cuneiform would be applied in the recording of the Akkadian language and several other languages of Mesopotamia as the usage of Sumerian began to fade as a spoken language. Convergence in Mesopotamia and Egypt As both Mesopotamians and Egyptians began to regard writing as", "-20.67791866924381" ], [ "are also derived from the Aramaic script, which would make Phoenician the ancestor of virtually every alphabetic writing system in use today.\nHowever, due to an indigenous-origin hypothesis of Brahmic scripts, no definitive scholarly consensus exists.", "-20.661401930410648" ], [ "obsolete, letters of a legal nature might be written only in cases where laws might likewise be reduced to writing. While the rule prevailed that no laws should be written, no communications of legal content were made by means of letters. Questions were usually communicated orally, or proposed to the academy by a teacher, who transmitted the answer and decision by word of mouth. The rarity of letters on legal problems in the Tannaitic era (the period the Mishnah covers) may be seen from a passage in the Tosefta, which states that Rabbi Gamliel secretly dispatched a messenger with an", "-20.62460436334368" ], [ "died out around the 18th century BC. Assyrian cuneiform This \"mixed\" method of writing continued through the end of the Babylonian and Assyrian empires, although there were periods when \"purism\" was in fashion and there was a more marked tendency to spell out the words laboriously, in preference to using signs with a phonetic complement. Yet even in those days, the Babylonian syllabary remained a mixture of logographic and phonemic writing.\nHittite cuneiform is an adaptation of the Old Assyrian cuneiform of c. 1800 BC to the Hittite language. When the cuneiform script was adapted to writing Hittite, a layer of", "-20.61437298663077" ], [ "which can be open (CV) or closed (CVC). Writing Hieroglyphic writing dates from c. 3000 BC, and is composed of hundreds of symbols. A hieroglyph can represent a word, a sound, or a silent determinative; and the same symbol can serve different purposes in different contexts. Hieroglyphs were a formal script, used on stone monuments and in tombs, that could be as detailed as individual works of art. In day-to-day writing, scribes used a cursive form of writing, called hieratic, which was quicker and easier. While formal hieroglyphs may be read in rows or columns in either direction (though typically written", "-20.613680630456656" ], [ "previous script, but out of proto-writing (the only known cases being the Cuneiform script, Egyptian hieroglyphs, the Chinese script and arguably the Mayan script), the process was nevertheless a gradual evolution of a system of symbols, not a creation by design. For previously unwritten languages Some, like the Korean Hangul, Cherokee, N'Ko, Fraser, Tangut and Pollard scripts, were invented to allow certain spoken natural languages that did not have adequate writing systems to be written. Armenian, Georgian, and Glagolitic may fit in this category, though their origin is not known. For fictional languages The best-known constructed scripts dedicated", "-20.544148793560453" ], [ "influence of nearby languages. Its forms, when written, may range from bloc (the most visible form generally not using brushes) to semi- and fully cursive styles which require a certain degree of skill and devotion (through constant practice and memorisation) and remain in wide use. English/European development of script In the words of Philip Hofer (1941, p. 2), in the latter portion of the 7th century 'English calligraphy became important and influential on the course of writing styles for the first time' (often credited in part to Alcuin of York). Eventually a form of English handwriting would form to follow the", "-20.52729984690086" ], [ "use it for writing papers or daily discourse. Furthermore, the Roman Catholic Church, as part of the Vatican II reforms in the 1960s, modernized its religious liturgies to allow less use of Latin and more use of vernacular languages. Nonetheless, the study of Latin has remained an academic staple into the 21st century.\nMost of the Latin courses currently offered in secondary schools and universities are geared toward translating historical texts into modern languages, rather than using Latin for direct oral communication. As such, they primarily treat Latin as a written dead language, although some works of modern literature such as", "-20.512184246006655" ], [ "Cao Wei and Jin dynasties. Semi-cursive By the late Eastern Han period, an early form of semi-cursive script appeared, developing out of a cursively written form of neo-clerical script and simple cursive. This semi-cursive script was traditionally attributed to Liu Desheng c. 147–188 AD, although such attributions refer to early masters of a script rather than to their actual inventors, since the scripts generally evolved into being over time. Qiu gives examples of early semi-cursive script, showing that it had popular origins rather than being purely Liu's invention. Regular script Regular script has been attributed to Zhong Yao (c. 151–230 AD), during", "-20.48762426013127" ], [ "later eras adding their ownengravings to the stones. According to the research of Hamlet Martirosyan, the pictograms of Ughtasar represent a writing system known as \"goat writing\" or \"itsagir\". Many scholars believe that this was due to the large number of goats drawn on the stones, but according to Martirosyan it is because in the ancient Armenian language, the words “goat” and “writing” were homonyms. They would use these homonyms to express concepts through pictures, thus the abstract concept of “writing” (which in ancient Armenian can be expressed with words like “shar” – arrange, “sarel” – compile, “tsir” – a", "-20.48092251678463" ], [ "which were developed around 700. Because Japanese uses mainly CV (consonant + vowel) syllables, a syllabary is well suited to write the language. As in many syllabaries, vowel sequences and final consonants are written with separate glyphs, so that both atta and kaita are written with three kana: あった (a-t-ta) and かいた (ka-i-ta). It is therefore sometimes called a moraic writing system.\nLanguages that use syllabaries today tend to have simple phonotactics, with a predominance of monomoraic (CV) syllables. For example, the modern Yi script is used to write languages that have no diphthongs or syllable codas; unusually among syllabaries, there", "-20.475810939853545" ], [ "of marks, such as Cuneiform and Braille. Complete and partial writing systems Writing systems may be regarded as complete according to the extent to which they are able to represent all that may be expressed in the spoken language, while a partial writing system is limited in what it can convey. Writing systems, languages and conceptual systems Writing systems can be independent from languages, one can have multiple writing systems for a language, e.g., Hindi and Urdu; and one can also have one writing system for multiple languages, e.g., the Arabic script. Chinese characters were also borrowed by variant countries", "-20.457360533066094" ], [ "Georg Mancelius tried to systematize the writing. He wrote long vowels according to their position in the word – a short vowel followed by h for a radical vowel, a short vowel in the suffix and vowel with a diacritic mark in the ending indicating two accents. Consonants were written following the example of German with multiple letters. The old orthography was used until the 20th century when it was slowly replaced by the modern orthography. Latvian on computers In late 1992 the official Latvian computing standard LVS 8-92 took effect. It was followed by LVS 24-93 (Latvian language support for", "-20.435665816097753" ], [ "Construction of a script presupposes that the author is aware of at least one writing system already. Otherwise, the invention would not just comprise a script, but the concept of writing itself. Therefore, a constructed script is always informed by at least one older writing system, making it difficult in some cases to decide whether a new script is simply an adoption or a new creation (for example the Cyrillic and the Gothic alphabets, which are nearly identical to the Greek alphabet but were nevertheless designed by individual authors).\nIn the rare cases where a script evolved not out of a", "-20.38506864127703" ], [ "Calligraphy was the means by which scholars could mark their thoughts and teachings for immortality, and as such, represent some of the most precious treasures that can be found from ancient China. Variants Just as Roman letters have a characteristic shape (lower-case letters mostly occupying the x-height, with ascenders or descenders on some letters), Chinese characters occupy a more or less square area in which the components of every character are written to fit in order to maintain a uniform size and shape, especially with small printed characters in Ming and sans-serif styles. Because of this, beginners often practise writing", "-20.35496865247842" ], [ "letters and without a space between words and with diacritics. Uncial and cursive script In the third century, the Greek uncial developed under the influence of the Latin script because of the need to write on papyrus with a reed pen. In the Middle Ages, uncial became the main script for the Greek language. A common feature of the medieval majuscule script like the uncial is an abundance of abbreviations (e.g. ΧϹ for \"Christos\") and ligatures. The first Greek script, a cursive script, developed from quick carving into wax tablets with a slate pencil. This cursive script already showed descenders", "-20.349477334762923" ], [ "his prohibition to all other writings. This prohibition was not universally obeyed. The Abbreviators found it convenient to use the abbreviated form, and this was especially the case in Rome. The early Christians practised the abbreviated mode, no doubt as an easy and safe way of communicating with one another and safeguarding their secrets from enemies and false brethren. Ecclesiastical abbreviatores In course of time the Papal Chancery adopted this mode of writing as the \"curial\" style, still further abridging by omitting the diphthongs \"ae\" and \"oe\", and likewise all lines and marks of punctuation. The Abbreviatores were officials of", "-20.32322641418432" ], [ "or informal style. Some authors use commas to separate short clauses only. The comma splice is more commonly found in works from the 18th and 19th century, when written prose mimicked speech more closely.\nFowler's Modern English Usage describes the use of the comma splice by the authors Elizabeth Jolley and Iris Murdoch:\nWe are all accustomed to the … conjoined sentences that turn up from children or from our less literate friends… Curiously, this habit of writing comma-joined sentences is not uncommon in both older and present-day fiction. Modern examples: I have the bed still, it is in every way suitable", "-20.303321007719205" ], [ "syllabics or Déné Syllabics. This writing system was widely used for several decades from its inception in 1885 but began to fade in the 1930s. Today only a few people can read it.\nA good deal of scholarly material, together with the first edition of the \"Little Catechism\" and the Third Edition of the Prayerbook, is written in the writing system used by Father Adrien-Gabriel Morice in his scholarly work. This writing system is a somewhat idiosyncratic version of the phonetic transcription of the time. It is subphonemic and was never used by Carrier people themselves, though many learned to read", "-20.291670975624584" ], [ "using syllabaries Languages that use syllabic writing include Japanese, Cherokee, Vai, the Yi languages of eastern Asia, the English-based creole language Ndyuka, Shaozhou Tuhua, and the ancient language Mycenaean Greek (Linear B). In addition, the undecoded Cretan Linear A is also believed by some to be a syllabic script, though this is not proven.\nChinese characters, the cuneiform script used for Sumerian, Akkadian and other languages, and the former Maya script are largely syllabic in nature, although based on logograms. They are therefore sometimes referred to as logosyllabic.\nThe contemporary Japanese language uses two syllabaries together called kana, namely hiragana and katakana,", "-20.244872884446522" ], [ "Chirography Chirography (from Greek χείρ hand) is the study of penmanship and handwriting in all of its aspects. History According to Georges Jean (1992, p. 12), standardised writing 'cannot be said to exist until there is an agreed upon repertoire of formal signs or symbols that can be used to reproduce clearly the thoughts and feelings' that those utilising them hope to put forth. Ancient writing Although writing's origins may be traced back to the renowned French cave paintings in Lascaux (said to be about 20,000 years old), it appears to have been nearly 17 millennia before any formal system of", "-20.239579091314226" ], [ "evolution.\nWriting is thought to have been first invented in either Sumeria or Ancient Egypt and was initially used for accounting. Soon after, writing was used to record myth. The first religious texts mark the beginning of religious history. The Pyramid Texts from ancient Egypt are one of the oldest known religious texts in the world, dating to between 2400–2300 BCE. Writing played a major role in sustaining and spreading organized religion. In pre-literate societies, religious ideas were based on an oral tradition, the contents of which were articulated by shamans and remained limited to the collective memories of the society's", "-20.233669422870662" ], [ "of a universal writing style in order to help with the translatability of writing across different cultures and languages. However, demonstrating the difficulty of such a task, one researcher addressed the assumption that unambiguous wording eases effective communication. He gave examples from certain Asian contexts when unclear communication was actually helpful because the unequivocal language forced communicators to rely more heavily on oral discourse than on written documents. The example of the effectiveness about ambiguous language not only shows problems with a universal writing style for technical translation, but also reiterates another example of how culture plays an important role", "-20.23172697518021" ], [ "as Tengwar), many of which feature advanced graphic designs corresponding to phonologic properties. The basic unit of writing in these systems can map to anything from phonemes to words. It has been shown that even the Latin script has sub-character \"features\". Ambiguous systems Most writing systems are not purely one type. The English writing system, for example, includes numerals and other logograms such as #, $, and &, and the written language often does not match well with the spoken one. As mentioned above, all logographic systems have phonetic components as well, whether along the lines of a syllabary, such", "-20.175344806921203" ], [ "allowing for a specific collections of documents like the Gospels and the Pauline Epistles. \"Canon and codex go hand in hand in the sense that the adoption of a fixed canon could be more easily controlled and promulgated when the codex was the means of gathering together originally separate compositions.\" Script and other features The handwriting found in New Testament manuscripts varies. One way of classifying handwriting is by formality: book-hand vs. cursive. More formal, literary Greek works were often written in a distinctive style of even, capital letters called book-hand. Less formal writing consisted of cursive letters which could", "-20.147131293982966" ], [ "Write-only language In computer humor, a write-only language is a pejorative term for a programming language alleged to have syntax or semantics sufficiently dense and bizarre that any routine of significant size is too difficult to understand by other programmers and cannot be safely edited. Similarly, write-only code is source code so arcane, complex, or ill-structured that it cannot be reliably modified or even comprehended by anyone with the possible exception of the author. Write-only code is also referred to as line noise, suggesting that the code looks like spurious characters from signal noise in the communication line. In such", "-20.13717469247058" ], [ "written, is attested as far back as the 19th century BC. The Phoenician writing system was adapted from the Proto-Canaanite script sometime before the 14th century BC, which in turn borrowed principles of representing phonetic information from Egyptian hieroglyphs. This writing system was an odd sort of syllabary in which only consonants are represented. This script was adapted by the Greeks, who adapted certain consonantal signs to represent their vowels. The Cumae alphabet, a variant of the early Greek alphabet, gave rise to the Etruscan alphabet and its own descendants, such as the Latin alphabet and Runes. Other descendants from", "-20.11621616577031" ], [ "and legal situations, of which no evidence survives. In their prefaces, the authors themselves often mention the novelty of writing Romansh, and discuss an apparently common prejudice that Romansh was a language that could not be written.\nThe first writing in the Sursilvan and Sutsilvan dialects appears in the 17th century. As in the Engadine, these early works usually focused on religious themes, in particular the struggles between Protestants and Counter-Reformers. Daniel Bonifaci produced the first surviving work in this category, the catechism Curt mussameint dels principals punctgs della Christianevla Religiun, published in 1601 in the Sutsilvan dialect. A second edition,", "-20.1148336637998" ], [ "in each word, from a familiar piece of text such as Genesis. It was John Hart who first suggested that the focus should be on the relationship between what are now referred to as graphemes and phonemes. Phonics in the United States Because of the complexity of written English, more than a century of debate has occurred over whether English phonics should or should not be used in teaching beginning reading.\nThe use of phonics in American education dates at least to the work of Favell Lee Mortimer, whose works using phonics includes the early flashcard set Reading Disentangled (1834) and", "-20.10429640021175" ], [ "arrangement or position indicating a different short vowel.\nA dot above a letter indicated the vowel a, a dot below indicated the vowel i, a dot on the side of a letter stood for the vowel u, and two dots stood for the tanwīn.\nHowever, the early manuscripts of the Qur'an did not use the vowel signs for every letter requiring them, but only for letters where they were necessary for a correct reading. Al Farahidi's system This is the precursor to the system we know today. al-Farāhīdī found that the task of writing using two different colours was tedious and impractical.", "-20.102821808541194" ], [ "writing, which varies in style by author. With few exceptions, they have been classified as Old Roman Cursive.\nThe writing from Vindolanda appears as if it were written in a different alphabet to the Latin capitals used for inscriptions from other periods. The script is derived from the capital writing of the late first century BC and the first century AD. The text rarely shows the unusual or distorted letter-forms or the extravagant ligatures to be found in Greek papyri of the same period. Additional challenges for transcription are the use of abbreviations such as \"h\" for homines (men) or \"cos\"", "-20.060460341366706" ], [ "language or writing, and even through tactile media such as braille. Language is central to the communication between humans, and to the sense of identity that unites nations, cultures and ethnic groups. The invention of writing systems at least five thousand years ago allowed the preservation of language on material objects, and was a major technological advancement. The science of linguistics describes the structure and function of language and the relationship between languages. There are approximately six thousand different languages currently in use, including sign languages, and many thousands more that are extinct. Gender roles The sexual division of humans", "-20.05751569464337" ], [ "History of the Latin script The Latin script is the most widely used alphabetic writing system in the world. It is the standard script of the English language and is often referred to simply as \"the alphabet\" in English. It is a true alphabet which originated in the 7th century BC in Italy and has changed continually over the last 2500 years. It has roots in the Semitic alphabet and its offshoot alphabets, the Phoenician, Greek, and Etruscan. The phonetic values of some letters changed, some letters were lost and gained, and several writing styles (\"hands\") developed. Two such styles,", "-20.034275493584573" ], [ "a time when such mistakes were common in the handwritten signs and advertisements of greengrocers (e. g., Apple's 1/- a pound, Orange's 1/6d a pound). Some have argued that its use in mass communication by employees of well-known companies has led to the less literate assuming it to be standard and adopting the habit themselves.\nThe same use of apostrophe before noun plural -s forms is sometimes made by non-native speakers of English. For example, in Dutch, the apostrophe is inserted before the s when pluralising most words ending in a vowel or y for example, baby's (English babies) and radio's", "-20.034239350090502" ], [ "Uncial script Development Early uncial script is likely to have developed from late Old Roman cursive. Early forms are characterized by broad single stroke letters using simple round forms taking advantage of the new parchment and vellum surfaces, as opposed to the angular, multiple stroke letters, which are more suited for rougher surfaces, such as papyrus. In the oldest examples of uncial, such as the fragment of De bellis macedonicis in the British Library, of the late 1st-early 2nd century, all of the letters are disconnected from one another, and word separation is typically not used. Word separation, however,", "-20.03412303153891" ], [ "in lectures and debates, however, it was highly recommended that students use it in conversation. This practice was only kept up due to rules. One of Latin's purposes, writing, was still in practice; the main uses being charters for property transactions and to keep track of the pleadings given in court. Even then, those of the church still used Latin more than the rest of the population. At this time, Latin served little purpose to the regular population but was still used regularly in ecclesiastical culture.", "-20.03362208037288" ], [ "use of 'full-writing' to indicate long vowels, even at the beginning of words. In this system a long vowel is indicated by writing it twice. For example, īdi \"he goes\" is written i-i-ti rather than i-ti, and ānda \"in\" is written a-an-ta rather than an-ta. Hieroglyphic Luwian Hieroglyphic Luwian is the corpus of Luwian texts written in a native script, known as Anatolian hieroglyphs. Once thought to be a variety of the Hittite language, \"Hieroglyphic Hittite\" was formerly used to refer to the language of the same inscriptions, but this term is now obsolete. The dialect of Luwian hieroglyphic inscriptions", "-20.024133426777553" ], [ "also by the sign NĪĜ. Both of these are often used for the same syllable in the same text.\nCuneiform was in many ways unsuited to Akkadian: among its flaws was its inability to represent important phonemes in Semitic, including a glottal stop, pharyngeals, and emphatic consonants. In addition, cuneiform was a syllabary writing system—i.e., a consonant plus vowel comprised one writing unit—frequently inappropriate for a Semitic language made up of triconsonantal roots (i.e., three consonants plus any vowels). Decipherment The Akkadian language began to be rediscovered when Carsten Niebuhr in 1767 was able to make extensive copies of cuneiform texts", "-20.02268410450779" ], [ "be divided according to the style of calligraphy and the kind of pen used.\nThe styles of calligraphy that are used in copybooks include the regular script (楷書, 楷书）, the cursive script（草書, 草书）, the running script（行書, 行书）, the clerical script（隸書, 隶书）, and the seal script（篆書, 篆书）.\nMost calligraphy is for brushes, but there is also hard calligraphy, using ballpoint pens, pencils, or fountain pens. Modern role Today children in China who enter school would have a copybook for learning characters. Because they just learn writing for a short time, it is hard for children to write characters in their own style. Copybooks", "-20.002982504316606" ], [ "and /i/. Modern examples of defective script Languages with a long literary history have a tendency to freeze spelling at an early stage, leaving subsequent pronunciation shifts unrecorded. Such is the case with English, French, Greek, Hebrew, and Thai, among others. By contrast, some writing systems have been periodically respelled in accordance with changed pronunciation, such as Dutch, Portuguese, Spanish, Irish Gaelic, and Japanese hiragana. \nA broadly defective script is the Arabic abjad. The modern script does not normally write short vowels or geminate (double) consonants, and for the first few centuries of the Islamic", "-20.00098763918504" ], [ "Apocrypha Apocrypha are works, usually written, of unknown authorship or of doubtful origin. Biblical apocrypha are a set of texts included in the Latin Vulgate and Septuagint but not in the Hebrew Bible. While Catholic tradition considers some of these texts to be deuterocanonical, Protestants consider them apocryphal. Thus, Protestant bibles do not include the books within the Old Testament but have sometimes included them in a separate section, usually called the Apocrypha. Other non-canonical apocryphal texts are generally called pseudepigrapha, a term that means \"false attribution\".\nThe word's origin is the Medieval Latin adjective apocryphus, \"secret, or non-canonical\", from the", "-19.988043945282698" ], [ "an earlier era, writers using a typewriter commonly left two spaces after a period, a question mark, or an exclamation point. Publications in the United States today usually have the same spacing after concluding punctuation marks as between words on the same line. Since word processors make available the same fonts used by typesetters for printed works, many writers, influenced by the look of typeset publications, now leave only one space after a concluding punctuation mark. In addition, some publishers' guidelines for preparing a manuscript's electronic files ask professional authors to type only the spaces that are to appear in", "-19.98728897451656" ], [ "Indian calligraphy Early calligraphy (2nd century BCE-6th century CE) Beginning in the 2nd century AD, Indic language was transferred using birch bark as a writing surface. Locally, the birch bark was called Bhojpatra in India - patra meaning leaf/bark/sheet in Sanskrit. Palm leaves were used as a substitute to paper, even after paper was available for Indic manuscripts. The leaves were commonly used because they were a good surface for pen writing, which created the delicate and decorative handwriting that is known as calligraphy today. Both sides of these leaves were used and they were stacked on top of each", "-19.97898546961369" ], [ "spectacularly deciphered shortly before. However, scholars could not find any link between the two writing systems, nor to hieratic or cuneiform. The theories of independent creation ranged from the idea of a single individual conceiving it, to the Hyksos people forming it from corrupt Egyptian. It was eventually discovered that the proto-Sinaitic alphabet was inspired by the model of hieroglyphs.\nThe Phoenician alphabet was known by the Sages of Israel, but called by them under a different name: the \"Old Hebrew\" (paleo-Hebrew) script. Although inconclusive, this designation may have been the result of their thinking that the early invention of this", "-19.973003850493114" ], [ "around 2000 BC in the Xia dynasty (夏朝), historians debate whether these writing systems were developed completely independently or whether either or both were inspired by Sumerian writing via a process of cultural diffusion. That is, it is possible that the concept of representing language by using writing, though not necessarily the specifics of how such a system worked, was passed on by traders or merchants traveling between the two regions. \nEgyptian script is dissimilar from Mesopotamian cuneiform, but similarities in concepts and in earliest attestation suggest that the idea of writing may have come to Egypt from Mesopotamia.\nAncient Chinese", "-19.9673626141157" ], [ "rule-sets for literary/mathematical/computerized encoding-areas were sometimes conflicting—and of course differing approaches to encoding mathematics were not compatible with each other), so the reader would need to be notified as the text in a book moved from computer braille code for programming to Nemeth Code for mathematics to standard literary braille. Moreover, the braille rule-set used for math and computer science topics, and even to an extent braille for literary purposes, differed among various English-speaking countries. History of specification and adoption of UEB Work on UEB formally began in 1991, and preliminary draft standard was published in March 1995 (as", "-19.946868187789732" ], [ "Exophony Exophony is the practice of (normally creative) writing in a language that is not one's mother tongue. While the phenomenon has been known for ages, the term is relatively new: it was introduced within the field of literary and cultural studies by Susan Arndt, Dirk Naguschewski and Robert Stockhammer in 2007.\nSome exophonic authors may be bilingual or multilingual from their childhood years, even polyglots, while others may write in an acquired language. In some cases the second language is acquired early in life, for example through immigration, and it is not always clear whether the writer should", "-19.92473141546361" ], [ "younger users to create their own inventive, quirky and very private written language. That has given them the opportunity to essentially hide in plain sight. They are more connected than ever, but also far more independent. Text messaging, in particular, has perhaps become this generation's version of pig Latin.\"\nWhile in the case with language skills such as shorthand, a system of stenography popular during the twentieth century, technological innovations occurring between generations have made these skills obsolete. Older generations used shorthand to be able to take notes and write faster using abbreviated symbols, rather than having to write each word.", "-19.923067583265947" ], [ "who can read regular script can read semi-cursive. It is highly useful and also artistic. Cursive script (East Asia) Cursive script, also known as (simplified Chinese: 草书; traditional Chinese: 草書; pinyin: cǎoshū), originated in China during the Han dynasty through the Jin period (link needed). The cursive script is faster to write than other styles, but difficult to read for those unfamiliar with it. The “grass” in Chinese was also used in the sense of “coarse, rough; simple and crude.” It would appear that cǎo in the term caoshu “grass script” was used in this same sense. The term cǎoshū", "-19.921213068562793" ], [ "has been promoted in English-speaking countries as an easier-to-learn alternative to traditional styles of cursive handwriting.\nIn the UK this revival was due in part to the 19th century artist William Morris, in the 20th century it was Edward Johnston's book Writing & Illumination & Lettering (1906) and Alfred Fairbank's book A Handwriting Manual (1932) and the Dryad Writing Cards (1935). These Dryad cards were used for teaching young school children to write an italic hand.\nA modern version called Getty-Dubay was introduced in 1976.", "-19.910973052232293" ], [ "solely for the elite but was common for average citizens.\nAccording to the Oxford Handbook of Cuneiform Culture, cuneiform script was used at a variety of literacy levels: average citizens needed only a basic, functional knowledge of cuneiform script to write personal letters and business documents. More highly literate citizens put the script to more technical use, listing medicines and diagnoses and writing mathematical equations. Scholars held the highest literacy level of cuneiform and mostly focused on writing as a complex skill and an art form.", "-19.888227795576313" ], [ "controversial\", basic research questions are still being discussed, such as: \"do small, hand-made signs count as much as large, commercially made signs?\". The original technical scope of \"linguistic landscape\" involved plural languages, and almost all writers use it in that sense, but Papen has applied the term to the way public writing is used in a monolingual way in a German city and Heyd has applied the term to the ways that English is written, and people's reactions to these ways.\nThe languages used in public signs indicate what languages are locally relevant, or give evidence of what languages are becoming", "-19.86698906251695" ], [ "Cynic epistles The Cynic epistles are a collection of letters expounding the principles and practices of Cynic philosophy mostly written in the time of the Roman empire but purporting to have been written by much earlier philosophers. Letters and dating The two main groups of letters are a set of 51 letters attributed to Diogenes of Sinope, and a set of 36 letters attributed to Crates of Thebes. None of the letters are genuine. Most of the letters of Diogenes were probably written in the 1st century BCE, whereas the letters of Crates, some of which seem to be based", "-19.86663090158254" ], [ "bafen clerical script remained in use on some stelae, alongside some semi-cursive, but primarily neo-clerical. Modern cursive Meanwhile, modern cursive script slowly emerged from the clerical cursive (zhāngcǎo) script during the Cao Wei to Jin period, under the influence of both semi-cursive and the newly emerged regular script. Cursive was formalized in the hands of a few master calligraphers, the most famous and influential of whom was Wang Xizhi. Dominance and maturation of regular script It was not until the Northern and Southern dynasties that regular script rose to dominant status. During that period, regular script continued evolving stylistically, reaching", "-19.861510708375135" ], [ "text, as determined by a formula from Markov chain theory. Criticism The precise order of consonantal letters represented in the Hebrew Masoretic Text was only finalized in its current form in the first century, largely through the energies of Rabbi Akiva. However, it is known from earlier versions, such as the Dead Sea Scrolls, that the number of letters was not constant before this. The Bible code theory thus does not seem to account for these variations.\nThe primary objection advanced against Bible codes is that information theory does not prohibit \"noise\" from appearing to be sometimes meaningful. Thus, if data", "-19.85883514739544" ], [ "Daoism–Taoism romanization issue Phonology In order to explain why English Taoism might be pronounced (/ˈdaʊ.ɪzəm/), it is necessary to introduce some technical terminology from linguistics. A phoneme is the smallest unit of speech sounds that a particular language distinguishes, and unrelated languages can have disparate phonemic inventories. For instance, Standard English, depending on dialect, has about 24 consonant phonemes and Standard Chinese has 19. To illustrate how phonemic gaps can affect borrowed words, English has /l/ and /r/ consonants and Chinese has /l/ but not /r/, thus, Chinese uses /l-/ to transcribe both /l-/ and /r-/ English loanwords; for example,", "-19.85175697937666" ], [ "Latin was often replaced by a subordinate clause introduced by quod or quia. This is almost identical, for example, to the use of que in similar constructions in French.\nIn every age from the late 8th century onwards, there were learned writers (especially within the Church) who were familiar enough with classical syntax to be aware that these forms and usages were \"wrong\" and resisted their use. Thus the Latin of a theologian like St Thomas Aquinas or of an erudite clerical historian such as William of Tyre tends to avoid most of the characteristics described above, showing its period in", "-19.849831419691327" ], [ "Defective script A defective script is a writing system that does not represent all the phonemic distinctions of a language. This means that the concept is always relative to a given language. Taking the Latin alphabet used in Italian orthography as an example, the Italian language has seven vowels, but the alphabet has only five vowel letters to represent them; in general, the difference between the phonemes close /e, o/ and open /ɛ, ɔ/ is simply ignored, though stress marks, if used, may distinguish them. Among the Italian consonants, both /s/ and /z/ are written ⟨s⟩, and both /t͡s/ and", "-19.842295516922604" ], [ "to be used for some important documents, such as the Visigothic Code, the basis of the legal code for Christians living in Muslim Cordova, but it was during the reign of Alfonso X that it became the official language. Henceforth all public documents were written in Castilian, likewise all translations of Arabic legal and government documents were made into Castilian instead of Latin.\nSome scholars think that the substitution of Castilian for Latin was due to the strength of the new language, whereas others consider that it was due to the influence of Hebrew-speaking intellectuals who were hostile towards Latin, the", "-19.839640511432663" ], [ "present day. During the seventeenth and eighteenth century, letters were used to self-educate. Letters were a way to practice critical reading, self-expressive writing, polemical writing and also exchange ideas with like-minded others. For some people, letters were seen as a written performance. For others, it was not only seen as a performance but also as a way of communication and a method of gaining feedback. Letters make up several of the books of the Bible. Archives of correspondence, whether for personal, diplomatic, or business reasons, serve as primary sources for historians. At certain times, the writing of letters was thought", "-19.839437512418954" ], [ "reign of Tumapaqrisiq Kallonna, it is generally thought that writing existed in the region some time prior to the sixteenth century. There is also universal agreement that the alphabet ultimately derives from an Indic source, although it remains an open question which Indic script had the greatest influence on the Makassar alphabet; the Javanese kawi script, the Batak and Rejang alphabets of Sumatra, and even the Gujarati script of western India have all been proposed.\nThe extent and the impact of writing are disputed. The historian Anthony Reid argues that literacy was pervasive even at a popular level, especially for women.", "-19.825137020554394" ], [ "also use modernized character structures, resulting in a form as transparent and legible as regular (or standard) script. The clerical script remains common as a typeface used for decorative purposes (for example, in displays), but other than in artistic calligraphy, adverts and signage, it is not commonly written. Semi-cursive script The semi-cursive script (also called \"running\" script, 行書) approximates normal handwriting in which strokes and, more rarely, characters are allowed to run into one another. In writing in the semi-cursive script, the brush leaves the paper less often than in the regular script. Characters appear less angular and rounder.\nIn general,", "-19.823104939365294" ], [ "its very formation, reinforces its own power of persuasion in the languages it generates and, in turn, is generated by. The Latin etymologies of author, (auctor: originator, promoter) and authority (autorititat: opinion, decision)\" indicate that, although the Bronze and Iron Age monarchal and priestly authors of official, self-aggrandizing narratives decreed writing to possess an historically absolute authority, this was not the belief system conveyed by the architects of written language.\nEytymology, Denson holds, provides evidence that writing was conceived as, if not arbitrary narratives, then certainly as no more than narratives relative to an author's life conditions. It was only after", "-19.80849077604944" ] ]

[ "Because Germany wasn't really itself again until 1992. After WWII the main other competitors in the world war basically called dibs on a quarter of Berlin each, then there was the Cold War and while that was going on Germany started growing again, eventually ripping down that irritating wall and becoming united again. That union is what made it considered truly Germany again, but prior to that the country was still rebuilding and being productive. Resulting in it being seen as a quick recovery, but I'm not sure it really was quick so much as distracted from.", "I dunno by what standard you are claiming Germany started WW1, and you could argue that WW2 was started by the harsh treatment of Germany after WW1. Maybe we learned a lesson", "It depends on what you define as “quickly.” In the years following WWII, the Allies actually attempted to prevent Germany’s ability to wage war in the future by destroying their industrial base. (See JCS 1067 and the Morgenthau Plan) This had a detrimental effect on the German economy and the European economy as a whole. Furthermore, both Germany’s and France’s economies lagged behind the US and UK for the decade or so after the war. Moving forward, one very simple answer is that the victors of WWII rebuilt Germany with the intention of it being a political and economic ally. In 1949, the Marshall Plan was extended to cover West Germany, which contributed economic support to Europe. By 1950, the Allies stopped destroying German industrial assets after realizing both Germany’s and Europe’s economies relied on the German industry. In 1955 it joined NATO. W. Germany was a founding member of the European Economic Community in 1957, which was later absorbed into the European Union. In 1973 it joined the United Nations. And most importantly, Germany became a sovereign nation in 1991 when West Germany reunited with East Germany. Again, this all depends on your definition of “quick.” It did take 46 years before Germany became a unified and sovereign nation, however in the grand scheme of the universe, I do suppose that it is quick.", "The differences between East and West Germany were staggering. The Soviets treated East German as a colony. After WWII the Soviets striped East Germany of its manufacturing machinery and brought it back to the USSR. They basically pillaged the place. The Americans on the other hand by far had the most state of the art factories in the world at the end of WWII. The US made up 50% of entire global gdp. The US was lightyears ahead of Europe in productivity in both manufacturing and agriculture during this time period. The US poured tons of resources into West Germany. The Marshall plan did not just include money it included modern machinery and agricultural equipment. The West German government was essentially created by the United States and modeled after the US system, just like Japan was. As a result West Germany with the aid of the US rebuilt at an incredible rate. As did Japan. There were other factors as well and the resilience of the German people cannot be minimized, but the Marshall plan and US political assistance was huge. Don't listen to people who downplay it.", "It helped that the German government was rebuilt from scratch, and the Germans took advantage of the latest developments in political science to create what is arguably the most sensible democratic government in the world. German representatives are elected by [mixed member proportional representation]( URL_0 ), a system that avoids the pitfalls of gerrymandering and third party marginalization so prominent in first-past-the-post systems like that of the United States. But there is also a concept called the election threshold, which prevents the splintering of the legislature into numerous tiny factions that is often associated with party list systems. Germany also has a separately elected Chancellor as head of government which gives additional stability to the government compared to countries headed by a Prime Minister who is de facto the head of the leading party of parliament.", "Aside an aside you mention that it's Merkel/Germany going to Moscow and not Cameron/UK, there's a rather simple reason for this beyond Germany's acceptance in international politics. It's simply that Russia's relationship with the UK is absolutely dire currently, even before the Ukraine crisis, we'd had a number of major falling outs including one of our bugs being found in a Moscow park, the Russians continually buzzing British airspace and the Kremlin murdering a defected KGB agent in London. Before Ukraine the United Kingdom probably had the worst diplomatic relations with the Kremlin out of all the major Western nations. Sending Cameron wouldn't be nearly as effective as Merkel, especially considering Germany is often more amenable and understanding to Russia than Britain/France/US.", "In short: denazification, rebuilding, and the desire to create a common front against the USSR and communism in general. The \"global community\" (i.e. America and the Western powers) decided it was more important to welcome Germany into the anti-communist team than to punish it, especially since discontent after WWI helped fuel the rise of the Nazis.", "I'll give the explanation for after WWI. It happened relatively quickly but Weimar Germany had problems paying reparations. France and Belgium invaded because of this. Germany printed more money to pay reparations (thus hyperinflation began). Germany asked the US for help - Dawes plan started. Germany back on its feet for at least a few years. Depression in the US happened in 1929. Bad things happened and Germany had to repay the US for all she borrowed. Germany back in bad places. Hitler takes advantage of this. Nazi Germany. WWII. *I feel like I went off topic slightly.*", "Germany is a resource filled area, lots of people, and hard working nature. The Germans have been prided as industrialist and manufacturers for centuries. Not to mention after the war we put a shit ton on money into rebuilding them. Germany is just a good spot to build industry.", "germany right after WW2 was split ofc, and west germany had a bunch of skilled workers even after the top researchers and engineers got stolen away. marshall plan helped a bit, but wasnt the sole factor. URL_0 tldr; germans r smart and hardworking people who dont need no help" ]

[ [ "with high government subsidies to those sectors that tended to give Germany military power and economic autarky, that is, economic independence from the global economy. During the war itself the German economy was sustained by the exploitation of conquered territories and people. \"The economic recovery in the Third Reich, as measured by GDP, is well documented; real GDP grew by some 55% between 1933 and 1937.” \nPhysical capital in the occupied territories was destroyed by the war, insufficient reinvestment and maintenance, whereas the industrial capacity of Germany increased substantially until the end of the war despite heavy bombing. (However, much", "-33.41119218536187" ], [ "Reconstruction of Germany The reconstruction of Germany after World War II was a long process. Germany had suffered heavy losses during the war, both in lives and industrial power. 6.9 to 7.5 million Germans had been killed, roughly 8.26 to 8.86% of the population (see also World War II casualties). The country's cities were severely damaged from heavy bombing in the closing chapters of the war and agricultural production was only 35% of what it was before the war.\nAt the Potsdam Conference, the victorious Allies ceded roughly 25% of Germany's pre-Anschluss territory to Poland and the Soviet Union. The German", "-33.18684381562343" ], [ "in October, 1935, the Spanish Civil War in the summer of 1936, and Japan’s invasion of northern China in 1936. These events climaxed with the German invasion of Poland in September 1939, as Britain and France declared war on Germany two day later effectively ending the interwar period. Opportunities for Economic Growth Most European countries experienced a similar trend of brief economic growth followed by varying degrees of economic devastation during the twenty years of relative peace after 1918. Many countries sought to overhaul their industrial manufacturing facilities to help with economic reconstruction following World War 1. ", "-33.17402774479706" ], [ "deficient in natural resources, Germany's economy traditionally relied on importing raw materials to manufacture goods for re-export, and she developed a reputation for producing high quality merchandise. By 1900 Germany had the biggest economy in Europe and she entered the war in 1914 with plentiful reserves of gold and foreign currency and good credit ratings. But by the end of the war, though Great Britain also lost a quarter of its real wealth, Germany was ruined and she had since then experienced a number of severe financial problems; first hyperinflation caused by the requirement to pay reparations for the war,", "-33.12493186141364" ], [ "European interwar economy The European interwar economy (the period between the First and Second World War, also known as the interbellum) began when the countries in Western Europe were struggling to recover from the devastation caused by the First World War, while also dealing with economic depression and the rise of fascism. Economic prosperity in the United States during the first half of the period was brought to an end with the onset of the Great Depression in 1929. \nIn 1919 a new democracy was formed in a German town known as the Weimar Republic. This new", "-33.00491989281727" ], [ "casualties in combat missions since World War II.\nIn the worldwide economic recession that began in 2008, Germany did relatively well. However, the economic instability of Greece and several other EU nations in 2010–11 forced Germany to reluctantly sponsor a massive financial rescue.\nIn the wake of the 2011 natural disaster to the nuclear industry in Japan following its 9.0 magnitude earthquake and tsunami, German public opinion turned sharply against nuclear power in Germany, which produces a fourth of the electricity supply. In response Merkel has announced plans to close down the nuclear system over the next decade, and to rely even", "-32.83648303151131" ], [ "Economic liberalization in the post–World War II era Background Germany ended the European theatre of World War II with its unconditional surrender on the 8th of May, 1945. It faced war damage to its economy and the problems of mass migration due to the expulsion of ethnic Germans from areas east of the Oder–Neisse line.\nApril 1945 to July 1947 saw the Allied occupation of Germany implement Joint Chiefs of Staff directive 1067 (JCS 1067). The aim of this directive was to transfer Germany's economy from one centred on heavy industry to a pastoral one, in order to prevent Germany", "-32.75271067535505" ], [ "the rise of Hitler's power on the continent in 1933, and weakened economically by the Great Depression, Great Britain sought initially to avoid or delay war through diplomacy (Appeasement), while at the same time re-arming (Neville Chamberlain's European Policy). Emphasis for re-armament was given to air forces with the view that these would be most useful in any future war with Germany.\nBy 1939, Allied efforts to avert war had failed, and Germany had signed alliances with both Italy (Pact of Steel) and the USSR (Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact). In August 1939, in a final effort to contain Germany, Britain and France", "-32.71004657630692" ], [ "means for Germany's economic recovery after the Thirty Years War.", "-32.43722648592666" ], [ "History of the European Coal and Steel Community (1945–1957) Beginnings of cooperation The Second World War from 1939 to 1945 saw an unprecedented human and economic cost, in which Europe was affected particularly severely through the totality of modern warfare and large scale massacres such as the Holocaust. Once again, there was a widespread desire amongst European governments to ensure it could never happen again, particularly with the war giving the world nuclear weapons and two ideologically opposed superpowers. (See: Cold War)\nIn 1946, war-time British Prime Minister Winston Churchill spoke at the University of Zurich on \"The tragedy of Europe\";", "-32.42106377056916" ], [ "other industries, German firms avoided cut-throat competition and instead relied on trade associations. Germany was a world leader because of its prevailing \"corporatist mentality\", its strong bureaucratic tradition, and the encouragement of the government. These associations regulated competition and allowed small firms to function in the shadow of much larger companies. World War I Unexpectedly Germany plunged into World War I (1914–1918). It rapidly mobilized its civilian economy for the war effort. The economy suffered under the British blockade, which cut off supplies. Weimar Republic British economist John Maynard Keynes denounced the 1919 Treaty of Versailles as ruinous to", "-32.357659986955696" ], [ "attempted to obtain European hegemony under the rule of Napoleon Bonaparte.\nIn 1871, Germany became united and established themselves as the leading industrial nation on the European mainland. Their desire to dominate the mainland helped them to become a core nation. After the First World War, Europe was decimated, and the position for new core nations was opening up. This culminated with the defeat of Nazi Germany in the Second World War, when Britain was forced to sacrifice its hegemony, allowing the United States and the Soviet Union to become world superpowers and major cores. The USSR lost its core status", "-32.32035196991637" ], [ "of this capacity was useless after the war because it specialized in armament production.) \nWith the loss of the war, the country entered into the period known as Stunde Null (\"Zero Hour\"), when Germany lay in ruins and the society had to be rebuilt from scratch. Post-World War II The first several years after World War II were years of bitter penury for the Germans. Seven million forced laborers left for their own land, but about 14 million Germans came in from the East, living for years in dismal camps. It took nearly a decade for all", "-32.31595165445469" ], [ "complete or partial destruction of 1,710 cities and towns, 70,000 villages/hamlets, and 31,850 industrial establishments. The strength of the economic recovery following the war varied throughout the world, though in general, it was quite robust, particularly in the United States.\nIn Europe, West Germany, after having continued to decline economically during the first years of the Allied occupation, later experienced a remarkable recovery, and had by the end of the 1950s doubled production from its pre-war levels. Italy came out of the war in poor economic condition, but by the 1950s, the Italian economy was marked by stability and high growth.", "-32.246096709917765" ], [ "reduced their productivity compared to pre-war levels. This was, in part, intentional sabotage on the part of the miners, who wished to harm the German war effort. But it was also in part due to lack of adequate nutrition for those miners, as food from their countries was redirected to Germany.\nIn 1942, after the death of Armaments Minister Fritz Todt, Hitler appointed Albert Speer as his replacement. Historians have long contended that the growing burdens of the war saw Germany move to a full war economy under the efficient leadership of Speer. However historian Richard Overy contends this is a", "-32.12501597823575" ], [ "1890, German foreign policy became erratic and increasingly isolated, with only Austria-Hungary as a serious ally and partner.\nDuring the July Crisis, Germany played a major role in starting World War I in 1914. The Allies defeated Germany in 1918. The Versailles Peace Treaty was punishing for Germany. \nBy the mid-1920s, Germany had largely recovered its role as a great power thanks to astute diplomacy on its own part, the willingness of the British and Americans compromise, and financial aid from New York. Internal German politics became frenzied after 1929 and the impact of the Great Depression, leading to a", "-31.987423505750485" ], [ "This war is being carried on to keep the path to the East open; so that Germany may be a world power; to found the Germanic World Empire (Germanisches Weltreich). Establishment of a Greater Germanic Reich One of the most elaborate Nazi projects initiated in the newly conquered territories during this period of the war was the planned establishment of a \"Greater Germanic Reich of the German Nation\" (Grossgermanisches Reich Deutscher Nation). This future empire was to consist of, in addition to Greater Germany, virtually all of historically Germanic Europe (except Great Britain), whose inhabitants the Nazis believed to be", "-31.89898857451044" ], [ "circumstances: The Great War and its aftermath led to a global nosedive in commodities that ruined many developing nations, while servicemen returning from the trenches found themselves with high unemployment as businesses failed, unable to transition into a peacetime economy. Also, the Spanish flu pandemic of 1918-20 brought economic activity to a standstill as even more people became incapacitated. Most developed countries had mostly recovered by 1921-22, however Germany saw its economy crippled until 1923-24 because of the hyperinflation crisis.\nThe 1973 oil crisis, coupled with the rising costs of maintenance of welfare state in most countries led to a recession", "-31.776889402477536" ], [ "Economy of Europe Pre–1945: Industrial growth Prior to World War II, Europe's major financial and industrial states were the United Kingdom, France and Germany. The Industrial Revolution, which began in Britain, had spread rapidly across Europe, and before long the entire continent was at a high level of industry. World War I had briefly led to the industries of some European states stalling, but in the run-up to World War II Europe had recovered well, and was competing with the ever-increasing economic might of the United States of America.\nHowever, World War II caused the destruction of most of Europe's industrial", "-31.726316350424895" ], [ "War, a conflict that had caused massive destruction and left the continent split in two by the Iron Curtain, there were calls for increased co-operation in Europe. The French foreign minister, Robert Schuman, put forward a plan, originating from Jean Monnet, for a European Coal and Steel Community that would unify control of German and French coal and steel production, and talks were started with this aim.\nGermany had still not regained its sovereignty following defeat in World War II, and was represented internationally by the Allied High Commission. There was no German foreign office and, for a time, foreign affairs", "-31.719989639823325" ], [ "and the United Kingdom, in relation to the smaller Nordic states. The United Kingdom was the leading economic power at the time, and Germany was rapidly gaining strength under Hitler and the Nazi Party. It also shows how different economic factors and policies lessened the effects of the great depression on the Nordic States. Germany The sanctions and reparations following Germany's loss in World War 1 completely destroyed the country's economy. Other nations felt the effects of the deteriorating German economy as they relied on Germany's industrial capabilities. By 1932, close to six million people were", "-31.71677398871907" ], [ "agreement and the Level-of-Industry-Plan made it impossible for Germany to function again as a converter nation and as the second greatest exporter in the world of producer goods, which helped half the world increase its level of production. The German Vicious Cycle Brown sketched the process of the German economic disease as follows: The Iron Curtain separated 20 million non-farm people from the Eastern breadbasket. These 20 million got only half of what it takes to keep a worker in health and vigor. The farmers produced 30 percent less than before the war, because of lack of fertilizers, seeds, equipment", "-31.492713690851815" ], [ "the economic reconstruction of the war torn continent, a reconstruction which subsequently cost the US billions of dollars.\" Current In the early 2000s, the unemployment in Germany was moderately high, while industrial output was steadily increasing. Germany's unemployment rate of roughly seven percent (OECD, 2008) is by and large due to the continuing struggles with the reunification process between East and West Germany that began in 1990. However, the unemployment rate has been declining since 2005, when it reached its peak of over ten percent. In the 2010s, Germany's unemployment rate has been one of the lowest in continental Europe.\nBetween", "-31.461526365485042" ], [ "those Allies and Britain as well. United Kingdom The economy (in terms of GDP) grew about 7% from 1914 to 1918 despite the absence of so many men in the services; by contrast the German economy shrank 27%. The War saw a decline of civilian consumption, with a major reallocation to munitions. The government share of GDP soared from 8% in 1913 to 38% in 1918 (compared to 50% in 1943).\nDespite fears in 1916 that munitions production was lagging, the output was more than adequate. The annual output of artillery grew from 91 guns in 1914 to 8039 in 1918.", "-31.455329063464887" ], [ "European theatre of World War II Preceding events Germany was defeated in World War I, and the Treaty of Versailles placed punitive conditions on the country, including significant financial reparations, the loss of territory (some only temporarily), war guilt, military weakening and limitation, and economic weakening. Germany was humiliated in front of the world and had to pay very large war reparations. Many Germans blamed their country's post-war economic collapse and hyperinflation on the treaty's conditions. These resentments contributed to the political instability which made it possible for Adolf Hitler and his National Socialist Party to come to power, with", "-31.404933591373265" ], [ "the brink to bankruptcy and Germany was already bankrupt. But Germany was a key-part of Western Europe and Europe could not be reconstructed without reconstruction of Germany. European countries primarily trade with one another. The countries of Europe were so closely interrelated and economically interwoven, that whatever affected one inevitably affected the others. So the underproduction in the coalfields transmitted the scarcities of Britain to the rest of Europe. Only an economic entity, through which trade flows freely, regardless of boundaries, would be a prosperous Europe. The German Economic Destitution in 1947 The fundamental fact was that Germany was cut", "-31.40274778334424" ], [ "dismantled. Germany was to be reduced to the standard of life it had known at the height of the Great Depression (1932). Car production was set to 10% of prewar levels, etc.\nOn February 2, 1946, a dispatch from Berlin reported:\nSome progress has been made in converting Germany to an agricultural and light industry economy, said Brigadier General William Henry Draper Jr., chief of the American Economics Division, who emphasized that there was general agreement on that plan.\nHe explained that Germany’s future industrial and economic pattern was being drawn for a population of 66,500,000. On that basis, he said, the nation", "-31.375470433034934" ], [ "expansion of the German Empire in the years before 1914. 20th century A new period of economic stagnation began with the territorial changes in central Europe after Germany's defeat in World War I. In the interwar period, Schwiebus found itself in the eastern outskirts of Germany, twenty kilometers west of the newly imposed German-Polish border. During the 1920s, Weimar Germany experienced two major economic crises, the hyperinflation of the early 1920s and the Great Depression beginning in 1929. The citizens of Schwiebus suffered severe economic hardship during this time. As was the case elsewhere in Germany, many of the town's", "-31.37145761755528" ], [ "the country was producing half the world's electrical equipment.\nThe rapid advance to industrial maturity led to a drastic shift in Germany's economic situation – from a rural economy into a major exporter of finished goods. The ratio of finished product to total exports jumped from 38% in 1872 to 63% in 1912. By 1913 Germany had come to dominate all the European markets. By 1914 Germany had become one of the biggest exporters in the world. Weimar Republic and Third Reich The Nazis rose to power while unemployment was very high, but achieved full employment later thanks to massive public", "-31.293604583712295" ], [ "Foreign relations of Nazi Germany History Following the Treaty of Versailles, Germany succumbed to a considerably weakened position in pan-European politics, losing its colonial possessions and its military assets, and committed to reparations to the Allied Powers. Upon Adolf Hitler's rise to power in 1933, Germany began a program of industrialization and rearmament. It re-occupied the Rhineland and sought to dominate neighboring countries with significant German populations. Relations with the Allied powers Nazi Germany financed and supported political organizations that opposed the hostile policies of the United States, France and Great Britain. Relations with neutral countries Despite its pan-Germanic expansionism,", "-31.270047163008712" ], [ "rebuild and modernize Western Europe. The European Coal and Steel Community formed the foundation of what was to become the European Union in later years. Institutional arrangements Institutional economists point to the international institutions established in the post-war period. Structurally, the victorious Allies established the United Nations and the Bretton Woods monetary system, international institutions designed to promote stability. This was achieved through a number of policies, including promoting free trade, instituting the Marshall Plan, and the use of Keynesian economics. Specific countries The economies of the United States, Japan, West Germany, France, and Italy did particularly well. Japan and", "-31.203117478988133" ], [ "unemployed. With most of the produce and profit being sent to the allies in the form of war payments, the German economy was helpless in terms of starting a recovery.\nOn top of the economic struggles, Germany had no sense of security due to the demilitarization of its armed forces. The situation in Germany was so unstable that Hitler and the Nazi party started to gain the support of the people. Through exploitation, such as forced slave labor of non-Germans, the Nazi Regime brought about a rapid economic recovery in the 1930s. Their recovery was on par", "-31.15070657292381" ], [ "chief aim would be to rebuild German military power to launch a new world war to win the \"world power status\" that the Reich had sought, but failed to win in the last war. All through the 1920s and the early 1930s, the Reichswehr had been developing plans for a war to destroy France and its ally Poland, which necessarily presumed remilitarization of the Rhineland. Steps were taken by the German government to prepare for the remilitarization, such as keeping former barracks in a good state of repair, hiding military materials in secret depots, and building customs and fire watch", "-31.13827587259584" ], [ "actions created jobs for many Germans who had been struggling from the economic collapse following World War I. However, it is worth noting that while unemployment rates plummeted, “by 1939, government debt stood at over 40 billion Reichsmarks (equivalent to 151 billion 2009 euros).\" After World War II, Germany was discovered to have exploited the economies of the countries it invaded. The most important among these, according to historians Boldorf and Scherner, was France and “her highly developed economy… [being] one of the biggest in Europe.” This is further supported when they later reveal how the French economy provided for", "-30.979545173293445" ], [ "promote a vision of Germany that included both democratic and socialist ideals.\nAmong the visions that the paper put forward of life in Germany after the war, was the proposition that Europe should rebuild by seeking economic unity stating, \"The united economy will be a vital part of Europe's destiny.\"\nAfter the surrender of Germany in March 1945, many prisoners showed increased interest in participating in reeducation efforts. In part, this may have been because graduates of reeducation programs were moved to the front of the line to be repatriated to Germany. This may have contributed to Der Ruf's continuing growth in", "-30.975406672234385" ], [ "cross-border policies in relation to economic growth. Countries with inwards policies, such as Germany and Britain, would be stuck in the great depression for much longer as a result. The political and economic landscape in Germany following the great depression paved the way for the radicalization of its people. Germany’s Fascist Economy Upon bringing fascism to Germany in 1933, Adolf Hitler proclaimed, \"the State should retain supervision and each property owner should consider himself appointed by the state. It is his duty not to use his property against the interests of others among his own people. ", "-30.940898130997084" ], [ "the devastated transport-equipment of Germany. Plan for Reconstruction Germany is to be put back on her economic feet and production must be the first objective; long range problems should not further be placed ahead of production As long as the partition of Germany continues, Germany must export twice as much per capita from Western Germany as she did before the war in order to pay for the food necessary to feed her workers and give them energy to produce. Reparations should therefore end in August 1947. Denazification should be brought to an end. The right to return to work should", "-30.907384105201345" ], [ "II and maintained the status for 45 years. This left two rival ideologically opposed superpowers.\nTo ensure Germany could never threaten the peace again, its heavy industry was partly dismantled (See: Allied plans for German industry after World War II) and its main coal-producing regions were detached (Saarland, Silesia), or put under international control (Ruhr area). (See: Monnet Plan)\nWith statements such as Winston Churchill's 1946 call for a \"United States of Europe\" becoming louder, the Council of Europe was established in 1949 as the first pan-European organisation. In the year following, on 9 May 1950, the French Foreign Minister Robert Schuman", "-30.86877829034347" ], [ "destroyed during the war). However, by 1921, the British transition from a wartime to a peacetime economy faltered, and a serious recession struck the economy between 1921–1922. With other major economies also mired in recession, the export-dependent economy of Britain was particularly hard-hit. Unemployment reached 17%, with overall exports at only half of their pre-war levels.", "-30.855925052193925" ], [ "and prosperity required Germany's full integration into the world economic and political community as an equal partner. One result was that in the 1920s the French deeply distrusted the Americans, who were loaning money to Germany (which Germany used to pay its reparations to France and other Allies), while demanding that France repay its war loans from Washington. Interwar years (1919–38) During the interwar years, the two nations remained friendly. Beginning in the 1920s, U.S. intellectuals, painters, writers, and tourists were drawn to French art, literature, philosophy, theatre, cinema, fashion, wines, and cuisine.\nA number of American artists, such as", "-30.850590633810498" ], [ "somebody else. Alternate post-war history The fictional backstory describes how, having achieved victory in Europe, Germany reorganises Europe east of Poland into Reichskommissariats. Following the signing of the Treaty of Rome, Western Europe and Scandinavia are corralled into a pro-German trading bloc, the European Community. By 1964, the United States and the Greater German Reich are involved in a Cold War. The only exception is Switzerland, which retains its neutral status.\nThe German invasion of the Soviet Union has died down into an endless guerrilla war in the Ural Mountains and Siberia. Mounting casualties (at least 100,000 since 1960, according to", "-30.758289744495414" ], [ "takeover by Adolf Hitler and the Nazis in 1933. They introduced a highly aggressive foreign policy in alliance with Italy and Japan. The British and French tried to appease in 1938, which only whetted Hitler's appetite for more territory, especially in the East. Nazi Germany had by far the most decisive role in starting World War II in 1939.\nSince 1945, Germany has recovered from massive wartime destruction to become again the richest and most powerful country in Europe, this time it is fully integrated into European affairs. Its major conflict was West Germany versus East Germany, with East Germany", "-30.69931935000932" ], [ "the other powers, and it dominated the world economy. The UK and US pursued a policy of industrial disarmament in Western Germany in the years 1945–1948. Because of international trade interdependencies this led to European economic stagnation and delayed European recovery for several years.\nRecovery began with the mid-1948 currency reform in Western Germany, and was sped up by the liberalisation of European economic policy that the Marshall Plan (1948–1951) both directly and indirectly caused. The post-1948 West German recovery has been called the German economic miracle. Italy also experienced an economic boom and the French economy rebounded. By contrast, the", "-30.697832753125113" ], [ "region, dropped by Israeli Defense Forces in the last days of the war. Europe Despite massive demining efforts, Europe is still affected to some extent by UXO from mainly World War I and World War II, some countries more than others. However, newer and present military conflicts are also affecting some areas severely, in particular the countries of former Yugoslavia in western Balkans and Ukraine. Austria WWII's unexploded ordnance in Austria is blown up twice a year in the military training area near Allentsteig. Moreover, explosives are still being recovered from lakes, rivers and mountains dating back to the WWI", "-30.691936272822204" ], [ "at particular times be certain disturbances of the balance at the expense of other less vital tasks. If we do not succeed in bringing the German army as rapidly as possible to the rank of premier army in the world...then Germany will be lost!\" and \"The nation does not live for the economy, for economic leaders, or for economic or financial theories; on the contrary, it is finance and the economy, economic leaders and theories, which all owe unqualified service in this struggle for the self-assertion of our nation\".\nGermany had already been rapidly rearming and militarizing before 1936. However, it", "-30.65026707357174" ], [ "itself was allocated for the troops leading to a shortage. “German authorities were not able to solve the food scarcity [problem], but implemented a food rationing system and several price ceilings to prevent speculation and profiteering. Unfortunately, these measures did not have the desired success.\" World War II Heading into the Second World War, the Nazis introduced new policies that not only caused the unemployment rate to drop, it created a competent war machine in clear violation of the Treaty of Versailles. The Third Reich implemented a draft and built factories to supply its quickly expanding military. Both of these", "-30.591067552624736" ], [ "and the eastward enlargement of the EU. Ottes surprising conclusion is that, whilst Germany’s power has grown, the demands on the reunified country have grown even more strongly. Germany diplomacy continues to be typical of a middle power, aiming at reconciliation. Investieren statt Sparen (investing rather than saving) In his book Investieren statt Sparen Otte describes how private investors can achieve long-term wealth creation. It is in the interest of the investor to carry out his financial planning personally, and not have it performed by a third party. Investment is the most important component of long-term wealth creation, although personal", "-30.56074995853851" ], [ "Causes Ethnic demands for nation states upset the balance between the empires that dominated Europe, leading to World War I, which started in August 1914. Germany stood behind its ally Austria in a confrontation with Serbia, but Serbia was under the protection of Russia, which was allied to France. Germany was the leader of the Central Powers, which included Austria-Hungary, the Ottoman Empire, and later Bulgaria; arrayed against them were the Allies, consisting chiefly of Russia, France, Britain, and in 1915 Italy.\nIn explaining why neutral Britain went to war with Germany, author Paul M. Kennedy recognized it was critical for", "-30.498114396526944" ], [ "150 BRPs consists of KEAs (50 of them in Berlin), so Germany can no longer continue after losing all her major cities.\nMost countries now start Fall 1939 with less than a full year's supply of BRPs. A country's economic base may now grow in the 1940 Year Start Sequence, although the value of unbuilt ground and air units is deducted from surviving BRPs before the remainder may grow. Strategic Warfare losses no longer reduce a country's base, but deficit spending (which may not exceed the UCL or BRP base, and is not allowed for France, Italy or China) does. The", "-30.46790308324853" ], [ "in Cambodia.\nIn his 1987 book Der europäische Bürgerkrieg, 1917–1945, Nolte argued in the interwar period, Germany was Europe's best hope for progress. Nolte wrote that \"if Europe was to succeed in establishing itself as a world power on an equal footing [with the United States and the Soviet Union], then Germany had to be the core of the new 'United States'\". Nolte claimed if Germany had to continue to abide by Part V of the Treaty of Versailles, which had disarmed Germany, then Germany would have been destroyed by aggression from her neighbors sometime later in the 1930s, and with", "-30.46101049083518" ], [ "UK spent $21 billion and the US$17 billion; among the Central Powers Germany spent $20 billion. Aftermath In the aftermath of the war, four empires disappeared: the German, Austro-Hungarian, Ottoman, and Russian. Numerous nations regained their former independence, and new ones were created. Four dynasties, together with their ancillary aristocracies, fell as a result of the war: the Romanovs, the Hohenzollerns, the Habsburgs, and the Ottomans. Belgium and Serbia were badly damaged, as was France, with 1.4 million soldiers dead, not counting other casualties. Germany and Russia were similarly affected. Peace treaties and national boundaries After the war, the Paris Peace Conference imposed a", "-30.358822854585014" ], [ "Germany. The 1937 recession in the U.S. affected GDP growth in Latin American countries. World War II With the outbreak of World War II in 1939, Latin American trade with Germany ceased due to the insecurity of the sea lanes from German submarine activity and the British economic blockade. For Latin American countries not trading significantly with the U.S. the impacts were greater. For Latin America, the war had economic benefits as they became suppliers of products useful to the Allied war effort and they accumulated balances in hard currency as imports dwindled and the prices for war-related commodities increased.", "-30.350777696992736" ], [ "economies of Europe in 1937–39. By 1937, unemployment in Britain had fallen to 1.5 million. The mobilization of manpower following the outbreak of war in 1939 ended unemployment.\nWhen the United States entered the war in 1941, it finally eliminated the last effects from the Great Depression and brought the U.S. unemployment rate down below 10%. In the US, massive war spending doubled economic growth rates, either masking the effects of the Depression or essentially ending the Depression. Businessmen ignored the mounting national debt and heavy new taxes, redoubling their efforts for greater output to take advantage of generous government contracts.", "-30.337493683502544" ], [ "the end of full-time. This was a euphoric event for Germany, which had been spiritually and economically shattered by the war. Winning the Jules Rimet Trophy by beating the world's strongest team gave the country new pride and is seen as a herald of Germany's economic and political recovery.", "-30.27917111926945" ], [ "of Cold War confrontation and spread of free market systems made possible the establishment of a tight web of open sourced networks which overcome traditional geography and create new patterns of culture and trade. Kornblum suggested that increasing global integration would gradually reduce Germany's fear of being caught in the middle of big power confrontation and give it a new sense of confidence. He concluded, \"With its deepening sense of being at the center of a newly integrated world will come a growing sense of responsibility that will cause the ghosts of the past to gradually recede. Germany will not", "-30.245065486524254" ], [ "cycle. German industrial output dropped to 3.6% in September vis-à-vis August. In January 2009 the German government under Angela Merkel approved a €50 billion ($70 billion) economic stimulus plan to protect several sectors from a downturn and a subsequent rise in unemployment rates. Germany exited the recession in the second and third quarters of 2009, mostly due to rebounding manufacturing orders and exports - primarily from outside the Euro Zone - and relatively steady consumer demand.\nGermany is a founding member of the EU, the G8 and the G20, and was the world's largest exporter from 2003 to 2008. In 2011", "-30.237417692580493" ], [ "Nations, any European integration, and imposed punishing terms of reparation payments for the losing countries. After another economic collapse and the rise of fascism led to a Second World War, European civil society was determined to create a lasting union to guarantee world peace through economic, social and political integration.\nTo \"save succeeding generations from the scourge of war, which twice.. brought untold sorrow to mankind\", the United Nations Charter was passed in 1945, and the Bretton Woods Conference set up a new system of integrated world banking and finance, and proposed a new system of integrated world trade. Also, the", "-30.22931536071701" ], [ "had been; in fact the damage was negligible. Fall of France The signing of the armistice with France in the Compiègne Forest on 24 June 1940 greatly changed the conditions of the Economic War. Hitler assumed control over the whole of Western Europe and Scandinavia (except for Sweden and Switzerland) from the north tip of Norway high above the Arctic Circle to the Pyrenees on the border with Spain, and from the River Bug in Poland to the English Channel. Germany established new airfields and U-boat bases all the way down the West Norwegian and European coasts.\nFrom early July the", "-30.199489678809186" ], [ "the breaking down of old trade barriers and traditional practices, and the opening of the global market. West Germany gained legitimacy and respect, as it shed the horrible reputation Germany had gained under the Nazis. West Germany played a central role in the creation of European cooperation; it joined NATO in 1955 and was a founding member of the European Economic Community in 1958. Effects The post-war economic boom had many social, cultural, and political effects (not least of which was the demographic bulge termed the baby boom). Movements and phenomena associated with this period include the height of the", "-30.175857180845924" ], [ "a restored Germany as an important trading partner and worried about the effect of reparations on the British economy. In the end the United States financed German debt payments to Britain, France and the other Allies through the Dawes Plan, and Britain used this income to repay the loans it borrowed from the U.S. during the war.\nVivid memories of the horrors and deaths of the World War made Britain and its leaders strongly inclined to pacifism in the interwar era. 1920s Britain maintained close relationships with France and the United States, rejected isolationism, and sought world peace through naval arms", "-30.16100477814325" ], [ "Industrial production fell more than half and reached prewar levels only at the end of 1949.\nAllied economic policy originally was one of industrial disarmament plus building the agricultural sector. In the western sectors, most of the industrial plants had minimal bomb damage and the Allies dismantled 5% of the industrial plants for reparations.\nHowever, deindustrialization became impractical and the U.S. instead called for a strong industrial base in Germany so it could stimulate European economic recovery. The U.S. shipped food in 1945–47 and made a $600 million loan in 1947 to rebuild German industry. By May 1946 the removal of machinery", "-30.134932638611645" ], [ "to the post-World War II boom where the United States, Soviet Union, Western European and East Asian countries in particular experienced unusually high and sustained economic growth, together with full employment. Contrary to early predictions, this high growth also included many countries that had been devastated by the war such as Japan (Japanese post-war economic miracle), West Germany and Austria (Wirtschaftswunder), South Korea (Miracle of the Han River), France (Trente Glorieuses), Italy (Italian economic miracle) and Greece (Greek economic miracle).\nWith the 1970s energy crisis, the abandonment of both the gold standard and the Bretton Woods system along with Keynesian social", "-30.113667269208236" ], [ "despite having been adopted successfully in other countries' corporations since its peak. Others see the relative decline as an unavoidable consequence of integrating the much less advanced GDR economy and 17 million new citizens, which necessitated a transfer of over 1.3 trillion Euros from west to east as of 2009.\nMuch of the political discourse regarding reforms in recent years revolved around the question of how to modify the German model (and the political conditions forming its framework) to sustain it in a globalised economy. Ex-Chancellor Gerhard Schröder's reforms, called \"Agenda 2010\", made some steps towards such a goal, but", "-30.099297499051318" ], [ "Germany exerts within the European Union. For example, Simon Heffer wrote in the Daily Mail that Germany's economic power, further boosted by the European financial crisis, is the \"economic colonisation of Europe by stealth\", whereby Berlin is using economic pressure rather than armies to \"topple the leadership of a European nation\". This, he says, constitutes the \"rise of the Fourth Reich.\" Likewise, Simon Jenkins of The Guardian wrote that it is \"a massive irony that old Europe's last gasp should be to seek ... German supremacy\". According to Richard J. Evans of the New Statesman, this kind of language had", "-30.09839735913556" ], [ "heavy casualties, the impact on individual towns, villages, neighborhoods, and communities back in Britain could be immediate and devastating. As an example, The Sheffield City Battalion (12th York and Lancaster Regiment) had lost 495 dead and wounded in one day on the Somme and was brought back to strength by October only by drafts from diverse areas. \nWith the introduction of conscription in March 1916, further Pals battalions were not sought. Voluntary local recruitment outside the regular army structure, so characteristic of the atmosphere of 1914–15, was not repeated in World War II.", "-30.053898334066616" ], [ "1933 after the country's crippling defeat, and its socioeconomic distress during the years following World War I. World War II was aimed at reclaiming the glory of the once great Germanic state. Cultural property of many European nations and significant ethnic and social groups within them fell victim to Nazi Germany. The Nazi party, through the Third Reich, confiscated close to 20% of all Western European art during the war. By the end of the Second World War, the Nazi party had looted and collected thousands of objects, art works and artefacts from occupied nations, destroyed many, or stored them", "-30.047291348542785" ], [ "the German people for war and peace are tremendous. For the whole of Europe has been thoroughly ruined by Hitler's madness. In 1918 Norway, Denmark and Holland at least were intact. To-day every European country is to a great extent laid waste, robbed of its supplies and its gold and currency ruined. One can be seized with holy rage when one hears how frivolously even well-educated people talk of reconstruction after the war. It fills one with horror that cultured people are simply living from day to day at the expense of a universe which is collapsing and content themselves", "-30.029707685520407" ], [ "it was later seen by historians as influential in the rise of Adolf Hitler. After the defeat in the First World War, Germany lost around 13% of its European territory (areas predominantly inhabited by ethnic Polish, French and Danish populations, which were lost following the Greater Poland Uprising, the return of Alsace-Lorraine and the Schleswig plebiscites), and all of its colonial possessions in Africa and the South Sea. Weimar Republic and Nazi Germany Germany was declared a federal republic at the beginning of the German Revolution in November 1918, with 18 federated states in 1925.\nOn 11 August 1919 President Friedrich", "-30.022352634870913" ], [ "to the Empire. Germany owed billions in reparations, but Britain in turn owed the U.S. billions in loan repayments.\nIn 1919–1920 there was a short-lived boom in the British economy, caused by a rush of investment pent-up during the war years and another rush of orders for new shipping to replace the millions of tons lost. However, with the end of war orders, a serious depression hit the economy by 1921-22. Exports fell to half of their 1913 levels, and unemployment peaked at 17%. Factors explaining the economic depression are on one hand the return to prewar gold standard at parity", "-30.000646417494863" ], [ "to rebuild the bombed-out infrastructure after the Second World War, Marshall Plan (1948–51) enabled West Germany to rebuild and modernize its mills. It produced 3 million of steel in 1947, 12 million in 1950, 34 million in 1960 and 46 million in 1970. East Germany produced about a 10th as much. France The French iron industry lagged behind the United Kingdom and Belgium in the early 19th century, and after 1850 also lagged behind Germany and Luxembourg. Its industry comprised too many small, inefficient firms. 20th century growth was not robust, due more to traditional social and economic attitudes", "-29.995933347498067" ], [ "to wage war by complete or partial de-industrialization. The first industrial plan for Germany, signed in 1946, required the destruction of 1,500 manufacturing plants to lower German heavy industry output to roughly 50% of its 1938 level. Dismantling of West German industry ended in 1951. By 1950, equipment had been removed from 706 manufacturing plants, and steel production capacity had been reduced by 6.7 million tons. After lobbying by the Joint Chiefs of Staff and Generals Lucius D. Clay and George Marshall, the Truman administration accepted that economic recovery in Europe could not go forward without the reconstruction of the", "-29.976635276339948" ], [ "by the Allies on March 29, 1946, had stated that German heavy industry was to be lowered to 50% of its 1938 levels by the destruction of 1,500 listed manufacturing plants. Marshall Plan played a huge role in post-war recovery for Europe in general. 1948, conditions were improving, European workers exceeded by 20 percent from the earning from the west side. Thanks to the Plan, during 1952, it went up 35 percent of the industrial and agricultural.\nIn January 1946 the Allied Control Council set the foundation of the future German economy by putting a cap on German steel production. ", "-29.975109121529385" ], [ "standards of living could not exceed the average level of European neighbors with which it had been at war, France in particular. Germany was to be reduced to the standard of life it had known in 1932. The first \"level of industry\" plan, signed in 1946, stated that German heavy industry was to be lowered to 50% of its 1938 levels by the closing of 1,500 manufacturing plants.\nThe problems brought on by the execution of these types of policies were eventually apparent to most US officials in Germany. Germany had long been the industrial giant of Europe, and its poverty", "-29.966859584412305" ], [ "more on its Prussian history, which many Germans believe was betrayed—and not represented—by Nazism. The evolution is further precipitated by Germany's conspicuous position as Europe's strongest economy. Indeed, this German sphere of influence has been welcomed by the countries that border it, as demonstrated by Polish foreign minister Radek Sikorski's effusive praise for his country's western neighbor. This shift in thinking is boosted by a newer generation of Germans who see World War II as a distant memory.", "-29.95890190213686" ], [ "of the League.\nAt the start of the twentieth century two power blocs emerged through alliances between the European Great Powers. It was these alliances that came into effect at the start of the First World War in 1914, drawing all the major European powers into the war. This was the first major war in Europe between industrialized countries and the first time in Western Europe the results of industrialization (for example mass production) had been dedicated to war. The result of this industrial warfare was an unprecedented casualty level with eight and a half million members of armed services dead,", "-29.95522853944567" ], [ "On the one hand was the British view that massive reconstruction costs laid upon Germany would undermine European economic recovery and thereby the market for British exports of manufactured goods. The French, on the other hand, believed that if Germany were allowed to skirt the severe financial obligations detailed in the peace treaty, its economic rise would be massively accelerated and its political and military hegemony on the European continent rapidly restored.\nFrance, among the main battlegrounds of the European conflagration, was particularly hard-hit and in need of external funds for reconstruction; Germany, on the other hand, was seen as having", "-29.923268339494825" ], [ "between the two countries were abruptly terminated when Germany invaded the Soviet Union in June 1941, in violation of the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact. Traditional commerce, World War I and the Russian Revolution Germany lacks natural resources, including several key raw materials needed for economic and military operations. Since the late 19th century, it had relied heavily upon Russian imports for such materials. Before World War I, Germany had annually imported 1.5 billion Reichsmarks of raw materials and other goods from Russia. However, the economies of the two countries differed greatly before World War I. Germany had grown into the", "-29.886188835138455" ], [ "defence until 1937 when, as war clouds drew near, re-armament began to get underway in earnest. World War II During World War II the Government was again forced to borrow heavily in order to finance war with the Axis powers. By the end of the conflict Britain's debt exceeded 200 percent of GDP, as it had done after the end of the Napoleonic Wars. As during World War I, the US again provided the major source of funds, this time via low-interest loans and also through the Lend Lease Act. Even at the end of the war Britain needed American", "-29.823998639709316" ], [ "by the worldwide depression resulted in the rise of Nazism. In Asia, Japan became an ever more assertive power, especially with regards to China. The League and crises The interwar period was also marked by a radical change in the international order, away from the balance of power that had dominated pre–World War I Europe. One main institution that was meant to bring stability was the League of Nations, which was created after the First World War with the intention of maintaining world security and peace and encouraging economic growth between member countries.\n\nHowever the League failed to resolve any major", "-29.82044811762171" ], [ "War II to remaining parts of Germany, many of them moving on to North and South America (including Uruguay).", "-29.78968597849598" ], [ "the Germans – more than in the First World War, although proportionately less. Many of Brasenose's sporting heroes died; among survivors were future Archbishop of Canterbury Robert Runcie and cricketer Pieter van der Bijl.\nThe immediate post-war period once again reform on the agenda with, in particular, the passing of the Education Act 1944. The effect was dramatic: state support, through bursaries and central grants, was hugely increased; the proportion of state school entrants increased considerably; for the first time in over a hundred years, there was considerable competition over places. Stallybrass, made vice-chancellor of the university in 1947, was sceptical about", "-29.766064326977357" ], [ "possible. The beginning of rapid industrialization also gave rise to the period of “integration”, in the Foreign Direct Investment made by the German companies. One of the main justifications was the growing competition among local enterprises, especially in the newly emerging industries.\nDespite the several ups and downs of prosperity and depression that marked the first decades of the German Empire, the ultimate wealth of the empire proved immense. German aristocrats, landowners, bankers, and producers created what might be termed the first German economic miracle, the turn-of-the-century surge in German industry and commerce during which bankers, industrialists, mercantilists, the military, and", "-29.745382295222953" ], [ "loans and Marshall Aid, began to realise – correctly – that Europe needed the powerhouse German economy to restart growth and prevent the spread of communism, and refused to agree to reparations, the very thing which led to German resentment after World War I and the rise of Hitler.\nIn Germany herself, the people were left to start again from almost nothing, partitioned into zones which became east and west Germany for many years by the Allied powers, a time sometimes referred to as Hour Zero. Although they faced a massive task, with whole cities to be rebuilt and industries reorganised", "-29.74301838091924" ], [ "war. In time, this economic merger grew, adding members and broadening in scope, to become the European Economic Community, and later the European Union (EU).\nThe United States started to have more influence. After the war, higher education changed from a German model to more of an American-influenced model. American influences had been small in the interwar era, and during the war, the Nazis had emphasised the dangers of a \"degraded\" American culture as represented by jazz. However, the Dutch became more attracted to the United States during the post-war era, perhaps partly because of antipathy towards the Nazis but certainly", "-29.719118998618796" ], [ "could use, and, on the other hand, a large quantity of goods flowed into Germany from conquered lands in the West. For example, two-thirds of all French trains in 1941 were used to carry goods to Germany. Norway lost 20% of its national income in 1940 and 40% in 1943.\nFiscal policy was also directed towards exploitation of conquered countries, from which capital was to be gathered for German investments. German-run banks, such as Bank Emisyjny w Polsce, were created to manage local economies.\nThe destruction caused by the war, however, meant that the conquered territories were never as productive as Germany", "-29.699241677764803" ], [ "on a 1,500 calorie per day diet. Furthermore, the large shipments of food stolen from occupied nations during the war no longer reached Germany. Industrial production fell more than half and reached pre-war levels at the end of 1949.\nWhile Germany struggled to recover from the destruction of the War, the recovery effort began in June 1948, moving on from emergency relief. The currency reform in 1948 was headed by the military government and helped Germany to restore stability by encouraging production. The reform revalued old currency and deposits and introduced new currency. Taxes were also reduced and Germany prepared to", "-29.697181439143606" ], [ "benefit other countries far more than it would Germany, particularly the United States and Japan. In fact, Hitler's strategy during 1935-1937 for winning Britain over was based on a German guarantee of defence of the British Empire. After the war, Ribbentrop testified that in 1935 Hitler had promised to deliver twelve German divisions to the disposal of Britain for maintaining the integrity of her colonial possessions.\nThe continued military actions against Britain after the fall of France had the strategic goal of making Britain 'see the light' and conduct an armistice with the Axis powers, with July 1, 1940, being named", "-29.671680743731486" ], [ "Germany, a far greater level of assistance than contemplated for any other area that had been behind the Iron Curtain and a token of German determination to bring eastern Germany to western levels as quickly as possible. Deep recession and Boom As eastern Germany went into a deep recession during the first phase of unification, the western German economy went into a small boom. Western German GDP grew at a rate of 4.6 percent for 1990, reflecting the new demand from eastern Germany. The highest growth rate came during the second half of 1990, but growth continued at only a", "-29.665058296523057" ], [ "composition to before the First World War but, over the next few years, with a much different composition. Buildup to the Second World War Throughout the 1930s, tensions built between Germany and the United Kingdom as well as its allies. During late 1937 and throughout 1938, German demands for the annexation of Czechoslovakia's Sudetenland led to an international crisis. In an attempt to avoid war, British Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain met with German Chancellor Adolf Hitler in September and brokered the Munich Agreement. The agreement averted immediate war and allowed Germany to annex the Sudetenland. Chamberlain had intended the agreement", "-29.657533749821596" ], [ "nations maintaining an equality in armaments and security. The British later proposed and agreed to an increase in the Reichswehr to 200,000 men, and for Germany to have an air force half the size of the French. It was also negotiated for the French Army to be reduced.\nIn October 1933, following the rise of Adolf Hitler and the founding of Nazi regime, Germany withdrew from League of Nations and the World Disarmament Conference. In March 1935, Germany reintroduced conscription followed by an open rearmament programme, the official unveiling of the Luftwaffe (air force), and signed the Anglo-German Naval Agreement that", "-29.619693990040105" ], [ "remove economic barriers.\nDuring the first three years of occupation of Germany, the UK and US vigorously pursued a military disarmament program in Germany, partly by removal of equipment but mainly through an import embargo on raw materials, part of the Morgenthau Plan approved by President Franklin D. Roosevelt.\nNicholas Balabkins concludes that \"as long as German industrial capacity was kept idle the economic recovery of Europe was delayed.\" By July 1947 Washington realized that economic recovery in Europe could not go forward without the reconstruction of the German industrial base, deciding that an \"orderly, prosperous Europe requires the economic contributions of", "-29.597612115481752" ], [ "materials and production capacity required to entertain long-term goals (such as European control, German territorial expansion and the destruction of the USSR) were limited. Political demands necessitated the expansion of Germany's control of natural and human resources, industrial capacity and farmland beyond its borders (conquered territories). Germany's military production was tied to resources outside its area of control, a dynamic not found amongst the Allies.\nDuring the war, as Germany acquired new territories (either by direct annexation or by installing puppet governments in defeated countries), these new territories were forced to sell raw materials and agricultural products to German buyers at", "-29.593494331697002" ], [ "modern history The First World War was the turning point for the economy of Northern England. In the interwar years, the Northern economy began to be eclipsed by the South – in 1913–1914, unemployment in \"outer Britain\" (the North, plus Scotland and Wales) was 2.6% while the rate in Southern England was more than double that at 5.5%, but in 1937 during the Great Depression the outer British unemployment rate was 16.1% and the Southern rate was less than half that at 7.1%. The weakening economy and interwar unemployment caused several episodes of social unrest in the region, including the", "-29.58608115807874" ], [ "the city. The further the economic situation worsened, the more the Weimar Republic lost the support of the population. On 18 January, 1933, during a celebration in Freiburg of the founding of the Bismarck Empire, the German national parliamentarian Paul Schmitthenner conjured up the strengthening of the German military concept in the belief of an up and coming great German Empire which benefits the German forces and eradicates the weak, reconciles capital and work for an earthly kingdom in splendour and glory. The Second World War During the Bombing of Freiburg on 10 May 1940, the German Luftwaffe mistakenly bombed", "-29.575500904407818" ], [ "1945 \"The simple fact is that Germany should have never lost the war ...\". According to Adam Tooze this view was influenced by the post-war reports from Albert Speer and SS Wirtschaftsführer (economy leader) Hans Kehrl, which were not free from own interests. Tooze's alternative view is that Germany was extremely mobilising - already in 1939 there was a higher degree of mobilisation of women in Germany, for example, than Britain ever achieved during the whole war -, but the economy of Germany was simply not strong enough in comparison to the economies of the war opponents, especially with respect", "-29.568728176644072" ], [ "in the Second World War, but with the development of better navigation and aircraft it proved highly destructive. The massed attacks of Bomber Command and the US Eighth Air Force compelled Germany to devote considerable resources to air defence instead of pursuing its primary war aims. Postwar, it carried Britain's nuclear deterrent through a difficult period. Memorials Singer Robin Gibb led an effort to memorialize those who lost their lives during World War II and in April, 2011, it was announced that the £5.6 million needed to build the memorial had been raised. The foundation stone of the Bomber Command", "-29.56855849432759" ], [ "the Petersberg Agreement of November 1949 reduced the levels vastly, though dismantling of minor factories continued until 1951. The final limitations on German industrial levels were lifted after the establishment of the European Coal and Steel Community in 1951, though arms manufacture remained prohibited. French designs Under the Monnet Plan, France—intent on ensuring that Germany would never again have the strength to threaten it—began in 1945 to attempt to gain economic control of the remaining German industrial areas with large coal and mineral deposits; the Rhineland, the Ruhr and the Saar (Germany's second largest center of mining and industry, Upper", "-29.555801992857596" ], [ "murdered inside special centres known as Ausländerkinder-Pflegestätte. Wartime production The proportion of military spending in the German economy began growing rapidly after 1942, as the Nazi government was forced to dedicate more of the country's economic resources to fight a losing war. Civilian factories were converted to military use and placed under military administration. From mid 1943 on, Germany switched to a full war economy overseen by Albert Speer. By late 1944, almost the entire German economy was dedicated to military production. The result was a dramatic rise in military production, with an increase by 2 to 3 times of", "-29.554872591950698" ], [ "between the German and Italian forces in North Africa. Postwar Since 1951, Germany has been at the heart of European integration. The reunification in 1990, which saw East Germany merged into West Germany, promoted peaceful integration with its neighbors. Strong ties with the United States remain central to German foreign policy.\nWithin the framework of NATO and an integrated European Union Military Staff, the Federal Republic has resumed the deployment of military units to mediate in conflict regions worldwide.\nGermany is one of the world's strongest supporters for ecological awareness in response to climate change and global warming. German Question and German", "-29.53406304456803" ], [ "action in the event of a war with Germany. The meeting ended with the conclusion that there now were only two great powers in Eastern Europe, namely Germany and the Soviet Union, and the best that could be hoped for was to avoid another war that would almost certainly mean the loss of their nations' independence, regardless of who won. Weinberg wrote that attitude of the entire German elite and much of the German people, that any new war would only benefit Germany and that ending the Rhineland's demilitarized status could only be a good thing as it opened the", "-29.520639599475544" ] ]

[ "When you drink lots of cranberry juice... Actual juice, not the concentrate(and by this I meant to say the mixtures that are mostly water... So cran-apple juice), it doesn't allow bacteria to stick to your pee hole. This lowers risk of getting infection. It isn't exactly good for your kidneys, just to decrease risk of urinary tract infection. Source... Pharmacist and I tried to explain like you were 5. Edit: forgot to mention it does not cure a UTI.", "It isn't, particularly. Some people use to think that the acid in cranberries stopped bacteria growing but that's been shown to be wrong. There is some vague evidence that cranberry juice can help *prevent* UTIs, though. It's thought that cranberries might contain a chemical that stops bacteria sticking to the cells lining the walls of the urinary tract, but no-one knows for sure. Once you have a UTI, though, no juice will cure it. The real reason that cranberry juice, lemon barley water etc are good for your kidneys is that you need to flush them out. Drink at least 8 glasses of water a day (2-3 litres of fluid daily), THAT is what is good for your kidneys. My daughter gets a LOT of UTIs, even with prophylactic antibiotics, and several members of my family have died from kidney disease. All I ever hear from well-intentioned friends is \"have you tried cranberry and/or barley water?\". Sigh.", "Most are acknowledging that the cranberry works to prevent bacteria from being able to colonize but nobody is saying why it works. I was taught that cranberry is acidic and lowers the pH of urine. Lower pH makes it harder for bacteria to colonize bladder and urethra surfaces because they basically use a protein \"grappling hook\" to attach to cell surfaces in the first place. These proteins behave differently when pH changes are induced, so it can reduce incidence and rates of colonization and therefore urinary tract infections and possibly kidney infections.", "I haven't heard of cranberry juice being good for you kidneys. Most I see is it being good for UTIs. I'm a medical student and part of our Critical Evaluation module (teaching us how to read scientific papers properly) was debating whether or not cranberry juice helped to get rid of UTIs, so I'll try and relay some of that here. When you have a UTI, most of the bacteria (usually E.Coli) causing the infection make a biofilm inside your bladder or your urethra/ureter (your pee tubes) which helps them resist the flow and acidity of the urine. How cranberry juice was theorised to help was that they contain proanthocyanidins, which are large molecules which may interfere with the way the bacteria causing the infection form a biofilm. The research was ambiguous but from what we could tell, due to the difference types of bacteria infecting young women and elderly men (I can't remember which I'm afraid), some of the studies suggested that cranberry juice might be more effective in the elderly men category. However, since the vast majority of studies were looking solely at young women (who are at risk of E. Coli cystitis) there wasn't enough evidence to say either way and to be honest antibiotics/medical therapies are almost certainly more effective. EDIT: I was discussing this with some friends whilst I typed and someone mentioned that cranberry juice might prevent the formation of kidney stones.", "From what I remember ( I'm on my phone) there is an acid in the juice that is excreted into your nephrons (functional unit of your kidney) which then is collected, sent down collecting ducts, then sent into your bladder via the ureters. If you have a UTI (urinary tract infection) this acid can harm the bacteria (I think from concentration of an acid) so this acid help prevent and treat the UTI. I will go look this up and report back! **Edit** it does have to do with solutes entering the urinary tract! I mention an acid above as potential solute, but I don't remember where I heard this. The solutes hinder the attachment of certain bacteria and the formation of biofilms in the urinary tract. **Consult a doctor if you think you have a UTI.**" ]

[ [ "juice might help prevent symptomatic urinary tract infections (UTIs), but this finding was refuted in 2012 with a conclusion that \"14 further studies suggest that cranberry juice is less effective than previously indicated,\" and \"cranberry juice cannot currently be recommended for the prevention of UTIs.\" The European Food Safety Authority reviewed the evidence and concluded a cause and effect relationship has not been established between the consumption of cranberry products and reducing the risk of UTIs.\nOne systematic review in 2017 showed that cranberry products significantly reduced the incidence of UTIs, indicating that cranberry products may be effective particularly for individuals", "-34.92992719649919" ], [ "absorption and rapid excretion.\nCranberry juice contains a high molecular weight non-dializable material that is under research for its potential to affect formation of plaque by Streptococcus mutans pathogens that cause tooth decay. Cranberry juice components are also being studied for possible effects on kidney stone formation. Extract quality Problems may arise with the lack of validation for quantifying of A-type proanthocyanidins (PAC) extracted from cranberries. For instance, PAC extract quality and content can be performed using different methods including the European Pharmacopoeia method, liquid chromatography–mass spectrometry, or a modified 4-dimethylaminocinnamaldehyde colorimetric method. Variations in extract analysis can lead to difficulties", "-33.87052413728088" ], [ "Cranberry juice Nutrition and composition A cup of standard 100% cranberry juice, amounting to 248 grams or 8 ounces, contains vitamin C as an ingredient to preserve freshness, with other micronutrients that may be added during manufacturing. Cranberry juice is an acidic drink with a typical pH between 2.3 and 2.5.\nOne half cup of cranberry juice provides 60 calories, 20% of the Daily Value for vitamin C, and counts as one-half of a fruit serving toward the United State MyPlate daily nutrition guide. Cranberry juice and urinary tract infection In 2008, there was tentative evidence that long-term use of cranberry", "-32.74707211867644" ], [ "content. Adding zest to lemonade may help reduce the sugar content by making it taste sweeter (due to the flavanone compounds).\nDaily consumption of 120 ml (4 imp fl oz; 4 US fl oz) of lemon juice per day, when mixed with two litres of water, has been shown to reduce the rate of stone formation in people susceptible to kidney stones. Lemons contain the highest concentration of citric acid of any fruit, and this weak acid has been shown to inhibit stone formation.", "-32.707977135665715" ], [ "cranberry juice concentrate, water, sweeteners, and ascorbic acid. The cranberry juice or concentrate in the mixture must be produced from clean, sound, mature, well-colored, and washed, fresh or frozen cranberries (Vaccinium macrocarpon). One or more of the following sweetening ingredients may be added: sucrose, liquid sugar, invert sugar syrup, or high fructose corn syrup (40% or greater). The use of food additives (color, flavours, or acids) into cranberry juice depends on the percentage of cranberry juice or concentrate by volume. Cranberry juice mixtures with 25% or 27% contain none of the mentioned additives, except for ascorbic acid. Cranberry juice mixtures", "-32.23883270893566" ], [ "American Medical Association which identified cranberry juice as an effective means of controlling urinary tract infections in elderly women.\nAvorn is also past president of the International Society for Pharmacoepidemiology.\nIn 2004, he founded Alosa Health, a nonprofit organization that develops and implements academic detailing programs to improve prescribing.\nAvorn's paper on coxibs was one of the first medical research papers to demonstrate that Vioxx increased some patients' risk of heart attack and stroke. In 2006 he testified as a plaintiff’s expert witness in the Vioxx litigation, but he donates all profit from his involvement to Alosa Health.\nAvorn lives in Brookline, Massachusetts with", "-32.21873873856384" ], [ "consumers had to be declared on the nutrition facts panel of product labels, and the amount of sugar used would be reviewed by the FDA under its \"enforcement discretion\".\nIn October 2018, the National Institute for Health and Care Excellence's recommendation for self-care for lower UTIs in people aged 16 and over states that \"no evidence was found on cranberry products or urine alkalinising agents to treat lower UTI\". Dental health There is no high-quality evidence that cranberry juice affects gum health by preventing bacterial adhesion within oral epithelium tissue and preventing dental plaque accumulation. Cranberry juice is acidic, with a", "-31.97624085546704" ], [ "HHP treatment involves applying pressure (80,000 psi or 550 MPa) to cranberry juice for 1 to 9 minutes to eliminate any harmful bacteria, moulds and viruses. The resulting raw cranberry juice, without thermal processing, is classified as a novel food item by Health Canada. PEF treatment involves generating a high-intensity electric field inducing a flux of electrical current to flow through the food product to eliminate harmful microorganisms. PEF treated cranberry juice does not alter the flavour, colour, or aroma profile of the cranberries used, unlike the traditional thermally processed method. Additives Naturally, cranberries are low in sugar content and", "-31.95944763533771" ], [ "acid. Interaction with blood thinners Cranberry juice may interfere with coumarins used as blood thinners, such as warfarin, causing an unstable INR. The British National Formulary (BNF) and the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) both advise avoiding concomitant use. Market Commercially cultivated in the United States and Canada, cranberries are harvested in the autumn for manufacturing of juice and other products. A barrel of US cranberries weighing 100 pounds (45 kg) cost US$ 57.60 in 2017, but the price fell to $22.30 per barrel in 2019 due to international trade wars with the United States, causing the market to shift to", "-31.8865961782285" ], [ "Street also weighed in to point out that fiber is an important part of diet, and this is lost in the juicing process. She states that there is no current evidence for these more \"magical claims\" of celery juice, only anecdotal evidence. Australian dietician Stefanie Valakas, interviewed by a reporter with news.com.au, also states that there is no evidence for these health claims and that any fiber benefits of celery are lost in the juicing process. Both remark that one is likely to get the same nutritional benefit from drinking a glass of water and eating a balanced diet.\nAlthough most", "-31.7246072998023" ], [ "The discovery with Drs. David Bailey and Malcolm Arnold, that grapefruit juice markedly increases blood levels of a number of drugs that have low bioavailability because of gut wall first-pass metabolism by CYP3A4 made a major contribution to the understanding of pharmacokinetics, and has opened up a new field of pharmacology. ().\nUltrasound measurement of plaque: Beginning in 1990, Dr. Spence pioneered the use of carotid plaque measurement (as opposed to intima-media thickness) for research and for management of patients with carotid artery disease. (.). This has evolved to the use of 3-D plaque volume measurements for evaluation of", "-31.673589603673463" ], [ "cocktails, including the Cosmopolitan, that include cranberry juice. Urinary tract infections A comprehensive review in 2012 of available research concluded there is no evidence that cranberry juice or cranberry extract as tablets or capsules are effective in preventing urinary tract infections (UTIs). The European Food Safety Authority reviewed the evidence for one brand of cranberry extract and concluded a cause and effect relationship has not been established between the consumption of the product and reducing the risk of UTIs.\nOne systematic review in 2017 showed that cranberry products reduced the incidence of UTIs, indicating that cranberry products may be effective for", "-31.443613979616202" ], [ "system of medicine, the juice is still used for treating conditions like nausea, vomiting, and excessive thirst.\nThe juice of the citron has a high Vitamin C content and is used in the Indian system of medicine as an anthelmintic, appetizer, tonic, in cough, rheumatism, vomiting, flatulence, haemorrhoids, skin diseases and weak eyesight.\nThere is an increasing market for the citron for the soluble fiber (pectin) found in its thick albedo. In Judaism The citron is used by Jews (the word for it in Hebrew is etrog) for a religious ritual during the Jewish harvest holiday of Sukkot, the Feast of Tabernacles;", "-31.323623611358926" ], [ "have a tart or astringent taste. As a result, unsweetened cranberry juice is generally considered unpalatable by consumers. To make the juice more palatable to consumers, the tart flavor can be changed by blending with other fruit juices or the addition of sugar or sugar substitutes. Packaging All cranberry juice products are required to be packed in aseptic, hermetically seal containers (plastic bottles, cans, cartons) in accordance with good manufacturing practices of their country. The typical container size used are 11.5 or 64 fluid ounce, and each must be filled with the product by at least 90 percent. Cranberry juice", "-31.217500027050846" ], [ "with 22% contain no added color or flavors, but citric acid may be added. Cranberry juice mixtures with 20% may contain color, flavors, and citric acid. The finished cranberry juice from concentrate product should yield a minimum of one part cranberry juice concentrate to three parts water with a minimum Brix level of 12°. Additionally, each cranberry juice product should be fortified with Vitamin C (Ascorbic Acid), with each serving size delivering not less than 100% of the current US Referenced Daily Intake. The minimum titratable acidity of the cranberry juice product must be 1.67% wt/wt, measured as citric", "-31.055447539081797" ], [ "by opening and closing vents in the barn as needed. Cranberries destined for processing are usually frozen in bulk containers shortly after arriving at a receiving station. Products As fresh cranberries are hard, sour, and bitter, about 95% of cranberries are processed and used to make cranberry juice and sauce. They are also sold dried and sweetened. Cranberry juice is usually sweetened or blended with other fruit juices to reduce its natural tartness. At one teaspoon of sugar per ounce, cranberry juice cocktail is more highly sweetened than even soda drinks that have been linked to obesity.\nUsually cranberries as fruit", "-30.981428566738032" ], [ "medical professionals agree that the potential harm in adding celery juice to one's diet is likely minimal, there is the possibility of a negative reaction with certain medications. Celery contains Vitamin K, which can potentially affect medications, such as Warfarin, if intake suddenly increases. There is also a potential risk of bloating and diarrhea for those suffering from IBS.\nGinger Hultin, a dietitian and spokesperson Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics, commenting on the celery juice phenomena, warns it is dangerous to attempt to fight diseases, such as cancer with food alone, as many proponents of celery juice claim to do. Other", "-30.76760617774562" ], [ "helps in the long term to preserve nutrition, improve color, and create a more pleasant odor to the feed. Adding juice pulp provides cattle with a richer source of vitamins and minerals in addition to a more palatable taste. The green fodder used for cattle can be supplemented with this feed containing juice vesicles.\nThe other common use for juice vesicles is for enhancing beverages or creating inexpensive beverage bases. Jams and jellies, pulp in juice-based drinks, whole juices, and yogurt products contain extracted juice vesicle residue that was also dried. Some juices, juice concentrates, and drinks containing juice also contain", "-30.764163680491038" ], [ "with recurrent infections. When the quality of meta-analyses on the efficacy of cranberry products for preventing or treating UTIs was examined, large variation was evident, resulting from inconsistencies in clinical research methods.\nIn September 2017, Ocean Spray, a major cranberry juice manufacturer, submitted a health claim petition to the FDA. According to the FDA's February 2018 response letter, the company had \"requested that FDA authorize a health claim for the relationship between the consumption of cranberry juice products and a reduced risk of recurrent urinary tract infection in healthy women.\" The FDA stated that they would consider the petition for a", "-30.67901641735807" ], [ "used in curing is salt, which increases the osmolarity of the liquid to inhibit the growth of certain classes of microorganisms. This effect creates a difficult environment for those bacteria to survive in and allows the growth of salt-tolerant microbes. Salt also helps extend shelf life. The juice from the lemon is acidic and contains citric acid that helps lower the pH, which additionally restricts microbes that can cause spoilage and disease. For preservation of lemons, the use of antioxidants as a food additive is used to prevent lipid peroxidation and the fading of food color.\nAlthough lemons contain citric acid,", "-30.620334358420223" ], [ "but calorie-rich food and drinks.\nUntil 1985, most of the calories in soft drinks came from sugar or corn syrup. As of 2010, in the United States high-fructose corn syrup (HFCS) is used nearly exclusively as a sweetener because of its lower cost, while in Europe, sucrose dominates, because EU agricultural policies favor production of sugar beets in Europe proper and sugarcane in the former colonies over the production of corn. HFCS has been criticized as having a number of detrimental effects on human health, such as promoting diabetes, hyperactivity, hypertension, and a host of other problems. Although anecdotal evidence has", "-30.596181636399706" ], [ "with UK's Evening Standard William describes how to make celery juice. He claims it has \"healing powers\" and explains that it is difficult to make.\nYou have to extract it like an herb. It’s just like tea, you don’t take the teabags and throw them in the Nutribullet – there is big confusion about this... This is an herbal extraction. When you juice the celery, you're creating a tonic, it's just like green tea.\nWilliam explains that the juice must be pure, so not even a squeeze of lemon juice or a mixture of other vegetables is permitted. The juice should be", "-30.572072489972925" ], [ "be discovered\" because it is from the future. Currently none of his claims can be proven.\nWilliam claims that celery juice has medicinal uses. He suggests that it can \"improve energy levels\", reduce bloating, increase \"clarity of mind\", and even improve such conditions as headaches and anxiety. The juice is supposed to be extra hydrating, \"inflammation-reducing and microbiome-sustaining\". He also calls it \"a miracle juice\" and \"one of the greatest healing tonics of all time.\" None of these claims are supported by scientific evidence, thus no dietitians or other members of the medical community are supportive of these claims.\nIn an interview", "-30.562854592280928" ], [ "prophylaxis for UTIs: 1) a 2014 scientific opinion by the European Food Safety Authority rejected physiological evidence that cranberry PACs have a role in inhibiting bacterial pathogens involved in UTIs; 2) a 2012 Cochrane Collaboration review concluded that \"cranberry juice cannot currently be recommended for the prevention of UTIs\". Later systematic review in 2017 showed that cranberry products significantly reduced the incidence of UTIs, indicating that cranberry products may be effective particularly for individuals with recurrent infections. Wine consumption Proanthocyanidins are the principal polyphenols in red wine that are under research to assess risk of coronary heart disease and lower", "-30.494683320692275" ], [ "cause a build-up of the active metabolite, prolonging the effects of carbamazepine and delaying its excretion.\nGrapefruit juice raises the bioavailability of carbamazepine by inhibiting CYP3A4 enzymes in the gut wall and in the liver. Carbamazepine increases the processing of methadone resulting in lower blood levels. Pharmacogenetics Serious skin reactions such as Stevens–Johnson syndrome or toxic epidermal necrolysis due to carbamazepine therapy are more common in people with a particular human leukocyte antigen allele, HLA-B*1502. Odds ratios for the development of Stevens-Johnson syndrome or toxic epidermal necrolysis in people who carry the allele can be in the double, triple or even", "-30.468203914293554" ], [ "result in a very harsh mix design with a very low workability, which cannot be readily made more workable by addition of reasonable amounts of water or binder.\nCactus juice works well because it contains pectin, a water-soluble long-chain carbohydrate that acts as the binding agent to increase the adhesion of an earthen plaster. Pectin is also responsible for increasing the water resistance of an earthen plaster and has been used to augment lime plasters in both Mexico and the southwestern United States for hundreds of years.\nCactus juice is extracted by immersing cut leaves in water for as long as", "-30.450559964112472" ], [ "for beverages or yogurts. Juice from the ripe berries is astringent, sweet (with high sugar content), sour (low pH), and contains vitamin C. In addition to juice, the fruit can be baked into soft breads. In the U.S., Aronia berries are also marketed for their antioxidant properties.", "-30.41245211713249" ], [ "Grapefruit juice Grapefruit juice is the juice from grapefruits. It is rich in vitamin C and ranges from sweet-tart to very sour. Variations include white grapefruit, pink grapefruit and ruby red grapefruit juice.\nGrapefruit juice is important in medicine because of its interactions with many common drugs including caffeine and medications, which can alter how they behave in the body.\nGrapefruit juice is a common breakfast beverage in the United States. Drug interactions Grapefruit and grapefruit juice have been found to interact with numerous drugs, in many cases resulting in adverse effects. This happens in two ways: one is that", "-30.3342799938182" ], [ "or grapefruit juice is dangerous. The mechanism of action is inhibition of CYP3A4, which is necessary to metabolize the drug and eliminate it from the body. Without CYP3A4, levels of the drug will become toxic in the body. Pharmacology The mechanism of action of halofantrine is unknown. The absorption of halofantrine is erratic, but is increased when taken with fatty food. Because of fears of toxicity due to increased halofantrine blood levels, halofantrine should be taken on an empty stomach.\nPlasma levels peak at 16 hours and the half-life of the drug is about 4 days. Uses Halofantrine is", "-30.31622120476095" ], [ "naringenin than orange juice. Also found in grapefruit is the related compound kaempferol, which has a hydroxyl group next to the ketone group.\nNaringenin can be absorbed from cooked tomato paste. Metabolism The enzyme naringenin 8-dimethylallyltransferase uses dimethylallyl diphosphate and (−)-(2S)-naringenin to produce diphosphate and 8-prenylnaringenin. Biodegradation Cunninghamella elegans, a fungal model organism of the mammalian metabolism, can be used to study the naringenin sulfation. Inhibitory activity Naringenin has been shown to have an inhibitory effect on the human cytochrome P450 isoform CYP1A2, which can change pharmacokinetics in a human (or orthologous) host of several popular drugs in an adverse manner,", "-30.22780912565213" ], [ "four or five parts water (carbonated or still). Double-strength squash and traditional cordials, which are thicker, are made with two parts concentrate. Some squash concentrates are quite weak, and these are sometimes mixed with one part concentrate and two or three parts water. Storage Most cordials and squashes contain preservatives such as potassium sorbate or (in traditional cordials) sulphites, as they are designed to be stored on shelves. They keep well because of the preservatives and their high sugar content. Nonetheless, some choose to store their squash in refrigerators. Ingredients Ingredients in squashes and cordials have evolved over the years.", "-30.15208258770872" ], [ "is then used to convert varying fractions of glucose into fructose...High-fructose corn syrup just doesn't exist in nature.\" However, Jacobson also stated out: \"The special harmfulness of high-fructose corn syrup has become one of those urban myths that sounds right, but is basically wrong. Nutritionally, high-fructose corn syrup and sucrose may be identical.\"\n\nSince HFCS is present in a \"staggering\" amount of food in the US, and in most foods marketed to children, there are doubts as to whether it can be consumed in moderation: \n...unless you're making a concerted effort to avoid it, it's pretty difficult to consume high-fructose corn", "-30.116355827543885" ], [ "water in the stomach, forming a gel that slows down the absorption of the bean's carbohydrates. They can therefore help balance blood sugar levels while providing steady, slow-burning energy, which makes them a good choice for people with diabetes suffering with insulin resistance.", "-30.089942181948572" ], [ "Raspberry juice Raspberry juice is a liquid created from raspberries that is often either used as a part of a mixed drink, added in with other liquids such as orange juice, or consumed by itself. The juice is known for containing a large amount of vitamin C as well as biological iron, which means it is sometimes drunk when an individual feels feverish. Soft drinks that incorporate raspberry juice notably include Bouvrage, a product made from Scottish raspberries that the husband and wife team Anne Thomson and John Gallagher created. Launched in 1998 at that year's Royal Highland Show, that", "-30.07115775026614" ], [ "such as benzoates. Canada For Canadian markets, cranberry juice is regulated as a processed product under fruit juices. Cranberry juice must be made from sound, clean, and ripe cranberries. One or more of the following dry sweetening ingredients may be added: sugar, invert sugar, and dextrose. According to the Canadian Food Inspection Agency (CFIA), the common name of this product may appear as “cranberry juice drink/cooler” if at least 25% of the named juice is contained within the net quantity of the product.\nIn Canada, cranberries are graded into two categories: Canada No. 1 and Canada Domestic. The cranberries of Canada", "-29.89710752593237" ], [ "benefits, though POM typically supplies the juice to the investigators of the study. Published sponsored research regarding POM's extract products (pills and liquid concentrates) deal only with chemical analysis and bio-availability of said products, without examining any health benefits. Research has been conducted at various research institutions including UCLA, University of Naples (Italy), Technion Institute (Israel), and the University of Wisconsin-Madison. The company has promoted these studies as indicating that consumers of their beverages and extracts will receive a wide range of health benefits against various chronic diseases such as heart disease, cancer, diabetes, and erectile dysfunction.\nIn 2006, POM became", "-29.89328844693955" ], [ "stimulating hormone) and blood lipid anomalies such as hypercholesterolaemia (high blood cholesterol) and hyperlipidaemia, hypothyroidism. Interactions Its plasma concentration may be increased by concomitant treatment with CYP3A4 inhibitors such as ketoconazole. It may also induce CYP3A4, and hence CYP3A4 substrates like cyclophosphamide may have their plasma concentrations reduced. Likewise consumption of grapefruit juice might increase bexarotene's plasma concentrations, hence potentially altering its therapeutic effects. Mechanism Bexarotene is a retinoid that selectively activates retinoid X receptors (RXRs), as opposed to the retinoic acid receptors, the other major target of retinoic acid (the acid form of vitamin A). By so doing it", "-29.86608559760316" ], [ "in a concentrated sugar solution so the flavour is infused into the syrup. A source of citric acid and lemon juice is added to help preserve the cordial and add tartness. The mixture is then covered and left to infuse before being strained to release as much juice as possible. For drinking the cordial is typically diluted with either water or sparkling water though tonic, soda or gin are also used.\nCommercial production of elderflower cordial uses a scaled-up version of the process described. Commercially produced cordials are generally sold as a concentrated squash and are usually diluted by one part", "-29.839403840713203" ], [ "and stability. Evaporation The dilute glucose syrup is finally evaporated under vacuum to raise the solids concentration. Uses Its major uses in commercially prepared food products are as a thickener, sweetener, and humectant (an ingredient that retains moisture and thus maintains a food's freshness). Glucose syrup is also widely used in the manufacture of a variety of candy products.\nIn the United States, domestically produced corn syrup and high-fructose corn syrup (HFCS) are often used in American-made processed and mass-produced foods, candies, soft drinks and fruit drinks to increase profit margins.\nGlucose syrup was the primary corn sweetener in the United States", "-29.791011446737684" ], [ "also have these abilities and are good for eyes and intestines. Cinnamon and turmeric help regulate blood sugar (triple the capability of insulin to metabolize glucose in the laboratory). It is taken in small amounts on cereal: ½ teaspoon or so. Cloves also provide short-term pain relief, cure mild depression, are a sedative and sleep tonic, and help digestion. Corn silk cures kidney problems and cleanses them, and is a diuretic. Cumin has anti-cancer properties (known to increase a chemical in the body that protects against cancer). It blocks 83% of the chromosome damage usually caused by a cancer-causing", "-29.778165978263132" ], [ "Beano (dietary supplement) Beano is an enzyme-based dietary supplement that is used to reduce gas in the digestive tract, thereby improving digestion and reducing bloating, discomfort, and flatulence caused by gas. It contains the enzyme alpha-galactosidase (α-GAL). It was introduced as a liquid, but that has been discontinued and it is now available only as tablets and strawberry-flavored \"Meltaways\".\nBeano is marketed and distributed by Prestige Brands Holdings, Inc. Mechanism of action Beano contains the enzyme α-GAL, which is derived from the fungus Aspergillus niger. The enzyme works in the digestive tract to break down the complex or branching sugars (polysaccharides", "-29.756696682830807" ], [ "become cranberry juice. A paddled machine called a water reel harvester is used to separate the ripe cranberries from the vines, then collected through a large suction pipe and transported by truck to a processing plant. At the processing plant, the cranberries go through a sequence of fruit crushing, mash maceration, mash heating, juice pressing, and pasteurization to produce a cranberry concentrate that is separated from pulp. To prepare a cranberry juice/cocktail product, cranberry juice concentrate is reconstituted with varying amounts of water, specified by the solicitation, contract, or purchase order. Pest management During growth, cranberry quality can be affected", "-29.75637882407318" ], [ "HAACP (hazard analysis and critical control points) violations that were found at a processing plant in Irving, Texas. FDA found that lemon and lime juice was held in unsanitary conditions, which was a potential health threat to consumers. Company managers were advised by FDA that a reduction in microorganism levels was necessary to protect consumers. Culinary uses Two to three tablespoons of ReaLemon lemon juice has the equivalent of the juice from one average-sized lemon. Both ReaLemon and ReaLime are used as ingredients in various recipes, such as in baking, grilling, and as an ingredient in marinades and salad dressings.", "-29.687764365851763" ], [ "in content.\nLemons contain numerous phytochemicals, including polyphenols, terpenes, and tannins. Lemon juice contains slightly more citric acid than lime juice (about 47 g/l), nearly twice the citric acid of grapefruit juice, and about five times the amount of citric acid found in orange juice. Culinary uses Lemon juice, rind, and peel are used in a wide variety of foods and drinks. The whole lemon is used to make marmalade, lemon curd and lemon liqueur. Lemon slices and lemon rind are used as a garnish for food and drinks. Lemon zest, the grated outer rind of the fruit, is used to add", "-29.66003742837347" ], [ "processed juice does not usually contain significant aloin.\nSome species, particularly Aloe vera, are used in alternative medicine and first aid. Both the translucent inner pulp and the resinous yellow aloin from wounding the aloe plant are used externally for skin discomforts. As an herbal medicine, Aloe vera juice is commonly used internally for digestive discomfort.\nAccording to Cancer Research UK, a potentially deadly product called T-UP is made of concentrated aloe, and promoted as a cancer cure. They say \"there is currently no evidence that aloe products can help to prevent or treat cancer in humans\". Aloin in OTC laxative products", "-29.594256467884406" ], [ "100 g of the edible parts of lemons contain only 51 mg Vitamin C. Additionally a study from the University of Jena proved that rose hips contain also lycopene that protects the cells against aggressive radicals and therefore reduces the risk for cancer, arteriosclerosis, thrombosis, heart attacks and strokes. In the skin it protects the cells from harmful UV radiation and prevents sunburns.", "-29.585538221814204" ], [ "calcium-fortified juices alone, as peak serum concentration and the area under the serum concentration-time curve can be reduced up to 40%. However, ciprofloxacin may be taken with dairy products or calcium-fortified juices as part of a meal.\nCiprofloxacin inhibits the drug-metabolizing enzyme CYP1A2 and thereby can reduce the clearance of drugs metabolized by that enzyme. CYP1A2 substrates that exhibit increased serum levels in ciprofloxacin-treated patients include tizanidine, theophylline, caffeine, methylxanthines, clozapine, olanzapine, and ropinirole. Co-administration of ciprofloxacin with the CYP1A2 substrate tizanidine (Zanaflex) is contraindicated due to a 583% increase in the peak serum concentrations of tizanidine when administered with ciprofloxacin", "-29.561882837384474" ], [ "sugarcane juice is fermented to make an inexpensive alcoholic beverage called betsa-betsa. The drink is popular with locals because it is cheaper than beer.", "-29.520621868607122" ], [ "plant fibers, and constitute the major portion of dietary polyphenols. There is therefore a marked loss of phytonutrients in consuming fruits and vegetables through the juicing process alone.\nThe American Cancer Society says, \"there is no convincing scientific evidence that extracted juices are healthier than whole foods\".\nJuicing may not be the best way to extract all of the nutritional value from fruits and vegetables. According to Uckoo, when juiced grapefruit was compared with blended, the latter was superior. Smoothies, which are the blending of fruit into juice, not the extraction, leave pulp and seeds within the drink leading to better nutrition.", "-29.496463023184333" ], [ "L-Glucose Uses l-Glucose was once proposed as a low-calorie sweetener and it is suitable for patients with diabetes mellitus, but it was never marketed due to excessive manufacturing costs.\nThe acetate derivative of l-glucose, l-glucose pentaacetate, was found to stimulate insulin release, and might therefore be of therapeutic value for type 2 diabetes. l-Glucose was also found to be a laxative, and has been proposed as a colon-cleansing agent which would not produce the disruption of fluid and electrolyte levels associated with the significant liquid quantities of bad-tasting osmotic laxatives conventionally used in preparation for colonoscopy.", "-29.48241681815125" ], [ "less than 20% juice, and some as little as 5-10%. The latter are typically low in nutritional value, and the high juice versions are reasonably higher in nutrients, although one downside is that it is high in sugar and does not contain fibre or minor nutrients. That goes with almost all squashes. A low juice squash may state \"with real fruit juice\" on the label. Low-sugar squashes Squashes labelled \"no added sugar\" are artificially sweetened, usually with aspartame, acesulfame K, saccharin or sucralose, which is much cheaper for the manufacturers than both HFCS and natural sugar. They are very low", "-29.460206834744895" ], [ "previously-frozen juice vesicles. The cloud resulting from the vesicles have sugar solids containing vitamin C. This cloud from vesicles is a popular alternative to brominated vegetable oil or glycerol ester of wood rosin, which are other clouding agents. The citrus in the vesicles is more often used for cloud especially for shipping products overseas.\nIn Japan, many yogurts and beverages include added enlarged citrus juice vesicles. These vesicles combined with enzymes are removed from fruit. This results from the heat of the enzymes. When eaten, teeth break the vesicles and provide a fresh squirt of citrus juice to the beverage or", "-29.43622695247177" ], [ "can cure diuresis, dysentery and abdominal pain. From experiment with alcohol extracts and chloroform. It resists effectively the antifungal that causes dermatitis and mouth disease.\nB. rotunda also has been observed to have aphrodisiac properties. The plant juice was suggested to increase fertility by improving sperm quality and lifespan in rat models, and has shown potential use for the protection of testicular tissue damage. It is more so targeted to help individuals with erectile dysfunction or decreased male libido.", "-29.351236948685255" ], [ "juice is concentrated in a multiple-effect evaporator to make a syrup of about 50 percent sucrose by weight. Crystallisation and centrifuging This syrup is further concentrated under vacuum in a vacuum boiling pan until it becomes supersaturated, finely ground sugar crystals suspended in alcohol are introduced into the vacuum pan as seed crystals around which sucrose is deposited and these crystals then grow in size until they are ready to be discharged (typically about 1 millimetre (0.039 in))\nA number of boiling schemes are possible, the most commonly used boiling scheme is the three-boiling scheme. This method boils the sugar liquors in", "-29.348736126790754" ], [ "stomach and colon cancer cells.\nYoung roots of Rubus idaeus prevented kidney stone formation in a mouse model of hyperoxaluria.Tiliroside from raspberry is a potent tyrosinase inhibitor and might be used as a skin-whitening agent and pigmentation medicine.\nRaspberry fruit may protect the liver. Chemistry Vitamin C and phenolics are present in red raspberries. Most notably, the anthocyanins cyanidin-3-sophoroside, cyanidin-3-(2(G)-glucosylrutinoside) and cyanidin-3-glucoside, the two ellagitannins sanguiin H-6 and lambertianin C are present together with trace levels of flavonols, ellagic acid and hydroxycinnamate.\nPolyphenolic compounds from raspberry seeds have antioxidant effects in vitro, but have no proven antioxidant effect in humans. Raspberry ketones are", "-29.277118057827465" ], [ "small amount of water. Cheaper varieties can be diluted with apples. \"Rårörda lingon or rørte tyttebær\" is prepared fresh by just mixing berries and sugar, without boiling. Before the use of refined sugar became common in Sweden, lingonberry jam was prepared with lingonberries as the only ingredient. Because of the benzoic acid, which is found in high amounts in lingonberries, the berries keep well without any preservatives.", "-29.25788904260844" ], [ "linked to various health conditions, including metabolic syndrome, hypertension, dyslipidemia, hepatic steatosis, insulin resistance, and obesity. However, there is to date little evidence that high-fructose corn syrup is any unhealthier, calorie for calorie, than sucrose or other simple sugars. The fructose content and fructose:glucose ratio of high-fructose corn syrup do not differ markedly from clarified apple juice. Some researchers hypothesize that fructose may trigger the process by which fats are formed, to a greater extent than other simple sugars. However, most commonly used blends of high-fructose corn syrup contain a nearly one-to-one ratio of fructose and glucose, just like common", "-29.242063961399253" ], [ "the United States Department of Health and Human Services. According to the FDA, orange juice from concentrate is a mixture of water with frozen concentrated orange juice or concentrated orange juice for manufacturing. Additional ingredients into the mixture may include fresh/frozen/pasteurized orange juice from mature oranges, orange oil, and orange pulp. Furthermore, one or more of the following optional sweetening ingredients may be added: sugar, sugar syrup, invert sugar, invert sugar syrup, dextrose, corn syrup, dried corn syrup, glucose syrup, and dried glucose syrup. The orange juice must contain a minimum Brix level of 11.8, which indicates the percentage of", "-29.160662676502398" ], [ "cranberry harvests. In July 2006, the cooperative signed a 25-year single-serve (machine-dispensed) juice distribution deal with Pepsi.\nIn June 2006, at the request of People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals (PETA) Ocean Spray agreed to end its support for animal experiments. Previously, Ocean Spray had funded tests involving infecting mice with H. pylori, bacteria that cause stomach ulcers, and then feeding them cranberry juice to see if it had any positive effect. These experiments were conducted to determine the usefulness of Ocean Spray's cranberry juice as a digestif.\n\nOcean Spray completed expansion of the Wisconsin Rapids processing plant in September", "-29.15126856372808" ], [ "calories (78 calories per tablespoon) and is a moderate source of vitamin C and several B vitamins (table). It is composed of 76% carbohydrates, 23% water, 0.4% fat, and negligible protein.\nHaving fructose as its primary sugar, blue-agave syrup (56% fructose) is similar in fructose content to high-fructose corn syrup (55% fructose content), the most common sweetener used in US manufactured beverages. In a tablespoon amount (about 25 ml or grams), blue-agave syrup supplies 78 calories, an amount similar to the value per tablespoon for high-fructose corn syrup (70 calories). Glycemic index Blue-agave syrup has a relatively high sweetness factor", "-29.10326915519545" ], [ "flavor to baked goods, puddings, rice, and other dishes. Juice Lemon juice is used to make lemonade, soft drinks, and cocktails. It is used in marinades for fish, where its acid neutralizes amines in fish by converting them into nonvolatile ammonium salts. In meat, the acid partially hydrolyzes tough collagen fibers, tenderizing the meat, but the low pH denatures the proteins, causing them to dry out when cooked. In the United Kingdom, lemon juice is frequently added to pancakes, especially on Shrove Tuesday.\nLemon juice is also used as a short-term preservative on certain foods that tend to oxidize and turn", "-29.09952303575119" ], [ "large intestine. Soluble fiber is marketed as serving a prebiotic function – promoting \"healthy\" intestinal bacteria. Bacterial metabolism of soluble fiber also produces short-chain fatty acids like butyric acid, which may be absorbed into intestinal cells as a source of calories. Non-nutrients Ethanol (C₂H₅OH) supplies calories. For spirits (vodka, gin, rum, etc.) a standard serving in the United States is 1.5 US fluid ounces (44 ml), which at 40% ethanol (80 proof) would be 14 grams and 98 calories. At 50% alcohol, 17.5 grams and 122.5 calories. Wine and beer contain a similar amount of ethanol in servings of 5 US fluid ounces (150 ml) and 12 US", "-29.08185371698346" ], [ "Lanthanum carbonate Medical uses Lanthanum carbonate is used in medicine as a phosphate binder. As a medication it is sold under the trade name Fosrenol by the pharmaceutical company Shire Pharmaceuticals. Due to its large size (1000 mg tablet is 2.2 cm in diameter), it may be possible to choke on the tablet if it is not chewed. It is prescribed for the treatment of hyperphosphatemia, primarily in patients with chronic kidney disease. It is taken with meals and binds to dietary phosphate, preventing phosphate from being absorbed by the intestine. For cats suffering from hyperphosphatemia it is available under the trade", "-29.07441085804021" ], [ "of pith, so the juice must generally be strained before use. It works well with limes and lemons, but larger citrus fruits (grapefruit in particular) require a larger device.", "-29.0738471794175" ], [ "astringency. Because of their short shelf life (about 10 days when refrigerated) their consumption is mostly confined to the cerrado region. They are also used for juices, sherbets, candied fruit, jams, and preserves, mostly by local cottage industries.\nThe toasted nut is edible and similar to the common cashew nut. Its fatty fraction consists mostly of esters of the oleic (60%) and linoleic (21%) acids.\nThe tea from its bark or leaves is used in the local folk medicine against diarrhea and as gargle for throat infections. The resin can be used as expectorant. The root is used as a purgative.", "-29.05529264139477" ], [ "insert. People taking drugs can ask their health care provider or pharmacist questions about grapefruit/drug interactions. Use in cocktails Grapefruit juice is used in several cocktails, such as the sea breeze (which consists of grapefruit juice, vodka, and cranberry juice); the salty dog, and the grapefruit mimosa. Canadian regulations Canadian regulations on commercially produced and sold grapefruit juice are that it must be made from clean, mature grapefruit and may contain sugar, invert sugar, dextrose, glucose solids, class II preservative such as benzoic acid, amylase, cellulase and pectinase. According to Canadian standards, Grapefruit juice should contain more than 1.15", "-29.02344351040665" ], [ "individuals with recurrent infections. When the quality of meta-analyses on the efficacy of cranberry products for preventing or treating UTIs is examined, large variation and uncertainty of effect are seen, resulting from inconsistencies of clinical research. Phytochemicals Raw cranberries, cranberry juice and cranberry extracts are a source of polyphenols – including proanthocyanidins, flavonols and quercetin. These phytochemical compounds are being studied in vivo and in vitro for possible effects on the cardiovascular system, immune system and cancer. However, there is no confirmation from human studies that consuming cranberry polyphenols provides anti-cancer, immune, or cardiovascular benefits. Potential is limited by poor", "-28.997981758613605" ], [ "opposed to high metoxy pectins prevalent in commercially used sources such as apples or citrus peels. LMP gels in presence of divalent cations, which are found in sufficient amount in water (when it's not distilled), thus causing a creation of jelly.", "-28.98097164207138" ], [ "and triglycerides. High fructose consumption has been linked to high levels of uric acid in the blood, though this is only thought to be a concern for patients with gout.\nNumerous agencies in the United States recommend reducing the consumption of all sugars, including HFCS, without singling it out as presenting extra concerns. The Mayo Clinic cites the American Heart Association's recommendation that women limit the added sugar in their diet to 100 calories a day (~6 teaspoons) and that men limit it to 150 calories a day (~9 teaspoons), noting that there is not enough evidence to support HFCS having", "-28.977852884796448" ], [ "initially gave rise to concerns of toxicity, and in 2000 it was recommended that people taking atorvastatin should not consume grapefruit juice \"in an unsupervised manner.\" Subsequent research has shown that typical consumption of grapefruit juice (about 1 cup of regular juice per day) has only a modest effect on atorvastatin metabolism, and is unlikely to cause any adverse effects.\nA few cases of myopathy have been reported when atorvastatin is given with colchicine. Mechanism of action As with other statins, atorvastatin is a competitive inhibitor of HMG-CoA reductase. Unlike most others, however, it is a completely synthetic compound. HMG-CoA reductase", "-28.958781541281496" ], [ "also used in medicine for constipation and to prepare the bowel for medical procedures. Moreover, they are used in detergents for softening water, and as an efficient anti rust solution. Adverse effects Sodium phosphates are popular in commerce in part because they are inexpensive and because they are nontoxic at normal levels of consumption. However, oral sodium phosphates when taken at high doses for bowel preparation for colonoscopy may in some individuals carry a risk of kidney injury under the form of phosphate nephropathy. There are several oral phosphate formulations which are prepared extemporaneously. Oral phosphate prep drugs have", "-28.93607292805973" ], [ "of tomato. In other studies, LPE inhibited the activity of phospholipase D (PLD), a membrane degrading enzyme, of which active is increased during senescence. More recently, it is reported that LPE can also accelerate color development and promote shelf life of cranberries, and increase fruit qualities of Thompson seedless grapes, in such as soluble solids content (SSC), titratable acidity (TA), firmness, and size. Along with these results show that LPE can accelerate ripening of fruit and also, have potential to protect senescence. Uses Lysophosphatidylethanolamine (LPE) is a minor membrane glycerolipid; however, it has been reported that it has useful physiological", "-28.9187234469573" ], [ "boiling raisins, or adding preservatives to delay fermenting and souring. In 1869, Thomas Bramwell Welch, an ordained Wesleyan Methodist minister, discovered a way to pasteurize grape juice, and he used his particular preservation method to prepare juice for the Lord's Supper at a Methodist Episcopal church.\nFrom 1838 to 1845, Father Mathew, the Irish apostle of temperance, administered an abstinence pledge to some three to four million of his countrymen, though his efforts had little permanent effect there, and then starting in 1849 to more than 500,000 Americans, chiefly his fellow Irish Catholics, who formed local temperance societies but whose influence", "-28.918300970079144" ], [ "clarified juice is concentrated in a multiple-effect evaporator to make a syrup with about 60 weight percent sucrose. The syrup is further concentrated under vacuum until it becomes supersaturated, and then seeded with crystalline sugar. Upon cooling, sugar crystallizes out of the syrup. Centrifuging then separates the sugar from the remaining liquid (molasses). Raw sugar has a yellow to brown color. Sometimes sugar is consumed locally at this stage, but usually undergoes further purification. Sulfur dioxide is bubbled through the cane juice subsequent to crystallization in a process, known as \"sulfitation\". This process inhibits color forming reactions and stabilizes the", "-28.896946340079012" ], [ "the perception that Odwalla's products were healthier than regular juice because of unpasteurization. From 1996 On October 7, 1996, Odwalla made a batch of apple juice using blemished fruit, resulting in one death and 66 sickened customers. Odwalla made and marketed unpasteurized fruit juices for the health segment of the juice market. This batch was contaminated with E. coli.\nDespite a net loss for most of 1997, Odwalla worked to rehabilitate its brand name. In addition to advertising its new safety procedures, Odwalla released its line of food bars (its first solid food product line) and entered the $900 million fruit bar", "-28.860551074845716" ], [ "liver\", eggs \"feed the viral explosion\", corn is no longer nutritious due to genetic modification, wheat \"feeds pathogens\", canola oil destroys the lining of the stomach, veins, and heart, and finally that food additives described or labeled as \"natural flavors\" are actually a neurotoxin called MSG which, he claims, destroys brain and nerve cells over time. Celery juice Anthony William is the self proclaimed originator of the celery juice diet, and journalistic research has led others to conclude that he is the primary source. William claims that \"the science behind the healing powers of celery juice is just yet to", "-28.848069836152717" ], [ "manufacturers).\nThe low prices of glucose syrups produced from wheat and corn (maize) threaten the traditional sugar market. Used in combination with artificial sweeteners, they can allow drink manufacturers to produce very low-cost goods. High-fructose corn syrup High-fructose corn syrup (HFCS) is significantly cheaper as a sweetener for food and beverage manufacturing than refined sucrose. This has led to sucrose being partially displaced in U.S. industrial food production by HFCS and other non-sucrose natural sweeteners.\nAlthough reports in public media regard HFCS as unhealthy, clinical dietitians, medical professionals, and the United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) dismiss such concerns because \"Sucrose,", "-28.83050695566635" ], [ "cases. The paper also mentions tea as an additional important contributor to the overall coumarin intake, especially for children with a sweet habit.\nCoumarin was banned as a food additive in the United States in 1954, largely because of the hepatotoxicity results in rodents. Coumarin is currently listed by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) of the United States among \"Substances Generally Prohibited From Direct Addition or Use as Human Food,\" according to 21 CFR 189.130, but some natural additives containing coumarin, such as the flavorant sweet woodruff are allowed \"in alcoholic beverages only\" under 21 CFR 172.510. In Europe, popular", "-28.82354847039096" ], [ "Jif (lemon juice) Nutrition information A 5 ml serving size of Jif provides 1 kcal (kilocalorie) of energy and 0.1 grams of carbohydrate. Uses Jif is used as an ingredient and flavourant in dishes and foods, and as a condiment, such as on pancakes. It may be used to add flavour to salads, sauces, fish and seafood, among other foods. It can be used in recipes that require or recommend the use of lemon juice. Packaging Aside from its plastic, lemon-shaped containers containing 55 ml of juice, usually known as \"jiffy lemons\" or \"jif lemons\", Jif lemon juice is also", "-28.816852782241767" ], [ "and nutritionist Jonny Bowden claimed that the nutritional and health benefits of MonaVie juice were unproven and that the product was overpriced relative to more cost-effective conventional polyphenol-rich foods. Weil and Bowden also criticized the product for being sold through multi-level marketing. A Men’s Journal nutritional analysis showed that MonaVie Active juice \"tested extremely low in anthocyanins and phenolics\" and that \"even apple juice (which also tested poorly) has more phenolics\". The report also noted that \"MonaVie’s vitamin C level was 5 times lower than that of Welch’s Grape Juice\", a product priced at a fraction of the cost", "-28.792315595972468" ], [ "squeezed juice, frozen concentrate, and whole fruit.\nGrapefruit, Seville oranges, bergamot, and possibly other citrus also contain large amounts of naringin. It can take up to 72 hours before the effects of the naringin on the CYP3A4 enzyme are seen. This is problematic as a 4 oz portion of grapefruit contains enough naringin to inhibit the metabolism of substrates of CYP3A4. Naringin is a flavonoid which contributes to the bitter flavour of grapefruit.\nFuranocoumarins seem to have a stronger effect than naringin under some circumstances. Metabolism interactions Grapefruit–drug interactions that affect the pre-systemic metabolism (i.e., the metabolism that occurs before the drug", "-28.752352906623855" ], [ "Orange juice Nutrition A cup serving of raw, fresh orange juice, amounting to 248 grams or 8 ounces, has 124 mg of vitamin C (>100% RDI). It has 20.8 g of sugars, 112 Calories and almost 26 grams of carbohydrates. It also supplies potassium, thiamin, and folate.\nCitrus juices contain flavonoids (especially in the pulp) that may have health benefits. Orange juice is also a source of the antioxidant hesperidin. Because of its citric acid content, orange juice is acidic, with a typical pH of around 3.5. Frozen concentrated orange juice Commercial squeezed orange juice is pasteurized and filtered before being evaporated", "-28.708914502582047" ], [ "HIV, heart disease and cancer. However, noni products may contain high amounts of potassium, leading to one advisory that people on potassium-restricted diets because of kidney problems should avoid using noni. Also, according to the American Cancer Society \"there is no reliable clinical evidence that noni juice is effective in preventing or treating cancer or any other disease in humans\".", "-28.685614547284786" ], [ "Sugarcane juice Health risks Raw sugar cane juice can be a health risk to drinkers due to the unhygienic conditions under which it is prepared in some countries with lower health standards. There are some diseases that can be transmitted by raw sugar-cane, such as Leptospirosis. In Brazil, sugarcane juice has been linked to cases of Chagas disease, as sugarcane can contain traces of its responsible pathogen, Trypanosoma cruzi, left by infected bugs if not properly cleaned. Labeling as \"cane sugar\" In food and beverage manufacturing where cane sugar is used to sweeten consumer products, such as in the United", "-28.658103969413787" ], [ "cannot be further digested in the digestive tract and is taken up into the bloodstream, metabolised by the liver to steviol glucuronide, and excreted in the urine.\nA three-dimensional map of the proteins in stevia, showing the crystalline structures that produce both the sensation of sweetness and bitter aftertaste in the sweetener, was reported in 2019. Safety and regulations A 2011 review found that the use of stevia sweeteners as replacements for sugar might benefit people with diabetes, children, and those wishing to lower their intake of calories.\nAlthough both steviol and rebaudioside A have been found to be mutagenic in laboratory", "-28.644602165208198" ], [ "prior to the expanded use of HFCS production. HFCS is a variant in which other enzymes are used to convert some of the glucose into fructose. The resulting syrup is sweeter and more soluble. Corn syrup is also available as a retail product.\nGlucose syrup is often used as part of the mixture that goes into creating fake blood for films and television. Blood mixtures that contain glucose syrup are very popular among independent films and film makers, as it is cheap and easy to obtain.", "-28.62609408714343" ], [ "is the main ingredient of Carmelite water, which is still for sale in German pharmacies.\nIn alternative medicine it is used as a sleep aid and digestive aid.\nLemon balm essential oil is popular in aromatherapy. The essential oil is commonly co-distilled with lemon oil, citronella oil or other oils. Folklore and traditional uses Nicholas Culpeper considered lemon balm to be ruled by Jupiter in Cancer, and suggested it to be used for weak stomachs, to cause the heart to become merry, to help digestion, to open obstructions of the brain, and to expel melancholy vapors from the heart and arteries.\nThe", "-28.61344470050244" ], [ "to introduce bioavailable calcium for calcium carbonate-shelled animals such as mollusks and some cnidarians. Calcium hydroxide (kalkwasser mix) or a calcium reactor can also be used.\nAs a firming agent, calcium chloride is used in canned vegetables, in firming soybean curds into tofu and in producing a caviar substitute from vegetable or fruit juices. It is commonly used as an electrolyte in sports drinks and other beverages, including bottled water. The extremely salty taste of calcium chloride is used to flavor pickles without increasing the food's sodium content. Calcium chloride's freezing-point depression properties are used to slow the freezing of the", "-28.609303038567305" ], [ "variety of health benefits, including increased energy and improved joint health, without scientific proof to support such claims. In addition, the plaintiffs claimed that the company failed to warn consumers that the juices contain ingredients – such as arsenic and lead – that could cause health problems.\nIn 2014, K2A LLC, a company formed by Alex Schauss and Kenneth Murdock, filed a lawsuit claiming that MonaVie owed tens of millions of dollars for infringing on a patent held by K2A for the freeze-dried açai berry used in MonaVie's products. K2A claimed that they had terminated their 2004 licensing agreement on Oct.", "-28.574219252099283" ], [ "A two-tablespoon (37-gram) serving of Nutella contains 200 calories, including 99 calories from 11 grams of fat (3.5 g of which are saturated) and 80 calories from 21 grams of sugar. The spread also contains 15 mg of sodium and 2 g of protein per serving (for reference a Canadian serving size is 1 tablespoon or 19 grams). Storage The label states that Nutella does not need to be refrigerated. This is because the large quantity of sugar in the product acts as a preservative to prevent the growth of microorganisms. More specifically, the sugar acts as a preservative by binding the water", "-28.53975901962258" ], [ "A traditional cordial contains three ingredients: sugar, juice or plant extract and some water. Usually it can contain an acidifier such as citric acid or in very old-fashioned cordials lemon juice, or even spices such as cinnamon or cloves. Recreations of these traditional preparations often contain a preservative especially sulphur dioxide, although sugar alone will keep it fresh for quite a long time. Modern squash drinks are generally more complex and sugar free squash even more so; the ingredients are usually water, sweetener such as aspartame or sodium saccharin, juice in a low quantity (typically 5-10 percent), large quantities of", "-28.491490796637663" ], [ "causative factor. Compared with sucrose Fructose is often recommended for diabetics because it does not trigger the production of insulin by pancreatic β cells, probably because β cells have low levels of GLUT5, For a 50 gram reference amount, fructose has a glycemic index of 23, compared with 100 for glucose and 60 for sucrose. Fructose is also 73% sweeter than sucrose at room temperature, allowing diabetics to use less of it per serving. Fructose consumed before a meal may reduce the glycemic response of the meal. Fructose-sweetened food and beverage products cause less of a rise in blood glucose", "-28.45864278601948" ], [ "allowed to percolate through the bed of cane. At this point the concentration of sucrose in the cane is higher than the concentration of sucrose in the dilute juice just mentioned and so sucrose diffuses from the cane to the juice, this now slightly richer juice is pumped back up the diffuser and the process is repeated, typically, 12 to 15 times (compared with the four to six times for the milling process) Juice clarification Sugar cane juice has a pH of about 4.0 to 4.5 which is quite acidic. Calcium hydroxide, also known as milk of lime or limewater,", "-28.418267776083667" ], [ "replaced sucrose (table sugar) in the food industry. Factors in the rise of HFCS use include production quotas of domestic sugar, import tariffs on foreign sugar, and subsidies of U.S. corn, raising the price of sucrose and lowering that of HFCS, making it cheapest for many sweetener applications. The relative sweetness of HFCS 55, used most commonly in soft drinks, is comparable to sucrose. HFCS (and/or standard corn syrup) is the primary ingredient in most brands of commercial \"pancake syrup\", as a less expensive substitute for maple syrup.\nBecause of its similar sugar profile and lower price, HFCS has been used", "-28.405653712776257" ], [ "preferred by many confectionery and soda manufacturers because of the high sweetening power of fructose (twice that of sucrose), its relatively low cost and its inability to crystallize. Fructose is also used as a sweetener for use by diabetics. Major issues of the use of glucose isomerase involve its inactivation at higher temperatures and the requirement for a high pH (between 7.0 and 9.0) in the reaction environment. Moderately high temperatures, above 70 °C, increase the yield of fructose by at least half in the isomerization step. The enzyme requires a divalent cation such as Co²⁺ and Mg²⁺ for peak", "-28.39964061952196" ], [ "mid 1920s, and became a popular breakfast drink a few years thereafter.\nIn the United States, most tomato juice is made from tomato paste. In Canada, tomato juice is unconcentrated and pasteurized, made from fine tomato pulp from ripe and whole tomatoes. The stems and skins must be removed without adding water to the final juice product. It may also contain a sweetening agent, citric acid and salt. Uses In Canada and Mexico, tomato juice is commonly mixed with beer; the concoction is known in Canada as Calgary Red-Eye, and in Mexico as Cerveza preparada. Tomato juice is the base for", "-28.36540781147778" ], [ "bars without using vegetable fats by adding polyglycerol polyricinoleate (PGPR), which is an artificial castor oil-derived emulsifier that simulates the mouthfeel of fat. Up to 0.3% PGPR may be added to chocolate for this purpose. Quality Cacao beans can be tested for their quality as a certain variety using DNA tests, especially by testing single-nucleotide polymorphisms that act as markers.", "-28.36334984342102" ], [ "used extensively by many people, and is rich in vitamin C. Historically, it has been known as a major source of nutrition for the indigenous people of southeastern United States. The juicy red berries of the plant can be cooked to make jelly. The juice of the berries is also a sought-after refreshment. Lastly the berries of the B. canadensis are pounded to produce a paste similar to oatmeal. In addition, the berries are sometimes used to make alcoholic beverages. Medicine Native Americans, specifically the Cherokee, have been known to use Berberis canadensis as a remedy for diarrhea. The bark", "-28.34699658572208" ], [ "Dr. Philip Phillips developed a flash pasteurization process that eliminated this problem and significantly increased the market for canned orange juice. Freshly squeezed, unpasteurized juice Fresh-squeezed, the unpasteurized juice is the closest to consuming the orange itself. This version of the juice consists of oranges that are squeezed and then bottled without having any additives or flavor packs inserted. The juice is not subjected to pasteurization. Depending on storage temperature, freshly squeezed, unpasteurized orange juice can have a shelf life of 5 to 23 days. Major orange juice brands In the U.S., the major orange juice brand is Tropicana Products", "-28.342487209039973" ], [ "crystallize \"from a fructose-enriched corn syrup\". Since crystalline fructose is about 5.0% sweeter than high-fructose corn syrup, it adds fewer calories to a sweetened food or drink compared with table sugar or HFCS, resulting in Fuze products' lower calorie content than other bottled drinks.\nSome Fuze products, such as Fuze Iced Tea, are sweetened with HFCS and sucralose, an artificial sweetener.", "-28.338850588392233" ] ]

[ "Sugar is poured into the center of a spinning drum and is heated to melting point. Once the sugar melts the spinning of the drum forces the liquid sugar through small holes outward towards the sides of the drum in small strings (imagine spider webs). These small strings of liquid cool and become non liquid sugar and then are wrapped around sticks as fluffy candy.", "Funny enough the same process is used for glass insulation... Melt glass, shoot the glass at high pressure thru tiny holes making lots of small fibers. Awesome use in my opinion.", "Candy Floss is made by melting sugar in a machine with tiny extrusion holes. The machine spins, forcing the melted sugar out into the air where it hardens into tasty goodness. [Here]( URL_0 ) are more details.", "Would salt work in a cotton candy machine? I've been meaning to try this.", " URL_0 ^ slow motion cotton candy and explanation" ]

[ [ "cotton candy. Since then, the creations and innovations of this machine have become greater and greater. They range in sizes from counter-top accessible to party and carnival size. Modern machines that are made for commercial use can hold up to 3 pounds (1.4 kg) of sugar and have compartments for storage of extra flavors. The rotating bowl at the top spins at 3,450 revolutions per minute.", "-34.94381292682192" ], [ "operator recharges it with more feedstock. The product is sensitive to humidity, and in humid summer locales, the process can be messy and sticky.\nModern innovations in cotton-candy equipment include vending machines which automatically produce single servings of the product, developed in Taiwan, and lighted or glowing sticks. Flavoring The source material for candy mesh is usually both colored and flavored. When spun, cotton candy is white because it is made from sugar, but adding dye or coloring transforms the color. Originally, cotton candy was just white. In the US, cotton candy is available in a wide variety of", "-33.045918757939944" ], [ "Cotton candy History Several places claim the origin of cotton candy, with some sources tracing it to a form of spun sugar found in Europe in the 19th century. At that time, spun sugar was an expensive, labor-intensive endeavor and was not generally available to the average person. Others suggest versions of spun sugar originated in Italy as early as the 15th century.\nMachine-spun cotton candy was invented in 1897 by dentist William Morrison and confectioner John C. Wharton, and first introduced to a wide audience at the 1904 World's Fair as \"Fairy Floss\" with great success, selling 68,655 boxes at", "-32.50515775329109" ], [ "candy cane producers. Candy cane manufacturing initially required a fair bit of labor that limited production quantities; the canes had to be bent manually as they came off the assembly line to create their curved shape and breakage often ran over 20 percent. McCormack's brother-in-law, Gregory Harding Keller, was a seminary student in Rome who spent his summers working in the candy factory back home. In 1957, Keller, as an ordained Roman Catholic priest of the Diocese of Little Rock, patented his invention, the Keller Machine, which automated the process of twisting soft candy into spiral striping and cutting it", "-31.90088035514418" ], [ "Stuff.\nThe United States declared National Cotton Candy Day to be on December 7. Production Typical machines used to make cotton candy include a spinning head enclosing a small \"sugar reserve\" bowl into which a charge of granulated, colored sugar (or separate sugar and food coloring) is poured. Heaters near the rim of the head melt the sugar, which is squeezed out through tiny holes by centrifugal force. Colored sugar packaged specially for the process is milled with melting characteristics and a crystal size optimized for the head and heated holes; granulated sugar used in baking contains fine crystals which spin", "-31.89062613149872" ], [ "done manually on this machine. 122-spindle flyer twister Twisting is the process in which two or more single-spun yarns are united to produce a yarn of greater strength for use as warp threads in the weaving process and for normal knitting purposes. This is done by rollers delivering the yarns to a revolving spindle which twists or folds the single yarns around one another. The machines used are similar to spinning frames in their method of applying twist, but differ in that they have only one set of delivery rollers instead of the usual complement of drafting rollers. This machine", "-30.314663481374737" ], [ "Draw twister A draw twister is a machine used to draw and twist large quantities of polymer fibers. It uses two sets of rollers, where the second set rotates faster than the first, thus drawing the fiber between them. While the fibers are being drawn they are also twisted into thread.", "-30.182008715487996" ], [ "Keller Machine Patent The patent application for a \"Candy cane forming machine\" was filed on May 13, 1957 by Gregory H. Keller. The patent was originally assigned to Robert E. McCormack. Robert McCormack was the founder of Bobs Candies. Design and operation First, candy sticks cut to the desired length enter the machine. Each stick is bent individually, but the machine has a system of multiple grippers and rollers to continually bend the sticks, one after the other. As each stick enters the machine, it is positioned in a gripper which holds the straight portion of the cane with the", "-30.049862552521518" ], [ "25¢ (equivalent to $6.97 in 2018) per box. Joseph Lascaux, a dentist from New Orleans, Louisiana, invented a similar cotton candy machine in 1921. In fact, the Lascaux patent named the sweet confection “cotton candy” and the \"fairy floss\" name faded away, although it retains this name in Australia. In the 1970s, an automatic cotton candy machine was created which made the product and packaged it. This made it easier to produce and available to sell at carnivals, fairs, and stores in the 1970s and on.\nTootsie Roll Industries, the world's largest cotton-candy manufacturer, makes a bagged, fruit-flavored version called Fluffy", "-29.585177015758745" ], [ "the machine. It can be lit by the player by pressing the \"service\" or \"help\" button.\nCarousel refers to a grouping of slot machines, usually in a circle or oval formation.\nCoin hopper is a container where the coins that are immediately available for payouts are held. The hopper is a mechanical device that rotates coins into the coin tray when a player collects credits/coins (by pressing a \"Cash Out\" button). When a certain preset coin capacity is reached, a coin diverter automatically redirects, or \"drops\", excess coins into a \"drop bucket\" or \"drop box\". (Unused coin hoppers can still be found", "-29.17905312494986" ], [ "to create when the wool is still in the grease. As machine carders cannot card wool in the grease, pre-carded yarn generally is not spun in the grease. Some spinners use spray-on lanolin-like products to get the same feel of spinning in the grease with carded fibre.", "-29.05820737479371" ], [ "of the cane to complete bending it around the die. In the second version, the chain and sprockets are replaced by a wheel on which the bending rollers are mounted. Modern production In modern candy cane production, the sticks are wrapped in cellophane before they are bent.\nBobs Candies was sold to Farley's and Sathers in Spring 2005. Farley's and Sathers merged with the Ferrara Candy Company which continues to make candy canes under the Bobs name.", "-28.92172143417247" ], [ "scissors as it came down a small conveyor.\nMechanical crimpers worked well, but the process was slow and very labor-intensive. As demand increased for ribbon candy, it became clear that another way to make the candy had to be found. Until the 1940s ribbon candy was never made on a large scale, because more sophisticated equipment was needed. A single spinning roll was developed and it was found that by very careful tending of the candy batch, the hand spinner could be eliminated and the automated machine could run faster. The big bottleneck was in having to cut the candy with", "-28.653357444462017" ], [ "value of using an ingredient popular in the 1970s. Manufacturing As described by a 1980 patent, the candy is made by dissolving sugars in water and is evaporated at 320 °F (160 °C) until the water content is 3% by mass. The water and sugar mixture is then cooled to 280 °F (138 °C), and while being intensely stirred it is pressurized with carbon dioxide at 730 pounds per square inch [psi] (50 atm). The mixture is then kept under pressure and allowed to cool and solidify, embedding the carbon dioxide bubbles in the candy. The majority of the resultant carbon dioxide bubbles are between", "-28.64970561213704" ], [ " Candy molds were made in two tightly-fitting halves, generally bearing the maker's name and sometimes a patent number. At one point, demand was high enough that Mills hired Clad to make candy molds of composition, which may bear both company names, one on each side of the mold. Mills sold its molds in sets of fifty, with each mold making one or more clear toy candies, depending on the size of the candy to be made. Leonhard Schulze and Karl Hohnstock were two of the mold designers who worked for Mills before it closed in 1946.\nOther American mold", "-28.54927214190684" ], [ "different vending choices with the use of adjustable gumball and candy wheels. Adjustable gumball wheels allow an operator to not only offer the traditional 1-inch gumball, but they can also vend larger gumballs, and non-edible items such as toy capsules and bouncy balls . Adjustable candy wheels allow an operator to offer a variety of pressed candies, jelly candy, and even nuts. Full-line vending A full-line vending company may set up several types of vending machines that sell a wide range of products. Products may include candy, cookies, chips, fresh fruit, milk, cold food, coffee and other hot drinks, bottles,", "-28.18998569613177" ], [ "machine along a pair of \"L\"-shaped tracks — one on either side, and sweeps the pins and balls off the lane, rearwards off the pin-plate, and past the curtain and onto a rotating circular turntable in the pit, possessing eight flat radial \"fences\" to push the pins rearwards. Here, pins and balls separate, being spun off the \"fences\" of the steadily rotating turntable by centrifugal force into the pin elevator unit.\nA pin elevator composed of a roller chain-driven rotating rack of open frames (similar to an industrial toaster) catches the candlepins and hauls them towards the top of the machine,", "-28.17805806037086" ], [ "a card reader, a spooler can maintain a sequence of computational jobs waiting for data, starting each job when all of the relevant input is available; see batch processing. The spool itself refers to the sequence of jobs, or the storage area where they are held. In many cases the spooler is able to drive devices at their full rated speed with minimal impact on other processing.\nSpooling is a combination of buffering and queueing. Print spooling Nowadays, the most common use of spooling is printing: documents formatted for printing are stored in a queue at the speed of the", "-27.92672757562832" ], [ "systems, a machine is used to cut off the main root of the peanut plant by cutting through the soil just below the level of the peanut pods. The machine lifts the \"bush\" from the ground and shakes it, then inverts the bush, leaving the plant upside down on the ground to keep the peanuts out of the soil. This allows the peanuts to dry slowly to a little less than a third of their original moisture level over a period of three to four days. Traditionally, peanuts were pulled and inverted by hand.\nAfter the peanuts have dried sufficiently, they", "-27.8601467241333" ], [ "Fidget spinner Design Fidget spinners are toys not unlike yo-yo or other skill toys, designed to spin with little effort. A basic fidget spinner usually consists of a two- or three-pronged design with a bearing in its center circular pad. However, the number of prongs may vary - some may have six or more. A person holds the center pad while the toy spins. They are made from various materials including brass, stainless steel, titanium, copper, aluminium, and plastic. The bearings are generally ceramic, metal (stainless steel or chrome), and some are hybrids—such as ceramic balls with stainless races and", "-27.721839998470386" ], [ "belt, and the other is looped over a toe, or tied to a pole or furniture. Some traditional weavers weave between two poles, and wrap the weft around the poles. Commercial \"tablet weaving looms\" adapt this idea, and are convenient because they make it easy to put the work down.\nSome modern weavers thread each card individually, but this is time consuming. The traditional threading method is to put all the threads through the holes of an entire deck. Then, starting at the pair of cards farthest from the bobbins, the threads are pulled from between each", "-27.591525531151547" ], [ "out unmelted, while rock sugar crystals are too large to properly contact the heater, slowing the production of cotton candy.\nThe molten sugar solidifies in the air and is caught in a larger bowl which totally surrounds the spinning head. Left to operate for a period, the cotton-like product builds up on the inside walls of the larger bowl, at which point machine operators twirl a stick or cone around the rim of the large catching bowl, gathering the sugar strands into portions which are served on stick or cone, or in plastic bags. As the sugar reserve bowl empties, the", "-27.526195491875114" ], [ "either by hand or mechanically by using spinning wheels or industrial spinning machines to produce the yarn. The direction in which the yarn is spun is called twist. Yarns are characterized as S-twist or Z-twist according to the direction of spinning (see diagram). Two or more spun yarns may be twisted together or plied to form a thicker yarn. Generally, handspun single plies are spun with a Z-twist, and plying is done with an S-twist. With the exception of Mamluk carpets, nearly all the rugs produced in the countries of the rug belt use \"Z\" (anti-clockwise) spun and \"S\" (clockwise)-plied", "-27.5229091780202" ], [ "part to be bent protruding out. Each gripper has on one side a curved die which the protruding end will be bent over. The candy stick is first bent to a right angle as it is moved past and put into contact with an inclined face. The patent application describes two potential versions of the mechanism which complete the bending process.\nThe first version of the mechanism has a chain around two sprockets on which are mounted bending rollers. Each bending roller is attached to a cam which rides along another inclined face to move the roller along the protruding surface", "-27.522093688592577" ], [ "Bobs Candies Bobs Candies are a brand of candy manufactured by the Ferrara Candy Company. History Bobs Candies was founded as the Famous Candy Company in Albany, Georgia by investor Robert E. McCormack in 1919. He changed its name to Bobs' Candy Company in 1924 and later dropped the apostrophe. It is the largest manufacturer of striped candy in the world.\nMcCormack was the first manufacturer to wrap his candy in cellophane. Additionally, a family member is credited with inventing a machine for twisting and cutting stick candy in 1952. A year later, he invented a machine to bend it into", "-27.302218166123794" ], [ "the traditional candy and coconut wrap. Preparation To produce the traditional candy and coconut wraps, wafer slices, coconut flakes, sugar, water, cake flour are needed. First is to make the candy and coconut. Add white sugar to water, stir it and boil it until 120 degrees to make a syrup. Then pour the syrup into a bowl of cold water and cool it for a while. Use a round stick to drag the cooled syrup up and down for 10 minutes. Fill it with air to form the small tubes, then cool it again. Cut the cooled syrup into strips", "-27.29970165694249" ], [ "Cotton Candy grapes Cotton Candy grapes are a variety of grapes produced in California by Grapery, which became available for consumers to buy in 2011. Weighing in at about 18 grams of sugar per 100 grams of grapes, the Cotton Candy grapes have about 12 percent more sugar than regular table grapes. Development Grapery was founded by Jack Pandol and is owned by him and Jim Beagle. At International Fruit Genetics, fruit geneticist David Cain developed their patented Cotton Candy grapes and other varieties by using hand-pollination to cross pollinate millions of grapes to develop the desirable varieties.\nExperiments were", "-27.26061400128674" ], [ "magician then introduces a lemon and proceeds to cut it in half. The two halves of the lemon are pulled apart and the original bill is found inside. The audience can then verify that it is indeed their bill by comparing it to whatever they recorded earlier. Method Prior to performing the trick, the magician prepares the lemon by cutting a long slot into it by forcing a knife or pencil into the fruit from the end. A bill or card is then folded up and inserted into the hole. The flesh of the fruit will close up when the", "-27.251062719605216" ], [ "For additional research, other raw materials include flax, mohair, acrylic fiber, and more. Manufacturing process As stated above, each step in the process of making fiber into yarn is unique and can contribute different properties to the yarn. These steps are carding, combing, drawing out, twisting, and spinning. Carding A card is the first machine for spinning preparation. Carding is a process that cleans, disentangles, and blends slivers, which prepares the fibers to be spun into yarn. Carding causes parallelizing of the fibers, mixes, drafts, and forms slivers. (Gries) Combing Combing occurs after the carding process. It is an extra", "-27.206557790223997" ], [ "Textile manufacturing by pre-industrial methods Flax The preparations for spinning is similar across most plant fibres, including flax and hemp. Flax is the fibre used to create linen. Cotton is handled differently since it uses the fruit of the plant and not the stem. Harvesting Flax is pulled out of the ground about a month after the initial blooming when the lower part of the plant begins to turn yellow, and when the most forward of the seeds are found in a soft state. It is pulled in handfuls and several handfuls are tied together with slip knot into", "-27.20387663347583" ], [ "Needle threader A needle threader is a device for helping to put thread through the eye of a needle. Many kinds exist, though a common type combines a short length of fine wire bent into a diamond shape, with one corner held by a piece of tinplate or plastic. The user passes the wire loop through the needle eye, passes the string through the wire loop, and finally pulls both the loop back through the needle by the handle, which pulls the thread through. The typical needle threader of this type has the image of a woman in profile stamped", "-27.192740296122793" ], [ "loose strand (sliver or tow).\nThe carders line up the staples to prepare them for spinning. The carding machine consists mainly of one big roller with smaller ones surrounding it. All of the rollers are covered in small teeth, and as the cotton progresses further on the teeth get finer (i.e. closer together). The cotton leaves the carding machine in the form of a sliver; a large rope of fibres.\nIn drawing, 4 slivers are combined into one. Repeated drawing decreases the quality of the sliver drastically, disabling finer counts from being spun. Each sliver will have thin and thick spots.", "-27.17391861307624" ], [ "machines almost invariably do bar work, meaning a length of bar stock passes through the spindle and is gripped by the chuck (usually a collet chuck). As the part is being machined, the entire length of bar stock is rotated with the spindle. When the part is done, it is 'parted' from the bar, the chuck in released, the bar fed forward, and the chuck closed again, ready for the next cycle. The bar-feeding can happen by various means, including pulling-finger tools that grab the bar and pull or roller bar feed that pushes the bar from behind.\nLarger cam-operated automatic", "-27.157495030485734" ], [ "Spindle (tool) High speed spindle High speed spindles are used strictly in machines, like CNC mills, designed for metal work. There are two types of high speed spindles, each with different designs:", "-27.14763632467657" ], [ "machine making the purchase, which is overcome by the application of biometrics and smart vending software technology. Mold-A-Rama The Mold-A-Rama is a brand name for a type of vending machine that makes blow-molded plastic figurines. Mold-A-Rama machines debuted in late 1962 and grew in prominence at the 1964 New York World's Fair. The machines can still be found operating in dozens of museums and zoos. Fresh-squeezed orange juice The fresh-squeezed orange juice contains fresh oranges and a mechanism to cut and squeeze them on order to produce fresh juice. Prize vending machine This type of machine sells a", "-27.134687737066997" ], [ "Bowling machine In cricket a bowling machine is a device which enables a batsman to practice (usually in the nets) and to hone specific skills through repetition of the ball being bowled at a certain length, line and speed. It can also be used when there is no-one available to bowl, or no one of the desired style or standard.\nThere are a number of different types of bowling machine available to cricket coaches, each quite different in the ways they achieve the required delivery, though most allow the use of remote control, so that a coach can be closer to", "-27.101988104687734" ], [ "Candy pumpkin History Candy pumpkins are made using a similar process to make candy corn. The candy corn process and product were created by Géorge Renninger of the Wunderlee Candy Co. in the 1880s and became popular as a treat in the 1920s. Candy pumpkins first were produced in mid 20th century using a process similar to that of candy corn. Corn syrup, food coloring, honey, and sugar are beaten and heated in large kettles to produce an ultra-sweet syrup. This syrupy mix generically is called \"mellowcreme\" by confectioners, since the resulting candy has a mellow, creamy texture. The mellowcreme", "-27.053926975549984" ], [ "Spinning (textiles) Spinning is the twisting together of drawn-out strands of fibers to form yarn, and is a major part of the textile industry. The yarn is then used to create textiles, which are then used to make clothing and many other products. There are several industrial processes available to spin yarn, as well as hand-spinning techniques where the fiber is drawn out, twisted, and wound onto a bobbin. Explanation of spinning process The yarn issuing from the drafting rollers passes through a thread-guide, round a traveller that is free to rotate around a ring, and then onto a tube", "-27.04972186872328" ], [ "a complicated process. The candy mass, made of sugar, glucose and water, is warmed to 134 degrees Celsius, agitated in order to become airy and white, colored and folded into a striped, layered paste. The filling, consisting of roasted and ground hazelnuts with some fat and sugar, is then spread over the candy mass. The paste is wrapped into a 50 kilograms (110 lb) roll, which is drawn out by a machine to a length of about 2.5 kilometres (1.6 mi), and separated into the individual Mässmogge. The whole process must take no more than 25 minutes, in order to keep the", "-27.036015428027895" ], [ "hand or mechanically by using spinning wheels or industrial spinning machines to produce the yarn. The direction in which the yarn is spun is called twist. Yarns are characterized as S-twist or Z-twist according to the direction of spinning (see diagram). Two or more spun yarns may be twisted together or plied to form a thicker yarn. Generally, handspun single plies are spun with a Z-twist, and plying is done with an S-twist. Like nearly all Islamic rugs with the exception of Mamluk carpets, nearly all Persian rugs use \"Z\" (anti-clockwise) spun and \"S\" (clockwise)-plied wool. Dyeing The dyeing process", "-27.034570579999126" ], [ "commercial embroidery machines and combination sewing-embroidery machines have a hooping or framing system that holds the framed area of fabric taut under the sewing needle and moves it automatically to create a design from a pre-programmed digital embroidery pattern.\nDepending on its capabilities, the machine will require varying degrees of user input to read and sew embroidery designs. Sewing-embroidery machines generally have only one needle and require the user to change thread colors during the embroidery process. Multi-needle industrial machines are generally threaded prior to running the design and do not require re-threading. These machines require the user to input the", "-26.994410742503533" ], [ "any spinning, or for apprentices.\nCombing is another method to align the fibres parallel to the yarn, and thus is good for spinning a worsted yarn, whereas the rolag from handcards produces a woolen yarn. Spinning Hand spinning can be done by using a spindle or the spinning wheel. Spinning turns the carded wool fibres into yarn which can then be directly woven, knitted (flat or circular), crocheted, or by other means turned into fabric or a garment.\nThe spinning wheel collects the yarn on a bobbin.\nA woollen yarn is lightly spun so it is airey, and is a good insulator and", "-26.881067614907806" ], [ "used. Yarn Yarn for hand-knitting is usually sold as balls or skeins (hanks), and it may also be wound on spools or cones. Skeins and balls are generally sold with a yarn-band, a label that describes the yarn's weight, length, dye lot, fiber content, washing instructions, suggested needle size, likely gauge/tension, etc. It is common practice to save the yarn band for future reference, especially if additional skeins must be purchased. Knitters generally ensure that the yarn for a project comes from a single dye lot. The dye lot specifies a group of skeins that were", "-26.844459082362846" ], [ "out the wool to her side, and the right hand guides the twisting yarn into the orifice. The second wheel is completely homemade. It also uses a foot treadle, but the spinner faces the spindle orifice instead of the side of the flyer, and feeds the roving in directly. Today most of the spinning machines have been motorized. The First Nations-designed spinner heads were copied by manufacturers in the United States, Canada, and New Zealand due to the renewed popularity of crafts in the 1960s. The specially adapted spinning wheels are now known as Bulky", "-26.690652252895234" ], [ "Candy corn History \"Chicken Feed\" was the original name of the candy with production starting in the 1880s. Wunderlee Candy Company was the first to produce the candy. Following the 19th century, the Goelitz Confectionery Company (now called Jelly Belly) manufactured the product. Along with other agriculture-inspired treats at the time, the late 19th century, America's confectioners sought to market candy corn to a largely rural society.\nCandy corn is a staple of the Fall season and Halloween holiday in the United States of America. The taste of candy corn can be described as somewhat polarizing, and has been a", "-26.613215400724584" ], [ "subject of wide debate. Sales The National Confectioners Association estimates that 35 million pounds (over 9000 metric tons) of candy corn are sold annually. Production Originally the candy was made by hand. Manufacturers first combined sugar, corn syrup, carnauba wax, and water and cooked them to form a slurry. Fondant was added for texture and marshmallows were added to provide a soft bite. The final mixture was then heated and poured into shaped molds. Three passes, one for each colored section, were required during the pouring process.\nThe recipe remains basically the same today. The production method, called \"corn starch modeling,\"", "-26.602346296601354" ], [ "Threading (manufacturing) Threading is the process of creating a screw thread. More screw threads are produced each year than any other machine element. There are many methods of generating threads, including subtractive methods (many kinds of thread cutting and grinding, as detailed below); deformative or transformative methods (rolling and forming; molding and casting); additive methods (such as 3D printing); or combinations thereof. Overview of methods (comparison, selection, etc.) There are various methods for generating screw threads. The method chosen for any one application is chosen based on constraints—time, money, degree of precision needed (or not needed), what equipment is", "-26.575289452943252" ], [ "Doffer A doffer is someone who removes (\"doffs\") bobbins, pirns or spindles holding spun fiber such as cotton or wool from a spinning frame and replaces them with empty ones. Historically, spinners, doffers, and sweepers each had separate tasks that were required in the manufacture of spun textiles. From the early days of the industrial revolution, this work, which requires speed and dexterity rather than strength, was often done by children. After World War I, the practice of employing children declined, ending in the United States in 1933. In modern textile mills, doffing machines have now replaced humans. The 19th", "-26.56752844047878" ], [ "thicker yarn.\nRegular plying consists of taking two or more singles and twisting them together, the against their twist. This can be done on a spinning wheel or on a spindle. If the yarn was spun clockwise (which is called a \"Z\" twist ), to ply, the wheel must spin counter-clockwise (an \"S\" twist). This is the most common way. When plying from bobbins a device called a lazy kate is often used to hold them.\nMost hobby spinners (who use spinning wheels) ply from bobbins. This is easier than plying from balls because there is less chance for the", "-26.54398480746022" ], [ "the mill for processing. Three sorts of yarn were commonly produced: no-twist which was suitable for weft, tram that had received a slight twist making it easier to handle, and organizine which had a greater twist and was suitable for use as warp. Reeling is the process where the silk that has been wound into skeins, is cleaned, receives a twist and is wound onto bobbins. Silk throwing is the process where the filament from the bobbins is given its full twist. The process where filaments or threads from three or more bobbins are wound together is called doubling.The", "-26.52638327137538" ], [ "is eliminated. The spinning frame winds yarn around a bobbin. Generally, after this step the yarn is wound to a cone for knitting or weaving.\nIn a spinning mule, the roving is pulled off bobbins and sequentially fed through rollers operating at several different speeds, thinning the roving at a consistent rate. The yarn is twisted through the spinning of the bobbin as the carriage moves out, and is rolled onto a cop as the carriage returns. Mule spinning produces a finer thread than ring spinning. Spinning by the mule machine is an intermittent process as the frame advances and", "-26.448751911470026" ], [ "a commercial carding mill. The fleece is lightly washed in a tub of tepid water and then hung outside to dry. It is then teased or picked apart with fingers to remove any matted areas and loose dirt. The wool is then carded, leaving the wool in soft batts, where the fibers lie lengthwise. Taken to the spinning machine, the wool is deftly hand fed into the axle of the spindle. This separates sections of the batt of wool and allows the desired amount of spinning to take place before the tension is eased to wind the wool onto the", "-26.427985062466178" ], [ "Reed's Candy History Reed's candy was produced in the United States for over 100 years. The Reed's Candy Company is an American producer of confectionery, which was started by William and Eugene Reed, of Chicago. Together with their father, they founded the company in 1893 for the production and sale of butterscotch candies.\nThey expanded the candy line with their top selling product, the hard candy roll. The cooking process consisted of using copper kettles to boil butter, corn syrup and other ingredients to create an individually hard finished candy. Machinery was custom made to allow the", "-26.391341928290785" ], [ "involved in making larger items, such as shawls and ponchos. Although the technologies are relatively simple, creating a chuspas can take more than a week, and for a much smaller object.\nThe crafting process incorporates three basic stages: spinning, weaving, and embellishing. Using a hand spindle, a weaver spins coton, camelid fiber, or sheep's wool into a thread and then twists or piles two or more spun threads together to strengthen the yarn. When she has spun and piled enough yarn, the weaver turns to her loom. Horizontal ground looms are particularly common in the southern Andes, where most of the", "-26.380946475423116" ], [ "loops. Of these loops, the important ones are the two loops on the ends and the loop in the center. The loops on the ends are used to stretch the heddle between the top and bottom bars of a shaft and are typically just large enough for the heddle to slide along the shaft. The center loop is the eye through which a warp thread is passed and is placed in the center of the heddle. String heddles can also be crocheted, and come in many different forms.\nSome modern hand weavers use machine-crocheted polyester heddles. These synthetic heddles minimize some", "-26.304063112176664" ], [ "used to create garments. Carding or combing It is possible to spin directly from a clean fleece, but it is much easier to spin a carded fleece. Carding by hand yields a rolag, a loose woollen roll of fibres. Using a drum carder yields a bat, which is a mat of fibres in a flat, rectangular shape. Carding mills return the fleece in a roving, which is a stretched bat; it is very long and often the thickness of a wrist.A pencil roving is a roving thinned to the width of a pencil. It can used for knitting without", "-26.277596632920904" ], [ "Popcorn maker A popcorn maker (also called a popcorn popper) is a machine used to pop popcorn. Since ancient times, popcorn has been a popular snack food, produced through the explosive expansion of kernels of heated corn (maize). Commercial large scale popcorn machines were invented by Charles Cretors in the late 19th century. Many types of small scale home methods for popping corn also exist.\nCommercial popcorn machines are commonly found in movie theaters and carnivals, producing popcorn in a pan of hot oil, which has approximately 45% of its calories derived from fat. Hot air popcorn poppers appeared for home", "-26.239889547832718" ], [ "was profitable and machines offering 180,000 spindle were purchased by a sewing thread manufacturer.\nBrooks and other manufacturers now worked on improving the spinning frame. The principal cause for concern was the design of the Booth-Sawyer spindle. The bobbin did not fit tightly on the spindle and vibrated wildly at higher speeds. Howard & Bullough of Accrington used the Rabbath spindle, which solved these problems. Another problem was ballooning, where the thread built up in an uneven manner. This was addressed by Furniss and Young of Mellor Bottom Mill, Mellor by attaching an open ring to the traverse or ring rail.", "-26.197513178361987" ], [ "can then be passed on to other processes that are specific to the desired end use of the fibre: Cotton, batting, felt, woollen or worsted yarn, etc. Carding can also be used to create blends of different fibres or different colours. When blending, the carding process combines the different fibres into a homogeneous mix. Commercial cards also have rollers and systems designed to remove some vegetable matter contaminants from the wool.\nCommon to all carders is card clothing. Card clothing is made from a sturdy flexible backing in which closely spaced wire pins are embedded. The shape, length, diameter, and", "-26.19548768448294" ], [ "and produce yarn that is not widely available commercially. Sometimes these yarns are made available to non-spinners online and in local yarn stores. Handspinners also may spin for self-sufficiency, a sense of accomplishment, or a sense of connection to history and the land. In addition, they may take up spinning for its meditative qualities.\nWithin the recent past, many new spinners have joined into this ancient process, innovating the craft and creating new techniques. From using new dyeing methods before spinning, to mixing in novelty elements (Christmas Garland, eccentric beads, money, etc.) that would not normally be found in traditional", "-26.188870529978885" ], [ "Carding Carding is a mechanical process that disentangles, cleans and intermixes fibres to produce a continuous web or sliver suitable for subsequent processing. This is achieved by passing the fibers between differentially moving surfaces covered with card clothing. It breaks up locks and unorganised clumps of fibre and then aligns the individual fibers to be parallel with each other. In preparing wool fibre for spinning, carding is the step that comes after teasing.\nThe word is derived from the Latin carduus meaning thistle or teasel, as dried vegetable teasels were first used to comb the raw wool. Overview These ordered fibres", "-26.14277168706758" ], [ "a machine. Hand knitting patterns are designed to \"flip\" the fabric on every row so that the knitter consistently uses the dominant hand. However, machine knitting is consistently knit with the fabric facing the same way. Flat bed machines knit back and forth and circular machines knit continuously in the round.", "-26.114868352409758" ], [ "Bobbin Textiles As used in spinning, weaving, knitting, sewing, or lacemaking, the bobbin provides temporary or permanent storage for yarn and may be made of plastic, metal, bone, or wood.\nBobbin lacemaking is a handcraft which requires the winding of yarn onto a temporary storage spindle made of wood (or, in earlier times, bone) often turned on a lathe. Exotic woods are extremely popular with contemporary lacemakers.\nMany lace designs require dozens of bobbins at any one time. \nBoth traditional and contemporary bobbins may be decorated with designs, inscriptions, or pewter or wire inlays. Often, the bobbins are 'spangled' to provide additional", "-26.02095033893238" ], [ "Blender A blender (sometimes called a liquidiser in British English) is a kitchen and laboratory appliance used to mix, purée, or emulsify food and other substances. A stationary blender consists of a blender jar with a rotating metal blade at the bottom, powered by an electric motor in the base. Some powerful models can also crush ice. The newer immersion blender configuration has a motor on top connected by a shaft to a rotating blade at the bottom, which can be used with any container. Countertop blenders Countertop blenders use a 1–2 liters (4–8 cups) blending container made of glass,", "-26.017794021689042" ], [ "Knitting machine Types A few simple devices permit knitting without needles for toy or hobby purposes. The simplest of these is spool knitting, followed by knitting boards or knitting looms, which consist of two rows of pins mounted in two parallel rows approximately 0.5 inches (1.3 cm) apart. Yarn is wound around the pins; various patterns of winding produce different textured knitting. A needle or special tool is then used to transfer the loops of yarn from around the pins, either off the pins or to other pins, to produce the knitting. Knitting boards can produce complex designs. Other semi-mechanical knitting", "-25.941527573570056" ], [ "rotate and the bar is progressively shaped as it is rolled through the machine. The piece is then transferred to the next set of grooves or turned around and reinserted into the same grooves. This continues until the desired shape and size is achieved. The advantage of this process is there is no flash and it imparts a favorable grain structure into the workpiece.\nExamples of products produced using this method include axles, tapered levers and leaf springs. Net-shape and near-net-shape forging This process is also known as precision forging. It was developed to minimize cost and waste associated with post-forging", "-25.92972201037537" ], [ "machine head is large and made of industrial strength metal. It can be either hand-guided or computer guided, with controls at both the front and back ends to guide the head. For a full range of movement, the sewing machine head is placed on wheels that run on metal tracks along the frame of the machine. The sewing machine head can also come with a laser pointer, which can be used to guide the quilter along patterns, called pantographs. Pantographs are placed underneath the clear plastic region of the table. The hand-guided machine head contains handles by which the quilter", "-25.92505000899473" ], [ "nuts are used in panels that are too thin to be threaded or in soft materials that are too weak to be threaded. They are installed by pressing them in with an arbor press.\nThreaded inserts are commonly used in plastic casings, housing, and parts to create a metal thread (typically: Brass or Stainless Steel) to allow for screws to be used in the assembly of many consumer electronics and consumer products. These may be cast in place in injection molded parts or they may be added by thermal insertion. In the latter, the insert is heated and then", "-25.90991689965813" ], [ "allowed to cool. The final step sees the candy strings cut into rectangular lozenges, then wrapped and packaged.\nTraditionally, coconut candy is wrapped in two layers of wrappings. The inner layer is edible rice paper, and the outer layer is paper soaked in vegetable oil. These measures were necessary to stop the candy from sticking to the paper wrapping. Larger manufacturers now use heat-sealed foil paper, which does not stick to the candy. Economic importance Ben Tre currently has over one hundred coconut candy manufacturers, making up thirty percent of local enterprises. However, the market is dominated by a handful of", "-25.898881962159066" ], [ "them vaguely resemble candles (hence the name). Unlike other bowling pins, because they are vertically symmetrical, candlepins may be set on either end. Pin construction Bowling pins are constructed by gluing blocks of rock maple wood into the approximate shape, and then turning on a lathe. After the lathe shapes the pin, it is coated with a plastic material, painted, and covered with a glossy finish. Because of the scarcity of suitable wood, bowling pins can be made from approved synthetics. Currently there are synthetic pins sanctioned for play in five-pin, duckpin, and candlepin. There is one synthetic ten pin", "-25.874183901360084" ], [ "ways to ply a balanced yarn: regular and Navajo.\nWhen spinning fleece into yarn, the fleece must be scoured and vegetable matter removed. The fleece is carded or combed and then spun into singles. These singles are used to create the finished yarn in a process known as plying. The purpose of plying singles is to strengthen them so that they do not break while knitting or crocheting them.\nMost spinners (who use spinning wheels) ply from bobbins. This is easier than plying from balls because there is less chance for the yarn to become tangled and knotted if it is simply", "-25.83095921333006" ], [ "cages. Each fidget spinner also has two or more weights on the outside that make it spin faster and stay balanced. Bearings can vary to adjust for the design's spin time, vibration, and noise, causing unique sensory feedback.\nBeing a kind of a flywheel of a gyroscope in principle, fidget spinners come with similar effects enabling a player to pull various tricks and stunts while forces of a gyroscope take hold. A fidget spinner can be balanced on top of fingers, thrown and caught, and so on. Origin As of 2017, the patent status of the various fidget spinners on", "-25.81517338327103" ], [ "method of producing a three-ply yarn, in which one strand of singles is looped around itself in a manner similar to crochet and the resulting three parallel strands twisted together. This method is often used to keep colours together on singles dyed in sequential colours. Cabled yarns are usually four-ply yarns made by plying two strands of two-ply yarn together in the direction opposite to the plying direction for the two-ply yarns. Contemporary hand spinning Hand-spinning is still an important skill in many traditional societies. Hobby or small scale artisan spinners spin their own yarn to control specific yarn qualities", "-25.799480129164294" ], [ "Cotton gin A cotton gin is a machine that quickly and easily separates cotton fibers from their seeds, enabling much greater productivity than manual cotton separation. The fibers are then processed into various cotton goods such as linens, while any undamaged cotton is used largely for textiles like clothing. The separated seeds may be used to grow more cotton or to produce cottonseed oil. \nHandheld roller gins had been used in the Indian subcontinent since at earliest AD 500 and then in other regions. The Indian worm-gear roller gin, invented sometime around the 16th century, has, according to Lakwete, remained", "-25.789440438567908" ], [ "candy mass warm and malleable. History Candy canes were first introduced by French confectioners at Basel fairs in the 1860s, and sold in the form of thick candy lumps since about 1879. The confectioner Leonz Goldinger invented the current Mässmogge, with a hazelnut filling, at around 1900. At that time, the candies were produced directly at the fair and sold while still warm.\nUp until the 1960s, several confectioners produced Mässmogge for the Basel fairs. Because of the expense of producing the candy, the number of manufacturers has since dwindled to one, Sweet Basel AG.", "-25.778505675976703" ], [ "was Ring spinning.\nIn the 20th century, new techniques including Open End spinning or rotor spinning were invented to produce yarns at rates in excess of 40 meters per second. Materials Yarn can be, and is, spun from a wide variety of materials, including natural fibres such as animal, plant, and mineral fibres, and synthetic fibres. Twist and ply The direction in which the yarn is spun is called twist. Yarns are characterized as S-twist or Z-twist according to the direction of spinning (see diagram). Tightness of twist is measured in TPI (twists per inch or turns per inch).\nTwo or more", "-25.719141887202568" ], [ "spinner's hands.\nSpinning in the grease works best if the fleece is newly sheared. After several months, the lanolin becomes sticky, which makes the wool harder to spin using the short-draw technique, and almost impossible to spin using the long-draw technique. In general, spinners who use the long-draw technique do not spin in the grease.\nSuch spinners generally buy their fibres pre-washed and carded, in the form of roving, sliver, or batts. This means less work for the spinners, as they do not have to wash out the lanolin. Spinners then have available predyed fibre, or blends of fibres, which are hard", "-25.705969891383347" ], [ "Rocket candy Rocket Candy, or R-Candy, is a type of rocket propellant for model rockets made with sugar as a fuel, and containing an oxidizer. The propellant can be divided into three groups of components: the fuel, the oxidizer, and the additive(s). In the past, sucrose was most commonly used as fuel. Modern formulations most commonly use sorbitol for its ease of production. The most common oxidizer is potassium nitrate (KNO₃). Potassium nitrate is most commonly found in household stump remover. Additives can be many different substances, and either act as catalysts or enhance the aesthetics of the liftoff or", "-25.696981880930252" ], [ "Clear toy candy Candy making Traditional recipes for clear toy candy tend to include sugar, cream of tartar or corn syrup, and water. \nThe candy's natural color when cooled is yellow. Sometimes natural food coloring is added to make red or green. The molds are greased with olive oil, also referred to as \"sweet oil\", to prevent sticking. \nThe mold was removed while the candy was still somewhat soft, and less likely to break. Rough edges were then smoothed off.\nClear toy candy was often made in colder weather, to avoid the clouding and stickiness that could result from heat", "-25.65261716086752" ], [ "Rube Goldberg machine A Rube Goldberg machine, named after cartoonist Rube Goldberg, is a machine intentionally designed to perform a simple task in an indirect and overly complicated way. Usually, these machines consist of a series of simple unrelated devices; the action of each triggers the initiation of the next, eventually resulting in achieving a stated goal. \nThe design of such a \"machine\" is often presented on paper and would be impossible to implement in actuality. More recently, such machines are being fully constructed for entertainment (e.g. the breakfast scene in the movie Peewee's Big Adventure) and in", "-25.64927282580902" ], [ "Spinning mule The spinning mule is a machine used to spin cotton and other fibres. They were used extensively from the late 18th to the early 20th century in the mills of Lancashire and elsewhere. Mules were worked in pairs by a minder, with the help of two boys: the little piecer and the big or side piecer. The carriage carried up to 1,320 spindles and could be 150 feet (46 m) long, and would move forward and back a distance of 5 feet (1.5 m) four times a minute.\nIt was invented between 1775 and 1779 by Samuel Crompton. The self-acting (automatic)", "-25.54996287434733" ], [ "the yarn, thus making for a smoother end product. Machined yarns Machines that ply yarn use the 'regular' method mentioned above. The main difference is that gears control the intake, making sure that the strands all have the same tension and the same length. Other than that, the process for plying is exactly the same as when hand done. Novelty yarns Many novelty yarns make use of special plying techniques to gain their special effects. By varying the tension in the strands, or the relative sizes of the strands, or many other factors different effects can be achieved. For example,", "-25.50487782341952" ], [ "pair of cards out to the length of the warp, and hooked or tied on each end. If the cards remain \"paired\", so that alternate cards twist in opposite directions, continuous turning does not twist the ribbon. Some weavers in some patterns flip alternate cards, \"unpairing\" them. This makes it easier to turn individual cards.\nA shuttle about twice as wide as the ribbon is placed in the shed to beat the previous weft, then carry the next weft into the shed. Shuttles made for tablet weaving have sharp edges to beat down the weft. The", "-25.504521284992848" ], [ "spindle. When the spindle has filled, the wool is unwound and stored in balls or skeins. Dyeing All the dyes available to the Salish originated from natural plant and mineral sources. For example, such as red from red alder or western red cedar. \nThe modern hand dyeing process is described here and may be similar to the process previously used. All these processes require the yarn to be saturated in a pot containing the color source and water already boiled together. Next the yarn would be put in a mordant bath left to simmer for over an hour. Aluminum mordant", "-25.486712702777368" ], [ "hand labour with thin thread and needles or bobbins. Bobbin lace is made by weaving the threads by moving the bobbins over or under each other. Much bobbin lace is based on a net ground. By the end of the 18th century, people tried to produce the net ground mechanically. In 1765 they managed to create a tulle-like fabric on a so-called stocking framework. It took, however, some more years until the first real tulle could be produced mechanically. \nThe forerunner of the Bobbinet machines was the 1589 stocking frame, a weaving frame fitted with a bar of bearded needles", "-25.458912130856334" ], [ "on a Price Smith and Stells draw box of 1959. The bobbins from this machine are then placed in a further draw box by Prince Smith and Stells, this time an 1898 machine, and the thread from a pair of bobbins is drawn out to a seventh of its diameter, and given a light twist. If this output is to be used for Aran yarn production, it is termed a roving, and is sent on to the spinning frame. However, if the slubbing is for double knitting yarn, the slubbing must go through another reduction on a draw box.", "-25.43819304878707" ], [ "manipulation of the machine, Numerical Control with a punched card system or using Computer Numerical Control using a pre existing interface designed for that machine or by using a PC as an interface to communicate with the grinder. The first two options are rarely if ever used today. CNC operated cylindrical grinders are the most technologically advanced, efficient, reliable systems in the manufacturing industry.", "-25.39712227873315" ], [ "American Machine and Foundry developed a pretzel bender, an automatic baked pretzel-twisting machine that rolled and tied them at the rate of 50 a minute, more than twice as fast as skilled hand twisters. It then conveyed them through the baking and salting process.\nTo expand its line of recreational equipment, AMF bought W. J. Voit Rubber Corp. (tread rubber, scuba gear), Ben Hogan Co. (golfing equipment), and Wen-Mac Corp. (engine-powered toy airplanes).\nBy 1961, AMF controlled and operated 42 plants and 19 research facilities across 17 countries, producing everything from remote-controlled toy airplanes to ICBM launching systems. \nAMF was the builder", "-25.39113387263933" ], [ "1903 machines) was a simple batch processing system. Job descriptions were read in from cards or paper tape, peripherals and magnetic tape files were dynamically allocated to the job which was then run, producing output on the line printer.\nGeorge 2 added the concept of spooling. Jobs and input data were read in from cards or paper tape to an input well on disk or tape. The jobs were then run, writing output to disk or tape spool files, which were then written to the output peripherals. The input/processing/output stages were run in parallel, increasing machine utilisation.", "-25.389896569467965" ], [ "motion is known as feed, and sewing machines have almost as many ways of feeding material as they do of forming stitches. For general categories, there are: drop feed, needle feed, walking foot, puller, and manual. Often, multiple types of feed are used on the same machine. Besides these general categories, there are also uncommon feed mechanisms used in specific applications like edge joining fur, making seams on caps, and blindstitching. Drop feed The drop feed mechanism is used by almost all household machines and involves a mechanism below the sewing surface of the machine. When the needle is withdrawn", "-25.38372405373957" ], [ "today. Description Generally, a gumball machine consists of a clear sphere (originally glass, now most often plastic) which is filled with gumballs, sitting on top of a metal base. It has a metal top on top of it with a keyhole in top of it so that the top can be removed and gumballs can be put in. The coin is inserted into the base and a handle is turned around clockwise 360 degrees, depositing the coin in the base of the machine and allowing a gumball or trinket to be dispensed into a chute at the bottom of the", "-25.382188209427113" ], [ "Sugarcane mill Milling Juice extraction by milling is the process of squeezing the juice from the cane under a set mills using high pressure between heavy iron rollers. Those mills can have from 3 up to 6 rolls; every set of mills is called a tandem mill or mill train. To improve the milling extraction efficiency, imbibition water is added at each mill. Hot water is poured over the cane just before it enters the last mill in the milling train and is recirculated up to reach the first mill. The juice squeezed from this cane is low in sugar", "-25.3738850314694" ], [ "thread rolling, and coating. Screws are normally made from wire, which is supplied in large coils, or round bar stock for larger screws. The wire or rod is then cut to the proper length for the type of screw being made; this workpiece is known as a blank. It is then cold headed, which is a cold working process. Heading produces the head of the screw. The shape of the die in the machine dictates what features are pressed into the screw head; for example a flat head screw uses a flat die. For more complicated shapes two heading processes", "-25.36508261936069" ], [ "Candy History Candy has its origins mainly in Ancient India. Between the 6th and 4th centuries BCE, the Persians, followed by the Greeks, discovered the people in India and their \"reeds that produce honey without bees\". They adopted and then spread sugar and sugarcane agriculture. Sugarcane is indigenous to tropical South and Southeast Asia, while the word sugar is derived from the Sanskrit word Sharkara. Pieces of sugar were produced by boiling sugarcane juice in ancient India and consumed as Khanda, dubbed as the original candy and the etymology of the word.\nBefore sugar was readily available, candy was based on", "-25.352852512107347" ], [ "the preparer must take the gooey sugar, corn syrup, or sugar cane based gel and dip it into the sugar dough. Thirdly, the gooey chunk must be shaped into a ring resembling a doughnut, the key feature being the large hole. This step must by followed by repeatedly pulling, twisting, stretching, and folding the dough over on itself, doubling the number of strands created after each repetition. While the candy is being folded, it is recommended to keep the dough covered in toasted glutinous flour to prevent it from sticking to surfaces. The dough must then be stretched into paper-thin", "-25.331514548721316" ], [ "a textile mill is undertaken by a specially trained operator known as a weaver. Weavers are expected to uphold high industry standards and are tasked with monitoring anywhere from ten, to as many as thirty separate looms at any one time. During their operating shift, weavers will first utilize a wax pencil or crayon to sign their initials onto the cloth to mark a shift change, and then walk along the cloth side (front) of the looms they tend, gently touching the fabric as it comes from the reed. This is done to feel for any broken \"picks\" or", "-25.30291859791464" ], [ "Mechanical counter Mechanical counters are digital counters built using mechanical components. Long before electronics became common, mechanical devices were used to count events. They typically consist of a series of disks mounted on an axle, with the digits zero through nine marked on their edge. The right most disk moves one increment with each event. Each disk except the left-most has a protrusion that, after the completion of one revolution, moves the next disk to the left one increment. Such counters were used as odometers for bicycles and cars and in tape recorders and fuel dispensers and to control manufacturing", "-25.300829975170018" ], [ "Orcik candy Orcik candy (Turkish: orcik şekeri) is a confection made of walnuts and a slightly fermented juice called şıra that is made with grapes or blackberries. It is a regional specialty of Elazığ. It is similar to churchkhela (called cevizli sucuk in Turkish), but the walnut and grape mixture is stuffed into hand pulled candy.", "-25.289385926334944" ], [ "are more or less aligned in the same direction. The aligned fibre is then peeled from the card as a rolag. Carding is an activity normally done outside or over a drop cloth, depending on the wool's cleanliness. Rolag is peeled from the card. \nThis product (rovings, rolags, and batts) can be used for spinning.\nCarding of wool can either be done \"in the grease\" or not, depending on the type of machine and on the spinner's preference. \"In the grease\" means that the lanolin that naturally comes with the wool has not been washed out, leaving the wool with a", "-25.288783650001278" ], [ "naturally colored cotton. Natural Cotton Colors Inc. Fox is the founder and owner of the company Natural Cotton Colors Inc. Fox's breakthrough occurred in 1988 at Texas Tech University when she successfully produced her first species of naturally colored cotton that could be spun on a machine. After a sale with a Japanese textile mill, Fox quit her job at Sandoz Crop Protection and founded Natural Cotton Colors Inc., setting up base in Wasco, California. \nFox's second major sale occurred in 1989, when she sold 122 bushels of cotton to a different Japanese mill for $279,000. Following these sales,", "-25.274779700123286" ] ]

[ "It's a complicated answer with a few causes so I will try to go over a few. Insurance premiums are high because costs to insurance companies are high. These costs come from a few sources. Hospitals do not refuse ER treatment to the uninsured and when those people default on the HUGE bills, the hospital must just deal with that. Because of this, people who CAN pay (insurance companies), must pay extra for the hospital to break even/ make a profit. This is only a small part of the story, though. Costs are high because doctors get paid a lot. Not that they do not deserve a high salary, but the cost of *becoming* a doctor is incredible. Due to this, a high salary is required to pay off the mountains of debt each doctor is likely in from getting an education. Costs are high because of pharmaceutical companies charging thousands of dollars per dose of lifesaving medication. Insurance companies try to encourage people towards generics because it costs much, much less to them. Let's say you need Pill A to live. Pill A is a name brand which costs $1,00 per dose. There is a generic version of Pill A available at only $200 per dose and it works just as well. Your doctor may not know what the actual cost of Pill A is, and he prescribes it to you. You have an option to go with a generic but many people prefer a name brand. Co-Pays exist to encourage you to choose alternatives like generics. Let's say you have a $100 co-pay on Pill A, but only a $5 co-pay on the generic. This is your insurance company's way of encouraging you to the cheaper option. If you choose the generic, your insurance company has to pay the other $195 that is left after your co-pay. That sounds like a lot still, but it's still better for them than having to pay the other $900 left for the name brand Pill A. Costs are high because of malpractice insurance. Suing for medical malpractice is surprisingly easy, and because of this, doctors have to pay for insurance in case it happens to them. Whether it is a good or a bad thing is irrelevant: these costs are passed on to the consumer. Costs are high because of how insurance works on a fundamental basis. Young, healthy people are MUCH less likely to actually make claims on their insurance. Old/sick people are MUCH more likely to go to the hospital and therefore they make more claims to the insurance company. The insurance company needs to have a LOT of young, healthy people paying every month to have enough money to pay for sick people as well as make a profit. This is called the insurance 'pool'. The larger the pool is, the lower the costs can be for each person in the pool. A big insurance company has more healthy people paying in, which mitigates the costs of the fewer number of sick people. There are other reasons at all, but it's impressive that a 5 year old is in a micro econ class.", "It's high for these reasons (not listed in any particular order): * Medicaid and Medicare insist on lower rates. Hospitals and doctors need to get that money back somehow, and hey do so by charging everyone else higher rates. * Some people don't pay health insurance, but still end up getting services for free. Hospitals and doctors need to get that money back somehow, and they do so by charging everyone else higher rates. * Many other countries regulate health prices low enough that companies only turn profits based on products sold in the USA. In other words, the USA is subsidizing the rest of the world. * There is little regulation of costs in the USA. Health care is not a regulated utility like electricity or natural gas often is. It is also not fully government managed. * People are removed from the actual costs of health decisions. There's an attitude that you should be able to go anywhere, get 5-star health service, and only pay a copay of $25. So doctors can frequently charge what they want, and insurance often pays a large portion of it. * It is near impossible to go shopping for health procedures by price. If you are uninsured, and you call around to various places and ask prices for a simple visit or a simple procedure, nobody will tell you a price. People don't ask this, and thus people don't know how to provide it. * In some markets, there isn't enough competition between health providers and/or insurance. In those markets, health costs go up. (I happen to live in the Ogden-Clearfield Utah area, which was just rated #1 in lowest health costs. We have a handful of options, which drives costs down. It's still expensive, but half the nationwide average.) * Some insurance is for profit. Their profit margin is very small (say, 3%), but that 3% does add on top of existing health costs. * Studies have indicated that malpractice lawsuits add roughly an additional 2% that is perhaps frivolously large. * The medical world in the USA feels in some sense entitled to high salaries. Becoming a specialist is an easy way to pull in a $200k salary. Anesthesiologists often make much more than that. There's very little pressure to make those salaries smaller. * There is more demand for skilled medical professionals. And the way people become licensed is heavily regulated and restricted. * The USA largely functions on an employer sponsored insurance model, and it's heavily regulated, insisting that insurance must cover a wide range of things. This also heavily hides costs and choice from consumers. * It costs a massive amount of money to research, test, and approve a pharmaceutical drug. Those drugs only get a short life span before generics can come in and effectively steal the market away. So those new drugs often seem ridiculously expensive. * Our society is fat. * Our society is unhealthy. The recent passed health legislation (The Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act) does little to reform these costs to make them better. What it focused on instead is increasing regulation so that insurance covers more things. It also subsizes the employer sponsored health insurance model. It also expands the role of Medicaid. It obtains lower health care costs by raising taxes on the rich, and redistributing that money to help pay for insurance to anyone making $80,000 or less, on a sliding scale, (if the individual does not want employer sponsored insurance).", "Insurance agent here: Looks like you've got a TON of debate as to reasons why. I'll give you the reasons I've run into working mainly with healthcare industries and professionals. 1. The US is pretty damn unhealthy. 33% obesity? It's insane. 2. Medical professionals face *incredible* expenses. Not just the cost of education, but equipment, business operations, and especially the insane expense of malpractice insurance. Which brings me to: 3. Rapid expansion of lawsuits. Whether the vast number of medical related lawsuits is warranted or not, I'll not comment. But the sheer number means every doctor can expect to be named in a suit at least a couple times in their careers. 4. Large aging population. The baby boomers are hitting their unhealthy years and the price is passed on to the consumer base in general. 5. Insurance company greed. This is not a real strong contributor, since many small groups try to create health care 'pools' or 'clubs' where they share the cost of each others' health care and find that they're paying just as much as they would for a traditional health insurance plan. 6. Big Pharma. Discussed in detail elsewhere in this thread.", "Insurance premiums are high because insurance payouts are high and the likelihood of having to pay out is also high. The real question is why healthcare costs are so high (highest per person in the world) in the US. That's a question with an answer far more complex than I can offer, but I'd offer my oversimplified summary. Healthcare in the US is a for-profit endeavour with limited competition.", "I know a guy who entered the ER with stroke symptoms, after it was deemed it was a stroke he was given a $15,000 thrombolytic drug to dissolve the clot. $15,000 for one does of this drug. Fucking maddening. Excuse my language, I don't normally curse in front of 5 yearolds." ]

[ [ "27 million under age 65 were uninsured. Price transparency issues Unlike most markets for consumer services in the United States, the health care market generally lacks transparent market-based pricing. Patients are typically not able to comparison shop for medical services based on price, as medical service providers do not typically disclose prices prior to service. Government mandated critical care and government insurance programs like Medicare also impact market pricing of U.S. health care. According to the New York Times in 2011, \"the United States is far and away the world leader in medical spending, even though numerous studies have concluded", "-34.79833569654147" ], [ "that Americans do not get better care\" and prices are the highest in the world.\nIn the U.S. medical industry, patients generally do not have access to pricing information until after medical services have been rendered. A study conducted by the California Healthcare Foundation found that only 25% of visitors asking for pricing information were able to obtain it in a single visit to a hospital. This has led to a phenomenon known as \"surprise medical bills\", where patients receive large bills for service long after the service was rendered.\nSince the majority (85%) of Americans have health insurance, they do", "-34.732987160095945" ], [ "in other countries. Medicaid pays less than Medicare for many prescription drugs due to the fact Medicaid discounts are set by law, whereas Medicare prices are negotiated by private insurers and drug companies. Government plans often pay less than overhead, resulting in healthcare providers shifting the cost to the privately insured through higher prices. Composition of economic sectors The United States is the world's second-largest manufacturer, with a 2013 industrial output of US$2.4 trillion. Its manufacturing output is greater than of Germany, France, India, and Brazil combined.\nIts main industries include petroleum, steel, automobiles, construction machinery, aerospace, agricultural machinery, telecommunications, chemicals, electronics,", "-34.25615658244351" ], [ "may be less expensive than US domestic insurance and healthcare.\nAn International Health Insurance policy will typically calculate premiums based on a policyholder's age, current medical history, and area of coverage, rather than on their claims history. These plans usually offer one of two areas of coverage: Worldwide; or Worldwide excluding the USA (other countries may be excluded as well). The reason for this is that medical care in the USA is the most expensive in the world, but most international insurance companies will rank countries by medical costs and have premiums adjusted accordingly.\nThe majority of international health insurance plans for", "-33.39337049634196" ], [ "Health Insurance Association of America, health insurance is defined as \"coverage that provides for the payments of benefits as a result of sickness or injury. It includes insurance for losses from accident, medical expense, disability, or accidental death and dismemberment\" (p. 225). Comparisons The Commonwealth Fund, in its annual survey, \"Mirror, Mirror on the Wall\", compares the performance of the health care systems in Australia, New Zealand, the United Kingdom, Germany, Canada and the U.S. Its 2007 study found that, although the U.S. system is the most expensive, it consistently under-performs compared to the other countries. One difference between the U.S.", "-33.190840963914525" ], [ "keep premiums from rising for everyone, it is necessary for healthier people to pay into the insurance pools to balance out the cost of these higher cost individuals.\nArguing against requiring individuals to buy coverage, the Cato Institute has asserted that the Massachusetts law forcing everyone to buy insurance has increased costs: \"Premiums are growing 21 to 46 percent faster than the national average, in part because Massachusetts' individual mandate has effectively outlawed affordable health plans.\" They say that \"the mandate gives politicians enormous power to dictate the content of every American's health plan – a power that health care", "-33.04535279895208" ], [ "in the U.S. is below the OECD median by most measures. The authors of the study concluded that the prices paid for health care services are much higher in the U.S. Distribution of spending by service type Healthcare spending in the U.S. was distributed as follows by type of service in 2014: Hospital care 32%; physician and clinical services 20%; prescription drugs 10%; and all other, including many categories individually making up less than 7% of spending. These first three categories accounted for 62% of spending.\nThis distribution is relatively stable; in 2008, 31% went to hospital care, 21% to physician/clinical", "-32.26936547993682" ], [ "physicians.\nMost provider markets (especially hospitals) are also highly concentrated—roughly 80%, according to criteria established by the FTC and Department of Justice—so insurers usually have little choice about which providers to include in their networks, and consequently little leverage to control the prices they pay. Large insurers frequently negotiate most-favored nation clauses with providers, agreeing to raise rates significantly while guaranteeing that providers will charge other insurers higher rates.\nAccording to some experts, such as Uwe Reinhardt, Sherry Glied, Megan Laugensen, Michael Porter, and Elizabeth Teisberg, this pricing system is highly inefficient and is a major cause of rising health care costs.", "-32.268816070631146" ], [ "health insurance premium for single coverage would be $6,400 and family coverage would be $15,500 in 2016. The annual rate of increase in premiums has generally slowed after 2000, as part of the trend of lower annual healthcare cost increases.\nThe Federal Government subsidizes the employer-based market by an estimated $250 billion per year (about $1,612 per person covered in the employer market), by excluding health insurance premiums from employee income. This subsidy encourages people to buy more extensive coverage (which places upward pressure on average premiums), while also encouraging more young, healthy people to enroll (which places downward pressure on", "-32.26415431831265" ], [ "Health care costs in the United States vary enormously between plans and geographical regions, even when input costs are fairly similar, and rise very quickly. Health care costs have risen faster than economic growth at least since the 1970s. Public health insurance programs typically have more bargaining power as a result of their greater size and typically pay less for medical services than private plans, leading to slower cost growth, but the overall trend in health care prices have led public programs' costs to grow at a rapid pace as well. Other types of health insurance (non-medical) While the", "-32.23667014436796" ], [ "for standard or preferred premiums. Some states have outlawed medical underwriting as a prerequisite for individually purchased health coverage. These states tend to have the highest premiums for individual health insurance. Causes Americans who are uninsured may be so because their job does not offer insurance; they are unemployed and cannot pay for insurance; or they may be financially able to buy insurance but consider the cost prohibitive. During 2009 the continued low employment rate has negatively affected those who had previously been enrolled in employment-based insurance policies. Census Bureau states a 55 percent drop. Other uninsured Americans have", "-32.234927755373064" ], [ "have contributed to rising premiums including increases in spending on hospital and physician services, changes in the benefits covered by health insurance policies, and changes in the demographics of insured individuals. Even before the passage of the ACA, many states already had existing health insurance rate review programs to review proposed increases in insurance premiums. However, there was marked variation between the states' programs. Namely, there was variation in the review processes as well as the market segments (i.e. individual, small group) for which the review processes were applied. The type of information that was made available to the", "-32.148437178635504" ], [ "Canada.\nOne of the reasons drug prices are much higher in the US compared to other industrialized countries is that the U.S. lacks a national healthcare system that directly negotiates with the pharmaceutical industry. Rather, most negotiations occur between pharmaceutical companies and private insurers or vendors.\nIn 2003, a Republican-majority Congress created Medicare Part D, which prevented Medicare, the country's largest single-payer health care system, from negotiating drug prices. In effect, drug manufacturers in the US were allowed to set their own prices resulting in the unregulated pricing variation for prescription drugs. However, the government does employ drug pricing strategies for other", "-32.13719359895913" ], [ "higher-priced technologies. The study also mentions cost-shifting from government programs to private payers. Low reimbursement rates for Medicare and Medicaid have increased cost-shifting pressures on hospitals and doctors, who charge higher rates for the same services to private payers, which eventually affects health insurance rates.\nIn March 2010, Massachusetts released a report on the cost drivers which it called \"unique in the nation\". The report noted that providers and insurers negotiate privately, and therefore the prices can vary between providers and insurers for the same services, and it found that the variation in prices did not vary based on quality of", "-32.12806035246467" ], [ "administration costs, drug pricing, suppliers charging more for medical equipment, the receiving of more medical care than people in other countries, the high wages of doctors, government regulations, the impact of lawsuits, and third party payment systems insulating consumers from the full cost of treatments. The lowest prices for pharmaceuticals, medical devices, and payments to physicians are in government plans. Americans tend to receive more medical care than people do in other countries, which is a notable contributor to higher costs. In the United States, a person is more likely to receive open heart surgery after a heart attack than", "-32.02831703692209" ], [ "and Medicaid (Medicaid provides free long-term care to the elderly poor). The fiscal and human impact of these issues have motivated reform proposals.\nAccording to 2009 World Bank statistics, the U.S. had the highest healthcare costs relative to the size of the economy (GDP) in the world, even though estimated 50.2 million citizens (approximately 15.6% of the September 2011 estimated population of 312 million) lacked insurance. In March 2010, billionaire Warren Buffett commented that the high costs paid by U.S. companies for their employees' health care put them at a competitive disadvantage.\nFurther, an estimated 77 million Baby Boomers are reaching retirement", "-31.93045379332034" ], [ "rate, among adults aged 18–64. As of December 2016 there were 32 states (including Washington DC) that had adopted the Medicaid extension, while 19 states had not.\nBy 2017, nearly 70% of those on the exchanges could purchase insurance for less than $75 per month after subsidies, which rose to offset significant pre-subsidy price increases in the exchange markets. Healthcare premium cost increases in the employer market continued to lessen. For example, healthcare premiums for those covered by employers rose by 69% from 2000 to 2005, but only 27% from 2010 to 2015, with only a 3% increase from 2015 to", "-31.809612428987748" ], [ "doctors are employed by the government.\nThe Centers for Medicare and Medicaid (CMS) reported that U.S. health care costs rose 5.8% to reach $3.2 trillion in 2015, or $9,990 per person. As measured by CMS, the share of the U.S. economy devoted to health care spending was 17.8% GDP in 2015, up from 17.4% in 2014. Increases were driven by the coverage expansion that began in 2014 as a result of the Affordable Care Act (i.e., more persons demanding healthcare or more healthcare units consumed) as well as higher healthcare prices per unit.\nU.S. healthcare costs are considerably higher than other countries", "-31.729341129248496" ], [ "particular interest because of the high and rising costs of health care delivery despite legislative attempts to address them, such the Affordable Care Act (Obamacare). While there have been pilot programs launched by major insurance carriers such as UnitedHealthcare to control costs in the most costly medical conditions like cancer, for now the primary application of flat-rate pricing has been in medical imaging, such as x-rays, MRIs, mammograms, and ultrasounds. Regional companies such as Med Health Services Inc. in the Pittsburgh area and Northwest Radiology Network of Indianapolis have been among the first in the nation to implement the practice", "-31.665123689104803" ], [ "as well as higher healthcare prices per unit.\nU.S. healthcare costs are considerably higher than other countries as a share of GDP, among other measures. According to the OECD, U.S. healthcare costs in 2015 were 16.9% GDP, over 5% GDP higher than the next most expensive OECD country. A gap of 5% GDP represents $1 trillion, about $3,000 per person relative to the next most expensive country. In other words, the U.S. would have to cut healthcare costs by roughly one-third ($1 trillion or $3,000 per person on average) to be competitive with the next most expensive country. Per capita The", "-31.636035858187824" ], [ "a major participant in the financial and medical choices that affect costs. The Cato Institute claims that because government intervention has expanded insurance availability through programs such as Medicare and Medicaid, this has exacerbated the problem. According to a study paid for by America's Health Insurance Plans (a Washington lobbyist for the health insurance industry) and carried out by PriceWaterhouseCoopers, increased utilization is the primary driver of rising health care costs in the U.S. The study cites numerous causes of increased utilization, including rising consumer demand, new treatments, more intensive diagnostic testing, lifestyle factors, the movement to broader-access plans, and", "-31.604580065308255" ], [ "A scenario where prices rise, due to an unfavorable mix of customers from the insurer's perspective, resulting in fewer customers and fewer insurers in the marketplace, further raising prices, has been called a \"death spiral.\" During 2017, the median number of insurers offering plans on the ACA exchanges in each state was 3.0, meaning half the states had more and half had fewer insurers. There were five states with one insurer in 2017; 13 states with two; 11 states with three; and the remainder had four insurers or more. Wisconsin had the most, with 15 insurers in the marketplace. The", "-31.55919925343187" ], [ "premiums; PolitiFact found that the claim was false. Premiums rose by as much at 105 percent, down to \"a slightly smaller increase of about 76 percent. ... Holding’s claim that \"we’re all paying 100 percent more\" was especially misleading because only 2 to 5 percent of people are affected by premium increases on the Affordable Care Act’s individual market. Holding cherry-picked the smallest market for insurance and suggested that everyone was suffering that way.\"", "-31.501767280784406" ], [ "who knew the price of everything but the value of nothing. Indeed, many physicians were willing to lie to get patients what they needed from insurance companies that were trying to hold costs down.\n\nThe tipping point came when the media began reporting that the high cost of pharmaceuticals forced some elderly to choose between drugs and food ... When health care began compromising access to other important goods--food, heating, and education--it ceased to be so special it was beyond cost. Today, saying that health care is so special that its cost is irrelevant serves to discredit the source ...\n\nIncreasingly, Americans", "-31.49211518651282" ], [ "healthcare premiums for those covered by employers rose by 69% from 2000 to 2005, but only by 27% from 2010 to 2015. To put these trends into perspective, the 2017 Economic Report of the President stated,\nBecause of slow growth in costs in employer coverage...the average costs for a family with employer-based coverage in 2016 were $4,400 below where they would have been had costs grown at their pace over the decade before the ACA became law.\nWhile these slower cost increases began before the ACA, they continued or further improved after its implementation.\nThe ACA also provided subsidies to help lower-income families", "-31.384329867505585" ], [ "other healthcare related services, the insured still experience rationing due to increasing premiums and rising healthcare costs.\nFrom 2005 to 2015, the average annual employer-sponsored health insurance premiums for family coverage increased 61%. During this time, worker contribution increased even higher by 83%. The growth in employer-sponsored premiums as well as deductibles has led individuals and families to ration health care. High premiums and deductibles encourage individuals and families to think twice before they use health services and lessens the ability for individuals to consume other goods and services.\nIn Canada citizens have a universal healthcare system which grants them access to", "-31.35278052467038" ], [ "2015 was $1,162 per person on average, versus $807 for Canada, $766 for Germany, $668 for France, and $497 for the UK. Reasons for higher costs The reasons for higher U.S. healthcare costs relative to other countries and over time are debated by experts.", "-31.3401244560373" ], [ "costs the U.S. insurance industry approximately $150 billion each year. Other non-industry sources suggest it may be as low as $5.4 billion, suggesting that insurance companies are over-inflating the seriousness of the problem to divert more law enforcement towards health insurance fraud.", "-31.270416709565325" ], [ "for Health Metrics and Evaluation, the U.S. was ranked 27th in the world for healthcare and education, down from 6th in 1990. Cost U.S. healthcare costs are considerably higher than other countries as a share of GDP, among other measures. According to the OECD, U.S. healthcare costs in 2015 were 16.9% GDP, over 5% GDP higher than the next most expensive OECD country. A gap of 5% GDP represents $1 trillion, about $3,000 per person or one-third higher relative to the next most expensive country.\nThe high cost of health care in the United States is attributed variously to technological advance,", "-31.248416834016098" ], [ "drugs, devices and medical services across countries. According to their 2013 report, the U.S. pays considerably more than other countries in 22 of 23 categories. For example, the average cost of a hip replacement in the U.S. was $40,364, with other countries ranging from $3,365 (Argentina) to $27,810 (Australia). An MRI averaged $1,121 in the U.S. versus $280 in France. The reasons for these differences are driven by higher prices per unit of service, rather than a higher volume of usage. In other countries, governments intervene more forcefully in setting prices. In countries such as Canada and Britain, prices are", "-31.197233444545418" ], [ "sometimes using government-established prices such as Medicaid billing rates as a reference point. This reasoning has led for calls to reform the insurance system to create a consumer-driven health care system whereby consumers pay more out-of-pocket. In 2003, the Medicare Prescription Drug, Improvement, and Modernization Act was passed, which encourages consumers to have a high-deductible health plan and a health savings account. Coverage Enrollment rules in private and governmental programs result in millions of Americans going without health care coverage, including children. A 2016 breakdown of the uninsured revealed that many did not enroll into programs, with 46% citing high", "-31.191758200014192" ], [ "treatment of very sick elderly versus palliative care; less use of government intervention in pricing; and higher income levels driving greater demand for healthcare. Healthcare costs are a fundamental driver of health insurance costs, which leads to coverage affordability challenges for millions of families. There is ongoing debate whether the current law (ACA/Obamacare) and the Republican alternatives (AHCA and BCRA) do enough to address the cost challenge.\nAccording to 2009 World Bank statistics, the U.S. had the highest health care costs relative to the size of the economy (GDP) in the world, even though estimated 50 million citizens (approximately 16% of", "-31.126412051773514" ], [ "insurance companies, giving service to those citizens is deeply risky, so the government gives them some money to reduce the cost.\nIn normal insurance markets, insurers price high-risk individuals at a higher premium to discourage them from buying insurance and offer lower-risk individuals lower premiums. That can make insurance phenomenally expensive for the elderly and those in poor health at a time that they can least afford to pay for insurance because they are not earning an income. Young people, on the other hand, for whom ill health is not a major concern, often do not buy health insurance even though", "-31.110084434621967" ], [ "as a share of GDP, among other measures. According to the OECD, U.S. healthcare costs in 2015 were 16.9% GDP, over 5% GDP higher than the next most expensive OECD country. A gap of 5% GDP represents $1 trillion, about $3,000 per person relative to the next most expensive country. In other words, the U.S. would have to cut healthcare costs by roughly one-third to be competitive with the next most expensive country.\nReasons for higher costs than other countries including higher administrative costs, spending more for the same services (i.e., higher prices per unit), receiving more medical care (units) per", "-31.08175230872439" ], [ "that the U.S. spends so much because its health care system is more costly. It noted that \"the United States spent considerably more on health care than any other country ... [yet] most measures of aggregate utilization such as physician visits per capita and hospital days per capita were below the OECD median. Since spending is a product of both the goods and services used and their prices, this implies that much higher prices are paid in the United States than in other countries. The researchers examined possible reasons and concluded that input costs were high (salaries, cost of pharmaceutical), and", "-31.026723676011898" ], [ "in the individual market for health insurance marketplace plans.\nPrior to the ACA as of 2007, about 9% of Americans were covered under health insurance purchased directly, with average out-of-pocket spending is higher in the individual market, with higher deductibles, co-payments and other cost-sharing provisions. While self-employed individuals receive a tax deduction for their health insurance and can buy health insurance with additional tax benefits, most consumers in the individual market do not receive any tax benefit. Traditional indemnity or fee-for-service Early hospital and medical plans offered by insurance companies paid either a fixed amount for specific diseases or medical procedures", "-31.016115591381094" ], [ "just physical illness but fix its underlying nutritional, social, emotional, and spiritual causes. Most users pay for these services out of pocket, as insurance tends to provide either partial or no coverage of most services. Total out of pocket costs in 1997 were estimated to be about $27.0 billion. Spending The U.S. spends more as a percentage of GDP than similar countries, and this can be explained either through higher prices for services themselves, higher costs to administer the system, or more utilization of these services, or to a combination of these elements. Health care costs rising far faster than", "-30.98544738269993" ], [ "Prescription drug prices in the United States History Pharmaceutical drugs are the only major health care service in which the producer is able to set prices with little constraint, according to Peter Bach from the Health Outcomes Research Group, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York and Steven Pearson from the Institute for Clinical and Economic Review, Boston. As of 2004, prices of brand name drugs were significantly higher in the United States (US) than in Canada, India, the UK and other countries, nearly all of which have price controls, while prices for generic drugs tended to be higher in", "-30.862629418086726" ], [ "listed extremely high prices \"devoid of any calculation related to cost\", and were generally regarded as \"fiction\" in the healthcare industry, despite their significant role in setting prices for both insured and uninsured patients alike. Then, a couple months later, the Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services published inpatient prices for hospitals across the country in a publicly available format.\n\"The 'full charges' reflected on hospital Charge Masters are unconscionable\", wrote George A. Nation III in a 2005 piece for the Kentucky Law Journal. Health care economist scholar Uwe Reinhardt noted in a 2006 article for Health Affairs that the approach", "-30.846274126815842" ], [ "as shown by the fact that in 2007 60% of companies offered their workers health insurance down from 69% in 2000. Also the number of Americans who reported skipping treatment due to its cost has increased from 17% to 24% during the same time period. Education The Center for American Progress reported in September 2014 that the real (inflation adjusted) cost of higher education for middle-class families had risen by 62% between 2000 and 2012. The benefits of higher education are something that clearly correlates to higher income in later life, with findings showing that the average high school graduate", "-30.717894657158467" ], [ "consumer price index (general inflation), but as medical expenses have been rising much faster than the consumer price index, the value of the government subsidy would erode over time. When the program begins in 2022, the typical 65-year old would be responsible for about 25% of the cost of their healthcare, which is consistent with Medicare as it exists today. However, the share paid out-of-pocket by this typical 65-year-old in 2030 would be 68% under the Republican plan, according to the bipartisan Congressional Budget Office.\nRyan claimed that his new Medicare plan was modeled after the health care plans that Congressmen", "-30.693367733154446" ], [ "afford insurance. By 2017, nearly 70% of those on the exchanges could purchase insurance for less than $75/month after subsidies. CBO estimated that subsidies paid under the law in 2016 averaged $4,240 per person for 10 million people receiving them, roughly $42 billion. For scale, the subsidy for the employer market, in the form of exempting from taxation those health insurance premiums paid on behalf of employees by employers, was approximately $1,700 per person in 2016, or $266 billion for the 155 million persons in the employer market. The employer market subsidy was not changed by the law. Budgetary impact", "-30.60112410961301" ], [ "that the complex payment system in the U.S. added higher administrative costs. Comparison countries in Canada and Europe were much more willing to exert monopsony power to drive down prices, whilst the highly fragmented buy side of the U.S. health system was one factor that could explain the relatively high prices in the United States of America. The current fee-for-service payment system also stimulates expensive care by promoting procedures over visits through financially rewarding the former ($1,500 – for doing a 10-minute procedure) vs. the latter ($50 – for a 30–45 minute visit). This causes the proliferation of specialists", "-30.55136342573678" ], [ "market.\nOne study of the billing and insurance-related (BIR) costs borne not only by insurers but also by physicians and hospitals found that BIR among insurers, physicians, and hospitals in California represented 20–22% of privately insured spending in California acute care settings. Third-party payment problem and consumer-driven insurance Most Americans pay for medical services largely through insurance, and this can distort the incentives of consumers since the consumer pays only a portion of the ultimate cost directly. The lack of price information on medical services can also distort incentives. The insurance which pays on behalf of insureds negotiate with medical providers,", "-30.519774962886004" ], [ "insurance status changes over time, including the time of death. A 2009 study by former Clinton policy adviser Richard Kronick found no increased mortality from being uninsured after certain risk factors were controlled for. Outcomes The U.S. lags in overall healthcare performance but is a global leader in medical innovation. America solely developed or contributed significantly to 9 of the top 10 most important medical innovations since 1975 as ranked by a 2001 poll of physicians, while the EU and Switzerland together contributed to five. Since 1966, Americans have received more Nobel Prizes in Medicine than the rest of the", "-30.423324147152016" ], [ "insurance receive it through an employer-sponsored program. According to the United States Census Bureau, some 60% of Americans are covered through an employer, while about 9% purchase health insurance directly. Private insurance was billed for 12.2 million inpatient hospital stays in 2011, incurring approximately 29% ($112.5 billion) of the total aggregate inpatient hospital costs in the United States.\nThe US has a joint federal and state system for regulating insurance, with the federal government ceding primary responsibility to the states under the McCarran-Ferguson Act. States regulate the content of health insurance policies and often require coverage of specific", "-30.368409217189765" ], [ "in patient medication cost share was found to be associated with low adherence to medication.\nThe United States is among the countries with the highest prices of prescription drugs mainly attributed to the government's lack of negotiating lower prices with monopolies in the pharmaceutical industry especially with brand name drugs. In order to manage medication costs, many US patients on long term therapies fail to fill their prescription, skip or reduce doses. According to a Kaiser Family Foundation survey in 2015, about three quarters (73%) of the public think drug prices are unreasonable and blame pharmaceutical companies for setting prices so", "-30.2979738736758" ], [ "the primary source of coverage for most Americans. As of 2012 about 61% of Americans had private health insurance according to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. The Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality (AHRQ) found that in 2011, private insurance was billed for 12.2 million U.S. inpatient hospital stays and incurred approximately $112.5 billion in aggregate inpatient hospital costs (29% of the total national aggregate costs). Public programs provide the primary source of coverage for most senior citizens and for low-income children and families who meet certain eligibility requirements. The primary public programs are Medicare, a federal social", "-30.291551418384188" ], [ "average 6.7% annually over the period 2007 through 2017.\nIn 2009, the United States federal, state and local governments, corporations and individuals, together spent $2.5 trillion, $8,047 per person, on health care. This amount represented 17.3% of the GDP, up from 16.2% in 2008. Health insurance costs are rising faster than wages or inflation, and medical causes were cited by about half of bankruptcy filers in the United States in 2001. Relative to other countries U.S. healthcare costs in 2015 were 16.9% GDP according to the OECD, over 5% GDP higher than the next most expensive OECD country. With U.S. GDP", "-30.246726533681795" ], [ "which are still cheaper than the newly increased premiums, exacerbating the problem. The cycle continues until none of the remaining sick can justify or even afford paying the premiums. The individual health insurance policy group then goes out of existence. Since the original size of the group was small in relation to the total subscriber base, the event is inconsequential to the insurer. Motivation In most US states, it is illegal for health insurers to individually re-underwrite a subscriber (re-evaluate their health risk and increase their premium) after the subscriber files a claim under the policy, unless the subscriber withheld", "-30.178210343117826" ], [ "inflation have been a major driver for health care reform in the United States. As of 2016, the US spent $3.3 trillion (17.9% of GDP), or $10,438 per person; major categories included 32% on hospital care, 20% on physician and clinical services, and 10% on prescription drugs. In comparison, the UK spent $3,749 per person.\nIn 2018, an analysis concluded that prices and administrative costs were largely the cause of the high costs, including prices for labor, pharmaceuticals, and diagnostics. The combination of high prices and high volume can cause particular expense; in the U.S., high-margin high-volume procedures include angioplasties, c-sections,", "-30.119115076900925" ], [ "General insurance Market trends The United States was the largest market for non-life insurance premiums written in 2005 followed by the European Union and Japan.", "-30.093622855260037" ], [ "consider when evaluating cost of care in America. That is because in much of the policy debate around the high cost of US healthcare, proponents of highly specialized and cutting edge technologies point to innovation as a marker of an effective health care system. Compared to other countries A 2014 study by the private American foundation The Commonwealth Fund found that although the U.S. health care system is the most expensive in the world, it ranks last on most dimensions of performance when compared with Australia, Canada, France, Germany, the Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Sweden, Switzerland and the United Kingdom.", "-30.078514005159377" ], [ "health expenses.\nThe Kaiser Family Foundation reported that employer-based health insurance premiums for a family of four averaged $18,765 in 2017, up 3% from the prior year, although there was considerable variation around this average. For single coverage, the premium costs averaged $6,690, up 4% from the previous year. The typical worker contributed $5,714 on average towards their coverage, with the employer providing the remainder.\nDeductibles have been rising much faster than premiums in recent years. For example, deductibles rose 12% in 2016, four times faster than premiums. From 2011 to 2016, deductibles rose 63% for single coverage, versus 19% for single", "-30.045165428826294" ], [ "Canada to the United States. Due to the Canadian government's price controls as part of their Single-payer medical system, prices for prescription drugs can be a fraction of the price paid by consumers in the unregulated U.S. market. While laws in the United States have been passed at the national level against such sales, specific state and local governments have passed their own legislation to allow the trade to continue. American drug companies—often supporters of political campaigns—have obviously come out against the practice. Proposals Since the September 11th attacks, there has been a debate on whether there should be further", "-30.019426092272624" ], [ "found that the United States spends substantially more on health care than any other country in the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), and that the use of health care services in the U.S. is below the OECD median by most measures. The authors of the study conclude that the prices paid for health care services are much higher in the U.S. than elsewhere. While the 19 next most wealthy countries by GDP all pay less than half what the U.S. does for health care, they have all gained about six years of life expectancy more than the U.S.", "-29.977273829164915" ], [ "care but rather on market leverage; the report also found that price increases rather than increased utilization explained the spending increases in the past several years.\nEconomists Eric Helland and Alex Tabarrok speculate that the increase in costs of healthcare in the United States are largely a result of the Baumol effect. Since healthcare is relatively labor intensive, and productivity in the service sector has lagged that in the goods-producing sector, the costs of those services will rise relative to goods. Involved organizations and institutions Healthcare is subject to extensive regulation at both the federal and the state level, much of", "-29.974337223597104" ], [ "for a month or $118,200 per year\". According to a statement by the New York-based Pfizer the price \"is not the cost that most patients or payors pay\" since most prescriptions are dispensed through health plans, which negotiate discounts for medicines or get government-mandated price concessions. Trends in spending in the United States According to Express Scripts, \n[T]he pharmacy landscape [in the United States] underwent a seismic change, and the budgetary impact to healthcare payers was significant. U.S. prescription drug spend increased 13.1% in 2014 – the largest annual increase since 2003 – and this was largely driven by an", "-29.9366860912196" ], [ "customers dropped their insurance policies. Consequently, the remaining risk pool became sicker and thus more expensive to insure; and, in turn, prices were forced up and pushed more people out of the market.\nIn response to the outrage from politicians and consumers, Anthem postponed the rate increase until May 1, 2010.\nSenator Dianne Feinstein of California proposed giving the Federal government of the United States authority to block insurance premium hikes that it considers to be \"unjustified\". Reclassifying expenses On 17 March 2010, WellPoint announced it was reclassifying some of its administrative costs as medical care costs in order to meet loss", "-29.876123538233514" ], [ "smaller government health programs like the Veterans Health Administration, the Department of Defense, the 340B Drug Pricing Program (1992), and Medicaid.\nIn 2005, the Government Accountability Office (GAO) examined the change in US drug retail prices from January 2000 through December 2004 and found the average usual and customary (U&C) prices for a 30-day supply of 96 drugs frequently used by people enrolled in BlueCross BlueShield Federal Employee Programs had increased 24.5%. The average U&C prices for brand prescription drugs increased three times as much as the average for generic drug.\nIn 2007, the AARP published a series of studies showing that", "-29.84129944012966" ], [ "and because the people who purchased insurance were all employees of the same company, that prevented people who were already ill from buying in. The presence of employer-based sickness funds may have contributed to why the idea of government-based insurance did not take hold in the United States at the same time that the United Kingdom and the rest of Europe was moving toward socialized schemes like the UK National Insurance Act of 1911. Thus, at the beginning of the 20th century, Americans were used to associating insurance with employers, which paved the way for the beginning of third-party health", "-29.792070372990565" ], [ "2017 as they did in 2016 (about $208/month) after the subsidy/tax credit, despite large increases in the pre-subsidy price. This was consistent nationally. In other words, the subsidies increased along with the pre-subsidy price, fully offsetting the price increases.\nHealthcare premium cost increases in the employer market continued to moderate after the implementation of the law. For example, healthcare premiums for those covered by employers rose by 69% from 2000 to 2005, but only 27% from 2010 to 2015, with only a 3% increase from 2015 to 2016. From 2008 to 2010 (before passage of the ACA) health insurance premiums rose", "-29.78268748964183" ], [ "premium prices). CBO estimates the net effect is to increase premiums 10-15% over an un-subsidized level.\nThe Kaiser Family Foundation estimated that family insurance premiums averaged $18,142 in 2016, up 3% from 2015, with workers paying $5,277 towards that cost and employers covering the remainder. Single coverage premiums were essentially unchanged from 2015 to 2016 at $6,435, with workers contributing $1,129 and employers covering the remainder.\nThe President's Council of Economic Advisors (CEA) described how annual cost increases have fallen in the employer market since 2000. Premiums for family coverage grew 5.6% from 2000-2010, but 3.1% from 2010-2016. The total premium plus", "-29.775521898118313" ], [ "increased emphasis on patient-centered outcomes and consumer experiences. Cost-Effective Care in the United States The United States pays more in healthcare expenditure per capita than any other country. Healthcare expenditures the United States accounts for approximately 16% of the country's gross domestic product and per capita spending on healthcare is more than twice that of other developed nations. Given these statistics, healthcare in the United States is no better than in other countries, with the more than 50 million people uninsured and astronomical healthcare prices and expenditures. Much of what accounts for the high expenditures is the fact that", "-29.7641132651479" ], [ "2006, data from the Medical Expenditure Panel Survey was analyzed to determine the costs of healthcare for American households. It showed that 19.1% of Americans were considered to have a financial burden due to healthcare spending as they spent more than 10% of their income on it.\nIn 2003, data from the Medical Expenditure Panel Survey showed that only 9.5% of Americans with Medicare coverage had no prescription drug expenses, while 61.6% had prescription drug expenses up to $2,083, and 28.9% of those on Medicare had expenses higher than $2,084. low income families tended to have higher prescription drug expenses during", "-29.74215394150815" ], [ "losses.\nIn response, the company may increase premiums. However, higher prices cause rational non-smoking customers to cancel their insurance. The higher prices combined with their lower risk of mortality make life insurance uneconomic for non-smokers. This can exacerbate the adverse selection problem. As more smokers take out life insurance policies and increase the insurer's mortality rate, its prices will continue to rise, which in turn will mean fewer non-smokers will purchase insurance. Eventually, the higher prices will push out all non-smokers and the insurer will also be unwilling to sell to smokers. No more interactions will take place, and the", "-29.707607041404117" ], [ "required to offer insurance at the same rates to all those who want it, as they are under the Affordable Care Act.\nThe purpose of the federal or state mandates to carry coverage is to avoid free-rider problems and adverse selection problems in health insurance pools, so that there are not disproportionately many sicker people, or older people more likely to get sick, in the insurance pools. When there is excessive adverse selection, premiums can get high, or very high, and there can be so called \"death spirals\", where premiums rise to extreme levels, as only the sickest people are", "-29.69873314409051" ], [ "age, which combined with significant annual increases in healthcare costs per person will place enormous budgetary strain on U.S. state and federal governments, particularly through Medicare and Medicaid spending (Medicaid provides long-term care for the elderly poor). Maintaining the long-term fiscal health of the U.S. federal government is significantly dependent on healthcare costs being controlled. Insurance cost and availability In addition, the number of employers who offer health insurance has declined and costs for employer-paid health insurance are rising: from 2001 to 2007, premiums for family coverage increased 78%, while wages rose 19% and prices rose 17%, according to the", "-29.66670714866632" ], [ "level. However, a study published by the Kaiser Family Foundation in 2008 found that the typical large employer preferred provider organization (PPO) plan in 2007 was more generous than either Medicare or the Federal Employees Health Benefits Program Standard Option. One indicator of the consequences of Americans' inconsistent health care coverage is a study in Health Affairs that concluded that half of personal bankruptcys involved medical bills, although other sources dispute this.\nThere are health losses from insufficient health insurance. A 2009 study found more than 44,800 excess deaths annually in the United States due to Americans lacking health insurance. More", "-29.646728050196543" ], [ "than people in other countries do, but prices are high,\nthere is more use of some procedures and new drugs than elsewhere, and doctor salaries are double the levels in other countries.The New York Times reported \"no one knows for sure\" how much unnecessary care exists in the United States.\nOveruse of medical care is no longer a large fraction of total health care spending, which was $3.3 trillion in 2016.\nResearchers in 2014 analyzed many services listed as low value by Choosing Wisely and other sources. They looked at spending in 2008-2009 and found that these services represented 0.6% or 2.7% of", "-29.6463502553961" ], [ "program and the federal-state Medicaid programs possess some monopsonistic purchasing power, the highly fragmented buy side of the U.S. health system is relatively weak by international standards, and in some areas, some suppliers such as large hospital groups have a virtual monopoly on the supply side. In most OECD countries, there is a high degree of public ownership and public finance. The resulting economy of scale in providing health care services appears to enable a much tighter grip on costs. The U.S., as a matter of oft-stated public policy, largely does not regulate prices of services from private providers, assuming", "-29.637405709421728" ], [ "likely encouraged consumers to use more health care. Data indicating whether this increase in use was due to voluntary or optional service purchases or the sudden access lower-income citizens had to basic healthcare is not available here at this time. 1990s growth and ubiquity By the late 1990s, U.S. per capita healthcare spending began to increase again, peaking around 2002. Despite managed care's mandate to control costs, U.S. healthcare expenditures have continued to outstrip the overall national income, rising about 2.4 percentage points faster than the annual GDP since 1970.\nNevertheless, according to the trade association America's Health Insurance Plans, 90", "-29.61281987384791" ], [ "a gaming of the system and research by the state said this gaming added 1–2% to premium costs, which were continuing to rise for other reasons as well. Given the continuing overall rise in premiums post Massachusetts 2006 healthcare insurance reform, the major goal of the 2012 amendment was to introduce price controls on health care itself; it is not directly related to healthcare insurance as are the earlier legislative actions.\nStarting in 2014, Commonwealth Care insurance (and Commonwealth Choice insurance for those not receiving subsidies) has been replaced by insurance compatible with the federal Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act.", "-29.545240091800224" ], [ "years, until 2020.\nThe average price of non-generic drugs rose 16.2% in 2015 and 98.2% since 2011. 2016 As of March 2016 11.1 million people had purchased exchange plans, while an estimated 9 million to 10 million people had gained Medicaid coverage, mostly low-income adults. 11.1 million were still covered, a decline of nearly 13 percent. 6.1 million uninsured 19–25 year olds gained coverage. Employers A survey of New York businesses found an increase of 8.5 percent in health care costs, less than the prior year's survey had expected. A 10 percent increase was expected for 2017. Factors included increased premiums,", "-29.543466137460655" ], [ "Office (CBO), the cost of healthcare per person in the U.S. also varies significantly by geography and medical center, with little or no statistical difference in outcome. Comparative effectiveness research has shown that significant cost reductions are possible. Former OMB Director Peter Orszag stated: \"Nearly thirty percent of Medicare's costs could be saved without negatively affecting health outcomes if spending in high- and medium-cost areas could be reduced to the level of low-cost areas.\" Pilot programs Gawande wrote that Obamacare contains a variety of pilot programs that may have a significant impact on cost and quality over the long-run,", "-29.53878371033352" ], [ "Act. However, according to a study by the Kaiser Family Foundation, the after-subsidy premium costs to those with insurance coverage via the Affordable Care Act's exchanges did not change significantly on average from 2016 to 2017, as increases in the subsidies offset pre-subsidy insurance premium increases. For example, after-subsidy costs for a popular \"silver plan\" remained around $200/month in 2016 and 2017. An estimated 70% of persons on the exchanges could purchase a plan for $75/month after subsidies. Further, in the employer market, health insurance premium cost increases from 2015-2016 were an estimated 3% on average, low by historical standards.", "-29.537895994842984" ], [ "financially with an increase in expensive visits to the ER. The health care costs in the US will also rise with these procedures as well. More expensive procedures lead to greater costs.\nOne study has found significant geographic variations in Medicare spending for patients in the last two years of life. These spending levels are associated with the amount of hospital capacity available in each area. Higher spending did not result in patients living longer. Administrative costs As of 2017, there were 907 health insurance companies in the United States, although the top 10 account for about 53% of revenue and", "-29.491609451011755" ], [ "of $19 trillion, healthcare costs were about $3.2 trillion, or about $10,000 per person in a country of 320 million people. A gap of 5% GDP represents $1 trillion, about $3,000 per person relative to the next most expensive country. In other words, the U.S. would have to cut healthcare costs by roughly one-third to be competitive with the next most expensive country.\nOne analysis of international spending levels in the year 2000 found that while the U.S. spends more on health care than other countries in the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), the use of health care services", "-29.47907845902955" ], [ "were not a major concern for doctors and patients. As more drugs became prescribed for chronic illnesses, however, costs became burdensome, and by the 1970s nearly every U.S. state required or encouraged the substitution of generic drugs for higher-priced brand names. This also led to the 2006 U.S. law, Medicare Part D, which offers Medicare coverage for drugs.\nAs of 2008, the United States is the leader in medical research, including pharmaceutical development. U.S. drug prices are among the highest in the world, and drug innovation is correspondingly high. In 2000, U.S.-based firms developed 29 of the 75 top-selling drugs; firms", "-29.41371436645568" ], [ "uninsured patients.\nCongressional hearings in 1992 found that failing to exempt these voluntary discounts under the Medicaid Drug Rebate Program caused prices to rise \"dramatically\" for such facilities. According to a detailed study of the most widely used outpatient drugs at five public hospitals, hospital costs for the previously discounted drugs increased, on average, by 32 percent, far in excess of the historical 5 to 9 percent annual increases in drug prices experienced by public hospitals. The steep rise reflected the size of the discounts previously offered, and the dramatic shift once \"best prices\" were imposed in place of voluntary discounts.", "-29.375496734981425" ], [ "Health insurance in the United States Enrollment and the uninsured Gallup issued a report in July 2014 stating that the uninsured rate for adults 18 and over declined from 18% in 2013 to 13.4% by in 2014, largely because there were new coverage options and market reforms under the Affordable Care Act. Rand Corporation had similar findings. Trends in private coverage The proportion of non-elderly individuals with employer-sponsored cover fell from 66% in 2000 to 56% in 2010, then stabilized following the passage of the Affordable Care Act. Employees who worked part-time (less than 30 hours a week) were less", "-29.33848934636626" ], [ "paid by Medicaid increased by 33 percent, and the proportion paid by private insurance decreased by 21 percent. Some 43 million Americans were enrolled in 2004 (19.7 million of them children) at a total cost of $295 billion. In 2008, Medicaid provided health coverage and services to approximately 49 million low-income children, pregnant women, elderly people, and disabled people. In 2009, 62.9 million Americans were enrolled in Medicaid for at least one month, with an average enrollment of 50.1 million. In California, about 23% of the population was enrolled in Medi-Cal for at least 1 month in 2009–10.\nMedicaid payments currently", "-29.278411094855983" ], [ "categories of expense include hospital care (32%), physician and clinical services (20%), and prescription drugs (10%). U.S. costs in 2016 were substantially higher than other OECD countries, at 17.2% GDP versus 12.4% GDP for the next most expensive country (Switzerland). For scale, a 5% GDP difference represents about $1 trillion or $3,000 per person. Some of the many reasons cited for the cost differential with other countries include: Higher administrative costs of a private system with multiple payment processes; higher costs for the same products and services; more expensive volume/mix of services with higher usage of more expensive specialists; aggressive", "-29.26562846964225" ], [ "buy insurance but were outside of the coverage gap would have paid a 30 percent premium surcharge for one year and then return to standard rates. Both healthy and the sick were required to pay the surcharge, which may have caused healthier persons to remain outside of the market, causing overall health care costs to rise (see adverse selection, risk pool). Initial version The two bills that constituted the AHCA were introduced into the House Energy and Commerce Committee and the House Ways and Means Committee on March 8, 2017 and passed both committees the next day. Both committees approved", "-29.263490233053744" ], [ "with a simple majority vote. Republican leaders were seeking to pass the AHCA through the Senate by using the reconciliation rule.\nU.S. healthcare costs were approximately $3.2 trillion or nearly $10,000 per person on average in 2015. Major categories of expense include hospital care (32%), physician and clinical services (20%), and prescription drugs (10%). U.S. costs in 2016 were substantially higher than other OECD countries, at 17.2% GDP versus 12.4% GDP for the next most expensive country (Switzerland). For scale, a 5% GDP difference represents about $1 trillion or $3,000 per person. Some of the many reasons cited for the cost", "-29.254529199168246" ], [ "at $281 billion in 2017. On March 1, 2010, billionaire investor Warren Buffett said that the high costs paid by U.S. companies for their employees' health care put them at a competitive disadvantage. He compared the roughly 17% of GDP spent by the U.S. on health care with the 9% of GDP spent by much of the rest of the world, noted that the U.S. has fewer doctors and nurses per person, and said, \"[t]hat kind of a cost, compared with the rest of the world, is like a tapeworm eating at our economic body.\" ACA marketplaces An estimated 12", "-29.252937424811535" ], [ "$200 billion increase in the budget deficit over a decade. CBO also estimated that initially up to one million fewer would have health insurance coverage, although more might have it in the long run as the subsidies expand. CBO expected the exchanges to remain stable (e.g., no \"death spiral\") as the premiums would increase and prices would stabilize at the higher (non-CSR) level.\nPresident Trump's argument that the CSR payments were a \"bailout\" for insurance companies and therefore should be stopped, actually results in the government paying more to insurance companies ($200B over a decade) due to increases in the premium", "-29.24043817917118" ], [ "Kaiser Family Foundation. Even for those who are employed, the private insurance in the US varies greatly in its coverage; one study by the Commonwealth Fund published in Health Affairs estimated that 16 million U.S. adults were underinsured in 2003. The underinsured were significantly more likely than those with adequate insurance to forgo health care, report financial stress because of medical bills, and experience coverage gaps for such items as prescription drugs. The study found that underinsurance disproportionately affects those with lower incomes — 73% of the underinsured in the study population had annual incomes below 200% of the federal poverty", "-29.231479086167383" ], [ "America's Health Insurance Plans History The association's 2005 television advertisement \"Shark Bait\" drew criticism for its claim that \"lawsuit abuse\" by American trial lawyers cost the typical American family $1,200 a year.\nOn August 27, 2009, a spokesman for the association told CNN's Lou Dobbs program that \"every survey shows strong satisfaction for private health insurance,\" as part of the organization's campaign against health care reform. The non-partisan Politfact watchdog organization found that his words were \"half-true.\" In fact, Politifact said polls have found that often the majority of consumers have varying degrees of satisfaction, but are not strongly satisfied. For", "-29.212668679421768" ], [ "healthcare spending is more than 10% of their income and causes a financial burden to the patient, are considered uninsured, whether they actually have health insurance or not.\nOne way to examine the potential impact of high drug prices on health outcomes is to look at the effects of having prescription drug insurance and subsequent hospitalizations. Studies have linked obtaining prescription insurance plans to fewer hospitalizations and lower healthcare costs. For example, for Medicare beneficiaries between 2002 and 2010, obtaining prescription drug insurance through Medicare Part D was associated with an 8% decrease in the number of hospital admissions, a 7%", "-29.192437710342347" ], [ "compete on price, though the variation between the various competing insurers is only about 5%. However, insurance companies are free to sell additional policies to provide coverage beyond the national minimum. These policies do not receive funding from the equalization pool, but cover additional treatments, such as dental procedures and physiotherapy, which are not paid for by the mandatory policy.\nFunding from the equalization pool is distributed to insurance companies for each person they insure under the required policy. However, high-risk individuals get more from the pool, and low-income persons and children under 18 have their insurance paid for entirely. Because", "-29.192107230279362" ], [ "share of workers with deductibles exceeding $1,000 grew from 10 percent to 27 percent. Increased out-of-pocket expenses have made patients and physicians more cost conscious. Further, a combination of prior notification, higher patient co-payments and restrained reimbursements may have contributed to slowing cost growth. Motivation International comparisons of healthcare have found that the United States spends more per-capita than other similarly developed nations but falls below similar countries in various health metrics, suggesting inefficiency and waste. In addition, the United States has significant underinsurance and significant impending unfunded liabilities from its aging demographic and its social insurance programs Medicare", "-29.133402309089433" ], [ "health care reform argue that moving to a single-payer system would reallocate the money currently spent on the administrative overhead required to run the hundreds of insurance companies in the U.S. to provide universal care. An often-cited study by Harvard Medical School and the Canadian Institute for Health Information determined that some 31 percent of U.S. health care dollars, or more than $1,000 per person per year, went to health care administrative costs. Other estimates are lower. One study of the billing and insurance-related (BIR) costs borne not only by insurers but also by physicians and hospitals found that", "-29.13279199574754" ], [ "economists have argued against these subsidies.\nThe United States insurance market offers coverage to the majority of large companies which ask for it in their policies. The price of the policy depends on where the clients are residing and how much limit they buy.\nAccording to The Economist, one of the best studies to understand TRIA has been the one undertaken in 2005 by the Center for Risk Management at the Wharton Business School (\"TRIA and Beyond\"; available on their website below).\nIn mid-2007 the idea of another extension to TRIA was tabled and is officially known as TRIREA, (Terrorism Risk Insurance Revision", "-29.051833697245456" ], [ "out of the system, since they make fewer claims and their premiums support the claims of the less-healthy, for the time being. Insurance companies would then raise rates to make up the lost revenue. That further increases the pressure on healthier individuals to opt out of buying health insurance, which will further increase rates, until such a market collapses. Mandated insurance is intended to prevent such a downward spiral. The penalty for not having insurance that meets the minimum coverage requirements, either from an employer or by individual purchase is enforced in the calculation of personal income tax.\nThis was the", "-29.047764202259714" ], [ "not obtain health insurance, unless they are exempt due to low income or other reasons. In March 2010, the CBO estimated that the net effect of both laws will be a reduction in the federal deficit by $143 billion over the first decade.\nThe law faced several legal challenges, primarily based on the argument that an individual mandate requiring Americans to buy health insurance was unconstitutional. On June 28, 2012, the Supreme Court ruled by a 5–4 vote in National Federation of Independent Business v. Sebelius that the mandate was constitutional under the U.S. Congress's taxing authority. In Burwell v. Hobby Lobby", "-29.03390676883282" ], [ "the Medicaid or ACA expanded Medicaid. What could be considered unfair is that, although the mandate is for the stated purpose of allowing risk to be pooled effectively for insurance, the people subject to estate recovery of all medical expenses in fact have no risk pooling for themselves, and have to potentially pay back all medical bills paid for them.\nSimilarly, there is a criticism that the 97% insurance coverage rate from Massachusetts is misleading, since about 4% counted in the 97% really don't have anything that would ordinarily be thought of as insurance. Full medical expenses, though paid", "-29.033840764546767" ], [ "of all national health expenditures due the extended preventive healthcare and the elimination of insurance company overhead costs.\nA study by Harvard University and the Canadian Institute for Health Information estimated the 1999 costs of U.S. health care administration at nearly $300 billion, accounting for 30.1% of health care expenses, versus 16.7% in Canada. This study estimated the U.S. per-person administrative cost at $1,059.\nCharles Blahouse, who worked as George W. Bush's economic advisor and as a public trustee for medicare and social security, wrote a Mercatus Center study of the 2017 proposal It claims that Sander's M4A plan will increase federal", "-29.01269732209039" ], [ "by the cost of local healthcare, but the American Health Care Act does not take this into consideration although rural healthcare is generally more expensive due to the lack of hospitals and available services. Health insurance coverage for immigrants Of the 26.2 million foreign immigrants living in the US in 1998, 62.9% were non-U.S. citizens. In 1997, 34.3% of non-U.S. citizens living in America did not have health insurance coverage opposed to the 14.2% of native-born Americans who do not have health insurance coverage. Among those immigrants who became citizens, 18.5% were uninsured, as opposed to noncitizens, who are 43.6%", "-28.972465189057402" ], [ "is unexplained. The researchers conclude \". . . that analysts should not equate high-cost plans with Cadillac plans, . . . [w]ithout appropriate adjustments, a simple cap may exacerbate rather than ameliorate current inequities\"\nPremium tax subsidies to help individuals purchase their own health insurance have also been suggested as a way to increase coverage rates. Research confirms that consumers in the individual health insurance market are sensitive to price. It appears that price sensitivity varies among population subgroups and is generally higher for younger individuals and lower income individuals. However, research also suggests that subsidies alone are unlikely to", "-28.97230934727122" ] ]

[ "So the basic theory is that you damage a muscle just enough, it repairs itself and adapts to the stress that caused the damage. Very very roughly: a nearby ~~blastocyte~~ **myosatellite cell** is primed (including with the type of adaptation needed) by chemical signals the cell releases during damage, and after a threshold is passed, it grows in size and then fuses to the original, damaged cell. Pushing the absolute limits of your muscles' basic work capacity (low reps, high weight), means that after refusion the muscle cell will have more myofibrils, the basic element of a muscle cell that causes contraction. The thing is, myofibrils aren't really big, and your muscle can increase their concentration without changing in size much. Testing muscular endurance, draining the reserves of the muscle cell itself (high reps low weight, high time under tension), means the new cell with have additional sarcoplasm (sarco = muscle; plasm = goo; cytoplasm is the generic name for cell goo). Sarcoplasm is filled with stuff that exists to maintain the cell and keep the myofibrils supplied and repaired. But it's mostly water, so double the sarcoplasm means double the muscle fiber size. Note that if you go another step out—conditioning, stamina/endurance training, cardio, whatever you wanna call it—the muscular endurance itself is no longer being tested, but only the rate that the body can resupply the muscle, so you get better heart and lung health, and denser capillary beds in the muscle itself. Power training is a mild outlier, though only compared to people that don't generally do strength training anyways. There's a certain minimum amount of sarcoplasm your body needs to do the extremely high energy rate required of stuff like Olympic lifting. edit: Oh, I almost forgot my final note, which is that while this has been generally accepted fact for quite some time, and reinforced by various studies, there's been a recent meta-study that found other studies that showed \"high reps low weight\" did not produce significantly more muscle mass increase than \"low reps high weight\". I wouldn't completely accept its conclusion yet, but it's easy to understand how confusion could persist in the sports science and physique competition community (in either direction). There are many confusing factors. Individual differences (some people just are genetic miracles); different methods and goals between the body building, power lifting, olympic lifting, and other sport training communities; the *incredible* proliferation of nonsense from laypeople and pretend-expert magazine writers; the beginner effect (almost literally anything with weights, the dumbest shit imaginable, will work beautifully for anybody... for about six to twelve months); performance enhancing drugs, pressures to lie about them... the list goes on. edit2: Another point of confusion is that there's no such thing as pure strength lifting or pure hypertrophy lifting. If you're lifting to the point where repair (and thus adaptation) is required, both will be improved, just one more than the other based on the type. edit3: /u/arcflash90 pointed out it's not blastocyte (which is a word I guess I made up). It's a kind of muscle stem cell called a myosatellite cell. edit4: I'm getting a lot of complaints like /u/Evil-Imp's \"I just read this to my 5 year old, and now he's crying.\" Sorry it's a bad habit of mine. In the engineering spirit of not reduplicating work, I'm going to steal /u/Almae's [great breakdown]( URL_0 ) (please upvote them if you like it): > Training for power repairs muscles similar to adding more cylinders to the engine block of your car. Training for muscular endurance is akin to making your gas tank bigger Training for stamina is akin to building more gas stations along your route. I guess it maybe needs something like... muscle engine cylinders are small so you can pack them in tightly, which means muscle don't grow? edit5: [an even better metaphor]( URL_1 ) (with midgets!) by /u/ElbowStrike edit7 ^(had a few people ask so) **TL;DR**: few reps per set (1–7ish) = stronger muscles lots of reps per set (like 8–20) = bigger muscles *You always lift as much weight as you can handle for that number of reps!* High reps just means the weight has to be lower, high reps low weight isn't the same as actually going *light*. More than 20 reps affects muscles relatively little (some, but not much); it's primarily a cardio work out at that point. Your muscles might get sore from lactic acid, but it's not really the muscle itself that's being taxed, so they won't grow (at least not much). A lot of exercise programming confusion is because weight training for intermediate lifters is totally different than it is for beginners; which is why advice aimed at people lifting for years is confusing for a beginner. And one of the most common reasons for a beginners muscles to stop growing is because they need to eat more.", "Think of your muscle like a rope. If you take a cross section of the rope you can see that it's made of a mixture of several smaller strands entwined together (muscle fibers). For the sake of simplicity, there are 2 types of smaller strand: skinny ones that aren't very strong but last a long time (type 1 fibers/slow twitch) and thicker powerful ones that wear out quickly (type 2 fibers/fast twitch). When these fibers contract force is produced. Slow twitch fibers produce the least force and fast twitch fibers the most. Therefore if you're lifting a light load for several repetitions then slow twitch fibers who don't produce a lot of force but have high endurance will do most of the work. If you're lifting a heavy load for a short duration (~80% of your 1rm) you will need the help of those beastly type 2 fibers. These bad boys not only produce more force but have greater potential for hypertrophy (grow bigger). So, to answer your question- the difference in loading will affect what type of muscle fibers you recruit (ie, ones that can grow big or ones that can't get as big). Training with low weights will help with endurance, heavy weights with strength. Now, there are several variables that contribute to muscles increasing in size. Muscles need a certain amount of volume (setxreps) to grow, so low volume-high weight workouts won't take advantage of stimulating maximal growth. Additionally, muscles can grow larger through means other than increasing the diameter of the muscle fiber (sarcoplasmic hypertrophy) which light weight, high reps take advantage of. Both training parameters you mentioned can get you big in different ways, however to get strong like bull you need a heavy weight.", "If reps don't matter, why are long distance runners tiny and sprinters huge? Shouldn't marathon runners have massive quads if reps didn't matter? Or is that strictly a caloric issue?", "Growth comes from damage to the muscle fibers. When you exhaust a muscle, you've used up it's available energy and filled it with lactic acid as a byproduct. But if you weren't lifting enough to damage the muscle fibers, you won't see any gain.", "Ah....time to dig up the old [80% 1Rmax vs 30% 1Rmax]( URL_0 ) study. Basically the same hypertrophy with 80% (3 sets) 1 Rep max and 30% (3 sets) 1 Rep max when done to \"failure\". Strength was better in the 80% of 1 Rep max group (most likely from neurological adaptions to the heavier lbs). With lighter weights it is important to keep more constant tension on them so to reach failure...otherwise going through the motions will not yield the same results.", "Though OP seems to know more than he's letting on, I'll try to lay out what I know in laymen's terms. Muscle bulk and raw strength is built by shifting higher loads with less repitition, this strains and even damages the muscle encouraging re-growth. Link for more details: URL_0 Muscle endurance is built by shifting lower loads with a lot more repetition. This trains in efficiency. Better usage of oxygen, dispersal of energy, and finess of using the right amount of muscle for a given task. Link for more details. URL_1 There will always be some crossover, the two are just different optimizations towards different goals.", "I upvoted a fuck load of shit today, reddit is the bees knees. So much interesting shit. Fuck. I've been surfing reddit since 2012 and I learn new shit every day. I can't remember any of it Cuz I'm a stoner but fuck man, such a vast catalog of random colorful grasping shit. Its like reverse Google, instead of me searching for random facts and ideas, they find me through reddit. And the porn ID, shiiiiieeeeeetttt, don't get me started. I love u all, dick head trolls to the braniacs who always have more depth to add to a subject. And I've never spent a cent on this website, goodshit.", "Strength = How much we can lift in one go Endurance = How long we can lift the same weight Power = How quickly we can lift a weight Hypertrophy = Muscles getting bigger Optimal hypertrophy usually occurs when we lift heavier weights (to use more muscles strands at once) whilst completely wearing out the muscles energy (reps per set). *The ideal number is debated, but generally accepted to be between 6 - 12 repetitions per set. Lifting a light weight until we completely fatigue a muscle over lots of repetitions doesn't use as many muscle fibers. It also does not cause as much damage to the muscle. If you want to be strong, lift heavy weights and fatigue within 1 - 6 reps. You do not need to get bigger muscles to be stronger. If you want muscular endurance, lift lighter weights for lots of repetitions - 20+. If you want to get bigger, lift moderate to heavy weights, tire out as much of the muscle / muscle group as you can and allow the muscle time to recover between work outs. If you want to lift heavy weights quickly do moderate to moderate-heavy weights, with each repetition being as quick as possible. Diving outside of this would break-out of the ELI5, but quickly there are changes that occur to the muscle and neural pathway that enable us to lift heavy weights vs. weights quickly vs. weights over a longer period of time. Hypertrophy can be the side effect. A strong man has differing training requirements to a power lifter/ sprinter vs. a body builder vs. a middle distance athlete. One last tid-bit, some athletes will purposely carry excess fat to cushion in impact sports and potentially to increase strength", "Now someone can correct me if I'm wrong, but my understanding is that there's two types of muscle growth sarcoplasmic and myofibrillar growth. Sarcoplasmic growth increases the intracellular space of your muscle cells and increases their glycogen storage ability. This is the type of muscle growth targeted by high rep exercises since the muscle doesn't need to actually move a higher mass, it only requires more energy to complete additional reps. Think of it like increasing the size of your cars fuel tank. It won't have more horsepower, but it will be able to travel longer distances. Myofibrillar growth increases the mass of your myofibirils, the protein chains that actually make your muscle cells contract. When you do higher weights at lower reps the weak point isn't so much the amount of glycogen in your muscle cells, it's the actual strength of these myofibrils. So if you want to move larger weights you need more myofibrils so they can move bigger loads. This is like increasing the horsepower in your car by boring out your cylinders. You'll have more power, but you'll burn through fuel quicker. Now there seems to be some debate on this, but it would generally seem to be that microtrauma is required to trigger myofibrillar growth. You need to actually push your muscles to the point where small tears form in the muscle proteins so your body compensates and creates additional myofibrils. It would seem that the best way to do this is to overload your muscle cells with higher weights. Think of it like a truck trying to tow another car. If the other car doesn't weigh much the tow cable is going to be strong enough and the tow truck can just drive until it runs out of gas (high reps at low weight), but it the other car is too heavy for the tow cable the cable might frey and tear so the tow truck driver needs to replace it with a new larger cable that can support the weight (low reps at high weight).", "Your body is essentially making itself more effective at the role you're taking. If you work heavy weights your muscles will rebuild themselves to be more effective at that specific task(and the physical form of that is larger muscles). If you go for endurance, your body will spec itself for efficiency. For example, without weights, my mother can do way more squats than me, even though she wouldn't be able to the same weight as me on a squat with a barbell. Essentially, everything in nature is a sidegrade with some cost attributed to it", "There is a study saying that it doesn't make a difference, unfortunately that study was inherently flawed because they didn't actually use low reps. The lowest range they used was 8-10, which to any body builder is considered high reps, 20-25 is just overkill at that point. Normally a body builder will consider 3-5 reps being their low rep high weigh, and 8-10 being high rep low weight, and the weight should be heavy enough that on the final rep you are struggling. But for the actual reason it's different, it's because of different types of connective and skeletal muscular fibres. The 3 types of skeletal muscle fibres are: Red / Slow (Type I fibres, 'slow twitch fibres') Red / Fast (Type IIa fibres, 'fast oxidative fibres') White / Fast (Type IIb fibres, 'fast glycolytic fibres'). High rep low weight works slow twitch muscles, which contract slower and are more resistant to fatigue (think long distance running) Low rep high weight works fast twitch fibres which contract faster resulting in a \"explosion\" of power, but they fatigue much quicker. (think sprinting) That's why most athletes tend to stick to one or another, it's why we don't see runners who do long distance running competing in sprints, and why we don't see sprinters competing in long distance running. They strengthen entirely different muscles, which while they complement each other, don't do the exact same thing. My opinion has to always been to cycle from high rep low weight to low weight high rep every 3 weeks, that way I never felt like I was hitting a plateau with my progress, and up until my motorcycle accident I was 175 pounds and able to bench press and squat 315lbs 5 times for three sets. This article goes into a bit more detail about their differences. URL_0 ", "Isn't this supposed to be \"Explain like I'm 5\" ? I'm 30 and all of it went over me. Should I do cardio(small weight and more reps) or heavy weight(more weight and lower reps) to loose weight faster.", "For me Carpdog112 has the best answer here, but I'll give my take on it. Sorry if my terminology is not that precise, English is my second langage. Basically, there's 2 main elements in your muscles : myofibrills, wich make the contraction and sarcoplasmic elements, wich support the contraction (oxidative enzyme, mitochondria, glycogene). To train the first, you need 2 things : blood acidification (lactic acid), wich increase the secretion of growth hormone and muscle damage/tear. Blood acidification rise enough to increase GH secretion in sets of about 25 to 90 seconds. Muscle damage starts happening (in a way that stimulates myofibrill growth) in sets of 70% of 1 maximum voluntary contraction (1MR) or higher. Using 70% of 1MR usually gives sets of 30 to 40 seconds. If you work under 70% of 1MR, you'll put a lot of stress on the sarcoplasmic elements, wich needs to give energy to sustain some very long contractions/time under tension. What will happen is an increase in mitochondria, enzymes and glycogene (for the later, you need to exhaust glycogene reserves, wich can need a some tweaks in your planning). If your time under tension goes under 20-25 seconds, then you use heavy loads, wich causes a lot of muscle damage, but not a lot of growth stimulation, because not enough lactic acid is released in the blood stream. This kind of training need a lot of rest because it mostly trains the brain to send more electricity to the muscle, wich create a lot of exhaustion. (the nervous system recovers 5-6 times slower than the muscle under these circumstances). I hope it answers your question!", "none of the above explain it like i am five years old. THIS IS AN ELI5: The heavier you lift, the more muscle fibers you have triggered to fire with your nervous system, your brain. Your muscles need nutrients and energy and oxygen in the air to keep working, and the bigger your muscles are, the more they can work. In order to get bigger, you must increase your endurance, the most common way to do that is to train until failure and then rest and eat and sleep. In order to get significantly stronger, in other words, make your body able to fire more muscles fibers, or essentially, flex faster and harder, you must practice moving heavy weight quickly, and the best way to do that safely is the basic lifts which are considered the staples of all lifting routines. Deadlift Bench press (i suggest incline) Rows Pulldowns(or weighted pullups) And anything in good form that is heavy and accelerated quickly. Now according to the guidlines set above, the optimum workout routine would be one which involves lifting heavy weights with explosive reps for up to 6 reps per set, but essentially following the rule of thumb that if the rep is slow, its best to stop. And keep doing sets until your weights that you can move quickly are diminished. There is a balance between fatigue, and power gains, since power gains are directly proportional to frequency of training, and muscles fatigue and need time to recover.", "I'm seeing a lot of confusion here, so I'll try to clear this up. Lifting weights at > 85% of your 1rep max taxes your nervous system. This causes neuromuscular adaptation, which increases the strength of the muscle without adding more mass (should you be at a caloric maintenance). Lifting lower weight (still heavy obviously) at a higher rep range allows you to do more work (higher total amount of weight moved) which in turn allows you to damage your muscles more ((more growth) should you eat above your maintenance level). So it's not just how you lift, but also how you eat in conjunction with your routine that separates the two different training styles. So think of it this way: Olympic lifters have weight classes. 77kg for example. They remain at that weight and become stronger through neuromuscular adaptation. Their nervous system is able to utilize the body's muscle mass more efficiently. It's why you see some of those 170 pound dudes squatting 600 pounds. That + caloric maintenance = no mass gain. Body builders want to create more muscle mass, so they aim to damage the muscle tissue in order to cause muscle growth. That + caloric surplus = mass gain. There it is in black and white.", "There are 2 types of muscle fibers, one is better at long-term, oxygen intensive (aerobic), endurance effort. The other is for short bursts of high intensity, anerobic work. The type of muscle fiber you engage most in your exercise is going to grow faster than the other. But, people are different, have different bodies/genetics, so this is a general rule. If you want proof, just go to the gym look at which people do which types of exercises. Everyone who works out should see gainz, but they won't see the same type of gainz.", "**After nutrition**, I think the key is likely innervation. Monkeys can pull more than us because they are wired so that more fibers pull with each nerve innervation. We are designed for more intricate movements and so our nerves innervate less fibers and our movements are more precise. Innervation works on a few really simple concepts of action potentials and nerve endings speaking chemically with your muscles to pull. That's all great, we are going to glaze past all that. After your muscles get the message, calcium is released into the cell, muscles pull, muscles suck up all the calcium (recycling is efficient). Calcium is the key to your muscles working. We'll come back to this. When we train heavy, we are forced to coordinate our innervations and the coordinated efforts require a more anaerobic environment. Lots of laymen will tell you that they learned in Bio 101 that it takes oxygen to burn fat (which is true) so you will burn more fat walking the same distance than running it (which is false). Repeated studies have shown that the more anaerobic the workout, the higher your metabolic response will be. Which means of course you burn more fat running than walking. And even more doing HIIT workouts like sprints or crossfit. And even more doing workouts that require coordination of your major muscle groups like heavy squats or heavy deadlifts. (A second factor is time, doing more efficient metabolic workouts can save hours of trying to replicate the effect by simply walking.) Now we start getting into building muscle. It's pretty well explained how we build muscle all up and down this thread (and badly explained as well). Basically you can increase the # of muscle fibers, and you can increase the fuel supply chain. Thinking about innervation with small weight, you only trigger a few fibers, and with a larger weight you trigger many more. If only a few fibers are triggered, you can do more reps, and those fibers will tire out and you slowly trigger other fibers to pull the load. After lots of reps eventually you burn out as as your calcium reuptake is too slow to keep the process going [Step 8]( URL_0 ) [and here]( URL_1 ) (a key note here is that you don't run out of ATP or Glycogen or Glucose or any of the other types of fuel people in this thread point at, you simply can't recycle the calcium as fast as you can use it). With heavier weight, you trigger more fibers...hopefully all of them...and within very few reps and you start to feel burned as your calcium reuptake is too slow to keep the process going. The difference is that in the second scenario all the fibers are drinking up fuel at the same time. This creates anaerobic or near anaerobic conditions which trigger your metabolism. Your metabolism is a key factor here. Don't let anyone convince you it isn't. Triggering your metabolism includes burning more fat (but that's negligible at first until you start looking at all the compound effects), but more importantly, triggering your metabolism affects your hormone levels. You know those drugs people take to get ripped, hit more home runs, cheat in the olympics, or get competition level fitness? They are based on real versions in your body. Lifting heavy increases your natural hormones. These hormones flip all the right switches in your body to increase your muscle, burn more fat, give you more energy, etc. Hormones will affect your ability to build muscle more than anything else, **except nutrition**. Take care of your hormone levels. **Eat right, sleep right, lift heavy** that's the recipe for good hormone levels. Here's a secondary problem. A evil version of those good hormones I was talking about above. There's more than one, but let's just focus on cortisol, the primary stress hormone. High reps, low weight increases cortisol. Lack of sleep increases cortisol. Stress at work? You guessed it, increases cortisol. High levels of cortisol wreck you. Your ability to build muscle? Cortisol murders that ability. Your ability to cope well and solve problems easily? Cortisol buries it deep. You like belly fat? Cortisol likes belly fat. Think of cortisol like your body's way of downvoting your bad decisions, you think staying up late is a good idea? Downvotes. You decide stressing out about the past or the future are worth your time? Downvotes. You procrastinate at work and now it's crunch time stress? Hopefully you saved up some karma to outweigh that downvoted decision. That guy who can get ripped doing low weight, he's got good genetics or he's supplementing with steroids. Have you been lifting heavy everyday for years but can't put on muscle? You've either got too much stress hormone, too low of the good hormones or bad genetics, a combination.....**or you haven't gotten your nutrition nailed down.** **My advice, get your blood work done, stress under control, sleep on a schedule, eat right, keep lifting, and don't give up.** Edit: I thought of another thing people don't realize is 100% hormones. If you have ever heard of someone trying to bulk but they just get fat. Assuming they were actually lifting weights (if not then duh), the reason they gaining fat instead of muscle is because of hormones being out of wack. Also the cut, have you heard of guys who try to cut but they lose more muscle than they lose fat? Hormones. Then you have bro-science creating terms like eating \"clean\" which don't add up. A man with crappy hormones (high cortisol, low good hormones) can eat clean for years and still be fat. Often these guys get in a cycle: thinking \"I want to build muscle,\" they increase \"clean\" calories and lift heavy only to get fat; pretty soon they start thinking, \"I want to lose all this fat,\" they decrease calories eat even more \"clean\" and lift heavy only to lose both muscle and fat. *Break the pattern, fix your hormones.*", "There are different metabolic pathways for your muscles to perform work depending on how the work is done: high intensity low repetition vs. low intensity high repetition. And muscles use a different proportion of motor units: fast/large/high threshold fibers vs. slow/small/low threshold fibers, respectively. Which motor units activate depends on the total force needed, with smaller units (slow twitch) always firing before larger units (fast twitch,) and with larger units fatiguing much more quickly than smaller units. Because of this \"size principle,\" you'll see most bodybuilders who advocate a high rep scheme also recommend going to failure so that all muscle fibers are utilized. Work done at lower intensity over a longer period of time (high rep resistance training) uses a lot more ATP/glycogen as a fuel source which is stored in the sarcoplasm of the muscle cell. Working in that rep range will force adaptations most specifically to those systems (more sarcoplasm in the cell,) but when taking that work to exhaustion you will work your high threshold motor units as well, because all muscle fibers will start firing before \"failure.\" Likewise, low rep, high intensity resistance training will force adaptations most specifically to systems that support maximal strength. Because you need to fire your high threshold tissue almost immediately and for the entire set just to keep the weight moving, and those same motor unit you're using the most fatigue the most quickly, most of what you're training is neural adaptations (firing muscles at the right time, order, and relative magnitude) and myofibril hypertrophy (new contractile tissue in general) to your fast twitch tissue. Additionally, you don't (and many argue that you shouldn't) need to always go to failure with lower rep work to activate your high threshold motor units and total poundage/volume ends up being a better indicator of progress. As a rule higher threshold motor units have a much higher capacity for hypertrophy than low threshold motor units, so for most people you need to be training with heavier weight to see hypertrophy in general. It is worth noting that higher rep work works a lot better for people's lower body than their upper body for this very reason as those muscles (especially the quadriceps) have a higher proportion of slow twitch fibers than the musculature of their upper body, most likely as an adaptation to the human need to walk for large distances. Most programming reflects this as rep ranges recommended for the lower body tend to be a few reps higher for lower body than for upper body. You can also experience this phenomenon for yourself in training if you have ever tried \"rest-pause\" sets for upper body vs. lower body. At a certain point when raising your rep ranges, lowering your intensity is going to leave you with very little hypertrophy as you start using primarily aerobic systems to fuel your muscles, which have very little to do with maximal contractile strength and a lot more to do with having an efficient cardiovascular system (stronger heart, better capillary system) to deliver oxygen and remove carbon dioxide/lactic acid to keep your slow twitch fibers chugging along. In a set of 200 you're probably going to give up from losing your air or the burn of lactic acid long before you actually push yourself to use your largest motor units. TL;DR the lower amount of force produced/second the fewer muscle cells that are most receptive to hypertrophy are recruited.", "What others are trying to say, and I think they are using a lot of biological terms that, while I am sure they are very correct, aren't always easy to make sense of. The gist is that the difference comes naturally from the body adapting to the work you're doing. If you're lifting heavy, the body will adjust to that. If you're lifting many, the body will adjust to that. The body is able to make these adjustments by measuring what type of stress you put the muscle under. The cells in your body will send out distress calls when they are put under enough stress, which in turn means the body will send help. The type of stress will determine what type of help gets sent. When you lift heavy, the primary stress comes from the creation of microtears in the muscle. The body senses these and reinforces the muscle (or the muscle fibres, to be more exact), by rebuilding each fiber a little bit bigger than it was before. Increased muscle fiber volume = increased contraction strength. So basically, the muscle is yelling \"I cannot do this work, it is destroying me\", to which the body says \"OK, become bigger, so that this work won't destroy you the next time.\" (Unrelated, the same thing (microtears = stronger rebuild) happens with bone, which is why kickboxers can maul each other's shins for 30 minutes without even grimacing, but if Joe Average walks into the coffee table it feels like you've been attacked with an axe.) When you lift small, the primary stress is aerobic (or possible anaerobic, depending on how hard you train). Lactic acid build-up and glycogen/oxygen shortage signals the need for better bloodflow (to remove lactic acid and increase oxygen supply) and increased glucose/water storage locally in the muscle. Here, the muscle is saying \"I am exhausted, I have run out of sugar and/or oxygen and cannot do this work anymore\", to which the body replies, \"OK, next time I will make sure you have additional supply of these.\" That's why, for example, many lifters use creatine either when starting out or when reaching a plateau - it pushes more water into your muscles, which means a direct increase in how much/many you can lift due to artificially increased muscle stamina. What's true for both of these, is overlap. You can't lift small without creating microtears, and you can't lift heavy without adding aerobic/anaerobic stress. If you're training one thing, you're almost always training both. But much like you can isolate muscles to some extent, you can also isolate stress type to some extent.", "Short answer: because they are *different kinds of stress* and hence yield *different kinds of adaptations*. Also, anyone who says that muscle grow *because* of damage to them is simply wrong. You should *not aim* for damage, but damage does bring more benefits than not. 200 reps is only possible with virtually no weight and thus would lead to virtually no adaptations. It's no different than walking around. You will be massively sore and sorry afterwards though. And to address a not exagerated example, you will gain similar hypertrophy gains when doing either a reasonable strength ( < 5reps) or hypertrophy (5 < X > 15) workout if total volume is the same. Naturally low rep workouts take much longer and are prone to burn you out, that's why few train like that. The advantage is a higher gain in strength as measured through a 1rm. But ideally you would do most of your reps in the 5-8 rep ballpark, with some additional high and low rep exercises for extra gains. As for the science behind it all, I can't explain that to you, so you are right to look at my text critically. If anybody replies to this I can look for good articles/papers about this subject in the morning, but they won't be ELI5 fit.", "In my experience the lower weight higher rep is less likely to do damage, and increases the strength of the joint stabilizing muscles. Essentially it is better at creating a fit body as a whole that works well with itself and will last longer into old age. If you want to be capable of lifting lots of weight, you have to train that way, but it's a less holistic approach to personal health, and it's basically only geared towards building lots of muscle and lifting high weights with a higher risk of personal injury and fewer long term benefits. If you look at older weight lifters who concentrated on heavy lifting, they usually have big guts and walk a little funny. Of course that's not always the case, it is possible to be a heavy lifter with a well balanced routine, but it's of course harder work. Low weight high rep naturally works in more cardio and your muscles warm up at an easier pace, and by the time you're finishing the reps they are warmer and more limber and thoroughly worked than with high weight. You also have the added benefit of giving yourself more chances to learn how to correctly do the motion, instead of powering through high weight with bad form, causing injury.", "The heavier the weight, the higher percentage of muscle recruited to lift it. If you want to make a muscle bigger through training, you have better results by recruiting a higher percentage of muscle. How much growth do you get if you water all of your garden vs a small portion? If you lift something light that is not significantly heavier than the normal work your muscle does in a typical day, your muscle is already use to the load and your body doesn't feel the need to adapt--because it already has in the past. If you lift something heavier than the typical load your muscle experiences on a normal day, then your body senses the inefficiency of needing to activate such a high percentage of the muscle to complete the task and adapts. Your body is addicted to efficiency and lifting a heavy weight that you have adapted to is much more efficient than pushing yourself to 80% of your 1rep max. 80% is too close for comfort for your bodies safety mechanism, which is why it works so well. Efficiency is also the reason you lose muscle if you don't use it. It is highly inefficient to carry around 20 lbs of muscle weight that you aren't using.", "You've received decent responses so far, but they've underemphasized the neurological element. For extreme endurance (low weight, high volume), your nervous system needs to push itself and learn to use all its energy. Your body naturally wants to conserve energy. Training for endurance teaches your body how hard and how far it can push itself. For extreme strength (high weight, low volume), your nervous system needs to allow your muscles to lift heavy weight. Your body naturally protects itself and holds back strength and force. If you used all your strength all the time, you'd risk tearing your muscles and straining your tendons and ligaments. Powerlifters learn to trick their brain into letting their bodies put all their strength into a single lift. Proper training allows your brain and body to work toward your goal better.", "Strength gains are largely related to the weight being used (relative to your strength), while hypertrophy is more closely related to the total amount of work being done. The increase in strength is caused largely by neural adaptations. If you go to either extreme (as in your 200 reps of 10 lbs case), the strength gains will be almost non-existent, and you would be unable to overload your muscles further in the same exercise. Conversely, you would be unable to recover from 200 singles with 100% of your maximum load (if you could do it in a session, which you wouldn't). This is both related to muscular factors, and to neural factors.", "Because the muscles adapt differently depending on your weight load and reps that you do. Doing reps to exhaustion from 60-80% of 1 repetition maximum is most effective at hypertrophy. The body creates more muscle fibers so that they can do more work in the future which results in hypertrophy. Doing it with low weight that enables you to do 200 reps, the body adapts so to tolerate lactic acid and your muscles adapt as well obviously. Also your body learns to use muscles more effectively resulting in less fatigue.", "Neuromuscular facilitation, motor unit recruitment and collateral sprouting occur different when lifting for power (low sets, low reps, medium to high weight, high speed) vs. strength (low sets, low reps, high weight, low speed) vs hypertrophy (medium weight, medium sets, medium reps) vs. endurance (low weight, high reps, high sets). Things like rest intervals also change outcomes. Physical medicine journals are the laughing stock of science and statistician journals because they are almost always low power homogeneous studies. The authors tend to draw large conclusions from small, unrealistic data.", "Muscle growth is stimulated by both high intensity (muscle damage/tearing) and high repetition (build-up of metabolites). The former is generally a more effective stimulus for growth i.e. more time efficient, but the latter is generally considered necessary to truly maximize all of the chemical pathways that input into muscle growth. Warm up with some light stuff, progress to heavy, and then cap it off with a ton of reps at lower weights = cooked muscles = big muscles (plus fully sick pump bro)", "Sorry for the shitty answers OP. As your no doubt aware muscles react and adapt to stress. Lifting a heavy weight stresses the muscles themselves, lifting a light weight doesn't actually stress the muscle. If you do it 200 times it doesn't get any heavier, it's still an easy task for your muscle, you are stressing the ability of your muscle to get enough fuel and energy to continue the task." ]

[ [ "Weakness Pathophysiology Muscle cells work by detecting a flow of electrical impulses from the brain, which signals them to contract through the release of calcium by the sarcoplasmic reticulum. Fatigue (reduced ability to generate force) may occur due to the nerve, or within the muscle cells themselves. New research from scientists at Columbia University suggests that muscle fatigue is caused by calcium leaking out of the muscle cell. This makes less calcium available for the muscle cell. In addition, the Columbia researchers propose that an enzyme activated by this released calcium eats away at muscle fibers.\nSubstrates within the muscle generally", "-30.397446000577474" ], [ "Muscle fatigue Muscle fatigue is the decline in ability of a muscle to generate force. It can be a result of vigorous exercise but abnormal fatigue may be caused by barriers to or interference with the different stages of muscle contraction. There are two main causes of muscle fatigue: the limitations of a nerve’s ability to generate a sustained signal (neural fatigue); and the reduced ability of the muscle fiber to contract (metabolic fatigue). Muscle contraction Muscle cells work by detecting a flow of electrical impulses from the brain which signals them to contract through the release of calcium by", "-30.18099438061472" ], [ "the physical load and require more time to work them out compared to other body muscles. The stable results can be achieved due to hard work.", "-30.011035265037208" ], [ "New research from scientists at Columbia University suggests that muscle fatigue is caused by calcium leaking out of the muscle cell. This causes there to be less calcium available for the muscle cell. In addition an enzyme is proposed to be activated by this released calcium which eats away at muscle fibers.\nSubstrates within the muscle generally serve to power muscular contractions. They include molecules such as adenosine triphosphate (ATP), glycogen and creatine phosphate. ATP binds to the myosin head and causes the ‘ratchetting’ that results in contraction according to the sliding filament model. Creatine phosphate stores energy", "-29.854987140110097" ], [ "that is important to muscle growth, as opposed to just the load, just the volume, or \"time under tension\". In these and related uses of the word, \"workload\" can be broken up into \"work+load\", referring to the work done with a given load. In terms of weights training, the \"load\" refers to the heaviness of the weight being lifted (20 kg is a greater load than 10 kg), and \"work\" refers to the volume, or total number of reps and sets done with that weight (20 reps is more work than 10 reps, but 2 sets of 10 reps is the same", "-29.448310342791956" ], [ "Part of the process of strength training is increasing the nerve's ability to generate sustained, high frequency signals which allow a muscle to contract with their greatest force. It is this \"neural training\" that causes several weeks worth of rapid gains in strength, which level off once the nerve is generating maximum contractions and the muscle reaches its physiological limit. Past this point, training effects increase muscular strength through myofibrillar or sarcoplasmic hypertrophy and metabolic fatigue becomes the factor limiting contractile force. Peripheral muscle fatigue Peripheral muscle fatigue during physical work is considered an inability for the body to", "-29.245954105990904" ], [ "percent efficiency at 250 watts of mechanical output. The mechanical energy output of a cyclic contraction can depend upon many factors, including activation timing, muscle strain trajectory, and rates of force rise & decay. These can be synthesized experimentally using work loop analysis. Strength Muscle is a result of three factors that overlap: physiological strength (muscle size, cross sectional area, available crossbridging, responses to training), neurological strength (how strong or weak is the signal that tells the muscle to contract), and mechanical strength (muscle's force angle on the lever, moment arm length, joint capabilities). Exercise Exercise is often", "-29.22076080441184" ], [ "risk of developing various inflammatory diseases. Progressive overload The basic method of weight training uses the principle of progressive overload, in which the muscles are overloaded by attempting to lift at least as much weight as they are capable. They respond by growing larger and stronger. This procedure is repeated with progressively heavier weights as the practitioner gains strength and endurance.\nHowever, performing exercises at the absolute limit of one's strength (known as one rep max lifts) is considered too risky for all but the most experienced practitioners. Moreover, most individuals wish to develop a combination of strength, endurance and muscle", "-29.123094227485126" ], [ "observations clearly show that these types of muscle undergo significant reductions in muscle mass (muscle weight) along with a concomitant loss in total protein and myofibrillar (the fraction that is composed of the contractile machinery of structural proteins) protein content of the targeted muscles. In some experiments, it has been reported that the myofibrillar fraction can be degraded to a greater extent than other muscle fractions. The general pattern demonstrates that a rapid loss in muscle weight and net total and myofibrillar protein content (concentration (mg/g X muscle weight) occurs during the first 7–10 days of unloading and this is", "-28.98393633382284" ], [ "Progressive overload Progressive overload is the gradual increase of stress placed upon the body during exercise training.\nIt was developed by Thomas Delorme, M.D. while he rehabilitated soldiers after World War II. The technique is recognized as a fundamental principle for success in various forms of strength training programs including fitness training, weight lifting, high intensity training and physical therapy programs. Scientific principles A common goal for strength-training programs is to increase or to maintain one's physical strength or muscle mass. In order to achieve more strength, as opposed to maintaining current strength capacity, muscles (see skeletal muscles) need to be", "-28.96880469928874" ], [ "Nutrition The high levels of muscle growth and repair achieved by bodybuilders require a specialized diet. Generally speaking, bodybuilders require more calories than the average person of the same weight to provide the protein and energy requirements needed to support their training and increase muscle mass. In preparation of a contest, a sub-maintenance level of food energy is combined with cardiovascular exercise to lose body fat. Proteins, carbohydrates and fats are the three major macronutrients that the human body needs in order to build muscle. The ratios of calories from carbohydrates, proteins, and fats vary depending on the goals of", "-28.83243653133104" ], [ "below, and long-lasting changes in the muscle tissue.\n\nEvidence has shown that increases in strength occur well before muscle hypertrophy, and decreases in strength due to detraining or ceasing to repeat the exercise over an extended period of time precede muscle atrophy. To be specific, strength training enhances motor neuron excitability and induces synaptogenesis, both of which would help in enhancing communication between the nervous system and the muscles themselves. \nHowever, neuromuscular efficacy is not altered within a two-week time period following cessation of the muscle usage; instead, it is merely the neuron's ability to excite the muscle that declines in", "-28.8246643752791" ], [ "Fatigue Physical fatigue Physical fatigue, or muscle fatigue, is the temporary physical inability of muscles to perform optimally. The onset of muscle fatigue during physical activity is gradual, and depends upon an individual's level of physical fitness – other factors include sleep deprivation and overall health. Fatigue can be reversed by rest. Physical fatigue can be caused by a lack of energy in the muscle, by a decrease of the efficiency of the neuromuscular junction or by a reduction of the drive originating from the central nervous system. The central component of fatigue is triggered by an increase of the", "-28.802439944411162" ], [ "a healthy weight. Proper form will prevent any strains or fractures. When the exercise becomes difficult towards the end of a set, there is a temptation to cheat, i.e., to use poor form to recruit other muscle groups to assist the effort. Avoid heavy weight and keep the number of repetitions to a minimum. This may shift the effort to weaker muscles that cannot handle the weight. For example, the squat and the deadlift are used to exercise the largest muscles in the body—the leg and buttock muscles—so they require substantial weight. Beginners are tempted to round their back", "-28.731592408847064" ], [ "Training to failure In weight training, training to failure is repeating an exercise (such as the bench press) to the point of momentary muscular failure, i.e. the point where the neuromuscular system can no longer produce adequate force to overcome a specific workload.\nThe Current Medical Diagnosis and Treatment states that training to failure is necessary for maximal hypertrophic response. Heavy or light weights? A 2010 study concluded that training to failure with lower loads with more repetitions can be more beneficial for muscle building than using higher loads with fewer repetitions. In this study, participants who trained to failure with", "-28.68929324391138" ], [ "stressed in such a way that triggers the body's natural, adaptive response to new demands placed on it.\nProgressive overload not only stimulates muscle hypertrophy, but it also stimulates the development of stronger and denser bones, ligaments, tendons and cartilage. Progressive overload also incrementally increases blood flow to exercised regions of the body and stimulates more responsive nerve connections between the brain and the muscles involved.\nConversely, decreased use of the muscle results in incremental loss of mass and strength, known as muscular atrophy (see atrophy and muscle atrophy). Sedentary people often lose a pound or more of muscle annually.\nThe loss of", "-28.6501491056988" ], [ "that are close to the upper limit of a muscle's ability to generate force, neuromuscular fatigue can become a limiting factor in untrained individuals. In novice strength trainers, the muscle's ability to generate force is most strongly limited by nerve’s ability to sustain a high-frequency signal. After an extended period of maximum contraction, the nerve’s signal reduces in frequency and the force generated by the contraction diminishes. There is no sensation of pain or discomfort, the muscle appears to simply ‘stop listening’ and gradually cease to move, often lengthening. As there is insufficient stress on the muscles and tendons, there", "-28.601598079712858" ], [ "therefore depends on the localized metabolic chemical conditions of the local muscle affected, whereas the central model of muscle fatigue is an integrated mechanism that works to preserve the integrity of the system by initiating muscle fatigue through muscle derecruitment, based on collective feedback from the periphery, before cellular or organ failure occurs. Therefore, the feedback that is read by this central regulator could include chemical and mechanical as well as cognitive cues. The significance of each of these factors will depend on the nature of the fatigue-inducing work that is being performed.\nThough not universally used, \"metabolic fatigue\" is a", "-28.579610329150455" ], [ "energy. This rate exceeds the muscle's maximum capacity for energy. In comparison, power amplification of tendons allow for greater output of power that can exceed the capacity of their respective muscle. This elastic mechanism can lead to the following reductions by lengthening muscles: peak power input, lengthening velocity, and force. Muscle damage has been correlated with these factors. However, the shuttling of energy through tendons before it is absorbed by muscles has been shown to provide a protective mechanism against that damage. However, large accumulations of elastic energy storage over time may negatively affect the timing of recoil. This results", "-28.573133088801114" ], [ "the sarcoplasmic reticulum. Fatigue (reduced ability to generate force) may occur due to the nerve, or within the muscle cells themselves. Nervous fatigue Nerves are responsible for controlling the contraction of muscles, determining the number, sequence and force of muscular contraction. Most movements require a force far below what a muscle could potentially generate, and barring pathological nervous fatigue, is seldom an issue. But in extremely powerful contractions that are close to the upper limit of a muscle's ability to generate force, nervous fatigue (enervation), in which the nerve signal weakens, can be a limiting factor in untrained", "-28.465376343569005" ], [ "oxidize fat while preserving as much muscle as possible. The larger the calorie deficit, the faster one will lose weight. However, a large calorie deficit will also create the risk of losing muscle tissue.\nThe bulking and cutting strategy is effective because there is a well-established link between muscle hypertrophy and being in a state of positive energy balance. A sustained period of caloric surplus will allow the athlete to gain more fat-free mass than they could otherwise gain under eucaloric conditions. Some gain in fat mass is expected, which athletes seek to oxidize in a cutting period while maintaining as", "-28.445788067037938" ], [ "to help meet your caloric needs. It is also necessary to keep testosterone levels elevated, which makes it easier to pack on muscle.\nNot only do you have to eat right, you also have to make sure you stay hydrated. Water is a critical component of your mass-gaining diet because it helps maintain muscle fullness and helps the body properly use all the calories you are supplying it. Steroids Enhancing substances (steroids) are sometimes used in the fitness industry to promote the development of muscle in a shorter amount of time. It is easier for a male to gain muscle mass", "-28.416048991610296" ], [ "performance is due to increased oxidation of BCAAs in supplementation that results in increased fatigue, canceling out the effects on 5-HT. Manipulation Controlling central nervous system fatigue can help scientists develop a deeper understanding of fatigue as a whole. Numerous approaches have been taken to manipulate neurochemical levels and behavior. In sports, nutrition plays a large role in athletic performance. In addition to fuel, many athletes consume performance-enhancing drugs including stimulants in order to boost their abilities. Dopamine reuptake and release agents Amphetamine is a stimulant that has been found to improve both physical and cognitive performance. Amphetamine blocks the", "-28.41067554190522" ], [ "of the exercising muscles (\"peripheral muscle fatigue\"). This failure was caused either by an inadequate oxygen supply to the exercising muscles, lactic acid buildup, or total energy depletion in the exhausted muscles. Tim Noakes Tim Noakes, a professor of exercise and sports science at the University of Cape Town, in 1997 has renewed Hill’s argument on the basis of modern research.\nIn his approach, the power output by muscles during exercise is continuously adjusted in regard to calculations made by the brain in regard to a safe level of exertion. These neural calculations factor in earlier experience with strenuous exercise, the", "-28.392959975230042" ], [ "can be shown more easily in lean people. Those who are overweight have a better chance of reducing fat if they increase their overall fitness levels. This can be achieved by doing both High-intensity interval training cardio and, resistance training that focuses on gaining muscle mass in both large and small muscle groups. This increase in muscle mass will create a larger need for energy that comes from fatty acids in stored fat cells. Myth Although professionals know spot reduction is a myth, many people still believe that it is possible to choose where fat can be lost on one's", "-28.376235571646248" ], [ "potential to burn more calories in a given period compared to aerobics. This helps to maintain a higher metabolic rate which would otherwise diminish after metabolic adaption to dieting, or upon completion of an aerobic routine.\nWeight loss also depends on the type of strength training used. Weight training is generally used for bulking, but the bulking method will more than likely not increase weight because of the diet involved. However, when resistance or circuit training is used, because they are not geared towards bulking, women tend to lose weight more quickly. Lean muscles require calories to maintain themselves at rest,", "-28.25338336105051" ], [ "and this has given rise to various strategies to continue improving. Voluntary skeletal muscle is in balance between the amount of muscle synthesized or renewed each day and the amount that is degraded. Muscle fibers respond to repetition and load, and increased training causes the quantity of exercised muscle fiber to increase exponentially (simply meaning that the greatest gains are seen during the first weeks of training). Successful training produces hypertrophy of muscle fibers as an adaptation to the training regimen. In order to make further gains, greater workout intensity is required with heavier loads and more repetitions, although improvement", "-28.232829973301705" ], [ "cause difficulty swallowing and diaphragm atrophy can cause difficulty breathing. Muscle atrophy can be asymptomatic and may go undetected until a significant amount of muscle is lost. Causes Skeletal muscle serves as a storage site for amino acids that can be used for energy production when demands are high or supplies are low. If metabolic demands remain greater than protein synthesis, muscle mass is lost. Many diseases and conditions can lead to this imbalance, either through the disease itself or disease associated appetite-changes. Causes of muscle atrophy, include immobility, aging, malnutrition, certain systemic diseases (cancer, congestive heart failure; chronic obstructive", "-28.21311104798224" ], [ "muscle fiber ratio influences oxygen extraction. Dehydration Dehydration refers both to hypohydration (dehydration induced prior to exercise) and to exercise-induced dehydration (dehydration that develops during exercise). The latter reduces aerobic endurance performance and results in increased body temperature, heart rate, perceived exertion, and possibly increased reliance on carbohydrate as a fuel source. Although the negative effects of exercise-induced dehydration on exercise performance were clearly demonstrated in the 1940s, athletes continued to believe for years thereafter that fluid intake was not beneficial. More recently, negative effects on performance have been demonstrated with modest (<2%) dehydration, and these effects are exacerbated when", "-28.16285061428789" ], [ "correlation with the muscle's decrease in strength. This confirms that muscle strength is first influenced by the inner neural circuitry, rather than by external physiological changes in the muscle size.\nPreviously untrained muscles acquire newly formed nuclei by fusion of satellite cells preceding the hypertrophy. Subsequent detraining leads to atrophy but no loss of myo-nuclei. The elevated number of nuclei in muscle fibers that had experienced a hypertrophic episode would provide a mechanism for muscle memory, explaining the long-lasting effects of training and the ease with which previously trained individuals are more easily retrained.\nOn subsequent detraining, the fibers maintain an elevated", "-28.15778209484779" ], [ "and decreased body fat, blood pressure, LDL cholesterol and triglycerides.\nThe body's basal metabolic rate increases with increases in muscle mass, which promotes long-term fat loss and helps dieters avoid yo-yo dieting. Moreover, intense workouts elevate metabolism for several hours following the workout, which also promotes fat loss.\nWeight training also provides functional benefits. Stronger muscles improve posture, provide better support for joints, and reduce the risk of injury from everyday activities. Older people who take up weight training can prevent some of the loss of muscle tissue that normally accompanies aging—and even regain some functional strength—and by doing so, become less", "-28.148320400869125" ], [ "7–14 days) in response to unloading; fourth, loss of muscle mass is paralleled by decrements in muscle strength and endurance, but strength losses typically are greater than volume losses; fifth, if atrophy is specific to a myofiber type within these muscles, it seems to be Type II myofibers; and sixth, terrestrial unloading does not seem to produce a slow-to-fast shift in absolute myofiber characteristics but does alter the expression of MHC isoforms in human muscle so that an increase in MHC hybrid myofibers is observed, resulting in a faster phenotype.\nOther research findings exist that relate peripherally to this risk description", "-28.040048716022284" ], [ "to weight loss from inadequate caloric intake, cachexia causes predominantly muscle loss instead of fat loss and it is not as responsive to nutritional intervention. Cachexia can significantly compromise quality of life and functional status and is associated with poor outcomes. Sarcopenia Sarcopenia is the degenerative loss of skeletal muscle mass, quality, and strength associated with aging. This involves muscle atrophy, reduction in number of muscle fibers and a shift towards \"slow twitch\" or type I skeletal muscle fibers over \"fast twitch\" or type II fibers. The rate of muscle loss is dependent on exercise level, co-morbidities, nutrition and other", "-28.006740575714502" ], [ "over the course of a week are a more effective training strategy. One recent meta-analysis of experimental trials on resistance training found out that, when total training volume is equated, \"frequencies of training twice a week promote superior hypertrophic outcomes to once a week\". Methods and equipment There are many methods of strength training. Examples include weight training, circuit training, isometric exercise, gymnastics, plyometrics, Parkour, yoga, Pilates, Super Slow.\nStrength training may be done with minimal or no equipment, for instance bodyweight exercises. Equipment used for strength training includes barbells and dumbbells, weight machines and other exercise machines, weighted clothing, resistance", "-27.98990567473811" ], [ "shape. Burnout sets help increase muscle growth because of the buildup of lactic acid in the muscle when it’s forced to the point of failure. Diminishing set The diminishing set method is where a weight is chosen that can be lifted for 20 reps in one set, and then 70 repetitions are performed in as few sets as possible. Rest-pause The rest-pause training method takes one whole set and breaks it down into a few mini sets. There are two different goals that are associated with rest-pause training, you could use it to increase hypertrophy or increase strength. To increase", "-27.943962280638516" ], [ "with a high number of repetitions with very little rest and recovery, which accommodates an increase in mass of the muscles... That's important because as we increase the mass in the muscle fiber . . . (it) allows us to (maximize everything).\" Neurological reengineering During the course of Barwis's training people with neurological disabilities and disorders, he developed a system now called \"Neurological Reengineering\" that is used in every Barwis Methods Training Center in its Injury Recovery Program (IRP). The IRP uses Barwis' proprietary and revolutionary system to help people regain functional control over their nervous system, assisting their", "-27.88277944244328" ], [ "cycle.\nSubstrates produce metabolic fatigue by being depleted during exercise, resulting in a lack of intracellular energy sources to fuel contractions. In essence, the muscle stops contracting because it lacks the energy to do so. Proximal and distal Muscle weakness can also be classified as either \"proximal\" or \"distal\" based on the location of the muscles that it affects. Proximal muscle weakness affects muscles closest to the body's midline, while distal muscle weakness affects muscles further out on the limbs.\nProximal muscle weakness can be seen in Cushing's syndrome and hyperthyroidism.", "-27.859267923042353" ], [ "generate force, neuromuscular fatigue can become a limiting factor in untrained individuals. In novice strength trainers, the muscle's ability to generate force is most strongly limited by nerve’s ability to sustain a high-frequency signal. After an extended period of maximum contraction, the nerve’s signal reduces in frequency and the force generated by the contraction diminishes. There is no sensation of pain or discomfort, the muscle appears to simply ‘stop listening’ and gradually cease to move, often lengthening. As there is insufficient stress on the muscles and tendons, there will often be no delayed onset muscle soreness following the workout. ", "-27.845488687235047" ], [ "much lean mass as possible. Clean bulking Many non-competitive bodybuilders choose not to adopt this conventional strategy, as it often results in significant unwanted fat gain during the \"bulking\" phase. The attempt to increase muscle mass in one's body without any gain in fat is called clean bulking. Competitive bodybuilders focus their efforts to achieve a peak appearance during a brief \"competition season\". Clean bulking takes longer and is a more refined approach to achieving the body fat and muscle mass percentage a person is looking for. A common tactic for keeping fat low and muscle mass high would be", "-27.80966607038863" ], [ "primarily work the slow twitch (type 1) fibers and develop such fibers in their efficiency and resistance to fatigue. Catabolism also improves increasing the athletes capacity to use fat and glycogen stores as an energy source. These metabolic processes are known as glycogenolysis, glycolysis and lipolysis. There is higher efficiency in oxygen transport and distribution. In recent years it has been recognized that oxidative enzymes such as succinate dehydrogenase (SDH) that enable mitochondria to break down nutrients to form ATP increase by 2.5 times in well trained endurance athletes In addition to SDH, myoglobin increases by 75-80%", "-27.807648724861792" ], [ "stretched elastic elements are also released, there is an overall net gain. This shows that muscle fibers are effective in both power production and for energy consumption utilized by the body or individual body segments with muscle-tendon units. Elastic mechanisms as power amplifiers Tendons, connective tissues, and molecular structures within a skeletal system can act as power amplifiers by storing energy gradually and releasing it rapidly. This amplification process is possible because spring-like tendons are not limited by the same rate limits imposed upon muscles by their intrinsic enzymatic processes. The process of amplification begins when a muscle contracts steadily,", "-27.727098037692485" ], [ "elevation.\nPhysiologic hypotheses propose that it is the unique structure and function of extraocular muscles that predispose them to weakness in MG. Compared to extremity muscles, extraocular muscles are smaller, served by more nerve fibers, and are among the fastest contracting muscles in the body. This higher level of activity may predispose them to fatigue in MG. Additionally, some reports indicate that there may be fewer acetylcholine receptors in extraocular muscles versus limb muscles. Diagnosis The variable course of MG may make the diagnosis difficult. In brief, the diagnosis of MG relies mostly on the patient's history and physical findings, with", "-27.696641325761448" ], [ "this will lead to overtraining, and suggest training to failure only on the last set of an exercise. Some practitioners recommend finishing a set of repetitions just before reaching a personal maximum at a given time. Adrenaline and other hormones may promote additional intensity by stimulating the body to lift additional weight (as well as the neuro-muscular stimulations that happen when in \"fight-or-flight\" mode, as the body activates more muscle fibres), so getting \"psyched up\" before a workout can increase the maximum weight lifted.\nWeight training can be a very effective form of strength training because exercises can be chosen, and", "-27.695735199726187" ], [ "muscle mass due to aging. Muscle mass begins to deteriorate as early as the age of 25, and consistently deteriorates into old age. By the age of 80 \"one half of the skeletal muscle has been lost\" (Lastayo, Woolf, Lewek, Snyder-Mackler, Reich & Lindstedt, 2003). With this great decrease in mass, strength is also decreased. Eccentric training has the ability to counteract sarcopenia through sustained training. The unique trait of greater overloads to the muscle with less strenuous impact on the body, as well as cardiac and respiratory systems, offers a unique case for the elderly. The high-force and", "-27.67788293898559" ], [ "order to be able to apply the appropriate power. Thus, over a period of training, increasing the system strength and power output of the athlete as their body has learnt to recruit a larger number of muscle fibres.\n‘The way complex training works, in theory, is that the isometric part of the exercise will cause the muscle fibers which are typically recruited for a given movement to become fatigued. The sport specific plyometric movement which immediately follows the isometric movement will then require the neuromuscular system to recruit new muscle fibers, since the fibers typically recruited are now fatigued. ", "-27.637287558412027" ], [ "their nervous system cannot handle the stress of a high weight. This test should be performed with a spotter for reasons of safety.\nWeight training protocols often use 1RM when programming to ensure the exerciser reaches resistance overload, especially when the exercise objective is muscular strength, endurance or hypertrophy. By understanding the maximal potential of the muscle, it is possible to reach resistance overload by increasing the number of repetitions for an exercise.\nDetermining the 1 rep max can be done directly through trial and error and simply requires the exerciser to complete one full repetition with the maximum weight. \nThere are", "-27.62678277786472" ], [ "to maintain posture and produce motion.\nThe conversion efficiency of energy from respiration into mechanical (physical) power depends on the type of food and on the type of physical energy usage (e.g., which muscles are used, whether the muscle is used aerobically or anaerobically). In general, the efficiency of muscles is rather low: only 18 to 26% of the energy available from respiration is converted into mechanical energy. This low efficiency is the result of about 40% efficiency of generating ATP from the respiration of food, losses in converting energy from ATP into mechanical work inside the muscle, and mechanical losses", "-27.619759092427557" ], [ "gravis. Types Muscle fatigue can be central, neuromuscular, or peripheral muscular. Central muscle fatigue manifests as an overall sense of energy deprivation, and peripheral muscle weakness manifests as a local, muscle-specific inability to do work. Neuromuscular fatigue can be either central or peripheral. Central fatigue The central fatigue is generally described in terms of a reduction in the neural drive or nerve-based motor command to working muscles that results in a decline in the force output. It has been suggested that the reduced neural drive during exercise may be a protective mechanism to prevent organ failure if the work", "-27.616334615384403" ], [ "a general lowering in fatigue strength, accelerated initiation at higher stresses and elimination of the fatigue limit. To meet the needs of advancing technology, higher-strength materials are developed through heat treatment or alloying. Such high-strength materials generally exhibit higher fatigue limits, and can be used at higher service stress levels even under fatigue loading. However, the presence of a corrosive environment during fatigue loading eliminates this stress advantage, since the fatigue limit becomes almost insensitive to the strength level for a particular group of alloys. This effect is schematically shown for several steels in the diagram on the left, which", "-27.597724820603617" ], [ "speed, and focuses on maximal power instead of maximal strength by compressing the force of muscular contraction into as short a period as possible, and may be used to improve the effectiveness of a boxer's punch, or to increase the vertical jumping ability of a basketball player. Care must be taken when performing plyometric exercises because they inflict greater stress upon the involved joints and tendons than other forms of exercise. Health benefits Benefits of weight training include increased strength, muscle mass, endurance, bone and bone mineral density, insulin sensitivity, GLUT 4 density, HDL cholesterol, improved cardiovascular health and appearance,", "-27.560843038954772" ], [ "two people weigh the same (and are the same height) but have different lean body mass percentages, the one with more muscle will appear thinner.\nIn addition, though bodybuilding uses the same principles as strength training, it is with a goal of gaining muscle bulk. Strength trainers with different goals and programs will not gain the same mass as a professional bodybuilder. Weight loss Exercises like sit-ups, or abdominal crunches, performs less work than whole-body aerobic exercises thereby expending fewer calories during exercise than jogging, for example.\nHypertrophy serves to maintain muscle mass, for an elevated basal metabolic rate, which has the", "-27.560133669758216" ], [ "also strengthens bones, helping to prevent bone loss and osteoporosis. By increasing muscular strength and improving balance, weight training can also reduce falls by elderly persons. Weight training is also attracting attention for the benefits it can have on the brain, and in older adults, a 2017 meta analysis found that it was effective in improving cognitive performance. Weight training and other types of strength training The benefits of weight training overall are comparable to most other types of strength training: increased muscle, tendon and ligament strength, bone density, flexibility, tone, metabolic rate, and postural support. This type of training", "-27.522566464322153" ], [ "attained in the previous periods will not be lost.\nTraditionally, strength training (the performance of exercises with resistance or added weight) was not deemed appropriate for endurance athletes due to potential interference in the adaptive response to the endurance elements of an athlete's training plan. There were also misconceptions regarding the addition of excess body mass through muscle hypertrophy (growth) associated with strength training, which could negatively effect endurance performance by increasing the amount of work required to be completed by the athlete. However, more recent and comprehensive research has proved that short-term (8 weeks) strength training in addition to endurance", "-27.508837455845423" ], [ "of hormones and enzymes. These create a negative energy balance in the body. Fat is reduced over the whole body. Exercise of certain muscles cannot signal a specific release of fatty acids for the specific fat deposits above those muscles being activated. Muscle growth vs fat reduction In a randomized control study, scientists sought to determine a link between skeletal muscle size and surrounding fat on a specific body part when exposed to strength training. They compared the muscle and fat content of high-caliber tennis players' dominant and non-dominant forearms. The method used in this study to examine the amount", "-27.4577724247647" ], [ "affect the number of cells that develop into fat-storage cells, by favouring cellular differentiation into muscle cells instead. AAS can also decrease fat by increasing basal metabolic rate (BMR), since an increase in muscle mass increases BMR. Body composition and strength improvements Body weight in men may increase by 2 to 5 kg as a result of short-term (<10 weeks) AAS use, which may be attributed mainly to an increase of lean mass. Animal studies also found that fat mass was reduced, but most studies in humans failed to elucidate significant fat mass decrements. The effects on lean body mass have", "-27.456990400867653" ], [ "not fatigue in the same way, they will conform much more closely to the formula that if you apply more load, they will do less work, and vice versa. Theory and modelling Another aspect to workload is the mathematical predictive models used in human factors analysis; generally to support the design and assessment of safety-critical systems.\nThere is no one agreed definition of workload and consequently not one agreed method of assessing or modelling it. One example definition by Hart and Staveland (1988) describes workload as \"the perceived relationship between the amount of mental processing capability or resources and the amount", "-27.41808258468518" ], [ "was continued at the same intensity. The exact mechanisms of central fatigue are unknown, though there has been a great deal of interest in the role of serotonergic pathways. Neuromuscular fatigue Nerves control the contraction of muscles by determining the number, sequence, and force of muscular contraction. When a nerve experiences synaptic fatigue it becomes unable to stimulate the muscle that it innervates. Most movements require a force far below what a muscle could potentially generate, and barring pathology, neuromuscular fatigue is seldom an issue.\nFor extremely powerful contractions that are close to the upper limit of a muscle's ability to", "-27.40047469023557" ], [ "proved that peripheral muscle fatigue was not causing the subjects with chronic fatigue syndrome to cease exercising. It is possible that the higher perception of effort required to use the muscles results in great difficulty in accomplishing consistent exercise. \nThe main cause of fatigue in chronic fatigue syndrome most likely lies in the central nervous system. A defect in one of its components could cause a greater requirement of input to result in sustained force. It has been shown that with very high motivation, subjects with chronic fatigue can exert force effectively. Further investigation into central nervous system fatigue may", "-27.372961324363132" ], [ "strength training exercise) as compared to concentric loading. When eccentric contractions are used in weight training, they are normally called negatives. During a concentric contraction, muscle myofilaments slide past each other, pulling the Z-lines together. During an eccentric contraction, the myofilaments slide past each other the opposite way, though the actual movement of the myosin heads during an eccentric contraction is not known. Exercise featuring a heavy eccentric load can actually support a greater weight (muscles are approximately 40% stronger during eccentric contractions than during concentric contractions) and also results in greater muscular damage and delayed onset muscle soreness one", "-27.3712357719196" ], [ "supply sufficient energy or other metabolites to the contracting muscles to meet the increased energy demand. This is the most common case of physical fatigue—affecting a national average of 72% of adults in the work force in 2002. This causes contractile dysfunction that manifests in the eventual reduction or lack of ability of a single muscle or local group of muscles to do work. The insufficiency of energy, i.e. sub-optimal aerobic metabolism, generally results in the accumulation of lactic acid and other acidic anaerobic metabolic by-products in the muscle, causing the stereotypical burning sensation of local muscle fatigue, though recent", "-27.313365252426593" ], [ "and tripeptides, and leucine.\nSome weight trainers also take ergogenic aids such as creatine or steroids to aid muscle growth. However, the effectiveness of some products is disputed and others are potentially harmful. Sex differences in mass gains Due to the androgenic hormonal differences between males and females, the latter are generally unable to develop large muscles regardless of the training program used. Normally the most that can be achieved is a look similar to that of a fitness model. Muscle is denser than fat, so someone who builds muscle while keeping the same body weight will occupy less volume; if", "-27.304294826069963" ], [ "of strength The body most efficiently produces power when its strength producing areas exist in particular proportions. If these proportions exist in the correct ratio to each other, then power generation can be optimised. Conversely, if one area is too strong, this may mean that it is disproportionately strong relative to other areas of the body. This may cause a number of problems: a weaker area of the body may be excessively strained by working in conjunction with the stronger area; and the stronger area may be slowed by working with the weaker area. Such problems hinder power development.\nThe optimum", "-27.21959098071966" ], [ "be converted to glucose to maintain proper blood sugar levels.\nThe situation can become dire when one begins to lose muscle mass; this is a sign that the fat has been expended and the body is now metabolizing the muscle tissue. This results in muscle atrophy, a loss of strength and, ultimately, a depletion of muscular tissue completely. Muscle weakness is not necessarily a symptom of catabolysis: the muscles will normally feel fatigued when they are not receiving enough energy or oxygen. Ultimately, catabolysis can progress to the point of no return when the body's machinery for protein synthesis, itself made", "-27.1642566206865" ], [ "rehabilitation or to address an impairment For many people in rehabilitation or with an acquired disability, such as following stroke or orthopaedic surgery, strength training for weak muscles is a key factor to optimise recovery. For people with such a health condition, their strength training is likely to need to be designed by an appropriate health professional, such as a physiotherapist or an occupational therapist. Increased sports performance Stronger muscles improve performance in a variety of sports. Sport-specific training routines are used by many competitors. These often specify that the speed of muscle contraction during weight training should be the", "-27.12171140924329" ], [ "of ability of a single muscle or local group of muscles to do work. The insufficiency of energy, i.e. sub-optimal aerobic metabolism, generally results in the accumulation of lactic acid and other acidic anaerobic metabolic by-products in the muscle, causing the stereotypical burning sensation of local muscle fatigue, though recent studies have indicated otherwise, actually finding that lactic acid is a source of energy.\nThe fundamental difference between the peripheral and central theories of muscle fatigue is that the peripheral model of muscle fatigue assumes failure at one or more sites in the chain that initiates muscle contraction. Peripheral regulation ", "-27.121072660800564" ], [ "Muscle weakness Types Neuromuscular fatigue can be classified as either \"central\" or \"peripheral\" depending on its cause. Central muscle fatigue manifests as an overall sense of energy deprivation, while peripheral muscle fatigue manifests as a local, muscle-specific inability to do work. Neuromuscular fatigue Nerves control the contraction of muscles by determining the number, sequence, and force of muscular contraction. When a nerve experiences synaptic fatigue it becomes unable to stimulate the muscle that it innervates. Most movements require a force far below what a muscle could potentially generate, and barring pathology, neuromuscular fatigue is seldom an issue.\nFor extremely powerful contractions", "-27.11948377601766" ], [ "therapies. Fatigue is usually the more disabling symptom. Energy conservation can significantly reduce fatigue episodes. Such can be achieved by lifestyle changes: additional (daytime) sleep, reducing workload, weight loss for obesity. Some require lower limb orthotics to reduce energy usage.\nMedications for fatigue, such as amantadine and pyridostigmine, are ineffective in the management of PPS. Muscle strength and endurance training are more important in managing the symptoms of PPS than the ability to perform enduring aerobic activity. Management should focus on treatments such as hydrotherapy and developing other routines that encourage strength but do not affect fatigue levels. A recent trend", "-27.07820790176629" ], [ "of whole muscle groups rather than individual skeletal muscles, bodily inertia, and motivational aspects associated with sustained muscle activity. Additionally, measures of muscle fatigue are not affected by fatigue of the central nervous system. By adopting the work loop technique in an isolated muscle model, these confounding factors are eliminated, thus allowing for a closer examination of the muscle-specific changes in work loop power output in response to a stimulus. Moreover, usage of the work loop technique as opposed to other modes of contraction, such as isometric, isotonic and isovelocity, allows for a better representation of the changes in mechanical", "-27.063071780306927" ], [ "training and greater improvements in muscle strength. The other factor being a direct relationship between increased resistance training volume, which is the total number of exercise sets performed in a session, and improvements in lean body mass. A meta-analysis on the effect of resistance exercise for multiple strength outcomes in older adults revealed a positive effect for each of the strength outcomes. Specifically, the estimate of mean strength change from baseline to post intervention for the leg press was 31.63 kg. There was a mean strength change of 9.83 kg for the chest press, 12.08 kg for the knee extension, and 10.63 kg for", "-27.029560984272393" ], [ "Muscle atrophy Signs and symptoms The hallmark sign of muscle atrophy is loss of lean muscle mass. This change may be difficult to detect due to obesity, changes in fat mass or edema. Changes in weight, limb or waist circumference are not reliable indicators of muscle mass changes.\nThe predominant symptom is increased weakness which may result in difficulty or inability in performing physical tasks depending on what muscles are affected. Atrophy of the core or leg muscles may cause difficulty standing from a seated position, walking or climbing stairs and can cause increased falls. Atrophy of the throat muscles may", "-26.984300445546978" ], [ "the peak is reached the muscle will shorten along with a decrease in force. An example of positive work being done in the environment would be scallops swimming.\nAs a “brake” the muscle is able to absorb energy from the environment. This then results in negative work in the work loop in a clockwise direction. The result is a shortening of the muscles as well as a decrease in force output. After the muscle is done absorbing the energy from the environment, the length of the muscle then returns to normal with increased force. In cockroaches, there are legs that act", "-26.970634030418296" ], [ "two to three days later. Once thought to be caused by lactic acid build-up, a more recent theory is that it is caused by tiny tears in the muscle fibers caused by eccentric contraction, or unaccustomed training levels. Since lactic acid disperses fairly rapidly, it could not explain pain experienced days after exercise. Hypertrophy Independent of strength and performance measures, muscles can be induced to grow larger by a number of factors, including hormone signaling, developmental factors, strength training, and disease. Contrary to popular belief, the number of muscle fibres cannot be increased through exercise. Instead, muscles grow", "-26.956589066365268" ], [ "organ failure occurs. Therefore, the feedback that is read by this central regulator could include chemical and mechanical as well as cognitive cues. The significance of each of these factors will depend on the nature of the fatigue-inducing work that is being performed.\nThough not universally used, \"metabolic fatigue\" is a common alternative term for peripheral muscle weakness, because of the reduction in contractile force due to the direct or indirect effects of the reduction of substrates or accumulation of metabolites within the myocytes. This can occur through a simple lack of energy to fuel contraction, or through interference with the", "-26.925993168057175" ], [ "ability to generate sustained, high frequency signals which allow a muscle to contract with its greatest force. It is this neural training that causes several weeks worth of rapid gains in strength, which level off once the nerve is generating maximum contractions and the muscle reaches its physiological limit. Past this point, training effects increase muscular strength through myofibrilar or sarcoplasmic hypertrophy and metabolic fatigue becomes the factor limiting contractile force. Substrates Substrates within the muscle serve to power muscular contractions. They include molecules such as adenosine triphosphate (ATP), glycogen and creatine phosphate. ATP binds to", "-26.84924925903033" ], [ "disease (such as myasthenia gravis) or problems with muscle itself. The latter category includes polymyositis and other muscle disorders. Molecular mechanisms Muscle fatigue may be due to precise molecular changes that occur in vivo with sustained exercise. It has been found that the ryanodine receptor present in skeletal muscle undergoes a conformational change during exercise, resulting in \"leaky\" channels that are deficient in calcium release. These \"leaky\" channels may be a contributor to muscle fatigue and decreased exercise capacity. Effect on performance Fatigue has been found to play a big role in limiting performance in just about every individual in", "-26.80905123685079" ], [ "yield from any molecule involved. The heart, liver and red blood cells will also consume lactic acid produced and excreted by skeletal muscles during exercise.\nAt rest, skeletal muscle consumes 54.4 kJ/kg (13.0 kcal/kg) per day. This is larger than adipose tissue (fat) at 18.8 kJ/kg (4.5 kcal/kg), and bone at 9.6 kJ/kg (2.3 kcal/kg). Efficiency The efficiency of human muscle has been measured (in the context of rowing and cycling) at 18% to 26%. The efficiency is defined as the ratio of mechanical work output to the total metabolic cost, as can be calculated from oxygen consumption. This low efficiency is the result of about 40%", "-26.799416816720623" ], [ "been shown to be dose-dependent. Both muscle hypertrophy and the formation of new muscle fibers have been observed. The hydration of lean mass remains unaffected by AAS use, although small increments of blood volume cannot be ruled out.\nThe upper region of the body (thorax, neck, shoulders, and upper arm) seems to be more susceptible for AAS than other body regions because of predominance of ARs in the upper body. The largest difference in muscle fiber size between AAS users and non-users was observed in type I muscle fibers of the vastus lateralis and the trapezius muscle as a result of", "-26.748405131591426" ], [ "strength and anaerobic endurance while not giving special attention to reducing body fat far below normal.\nThe bodybuilding community has been the source of many weight training principles, techniques, vocabulary, and customs. Weight training does allow tremendous flexibility in exercises and weights which can allow bodybuilders to target specific muscles and muscle groups, as well as attain specific goals. Not all bodybuilding is undertaken to compete in bodybuilding contests and, in fact, the vast majority of bodybuilders never compete, but bodybuild for their own personal reasons. Complex training In complex training, weight training is typically combined with plyometric exercises in an", "-26.703028508956777" ], [ "will often be no delayed onset muscle soreness following the workout. Part of the process of strength training is increasing the nerve's ability to generate sustained, high frequency signals which allow a muscle to contract with their greatest force. It is this \"neural training\" that causes several weeks worth of rapid gains in strength, which level off once the nerve is generating maximum contractions and the muscle reaches its physiological limit. Past this point, training effects increase muscular strength through myofibrillar or sarcoplasmic hypertrophy and metabolic fatigue becomes the factor limiting contractile force. Central fatigue Central fatigue is", "-26.70297290271992" ], [ "exercise stimulates the increase in myofibrils which increase the overall size of muscle cells. Well exercised muscles can not only add more size but can also develop more mitochondria, myoglobin, glycogen and a higher density of capillaries. However muscle cells cannot divide to produce new cells, and as a result we have fewer muscle cells as an adult than a newborn. Muscle contraction When contracting, thin and thick filaments slide with respect to each other by using adenosine triphosphate. This pulls the Z discs closer together in a process called sliding filament mechanism. The contraction of all the", "-26.69272473986348" ], [ "MHC in many of the slow muscle fibers. On the other hand, both work- and power-generating capacities of the flight-induced atrophied muscles were significantly decreased. Additionally, the resistance to fatigue was significantly decreased as well as the ability to sustain work and power output in response to a paradigm involving repetitive contraction output. Similar findings have been observed using comparable analytical approaches involving the HS model. Taken together, the findings clearly indicate that when skeletal muscles, especially those having a large proportion of slow myofibers, undergo both atrophy and remodeling of the contractile phenotype, the functional capacity of the muscle", "-26.667654722761654" ], [ "Muscle hypertrophy Muscle hypertrophy involves an increase in size of skeletal muscle through a growth in size of its component cells. Two factors contribute to hypertrophy: sarcoplasmic hypertrophy, which focuses more on increased muscle glycogen storage; and myofibrillar hypertrophy, which focuses more on increased myofibril size. Hypertrophy stimulation A range of stimuli can increase the volume of muscle cells. These changes occur as an adaptive response that serves to increase the ability to generate force or resist fatigue in anaerobic conditions. Strength training Strength training, or resistance exercise, brings about neural and muscular adaptations which increase the capacity of an", "-26.656777590687852" ], [ "improve performance in a variety of sports. Sport-specific training routines are used by many competitors. These often specify that the speed of muscle contraction during weight training should be the same as that of the particular sport. Sport-specific training routines also often include variations to both free weight and machine movements that may not be common for traditional weightlifting.\nThough weight training can stimulate the cardiovascular system, many exercise physiologists, based on their observation of maximal oxygen uptake, argue that aerobics training is a better cardiovascular stimulus. Central catheter monitoring during resistance training reveals increased cardiac output, suggesting that strength training", "-26.655978533410234" ], [ "recruitment; thereby resulting in the ability to move more powerfully as a standard. Core strength The body’s core, sometimes referred to as the torso, helps all other movements of the body. In power movements this is especially the case as the core musculature is increasingly recruited in order to provide additional power. A stronger core also improves a person’s ability to balance. For these reasons core strength training is a fundamental part of power training. Joint strength A large amount of power can only be applied if the joints are strong enough to be able to cope with it and", "-26.625176655346877" ], [ "individuals.\nIn novice strength trainers, the muscle's ability to generate force is most strongly limited by nerve’s ability to sustain a high-frequency signal. After a period of maximum contraction, the nerve’s signal reduces in frequency and the force generated by the contraction diminishes. There is no sensation of pain or discomfort, the muscle appears to simply ‘stop listening’ and gradually cease to move, often going backwards. As there is insufficient stress on the muscles and tendons, there will often be no delayed onset muscle soreness following the workout.\nPart of the process of strength training is increasing the nerve's", "-26.609066404795158" ], [ "training. Studies done on the elderly show that low-intensity eccentric conditioning can actually minimize muscle damage According to Gault the low cost of energy, and low oxygen demand make low-intensity eccentric exercise ideal for the elderly.\nEccentric contraction and oxygen consumption:\nOxygen consumption is needed for muscles to work properly. Eccentric muscle contractions are considered to be negative work as the muscle is working with resistance. Negative work is the mechanical energy absorbed by the work conducted on a muscle when the force on the muscle is greater than the force produced. An experiment was conducted on bicycle riding. The amount of", "-26.597576586456853" ], [ "and build muscles. Some bodybuilders add a massage at the end of each workout to their routine as a method of recovering. Overtraining Overtraining occurs when a bodybuilder has trained to the point where their workload exceeds their recovery capacity. There are many reasons why overtraining occurs, including lack of adequate nutrition, lack of recovery time between workouts, insufficient sleep, and training at a high intensity for too long (a lack of splitting apart workouts). Training at a high intensity too frequently also stimulates the central nervous system (CNS) and can result in a hyperadrenergic state that interferes with sleep", "-26.596285491934395" ], [ "II) of muscle fibers, likely caused by an increased synthesis of muscle proteins. They also provoke undesired side effects including hepatotoxicity, gynecomastia, acne, the early onset of male pattern baldness and a decline in the body's own testosterone production, which can cause testicular atrophy. Other performance-enhancing substances used by competitive bodybuilders include human growth hormone (HGH).\nMuscle growth is more difficult to achieve in older adults than younger adults because of biological aging, which leads to many metabolic changes detrimental to muscle growth; for instance, by diminishing growth hormone and testosterone levels. Some recent clinical studies have shown that low-dose HGH", "-26.582757886229956" ], [ "routine, however, has shown to be effective in minimising the chances of injury, especially if they are done with the same movements performed in the weigh lifting exercise. When properly warmed up the lifter will have more strength and stamina since the blood has begun to flow to the muscle groups. Breathing In weight training, as with most forms of exercise, there is a tendency for the breathing pattern to deepen. This helps to meet increased oxygen requirements. Holding the breath or breathing shallowly is avoided because it may lead to a lack of oxygen, passing out, or an increase", "-26.578366541303694" ], [ "stability may be indicated.\nSecondary effects are likely to impact on assessment of impaired muscles. If muscle tone is assessed with passive muscle lengthening, increased muscle stiffness may affect the feeling of resistance to passive stretch, in addition to neurological resistance to stretch. Other secondary changes such as loss of muscle fibres following acquired muscle weakness are likely to compound the weakness arising from the upper motor neuron lesion. In severely affected muscles, there may be marked secondary changes, such as muscle contracture, particularly if management has been delayed or absent. Treatment Treatment should be based on assessment by the relevant", "-26.575258831711835" ], [ "cognition. These impairments can start after body mass lost that is greater than 1%. Cognitive impairment, particularly due to heat and exercise is likely to be due to loss of integrity to the blood brain barrier. Hyperthermia also can lower cerebral blood flow, and raise brain temperature. Intense activity Researchers once attributed fatigue to a build-up of lactic acid in muscles. However, this is no longer believed. Rather, lactate may stop muscle fatigue by keeping muscles fully responding to nerve signals. The available oxygen and energy supply, and disturbances of muscle ion homeostasis are the main factor determining exercise performance,", "-26.562329386417332" ], [ "Medicine. It is thought that an increase in muscle strength is due to an increase in muscle fiber size, not an increase in number of muscle fibers and myofilaments. However, there is some evidence of animal satellite cells differentiating into new muscle fibers and not merely providing a support function to muscle cells.\nThe weakened contractile function of skeletal muscle is also linked to the state of the myofibrils. Recent studies suggest that these conditions are associated with altered single fiber performance due to decreased expression of myofilament proteins and/or changes in myosin-actin cross-bridge interactions. Furthermore, cellular and myofilament-level", "-26.55105461111816" ], [ "pressure, heart rate, and respiration rate will all decrease when one is relaxed. This means that a person's heart does not beat as fast and their breathing is shallow, helping one's body have time to rest. This will reduce the extra stress that these things can do to the body if they are over worked. Muscle tension will decrease. If one's muscle tension is decreased they are not burning up extra energy that they may need later in the day. Metabolism can also decrease; this is mostly seen in hibernation and sleep and that gives the body extra time to", "-26.450000548764365" ], [ "energy. Muscle fatigue itself causes increased excitatory afferent activity within the muscle spindles and decreased inhibitory afferent activity within the Golgi tendon. The coupling of these events leads to altered neuromuscular control from the spinal cord. A cascade of events follow the altered neuromuscular control; this includes increased alpha-motor neuron activity in the spinal cord, which overloads the lower motor neurons, and increased muscle cell membrane activity. Thus, the resultant of this cascade is a muscle cramp. Treatment and prevention Medication has not been found to help reduce or prevent muscle cramping. To prevent or treat, athletes are", "-26.42234757175902" ], [ "after several weeks of successful weight reduction. The plateau principle suggests that this leveling off is a sign of success. Basically, as one loses weight, less food energy is required to maintain the resting metabolic rate, which makes the initial regimen less effective. The idea of weight plateaus has been discussed for subjects who are participating in a calorie restriction experiment Food energy is expended largely through work done against gravity (see Joule), so weight reduction lessens the effectiveness of a given workout. In addition, a trained person has greater skill and therefore greater efficiency during a workout. Remedies", "-26.409930092282593" ], [ "increase muscular hypertrophy.\nMuscular, spinal and neural factors all affect muscle building. Sometimes a person may notice an increase in strength in a given muscle even though only its opposite has been subject to exercise, such as when a bodybuilder finds her left biceps stronger after completing a regimen focusing only on the right biceps. This phenomenon is called cross education. Atrophy During ordinary living activities, between 1 to 2 percent of muscle is broken down and rebuilt daily. Inactivity and starvation in mammals lead to atrophy of skeletal muscle, a decrease in muscle mass that may be accompanied", "-26.396883393492317" ], [ "lows is an important brain function. Central nervous system fatigue alerts the athlete when physiological conditions are not optimal so either rest or refueling can occur. It is important to avoid hyperthermia and dehydration, as they are detrimental to athletic performance and can be fatal. Chronic fatigue syndrome Chronic fatigue syndrome is a name for a group of diseases that are dominated by persistent fatigue. The fatigue is not due to exercise and is not relieved by rest. \n\nThrough numerous studies, it has been shown that people with chronic fatigue syndrome have an integral central fatigue component. In one study,", "-26.254345301393187" ], [ "(the length) lagged behind the cause (the force of the weights) because the length has not yet reached the value it had for the same weight during the loading part of the cycle. In terms of energy, more energy was required during the loading than the unloading, the excess energy being dissipated as thermal energy.\nElastic hysteresis is more pronounced when the loading and unloading is done quickly than when it is done slowly. Some materials such as hard metals don't show elastic hysteresis under a moderate load, whereas other hard materials like granite and marble do. Materials such as rubber", "-26.248386395454872" ], [ "greater rate throughout the lifespan. The age-related Type II fiber loss highlights the negative effect of aging on muscle power. Nutritional It has also been suggested that nutritional factors may contribute to the onset of dynapenia. It has been proposed that low levels of Vitamin E,carotenoids, and selenium are associated with lower levels of muscle strength. The activity of Vitamin D receptors on muscle has been found to decrease with aging. These receptors initiate the nuclear response leading to De novo synthesis of proteins. However, the results of multiple studies on the relation between Vitamin D and muscle strength have", "-26.245670699216134" ], [ "immunohistochemical analyses at the single-fiber level clearly show that the atrophic process seen at the gross level is due to a reduction in the diameter of the affected myofibers of which the individual muscles are composed. These observations show that the slow type of fiber is more sensitive than the faster types of fiber, which is consistent with the gross muscle mass determinations. As a rule, regardless of the muscle, the larger fibers, whether fast or slow, are more sensitive to the unloading stimulus than their smaller counterparts. Metabolic processes In contrast to the contractile apparatus, studies on various rodent", "-26.243169630437478" ] ]

[ "Edit: Thanks for the gold! Early morning surgery is mostly about a condition called ileus. Other commenters have pointed out that fasting compliance is greater before breakfast. While having an empty stomach for anesthesia induction is important (mostly to prevent stomach contents from going places they shouldn't -- like the lung) and likewise not having a lot of blood flow to the gut while maneuvering there is also good those are generally minor considerations (you can drain stomach contents fairly easily if required). One of the more serious potential side effects of surgery and anesthesia is this condition called ileus, it is essentially when your intestines stop working because of surgery. This disease is caused by surgery and can be diagnosed as soon as the anesthesia wears off. While many cases resolve on their own (watch and wait), cases that don't have potential to cause serious harm to the patient. And because of how the gut works and the post-surgical medicines, by the time a patient complains of their symptoms, serious harm may be done. But what does that have to do with morning surgery? Essentially, after you have completed surgery and recovery (which takes some time), your surgeon can then start to examine you for ileus (using a stethoscope to listen for activity, observing passing gas or a bowel movement). With early morning surgery, patients start recovering between lunch and dinner when their gut is primed for activity which when combined with the water (which can trick the body into starting the digestive process) makes the condition much easier to detect. Having the patient recovered from anesthesia also gives some 'lead time' to allow the disease to resolve itself (many cases of ileus resolve themselves within ~4 hours) before making decisions about whether to keep the person overnight. If you are doing a surgery starting at 2pm, by the time the person is out of recovery, they are already shutting down for the night, harder to hear whether ileus is present. (Another consideration for early morning surgery, is to avoid unnecessary drowsiness when out of anesthesia) So with early morning surgery, you make the disease easier to find and prevent (at least some) people from staying overnight if they don't have to. There's lots of other more minor considerations and factors that make life easier, but the ileus is the big factor and why surgeons almost universally start surgery early. Tl;dr: After recovery, fart for your surgeon, it will be music to their ears.", "Fasting comes in to play- compliance is higher if you over night fast versus making some one fast from 0600. Doctors will block out x amount of time per week for surgeries as they still do consulting etc on other days. Surgery in the morning means patients can often have visitors and spend 'less days' as an inpatient. Morning shifts have lower ratios of patients to nurses here on surgical wards so there are more hands on deck so to speak for the post operative patients.", "Multiple reasons, none of which i think are so paramount that it necessitates starting early in the AM, but altogether make it most convenient. many times we do cases in the evening or on weekends, but unless they are necessary to do relatively promptly, they typically wait. 1. As many people mentioned, fasting for 6-8 hours from midnight onwards allows for lower risk of aspirating gastric contents during the induction of anesthesia and developing subsequent pneumonia. 2. surgery requires not only a surgeon, but a preoperative staff to check in and evaluate the patient, anesthesia team to help keep patient asleep and pain free but also safe during surgery, post operative team to receive patient after surgery and make sure effects of anesthesia wear off and no major immediate complications are discovered, cleaning staff, circulating nurses, scrub nurses, radiology assistants, pathologists etc. because the normal schedule for many of these people is normal work hours, cases are typically scheduled around this. 3. many surgeries are quick, but some take many hours to complete. by starting early in the am, it allows for the case to finish and patient to be admitted to the proper area of the hospital when the majority of staff is still here. 4. it allows for as many surgeries to be done as possible during the work day. 5. certain studies suggest that outcomes are better if started early in AM versus in the middle of the night (probably related to all of the above). this is mostly only applicable to more urgent surgeries where the decision needs to be made to either go immediately to surgery or try to wait until the sun rises. but, if its truly an emergency (gun shot/trauma/perforated intestines/etc), you just have to go. When is this not true: 1. some surgeons operate at multiple hospitals, so they will have an early case at one hospital and then afternoon cases at different hospital. if you happen to get your surgery at hospital 2, the surgeon may only be able to schedule cases in the afternoon. 2. emergencies happen whenever, even in the middle of the night. 3. some hospital systems keep ORs operating with scheduled cases longer, as they see the OR as a fixed cost, and the use of it should be maximized, so they will schedule cases throughout a longer portion of the day (but still want to start early)", "This is because you need to administer a strong anaesthesia for most of these surgeries, for which you need an empty stomach for 10-12 hours. So the patient is made to have an early dinner and then sleep, without making him feel hungry or thirsty during the hours he has to stay without food or water. It would be a major inconvince to skip meals when one is hungry during the day.", "Surgeons don't just do surgery- they also have office hours where they see patients and supervise the care of other patients in hospital. It is far easier to take care of responsibilities in one location all at one time, then move to the other location for the remainder of the day. As most surgeons (and most patients!) prefer to work when well rested with plenty of energy and mental focus they schedule the most demanding aspects of their job early in the day and have their office hours later.", "I work in an operating theatre. The correct answer is a practical one. It takes more time than you might think to get patients ready to go for elective surgery. They have to arrive, be checked in by clerical staff, taken into the theatre complex, seen by nursing staff, changed, have premedication given, seen by the surgeons, seen by the anaesthetist, possibly have investigations done and lines put in. This is all to facilitate a start time of, say, 0800 The expectation is that surgery will physically start at this time (\"knife-to-skin\"). This fits in with a general hospital working day of roughly 0730-1730. Consider a hospital with 14 theatres. This means 14 \"first on the list\" patients have to go through this process. But patients won't necessarily arrive in order. So maybe the first three might arrive together. That's 42 needing to go through. There can be delays at every stage of the process. Patient wasn't told they needed to bring in their scans which need to be chased. Patients late due to an accident on the freeway. Patient has unexpected severe hypertension on admission. Dr Hotstuff is at an emergency and isn't available to review the patient yet. The consent paperwork is out of date or lost and needs to be redone. All of this needs to be sorted out. Given the staff and equipment, theatre time is extremely expensive and extremely valuable. When you have a manned and prepared theatre ready to go, any time spent not utilising that is incredibly wasteful. This is something that hospital administrators and theatre staff are very keen to avoid. Furthermore, lists are often packed as full as they possibly can be to avoid the situation of unused theatre time. This means that any delays in the morning lead to run on effects hours later. In the worst case this might mean having to cancel the last patient on this list. Unhappy times for all. So patients are asked to get in early to allow sufficient time to get them ready to start surgery and hopefully avoid delays to start time. I would add that, for more complex surgery, patients may be asked to get in even earlier. There are a few reasons for this but the main one is that the Anaesthetic part takes longer as the patient needs a more complex assortment of lines and monitoring to be set up and sited. For example, cardiac surgery.", "Cases start at 0700 because that's when a normal work day begins. The people in the operating room (nurses, techs, docs, sales reps) are normal people who want a somewhat normal schedule. Same with all the pre op nurses, the guys who run the operating room schedule, down to the people who clean the rooms between cases... all staffed by people who want normal work hours. Edit: source - am an anesthesiologist", "In a lot of places it's actually too cold to golf that early in the morning, so might as well get work out of the way.", "I worked in a cardiac surgical unit. I would say the biggest reason is convenience. Firstly, you start your work day in the morning. Secondly, the patient needs an empty stomach and the sleeping hours can be utilized for emptying. Lastly and most importantly, if something bad happens you would rather have it happen during the day. Our heart surgeries started at 6-7 AM with the last case of the day finishing at 4 PM at the latest. Usually cases did not run this late and they only ran this late during times of high demand. There is a consensus among hospital workers (I worked at a large, well-respected hospital in a major city) that having something bad happen at night decreases your chances of a good outcome. Skeletal staff lends itself to less skill present. Imagine that you have a heart attack and come to the ER in the middle of the night. The \"A plus\" cardiologist is not going to be there if he is there at all. If you needed an emergent procedure called a heart catheterization, the cardiologist would most likely have to come in along with a team that is called in. That's an hour before you're on the table. Time is tissue. Depending on the severity of the attack, you could be dead in this time. Had the heart attack happened during the day, the cath lab team and cardiologist would likely be close at hand. Using this example for surgery, if you roll out of surgery before 10 AM, this gives your body many hours to show health care providers that something untoward is happening before most skilled providers go home. If you have heart surgery and come out at 5pm and develop a cardiac tamponade (a serious bleed into the lining of the heart that presses on the heart until it cannot beat and death QUICKLY results) an hour later without a surgeon present within about 30 minutes you will die. I think the biggest case for early morning surgeries is to maintain a larger window of time between when the surgery ends and the time that most of the specialized labor leaves the hospitals (most importantly, the surgeons who can fix serious problems that arise quickly). Most serious problems from surgery will develop soon after the procedure so you don't want to finish near or during the evening when there are less resources in the event of an event.", "People keep talking about fasting, but that is only a small part of it. It's that early to do all the prep work and tests to get you ready to surgery. You have to be shaved, cleaned, blood tests, urine tests if needed, put in a bed, wrapped up, math done for anesthesia, double checked and triple checked for correct surgery, review books on how to perform it and check for common complications, cut open, surgery performed that can take hours and hours, extra time for complications, sewn up, observed. Even though you're scheduled to show up at 5, your surgery may not start officially until 8-9.", "There was another major advantage for me for a surgery scheduled at 7 am. It meant I wouldn't have to go through the anxiety of waiting for a surgery while being awake all day. I entered the OR around 7 o'clock. I saw a big needle, I panicked a little when I saw the size of it and then, it was total blackout. I woke up in the afternoon, it was as if only one second had passed. You need to fast for 8 hours before the surgery mostly because when you're under general anesthesia, the mechanism preventing food from entering the lungs stop working. They need to make sure, there's no food in your stomach because otherwise, there would be nothing to stop it from going into your lungs, causing major problem. I also had nausea after I woke up, it didn't last for long but it was easier to cope with with an empty stomach.", "They aren't always early. I volunteered for a while checking people in for surgery at a hospital and they had surgeries scheduled throughout the day. Longer ones always started early, but short procedures were scheduled every two hours or so from 7am to 7pm.", "Surgery resident here. One of the other reasons we start early that isn't covered too much in this thread is we want as many people around as possible. If stuff starts going sideways, the day crew being available is always safer for the patient. In a similar vein, we try not to extubate people in the middle of the night. Having extra hands around is always safer.", "I've asked a doctor about this once. He said it was to perform the surgery during hours that were least likely to coincide with incoming emergency patients who might require the same surgeons and staff resources.", "Just a point, many countries do not follow this type of schedule. It's a common assumption on ELI5 that everywhere is the same as the country that you live in.", "There are a lot of responses on here that are simply inaccurate. Including the top comment relating to anesthesia. You are told to be ready for surgery or arrive for surgery early simply because of the queuing system used by most healthcare facilities. Example: your getting knee surgery at 9am, you will be told to arrive at 6 or 7 if PAT is done. With having you there early they can have your case fill gaps for no shows or have you wait longer if an emergency arises. Re: 11 year healthcare manager with much experience in patient through put.", "Probably because it's easier to not eat all night and then skip breakfast than not eat all day.", "Where I work, our first case starts at around 6 or 7 as soon as the morning rounds are done. (Excluding any emergency cases, those cases are prioritised over electives and other non emergency cases.) We start early due to a couple of reasons one being that we have a schedule to follow and those cases for that day should ideally be completed and since surgeries may last longer than expected we have to start as early as possible. If we fail to complete those surgeries then we'd end up having to try squeezing in patients so that work doesn't pile up and so patients don't have to stay longer than they should. At night, we mostly do the emergency cases or those that weren't done during the day. Also, not all of us are in the operating theatre at the same time. We're either around the wards, in surgery, or seeing patients in the clinics. And regarding fasting prior to surgery, we make sure patients fast at night (we also take into consideration the time of your surgery so you won't fast longer than you should) since you're asleep you won't feel the need to eat, so by the time you wake up, it's off to the operating theatre.", "I have seen that there was a study done that showed more of a survival rate of operations that were done in the morning. This is presumably due to the surgeon being in a ready and fully awake state than if they should have to do a four hour op after a full day at work. Also as others have mentioned to do with fasting and the anaesthesia working correctly.", "This isn't meant to disrespect anybody. And as other people have posted, there are many reasons. One is simply: Golf.", "The suggestions that surgery is done in the morning because of fasting guidelines is not 100% true. People can be asked to fast at any time for surgery as not all elective surgery is done during the morning. Some afternoon cases will fast from breakfast, for example. The principle reason is that we perform better in the daytime. It is well-known that surgical safety is highest when the team is well-rested. Daytime procedures are also kindest for patients. They can fast overnight, which is convenient. [Sleep deprivation and the effects thereof can be the equivalent of being intoxicated]( URL_0 ). This is not what a patient deserves but sometimes in the middle of the night there is no alternative. There is no reason to increase the risk of medical errors. Edit: Source - anaesthetist (anesthesiologist) in Australia", "it's easier to staff recovery and discharge you on the same day if surgeries are done earlier", "In the case of OB (Ie; c-sections) we have people come in earlier in the day time for a scheduled case because the doctors have office hours later on in the day and it's easier for them to get things done at the hospital before heading to the office. Also, there are more people around and any complications can be taken care of faster. Usually, someone isn't getting a c-section because everything is totally normal. Even a totally average, scheduled repeat c-section is by definition not \"normal\" because you're dealing with the potential issues already present caused by the fact that the mom to-be has already had major abdominal surgery. More importantly, the regular flow of the unit doesn't stop because a case has been booked, so we ask people to get there early and sometimes they end up waiting a few hours while other emergency cases are done. At least the patient with the scheduled case is already on the unit and ready for their c-section as soon as the OR is free. From a purely comfort standpoint, it also means that the patient can be NPO for less time, can usually have clears for lunch and a regular dinner and can have visitors if they want to help with the baby while they're totally stuck in bed for 12 hours. We can and do perform surgery aalllll night long...it's just easier for everyone involved in the case if we keep the scheduled stuff to the day time, and leave the emergency stuff to night.", "They're not always held in the mornings, but major and planned surgery usually is. You want to get a fresh start and stack the deck in your favour. You can have a surgery at any time, but the most low risk time is when your stomach is empty, so you don't regurgitate the contents up into your lungs. Sometimes when we put a person to sleep we have a tube which just goes to the back of the throat, and other times it goes right into the lungs. The one which goes to the back of the throat is fine if you have an empty stomach, but the one that sits inside your pipe to your lungs is preferable if someone has not fasted for at least 4 hours. The tube which goes right into the lungs and means less risk of any vomit getting up the swallowing pipe (oesophagus) and then down into the lungs ('aspiration' via the trachea). This breathing tube is called an [endotracheal tube]( URL_0 ). Generally, the surgeons I've worked with prefer it mostly so the patient can be discharged the same day, and because it's tradition. We started work an hour before the morning rush for traffic, because surgeons want to get shit done and get home/to the golf course! Start early - (probably) finish early!", "Nurses and techs have to have you in to get you prepped for the surgery and then watch you recover post surgery. It wpuld make more sense to have all this happen between 5 am to 7 pm rather than start at noon and finish at 2 am or something like that. People seem to misunderstand what medical staff do. There is so much more to it that just getting you on the table, performing the surgery and then sending you home.", "Because that's the time we go to work: Full hospital staff availability, nurses, pathologists, ICU, radiologists, labs etc means full coverage of op or post-op needs or complications (ileus is just one of them, definitely not the main reason for this). Also, depending on the specialty/operation, early start means more patients treated or for the big ones (8-10 hours+), a chance to finish up during the same day.", "Also an important medical reason for starting surgery early in the morning is the body’s normal cycle of contra-stress hormones. Cortisol (stress hormones) have a diurnal rhythm and are high in the morning and decrease throughout the day. These extra stress hormones provide protection agains the \"stress\" of surgery.", "Normally because patients are often required not to eat anything on surgery day I had my Keratoconus surgery at 3PM 3 years ago, I was released arround 5PM being insanely hungry", "easier to fast overnight while you're unconscious, if something goes wrong it's better to have the more active day than the stripped down night shift if you have the choice", "They're not. Both myself and wife work in the surgical departments of a major PAC NW hospital and surgeries run all day everyay and night." ]

[ [ "the surgical procedure, such as aspirin and naproxen. Furthermore, the patient will be required to stop the consumption of any food and drinks for several hours before the procedure begins. Surgical Procedure Coblation tonsillectomy is an outpatient surgical process, meaning patients are able leave the hospital and go home after they have went through the surgery and have woken up, so they it is unnecessary for them to stay overnight. \nAt the start of the surgical procedure, the patient is given a specific amount of general anesthesia to go into a deep sleep, in which they are not able to", "-28.881932986943866" ], [ "hooked up to an EKG machine and also have a blood pressure cuff to monitor vitals and the heart rhythm throughout the whole surgery. The anesthesia will be given, which will result in the person going to sleep. The timing of the surgery all depends on the extent and what type of mastectomy the patient will be having. After surgery When the procedure is complete the patient will be taken to a recovery room where they are monitored until they wake up and their vital signs remain stable. It is normal for people that have mastectomies to remain in the", "-28.563284377916716" ], [ "and ensures all supplies needed during the surgery are available. Postoperative Phase This phase begins when the theatre/anaesthetic nurse delivers the patients notes to the nurses and staff in the Post-Anaesthetic Care Unit (PACU). This can also be known as the recovery room. Here the nurse's immediate attention is on checking the patient's airway and breathing. In this phase nurses also attend to pain relief and any other complications following surgery. These nurses, often in day surgery cases, attend to provide patients and their caregivers with support and instructions and requirements needed for home care.\nThe first twenty-four hours post surgery", "-28.396214859560132" ], [ "until the 1980s, when other procedures such as the uvulopalatopharyngoplasty, genioglossus advancement, and maxillomandibular advancement surgeries were described as alternative surgical modalities for OSA. Timing (early vs late) If prolonged ventilation is required, tracheostomy is usually considered. The timing of this procedure is dependent on the clinical situation and an individual's preference. An international multicenter study in 2000 determined that the median time between starting mechanical ventilation and receiving a tracheostomy was 11 days. Although the definition varies depending on hospital and provider, early tracheostomy can be considered to be less than 10 days (2 to 14 days) and late", "-27.52281085739287" ], [ "is put under electrolysis for 8–10 hours. When the patient is taken off electrolysis and wakes up, the surgery is considered complete.\nFor about two weeks afterwards, the patient experiences extremely sensitive skin, as their new grafts toughen up to withstand pressure. This sensitivity is likened to having extremely bad sunburn.\nThis operation, performed at the median age of sixteen, is only the first of many surgeries. When a new pretty reaches a certain age (25 or so), they are given the surgery that transforms them into middle-pretties. This surgery is entirely cosmetic (unless the pretty is entering a job which requires", "-27.251265555329155" ], [ "the unifying concept behind these procedures is the application of image guidance and minimally invasive techniques in order to minimize risk to the patient. Procedures can often be performed on an outpatient basis. In most other cases, they require only a single overnight stay at the hospital—increasing convenience for patients and allowing them to return to their lives as soon as possible. Open surgery can require a patient to stay in the hospital for days or even weeks, which can cause stress and significant expense. HRH radiology specialists will provide treatments for urological and vascular problems, varicose veins", "-27.02482773771044" ], [ "for two to three weeks, except during physical therapy.\nThe same procedure is used in the segmental fasciectomy with cellulose implant. After the excision and a careful hemostasis, the cellulose implant is placed in a single layer in between the remaining parts of the cord.\nAfter surgery people wear a light pressure dressing for four days, followed by an extension splint. The splint is worn continuously during nighttime for eight weeks. During the first weeks after surgery the splint may be worn during daytime. Less invasive treatments Studies have been conducted for percutaneous release, extensive percutaneous aponeurotomy with lipografting and collagenase. These", "-26.804041890136432" ], [ "by delivering a type of anesthesia that numbs a particular part of the body in conjunction with sedation or simply give a general anesthesia that prevents pain and allows the patient to sleep throughout the surgery.\nNext the surgeon may begin taking continuous X-ray images in real time, a process called fluoroscopy, of the affected portion of the spine. This allows them to see what they're operating on, in real-time, throughout the surgery without creating a large incision.\nAt this point, the surgeon may begin performing the operation, by creating an incision in the skin above the affected portion of the spine", "-26.795579373138025" ], [ "room staff to immediately confirm the diagnosis. This in turn allows for redirection of the EMS teams to those facilities that are ready to conduct time-critical angioplasty. This protocol has resulted in a median time to treatment of 62 minutes.\nThe current guidelines in the United States restrict angioplasties to hospitals with available emergency bypass surgery as a backup, but this is not the case in other parts of the world.\nA PCI involves performing a coronary angiogram to determine the location of the infarcting vessel, followed by balloon angioplasty (and frequently deployment of an intracoronary stent) of the stenosed arterial segment.", "-26.771727670915425" ], [ "are equipped with the latest technology and has maintained the highest standard of anesthesia care. As of result of this, early extubation of patients after surgery is routine and patients on long term ventilation have internationally acceptable rates of mortality and morbidity. Department of Cardiac Surgery The department is performing a large number of complicated and complex heart surgeries. On an average over 1300 surgeries are being performed annually. Our excellent Operative and post operative care has made it possible to achieve the nationwide lowest mortality figures.\nDifferent operations being performed routinely at MIC include:\n•Coronary artery bypass surgery.\n•Valve replacements and repair\n•Surgery", "-26.750258537766058" ], [ "tubal reversal surgery and the age of the patient. Recovery and rehabilitation Most laparoscopic methods of interval tubal ligation are outpatient surgeries and do not require hospitalization overnight. Patients are counseled to expect some soreness but to expect to be ready to perform daily activities 1-2 days after surgery. Patients undergoing postpartum tubal ligations will not be delayed in their discharge from the hospital after birth, and recovery is not significantly different than normal postpartum recovery. History The first modern female sterilization procedure was performed in 1880 by Dr. Samuel Lungren of Toledo, Ohio, in the United States. Hysteroscopic tubal", "-26.719045301899314" ], [ "weeks after the end of a pregnancy, termed an \"interval tubal ligation\". The steps of the sterilization procedure will depend on the type of procedure being used. (See Tubal ligation methods below.)\nIf the patient chooses a postpartum tubal ligation, the procedure will further depend on the delivery method. If the patient delivers via Cesarean section, the surgeon will remove part or all of the fallopian tubes after the infant has been delivered and the uterus has been closed. Anesthesia for the tubal ligation will be the same as that being used for the Cesarean section itself, usually regional or general", "-26.612858638050966" ], [ "anesthesia. If the patient delivers vaginally and desires a postpartum tubal ligation, the surgeon will remove part or all of the fallopian tubes usually one or two days after the birth, during the same hospitalization.\nIf the patient chooses an interval tubal ligation, the procedure will typically be performed under general anesthesia in a hospital setting. Most tubal ligations are accomplished laparoscopically, with an incision at the umbilicus and zero, one, or two smaller incisions in the lower sides of the abdomen. It is also possible to perform the surgery without a laparoscope, using larger abdominal incisions. It is also possible", "-26.547367859631777" ], [ "consensus as to which cervical preparation method is superior in terms of safety and technical ease of the procedure. At later gestational ages, patients may require a two day procedure with cervical preparation occurring the day prior to the D&E. Anesthesia options Most patients will be provided NSAIDs for pain management. Local anesthetics, such as lidocaine, are frequently injected by the cervix to reduce pain during the procedure. IV sedation may also be used. General anesthesia may be used depending on individual circumstances, however it is not preferred as it adds significant anesthesia risks to the procedure. Infection prophylaxis Immediately", "-26.54097301469301" ], [ "Post operative course Due to the low level of post-operative pain and reduced analgesic use, patients will usually be discharged either the same day or on the day following surgery. Most patients can resume normal activities after a few days when they should be fit for work. The first bowel motion is usually on day two and should not cause any great discomfort. Staples may be passed from time to time during defecation. This is normal and should not be a cause for concern. Post-operative complications Since 2002 more than 100 articles have been published reporting complications", "-26.51631089322109" ], [ "case from the CT scan. The use of CT scanning in complex cases also helps the surgeon identify and avoid vital structures such as the inferior alveolar nerve and the sinus. Healing time For an implant to become permanently stable, the body must grow bone to the surface of the implant (osseointegration). Based on this biologic process, it was thought that loading an implant during the osseointegration period would result in movement that would prevent osseointegration, and thus increase implant failure rates. As a result, three to six months of integrating time (depending on various factors) was allowed before placing", "-26.481341719976626" ], [ "of this treatment on the success of corrective surgery, with conflicting results. Therefore, the role, if any, for preoperative hormone stimulation is not clear at this time. Surgery Hypospadias repair is done under general anesthesia, most often supplemented by a nerve block to the penis or a caudal block to reduce the general anesthesia needed, and to minimize discomfort after surgery.\nMany techniques have been used during the past 100 years to extend the urinary channel to the correct location. Today, the most common operation, known as the tubularized incised plate or “TIP” repair, rolls the urethral plate from the low", "-26.404970899408" ], [ "for a single day admission for pain control and observation. If access was gained via the radial artery the patient will be able to get off of the table and walk out immediately following their procedure. The procedure is not a surgical intervention, and allows the uterus to be kept in place, avoiding many of the associated surgical complications.", "-26.398014690726995" ], [ "use of drugs to facilitate surgery and other painful procedures. They may contribute to the care of a woman in labour by performing epidurals or by providing anaesthesia (often spinal anaesthesia) for Cesarean section or forceps delivery.\nObstetric nurses assist midwives, doctors, women, and babies before, during, and after the birth process, in the hospital system. Obstetric nurses hold various certifications and typically undergo additional obstetric training in addition to standard nursing training.\nParamedics are healthcare providers that are able to provide emergency care to both the mother and infant during and after delivery using a wide range of medications and tools", "-26.312901559307647" ], [ "performed in a hospital, and the patient stays at least one night in the hospital after the surgery. Outpatient surgery occurs in a hospital outpatient department or freestanding ambulatory surgery center, and the patient is discharged the same working day. Office surgery occurs in a physician's office, and the patient is discharged the same working day.\nAt a hospital, modern surgery is often performed in an operating theater using surgical instruments, an operating table for the patient, and other equipment. Among United States hospitalizations for nonmaternal and nonneonatal conditions in 2012, more than one-fourth of stays and half of hospital costs", "-26.309539273788687" ], [ "centimetres, prepares the customised space in the chest, inserts the implant deep beneath the muscle, then closes the incision. Post-operative hospitalization is typically around three days.\nThe recovery after the surgery typically requires only mild pain relief. Post-operatively, a surgical dressing is required for several days and compression vest for a month following the procedure. A check-up appointment is carried out after a week for puncture of seroma. If the surgery has minimal complications, the patient can resume normal activities quickly, returning to work after 15 days and participating in any sporting activities after three months. Lipofilling The \"lipofilling\" technique consists", "-26.286376509582624" ], [ "be performed as a sterile medical procedure by trained, qualified personnel, using equipment designed for this purpose, except in the case of intermittent self-catheterization where patients have been trained to perform the procedure themselves.\nIntermittent self-catheterization is performed by the patient four to six times a day, using a clean technique in most cases. Nurses use a sterile technique to perform intermittent catheterization in hospital settings. Incorrect technique may cause trauma to the urethra or prostate (male), urinary tract infection, or a paraphimosis in the uncircumcised male. For patients with spinal cord lesions and neurogenic bladder dysfunction, intermittent catheterisation (IC) is", "-26.240479388507083" ], [ "waiting\" is becoming more common as small renal masses or tumours are being detected and also within the older generation when surgery is not always suitable. Active surveillance involves completing various diagnostic procedures, tests and imaging to monitor the progression of the RCC before embarking on a more high risk treatment option like surgery. In the elderly, patients with co-morbidities, and in poor surgical candidates, this is especially useful. Surgery Different procedures may be most appropriate, depending on circumstances.\nThe recommended treatment for renal cell cancer may be nephrectomy or partial nephrectomy, surgical removal of all or part of the kidney.", "-26.210235920392734" ], [ "Prostate massage Prostate massage is the massage or stimulation of the male prostate gland for medical purposes or sexual stimulation.\nThe prostate takes part in the sexual response cycle, and is essential for the production of semen. Due to its proximity to the anterior rectal wall, it can be stimulated from the anterior wall of the rectum or externally via the perineum. Digital rectal examination (DRE) Prostate massage is part of the digital rectal examination (DRE) routinely given to men by urologists in order to look for nodules of prostate cancer and to obtain an expressed prostatic secretion (EPS) specimen for", "-26.204710277263075" ], [ "the pathology of coronary artery disease and atherosclerosis.\nIn the early 1960s, cardiac catheterization frequently took several hours and involved significant complications for as many as 2–3% of patients. With multiple incremental improvements over time, simple coronary catheterization examinations are now commonly done more rapidly and with significantly improved outcomes. Patient participation The patient being examined or treated is usually awake during catheterization, ideally with only local anaesthesia such as lidocaine and minimal general sedation, throughout the procedure. Performing the procedure with the patient awake is safer as the patient can immediately report any discomfort or problems and thereby facilitate rapid", "-26.146969991968945" ], [ "weeks to many months before they can resume normal activities, including work. For six to twenty-four hours after the operation, the patient generally will have a Foley catheter to minimize risk of movement that could displace bar, and because the epidural can interfere with normal urination. The patient may also receive thoracic epidural analgesia in the back for two to five days depending on patient recovery.\nStudies using sonography have shown post-operative changes in many patients such as an acute angulation of the costochondral junction and rib fractures near the pectus bar. Such changes occurred especially in patients who were older", "-26.120102054264862" ], [ "Procedure Wake therapy involves one to three rounds which consist of complete sleep avoidance for the night and entire day after, then the cycles are separated with nights of recovery sleep (a full night's sleep). The treatment lasts between two and five days, depending on the number of rounds done. Relapse into depression typically occurs immediately after any amount of sleep. The intervention is done in a hospital or sleep center in order to make sure the program is done properly and full effects are established.", "-26.11583163123578" ], [ "benefits but “no adverse effects” in the health of the mothers and babies at those hospitals.\nIn this context, it is worth remembering many studies have shown operations performed out-of-hours tend to have more complications (both surgical and anaesthetic). For this reason, if a Caesarean is anticipated to be likely to be needed for a woman, it may be preferable to perform this electively (or pre-emptively) during daylight operating hours, rather than wait for it to become an emergency with the increased risk of surgical and anaesthetic complications that can follow from emergency surgery. Doctor fear of lawsuits Another contributing factor", "-26.081154595478438" ], [ "to the nurse, this information will be passed on to other hospital staff including the surgeon, the appropriate actions will be taken dependant on the situation. Intraoperative Phase This stage begins when the ward nurse, who has prepared the patient for surgery, delivers the patient and their notes to the theatre and/or anaesthetic nurse. Many checks are undertaken in this stage to ensure a safe environment for the patient and the theatre staff. The theatre nurse carries out activities to maintain a sterile environment and to ensure the surgical equipment is working well. The nurse also organises all surgical instruments", "-26.069509856402874" ], [ "in their lifetime because their tonsil glands swell to a point where they are struggling to breath. Before the procedure Before the surgery begins, the surgeon will take multiple blood test, physically examine the patient, and the surgeon will also check the past medical records of the patient to make sure it is safe to conduct the surgical procedure. On top of that, the surgeon doctor will ask about the types of medications that have been taken by the patient in the last 10 days following up to the surgery because certain medications can increase the chances of bleeding during", "-26.009219749365002" ], [ "two sessions being performed a fortnight apart and subsequent treatments being individually tailored upon follow-up assessment.\nA local anesthetic and moderate sedation are used but a general anaesthetic is not required, hence the person remains awake throughout the procedure. After inserting the catheter into the vein of the neck (right internal jugular vein) or groin (right femoral vein), a hollow tube is introduced through the catheter and passed to the affected blocked lung arteries.\nX-rays and pressures in the narrowed arteries are assessed by the specialist team before a thin wire with a deflated balloon is guided through the blood vessels to", "-26.008146077016136" ], [ "under the direction of physician anesthesiologists, obtain pre-anesthetic health histories, perform preoperative physical exams, order and interpret laboratory and radiological studies, order preoperative medications prior to surgery, establish non-invasive and invasive monitors, use advanced airway skills to intubate patients, administer medications, IV fluids and blood products, evaluate and treat life-threatening situations, and execute general, local, and regional anesthetic techniques, as delegated by the anesthesiologist.\nAnesthesiologist assistants generally work in the hospital setting but can work at any location where they can be medically directed by physician anesthesiologists such as pain clinics, dental offices, and outpatient surgical centers. Anesthesiologist assistants work in", "-25.96341470858897" ], [ "the surgeon is recommended within the week after surgery. She is advised to return to the surgeon's consultation room should she develop hematoma, an accumulation of blood outside the pertinent (venous and arterial) vascular system. Depending on her progress, the woman can resume physically unstrenuous work three to four days after surgery. To allow the wounds to heal, she is instructed not to use tampons, not to wear tight clothes (e.g. thong underwear), and to abstain from sexual intercourse for four weeks after surgery.\nMedical complications to a labiaplasty procedure are uncommon, yet occasional complications — bleeding, infection, labial asymmetry, poor", "-25.939171112899203" ], [ "provider conducts a preoperative assessment to verify that a person is fit and ready for the surgery. For surgeries in which a person receives either general or local anesthesia, this assessment may be done either by a doctor or a nurse trained to do the assessment. The available research does not give insight about any differences in outcomes depending on whether a doctor or nurse conducts this assessment. Addressing anxiety Playing calming music to patients immediately before surgery has a beneficial effect in addressing anxiety about the surgery. Surgical site preparation Hair removal at the location where the surgical incision", "-25.888556072692154" ], [ "is an inpatient (i.e. within a hospital) procedure versus an outpatient (clinic or out of hospital) procedure. Procedure General anaesthetic is given and the patient is put to sleep. In the most general of surgeries, incisions (cuts or slices) are made near the crease of the ear or posttragally (behind the tragus), as in a facelift, and continued behind the ear. The surgeon takes consideration to not distort the anatomy of the ear. A flap is made on the surface of the parotid gland to help expose the gland and tissue to be removed. Veins and", "-25.88203621917637" ], [ "hours before being transferred to the intensive care unit overnight. Transfer from the ICU to a recovery room in the hospital is then done to enable direct post-surgical observation by the neurosurgeon and surgical team, but this usually lasts only about 3 days, during which the team performs range-of-motion tests that they record and compare to pre-surgery levels. After that short period, the patient, depending on circumstances and appropriateness, is either transferred to inpatient recovery or is linked to an intense outpatient exercise program and discharged from the hospital.\nAccording to clinicians, it usually takes about one year from the date", "-25.842430127842817" ], [ "three distinct phases of an operation, each corresponding to a specific period in the normal flow of work: Before the induction of anaesthesia, before the incision of the skin, and before the patient leaves the operating facility. In each phase, a 'checklist coordinator' must confirm that the surgical team has completed the listed tasks before it proceeds with the procedure.\nThe intention of such a checklist is to systematically and efficiently ensure that all conditions are optimum for patient safety, and that all staff are identifiable and accountable, and errors in patient identity, site and type of procedure are avoided completely.", "-25.82096998183988" ], [ "a separate team. It may be possible to then use the abdominal incision to deliver direct cardiac massage through the (intact) diaphragm.\nAfter the placenta is delivered, the uterus is massaged to stimulate contraction and is closed with a running locking absorbable suture and the abdomen is then closed; alternatively, the wound may be temporarily packed with sterile gauze, with definitive closure delayed until specialist obstetric help arrives or until the patient is fit for transport to a formal operating theatre. Uterotonic agents like oxytocin may be considered, balancing potential reduction of haemorrhage with the tendency of oxytocin to cause hypotension.", "-25.820388610940427" ], [ "care. Sometimes surgery is performed without the need for a formal hospital admission or an overnight stay. This is called outpatient surgery. Outpatient surgery has many benefits, including reducing the amount of medication prescribed and using the physician's or surgeon's time more efficiently. More procedures being performed in a surgeon's office, termed office-based surgery, rather than in a hospital-based operating room. Outpatient surgery is suited best for healthy patients undergoing minor or intermediate procedures (limited urologic, ophthalmologic, or ear, nose, and throat procedures and procedures involving the extremities).\nAn inpatient (or in-patient), on the other hand, is \"admitted\" to the hospital", "-25.807993808062747" ], [ "anything into the anus, so a lubricant is used. Caution should be exercised when a prostate massager is used because of the sensitivity of the prostate. Correct use involves a medium to light repetitive massage, or circular motion—the device being used to administer the massage should not thrust.\nProstate massage equipment ranges from dildos to butt plugs and G-Spot vibrators. When used in sexual practice, prostate massagers are commonly referred to as \"prostate toys\", \"prostate sex toys\", and \"anal toys\". These prostate massagers are inserted into the rectum through the anus and are intended to stimulate the prostate by simple", "-25.783244583664782" ], [ "Surgical Up to 15 weeks' gestation, suction-aspiration or vacuum aspiration are the most common surgical methods of induced abortion. Manual vacuum aspiration (MVA) consists of removing the fetus or embryo, placenta, and membranes by suction using a manual syringe, while electric vacuum aspiration (EVA) uses an electric pump. These techniques can both be used very early in pregnancy. MVA can be used up to 14 weeks but is more often used earlier in the U.S. EVA can be used later.\nMVA, also known as \"mini-suction\" and \"menstrual extraction\" or EVA can be used in very early pregnancy when cervical dilation may", "-25.744145532604307" ], [ "Urostomy Routine care The appliances are usually changed at a time of low fluid intake, such as early in the morning, where less urine production makes changing easier. Indications Urostomy is most commonly performed after cystectomy, such as may be necessary in, for example, bladder cancer. Other indications include severe kidney disease, accidental damage or injury to the urinary tract, surgical complications because of non-related pelvic or abdominal surgery, congenital defects that cause urine to back up into the kidneys, or urinary incontinence.", "-25.731825914033834" ], [ "relief, then RFA is performed on the nerve(s) that responded well to the injections. RFA is a minimally invasive procedure which can usually be done in day-surgery clinics, going home shortly after completion of the procedure. The person is awake during the procedure, so risks associated with general anesthesia are avoided. An intravenous line may be inserted so that mild sedatives can be administered. \nIn April 2017, the US Food and Drug Administration approved a commercial device using cooled radiofrequency ablation, with effects lasting for up to a year of pain relief from knee arthritis. A review of preliminary clinical", "-25.67688812984852" ], [ "of the prostate through the outer skin between the rectum and scrotum, to thoroughly sample and map the entire prostate, through a template with holes every 5mm, usually under a general or spinal anaesthetic.\nAntibiotics are usually prescribed to minimize the risk of infection. An enema may also be prescribed for the morning of the procedure. In the transrectal procedure, an ultrasound probe is inserted into the rectum to help guide the biopsy needles. A local anesthetic is then administered into the tissue around the prostate. A spring-loaded prostate tissue biopsy needle is then inserted into the prostate, making a clicking", "-25.6325903518009" ], [ "in visualizing uterine anatomy and to assess if all tissue has been removed at the completion of the procedure.\nThe procedure usually takes less than half an hour. Recovery Most D&E's are performed in the outpatient setting, and can be safely sent home same day after a period of observed recovery, ranging from 45 minutes to several hours. Generally, the woman may return to work the following day. The type of anesthesia given also influences the appropriate amount of recovery time before discharge. There is rarely a need for narcotic pain medications afterwards, and NSAIDs are recommended for home pain management.", "-25.601852331194095" ], [ "immobility and shifts areas of venous stasis. If the person is too weak to perform these preventative activities, hospital personnel will perform these movements independently. Exercise of the lower extremities is a post-operative method of prophylaxis. Nursing personnel will often perform range of motion exercises and encourage frequent moving of the legs, feet, and ankles. Frequent positioning changes and adequate fluid intake. After a surgical procedure, ambulation as soon as possible is prophylactic in preventing the formation of blood clots.\nEarly ambulation also prevents venous stasis and physicians order OOB activities on the same day of surgery. This is accomplished in", "-25.57620770687936" ], [ "at 8 pm, take two bisacodyl 5 mg tablets; continue drinking/hydrating into the evening until bedtime with clear permitted fluids. The procedure may be scheduled early in the day so the patient need not go without food and only limited fluids until later.\nThe goal of the preparation is to clear the colon of solid matter, and the patient may be advised to spend the day at home with ready access to toilet facilities. The patient may also want to have at hand moist towelettes or a bidet for cleaning the anus. A soothing salve such as petroleum jelly applied", "-25.56353958885302" ], [ "usually able to leave hospital the same day. No vaginal packing is required, although she might choose to wear a sanitary pad for comfort. The physician informs the woman that the reduced labia are often very swollen during the early post-operative period, because of the edema caused by the anaesthetic solution injected to swell the tissues.\nShe is also instructed on the proper cleansing of the surgical wound site, and the application of a topical antibiotic ointment to the reduced labia, a regimen observed two to three times daily for several days after surgery.\nThe woman's initial, post-labiaplasty follow up appointment with", "-25.539799881109502" ], [ "patient is under general anesthesia, the depth of the anesthesia can affect the outcome because if the levels of muscle relaxation are too high due to neuromuscular blocking drugs, then the results from the mapping can be incorrect. For the awake procedure there are different considerations for patient care that the anesthesiologist must take into account. Rather than simply ensuring that the patient is asleep, the doctor can follow what is called the asleep-awake-asleep technique. In this technique the patient is anesthetized using a general anesthesia during the opening and closing portions of the procedure, but during the interim the", "-25.52142799110152" ], [ "and contractions start. The next method is breaking the mother's water, which is also referred to as an amniotomy. The doctor uses a plastic hook to break the membrane and rupture the amniotic sac. Within a few hours labor usually begins. Giving the hormone prostaglandin ripens the cervix, meaning the cervix softens, thins out, or dilates. The drug Cervidil is administered by mouth in tablet form or in gel form as an insert. This is most often done in the hospital overnight. The hormone oxytocin is usually given in the synthetic form of Pitocin. It is administered through an", "-25.504641223931685" ], [ "contract to reduce bleeding. Although the evidence around the effectiveness of uterine massage is inconclusive, it is common practice after the delivery of the placenta. Medication Intravenous oxytocin is the drug of choice for postpartum hemorrhage. Ergotamine may also be used.\nOxytocin helps the uterus to contract quickly and the contractions to last for longer. It is the first line treatment for PPH when its cause is the uterus not contracting well. A combination of syntocinon and ergometrine is commonly used as part of active management of the third stage of labour. This is called syntometrine. Syntocinon alone lowers the risk", "-25.49687036155956" ], [ "Ethinylestradiol/etonogestrel Medical use The ring is placed into the vagina for a three-week period, then removal of the ring for one week, during which the user will experience a menstrual period. The break week is comparable to the placebo week for combined oral birth control pills (\"the Pill\"), and the birth control effect is maintained during this period. Extended use regimens (seven-week, quarterly, or annual) involving back-to-back use of (2, 4, or 17) rings have been studied in clinical trials, but are not currently approved.\nInsertion of the ring is comparable to insertion of other vaginal rings. The muscles of the", "-25.496265493507963" ], [ "the safety of outpatient surgery performed at ambulatory surgery centers. Ambulatory surgery centers Ambulatory surgery centers (ASC), also known as outpatient surgery centers, same day surgery centers, or surgicenters, are health care facilities where surgical procedures not requiring an overnight hospital stay are performed. Such surgery is commonly less complicated than that requiring hospitalization. Avoiding hospitalization can result in cost savings to the party responsible for paying for the patient's health care.\nAn ASC specializes in providing surgery, including certain pain management and diagnostic (e.g., eye muscle surgery services in an outpatient setting. Overall, the services provided can", "-25.457928744493984" ], [ "to ensure that the maintenance technique (typically inhalational) is started soon after induction to prevent the patient from waking up.\nGeneral anesthesia is not maintained with barbiturate drugs. An induction dose of thiopental wears off after a few minutes because the thiopental redistributes from the brain to the rest of the body very quickly. However, it has a long half-life, which means that a long time is needed for the drug to be eliminated from the body. If a very large initial dose is given, little or no redistribution takes place (since the body is saturated with the drug), which means", "-25.44866718375124" ], [ "of polyethylene glycol the night before the procedure. Patients are also instructed to abstain from food or drink (an NPO order after midnight on the night before the procedure), to minimize the effect of stomach contents on pre-operative medications and reduce the risk of aspiration if the patient vomits during or after the procedure.\nSome medical systems have a practice of routinely performing chest x-rays before surgery. The premise behind this practice is that the physician might discover some unknown medical condition which would complicate the surgery, and that upon discovering this with the chest x-ray, the physician would adapt the", "-25.420515621139202" ], [ "of pulmonary edema from congestive heart failure. Procedural guidance Using ultrasound to guide needles during procedures may improve success and decrease complications in procedures performed by multiple specialties, including central and venous access, thoracentesis, paracentesis, pericardiocentesis, arthrocentesis, regional anesthesia, incision and drainage of abscesses, localization and removal of foreign bodies, lumbar puncture, biopsies, and other procedures. Training Emergency and point-of-care ultrasound is taught in a variety of settings. Many physicians are currently taught bedside ultrasound during the emergency medicine residency training programs in the United States. It can also be learned as part of the continuing education process, through formal", "-25.380885280901566" ], [ "for temporary ventilation support, especially flow-inflation versions that are used during anesthesia induction/recovery during routine surgery. Accordingly, most citizens are likely to be \"bagged\" at least once during their lifetime as they undergo procedures involving general anesthesia. Additionally, a significant number of newborns are ventilated with infant-sized manual resuscitators to help stimulate normal breathing, making manual resuscitators among the very first therapeutic medical devices encountered upon birth. As previously stated, manual resuscitators are the first-line device recommended for emergency artificial ventilation of critical care patients, and are thus used not only throughout hospitals but also in out-of-hospital", "-25.345955303288065" ], [ "is filled with warm water (and possibly, salts) and the affected area is soaked for a period of time. Another method of recovery involves the use of surgical packing, which is initially inserted by the surgical team, with redressing generally performed by hospital staff or a District Nurse (however, following the results of several double-blind studies, the effectiveness of surgical packing has come into question). During the week following the surgery, many patients will have some form of antibiotic therapy, along with some form of pain management therapy, consistent with the nature of the abscess.\nThe patient usually experiences an almost", "-25.339171177591197" ], [ "early. Surgery is controversial because it has potential complications (such as infection), so in cases where it is not clearly needed (e.g. the cord is being compressed), doctors must decide whether to perform surgery based on aspects of the patient's condition and their own beliefs about its risks and benefits.\nIn cases where a more conservative approach is chosen, bed rest, cervical collars, motion restriction devices, and optionally traction are used. Surgeons may opt to put traction on the spine to remove pressure from the spinal cord by putting dislocated vertebrae back into alignment, but herniation of intervertebral disks may", "-25.335186165524647" ], [ "antiseptic given two days before the surgery since it keeps the stool soft in the post-operative period. Enema is given early on the day of surgery.\nThe surgery is performed in jack-knife position, making the vagina and anorectum more accessible. Spinal anaesthesia is usually preferred. After exposing the cervix and posterior wall of the rectum using a Sim's speculum, a Kocher clamp is placed in the posterior vaginal wall just below the cervix. The incision diverges outwards to the anal margin, encloses the anterior third of anal orifice and forms a triangular flap. The mucosal flap is then freed by sharply", "-25.26575756102102" ], [ "no prophylactic analgesic drug have been found to be effective for routine use for women undergoing IUD insertion.\nDuring the insertion procedure, health care providers use a speculum to find the cervix (the opening to the uterus) and then use an insertion device to place the IUD in the uterus. The insertion device goes through the cervix which is what causes the pain felt during the insertion. The procedure itself, if uncomplicated, should take no more than five to ten minutes. Generally, the removal is not nearly as painful as the insertion because there is no instrument that needs to go", "-25.256565982243046" ], [ "in obstetrics and gynecology Osmotic dilators are most commonly used to slowly dilate and soften the cervix prior to surgical abortion, a process referred to as cervical preparation. Adequate cervical preparation is important prior to surgical abortions because it helps to prevent complications of dilation and evacuation (D&E), such as laceration of the cervix. Cervical preparation can be accomplished with osmotic dilators, with medications such as prostaglandins and/or mifepristone, or with a combination of these. However, there is no consensus as to which cervical preparation method is superior in terms of safety and efficacy.\nAt later gestational ages, osmotic dilators, including", "-25.251161941252576" ], [ "Surgical nursing Duties Theatre nurses are part of the perioperative surgical team, they work alongside surgeons, surgical technician, nurse anaesthetists and nurse practitioners.\nIn surgery there are 3 main phases: preoperative, intraoperative and postoperative. These phases collectively are known as the perioperative period. Perioperative nursing is the way by which nursing care is provided. Each phase is related to specific activities carried out and skills needed for different stages of nursing. Preoperative Phase This stage is undertaken when the patient decides to have surgery. Preoperative phase, which includes discussing to the patients about all the benefits of the procedure but also", "-25.230426002672175" ], [ "began funding a study for improving the waiting room experience.\nPatients who are waiting for surgery depend on the availability of the operating theater, and if any patient getting treatment in that room takes longer than scheduled, all patients who are waiting to be next must wait beyond their appointed time. It can be difficult to maximize efficient use of the operating room when unexpected delays can happen and lead to patients waiting.\nWaiting time influences patient satisfaction.\nPatients can spend longer waiting for treatment than actually receiving treatment.\nTime in the waiting room has been used to experiment with giving patient health education.", "-25.227020349353552" ], [ "flare-up, and rectal fissures. Electroejaculation Electroejaculation is a procedure in which nerves are stimulated via an electric probe, which is inserted into the rectum adjacent to the prostate. The stimulus voltage stimulates nearby nerves, resulting in contraction of the pelvic muscles and ejaculation. It is most commonly encountered in animal husbandry for the purpose of collecting semen samples for testing or breeding. Some devices are used under general anesthesia on humans who have certain types of anejaculation. Electroejaculation is a different procedure from manual prostate massage. General Prostate massage is also used as an erotic massage for sexual stimulation, often", "-25.1769261356676" ], [ "the general anesthetic drug, which is used to make the patients sleep while they are under surgery, can cause both short-term and long-term health problems, for example minor health problems like vomiting, nausea, muscle soreness, headache, and major health problems can include death. Another risk factor is that swelling can occur throughout the whole mouth during the beginning section of the surgery, but swelling is most likely to occur on the tongue and in the tissues surrounding the tonsils at the back of the throat. Furthermore, rarely bleeding may be present in the tonsil area of the mouth throughout the", "-25.150230535538867" ], [ "placental expulsion. Controlled cord traction has been recommended as a second alternative after more than 30 minutes have passed after stimulation of uterine contractions, provided the uterus is contracted. Manual extraction may be required if cord traction also fails, or if heavy ongoing bleeding occurs. Very rarely a curettage is necessary to ensure that no remnants of the placenta remain (in rare conditions with very adherent placenta such as a placenta accreta).\nHowever, in birth centers and attended home birth environments, it is common for licensed care providers to wait for the placenta's birth up to 2 hours in some instances.", "-25.13130068220198" ], [ "hospitals for 1 to 2 nights and they are released to go home if they are doing well. The decision for discharge should be made by the doctor based on the person's overall health at the time. The person is dressed with a bandage over the surgery site that is wrapped around the chest snugly. It is common to have drains coming from the incision site to help remove blood and lymph to initiate the healing process. Patients may have to be taught to empty, care, and measure the fluid from the drains. Measuring the fluids will help identify any", "-25.1191423679702" ], [ "it normally resolves when the vaginal mucosa becomes estrogenized at the onset of puberty. Treatments include topical application of estrogens or betamethasone with gentle traction on the labia, followed with vitamin A, vitamin D, and/or petroleum jelly to prevent re-adhesion. The labia may be separated manually with local anesthesia or surgically under general anesthesia (in a procedure called introitoplasty) if topical treatment is unsuccessful. This is followed with estrogen treatment to prevent recurrence. Ovarian mass Ovarian masses in children are typically cystic, but 1% are malignant ovarian cancers. 30–70% of neonates with ovaries have cysts; they are caused by transplacental", "-25.101318189816084" ], [ "and semi-elective procedures until after giving birth. In some situations, an urgently needed surgery will be postponed briefly to permit even more urgent conditions to be addressed. In other situations, emergency surgery may be performed at the same time as life-saving resuscitation efforts.\nSemi-elective procedures are typically scheduled within a time frame deemed appropriate for the patient's condition and disease. Removal of a malignancy, for example, is usually scheduled as semi-elective surgery, to be performed within a set number of days or weeks. Urgent surgery is typically performed with 48 hours of diagnosis. Emergency surgery is performed", "-25.090157607744914" ], [ "the duration of the procedure, the patient's legs will be massaged and manipulated at predetermined intervals in an attempt to prevent compartment syndrome, a complication from circulatory and nerve compression resultant from the lithotomy positioning. Some hospitals utilize the Allen Medical Stirrup System, which automatically inflates a compression sleeve applied to the thigh-portion of the stirrup device at predetermined intervals. This system is designed to prevent compartment syndrome in surgeries lasting more than six hours.\nAt this time the surgical team will perform testing to determine if the anesthesia has taken effect. Upon satisfactory finding(s), a suprapubic catheter (with drainage system)", "-25.087855741381645" ], [ "wait due to the distance involved. This issue is further complicated by differing performance measurement methodologies. Some services count response time beginning at the moment that the telephone call is answered and running until an ambulance or response resource arrives at the scene, while others measure only the time from the notification of EMS personnel of the call, which is considerably shorter. Another issue which arises in urban areas is that the response time 'clock' almost universally stops when the unit arrives in front of the address; in large office or apartment buildings, actually accessing the patient may", "-25.087413125100284" ], [ "Morning care Morning care is a hygiene routine provided by personal support workers, nursing assistants, nurses, and other workers for patients and residents of care facilities each morning. The care routine typically includes washing the face, combing hair, shaving, putting on cosmetics, toileting, getting dressed, and similar activities. Nurses may also check the patients' temperature, check medical equipment, replenish IV bags, change dressings, or do other daily or semi-daily tasks at this time.\nMost morning care duties are basic activities of daily living. Different people require different levels of support for morning care, depending on their performance status. Some people may", "-25.077883929479867" ], [ "Out-of-hours service Out-of-hours services are the arrangements to provide access to healthcare at times when General Practitioner surgeries are closed; in the United Kingdom this is normally between 6.30pm and 8am, at weekends, at Bank Holidays and sometimes if the practice is closed for educational sessions.\nMost Out-of-hours services in Scotland and Wales are provided directly by Health Boards. In Northern Ireland they are provided by the Health and Social Care Trusts. In England they are commissioned by Clinical Commissioning Groups, usually working together, as the contracts often cover large areas. Out-of-hours providers in England must be registered with, and are", "-25.064783783396706" ], [ "the placenta to obtain villi, ultrasound is used to guide the catheter to the site of sampling. Trans-abdominal sampling requires the insertion of a needle through the abdomen and uterus to obtain placental tissue. Local anaesthesia can be applied to reduce pain from invasive procedures. Amniocentesis Amniocentesis is another invasive procedure which can be used to collect foetal DNA samples. This procedure is usually done between the 15th week to 20th week of pregnancy. The purpose of AMC is to extract a small amount of amniotic fluid as foetal cells may be shed from the foetus and are suspended in", "-25.058319886418758" ], [ "can tell whether or not there is a problem being caused by the insertion of the catheter into the heart to the electrical pathways. The physiologist will also set up a temporary pacemaker if the procedure is an angioplasty or a PCI. Finally, they also set up defibrillators on to the patient for emergency use if needed. In some locations, some of these responsibilities may be carried out by other personnel, such as trained nurses or technologists. Procedures Cardiac catheterization is a general term for a group of procedures that are performed in the cath lab, such as coronary angiography.", "-24.99986528667796" ], [ "Post-operative matters After completing the surgical corrections and the lipoinjection contouring of the pertinent area(s) of the gluteal region, the surgeon thoroughly examines the patient to ensure his or her general recovery from the operation; and examines each surgical incision to ascertain that it is correctly sutured and taped, in order to facilitate the uneventful healing of the gluteus-muscle tissues, without medical complications. The patient is advised to avoid exercise and strenuous physical activity until 3-weeks post-operative; how to properly care for surgical-incision wounds; and how to wear a compression garment that will keep in place the surgically corrected tissues,", "-24.995252318738494" ], [ "it is very important to clean the tool with soap before use in another orifice or by a partner. Receiving anal stimulation may cause feelings of having to evacuate. More often than not, this is just a sensation that the stimulation causes and may take some getting used to. Equipment A prostate massager is a device for massaging the prostate gland. The shape of a prostate massager is similar to a finger, since prostate massages are traditionally given digitally (for example, via fingering). They usually have a slightly curved head to effectively massage the prostate. Lubricant is necessary before inserting", "-24.992723006755114" ], [ "the external area (anus and perineum) for any abnormalities such as hemorrhoids, lumps, or rashes. Then, as the patient relaxes and bears down (as if having a bowel movement), the physician slips a lubricated finger into the rectum through the anus and palpates the insides for a short time. Society and culture Due to the taboos surrounding the anus and the potential for discomfort and embarrassment, the rectal exam is a common comedic device, including in episodes of Saturday Night Live, Impractical Jokers, Futurama, Family Guy, South Park and the movie Fletch, with M. Emmet Walsh as the general practitioner", "-24.991443121805787" ], [ "be managed expectantly, allowing the placenta to be expelled without medical assistance. Active management is the administration of a uterotonic drug within one minute of fetal delivery, controlled traction of the umbilical cord and fundal massage after delivery of the placenta, followed by performance of uterine massage every 15 minutes for two hours. In a joint statement, World Health Organization, the International Federation of Gynaecology and Obstetrics and the International Confederation of Midwives recommend active management of the third stage of labour in all vaginal deliveries to help to prevent postpartum hemorrhage.\nDelaying the clamping of the umbilical cord for at", "-24.969564239399915" ], [ "not be required. Dilation and curettage (D&C) refers to opening the cervix (dilation) and removing tissue (curettage) via suction or sharp instruments. D&C is a standard gynecological procedure performed for a variety of reasons, including examination of the uterine lining for possible malignancy, investigation of abnormal bleeding, and abortion. The World Health Organization recommends sharp curettage only when suction aspiration is unavailable.\nDilation and evacuation (D&E), used after 12 to 16 weeks, consists of opening the cervix and emptying the uterus using surgical instruments and suction. D&E is performed vaginally and does not require an incision. Intact dilation and extraction(D&X) refers", "-24.964849526644684" ], [ "currently performed more than ever before. These procedures are often performed with the patient fully awake, with little or no sedation required. Interventional Radiologists and Interventional Radiographers diagnose and treat several disorders, including peripheral vascular disease, renal artery stenosis, inferior vena cava filter placement, gastrostomy tube placements, biliary stents and hepatic interventions. Images are used for guidance, and the primary instruments used during the procedure are needles and catheters. The images provide maps that allow the clinician to guide these instruments through the body to the areas containing disease. By minimizing the physical trauma to the patient, peripheral interventions can", "-24.949738522991538" ], [ "surgeon Pierre Foldès. His procedure provides women with a clitoris, but is not considered a regenerative medicine. Organizations Some organizations which perform research into, or conduct regeneration procedures, include the Wake Forest Institute for Regenerative Medicine, the United States Department of Defense, and the California Institute for Regenerative Medicine. An organization called Foregen is attempting to privately fund research into regenerating structures of the foreskin.", "-24.93919457134325" ], [ "who have nocturia due to gravity-induced third spacing of fluid because fluid is mobilized when they lie in a reclining position. Surgery If the cause of nocturia is related to the obstruction of the prostate or an overactive bladder, surgical actions may be sought out. Transurethral prostatectomy/incision of the prostate and surgical correction of the pelvic organ prolapse, sacral nerve stimulation, clam cystoplasty, and detrusor myectomy are both treatment options and can help alleviate the symptoms of nocturia. Medications Desmopressin has some benefit in adults who have problems with night time urination. It is FDA approved for this indication since", "-24.936697456134425" ], [ "health and reaction to the procedure, the actual harvesting can be an outpatient procedure, or can require 1–2 days of recovery in the hospital.\nAnother option is to administer certain drugs that stimulate the release of stem cells from the bone marrow into circulating blood. An intravenous catheter is inserted into the donor's arm, and the stem cells are then filtered out of the blood. This procedure is similar to that used in blood or platelet donation. In adults, bone marrow may also be taken from the sternum, while the tibia is often used when taking samples from infants. In newborns,", "-24.905923252284992" ], [ "remove sutures, and change dressings. They also facilitate communication between the patient and other health care professionals.\nSome jurisdictions allow medical assistants to perform more advanced procedures, such as giving injections or taking X-rays, after passing a test or taking a course.\nAccording to the International Standard Classification of Occupations, medical assistants normally require formal training in health services provision for competent performance in their jobs. Formal education usually occurs in post secondary institutions such as vocational schools, technical institutes, community colleges, proprietary colleges, online educational programs or junior colleges. Medical assistant training programs most commonly lead to a certificate or a", "-24.8855021855411" ], [ "the suture line to prevent leakage and formation of a fistula. At this time an appropriately sized (a) Foley catheter will be inserted through the repair and into the bladder (and connected to a urinary drainage system), and the incision closed (layer by layer). Some surgeons will inject a local anesthetic such as 2% plain lidocaine or 0.5% bupivicaine into the areas to allow the patient an additional period of relief from discomfort.\nMicro-doppler circulatory measurement of the penile vasculature is performed at way points throughout the procedure, and a final assessment is taken and recorded. The incision is inspected", "-24.88079473923426" ], [ "by default when most of the staff were off duty. (...) At 8 o'clock, after staff prayers, I would start to walk all round the rows of seated patients, sorting them out as I went. In this way every new patient could see the doctor, the old cases being left to an assistant unless I wished to see them again. (...) On operating days, normally twice a week, I had to delegate the screening of patients to a Medical Assistant, but he would recall any doubtful cases for me on a subsequent day. (...) With regard to the in-patients not", "-24.870549552317243" ], [ "By following a few critical steps, health care professionals can minimize the most common and avoidable risks endangering the lives and well-being of surgical patients.\nIt is important to increase awareness of this safety initiative. Before induction of anaesthesia Before the patient undergoes anaesthesia, the patient must confirm his/her identity, the site of operation, what procedure is to be carried out and that he/she has consented for the procedure. The site of operation must be marked if applicable. Then the presence or absence of allergies must be checked, the amount of expected blood loss discussed, and an anaesthetic safety check must", "-24.863527001580223" ], [ "have taken various forms, including programs where physicians on the medical staff voluntarily take 12- or 24-hour shifts to provide continuous coverage for their labor and delivery unit. One such program was developed in response to a hospital requirement that physicians be present during the first 30 minutes after an epidural has been placed. Relieving the medical staff of this responsibility, as well as having a physician present and available to respond to patient emergencies, was a significant physician satisfier, and far outweighed the inconvenience of having to spend the night in the hospital once a month.\nOther voluntary programs provide", "-24.844694170169532" ], [ "is cleaned with an antiseptic solution, and she may or may not be given a local anesthetic injection to numb the abdominal area where the transfusion needle will be inserted. During the procedure, medicine may be given to the fetus to temporarily stop fetal movement.\nAn ultrasound is performed to view the position of the fetus and to help guide the needle. The first step is to locate a relatively stable segment of the umbilical cord. The procedure may be achieved with more ease if the placenta is in the anterior position. However, if the placenta is in the posterior position,", "-24.83931672584731" ], [ "be generally called procedures. In simple terms, ASC-qualified procedures can be considered procedures that are more intensive than those done in the average doctor's office but not so intensive as to require a hospital stay. An ambulatory surgery center and a specialty hospital often provide similar facilities and support similar types of procedures. The specialty hospital may provide the same procedures or slightly more complex ones and the specialty hospital will often allow an overnight stay. ASCs do not routinely provide emergency services to patients who have not been admitted to the ASC for another procedure. Procedures", "-24.83816808834672" ], [ " The passage of the conduit through the abdominal wall allows the rectus abdominis muscle to aid with continence. Recovery and function The surgery itself along with recovery time depends on the patient. Robotic surgery can take approximately 6-12 hours. A patient's time in the hospital can take 7–10 days if no complications present themselves. Depending on the type of surgery the abdominal incision for this surgery may be up to eight inches in length and is typically closed with staples on the outside and several layers of dissolvable stitches on the inside. After surgery, patients", "-24.837514318409376" ], [ "labor induction for a second trimester loss because it can be a scheduled surgical procedure, offering predictability over labor induction, or because they find it emotionally easier than undergoing labor and delivery. Both methods offer the option of fetal and placental testing. Although pregnancy loss is emotionally distressing, there are rarely medical complications associated with a short (< 1 week) delay to management. Cervical preparation Prior to the procedure, cervical preparation with osmotic dilators or medications is recommended in order to reduce risk of complications such as cervical laceration and to facilitate cervical dilation during the procedure. There is no", "-24.835824387846515" ], [ "surgery uses preoperative MRIs or CTs to give the surgeons navigation to enhance the precision of resection. Even more advanced, some surgeons at UM are able to use real-time MRI to determine the extent of resection of the tumor intraoperatively, which naturally reduces the need for extra operations. Procedure Intraoperatively, University of Miami neurosurgeons and neurologists use certain techniques to reduce and prevent damage to essential areas of the brain used for language, muscle skills, and sensation. In order to avoid damage to these areas, neurosurgeons must determine the location of these functional areas that are mapped while the patient", "-24.83189506152121" ], [ "uterine body is surgically removed). This procedure is normally performed by gynecologists and it is one of the most common gynecological surgeries. This type of surgery is used to treat some benign tumors, cancers of the ovaries, uterus or cervix, Adenomyosis but not endometriosis and are also performed in trans men.", "-24.825872047629673" ], [ "are placed around the area. The local anesthetic is injected into the skin and down to the muscle, and after the area is numb a small incision is made in the skin and a passage made through the skin and muscle into the chest. The tube is placed through this passage. If necessary, patients may be given additional analgesics for the procedure. Once the tube is in place it is sutured to the skin to prevent it falling out and a dressing applied to the area. Once the drain is in place, a chest radiograph will be taken to check", "-24.819218422839185" ], [ "of rest. Since intubation can also cause vocal process granulomas, proper muscle relaxing medications should be used before insertion and removal of tubes, that smaller tubes are used and with proper lubrication, and that patient movement is controlled during intubation. Treatment Specific treatment for contact granuloma depends on the underlying cause of the condition, but often initially includes a combination of speech therapy, vocal rest, and antireflux medication. A more aggressive treatment approach could include steroids (inhalant or injection), injections of botulinum toxin, low dose radiotherapy, vocal fold augmentation, or microlaryngeal surgery). Microlaryngeal surgery can be performed either via", "-24.8144878129242" ], [ "to perform successful surgery. Sperm banking is frequently carried out prior to the procedure (as with chemotherapy), as there is a risk that RPLND may damage the nerves involved in ejaculation, causing ejaculation to occur internally into the bladder rather than externally.\nMany patients are instead choosing surveillance, where no further surgery is performed unless tests indicate that the cancer has returned. This approach maintains a high cure rate because of the growing accuracy of surveillance techniques. Adjuvant treatment Since testicular cancers can spread, patients are usually offered adjuvant treatment - in the form of chemotherapy or radiotherapy - to kill", "-24.757055382127874" ], [ "the initial 24 hours post-procedure however normal activities are allowed such as personal hygiene. In regard to the fetus, the puncture seals and the amniotic sac replenishes the liquid over the next 24–48 hours. One week after the procedure, the mother will have a follow up appointment for ultrasound analysis to confirm fetal viability and to assess healing of the puncture site. Stem cells Amniotic fluid can be a rich source of multipotent mesenchymal, hematopoietic, neural, epithelial, and endothelial stem cells.\nA potential benefit of using amniotic stem cells over those obtained from embryos is that they side-step ethical concerns among", "-24.741218176903203" ] ]

[ " URL_0 URL_1 Game of Thrones began development in January 2007 (pitches to HBO and Martin happened in 2006). The first episode was filmed in 2009. The first episode aired in April 2011, over 4 years after development began and two years after it was filmed. In other words, OP, your question is faulty. With the casting, development, location scouting, contracts, etc... done, they can produce season 2 in a year subsequent to season 1, sure. But season 1, and specifically the building of that infrastructure, took years. Movies operate the same way. Especially in circumstances where you know, when casting the movie, drafting the contracts, and working out schedules etc, that should the movie succeed you will want to release a sequel quickly thereafter. Doubly so when you are adapting from already published source material.", "Much of the time that goes into making a movie is spent building the team of people who will do it. A series may spend years on that as well, but once it is in place they can keep production going without having to bother with that again.", "Budgets. When you have more money you can afford to pay people/studios for their services over a longer period of time, thus getting exactly what you want out of the production. I'm sure GOT would benefit greatly from a blockbuster budget per episode but it's just not realistic to spend a ton of money per episode, so they cut costs and sacrifice production quality/operate within their means which is usually less time consuming. Also when a movie studio invests 100s of millions of dollars for a movie they expect to make that money back in sales, HBO on the other hand doesn't operate the same way in that they are a subscription service and only have a finite amount of money, no matter how popular the show is", "Films only take 2-5 years if you're including everything. Usually production is a few months and post is a bit less. Pre-production on GOT is probably similar to many movies but most of it only had to be done once before the pilot episode was made. Once that's done, pre-production is mainly writing the scripts which is pretty straight-forward given they have the books to work from. They presumably have a deadline to work to as well so they will only spend a fixed amount of time on a script and they'll produce it whether it's good enough or not", "Avengers, from principal photography to post production, took about 8 months (April 25, 2011-December-ish 2011 by the wiki article). Most films don't even need that much time for actually shooting scenes. It's just spread out over a year or two because studios, actors, directors and producers are all working on multiple projects. You also have to get together the people for the film and, if you're making a triple A blockbuster you need to either spend a buttload of time making realistic costumes and working on stunts up front, or have a bunch of people do cheesy CGI special effects in post.", "Typically, shows and movies start off in the same manner, with someone approaching a studio with a script or idea (this process varies greatly but for arguments sake let's keep it simple). The studio likes the script or idea and decides to green-light it, let's start the \"clock\" there on how long it takes to make something. With a show (providing the script is written) green-lighting something means making a stand alone pilot episode. It starts with pre-production which involves casting the actors, finding the shooting locations, creating a budget, and hiring a crew/director etc.. This can take months. Then shooting the actual one episode show, which should take a few weeks. And finally editing it and adding any post VFX/SFX needed, which will take another few weeks, depending on how VFX heavy the show is. The finished pilot will go into the studio to decide whether or not they want to make a season of this show. This will also take months. They will screen test with test audiences, it will be passed between hands, a perspective budget for an entire season will need to be drawn out, deals will have to be made between studios and networks that will lay the groundwork for millions of dollars to exchange between them, a lot of things need to happen. Takes months. Right now we're looking at six months, at least from start to where we are now. If the studio decides to pick it up for a season (or more), that's when you really go into production. Now here's why a show is seemingly pumping out content at a much faster rate than films; it's because a show is already a streamlined process at this point, and you probably haven't even heard of it yet. You already have the locations, the actors, the crew and the post houses (where editing/VXF/SFX are done). All you need to do is start working. A show like GOT probably take 9-10 months to make from this point and in all future seasons. 3 months a straight writing, a few weeks to shoot each episode (which sounds short, but since they shoot in different locations, everything can be set up at overlapping times). Say they can shoot it in two weeks, that's 10 episodes, so 20 weeks or 5 months. And they're doing post production (editing) while they're shooting other episodes, so that doesn't add to the time it takes to make. Add some time at the end for however long it takes to edit the final episode, and any additional VFX needed, and you're at about 9-10 months. After it's made the studio/network will do some advertising and release it whenever their magic 8 ball (carefully analyzed studies) says they should. So, all in all, you're looking at at least a year and a half to make that first season of a show, then subsequently 9 months for every season after that (again all of this varies, but from my experiences this is the norm). The real reason movies seem to take so much longer, is that movies are often announced to the public as soon as they're green-lit, before actors are even attached or a budget is made. That's why you've known the new Star Wars is being made for months now, but just finding out that Brienne of Tarth (Gwendoline Christie) is going to be in it. And with shows, the public usually only starts hearing about them right before they're released. Movies go through the same pre-production process as a show (without the hassle of having to make a pilot or waiting to be picked up). But another reason they may take longer to make is lot of times they will have a higher budget than shows. Which means a lot more money spent adding VFX or CGI, which, when done right, takes a looong time on it's own. It also means that if the studio isn't happy with something they have the resources and flexibility to go back and re-shoot scenes, or the entire movie, if they so please. Typically if you have $100 million sank into something, you're going to take your time to make it right. A show like GOT isn't afforded that type of luxury since they have deadlines set long before production is done (but IMO they're doing a damn fine job with the time/money they have). TL;DR - Movies seem to take longer than shows to make because they are announced a lot sooner in the process. Or they have a ton of money and want to re-shoot everything. Source: Am a film producer. EDIT: Spelling", "Shows take a lot of shortcuts to lower the production time. I'm not an expert, so I couldn't tell you every trick, but a big one is simply not showing large battles often or even at all. You might notice this in GoT quite a bit, especially during the episodes (SPOILERS) focusing on Robb's war where they hardly showed any battles, even the battle where they captured Jaimie, they simply focused on the aftermath.", "Just a guess..but movies are flashy. It's like..combine the best cgi with a bunch of other badass effects and some surround sound awesomeness..throw Brad Pitt, or some other A list star(s) in the mix, and BOOM! One sexy ass movie. They spend more time on it.. Just a guess though..totally ignorant haha.", "They use multiple directors and multiple filming locations for GoT, so I'm sure while scene A is being shot is one place, scene B and C are being shot concurrently elsewhere.", "A) Marketing. Movies are promoted like crazy and it's typically at least 6 months from end of filming to release... even if they don't need that amount of time for editing and post-production. With the insane amounts of cash given to them, they need to. B) Movies are typically filmed on location, typically in many locations. The more the locations, the longer the shoot. Plus you have to send teams to scout for locations beforehand. This takes a lot of time. Game of Thrones is filmed on a lot and in a studio. C) Money. Money and financing for a big-budget movie can take a long time to secure, especially if it's the size of the GDP of a small country. D) Directing/Writing. You have to seek out and find a good director and writing team for a movie. TV series have their own writing team and rotating group of directors that are a dime a dozen. They don't need to seek these out. -It also depends on the movie... most of Clint Eastwood or Woody Allen's movies are filmed in less than a month and are barely edited because they don't film much extra. There's a big difference between that and, say, Avatar.", "Also, movies don't take nearly that long to make. The longest movie I ever worked on was The Lone Ranger, which had a production time of over a year, if you count from the first day we started building, the several weeks where the movie was \"cancelled\" and everything was in storage, and the time to take sets for an almost complete wild-west town out of storage and put it back up. They also pushed back the release date of that movie at least twice so that it could spend more time in the editing room, because it sucked. The difference in production times comes from a few things: 1. Deadlines- pretty straight forward. TV has to stay on track, movies have more time for the egos to indulge themselves. 2. Build times- As mentioned elsewhere, TV can reuse sets over and over for years. Movie tend to build more elaborate sets anyway. 3. Editing/reshoots--movies try harder to save their product if it isn't doing well because of the investment. In TV, we can crank out a spin-off episode here and there without the whole projectfalling apart.", "That is not true. Filming is usually done within tops a year. Everyday filming costs alot of money. What is adding on time are after effects, the cut and the mastering. Also the decision when to show the movie. Hungergames2 had a really tight deadline and yet they delivered with alot of cgi. As a counter question. What movies took 3-5 years to make till they were showed?", "My assumption would be about foundations. It took a long time, on the scale of several years, to get Game of Thrones off the ground. Now that it's running, and they have all the funding secured and the actors hired and the sets built, they just show back up and, essentially, keep making more pieces of the same movie on a constant schedule.", "I'm guessing it's because the foundation of the script is already there, courtesy of George RR Martin (and scripting/storylines can take a long time before filming begins). Naturally, there are deviations from the books, but the foundation is still there.", "I always kinda wondered about this too. Sadly I think I have yet to see a good answer here either. My best guess is that it's mostly due to overhead costs (no new scenery etc)", "Well the books took 15 years to write." ]

[ [ "8 episode \"The Long Night\", which is 82 minutes. Season 7's penultimate episode also runs for 71 minutes – around 16 minutes longer than an average Game of Thrones episode. The first five episodes mostly run longer than average (55 minutes), at 59, 59, 63, 50, and 59 minutes respectively. The previous longest episode in the series was the sixth-season finale, \"The Winds of Winter\", which ran for 69 minutes. Music Ramin Djawadi returned as the composer of the show for the seventh season. Broadcast The season was simulcast around the world by HBO and its broadcast partners in 186", "-28.224706337419775" ], [ "of the series are all more than an hour in length—episode three is 82 minutes (making it the longest episode of the series), episodes four and five are each 78 minutes, and the final episode is 80 minutes.\nA two-hour documentary, Game of Thrones: The Last Watch, which documents the making of the eighth season, aired on May 26, the week after the series finale. Music Ramin Djawadi returned as the series' composer for the eighth season. The soundtrack album for the season was released digitally on May 19, 2019 and was released on CD on July 19, 2019. Broadcast The", "-27.93926317099249" ], [ "was considered bizarre given that it had to condense a 20-episode TV season into one film, and is a far shorter runtime than is typical for summer blockbusters. Shyamalan's response was that all of his previous films were 90 minutes, because they were small-scale supernatural thrillers, and as a result his instinct for the pacing of the film was to edit it down to 90 minutes. This short runtime indirectly led to several other problems which multiple critics listed above objected to: characters frequently resort to giving long speeches of exposition to summarize entire scenes that were cut for time,", "-27.85666452680016" ], [ "Zero Hour can sustain [the setup] for 13 weeks, because what makes a good two-hour movie doesn't always make for 10 gripping hours of television.\" Mike Hale of The New York Times stated the series \"is entirely dispensable, its silliness matched by its comic-book solemnity\". The Washington Post's Hank Stuever called the series \"rancid\", adding \"The dialogue is stilted and almost entirely expository. The plot is like receiving a coloring book that's already been colored. The grand mystery here fails to ignite interest.\" Tim Goodman from The Hollywood Reporter says the series is \"worth the ride\".\nThe premiere \"marked the lowest-rated", "-27.11457914157654" ], [ "continuation On June 5, 2006, HBO and creator David Milch agreed to make two two-hour television films in place of a fourth season, after Milch declined a short-order of six episodes. This was because in the show's original format, each season portrayed two weeks in the life of Deadwood, with each episode representing one day. The final two-hour format would release these time restraints and allow for a broader narrative to finish off the series. In an interview on January 13, 2007, Milch stated that he still intended to finish the two films, if possible. On July 12, 2007, HBO", "-26.80132383237651" ], [ "were each 39 minutes in duration. The two films were edited into one 76-minute film, resulting in only two lost minutes in the combined edit, probably consisting mostly of cast and credits. As a result, this compilation suffered least among the Super Giant films in its adaptation for American television, except in terms of cast and credits. Although Riichiro Manabe composed the music to the original two films, most of the original music was replaced by library tracks in the American adaptation, which were then credited to Chumei Watanabe. Additionally, the screen cast, which was identical to the one used", "-26.633018955180887" ], [ "version of the film, with extensions for some scenes added and some scenes removed.\nIwai prefers the longer theatrical version, though he concedes that \"[i]t's not perfect. Even the TV version, the longest, isn't perfect because it doesn't have a very, very important scene in the climax. You can only see that in the three-hour version.\"", "-26.62567981117172" ], [ "the series taped \"extras\" (most all of which were of the original format) for the purpose of reducing repeats; this resulted in 45 weeks of shows being taped, however not all double-run (or even single-run) markets aired all 225 episodes.\nBecause of the format's lack of returning champions, the series was not shown in taping order (i.e., the first taped episode on September 10, the second on September 11, and so on – lacking repeats – through the 225th episode on July 18); this made it impossible for casual viewers to date rerun episodes (much like most original programs broadcast by", "-26.617836595105473" ], [ "in cinematic format. As a result, the film making project was approved immediately after the work on the series was completed, and another producer joined him – Norimitsu Urasaki.\nAccording to Sato, the biggest problem was the limitation on the length of the film. He had several meetings with producers to increase the timing to 107 minutes, which was approved. Yamaguchi understood that such a film was extremely short in comparison to the 2006 series, where a similar number of events was set out in 480 minutes. Therefore, he decided to try to create a balance between everyday scenes and battles", "-26.604426095611416" ], [ "to wait for footage of their sequels to become available for a ten-minute preview). However, it contained a seven-minute trailer of the entire trilogy.\nThe Return of the King followed the precedent set by its predecessors by releasing an Extended Edition (251 minutes) with new editing and added special effects and music, along with four commentaries and six hours of supplementary material, plus 10 minutes of fan-club credits. However, this set took longer to produce than the others because the cast and crew, no longer based in New Zealand for the trilogy, were spread all over the world working on other", "-26.323515177180525" ], [ "Minutes – (Movie Endings Ruined), was uploaded on YouTube on November 11, 2008. With over 2.7 million video views as of July 28, 2014, the episode is also the most popular of the series. The brothers also uploaded a video containing spoilers of the first seven Harry Potter films in roughly seven minutes on July 13, 2011. The Fine Brothers spoiled 47 years in roughly 6 minutes of the popular series, Doctor Who, and released subsequent sequels in preparations for the premieres of series 8 & 9 respectively. Other TV shows that have had spoiler videos made about them have included", "-26.24015276954742" ], [ "shorter, not just because of pacing but also to ensure commercial success. \"A picture under two and a half hours can scrape three shows a day,\" wrote Deeley, \"but at three hours you've lost one third of your screenings and one third of your income for the cinemas, distributors, and profit participants.\"\nThom Mount, president of Universal at the time, said, \"This was just a... continuing nightmare from the day Michael finished the picture to the day we released it. That was simply because he was wedded to everything he shot. The movie was endless. It was The Deer Hunter and", "-26.063443543680478" ], [ "was the shortest series due to a compressed time scale for filming. Series two was a major success and as a result a further series of 19 episodes was commissioned. Episodes 14–20 and 21–39 were shown in four separate batches. Although episodes 21–39 were commissioned as a third series, episodes 14–20 and 21–39 were combined to create one large series classified as series two.\nCharlotte Taylor (Sarah Farooqui) departed after series two, causing her character to disappear without explanation in series three when it was combined with series two. This is one major difference between the series. Series one (2003) Series", "-26.017077159602195" ], [ "six episodes per year. Other productions are often one-offs or released at a much slower rate.\nMost episodes are released in low resolution due to potential legal issues. Currently, only five (originally six) episodes have been released in high quality: A special edition of Season 1's fourth episode, \"Two Hours\", Season 6's premiere and finale, \"Countermeasures\", \"Her Battle Lanterns Lit\" (released in both low and high resolutions, modified into a single regular episode), Season 7's premiere, \"Heavy Losses\", and the two-part series finale.\nSeveral key roles had replacements during the seven-year run. The character of Lefler was originally played by Kelly Jamison,", "-25.868925649265293" ], [ "Game of Thrones both Benioff and Weiss worked in film, and were unfamiliar with working on a television show. This resulted in several first-season episodes being about 10 minutes too short for HBO, forcing them to write another 100 pages of scripts in two weeks. Due to lack of budget the new scenes were designed to be inexpensive to film, such as two actors conversing in one room. Benioff and Weiss noted that some of their favorite scenes from the first season were the results of the dilemma, including one between Robert and Cersei Baratheon discussing their marriage. Casting On", "-25.711867727688514" ], [ "to improve narrative flow. Running time Concerns about running time may also cause scenes to be removed or shortened. \nIn feature films, scenes may be cut to reduce the length of the film's theatrical cut. In television serials, however, running time becomes an even greater concern because of the strict timeslot limitations, especially on channels supported by advertisements, and there may be only 20 minutes of actual show per half-hour timeslot. Depending on the station and the particular format of the show, that may or may not include opening credits or closing credits; many ad-supported stations now \"squish\" the closing", "-25.689011019072495" ], [ "Japanese cast. It was filmed as a full length 90 minute movie that was shortened to 60 minutes for its airing on Showtime. For its DVD release, it is restored to its full running time though the DVD box erroneously states it remains at 60 minutes.\nIn addition, it is now streaming on Netflix (although this may change at any time). The length of the streaming version is the same as the original 60 minute aired version.", "-25.616642894456163" ], [ "than the production sequence. This caused disconcerting lapses in continuity, since in the first 12 episodes filmed (but not in later episodes) the Giants moved slowly and hardly spoke. For example, \"Ghost Town\" was the 14th episode filmed (i.e. was not one of the original 12 episodes), but was the second episode aired.\nThe cost of production was immense, partly because of the special optical effects needed to matte the little people into shots also showing the giants; and partly because of the gigantic mechanical props needed, for the little people to interact with, in shots depicting the giant-sized world they", "-25.584065531671513" ], [ "first 30 minutes of the new ending due to production issues. The second film, The End of Evangelion, which premiered on 19 July 1997, provided the complete new ending as a retelling of the final two episodes of the television series. Rather than depicting series' climax within the characters' minds, the film provides a more conventional, action-based resolution to the series' plot lines. The film won numerous awards and grossed 1.45 billion yen within six months of its release. EX.org ranked the film in 1999 as the fifth best 'All-Time Show', with the television series at #2. and in 2009", "-25.57112045068061" ], [ "of the set would be removed but all the walls were left in to make it look more realistic, meaning the crew overheated. Series 1 was filmed over ten days with approximately 120 minutes of television being shot. Each of the first series' 12 episodes are between three and 16 minutes in length. The second series features 10 episodes averaging 14 minutes each, which was a response to complaints from viewers about the length of some of the episodes in series 1. Series 3 began production in May 2011, and took about four weeks to film. Music Unlike EastEnders, E20", "-25.569320063252235" ], [ "The Special Edition, and it restored nearly an hour's worth of scenes that had been removed to keep the original film's running time under 3 hours.\nIn a letter to British film reviewers, director Kevin Costner and producer Jim Wilson addressed their reasons for presenting a longer version of the film:\nWhy add another hour to a film that by most standards pushes the time limit of conventional movie making? The 52 additional minutes that represent this \"new\" version were difficult to cut in the first place, and ... the opportunity to introduce them to audiences is compelling.\nWe have received countless letters", "-25.461751136695966" ], [ "in length. Actors and crews complain.\nEach series roughly consists of 40 episodes that last about 130 minutes, which translates into 5,200 hours of domestic TV content broadcast yearly. Demiray commented that Aa a screenwriter, it was wonderful until about 10 years ago. Then I had to write a 60-minute episode per week, as opposed to today's 130-plus minutes. It has become a very mechanical and uninteresting process, just a question of keeping the melodrama going.\"\nCagri Vila Lostuvali, 10 years in the business and four as a director, adds: \"To deliver one episode per week our crews work up to 18", "-25.452340545132756" ], [ "the series' fanbase. Radcliffe defended the split, stating that it would have been impossible to properly adapt the final novel into a single film. He added that the last movie was going to be extremely fast-paced with a lot of action, while the first part would be far more sedate, focusing on character development; he added that, had they combined them, those things would not have made it to the final cut. Filming lasted for a year, concluding in June 2010.\nThe two-film finale, Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows – Part 1 and Part 2, was released in November 2010", "-25.414063821313903" ], [ "24 November, Pericles, Prince of Tyre on 8 December, Much Ado About Nothing on 22 December, Love's Labour's Lost on 5 January 1985, and finally Titus Andronicus on 27 April.\nUS scheduling was even more complex. In the UK, each episode could start at any time and run for any length without any major problems, because shows are not trimmed to fit slots; rather slots are arranged to fit shows. In the US however, TV worked on very rigid time slots; a show could not run, say, 138 minutes, it must run either 120 or 150 minutes to fit into the", "-25.38559055852238" ], [ "filmed, and can end as late as the day before filming begins. Each episode costs at least $3 million to produce, and can take up to ten days to film as a result of the elaborate choreography. In late 2010, Bloom reported the process has been even shorter; \"as quick as a few weeks\". For the second season, the creators were offered listens of upcoming songs in advance by publishers and record labels, with production occurring even before song rights are cleared. Promotion Prior to the second episode's premiere, Glee's cast went on tour at several Hot Topic stores across the", "-25.361005794926314" ], [ "studios to cut some of these epics for general release in order for theaters to book more showings a day and present the film at reduced \"popular prices\", especially if the film ran longer than two hours. Sometimes this was done to a successful film, such as South Pacific, but more often to one that had been a notable flop, in an effort to make it a success on its second run. As a result, some of these films have not been seen in their entirety since their first release, as the original edited footage is either missing or no", "-25.339894100063248" ], [ "those standards quite astonishing\"; the release's \"2.0 mono mix\" was clear and reasonably strong, though \"distortion creeps into the music\".\nIn his article \"Remembering When\", Antonio Damasio argues that the time frame covered by the movie, which lasts 80 minutes and is supposed to be in \"real time\", is actually longer—a little more than 100 minutes. This, he states, is accomplished by speeding up the action: the formal dinner lasts only 20 minutes, the sun sets too quickly and so on.\nRope presently holds a score of 93% on the review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, with 43 out of 46 surveyed critics", "-25.262835181609262" ], [ "order, Viz opted to fill 26's time with ten minutes of recycled footage with narration by Geo Stelar. This was presumably done because the series ends on an odd number of episodes, with the only other alternative to ending the series with enough footage being to skip an episode entirely. However, this strategy would prove fruitless as the dub was discontinued before reaching that point.\nUnlike the English version of the series' predecessor Mega Man NT Warrior, the dub for Mega Man Starforce features a considerably more accurate translation with far less cut footage and censorship. While many names and terms", "-25.235266113770194" ], [ "series to have been made up to that point. The crew, who had been filming at a rate of two 25-minute episodes per fortnight, faced significant challenges during the transition to the new format: eight episodes had already been completed, scripts for up to 10 more had been written, and substantial rewrites would be necessary to satisfy the longer running time. Anderson lamented: \"Our time-scale was far too drawn out. ITC's New York office insisted that they should have one show a fortnight ... Everything had to move at twice the speed.\" APF spent over seven months extending the existing episodes.\nTony", "-25.219660710194148" ], [ "time took longer than usual due to the low budget of the series. In addition, Powell employed the use of drone cameras to take the place of cranes and dollies, and the series was shot exclusively on DSLR cameras.\nThe theme song is composed by 30 Rock co-composer Giancarlo Vulcano, inspired by the Motown sound of the 1960s. Vulcano also collaborated with Powell for the score of My Name Is David. Reception After the release of the first six episodes, Tubefilter called the series a \"sleek, well shot, reasonably funny web series\" and concluded \"it's a nice way to", "-25.194265476806322" ], [ "first and second arcs of the Dragon Ball Super anime, which told the same stories as the two films in expanded detail. The 1996 feature film, Dragon Ball: The Path to Power, was also a full-length theatrical release with a running time of 80 minutes, and was produced to coincide with the 10th anniversary of the anime as a re-imagining of the first few arcs of the series.\nAll previous films were below feature length (around 45–60 minutes each), making them only slightly longer than an episode of the TV series; this is due to them being originally shown as back-to-back", "-25.150296247156803" ], [ "over 2 hours 20 minutes, the sequel's length will be less than 2 hours. Cast and crew Due to personal reasons, cinematographer Sanu Varghese opted out of Vishwaroopam II and was replaced by Shamdat Sainuddeen. Ghibran was signed up to compose the music. Haasan has added Waheeda Rahman and Anant Mahadevan for the sequel in addition to the main cast. Filming The shooting of Vishwaroopam II started in Thailand and the team shot scenes at the Bangkok airbase. There was a sequence where actors defuse bombs and engage enemies in a gun battle underwater which was done by", "-25.118643889960367" ], [ "(\"the picture is three hours long, and, except for those who can be dazzled by big gatherings of props, horses and camels, it is hard to find three minutes of entertainment in it\"). Running time Leonard Maltin's Movie Guide (2012 edition) notes that the film's running time was originally 184 minutes, then cut to 164 minutes then to 149 minutes.", "-25.10609297753399" ], [ "Each episode was 30 minutes in length (including commercial breaks.) Some episodes contained one 30 minute title while other episodes contained two 15 minute titles. Over the two seasons, there were a total of 26 episodes with 39 titles.", "-25.08181070885621" ], [ "the distributor's perspective, the looming three-hour length limited the number of times the film could be shown each day, assuming that audiences would be willing to sit through the entire film, though 1990's Dances with Wolves would shatter both industry-held notions. Further, test audience screenings revealed a surprisingly mixed reaction to the sequences as they appeared in their unfinished form; in post-screening surveys, they dominated both the \"Scenes I liked most\" and \"Scenes I liked least\" fields. Contrary to speculation, studio meddling was not the cause of the shortened length; Cameron held final cut as long as the film met", "-25.042474960209802" ], [ "made in running time From 1968 to 1984, minor cuts were made to the film to make room for added commercial time and in order to have the film \"clock in\" at two hours. No dialogue or singing was removed, only moments such as camera pans and establishing shots, as well as MGM's written foreword to the film.\nOn a few occasions beginning in 1985, again because of the increased time spent on commercial breaks, the film was time-compressed to fit it into a two-hour running time without cutting it. However, The Wizard of Oz is now always shown complete and", "-25.03956111712614" ], [ "the final series); episodes were generally around 10 minutes in length, and were broadcast in CITV on Wednesday afternoons.", "-24.995929600670934" ], [ "as long as he did, because he believed the series would not last as long as it has.", "-24.972651924588718" ], [ "each episode at almost eight minutes as opposed to the original four).", "-24.968468492967077" ], [ "original series at the time, and is the most expensive spin-off of Space Ghost Coast to Coast. Although the first season was animated using digital ink and paint, the remaining seasons were animated using Adobe After Effects. The reason for the switch was that the animation studio was having difficulty maintaining the fast pace of the show, and thus the production of episodes slowed down due to constant retakes.\nBy animating the later episodes at Turner Studios in Atlanta with Adobe Flash, not only were problems corrected more quickly, but production costs were much lower. Special On May 14, 2018, it", "-24.846300528850406" ], [ "of the plays set in either Shakespeare's time (1564 to 1616) or in the period of the events depicted (such as ancient Rome for Julius Caesar or c.1400 for Richard II). A two and a half-hour maximum running time was also mandated, although this was soon jettisoned when it became clear that the major tragedies in particular would suffer if truncated too heavily. The initial way around this was to split the longer plays into two sections, showing them on separate nights, but this idea was also discarded, and it was agreed that for the major plays, length was not", "-24.773308733107115" ], [ "for a short, sold out run, directed by Aaron Zebede. School edition The school edition cuts a considerable amount of material from the original show. It is divided into thirty scenes and, although no critical scenes or songs have been removed, it runs 25–30 minutes shorter than the official version making the total running time about ​2 ¹⁄₂ hours. A few subtle changes of vocal pitch have been made: \"What Have I Done?\", Valjean's Soliloquy, \"Stars\" by Javert, \"A Little Fall of Rain\" by Éponine and Marius, \"Turning\", and \"Castle on a Cloud\" lose a verse each. During \"Fantine's Arrest\" Bamatabois", "-24.77302189686452" ], [ "than three hours because of the commercial breaks. It was still highly unusual at that time for a television network to show such a long film in one evening; most films of that length were still generally split into two parts and shown over two evenings. But the unusual move paid off for ABC—the telecast drew huge ratings with a Nielsen rating of 38.3 and an audience share of 61%. Restorations The film was restored in 1992 by Columbia Pictures. The separate dialogue, music and effects were located and remixed with newly recorded \"atmospheric\" sound effects. The image was restored", "-24.70214126841165" ], [ "duration to avoid short film feel. Had the film's running time is just 120 minutes without deviating from the core subject it would have been a cult classic.\" and rated it with 2.5/5 stars. Remake Even before the release of Pannaiyarum Padminiyum, actor Nani had purchased the Telugu remake rights of the film.", "-24.529312713013496" ], [ "show. All episodes are approximately 30 minutes long, with each series featuring at least one compilation episode containing the best moments of a series, rounds that were not broadcast, and outtakes that occurred during filming. While most games are done around a large desk, to the left of it in the studio is the Performance Area, a large stage area with a large TV screen that is normally used for stand-up and improvisation challenges, primarily Scenes We'd Like To See. In addition, a smaller stage next to the desk is used and referred to as the Press Pit, often used", "-24.52788186018006" ], [ "this process of improvement was Quake done Quick with a Vengeance. Released three years to the day after Quake done Quicker, this pared down the time taken to complete all four episodes, on Nightmare (hardest) difficulty, to 12 minutes, 23 seconds (a further reduction of 4 minutes, 12 seconds), partly by using techniques that had formerly been shunned in such films as being less aesthetically pleasing. This run was recorded as an in-game demo, but interest was such that an .avi video clip was created to allow those without the game to see the run.\nMost full-game speedruns are a collaborative", "-24.48105779978505" ], [ "5 discs with a small handful of extras included. The episodes appear uncut but are time compressed, running at a slightly faster pace resulting in each episode running approximately 2 minutes shorter than in their original unaltered forms. On July 27, 2010, Season 2 was released on DVD in the US.\nAlliance Home Entertainment has released all five seasons on DVD in Canada. All of these are bare-bones releases, no extras at all and are presented in 4x3 fullscreen on 6 discs per season with both English and French audio tracks. Season 1 is presented at its original pacing.", "-24.410290326573886" ], [ "figures. Never again would a fifty-minute series be given a run as long as twenty-six episodes, for fear of being too committed to a project: runs of thirteen became the norm, although in later years even this began to be considered quite long. Plays such as Dennis Potter's Brimstone and Treacle and Roy Minton's Scum were not broadcast at all due to fears over their content at the highest levels of the BBC, although despite this Potter continued to write landmark drama serials and one-offs for the Corporation throughout the rest of the decade and into the 1980s. Both Brimstone", "-24.40662828955101" ], [ "runtime as 140 minutes, and a 'complete' version on YouTube runs closest to that at 138 minutes, 35 seconds. This is an Italian language version, with a clear soundtrack and legible English subtitling.\nIMDb lists the different runtimes for previously released versions: USA- 122'; Norway- 124'; and Sweden- 116'. An English-language version currently released by Blue Underground runs 128 minutes. The film was released as Africa Blood and Guts in the USA in 1970, at only 83 minutes (over 45 minutes removed in order to focus exclusively on scenes of carnage); according to the text of the box for the Blue", "-24.38739122962579" ], [ "From Hell, which ended its theatrical run with $31,602,566. Although the film finished with $55 million for its opening, while Snyder's previous adaptation 300 earned $70 million in its opening weekend, Warner Bros.' head of distribution, Dan Fellman, believes that the opening weekend success of the two films cannot be compared due to the extended running time of Watchmen—the film comes in at 2 hours and 45 minutes, while 300 is just under two hours—provides the 2009 film with fewer showings a night than 300. Next to the general theaters, Watchmen pulled in $5.4 million at 124 IMAX screens, which", "-24.38343995307514" ], [ "usual for the same reason.\nBenioff and Weiss said about the end of the series: \"From the beginning, we've wanted to tell a 70-hour movie. It will turn out to be a 73-hour movie, but it's stayed relatively the same of having the beginning, middle[,] and now we're coming to the end. It would have been really tough if we lost any core cast members along the way[;] I'm very happy we've kept everyone and we get to finish it the way we want to.\" The first two episodes are, respectively, 54 and 58 minutes long, while the final four episodes", "-24.376327803867753" ], [ "a mutual decision [to limit the running time]. I wanted the best life for the film myself... Well, once we are re-releasing it on DVD, it doesn't matter if it is two hours and 40 minutes long, or three hours long. So why don't we do the version as it was written in the script?", "-24.353050638514105" ], [ "show in one sitting. A 2014 TiVo survey defined binge-watching as watching 3 or more episodes of the same show in one day.\nIn extreme media marathons, such as the Simpsons Marathon (which lasted 86 hours and 37 minutes), the viewing time can last an exceptionally long time. A marathon generally has to have at least five episodes in a row to be considered as such; as writer Patrick Hipes noted, \"some networks (promote) 3-4 episodes as a 'marathon,' but that’s more like a 5K.\"\nSome of the longest running marathons are the two Twilight Zone marathons that air on Syfy in", "-24.337006779271178" ], [ "classic television, lost episodes, originally unseen television pilots, and other programming that may not have been seen during the show's original run may be included.\nMarathons have proven to be a viable way of rerunning reality television contests, which have otherwise been relatively difficult to rerun in traditional forms (e.g. daily \"strip\" syndication) because of the loss of the element of surprise. In December 2012, MTV announced that it would air a seven-day (168-hour) marathon of Jersey Shore before the series finale on December 20, 2012; this marked one of the longest marathons in television history.\nIt has been speculated in the", "-24.3319125471171" ], [ "film. John Gilbert worked on the first film, Michael J. Horton on the second and Jamie Selkirk on the third. Daily rushes would often last up to four hours, with scenes being done throughout 1999–2002 for the rough (4½ hours) assemblies of the films. In total, 1828 km (six million feet) of film was edited down to the 11 hours and 26 minutes (686 minutes) of extended running time. Music Howard Shore composed, orchestrated, conducted, and produced the trilogy's music. He was hired in August 2000 and visited the set, and watched the assembly cuts of The Fellowship of the Ring and The", "-24.328032028584857" ], [ "a normal first act for an hour long episode of television. In response, OfficeTally—the largest fan site for the series—started an online petition to supersize the finale, similar to the petition to expand the second-season finale, \"Casino Night\". By May 2, the petition had received over 20,000 signatures. On May 7, it was announced that NBC had extended the episode by 15 minutes, meaning that the episode would air in a 75-minute time slot. The episode is approximately 52 minutes in length. Casting The series finale guest stars Rachael Harris, Dakota Johnson, Joan Cusack, Ed Begley, Jr., and Malcolm Barrett.", "-24.26279916393105" ], [ "three months that they took off from Pixar, this schedule was developed around an early version of the film that only ran for eight minutes. As the film's length expanded, eventually reaching eighteen minutes, the production period stretched into a total of nine months. \"We just couldn't foresee the length of the story we wanted to tell in the beginning\", Tsutsumi reflected. \"[But] if you look at the math, three months of eight minutes to nine months of 18 minutes is not too bad.\" Commenting on the film's burgeoning run time, Kondo explained that eight minutes seemed insufficient to", "-24.252689195418498" ], [ "eight minutes of footage not seen in theaters.\nThe theatrical cut of the film (78 minutes) is included on the DVD along with the extended version, which is 86 minutes long. Awards The film was nominated for two Golden Raspberry Awards in 2006, one in the category \"Worst Prequel or Sequel\", and one in the category \"Worst Excuse for Family Entertainment\", but lost to Basic Instinct 2 and RV, respectively.", "-24.244624837785523" ], [ "divvying up process and who should write what section became more difficult because \"this would be the last time that [they] would be doing this.\" Filming In an interview with Entertainment Weekly, HBO programming president Casey Bloys said that instead of the series finale's being a feature film, the final season would be \"six one-hour movies\" on television. He continued, \"The show has proven that TV is every bit as impressive and in many cases more so, than film. What they're doing is monumental.\" Filming officially began on October 23, 2017 and concluded in July 2018. Many exterior scenes were", "-24.224622177513083" ], [ "This version of the film contains more of each of the characters' backstories, and runs at a total time of 120 minutes.", "-24.190047875861637" ], [ "series would be extended to thirty minutes per episode. As such, new cast members Lewis MacLeod, Kate O'Sullivan and Enn Reitel were drafted in to take over. They appeared alongside the only remaining original cast member, Dave Lamb. All four returned for a fifth series in 2004, however, due to falling ratings, its broadcast occurred in the graveyard slot, and as such, the show was axed in December 2004.", "-24.17695011012256" ], [ "Hamlet, ran two full hours or longer, and were either drastically cut to fit a ninety-minute time slot or shown in two installments a week apart. It was not until November 3, 1956, with CBS's first presentation of MGM's The Wizard of Oz (1939), that an uncut film lasting more than ninety minutes was telecast in one evening on a television network.\nUnfortunately, all films in this series were broadcast in black-and-white, despite the fact that several of them had been originally photographed and exhibited theatrically in color. Thus, such films as Stairway to Heaven (1946) and The Life and Death", "-24.154478452837793" ], [ "Benioff and Weiss stated that they were unable to produce 10 episodes in the show's usual 12 to 14 month time frame, as Weiss said \"It's crossing out of a television schedule into more of a mid-range movie schedule.\" HBO confirmed on July 18, 2016, that the seventh season would consist of seven episodes, and would premiere later than usual in mid-2017 because of the later filming schedule. Later it was confirmed that the season would debut on July 16. The seventh season includes an 81-minute finale; this was the series' longest episode until it was surpassed by the Season", "-24.122824329067953" ], [ "is the longest at nearly five minutes, and \"Up All Night\" is the shortest at two minutes.\nIan Berriman of SFX called the serial the \"most exciting bonus\". He referred to \"Bad Night\" as being an \"inconsequential fare, but good fun\", and said that \"Good Night\" was his favorite. However, Berriman wrote that \"Up All Night\" was \"pointless\" after watching \"Closing Time\". Charlie Jane Anders of io9 thought that the mini-episodes embodied \"why we love Steven Moffat's clever-pants dialogue and rapid-fire storytelling\". Anders also wrote that \"Good Night\" added \"some much-needed character development for Amy\" and that \"First Night\"/\"Last Night\" had", "-24.08971545228269" ], [ "up for more popcorn.\" Charles Champlin of the Los Angeles Times wrote, \"At 2 hours 7 minutes it is a trying span for small sitters. The animated excitements keep stopping for songs by Al Kasha and Joel Hirschhorn, but they are not showstoppers in the grand sense. Bland, perfunctory and too numerous is more like it.\" Gene Siskel of the Chicago Tribune gave the film two stars out of four and wrote that \"we get the same tired Disney formula: a gooey-faced kid in a phony sound-stage world populated by old actors required to perform ancient vaudeville routines ... Compared", "-24.08095572167076" ], [ "to weekends (during Saturdays and Sundays) where the latest seasons of shows like 2 Broke Girls, Speechless, Modern Family and Son of Zorn were aired. Later in 2017, during late April, the weeknight shows on this block were discontinued to make way for the rerun of Game of Thrones. Shows That Are Gonna Explode(STAGE) Star World launched a new slot for dramas with the name Stage i.e., Shows That Are Gonna Explode, which will bring to its viewers a grand show every fortnight. The slot promises to help its audiences discover the undiscovered content before it goes viral, before", "-24.062622199504403" ], [ "running time being reduced from 120 to 90 minutes, and the ending being changed to something more ambiguous. It eventually screened in one cinema in Sydney in April 2009.", "-24.058121286478126" ], [ "months in advance, and at a rate of 15 episodes a week being filmed, the delay between filming and broadcast varies; it can be months between the filming date and broadcast date for a particular episode.\nFor a two-week period starting on 10 October 2011, live episodes of the show were broadcast in place of the routine pre-recorded episodes.\nIn October 2013, production moved to the Bottle Yard Studios, Bristol, which had been custom built to house the show. Filming for series 10 began on 28 October 2013 at the new location. Participants The game show participants comprise the host Noel Edmonds,", "-24.052069975994527" ], [ "shows most likely to be rerun in this manner are scripted comedies and dramas. Such shows are more likely to be considered evergreen content that can be rerun for a long period of time without losing its cultural relevance. Game shows, variety shows, Saturday morning cartoons and, to a lesser extent, newsmagazines, tabloid talk shows and late-night talk shows (often in edited form) have been seen less commonly in reruns; game shows can quickly become dated because of inflation, while talk shows often draw humor from contemporary events. Most variants of reality television have proven to be a comparative failure", "-24.028433936822694" ], [ "TV's Most Unforgettable Finales. Noted television critic Alan Sepinwall ranked the finale #1 on his list of best series finales, in TV (The Book): Two Experts Pick the Greatest American Shows of All Time. In an entry for the show, Sepinwall opined that without the finale the series would still be great, but the final episode made the it \"one for the ages\". Music The song played during the montage at the end of the episode is \"Long Time Ago\" by Concrete Blonde.", "-24.02580965422385" ], [ "and again to watch different films. Exhibition practices greatly varied and programs lasted anywhere from ten minutes to an hour and a half or more in length. Often, programs ran continuously and patrons would join a program already in progress when they arrived and stay as long as they liked. While some nickelodeons only showed films, others offered shows that combined films with vaudeville acts or illustrated songs.\nThe desirability of longer films, which enabled nickelodeons to grow the way they did, was the result of a number of factors; economic competition between film production companies put pressure on them to", "-24.016149862029124" ], [ "months, individual episodes of South Park take significantly less time to produce. Using computers as an animation method, the show's production staff were able to generate an episode in about three weeks during the first seasons. Now, with a staff of about 70 people, episodes are typically completed in one week, with some in as little as three to four days. Nearly the entire production of an episode is accomplished within one set of offices, which were originally at a complex in Westwood, Los Angeles, California, and are now part of South Park Studios in Culver City, California. Parker", "-24.00132839696016" ], [ "series, opening and ending title sequences have evolved into a distinct art form in their own right: due to the running length of a half-hour block of programming on Japanese television providing more time for the actual episode as opposed to commercials, an episode is able to budget one-and-one-half minutes each for an OP (opening sequence) and ED (ending sequence). These will invariably feature pieces of vocal music, sometimes sung by members of the voice cast for the program, and will have unique animation that thematically serves to open and close the episode; often, guest animators will be brought in", "-23.99303832015721" ], [ "Choice Award from the European Film Academy. However, the film was criticised by fans of the series for having the shortest running time out of the five released instalments; Yates said that the original director's cut was \"probably over three hours\", resulting in much footage being cut, condensed and edited to fit within the studio's preferred time frame.\nDuring production of Half-Blood Prince, Warner Bros. executive Alan F. Horn announced that the seventh and final novel in the series, Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows, was to be split into two cinematic parts with Yates, once again, as the director. Yates", "-23.95007638086099" ], [ "worked on the first film, Michael J. Horton and Jabez Olssen on the second and long-time Jackson collaborator Jamie Selkirk and Annie Collins on the third. Daily rushes would often last up to four hours, with scenes being done throughout 1999 to 2002 for the rough (4½-hour) assemblies of the films. In total, 1,828 kilometres (5,997,000 ft) of film was edited down to the 686 minutes (11 hours and 26 minutes) of extended edition running time. This was the final area of shaping of the films, when Jackson realized that sometimes the best scripting could be redundant on screen, as he picked apart", "-23.942532132845372" ], [ "season's scene. The stunt team had three days to prepare the fight, and the final sequence was filmed in a day and a half. Unlike the first season's scene, which was shot on a set and used a camera mounted on a ceiling track, the stairwell sequence was filmed on location, and required the camera to be passed around multiple people to get the final shot. The season includes another homage to the hallway scene in \"Seven Minutes in Heaven\", where the Punisher has his own hallway fight. Silvera noted that this \"full-blown\", murdering Punisher was \"a strong contrast to", "-23.917785288333107" ], [ "to appear in a film. Brian Michael Bendis, co-creator of Miles Morales, consulted on the film adaptation. The first full cut of animatics and storyboards for the film was over two-hours long, which is uncommon for animated films, and the directors attributed this mostly to Lord and Miller and their approach of adding as many elements to the film as they could at the outset with the intention of seeing what it could \"handle\" and then shaping the film from there. They said that the final runtime would be between that and 90 minutes, the standard length of an animated", "-23.880526235108846" ], [ "sequence to the previous one by saying, \"I don't think any one of these versions is going to be better or worse than the other. They're just going to be different. This particular one was in a smaller room, so it was a little bit more complicated.\" The sequence, which took \"three or four hours of sprints and sprints and sprints\" to get right, not only accommodated the actors and camera crew in the small, \"intimate\" room, but the producers and showrunners as well, as they wished to \"witness the action scene unfold.\"\nKevin Tancharoen noted that \"On shows like Daredevil", "-23.873195028631017" ], [ "show to last no more than a few days, actually lasted 6–8 months.\nProfessional wrestler Hulk Hogan, whose family starred in the reality series Hogan Knows Best and Brooke Knows Best, explains in his 2009 autobiography My Life Outside the Ring that paying unionized camera crews to film subjects continuously until something telegenic or dramatic occurs would be prohibitively expensive, and that as a result, such shows are \"soft-scripted\", and follow a tightly regimented shooting schedule that allows for typical work-related considerations such as lunch breaks. When filming soft-scripted shows, the subjects are given a scenario by the producers to act", "-23.866098819242325" ], [ "tracking to see which one was the best-performing to eventually use for all subscribers. Netflix also debuted a countdown timer to a percentage of its users worldwide, allowing them to see how long it was until the season would debut. The season was enhanced to be available in high dynamic range after its initial release by post-production vendor Deluxe. Marketing Footage from the season was shown at New York Comic Con in October 2015, and at Comic Con Experience that December. On February 15, 2016, the first part of the season trailer was released focusing on the Punisher, while the", "-23.837518586369697" ], [ "of the finale took a single day.\nThe final scenes were shot at the end of the summer of 2008. Some footage and a trailer for the show were shown at MIPCOM, a market and trade event in the entertainment industry held in Cannes, France. The first two completed episodes screened to buyers and markets at the MIPTV Media Market in March 2009. Corus Entertainment's YTV picked up the show for broadcast in Canada in April 2008. Time Warner's Cartoon Network agreed to air the show in the U.S. in March 2009. The first season ended with a one-hour finale. 9", "-23.836527272942476" ], [ "five minutes uses techniques such as 3D rendering, digital composition, and texture mapping; the remaining ten minutes uses ink and paint. While the original intention was to digitally paint 5,000 of the film's frames, time constraints doubled this.\nUpon its premiere on July 12, 1997, Princess Mononoke was critically acclaimed, becoming the first animated film to win the Japan Academy Prize for Picture of the Year. The film was also commercially successful, earning a domestic total of ¥14 billion (US$148 million), and becoming the highest-grossing film in Japan for several months. Miramax Films purchased the film's distributions rights for North America;", "-23.825920428847894" ], [ "changed into 20 with 30 11-minute segments and 5 22-minute specials. It was then changed again into 25 episodes with 40-11 minute segments and the same amount of specials still intact even though some sources say that there was 26 instead of 25. According to the TV slots and the specials being split into two 11-minute parts, it was confirmed that the running time of the series is just one 11-minute episode and it makes the episode count go into 50.\nThe creators claimed at the Annecy film festival that they purposefully never watched the direct-to-video sequel, live-action movies or the", "-23.800922594382428" ], [ "Three and Four At the end of the second programme, the following announcement was read out over the title sequence:\n\"For legal reasons not connected with anyone who has appeared in the series to date, transmission of the final two episodes of The Scheme will now be subject to a delay. They'll be rescheduled for broadcast at a later date.\"\nIt was planned, following the resolution of the court case, that episodes three and four would air on 27 July and 3 August 2010 respectively. However, these episodes were postponed further due to a new court case.\nA further indefinite delay was announced", "-23.79057066515088" ], [ "effective scenes to be had, [but they] certainly can’t carry the full 90-minute running time. Perhaps it's truly impossible to come up with a definitive film version of this epic. But I wouldn’t want to make a judgement on that simply due to this attempt's mediocrity.\"", "-23.7379470436681" ], [ "games occur after every 3 stages, but are different from S.\nIf a stage is incomplete before time runs out, the stage is restarted. Time can be replenished by continuing (which resets timer to 120), or dying when remaining time is under 40 seconds (which adds 30 seconds to timer). Show Time Show time deluxe is now named DX Showtime. 2-player VS mode The VS mode is different from that found in Gals Panic 4 and Gals Panic S. Both players reside on the same board rather than having their own.\nIn VS mode, there is only 1 round. The round starts", "-23.698081676266156" ], [ "three-part \"made for television film\" or miniseries. Longer forms can include reality television, or scripted dramas. Parameters Limited-run series with greater than 5 episodes do not have main characters recurring between seasons or a storyline that spans seasons. Series with 5 episodes or fewer per season—such as the BBC/Masterpiece coproduction Sherlock—also are considered limited series due to their short run, even if main characters and story lines do travel across seasons. Series with a limited eight-to-twelve episode run are typically ordered to fill television networks' gap in midseason. Classification Limited series differ from miniseries as the production has the potential", "-23.69034275447484" ], [ "in its marketing material. Nevertheless, the film is still trimmed by 14 minutes, totaling 123 minutes. It is very likely that the move was due to usual censorship by the State Administration of Press, Publication, Radio, Film and Television, because of the violence depicted. Despite such restrictions, the film managed to debut with a better-than-expected $48.9 million, including previews, according to data from Ent Group (Fox reported $46.3 million). This marked the second-biggest X-Men opening in the country, trailing behind only Apocalypse. Tracking showed that the film opened with 85,000 screenings on Friday, which increased to about 95,000 on Saturday", "-23.68141919568734" ], [ "TV series finales such as Breaking Bad charged as much as $300,000 for a 30-second spot, this is dramatically less than rates on broadcast TV finales. For example, the series finales of Friends, Seinfeld and Everybody Loves Raymond charged $1 million to $2 million for 30 second spots. The most watched TV series finale of all time was M*A*S*H, which was viewed by over 105 million viewers in 1983. The rate for 30 second ads for the M*A*S*H finale was $450,000. Cost Super Bowl ads in 1967 were sold for at $37,000 for a 30-second ad. For comparison, 30 second", "-23.678615049706423" ], [ "bringing the film's running time down to 87 minutes.\nThe film came out on videotape in the US in 1981, 1986, 1991, and 1997, and on laserdisc in 1983 and 1992. While the original videotape and laserdisc contained the 87-minute G-rated version, by the early 1990s the studio had restored the original cut with a PG rating, as several Disney-branded releases had already been rated PG by this point, and every release since 1991, including the 2003 DVD release, has been the uncut 96-minute version.", "-23.65939546894515" ], [ "the series. Some who were part of 8 Minutes also claimed that they were contacted days or weeks ahead of filming, rather than being surprised like it was depicted on the show. Broadcast In Australia, the series premiered on the CI Network on July 6, 2015.", "-23.639210643363185" ], [ "both films in theaters at the same time in certain markets, while also allowing time for the reshoots required to make the film more frightening. When asked about this delay the next month, Williams stated that there had been concerns during filming regarding the short turnaround from the end of photography to the previously set release date, especially with the amount of visual effects still needed to finish the film, and so the delay was \"for the better\". The additional photography was soon set for mid-2018, and was expected to include the addition of several new characters to the film", "-23.63311758695636" ], [ "that of most animated television shows then. The series had about 25,000 cels per episode instead of the standard 10,000, making it unique in that characters moved more fluidly. Pierre DeCelles, an animation producer, described storyboarding for the series as \"fun but a big challenge because I always had a short schedule, and it's not always easy to work full blast nonstop\". Music During the development of the show Steven Spielberg said that Warner Bros. would use a full orchestra, which some thought too expensive and impossible, but they ended up agreeing. Warner Bros. selected Bruce Broughton to write the", "-23.621330100431805" ], [ "replayed at the request of the audience. Although successful shows had sometimes been recreated after two years or more, this was the first time a show was recreated exactly — with the same cast and crew — as it had been originally broadcast. The second live performance, only a month later, was equally successful, and inspired New York Times critic Jack Gould to write an essay on the use of replays on television. He stated that \"Patterns\" was a prime example of a drama that should be seen more than once, whereas a single broadcast was the norm for television shows of", "-23.620946508075576" ], [ "the series fill in any \"gaps\" for them, due to having to be \"big\" and moving \"quickly through a lot of huge pieces\", unlike television which has time to deal with more nuances.\nIn January 2016, Joss Whedon noted that this process \"unfortunately just means the TV show gets, you know, leftovers.\" He stated that, for example, the series' creative team initially wanted to use Loki's scepter from The Avengers but were unable due to Whedon's plans for it in Age of Ultron. On how their ability to connect with the films changed over the life of the series, Jed Whedon", "-23.610124619677663" ], [ "However, on 2 July, the titles were delayed for one week. The titles were then delayed for a second time due to \"technical difficulties\". On 10 September 2010, Channel 4 confirmed the new Hollyoaks titles and theme music would air from 13 September. However, the titles were different from pictures of filming of the original credits, suggesting a reshoot was the reason for the delay. Marquess commented: \"We're very excited about the new titles that the viewers will see on Channel 4 on Monday. They're glossy, contemporary and very Hollyoaks.\" He then apologised for the delay, saying: \"We're sorry to", "-23.604990354564507" ], [ "four-minute long animated opening credit sequence, the first LucasArts game to have such. Ahern noted that their previous games would run the credits over primarily still shots which would only last for a few minutes, but with Tentacle, the team had grown so large that they worried this approach would be boring to players. They assigned Kyle Balda, an intern at CalArts, to create the animated sequence, with Chan helping to create minimalist backgrounds to aid in the animation. Originally this sequence was around seven minutes long, and included the three characters arriving at the mansion and releasing Purple Tentacle.", "-23.60310275811935" ], [ "or 120-minute length. Starting in 1970, the frequency dropped to two to three times a year. The source material were plays and novel from major authors and were produced with stage actors and actresses.\nHamlet, Macbeth and the other Shakespeare plays presented on Hallmark Hall of Fame were cut (sometimes drastically) to fit the time limits of a standard film or of the Hallmark Hall of Fame itself, which during the 1950s, '60s and '70s never ran longer than two hours and frequently even less. It was left to National Educational Television (NET) and Public Broadcasting Service (PBS) to be the", "-23.598562921048142" ], [ "Feet Under, Martin, Star Trek: The Next Generation), and the ending moments of the episode often take place in the show's primary setting.\nIn rare examples, game shows have been given series finales; examples include The Hollywood Squares (which ended its 15-season run in syndication in 1981 with a \"Grand Championship Tournament\" that awarded a massive cache of prizes including a house to the winner of the tournament), Family Feud (which ended a nine-season run on ABC in 1985 with a tribute from Richard Dawson), and Sale of the Century (which ended a six-season run on NBC in 1989). Game shows", "-23.59048048965633" ], [ "Life’ makes Disney Channel history by becoming the longest running continuous characters on our air – 138 half-hour episodes. We are thrilled for them, and for the brilliant, inspired production team that made this extraordinary run possible.\"\nAs of 2011, The Suite Life series holds the record (162 episodes) for having the longest running continuous characters on air and the most canon episodes for any Disney Channel series. Settings According to show creators and producers, the choice of setting was made to appeal to an international audience with different ports-of-call, such as India, Greece, Italy, Morocco, the United Kingdom and Thailand.", "-23.570665995241143" ] ]

[ "\"Islamic State\", or other terms including that, is what they want to be called. It implies they are both Islamic and a state. The UK government does not acknowledge them as a state. And they also want to push the idea that they are not really Islamic, to stop people jumping to the conclusion that all Muslims are like them. Daesh was created as a derogatory term for them which doesn't acknowledge them as a state or Islamic (at least not in English).", "It is in part support for Muslims worldwide who want to disavow IS as being un-Islamic. In part a misguided politically correct attempt to not alienate/otherise those muslims by lumping them in with a terrorist group. And in part because there is an alternative name that achieves those basic aims while also being a pun that they absolutely hate(Daesh sounds similar to two words, both of which have bad meanings: \"one who tramples/crushes\", \"one who sows discord\").", "\"Daesh\" is an Arabic acronym for Islamic State, same as ISIS in English. Semantically they're the same. However, Daesh has unpleasant connotations in Arabic; it sounds like another word that means something like \"sower of discord\", so the ISIS jayvee league tortures anyone they hear using it. In other words, European governments are using the term Daesh out of the hopes that it will get them angry. I don't particularly see this as a good thing. Are we trying to piss them off and encourage more terrorist attacks? source URL_0 ", "Not an expert, but I think ISIL was more of a validation of their proclaimed state.. so for example the BBC always referred to them as \"so called islamic state\".. Daesh is more of name which they hate being called.. i guess it is more accurate. Plus I think their were dozens of petitions to force news groups to change the name.. some may have succeeded", "If the article I read on URL_1 to do with the CystISIS magazine is anything to go by, then they don't actually really care at all about what they are called. For some reason or the other, people are under the impression that using a term like Daesh is going to upset them and that they hate it. See section #6 in this article - [ URL_0 article](http://www. URL_1 /blog/isis-wants-us-to-invade-7-facts-revealed-by-their-magazine/) > Daesh is an acronym for the original name ISIS fought under before declaring their \"caliphate\" (a formal religious-led Islamic state) and, so the argument goes, they just hate it when you call them that. But from what I can tell, ISIS doesn't seem to care much about that themselves. On Page 38 of Issue 4, they note that some Westerners call them Daesh matter-of-factly, without seeming to care much about it either way. It's never brought up again and barely comes off as an annoyance within the context of the article.", "The most simple answer is that Daesh is the nigger of Islamic extremists. Spin it however you want, but that's the bottom line. It is a word created/intended to insult and reduce individual meaning. Personally, I think it's nonsensical. Islamic extremism is a real thing, I don't need a government or anyone else to hold my hand through the valley of political correctness because we don't want to send the message that not all Muslims are extremists. Of course they aren't. This is nothing new, be it Muslims or any other group of people. The incessant need to create a distinction, in my mind, has the end result of clouding the conversation altogether. There will always be morons who think and spout, \"all Muslims are terrorists!\" and really, who cares about those people? No one. They are not in positions of power and, as the world and indeed Western societies age and evolve, these types of people will be eventually so few in numbers that they will be irrelevant to any discussion and their absurdity will be obvious to all. They will probably even garner, \"oh you poor thing\" type dispositions towards them by the rest of society.", "I work in North Iraq. DAESH have threatened to cut out the tounge of anyone they hear calling them DAESH,why? Basically DAESH translated can mean a number of things of which one could be your a DICK! They don't like this and so they placed the threat. So it's insulting and disrespecting them,a bit like insulting the Koran which not only they but all Muslims dislike except the fanatics go to town over this proven by their combat styled assaults on defenseless civilians especially the French (banning the berka/cartoons about Mohammed etc,etc) So heads of state are insulting them in a diplomatic manner. Not in depth I know but a basic mans explanation.", "Because MPs want to moralise and look like they are doing something. Isis gives little shits whether it is called Daesh or Isis or isil. This has come about because some media commentators thought they were clever and wanted to signal virtue.", "We're putting too much thought into this. We should just call them GFC for Goat Fucker Club.", "For the acronym 'ISIS' there was also a campaign by girls with that name who've received abuse due to their name. Along with the inclusion of 'Islamic State' in the name and the validation this gives to their claim, it was decided by many that it's better to use the more insulting name of 'Daesh'. Not sure if allowed under the rules (didn't find anything to suggest it's not) but this is the petition that was started over it: URL_0 ", "I feel like it is more offensive to a monotheist extremist group to refer to them as ISIS, a polytheistic female deity.", "\"Daesh\" sounds close to \"daes\" meaning \"one who crushes something underfoot\" it also sounds like \"dahes\" meaning \"one who sows discord\"" ]

[ [ "believed strongly that the US should avoid referring to the enemy as ISIL and instead use Daesh, to avoid giving legitimacy to the group's aims.\nAlthough these names were being widely used in the Arabic world, the western media were initially slow to adopt them, in favour of ISIS/ISIL. This has subsequently changed after the group's name change to IS, with media and politicians now using it widely, with the BBC speculating this was either \"despite or perhaps as a direct consequence of the irritation it causes the group\". Karin Ryding, emerita professor of Arab linguistics at Georgetown University, suggested Daesh", "-23.69391403827467" ], [ "used ISIL. In February 2017, the Pentagon adopted the abbreviation ISIS when referencing the group.\nA spokesman for the Canadian Minister of Foreign Affairs told Power & Politics in December 2014, \"Whether it is called Daesh, ISIL or ISIS, Canada and the coalition agree this heinous terrorist group presents a threat to the region, and the entire world. That is why Canada has announced a number of measures designed to combat ISIL's brutality and help victims of this barbaric terrorist group.\" Media style guides The Associated Press originally opted to use ISIL, believing Levant to be the most accurate translation. After", "-23.656225595867" ], [ "in Raqqa had been killed whilst trying to clear land mines. This took the total number of British volunteers fighting Isis in Syria to six. Reactions The British government proscribed ISIL as a terrorist organisation in June 2014. Previously, it had been proscribed as a part of Al-Qaeda. The government describes the group as follows:\nISIL is a brutal Sunni Islamist terrorist group active in Iraq and Syria. The group adheres to a global jihadist ideology, following an extreme interpretation of Islam, which is anti-Western and promotes sectarian violence. ISIL aims to establish an Islamic State governed by Shari'a law in", "-21.963169783732155" ], [ "it is more of a network than a nation, having made canny use of social media to exert influence far beyond its geographical base.\" Militia, territorial authority and other classifications By 2014, ISIL was increasingly being viewed as a militia in addition to a terrorist group and a cult. As major Iraqi cities fell to ISIL in June 2014, Jessica Lewis, a former US Army intelligence officer at the Institute for the Study of War, described ISIL at that time as\nnot a terrorism problem anymore, [but rather] an army on the move in Iraq and Syria, and they are taking", "-21.817576000728877" ], [ "Somalia, Bangladesh and the Philippines, but it has not announced any further official branches, instead identifying new affiliates as simply \"soldiers of the caliphate\".\nBy March 2019, ISIL had lost most of its territory in its former core areas in Syria and Iraq, and was reduced to a desert pocket as well as insurgent cells. Classification as a terrorist organisation Many countries and international bodies have officially designated ISIL as a terrorist organisation. International criticism The group has attracted widespread criticism internationally for its extremism, from governments and international bodies such as the United Nations and Amnesty International. On 24 September", "-21.810801998275565" ], [ "international terrorist attacks before the end of the year in European nations. By 7 October 2019, it was thought that ISIL could re-emerge with the withdrawal of American troops from the region. Terrorist attacks outside Iraq and Syria In 2015, 2016 and 2017, ISIL claimed responsibility for a number of high-profile terrorist attacks outside Iraq and Syria, including a mass shooting at a Tunisian tourist resort (38 European tourists killed), the Suruç bombing in Turkey (33 leftist and pro-Kurdish activists killed), the Tunisian National Museum attack (24 foreign tourists and Tunisians killed), the Sana'a mosque bombings (142 Shia civilians", "-21.77925632847473" ], [ "its official media channels. Analyst Charlie Winter speculates that this is due to the lackluster performance of many of ISIL's existing provinces, and that ISIL's leadership seems to be identifying new affiliates as simply \"soldiers of the caliphate\". Specific territorial claims The Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL) is an active extremist Islamist rebel group and self-declared Caliphate in the Middle East that claims to be a sovereign state, and as such has made announcements of territorial control and aspirations of control. No other nation recognizes ISIL as a state. Its goal is the foundation of an Islamic", "-21.715700585788" ], [ "2014, ISIL declared themselves a worldwide caliphate with Abu Bakr al-Baghdadi as their leader. That August, ISIL distributed a video of Bengalis pledging allegiance to the group in Bengali. Bangladesh was not included in the group's five-year plan published that year, despite its being a Muslim-majority country. Since 2015, the government of Bangladesh has adopted a vocal, zero-tolerance policy towards terrorism and Islamic extremism. ISIL has admitted targeting (and attacking) secular Bangladeshis, Shia Muslims, foreigners, bloggers and other individuals who oppose their goal. The group has a sizable online presence in Bangladesh through social media, and a growing physical", "-21.4818927379456" ], [ "ISIL in Bangladesh Islamic State in Iraq and the Levant (ISIL), also known as Islamic State in Iraq and Syria (ISIS) and Islamic State (IS), has been increasingly active in Bangladesh since 2015. Home-grown militant groups have associated themselves with ISIL. It is uncertain whether attacks in Bangladesh are orchestrated by ISIL, are independently planned and claimed by the group, or are later attributed to ISIL. ISIL's targets in Bangladesh are often foreigners, secular bloggers or journalists who are vocal in their opposition to the enforcement of Sharia law and the establishment of an Islamic state. ISIL in South Asia", "-21.444272187713068" ], [ "US Defense Secretary Chuck Hagel saw an \"imminent threat to every interest we have\", but former top counter-terrorism adviser Daniel Benjamin derided such talk as a \"farce\" that panics the public.\nFormer British Foreign Secretary David Miliband concluded that the 2003 invasion of Iraq caused the creation of ISIL.\nWriting for The Guardian, Pankaj Mishra rejects the idea that the group is a resurgence of medieval Islam, saying instead:\nIn actuality, Isis is the canniest of all traders in the flourishing international economy of disaffection: the most resourceful among all those who offer the security of collective identity to isolated and fearful individuals.", "-21.31062293809373" ], [ "recognition.) ISIL also operates or has affiliates in other parts of the world, including North Africa and South Asia\nOriginating as the Jama'at al-Tawhid wal-Jihad in 1999, ISIL pledged allegiance to al-Qaeda in 2004, participated in the Iraqi insurgency that followed the invasion of Iraq by Western coalition forces in 2003, joined the fight in the Syrian Civil War beginning in 2011, and was expelled from al-Qaeda in early 2014, (which complained of its failure to consult and \"notorious intransigence\"). ISIL gained prominence after it drove Iraqi government forces out of key cities in western Iraq in an offensive in June", "-21.06133436781238" ], [ "EU, the US, and others cooperate with the PYD and the YPG militia in the fight against the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL) and do not consider either a terrorist organisation. About its loss in international standing, the consequence of domestic and foreign policies of Recep Tayyip Erdoğan, the Turkish government is contemptuous. The Turkish foreign minister called the PYD a \"terrorist organisation\" in his speech at the meeting of Council of Foreign Ministers of the 13th Islamic Summit of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation (OIC) on 12 April 2016 at Istanbul, Turkey. In November 2016 a", "-21.001608948979992" ], [ "3,800 sorties by all types of aircraft. October 2014 On 3 October 2014, the Australian government authorized airstrikes on ISIL in Iraq (see main article: 'Operation Okra'). On 2 October, Denmark's Parliament authorized airstrikes on ISIL in Iraq (see section 'Airstrikes').\nOn 7 October, the Canadian Parliament voted in favour of Canadian airstrikes against ISIL (see main article: 'Operation Impact').\nOn 11 October, 10,000 ISIL troops headed from Mosul and Syria toward the Iraqi capital city of Baghdad, and ISIL stood on the verge of taking the whole of Al Anbar Governorate just west of Baghdad. The provincial council's deputy head, Al-Issawi,", "-20.82214006394497" ], [ "the top officer in charge of the campaign against the ISIL in Iraq and Syria.\nOn 24 September, the Dutch government decided to send six Fighter jets to contribute to the \"international battle against ISIS (ISIL)\" (see section 'Airstrikes').\nOn 26 September, the British Parliament decided to authorize British airstrikes on ISIL as well. Britain then announced to cooperate with Iraqi and Kurdish intelligence agencies (see main article: 'Operation Shader'). Also the Belgian Parliament that day decided to start airstrikes on ISIL (see section 'Airstrikes').\nAround 28 September 2014, airstrikes by the U.S.-led coalition together with Iraqi Army ground forces clashing with ISIL", "-20.621479447290767" ], [ "Iraqi government. Internet beheading video campaign 2014–2015 On 12 August 2014, ISIL started a campaign of beheading Western and Japanese civilian hostages (announced 12 August, James Foley 19 August, Steven Sotloff 2 September, David Haines 13 September, Hervé Gourdel 24 September, Alan Henning 3 October, Peter Kassig 16 November, Haruna Yukawa sometime January 2015, Kenji Goto 30 January 2015) marketed via the internet. Coalitions On 5 September, 15 September and 3 December 2014, different sets of countries came together to discuss concerted action against ISIL. Present at all three meetings were the United States, United Kingdom, France, Germany, Italy, Canada,", "-20.611392576945946" ], [ "Turkey, an issue which made front-page news. In December 2015, the Prime Minister announced in Parliament that, after the strong representations made by Chishti, the Government would be officially using the terminology Daesh, rather than ISIL.\nChishti has campaigned to improve care for people with mental health problems and has introduced two Private Members Bills in Parliament. In October 2015 he authored a letter, signed by 67 MPs, sent to the Prime Minister asking the Government to support these.\nChishti was a Member of the Justice Select Committee of the House of Commons, having previously been a Member of the Joint Committee", "-20.551887897614506" ], [ "Since the group is a known affiliate of ISIL, all international terrorist designations given to ISIL also apply to the Sheikh Omar Hadid Brigade, these having been given by; the United Nations, the European Union, the United Kingdom, the United States of America, Australia, Canada, Turkey, Saudi Arabia, Indonesia, the United Arab Emirates, Malaysia, Egypt, India, Russia, Kyrgyzstan, and Syria (see the Islamic State Wikipedia page for more details).", "-20.495029822806828" ], [ "ISIL beheading incidents ISIL's earlier incarnations According to Professor Ibrahim al-Marashi, ISIL's earlier incarnations used beheadings to force foreign policy changes such as getting the Philippines to withdraw from the Iraq War. Jihadi John Sky News spoke to a defector member of Islamic State, who claimed he witnessed Mohammed Emwazi, known as Jihadi John, murder Japanese hostage Kenji Goto. He is the only person to admit seeing Emwazi kill. The Islamic State said Emwazi was employed as the chief killer of foreign hostages.\nThe Islamic State claimed foreign hostages captured and murdered by the group were subjected to numerous mock executions", "-20.41078917242703" ], [ "to expand its media presence in 2013, with the formation of a second media wing, Al-I'tisam Media Foundation, in March and the Ajnad Foundation for Media Production, specialising in nasheeds and audio content, in August. In mid-2014, ISIL established the Al Hayat Media Center, which targets Western audiences and produces material in English, German, Russian and French. When ISIL announced its expansion to other countries in November 2014 it established media departments for the new branches, and its media apparatus ensured that the new branches follow the same models it uses in Iraq and Syria. Then FBI Director James Comey", "-20.3656806962681" ], [ "heads of state and UN Security Council members to refer the Yazdi genocide to the ICC. International Criminal Court On September 25, 2015, Yazda and Free Yazidi Foundation, with the support of the Kurdish Regional Government of Iraq, submitted a detailed report to the International Criminal Court (ICC) that explains how ISIL, with a disproportionate number of foreign fighters, committed genocide against the Yazidi people. The report requested a formal investigation into the crimes of the Islamic State (ISIS) to be conducted by the international community to prosecute ISIL for the crime of genocide against Yazidis. Because Iraq is not", "-20.356999950616228" ], [ "out of key cities in its Anbar campaign, which was followed by the capture of Mosul and the Sinjar massacre. The loss of control almost caused a collapse of the Iraqi government and prompted a renewal of US military action in Iraq. In Syria, ISIL has conducted ground attacks on both the Syrian Arab Army and rebel factions. Islamic State (2014–present) On 29 June 2014, ISIL proclaimed itself to be a worldwide caliphate. Abu Bakr al-Baghdadi – known by his supporters as Amir al-Mu'minin, Caliph Ibrahim – was named its caliph, and the group renamed itself ad-Dawlah al-Islāmiyah (\"Islamic State\"", "-20.344829934205336" ], [ "2014, United Nations Secretary-General Ban Ki-Moon stated: \"As Muslim leaders around the world have said, groups like ISIL – or Da'ish – have nothing to do with Islam, and they certainly do not represent a state. They should more fittingly be called the 'Un-Islamic Non-State'.\" ISIL has been classified a terrorist organisation by the United Nations, the European Union and its member states, the United States, Russia, India, Turkey, Saudi Arabia and many other countries (see § Classification). Over 60 countries are directly or indirectly waging war against ISIL (see § Countries and groups at war with ISIL). The group was described", "-20.330068483399373" ], [ "and condemnation. The challenges of dealing with ISIL is complicated by the fact that around 2,500 militants originally from Saudi territory have left for Syria in order to join ISIL, the destabilization created by the Syrian Civil War having a big effect on the region. Background and details Also known by varying names such as the \"Islamic State\" or the \"Islamic State of Iraq and Syria\" (ISIS), ISIL has an international reputation for brutality and violence, their actions including beheadings and floggings as well as bans on all kinds of perceived un-Islamic behaviors. A campaign of genocide against the Yazidis", "-20.2579262428917" ], [ "AfPak region before receiving ISIL support, targets minorities in Bangladesh.\nAttacks inspired by ISIL have occurred across South Asia, including Quetta, Pakistan, Kabul, Afghanistan and Dhaka, Bangladesh. Youths from these countries have increasingly travelled from South Asia to Syria and Iraq. ISIL influences, recruits, strategises and organises with social media. Indian cells of ISIL have been identified by Indian forces in Madhya Pradesh, Kalyan, Kerala, Hyderabad, and Uttar and Madhya Pradesh. ISIL is most present in India through online social networks. The group has also attempted to infiltrate the unstable state of Jammu and Kashmir, a region disputed by India and", "-20.197439826093614" ], [ "ISIL, the Syrian Democratic Forces, and various Kurdish groups (SDF and Kurdish groups are also fighting ISIL). Defence Minister On July 9, 2018 Akar was appointed by Turkey’s President Erdogan as the Minister for National Defence. This was the first time in Turkey’s history that a civilian government appointed an active duty military officer to this position. Awards and decorations TAF Medal of Honor, TAF Medal of Distinguished Courage and Self-Sacrifice, TAF Medal of Distinguished Service, Legion of Merit, Nishan-e-Imtiaz, Order of National Security Merit of South Korea, Azerbaijan Distinguished Service in Military Cooperation. Personal life General Hulusi Akar is", "-20.14179859275464" ], [ "members, with some native Syrian fighters resenting \"favouritism\" allegedly shown towards foreigners over pay and accommodation.\nIn August 2016, media reports based on briefings by Western intelligence agencies suggested that ISIL had a multilevel secret service known in Arabic as Emni, established in 2014, that has become a combination of an internal police force and an external operations directorate complete with regional branches. The unit was believed to be under the overall command of ISIL's most senior Syrian operative, spokesman and propaganda chief Abu Mohammad al-Adnani until his death by airstrike in late August 2016. Civilians in ISIL-controlled areas In 2014", "-20.109379948989954" ], [ "Haarde protested against what he described as \"a terrorist law being applied against us\", calling it \"a completely unfriendly act\". Angered by the British decision, Iceland decided to submit a formal complaint to NATO about their move, and it also provoked more than 80,000 Icelanders (equal to 25% of its entire population) to sign an online petition set up under the heading \"Icelanders are not terrorists\". The relationship got even tenser when UK replied a month later by cancelling its scheduled patrol of the Icelandic airspace in December 2008. Iceland has no standing army of its own, and relies on", "-20.109375411760993" ], [ "should understand that they may face domestic or international prosecution for the grave rights abuses their forces are committing.\"\nSpeaking of ISIL's methods, the United Nations Commission on Human Rights has stated that the group \"seeks to subjugate civilians under its control and dominate every aspect of their lives through terror, indoctrination, and the provision of services to those who obey\".", "-20.098282530379947" ], [ "group ISIL and the threat they pose to Iraq, the region and the wider international community. It also symbolizes the willingness and dedication of coalition members to work closely with our friends in the region and apply all available dimensions of national power necessary—diplomatic, informational, military, economic—to degrade and ultimately destroy ISIL.\nThe Defense Department announced at the end of October 2014 that troops operating in support of Operation Inherent Resolve after 15 June were eligible for the Global War on Terrorism Expeditionary Medal. Service areas are: Bahrain, Cyprus, Egypt, Iran, Iraq, Israel, Jordan, Kuwait, Lebanon, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Syria,", "-19.943732701300178" ], [ "German intervention against ISIL History The deployment of the Bundeswehr had been discussed from the end of November 2015 within the German government, debated in parliament and decided on 4 December 2015 with a majority of the votes of the coalition parties CDU and SPD. As a justification it was stated that the terrorist attacks in Tunisia, Turkey, Beirut, against Russia and especially in Paris had shown that the terrorist organization acted far beyond the currently controlled territories in Syria and Iraq and also posed a global threat to peace and security. Furthermore, with the attacks in Paris ISIL had", "-19.91580033363425" ], [ "done by ousting ISIS and replacing it with other terrorist organisations backed directly by Turkey\". Turkish officials responded by stating that the operation was in line with the country's right to self-defence and a mandate given to the armed forces by the Turkish parliament in 2014; also cited was Resolution 2249 adopted by the UN Security Council in November 2015 that while failing to invoke the UN's Chapter VII, which gives specific legal authorisation for the use of force, did urge UN members to \"redouble and coordinate their efforts to prevent and suppress terrorist acts committed specifically by ISIL also", "-19.86342593387235" ], [ "magazine called Rumiyah (Arabic for Rome).\nThe group also runs a radio network called Al-Bayan, which airs bulletins in Arabic, Russian and English and provides coverage of its activities in Iraq, Syria and Libya. Social media ISIL's use of social media has been described by one expert as \"probably more sophisticated than [that of] most US companies\". It regularly uses social media, particularly Twitter, to distribute its messages. The group uses the encrypted instant messaging service Telegram to disseminate images, videos and updates.\nThe group is known for releasing videos and photographs of executions of prisoners, whether beheadings, shootings, caged prisoners being", "-19.851168790773954" ], [ "killed the 2 pilots and also the shooting down of a Syrian Air Force jet by Turkey, and a February 2015 raid by the Turkish army to evacuate a tiny exclave in Syria. Turkey and ISIL Turkey had been allegedly supporting ISIL throughout its many incarnations as a \"lesser evil\" against the Assad government. This to some extent began to change with the 2013 Reyhanlı bombings and a retaliatory airstrike in January 2014. ISIL shook this off and began its conquest of northern Iraq, followed by consolidation of territories in Northern Syria. In the summer of 2014 it began taking", "-19.833709138969425" ], [ "aims to mobilise its supporters by motivating them with, for example, spectacular deadly attacks deep in Western territory (such as the November 2015 Paris attacks), to polarise by driving Muslim populations – particularly in the West – away from their governments, thus increasing the appeal of ISIL's self-proclaimed caliphate among them, and to: \"Eliminate neutral parties through either absorption or elimination\". Journalist Rukmini Maria Callimachi also emphasises ISIL's interest in polarization or in eliminating what it calls the \"grey zone\" between the black (non-Muslims) and white (ISIL). \"The gray is moderate Muslims who are living in the West and are", "-19.83366816000489" ], [ "who lost their jobs and pensions in the de-Ba'athification process after that regime was overthrown. The former Chief Strategist in the Office of the Coordinator for Counterterrorism of the US State Department, David Kilcullen, has said that \"There undeniably would be no Isis if we had not invaded Iraq.\"\nIt has been reported that Iraqis and Syrians have been given greater precedence over other nationalities within ISIL because the group needs the loyalties of the local Sunni populations in both Syria and Iraq in order to be sustainable. Other reports, however, have indicated that Syrians are at a disadvantage to foreign", "-19.774888133746572" ], [ "\"Hunt Them Down, O Monotheists\", in which the Islamic State in Somalia was called Wilayat al Somal (Somalia Province), thus seemingly elevating the group to an official province of the proclaimed worldwide caliphate of ISIL. Since then, however, the new name has not been consistently applied to the group by pro-ISIL media. Reignited rivalry with al-Shabaab Meanwhile, ISS started to launch assassination attempts in the region around Mogadishu from November 2017, with the town Afgooye most affected. From then on, the group greatly increased its rate of attacks on government targets. By May 2018, ISS had reportedly carried out eleven", "-19.75823775135723" ], [ "with ISIL, which lead to the 2017 Istanbul nightclub shooting against Turkey. Allegations of Turkish cooperation with and support for ISIL Ever since the formal founding of ISIL from its Islamist predecessor groups in June 2014, Turkey has faced numerous allegations of collaboration with and support for ISIL in international media. Several of the allegations have focused on Turkish businessman and politician Berat Albayrak, who has faced calls for his prosecution in the United States.\nTurkey has, despite national and international criticism, largely refused to directly engage militants of the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL), despite continued threats", "-19.72736420412548" ], [ "2014.\nRussia is one of several countries directly involved in the Syrian conflict. On 30 September 2015, Russia began its air campaign against the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL) and other anti-government forces.\nIn early October, Turkey and NATO protested against what they saw as Russia's deliberate violations of Turkish airspace. The Russian Defence Ministry admitted that a Russian Su-30 aircraft had entered Turkish airspace \"for a few seconds\" because of bad weather, adding that measures had been taken to prevent a repeat of such incidents, however Turkish radar had tracked the aircraft straying into Turkish airspace for up", "-19.72033961227862" ], [ "and a military administration including the establishment of a “court” system. Having these in place, the threshold for ISIL to be bound by human rights obligations has clearly been met and so, at the very least, ISIL is bound under international law to respect core human rights obligations, such as the right to life, the absolute prohibition of torture, cruel, inhuman and degrading treatment, the prohibition of slavery and the prohibition of enforced disappearance, as well as the right to freedom of thought, conscience and religion. \nFurthermore, Iraq and The Syrian Arab Republic are parties to major human rights treaties", "-19.7173012714411" ], [ "ISIL activity originated in Iraq, and has spread from the Middle East to the African countries of Egypt, Mali and Somalia; South Asian countries such as Bangladesh, Pakistan and India, and southeast Asian countries such as Indonesia and the Philippines. The group aims to retake Greater Khorasan, a historical region which covers Afghanistan and part of Central Asia. The Khorasan branch of ISIL is based in South Asia.\nThe terrorist organisation has used social unrest, the dissolution of language barriers, and local underground support to recruit South Asian militants for global jihad. The flow of Rohingya Muslim refugees from Myanmar has", "-19.649855697905878" ], [ "move back and forth across the border. On November 29, Nawaf Khalil, a spokesman for Syria’s Kurdish Democratic Union Party (PYD), reportedly said that ISIL started to attack them from all four sides for the first time. Turkey's hesitation to help YPG and PYD in the fight against ISIL was reportedly caused by their affiliation with the PKK, which is designated as a terrorist organization by the UN, EU and many countries including US, but Turkey later gave support to the Kurdish Peshmerga from northern Iraq instead of the YPG, allowing 155 peshmerga to pass through Turkey with their arms", "-19.586305147677194" ], [ "Operation Okra Airstrikes against ISIL in Iraq The Australian government announced on 14 September 2014 that an Air Task Group (ATG) of up to eight F/A-18F Super Hornets, an E-7A Wedgetail AEW&C aircraft, and a KC-30A air-to-air refuelling tanker, along with a Special Operations Task Force, would be deployed to the Middle East in preparation for possible operations against ISIL forces. The ATG commenced operations on 1 October, and on 3 October, Prime Minister Tony Abbott announced that his country would commence airstrikes. Australian forces operate from Al Minhad Air Base located in the United Arab Emirates. Australian aircraft have", "-19.55968887550989" ], [ "saw more people killed by Islamic terrorist attacks in Europe than all previous years combined, and the highest rate of attack plots per year. Most of this terrorist activity was inspired by ISIL, and many European states have had some involvement in the military intervention against it. A number of plots involved people who entered or re-entered Europe as asylum seekers during the European migrant crisis, and some attackers had returned to Europe after fighting in the Syrian Civil War. The Jewish Museum of Belgium shooting in May 2014 was the first attack in Europe by a returnee from the", "-19.54567541880533" ], [ "the Iraqi Army on May 1, 2010. ISIL occupation The Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL; also known as ISIS, the Islamic State, or Daesh) began a June offensive in 2014 as part of their Anbar campaign, which involved the capture of the majority of Anbar Province. On 19 June, ISIL forces captured Al-Qa'im, and in the evening of 21 June, ISIL forces also captured Ar-Rutbah. On 22 June 2014, a member of the local council told The New York Times that \"around fifty vehicles full of militants and weapons came from Hauran valley and after sporadic clashes", "-19.455697809054982" ], [ "militants. February 2015 Jordan, which had been conducting airstrikes on ISIL in Syria since September 2014, initiated airstrikes on ISIL targets in Iraq on 4 February 2015 (see details in the Airstrikes section).\nOn 17 February, it was revealed that ISIL had launched another major assault on Erbil, coming within 45 kilometres (28 mi) of the city.\nBy late February, it was reported that ISIL was beginning to use chemical weapons, due to the gradual weakening of the organization, and that the Iraqi Army was expected to join the Liberation of Mosul sometime in April 2015. March 2015 At the beginning of March,", "-19.44435535093362" ], [ "and Kuwait on one day on 27 June, Abbott said: \"This illustrates yet again that as far as the Daesh death cult is concerned, it's coming after us.\" In July, Communications Minister Malcolm Turnbull told the Sydney Institute that ISIL is not \"Hitler's Germany, Tojo's Japan or Stalin's Russia\" and that government should not amplify its significance.\nAt the opening of a regional summit against terrorism in Sydney in June 2015, Abbott praised the leadership against Islamist terrorism shown by Muslim statesmen such as Malaysia's Prime Minister Najib – who had described ISIS as \"against God, against Islam and against our", "-19.436250407074112" ], [ "the Turkish interior minister. He said \"We pledged to battle the [ISIL] until it no longer \"remains a threat\" to Turkey or the world. Turkey won't backtrack in its struggle against Daesh [i.e., ISIL] by even one step. This terror organization, the assailants and all of their connections will be found and they will receive the punishments they deserve.\"\nFollowing the attack, the Turkish government's Radio and Television Supreme Council imposed a temporary broadcast ban on images of to the bombing (under a 2011 law allowing such censorship), and the ban was affirmed by an order from an Istanbul court.", "-19.392973123060074" ], [ "it comes to Europeans or Americans joining the YPG, they could only be considered \"crusaders\" or intelligence agents. Macer Gifford, a prominent British volunteer with the YPG and leader of its medical unit was quoted as saying \"only in the minds of right wing and nationalist politicians in Turkey could the volunteers ever be called terrorists\"; he said that while he had no intention to fight against Turkey, he would do so if and when Turkey attacked the YPG.\nLater on 2 September 2016, a statement released by the Turkish military said that a total of 271 targets were hit 1195", "-19.361183491360862" ], [ "ISIL as late as July 2013); nevertheless, they put their differences mostly aside for the final attack on Menagh Air Base. The rebels prepared their assault against the base with a three-day long bombardment using artillery, mortars, and machineguns. The attack was carried out on 5 August 2013, led by Abu Omar al-Shishani, a chief commander of the jihadist Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL). By this point, 70–120 government soldiers had remained, holding out in a small section of the complex.\nThe attack started when two foreign suicide bombers from ISIL's JAMWA, one of them a Saudi, drove", "-19.32046507342602" ], [ "Europeans.\" British HT members gathered outside London Central Mosque in Regent's Park in an attempt\nto persuade others to join what they termed as Saddam's jihad. Party representatives also went to the Iraqi Embassy in London to ask Saddam to announce himself as Caliph. Not withstanding this support, 11 HT members were executed in Iraq in 1990 for calling on Saddam to abandon Ba'athism and to adopt an Islamist state.\nAfter Saddam's removal in 2003, HT announced it would be opening an Iraqi branch. One HT member in Iraq, Abu Abdullah Al-Kurdi, claimed in a 2008 interview that the party has two", "-19.30245899624424" ], [ "context that Europe has employed foreign countries such as Turkey to serve as border guards, in a policy of border externalization.\nThere are fears of ethnic cleansing of the Kurds from the region. ISIL prisoners There are concerns about a possible resurgence of the Islamic State (ISIL) in the region, as the Kurdish-led Syrian Democratic Forces (SDF)—who conducted counter-terrorism operations against ISIL and held the ISIL captives in the region—fight against the Turkish-led offensive and thus could lose control over the detainees. There are at least 10,000 ISIL prisoners and more than 100,000 ISIL family members and other displaced persons in", "-19.2796739374171" ], [ "all sides of the House who today support military action against ISIL. I know that British Muslims stand united in the total condemnation of the murders that ISIL have committed. However, there is a genuine belief in Muslim and non-Muslim communities that military action will only create further bloodshed and further pain for the people of Iraq,\" Ali also told Miliband that she remained totally committed to his leadership and was looking forward to his becoming the prime minister in next eight months' time. In his return letter to Ali, Miliband praised her as 'someone with great ability and talent'.", "-19.25067369779572" ], [ "ISIL's legitimacy, he suggested that there was still room for cooperation against common enemies, and said that if he were in Iraq, he would fight alongside ISIL. Human rights abuse and war crime findings In July 2014, the BBC reported the United Nations' chief investigator as stating: \"Fighters from the Islamic State in Iraq and the Levant (ISIL) may be added to a list of war crimes suspects in Syria.\" By June 2014, according to United Nations reports, ISIL had killed hundreds of prisoners of war and over 1,000 civilians.\nIn November 2014, the UN Commission of Inquiry on Syria said", "-19.250186437740922" ], [ "that ISIL was committing crimes against humanity. A report by Human Rights Watch in November 2014 accused ISIL groups in control of Derna, Libya of war crimes and human rights abuses and of terrorising residents. Human Rights Watch documented three apparent summary executions and at least ten public floggings by the Islamic Youth Shura Council, which joined ISIL in November. It also documented the beheading of three Derna residents and dozens of seemingly politically motivated assassinations of judges, public officials, members of the security forces and others. Sarah Leah Watson, Director of HRW Middle East and North Africa, said: \"Commanders", "-19.232284879893996" ], [ "its war for territory in tandem with its war against the world of unbelievers, which includes almost everyone,\" Walt wrote. Long-term impact On 27 June, Politico reported that U.S. intelligence agencies were reassessing their previous characterization of ISIL as a “regional threat.” In a February 2015 report, Director of National Intelligence James R. Clapper classified ISIL as a \"regional threat\" and wrote: “In an attempt to strengthen its self-declared caliphate, ISIL probably plans to conduct operations against regional allies, Western facilities, and personnel in the Middle East.” U.S. Congressman Ed Royce, the chairman of the U.S. House Committee on Foreign", "-19.18895956716733" ], [ "all legal options. Also, Martin Schulz, a member of the Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD) and president of the European Parliament condemned Erdoğan's comments. German foreign ministry had warned lawmakers with Turkish origin against travel to Turkey because their safety could not be guaranteed and also they received increased police protection and further security measures for both their professional and private activities.\nOn June 24, 2016, Pope Francis in a speech described the killing of Armenians as a genocide. Also, the Vatican spokesman Federico Lombardi, told the reporters that \"There is no reason not to use this word in this", "-19.185522904037498" ], [ "regime and ISIL infiltrated the town, \"first dozens and then hundreds of people disappeared\".\nSecurity and intelligence expert Martin Reardon has described ISIL's purpose as being to psychologically \"break\" those under its control, \"[...] so as to ensure their absolute allegiance through fear and intimidation,\" while generating, \"[...]outright hate and vengeance\" among its enemies. Jason Burke, a journalist writing on Salafi jihadism, has written that ISIL's goal is to \"terrorize, mobilize [and] polarize\". Its efforts to terrorise are intended to intimidate civilian populations and force governments of the target enemy \"to make rash decisions that they otherwise would not choose\". It", "-19.174887815257534" ], [ "with them, and therefore had to be removed from areas where they might pose a danger. They further alleged that ISIL was using civilians in those areas to plant car bombs or carry out other attacks on the YPG. Recruitment of minors In June 2014, Human Rights Watch criticized the YPG for accepting minors into their ranks, picking up on multiple earlier reports of teenage fighters serving in the YPG, with a report by the United Nations Secretary General stating that 24 minors under age of 18 had been recruited by YPG, with 124 having been recruited by the Free", "-19.16261489057797" ], [ "a consequence of an agreement reached at the end of September 2015 between Russia, Iran, Iraq and Syria to \"help and cooperate in collecting information about the terrorist Daesh group (ISIL) to combat the advances of the group, according to the statement issued by the Iraqi Joint Operations Command.\nSince 2016, Iraqi volunteers have been fighting alongside the SAA, and their forces have met on the Iraqi-Syrian border crossing. In February 2017, Iraq conducted its first airstrike against ISIL targets in Syria, which was performed in coordination with the Syrian government. In July 2017, Iraq, alongside with Iran, signed an agreement", "-19.1590046264173" ], [ "– FSA decline, rise of ISIL The International Business Times considered the emergence of ISIL in 2014 as the beginning of the end for groups like FSA which the US had dubbed \"moderate rebels\".\nThe SMC, the formal FSA command structure, slowly disintegrated within Aleppo Governorate from a lack of resources over the course of 2014. For example, according to data obtained by IBT, the Hazzm movement received a total of about $6 million from the U.S. government in 2014, which works out to just $500,000 a month for a force consisting of 5,000 soldiers.\nIn February 2014, Colonel Qassem Saadeddine of", "-19.121653482547117" ], [ "It also launched an offensive against all other opposition forces active in the eastern province of Deir ez-Zor, on the border with Iraq. By June 2014, ISIL had largely defeated its rivals in the province, with many who had not been killed or driven away pledging allegiance to it.\nIn Iraq, ISIL was able to capture most of Fallujah in January 2014, and in June 2014 was able to seize control of Mosul.\nAfter an eight-month power struggle, al-Qaeda cut all ties with ISIL by February 2014, citing its failure to consult and \"notorious intransigence\".\nIn early 2014, ISIL drove Iraqi government forces", "-19.10688863802352" ], [ "2016 Atatürk Airport attack Background Istanbul had already been subjected to three terrorist attacks in the first half of 2016, including suicide attacks in January and in March that were both linked to the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL), and a car bombing in early June claimed by the Kurdistan Freedom Hawks (TAK), a \"radical offshoot of the outlawed Kurdistan Workers' Party (PKK)\".\nAfter the attack, United States CIA director John O. Brennan said that the attack bore the hallmarks of an ISIL terror attack. It was suggested that Turkey was paying a price for former Prime Minister", "-19.081594808587397" ], [ "Islamic terrorism in Europe Islamic terrorism in Europe has been carried out by the Islamic State (ISIL) or Al-Qaeda as well as Islamist lone wolves since the late 20th century.\nIn the early 2000s, most of the Islamic terrorist activity was linked to Al-Qaeda and the plots tended to involve groups carrying out co-ordinated bombings. The deadliest attacks of this period were the 2004 Madrid train bombings, which killed 193 civilians (the deadliest Islamist attack in Europe), and the 7 July 2005 London bombings, which killed 52.\nThere was a rise in Islamic terrorist activity in Europe after 2014. The years 2014–16", "-19.06577731268044" ], [ "July, the attack had reportedly been repelled. August ISIL offensive In early August 2014, ISIL launched a new offensive against Kurdish-held territory in northern Iraq and within days captured the town of Sinjar, displacing its Yazidi population. ISIL had also advanced to within 40 kilometers from the Kurdish capital of Erbil. This prompted the United States to start launching air-strikes on advancing ISIL forces. Proclamation of a Caliphate On 29 June 2014, ISIL or ISIS announced its name change to the Islamic State and announced the formation of a 'Caliphate', which would include Iraq and Syria, and in theory covers", "-19.063104246684816" ], [ "Turkish armour and aircraft struck ISIL targets in cross-border engagements in northern Syria. Turkey also agreed to let the United States use the USAF Incirlik Air Base for strikes against ISIL. August–October 2015 – UK drone strike and Canada ceases airstrikes On 21 August, three Islamic State fighters, two of United Kingdom nationality, were targeted and killed in Raqqa by a British Royal Air Force MQ-9 Reaper strike. Prime Minister David Cameron gave a statement to Parliament that one of the British nationals targeted had been plotting attacks in the UK. Another British national was killed in a separate air", "-19.030041883699596" ], [ "Opération Chammal Background On 10 June 2014, the terrorist group of the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant and several other Sunni insurgents took control of the second-most populous city of Iraq, Mosul. After fighting the Iraqi Army, ISIL seized cities and committed massacres and other atrocities.\nISIL committed mass murder and other atrocities against the Assyrians, as well as the Yazidis. ISIL also carried out the Camp Speicher massacre in June 2014, killing thousands of people. Until August, ISIL had controlled almost one-third of Iraq.\nOn 7 August 2014, U.S. President Barack Obama authorized airstrikes in Iraq. The next day,", "-19.02883722842671" ], [ "guerilla tactics against government forces. Other factions opposed to the Iraqi government include the Iraqi Baath Party currently led by Izzat Ibrahim al-Douri a former official to Saddam Hussein during his rule in Iraq and has been active in Iraq's conflict since the US-led invasion in 2003 leading multiple factions including the Naqshbandi Army and Supreme Command for Jihad and Liberation. In September 2017, Abu Bakr al-Baghdadi, the leader of ISIL, called on ISIL supporters around the world to launch attacks on Western news media and continued in his message the ISIL must focus on combatting the two-pronged attack", "-19.010924501228146" ], [ "Use of social media by the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant The Islamic State, also known as ISIS, ISIL, and the Daesh, is a terrorist group located in Northern Iraq and Syria. The group sophisticatedly utilizes social media as a tool to spread terror around the world in addition to international recruitment efforts. The Islamic State is widely known for its posting of disturbing contents such as beheading videos on the internet. The Islamic State creates its own online content such as videos, magazines (like Dabiq), and flyers. This propaganda is disseminated through websites and many social media", "-19.009278150391765" ], [ "US, UK and EU categorize it as a terrorist organization. As of 2007, the Counter-Terrorism and Operations Department of Directorate General for Security list it among the 12 active terrorist organizations in Turkey. It is one of the 44 names listed in the 2008 U.S. State Department list of Foreign Terrorist Organizations, one of the 48 groups and entities to which the EU's Common Position 2001/931/CFSP on the application of specific measures to combat terrorism applies and one of the 45 international terrorist organisations in the list of Proscribed Terrorist Groups of the UK Home Office.", "-18.97224635060411" ], [ "the ISIL advance.\nOn 4 February 2015, Jordan began launching airstrikes on ISIL positions in Iraq, in retaliation for ISIL's brutal killing of Jordanian pilot Muath al-Kasasbeh. The airstrikes killed 55 ISIL militants in Mosul, including a senior ISIL commander known as the \"Prince of Nineveh.\"\nOn 6 February 2015, an RAF Tornado GR4 patrol worked closely with a coalition surveillance platform to provide air support for Peshmerga forces, who were engaged in close combat with ISIL terrorists near Mosul. When an ISIL mortar position opened fire on the Peshmerga, the Tornados responded with a Brimstone missile, scoring a direct hit.\nOn 9", "-18.953076088117086" ], [ "however, ISIL's relations with the Kurdish population of Syria in general worsened due to the successes of the mostly Kurdish YPG/YPJ. As many Arabs feared Kurdish expansionism, ISIL thus started to present itself as defender of the Arab population and employed anti-Kurdish rhetoric. This tactic had some success, even convincing former Arab critics of ISIL that the jihadists' rule over al-Hasakah Governorate was preferable to the YPG/YPJ. Militant anti-Kurdish members of the Arab Tayy and Jibur tribes sided with ISIL in order to defend al-Barakah Province from the YPG-led Eastern al-Hasakah offensive of 2015.\nISIL's governance of al-Barakah occasionally suffered from", "-18.949793620240598" ], [ "the first organization to have been removed from the EU terror list.\n\nThe Council of the European Union removed the group's terrorist designation following the Court of Justice of the European Union's 2008 censure of France for failing to disclose new alleged evidence of the MEK's terrorism threat. Delisting allowed MEK to pursue tens of millions of dollars in frozen assets and lobby in Europe for more funds. It also removed the terrorist label from MEK members at Camp Ashraf in Iraq.\nOn 28 September 2012, the U.S. State Department formally removed MEK from its official list of terrorist organizations, beating an", "-18.93387805108796" ], [ "ISIL would eventually establish wilayat in these areas after forming direct relationships with its supporters there. Overview ISIL spokesman Abu Muhammad al-Adnani stated that \"the legality of all emirates, groups, states and organizations becomes null by the expansion of the khilafah's [caliphate's] authority and arrival of its troops to their areas.\" ISIL thus rejects the political divisions established by Western powers during World War I in the Sykes–Picot Agreement as it absorbs territory in Syria and Iraq. The Long War Journal writes that the logical implication is that the group will consider preexisting militant groups like Al-Qaeda in the Arabian", "-18.933012805355247" ], [ "Iraqi security forces as they confront ISIL and the complex security situation on the ground.\" ISIL conquests and massacres; US reaction During the first 15 days of August 2014, ISIL expanded its territories in northern Iraq. On 3 August, they conquered Sinjar and surrounding area, including Wana and Zumar, killing possibly 2,000 Yazidi men in the Sinjar massacre, and taking Yazidi women into slavery, causing 50,000 Yazidis to flee into the adjacent Sinjar Mountains. During their whole August offensive, ISIL massacred 5,000 Yazidis.\nOn 7 August, ISIL conquered Qaraqosh, the largest Christian town in Iraq, and neighbouring towns, causing 100,000 civilians", "-18.932797655339527" ], [ "source from which ISIL have drawn a false legitimization.\" In November 2016 in an interview with the Daily Telegraph, Welby stated that claiming that the actions of ISIS are \"nothing to do with Islam\" was damaging efforts to combat extremism. Welby stipulated that it was essential to understand the religious motivation behind extremism in order to understand it and also criticized the argument that claims that \"Christian militia in the Central African Republic are nothing to do with Christianity.\" Refugees Welby disagrees with restrictions on child refugees being admitted to the UK. Welby fears children are now vulnerable to exploitation", "-18.917571805999614" ], [ "Kurdish militia, or the YPG, against ISIL. The soldier, Jordan Matson, states how many US allied countries have been threatened by members of ISIS trying to spread their agenda. The article claims that his reason for the decision to join the fight against ISIL in a foreign country is the result of the happenings in Iraq and seeing \"All of the American brothers that have died over there -- all the American veterans that have died over there -- and paid their lives for that country so they could have a democracy.\" In this article CNN portrays ISIL as a", "-18.91182797012516" ], [ "ISIL as \"terrorist organization\" and \"Takfiri\".\nThe deputy secretary of Supreme National Security Council has also called it \"terrorist group\". ISIL's threats to Iran While Iran is a Shia-dominant country, ISIL is ideologically anti-Shia and regards Shias as infidels, having killed thousands of them. After rapidly expanding in Iraq, ISIL became a threat only kilometers away from Iranian western borders. With the Pakistan-based Sunni Jihadist groups in eastern Iran and an ongoing Sistan and Baluchestan insurgency, some alarmed the possibility of a wider backlash there.\nIran threatened ISIL that managing to attack Baghdad or holy shrines of Shia Imams and getting close", "-18.901890161418123" ], [ "Monday by ISIL, who could be used as human shields.\nOn 26 October, CNN reported that ISIL has been carrying out \"retribution killings\" of civilians as revenge for others welcoming Iraqi and Peshmerga troops in villages restored under government control. Allegations against anti-ISIL forces The presence with Iraqi forces of several militias with histories of human rights abuses was criticized; Human Rights Watch called for Shia militias from the Popular Mobilization Forces (PMF) not to enter Mosul, following allegations of abuse of Sunni Muslims in anti-ISIL operations in Fallujah, Tikrit and Amirli. Iraqi Prime Minister Haider al-Abadi later stated that only", "-18.882892003894085" ], [ "in Syria. Ninety percent of the group's weapons ultimately originated in China, Russia or Eastern Europe according to Conflict Armament Research. Non-conventional weapons The group uses truck and car bombs, suicide bombers and IEDs, and has used chemical weapons in Iraq and Syria. ISIL captured nuclear materials from Mosul University in July 2014, but is unlikely to be able to convert them into weapons.\nIn September 2015 a US official stated that ISIL was manufacturing and using mustard agent in Syria and Iraq, and had an active chemical weapons research team. ISIL has also used water as a weapon of war.", "-18.85495378576161" ], [ "allow ISIL to recover and warned of a military vacuum that would leave the alliance trapped between \"hostile parties\". The UK, France, Germany all considered the fight against ISIL ongoing. Foreign involvement Both the Syrian government and the opposition have received support, militarily and diplomatically, from foreign countries leading the conflict to often be described as a proxy war. The major parties supporting the Syrian Government are Russia, Iran and Hezbollah. The main Syrian opposition body – the Syrian coalition – receives political, logistic and military support from the United States, Britain and France. Some Syrian rebel groups were supported", "-18.850881170481443" ], [ "ISIL's use of vehicle bombs in Mosul, a spokesman for CJTF–OIR, Colonel John Dorrian said \"His removal further degrades ISIL's [vehicle bomb] threat, which has been the enemy's weapon of choice for attacking Iraqi security forces and civilians.\" Also that day Abu Turq was killed in Sharqat, Dorrian said \"he was killed in an airstrike while fighting from a rooftop position in Sharqat, where he and several other fighters were moving a heavy weapon to fire upon partner forces. His removal increases pressure on the ISIL financial network, which is already severely disrupted by several hundred strikes on oil infrastructure", "-18.800065265386365" ], [ "beheadings in 2004 of three American civilians, one British, one South Korean, and one Japanese civilian. ISIL advances in Northern Iraq After the December 2011 withdrawal of U.S. troops from Iraq, violent insurgency of mainly Sunni Islamic Islamist fighters targeting the Iraqi government continued in what is called the Iraqi insurgency.\nBetween 5 and 11 June 2014, Sunni Islamic, jihadist, 'Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant' (ISIL) militants, already successful in the Syrian civil war, conquered the Iraqi cities of Samarra, Mosul and Tikrit, and threatened the Mosul Dam and Kirkuk, where Iraqi Kurdish Peshmerga troops took control from the", "-18.797492843172222" ], [ "IRGC as a terrorist group. The European Union has already sanctions in place on the IRGC, though it is not designated as a terrorist group as such.\nAlthough Saudi Arabia and Bahrain already designated the IRGC as a terrorist organisation, several countries such as Canada and Australia are examining the possibility to designate the group as well (Canada already outlawed Quds Force in 2012).", "-18.777473558744532" ], [ "2015 NATO emergency meeting Background Despite a series of terrorist attacks in 2013 and 2015 that were associated with the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL), Turkey had until recently followed a policy of relative inaction against the group. The government's policy of inaction was criticised both home and abroad, with relations with NATO becoming strained partly due to Turkey's refusal to allow the United States to use the highly strategic İncirlik Air Base in Adana Province to fight against ISIL.\nSince late 2012, the Turkish government has pursued a solution process with the Kurdistan Workers' Party (PKK), with", "-18.743101746367756" ], [ "to Iran's supreme leader Ali Khamenei that ISIL had been defeated. Vladimir Putin, President of Russia, declared victory over ISIL in Syria as well. Iraqi prime minister, Haider al-Abadi, also announced the military defeat of ISIL in Iraq.\nOn 23 November 2018, Britain's Chief of the General Staff General Mark Carleton-Smith said that the \"physical manifestation of the Islamist threat has diminished with the complete destruction of the geography of the so-called Caliphate.\"\nOn 19 December 2018, US president Donald Trump declared ISIL to have been defeated. The UK's junior Defence Minister Tobias Ellwood said he “strongly” disagreed with Trump that ISIL", "-18.724181848956505" ], [ "April 2014 was of little use, because in June 2014 ISIL launched an offensive in northern Iraq, taking large swaths of the country and threatening Baghdad itself. In response, Iran reportedly deployed its Quds force in Iraq, thus turning the conflict into a full-scale war. Iraqi–Syrian border incidents The Akashat ambush was a well planned assault against a Syrian Army convoy defended by Iraqi soldiers that took place on 4 March 2013, as the group was travelling in the province of Anbar, next to the border with Syria. The Islamic State of Iraq claimed responsibility for the ambush on 11", "-18.723093644373876" ], [ "its efforts on fighting ISIL.\" United States President Barack Obama, at a news conference on 2 October, underscored the coalition statement by saying the Russian action was driving moderate opposition groups underground, and would result in \"only strengthening\" ISIL.\nIn 2017, the Inter-parliamentary Assembly of the Community for Democracy and Rights of Nations, an international organization consisting of the only partially recognized republics Abkhazia, South Ossetia and Transnistria, adopted a joint statement in which supported the policy of the Russian Federation in Syria. Militias and religious agents Representatives of the Kurdish YPG and PYD expressed their support for Russian air strikes", "-18.712882007588632" ], [ "19 August 2014, on video by an ISIL member whose accent sounded English. The killer, Mohammed Emwazi, was described in the media as \"Jihadi John\".\nIn August 2014, activists in London handed out leaflets in support of ISIL outside the busy Oxford Circus branch of Topshop.\nA sacked colonel of Bangladesh army is one of the major operative residing in London.\nOn 7 September 2015, a Royal Air Force MQ-9 Reaper drone conducted an airstrike in Syria which killed two British-born ISIL fighters.\nOn 24 October 2017, it was announced that a British man who had been fighting against Isil with the Kurdish YPG", "-18.71230190686765" ], [ "claim that Iraq had WMD's.\nIn March 2003, Rasmussen stated as one of the reasons to support a military intervention, \"Irak har masseødelæggelsesvåben. Det er ikke noget vi tror. Vi ved det. Irak har selv indrømmet, at det har haft sennepsgas, nervegas, miltbrand, men Saddam vil ikke afregne. Han vil ikke fortælle os, hvor og hvordan de våben er blevet destrueret. Det ved vi fra FN's inspektører, så der er ingen tvivl i mit sind.\" In English, this translates to:\nIraq has weapons of mass destruction. This is not something we think. We know it. Iraq has itself admitted that it had", "-18.71146295271319" ], [ "militant group known as the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant, citing the 2001 Authorization for the Use of Military Force Against Terrorists, and thus did not require additional approval from Congress. The following day on 10 September 2014 President Barack Obama made a televised speech about ISIL, which he stated: \"Our objective is clear: We will degrade, and ultimately destroy, ISIL through a comprehensive and sustained counter-terrorism strategy\". Obama has authorized the deployment of additional U.S. Forces into Iraq, as well as authorizing direct military operations against ISIL within Syria. On the night of 21/22 September the United", "-18.694704372479464" ], [ "on Iraqis to continue fighting the Iraqi government and allied Iranian backed groups calling them Safavids, he also called on Saudi Arabia to intervene against Iran's influence in Iraq and praised the country. And condemned the battle of Mosul and other battles that led up to it and claimed that Haidar al-Abadi had ordered the destruction of the cities of Ramadi, Tikrit, Fallujah and others.\nOn 11 August 2018, ISIL launched an attack from the Hamrin Mountains on the village of Albu Juwari north of Baiji, in the assault a militia fighter affiliated with the Popular Mobilization Forces in the village,", "-18.66671953847981" ], [ "launched many attacks and bombings, mostly against targets affiliated with or supportive of the Syrian government. There have been media reports that many of al-Nusra's foreign fighters have left to join al-Baghdadi's ISIL.\nIn February 2014, after continued tensions, al-Qaeda publicly disavowed any relations with ISIL. However, ISIL and al-Nusra Front still cooperate with each other occasionally when they fight against the Syrian government.\nThe two groups [ISIL and al-Nusra] share a nihilistic worldview, a loathing for modernity, and for the West. They subscribe to the same perverted interpretations of Islam. Other common traits include a penchant for suicide attacks, and sophisticated", "-18.65351543056022" ], [ "from over. We will reach our spring.\"\nIn a December 2014 article for Foreign Policy, \"ISIS Is Sisi Spelled Backwards,\" he warned against\nthe notion that Arabs are \"forced to either support the ruling autocrats in return for safety and stability, or to side with Islamist radicals in order to throw off the tyrants' yoke and avenge their transgressions.\"\nOn December 26, 2015, a Russian news outlet confused Baghdadi with ISIS leader Abu Bakr al-Baghdadi. Other media began echoing the mistake, and Twitter blocked him briefly. The confusion itself ended up becoming a major news story.\nIn a January 2016 essay for Foreign Policy,", "-18.6478902100514" ], [ "place three days before the one-year anniversary of ISIL declaring itself a caliphate on 29 June 2014.\nWriting for The Guardian, journalist Kareem Shaheen wrote that, \"There was no evidence that the near-simultaneous attacks were coordinated, but they highlighted the growing threat of attacks by jihadists, some of them inspired by Isis rhetoric, across Europe, Africa and the Middle East.\" British professor Sajjan Gohel, the international security director for the Asia-Pacific Foundation think tank, said the attacks added up to \"an unprecedented day for terrorism,\" and that while details of the planning were still unclear, it involved individuals \"buying into the", "-18.64518503312138" ], [ "they had been planned to operate from bases in Turkey, to the north of Iraq, but Turkey refused access to its airbases and the northern attack was cancelled.\nDemands by the UK Treasury to cut the defence budget led to Defence Secretary Geoff Hoon detailing plans on 21 July 2004 to withdraw the Jaguar by 2007. An expected out of service date of October 2007 was brought forward at just five days notice to 30 April 2007. On 20 December 2007, a Jaguar operated by Qinetiq undertook the last ever British military Jaguar flight.\nFollowing their retirement from flying service, many Jaguars continue to serve as", "-18.615748647600412" ], [ "interference from security forces, and locals have been asked by ISIL to give fighters food and give information on the whereabouts of Iraqi personnel, locals have also stated that ISIL fighters will frequently enter into Mosques and ask for Zakat to fund the insurgency. Among ISIL's operations include assassinations, kidnappings, raids and ambushes.\nAccording to the Pentagon, as of fall 2018 ISIL was still stronger than it was between 2006–2007, when the group declared the Islamic State of Iraq during its incarnation as al-Qaeda in Iraq, citing a UN report which claimed that ISIL still had 20,000–30,000 fighters in Syria and", "-18.614367012894945" ], [ "11 May 2019 upon clashes in Kashmir. On 30 April, it appointed its emir in Bangladesh. Azerbaijan On 2 July 2019, as part of a series of videos showing supporters and fighters of ISIL around the world renewing their pledge of allegiance to ISIL's leader Abu Bakr al-Baghdadi, a video was published from Azerbaijan featuring three fighters armed with Kalashnikov style rifles pledging their allegiance to Abu Bakr al-Baghdadi, the video was formally released by ISIL declaring it the Azerbaijan Wilayat. Turkey Wilayat Turkey was formally declared in July 2019 when a video was published by ISIL featuring Turkish jihadists", "-18.61336741010018" ], [ "SAS was carrying out surveillance missions of British citizens believed to be travelling to Yemen and Somalia for terrorist training and they are also working with US counterparts observing and \"targeting\" local terror suspects. Also in Yemen, the SAS was also liaising with local commandos and provided protection to embassy personnel. International military intervention against ISIL In August 2014, the SAS were reported to be part of Operation Shader – the British participation in the ongoing military intervention against ISIL.They were reported to be on the ground gathering intelligence and helping with the evacuation of Yazidi refugees from the Sinjar", "-18.60246407667364" ], [ "that same year. The group is adept at social media, posting Internet videos of beheadings of soldiers, civilians, journalists and aid workers, and is known for its destruction of cultural heritage sites.\nThe United Nations (UN) has held ISIL responsible for human rights abuses and war crimes, and Amnesty International has reported ethnic cleansing by the group on a \"historic scale\". The group has been designated a terrorist organisation by the UN, the European Union (EU) and member states, the United States, India, Indonesia, Turkey, Saudi Arabia, Syria and other countries. Charitable work Islamist movements such as the Muslim Brotherhood,", "-18.59722603053524" ], [ "masked militants affiliated with the Islamic State (ISIS/ISIL). The air strikes killed 64 ISIS fighters, including three leaders in Derna and Sirte on the coast. Yugoslavia (1994–1995, 1999) F-16s were employed by NATO during Bosnian peacekeeping operations in 1994–95 in ground-attack missions and enforcing the no-fly-zone over Bosnia (Operation Deny Flight).\nNATO F-16s also participated in air strikes against Serbian forces in Bosnia and Herzegovina during Operation Deliberate Force in August–September 1995, and again in Operation Allied Force over Yugoslavia from March–June 1999. During Allied Force, Dutch F-16 J-063 flown by Major Peter Tankink also claimed one Yugoslavian MiG-29, with", "-18.573854183021467" ] ]

[ "Ever notice that the line on the side of the road is white while it is yellow down the middle? That is because in fog it is vital to see the edge of the road. White shows up better in fog. White boats don't hit each other as much in fog, then.", "Most white boats are fiberglass. White fiberglass is the easiest / cheapest color to make and it doesn't fade. It also doesn't show scratches or dings as easy. Boats tend to last a lot longer than cars, so they need to look decent for a long time.", "White is one of the easiest colours to see against the blue background of the water and sky. When you're looking through binoculars for something kilometres away, a white boat is a lot easier to spot.", " URL_0 That article approaches it from the opposite direction, as they have a sailboat with a dark blue hull. In general, white is cheap and it reflects heat well, so most small civilian boats end up with a white deck if not a white hull. Commercial ships on the other hand tend to be other colors, including dark blue and red. So it's partly modern tradition, partly that white fiberglass is a thing and partly that a white deck doesn't get as hot in the blazing summer sun.", "A red object absorbs every colour except red right? Well it is well-known that white is best suited during hot days as it is a mix of a few colours. Therefore white rejects those colours, those colours composed by photons, at the origin of heat. Thus, white allows the boat to reject, not get assaulted by heat, in the middle of the ocean.", "White is a common colour for a lot of things (boats, trucks, vans, caravans & campers, buildings...) because it's cheap (because it's popular...), reflects heat so it stays cool, reflects light so resists UV damage (a major problem on the water as you're floating on a big mirror with zero shade), it's easy to see and it's neutral & inoffensive.", "There are two main reasons for this: - White boats deflect the sun’s heat more, so the boat stays cooler. - White boats can be picked up easier by radars.", "Hold on hold on. Have you ever seen a Jon boat. Hell any boat in the south?" ]

[ [ "boat has a white round light at top and below that a red round light, while a fishing vessel has the red light at top and the white light below.\nTo remember this, some people use the mnemonic \"white cap, red nose\" to reflect the idea that pilots consumed a lot of alcohol while waiting for ships, thus the white captain's cap with a red nose below it.\nPilot boats often also use bright colors, like flashy yellow, to make them clearly visible and distinctive in even the worst conditions. This last mainly applies to the so-called pilot tenders: the vessels that", "-35.223941811709665" ], [ "for purposes of visibility, normally had bright red hulls which displayed the name of the station in white, upper-case letters; relief light vessels displayed the word RELIEF, instead. A few ships had differently coloured hulls. For example, the Huron Lightship was painted black since she was assigned the black buoy side of the entrance to the Lake Huron Cut. The lightvessel that operated at Minots Ledge, Cohasset, Mass. from 1854 until 1860 had a light yellow hull to make it visible against the blue-green seas and the green hills behind it. British lightships David Avery and Robert Hamblin in", "-31.349746707302984" ], [ "vivid colors on the boat to contrast the dark colors of the sea.", "-31.201153803922352" ], [ "Industrial Research (CSIR); in fact, \"Mami Wata\" is a common name for this animal in the region. Jill Salmons argues that the mermaid image may have come into being after contact with Europeans. The ships of traders and slavers often had carvings of mermaid figures on their prows, for example, and tales of mermaids were popular among sailors of the time. On the other hand, white is traditionally associated with the spirit world in many cultures of Nigeria. The people of the Cross River area often whiten their skin with talcum or other substances for rituals and for cosmetic reasons,", "-31.14347382877895" ], [ "white with light blue polygons, the US Navy's camouflage pattern for northern latitudes. For those ships assigned to the North Atlantic, a scheme consisting of light and dark blues and greens with some soft white was adopted as it was believed that this would blend with the sea colour in bad weather. Ships assigned to the English Channel in 1944 (Coastal Forces control frigates and those assigned to Operation Neptune as headquarters ships) received a design in black, blue, light grey and white. For ships assigned to the 16th Flotilla (Harwich) and 21st Flotilla (Sheerness) operating in the North", "-30.978184719220735" ], [ "the earliest days, the line's colours were: funnels – dark red with black top and thin black band; hulls – black with white boot topping. During the Second World War, ships were painted in battleship grey and the names were deleted for security, except when in friendly ports. From the 1960s onwards, some ships' hulls were painted light grey and others red.\nThe line's flag colours were a red oval, placed horizontally, with white \"ML\" lettering in the centre, imposed on an overall white background.", "-30.835552782576997" ], [ "usually classified as a minor navy, has several times conducted sustained operations in faraway regions typical of the green-water navies. However, the differences between blue-water navies and brown or green-water navies is usually quite noticeable, for example the US Navy was able to quickly respond to the disappearance of Malaysia Airlines Flight 370 and continue operations in the region with relative ease even though the search area covered the Indian Ocean. On the contrary, in 2005 the then green-water navy such the Russian Navy was unable to properly respond when its AS-28 rescue vehicle became tangled in undersea cables unable", "-30.46109000648721" ], [ "it was also found among vessels of other navies, including some ships of the United States Navy. Towards the end of the Napoleonic War a trend started to substitute white for yellow. This became popular with the US Navy in particular and they used it during the War of 1812.\nVessels were of oiled wood except for the wale, the widest strake that rubbed other vessels, docks, etc. Wales were tarred or otherwise blackened; as they had been from Greek and Roman times. Topsides were maintained by scraping and re-applying oil. In time, even with new oil, planking darkened. This could", "-30.396712949033827" ], [ "universities have team colour-coded sails) and certain accessories such as sheet colour and edge protectors.\nThere is also a significant number of cold moulded wooden ply fireflies still being lovingly maintained by owners, young and old alike. While boat production ended in the late 1990s, many of the older wooden boats are still very competitive if maintained and kitted with latest modern fittings etc. They are also often sold on at very good low prices, so ideal for younger sailors if they know what they are doing.\nWhen racing in a mixed fleet of classes, the Firefly uses a Portsmouth Yardstick", "-30.259157062042505" ], [ "been consistently: main, Navy / secondary, Red & White; this deviates from the more common De Montfort University sports team colours of black and red.\nThe DMURC blade colours closely follow the all in one design through the years it has progressed. Prior to 2002 the club blades have been seen in photo’s at Holme Pierrepont in a solid purple colour, the same as the first all in one. It is presumed that the change from purple and white to navy, red and white was made because there were a few other clubs with the same colours including Durham University Boat", "-30.019372180686332" ], [ "the water so it makes it easier to see what is below the surface. Different tints and lens colors make a difference in the color of water the hunter is fishing in, from darker brown to clearer blue and green. At night glasses are unnecessary, as lights are used to see through the water. Boats Although bowfishing can be done from the shore, bowfishers most often shoot from boats. Flat bottom \"john boats\" and canoes are used in areas of low water, as they have less draw, but are unsuitable for open water. Larger boats can accommodate", "-29.992990115089924" ], [ "manufacturers, but the International Badminton Federation objected to the name, which has since been abandoned.\nWhite is also used for sport team colours. Because uniform colours in Association football cannot clash with referee uniforms in FIFA tournaments, the men's football team uses white uniforms and is known as the All Whites. The women's softball team is known as the White Sox, and the women's cricket team is known as the White Ferns.\nNew Zealand sports teams have occasionally used teal as an accent colour, most notably in cricket. The same colour also has connections with other organisations such as Air New", "-29.952977531473152" ], [ "give the fish a black color, while muddy water will often tend to produce green-brown specimens. The underside is always pale yellow to white in colour. Albinistic specimens are known to exist and are caught occasionally. Wels swim in a fashion similar to eels, and so can swim backwards. Size With a possible total length up to 5 m (16 ft) and a maximum weight of over 300 kg (660 lb), the wels catfish is the largest true freshwater fish (as opposed to anadromous or catadromous) in its region (Europe and parts of Asia). However, such lengths are rare and were hard to prove", "-29.806475347053492" ], [ "painted on the sides and stern of the hull, usually in blue, red or black. The escort groups to which most Captains were assigned had their own individual insignia; these distinctive and colourful designs were painted on the side of the ship's funnel, and if the ship was home to the escort group's senior officer it would also have a coloured band painted around the top of the funnel (usually in blue or red). The ship's waterline was always in black.\nA total of five different ship camouflage schemes were employed on the Captains. The ships came from the shipyards in", "-29.772493974509416" ], [ "the motors in proportion to the boats.\" British Seagull Ltd. v. Brunswick Corp., 28 USPQ 2d 1197, 1199 (1993).\nEven though there is no direct function for the colour black in this case, protection was denied under the argument that consumers prefer it for aesthetic purposes.\nA similar judgement was entered in Deere & Co. v. Farmhand. Deere & Co. tried to establish exclusive use of its John Deere green colour as a trademark, in order to enjoin Farmhand from applying it to its products. Although the John Deere green colour does not provide any specific function to the good to which", "-29.703816951194312" ], [ "P1000 Class Picket Boat History Although these boats were once carried on Royal Navy ships of the Destroyer class and above, they now serve only at the college in Dartmouth and can be seen flying the white or the blue ensign regularly on the River Dart and near the coast close to Start Point.\nThe significance of the colour of the ensigns is based on the use of the vessel, but generally when the vessel is on official Royal Navy business through the training of officer cadets then it flies the white ensign; when it is not, it flies the blue", "-29.498821148619754" ], [ "of the freshwater fish due to their brilliant colors (red, brown, orange, and yellow are the most predominant tints).", "-29.44863246823661" ], [ "apparent dangers evaporating, the ship's disguised paint scheme was also dropped and she was returned to civilian colours. Her name was picked out in gilt, her funnels were repainted in their traditional Cunard livery, and her superstructure was painted white again. One alteration was the addition of a bronze/gold coloured band around the base of the superstructure just above the black paint. 1915 By early 1915, a new threat to British shipping began to materialise: U-boats (submarines). At first, the Germans only used them to attack naval vessels, and they achieved only occasional—but sometimes spectacular—successes. U-boats then began to attack", "-29.239196199690923" ], [ "scales. The common name of the Flagfish is derived from the male due to the resemblance of its patterning to the flag of the United States. There is a dark rectangle on the shoulder which is imagined as the blue and white starts in the corner of the US flag and there are stripes along the flanks, some of which are red and others paler, albeit greenish rather than white. The male also has a dark spot positioned at the lower posterior corner of the dark rectangle. The olive-grey colouration and pattern of nondominant males, females, and juveniles underlies the", "-29.082920331857167" ], [ "or aqua jersey. The Dolphins continue to wear white at home, just as they had with the previous uniforms, with aqua being used for primetime home games. The white jersey features aqua numbers and names in a unique custom font, with orange and navy outlines on the numbers, however the names only use navy as an outline color. The aqua jerseys use white numbers with an orange and aqua outline, and white names with a navy outline. The helmets are white with a white facemask, just like the final years of the previous look, however navy is a prominent color", "-28.99814531089214" ], [ "paint. Any string, glue, and cellophane may only be used for decorative purposes. Initially, the rules were broad, and only barred specific materials such as styrofoam, metal, wood and glass. As late as 2009, the rules allowed for cloth sails and string for construction. Eligibility Boats are only eligible to race if they meet the material requirements (see above) and if they fit the dimensions given by the rules. Traditionally, these are a maximum length of 20 feet, a maximum width of 15 feet and a minimum volume of 3 cubic feet per crew member.", "-28.886452348320745" ], [ "have caps which are either numbered \"1-A\" in NCAA games, or \"13\" in FINA international games. Thus, each team will have two sets of caps: one white and the other dark colored. According to the NFHS water polo uniform rules, the numbers on the cap contrast the color of the cap, and both the color of the cap and the color of the number contrast the color of the ball. Use by underwater sports disciplines In underwater football, underwater hockey and underwater rugby, water polo caps are worn by competitors to identify which teams they are playing for, and to", "-28.864668126567267" ], [ "and ice hockey, the home team tends to wear uniforms that feature their team colors, whereas the visiting team will wear white or a lighter color. On the other hand, in baseball and basketball, the home team will typically choose to wear the lighter colored version of its uniform. Many teams have a home uniform which is mostly white and referred to as the \"home whites\". \nThe road team will generally wear a version of its uniform with one of the darker of its official colors as the main color, or in baseball with a grey main color referred", "-28.85527629331773" ], [ "and has also said \"If Berlitz were to report that a boat were red, the chance of it being some other color is almost a certainty.\" Lloyd's of London has determined the Triangle to be no more dangerous than any other piece of the ocean, and does not charge unusual rates of insurance for passage through the area. United States Coast Guard records confirm this determination. However, tales of missing ships, although promoted by Berlitz, existed prior to the book's publication. He first heard of these tales at his travel agency, wondering why his customers requested to avoid flying over", "-28.83706168620847" ], [ "provide strategic information about the ages of vessels in a fleet. In time ochre or buff paint began to replace linseed oil as the topside coating. This gave all ships a uniform appearance. Also wales grew larger (more black). USS Constitution (1798) when launched and until early in the War of 1812 was black and buff. Only late in that war, when white paint became more common and affordable, did she take on her current black and white look.", "-28.76510575733846" ], [ "navy blue or with a white top, were favored by the skippers of sailing yachts, motor boats, and other small pleasure craft. From the 1930s until the 1970s a waterproof version, known as a mechanic's cap, was worn with a blue boiler suit (coveralls) as part of the uniform for truckers, gas station employees and breakdown men. In the 1950 edition of Tintin and the Land of Black Gold, Thomson and Thompson wear these caps when they go undercover as Autocart mechanics. Modern use During the 1950s, black leather variants of the Greek Fisherman's cap were popular among the", "-28.75787794639473" ], [ "is because of the earlier work of pioneers such as Uffa Fox, and through the use of modern designs and techniques such as lighter hull materials (e.g., fibreglass and foam sandwich hull construction, which eliminate time-consuming maintenance and constant care that wooden hulls required, although they are rare and only a few people make them some still sail with wooden boats), more responsive sail materials and design, easily transportable boats (many car-toppable), and simpler rigs such as gennakers instead of more complex spinnakers. These advances are more economical in time and money, and have greatly extended the appeal of dinghy", "-28.748700645403005" ], [ "decided to paint the whole boat white. Today, the steamship is in its original colour.\nIn 1958 the old steam engine was replaced with a diesel engine. Facilities The boat holds 100 passengers and has service on board. The boat operates between 15 June and mid-September.", "-28.722420952282846" ], [ "the sea is in shades varying from \"greyish green\" to \"a richer blue\".\nThe first two rolls were done with roughly the same amount of detail while the lesser rowbarges (essentially small galleys) were done more hastily. The first two ships of the first roll, the Henry Grace à Dieu and the Mary Rose, have traces of a grid pattern, indicating that they were transferred from a different drawing while the rest are done in freehand. Overall, the ships follow a formula depending on the type of ship. The exceptions are stern galleries of some of the galleasses and the figureheads", "-28.625550934812054" ], [ "Red Sea rig History Red Sea rig was originally a Royal Navy concept appearing during the nineteenth century. Historically, it was felt that Royal Navy officers, like their British Army counterparts, should wear the full appropriate uniform for all formal events, whatever the temperature. The sole exception was in the Red Sea, where the heat and humidity often made this physically impossible. Here, officers were permitted to remove their jackets in the wardroom, provided they added a cummerbund to temper the somewhat informal look. Royal Air Force officers serving on Navy ships follow the naval tradition wearing a Red Sea", "-28.58795796171762" ], [ "White fleet (military vehicles) A white fleet is the non-combat specific vehicles of armed forces. Such vehicles include vans, minibuses, coach buses, touring recruitment vehicles, and staff cars for high-ranking officers.\nThe term white fleet is used in several countries, including Australia, New Zealand, and UK with reference to fleet management of the defence vehicular assets to distinguish from fighting vehicles and green fleet vehicles. Australia As of 2015 Australian Department of Defence white fleet vehicles are leased from SG Fleet under contract. United Kingdom The UK Ministry of Defence's white fleet ownership was outsourced in 2001 on a 10-year contract", "-28.573997215367854" ], [ "danger of collision. This marks a distinction between the 'Alpha' flag and the red and white diver down flag. The red and white flag The use of the red and white flag, which was created in 1956 by Navy veteran Denzel James Dockery and popularised by Ted Nixon of US Divers, is required by law or regulation in many US states, Canada, and some other countries (e.g. Italy). Usually the regulations require divers to display the flag while diving and to stay within a specified distance of it when they are near the surface. There may also be a larger", "-28.519951830763603" ], [ "appearances of the fleet. However, the vessels were only rebuilt from the hull up, meaning that their hulls and power plant remain identical.\nEach vessel consists of an open car deck situated atop a hull that is low to the water. Because of the ships' shallow displacements, the ships appear almost barge-like, sitting directly atop the water, from a distance. The ships were originally built with two decks atop the car deck—the second deck consisting of a gift shop, café, and interior and exterior seating areas, and the third deck consisting of outdoor seating areas. Historically, an interior crew room was", "-28.441172598017147" ], [ "many tables located in the passenger cabin to allow for the bench seats to be spaced closer together in some sections of the ship. The galley area was also upgraded and each ship was given a unique look. The original color on the Kittitas was yellow, and her new colors are a mix of turquoise and orange.\nThe Kittitas serves Mukilteo–Clinton along with the MV Tokitae.", "-28.424159175134264" ], [ "reasons, although green fleet vehicles could be of any colour (such as vehicles in desert camouflage or red RAF fire engines). Green fleet vehicles carry military registration numbers, unlike civilian registered white fleet vehicles.", "-28.37837177037727" ], [ "the ability to change colors to a limited extent to blend in with their environments. During the monsoon seasons, the reddish margins of the fins can turn paler (to either orange or white), accompanied by the appearance of numerous reddish spots on the lower half of the body. The upper half of the caudal fin also turns white. Importance Crazy fish are caught and sold for the aquarium trade. They are also edible and are sometimes fished for human consumption. They are reasonably abundant and are classified as Least Concern by the IUCN.", "-28.30235198617447" ], [ "The traditional U.S. Navy colors were chosen for the shield because dark blue and gold represents the sea and excellence respectively. The United States representing colors, red, white and blue, are all represented. The double chevron is to honor DD 191 and DE 529, the former ships named USS Mason. The facing lions are adapted from the Mason family Coat of Arms, denote the Atlantic and Pacific campaigns of World War II. The trident, symbol of sea prowess, represents Mason’s modern warfare capabilities which include; AEGIS weapon system, Cooperative Engagement Capability, and Theater Ballistic Missile Defense. Crest The helm is", "-28.291467276052572" ], [ "males take on a slight green or red colouration. The salmon has a fusiform body, and well-developed teeth. All fins, save the adipose, are bordered with black. Distribution and habitat Historically, Atlantic salmon existed as far south as the State of Virginia and as far north as Nunavut on the western side of the Atlantic Ocean. In Europe, Atlantic salmon are still found as far south as Spain, and as far north as Russia. The species distribution is easily influenced by changes in freshwater habitat and climate. Atlantic salmon are a cold-water fish species and are particularly sensitive to changes", "-28.284721057389106" ], [ "and blue because the red stood for the element of fire whereas the blue would represent the element of water. Coincidentally, red and blue are also the colors recognized world-wide to signify emergency services; therefore, red and blue being the best choice of color to recognize an international holiday. The ribbon is traditionally worn on the lapel-otherwise known as the fold of fabric on a shirt- but is not limited to that certain spot. Some people may also put it on their cars visors, hats, hang them in windows or off of car mirrors, or even hang them from trees", "-28.24370092414756" ], [ "unique name, none of the names are painted or engraved on the hulls. All boats are generally referred to by their names and not by their numbers, particularly when hailing and congratulating a fellow sailor on a good race result.", "-28.195244666887447" ], [ "With flying colours \"With flying colours\" is a popular idiom of the English language. The phrase's origins relate to ship flags. History Ships serve scientific and cultural needs, as well as the transportation of goods, and resolving political and national conflict. In the past, without the use of modern communication devices, a ship's appearance upon the immediate return to the port could communicate how the crew fared at sea. Ships that were victorious in their endeavours – e.g. an encounter with an enemy ship – would sail into port with flags flying from the mastheads. On the other hand, a", "-28.184584139322396" ], [ "Highway temporary signs about construction or detours in the United States are orange, because of its visibility and its association with danger.\nIt is worn by people wanting to be seen, including highway workers and lifeguards. Prisoners are also sometimes dressed in orange clothing to make them easier to see during an escape. Lifeguards on the beaches of Los Angeles County, both real and in television series, wear orange swimsuits to make them stand out. Orange astronaut suits have the highest visibility in space, or against blue sea. An aircraft's two types of \"black box,\" or flight data recorder and cockpit", "-28.160266468068585" ], [ "parkas are in the environmental colours of navy blue (actually black), rifle green, and air force blue; shirts are white, linden green, or light blue. Royal Canadian Navy Sea element personnel were issued a \"navy blue\" (actually a tone of black according to Canadian Forces Dress Instructions) double-breasted, six-button jacket and trousers, white shirt, and white peaked cap. For the summer periods Navy personnel may wear white trousers, white web belt for the trousers, and white socks and shoes with No 3B. These white items may also be worn with a privately purchased high-collared white tunic (No 1C or 1D).", "-28.160068004974164" ], [ "of green fish are females. The flesh is blue in color as are the internal organs. It reaches up to 99 cm (3 ft 3 in) in length and 14 kg (31 lb) in weight, while the largest ever Cabezon caught was 25 lb (11 kg) in weight and longest being 39 in (99 cm). As the Spanish-origin name implies, the fish has a very large head relative to its body. Distribution and habitat Cabezon are found in the northeast Pacific Ocean from Alaska to Baja California.\nThey are found in a wide range of habitats at depths of 0–200 m (0–656 ft), including rocky, muddy and sandy bottoms, and kelp beds.", "-28.103441028324596" ], [ "33 to 35 feet in length. These boats were typically painted with a white superstructure and gray hull with a red waterline stripe and black hull below the waterline. They would also frequently have the parent ship's hull identifier and hull number marked on the port and starboard bows with chromed metal letters & digits with two half of an arrow in front and back of the hull identifier. The front half of an arrow, with the arrowhead pointed toward the bow was forward of and the back half of the arrow was aft of the", "-28.090876339934766" ], [ "peeling almost immediately and had to be repainted yet again within a few months. This time they were painted mustard yellow along with orange and black trim; the design would remain the same until the attraction closed in 1998. The yellow color made the submarines look like research submarines instead of the previous militarian gray and black subs. (The reason research subs are typically painted yellow is that yellow is one of the last colors to be visible at great depths.)\nThe vessels are not actual submarines as they do not submerge, but are in fact boats, where inside the", "-28.07287230354268" ], [ "have white tops all year around, and blue caps were abolished in 1956.\nThe distinctive white collar patch of the midshipman first appeared in 1758. Ratings Uniform for ratings was first established by the Admiralty in 1857. Prior to this, most seamen wore \"slops\", or ready-made clothing sold to the ship's crew by a contractor; many captains established general standards of appearance for the seamen on their vessel, but there was little or no uniformity between ships. On one occasion in 1853, the commanding officer of HMS Harlequin paid for his boat crews to dress as harlequins, an incident which may have", "-28.055862930996227" ], [ "large and fat linggi (stempost) just like leti leti, with gulungan motifs painted black. It has deckhouse without secondary cabin at the aft of the boat. Usually had 2 sails (usually lete sail), with upper beam supported by temporary pole and mast at the direction of the wind, or at both side of the boat, with support ropes at both upper beam. The hulls were always painted white, with polychrome sheer stripe, and the upper portions of end posts, as well as the finials painted black. Medium-sized golekan used as fish transporters were about 12 metres in length with a", "-27.881376338700647" ], [ "body of a fish. Description A shadbelly is usually black in color, although navy is becoming popular, and deep green is also occasionally seen in some nations. It has tails, double buttons, and either is worn over a vest (British English: waistcoat) of canary yellow or, particularly when worn in hot weather, has false yellow points peeking out under the cut-away front, to simulate the look of a vest. Vests or vest points of colours other than canary yellow are becoming more popular. Generally a white shirt with a ratcatcher collar and tied stock tie (a type of simple cravat)", "-27.873516272811685" ], [ "St John's College Boat Club (Oxford) Colours The St John's College Boat Club colours are a white shield with blue cross upon a navy blue background. The Men's 1st boats race in all-white uniform with blue trim and the 2nd crews compete in all-blue with white trim. The Women's boats race in all-black with blue trim. The Boat Club flag consists of a lamb carrying a flag atop a navy blue cross set against a white background. The symbol of the lamb and flag is that of St John the Baptist, after whom the College was named.", "-27.833938102587126" ], [ "navy for unknown reasons, and who has been confused by modern researchers with a white male sailor of the same name?\nEven if Boser is correct, however, the undisputed enlistment of the woman from Grenada aboard Queen Charlotte in May and June 1815 still makes Brown the first known black, biologically female individual to serve in the Royal Navy.", "-27.830456175492145" ], [ "zone around the flag where no boats are allowed to pass. Some states also prohibit the display of this flag when there is no diver in water. It can be placed on a boat or on a surface marker buoy. Other uses Today the red and white flag is so strictly associated with scuba diving in North America that it is also used to indicate a place where there are services for divers, for example stores selling or renting diving equipment or scuba service stations. It may be seen on the windows or bumpers of cars belonging to divers.\nCode flag", "-27.78722934727557" ], [ "was painted in the Finland SS Co colours, black with two white horizontal stripes.\nWhen the Finlandia passed under Finnlines ownership, she was painted in the then-current Finnlines colours, with the two black decorative stripes on the hull replaced by a wider blue stripe. The hull was painted grey below the blue stripe and white above. The black Effoa funnel colours were replaced by Finnlines' passenger services funnel colours, white with a white/blue stripe and a large white emblem with a black \"F\" in the center.\nWhen the Finlandia was converted into the Finnstar, the dummy funnel was removed and the exhaust", "-27.777371016854886" ], [ "each game must wear a white jersey to contrast with the other team's dark jersey. The only exceptions to this point had been when a team opted to wear gold in lieu of white. However, for the 2000 All-Star Game, the NHL opted to experiment with a color-vs.-color format with uniforms by CCM. The North American All-Stars were clad in a navy blue uniform with white shoulders and sleeves, and the wishbone collar design previously introduced by Nike, while the World All-Stars wore red with white shoulders and sleeves, and a faux polo-style collar. The goaltenders, however, wore white jerseys", "-27.76159939856734" ], [ "is a flag used on the water to indicate that there is a diver below. Two styles of flag are in use. Internationally, the code flag \"alpha\", which has a white hoist and blue swallowtail fly, is used to signal that the vessel has a diver down and other vessels should keep well clear at slow speed. In North America a red flag with a white diagonal stripe from the upper left corner to the lower right corner is conventionally used.\nThe purpose of these flags is to notify other boats to steer clear for the safety of the divers", "-27.708105170633644" ], [ "traditionally been white, but in the 2015 Six Nations Scotland and France adopted red as their alternate colour. International rules Ireland's green jersey is complemented by two away jerseys, one which is white in colour and one which is navy in colour.", "-27.657319090678357" ], [ "the House of Bourbon, the royal colours had merged making blue, red, and white the royal colours; Henry IV of France even had his entire entourage dress in these colours. These colours, for these or other reasons, also became the colours of the French ensigns. A plain white ensign indicated the French sailing fleet, a red flag a galley, while the blue flag was flown by the merchant ships. It's somewhat unclear whether all of these were plain flags. E.g. in 1661 the use of white flags on merchant ships is explicitly forbidden, pointing the merchants instead to the \"old", "-27.653733721759636" ], [ "The red ochre was there to block the ultra-violet in the sunlight from degrading the sails (much as lamp-black was used in the sail dressing for the Norfolk wherries), but sails that were stowed away such as jibsails were usually left untreated. The barges required no ballast, and sailing in this condition with leeboards raised they typically draw only 3 foot; this has caught out a few modern yachtsmen who have run aground while attempting to follow them. No auxiliary power was used originally but many barges were fitted with engines in later years and most retain them, but among", "-27.640688555373345" ], [ "of the brown color in the FOA camouflage). Navy blue was chosen instead of black because natural shadows generally tend to be in shades of blue to the human eye.", "-27.62733881289023" ], [ "Coloured squadrons of the Royal Navy History Historically, the English fleet was first divided into three squadrons distinguished by colour in 1558, the Admiral of the English fleet, the Lord Admiral of England's squadron, flew a plain red flag as its ensign. The Vice-Admiral of the fleet, or Vice-Admiral of England, flew a plain blue flag, and the Rear-Admiral of the fleet flew a plain white flag. Order of precedence was red, blue, and white until May 1596.\nIn June 1596 the English fleet was divided into four squadrons for the expedition for the Capture of Cádiz. The fleet during this", "-27.610198313952424" ], [ "remained on board to delay the ship's sinking, though the legitimacy of this origin is questionable.\nPurple is also the colour of the Engineering Corp in the British Military. It is common for engineers across schools in Canada to dye themselves (and their leather jackets, in the case of Queen's University engineers) purple using the medical dye Gentian Violet, especially during events such as Frosh Week.", "-27.601713060052134" ], [ "Rainbow (clipper) The first extreme clipper ship Rainbow is considered to be the first extreme clipper ship. It was built in 1845, in accordance with John W. Griffiths' ideas, and followed by Sea Witch the next year. Both of the vessels are cited as being highly influential in subsequent merchant hull design. Though initial opinions were that Rainbow would sink during its first trip, its subsequent success led to a rush to adopt the new design in shipbuilding across Boston, New York, Philadelphia and British manufacturing companies.\nIts design was created around the concept of sacrificing cargo capacity in favour of", "-27.522651304723695" ], [ "and relatively low cost make them one of the most common type of warship in the world. Almost all navies operate at least a few offshore patrol vessels, especially those with only \"green water\" capabilities. They are useful in smaller seas such as the North Sea as well as in open oceans. Similar vessels for exclusively military duties include torpedo boats and missile boats. The United States Navy operated the Pegasus class of armed hydrofoils for years, in a patrol boat role. The River Patrol Boat (PBR, sometimes called \"Riverine\" and \"Pibber\") is a U.S. design of small patrol boat", "-27.487260598572902" ], [ "in four colors: black, white, copper and aqua green (Ice Green in the UK).", "-27.43706133204978" ], [ "nautical miles (370 km) and a seagoing blue-water navy, a new term, \"green-water navy,\" has been created by the U.S. Navy, which refers to the coastal submarines and fast attack boats of many nations, the larger littoral combat corvettes and similar vessels of a substantial number of powers, and amphibious vessels ranging from elderly LSTs to complex S/VTOL carriers and other specialized ships. \nThe term brown-water navy appears to have been reduced, in U.S. Navy parlance, to a riverine force.\nIn modern warfare blue-water navy implies self-contained force protection from sub-surface, surface and airborne threats and a sustainable logistic reach, allowing a", "-27.430816196341766" ], [ "Atlantic sailfish Description The Atlantic sailfish is a metallic blue fish with a large sail-like dorsal fin and a long and pointed bill-like snout. It is dark bluish-black on the upperparts and lighter on the sides (counter-shading), with about twenty bluish horizontal bars along the flanks; the underparts are silvery white. The tail fin is strongly forked. The fins are bluish-black and the front dorsal fin is speckled with small black spots. The bases of the anal fins are pale.\nThe length of this fish is up to 3.15 m (10.3 ft) and the maximum published weight is 58.1 kg (128.1 lb).\nIn previous studies, sailfish", "-27.397610006242758" ], [ "their clothes greens, browns, and grays as it was cheaper but mostly stuck to whites and natural colours.", "-27.3313082861132" ], [ "in memory of their ties to that country. Many former colonies of Spain, such as Mexico, Colombia, Costa Rica, Cuba, Ecuador, Panama, Peru, Puerto Rico and Venezuela, also feature red-one of the colors of the Spanish flag-on their own banners. Red flags are also used to symbolize storms, bad water conditions, and many other dangers. Navy flags are often red and yellow. Red is prominently featured in the flag of the United States Marine Corps.\nThe red on the flag of Nepal represents the floral emblem of the country, the rhododendron.\nRed, blue, and white are also the Pan-Slavic colors adopted by", "-27.305201272683917" ], [ "great care taken by the class to ensure that the wood and glass yachts could race on an equal basis. Today, there are twelve fleets racing around the world— Bermuda, Norway (two fleets - (Fredrikstad and Tønsberg), the United Kingdom (St. Mawes, Falmouth), Sweden (Stenungsund), Canada (Chester, Nova Scotia), New York (three fleets -- Larchmont, Manhattan, and Fishers Island), Maine (Northeast Harbor), Massachusetts (two fleets -- Marblehead and Nantucket) and California (San Francisco Bay). \nMost recently, IODs were the first class awarded International Classic Yacht status by the International Sailing Federation (ISAF). Racing IOD Racing commenced on Long Island", "-27.27635263110278" ], [ "car liveries so that the cars appeared non-threatening and could be easily visible at night. Bright green and white became the colours associated with police vehicles in Germany beginning in the 1970s. More recently, police forces changed to silver cars and vans instead of white ones as they were easier to sell than the white ones when their police service was over. Now, most states have light blue instead of green stripes, but cars painted in the old livery can still be seen (as of November 2012). Only the states of Bavaria and Saarland have opted to retain the green-on-white/silver", "-27.27495318534784" ], [ "and 5 lb (0.5 and 2.3 kg) in riverine environments, while lake-dwelling and anadromous forms may reach 20 lb (9 kg). Coloration varies widely between regions and subspecies. Adult freshwater forms are generally blue-green or olive green with heavy black spotting over the length of the body. Adult fish have a broad reddish stripe along the lateral line, from gills to the tail, which is most pronounced in breeding males. The caudal fin is squarish and only mildly forked. Lake-dwelling and anadromous forms are usually more silvery in color with the reddish stripe almost completely gone. Juvenile rainbow trout display parr", "-27.268935025771498" ], [ "as the 'Oceanic' class: Oceanic (I), Atlantic, Baltic, and Republic, followed by the slightly larger Celtic and Adriatic. It had long been customary for many shipping lines to have a common theme for the names of their ships. White Star gave their ships names ending in -ic. The line also adopted a buff-coloured funnel with a black top as a distinguishing feature for their ships, as well as a distinctive house flag, a red broad pennant with two tails, bearing a white five-pointed star. In the initial designs for this first fleet of liners, each ship was to measure 420", "-27.268285969621502" ], [ "Silver trout Description The silver trout was often a foot long and was said to actually be olive green in color. In the lakes silver trout inhabited, large quantities of the species appeared in October to spawn. Systematic position To formally describe the species and prevent local fishermen from overharvesting in the absence of bag limits, specimens were sent to Harvard and the U.S. National Museum for identification, where the fish was first described as a form of lake trout (Salvelinus namaycush), and later as a variety of brook trout (Salvelinus fontinalis). The silver trout was described as Salmo agassizii", "-27.241944666195195" ], [ "prominently feature the colour .\nThe National Hockey League, the premier Ice hockey league in Canada and the United States, uses blue on its official logo. Ten teams prominently feature the colour, with two teams (Columbus Blue Jackets and St. Louis Blues) featuring the colour in their nicknames. The team in St. Louis is primarily nicknamed after the eponymous music genre.", "-27.20385411870666" ], [ "not all, sports teams also wear uniforms, made in the team's distinctive colors. In individual sports like tennis and golf, players may choose any clothing design allowed by the competition rules.\nTo prevent the confusion (for officials, players, and fans) that might result from two opposing teams wearing uniforms (kits) with similar colors, teams have different variations for \"home\" and \"away\" games, where typically one is dark and the other is light. In the four major North American sports leagues, one of the two uniforms is almost always predominantly white, and each league except for the National Basketball Association (NBA) has", "-27.19236036099028" ], [ "of games the following year. The NHL itself adapted to become viewer-friendly. In 1949, to make the puck easier to see, the league mandated the ice surface painted white. In 1951, so each team was distinguishable on black and white television, the League required home teams wear colored jerseys, and the road teams wear white. For the same reason, teams painted the centre red line in a checkered pattern to set it apart from the solid blue lines. Toronto Maple Leafs In the 1951 Stanley Cup Finals, in the only final in NHL history when all", "-27.18913949522539" ], [ "ship. For example, vessels of a green-water navy can often operate in blue water for short periods of time. A number of nations have extensive maritime assets but lack the capability to maintain the required sustainable logistic reach. Some of them join coalition task groups in blue-water deployments such as anti-piracy patrols off Somalia. Definitions According to a dictionary definition, blue-water capability refers to an oceangoing fleet able to operate on the high seas far from its nation's homeports. Some operate throughout the world.\nIn their 2012 publication, \"Sea Power and the Asia-Pacific\", professors Geoffrey Till and Patrick C. Bratton", "-27.179805858337204" ], [ "blue and gold are the colors traditionally used by the United States Navy. The red, white, and blue shield reflects the national colors of the United States and suggests its coat of arms. The six red stripes represent the ship's hull number as well as the six coins placed beneath the mast during mast stepping; red being the color of valor and sacrifice. The gold fleur-de-lis highlights the heritage of the first ship named Bonhomme Richard. The wreath of two green laurel branches symbolizes honor and high achievement commemorating the two previous ships carrying the name Bonhomme Richard. The eagle,", "-27.165994937589858" ], [ "Grayling Day In the United Kingdom, in the early autumn, fishermen often use the name of the grayling (Thymallus thymallus) as a by-word for their seasonal jolly: a Grayling Day is often fisherman-talk for a party. Many clubs as well as fisherman friends will organise their annual Grayling Day in the autumn when it is traditional for there to be large quantities of both food and drink, prefaced by a token amount of fishing. \nAt the event, there will often be speeches and toasts.\nThe celebration is named after the grayling due to its popularity with fishermen: apart from having one", "-27.10392956342548" ], [ "Nantucket Reds Nantucket Reds are a style of trousers distributed by Murray's Toggery Shop on the island of Nantucket. The pants were featured in The Official Preppy Handbook. Description Nantucket Reds were originally inspired by cotton trousers worn in Brittany. A characteristic of Reds is that they fade to a \"dusty rose\" as they age. Since their inception, the cotton canvas pants have been marketed as shorts. The distinctive salmon pink color has since been used on hats, shirts, sweaters and socks. Reds are worn predominantly by summer residents of Nantucket, Martha's Vineyard, and Cape Cod in place of khakis", "-27.09843258127512" ], [ "Black marlin Description Compared to striped or white marlins and sailfish, black marlins are more solid than their blue counterparts. They have a shorter bill and a rounder and lower dorsal fin. Black marlin may be distinguished from all other marlin species by their rigid pectoral fins, which, especially from a weight of around 150 lb (75 kg) or so, are unable to be pressed flat against their sides. Diet Diet mostly consists of various fish and cephalopods. Recreational fishing Many people see the black marlin as the premier game fish for sport fisherman. Because of their size and physique, these marlins", "-27.086025826458354" ], [ "of whatever color. The white lace wedding gown of Queen Victoria in 1840 had a large impact on the color and fashion of wedding dresses in both Europe and America down to the present day. Cleanliness White is the color most associated with cleanliness. Objects which are expected to be clean, such as refrigerators and dishes, toilets and sinks, bed linen and towels, are traditionally white. White was the traditional color of the coats of doctors, nurses, scientists and laboratory technicians, though nowadays a pale blue or green is often used. White is also the color most often worn by", "-27.067977490543853" ], [ "west coast fleet were painted grey as camouflage, making them look like auxiliary naval ships. Also during the war, Norah was used as a relief vessel for Princess Mary on the Gulf Islands route. On April 21, 1943, while on the Gulf Islands route, Norah ran aground not far from Victoria. There were no injuries and the vessel was returned to service after undergoing several weeks of repair in a drydock.\nIn 1955, the ship was renamed Queen of the North. Under this name, the ship was operated on the Inside Passage as a joint venture", "-27.060108237317763" ], [ "with greater certainty in case of falling in with an enemy\" After the Battle of Trafalgar (1805) the colour scheme became popular, and most major vessels in the Royal Navy sported this pattern, though it was not mandatory and some captains changed it. The Nelson Chequer fell into general disuse after 1815, when the yellow hue was superseded by white.\nNelson's flagship, HMS Victory remains painted with these colours, with the yellow stripes showing along the level of the gunports in Chatham while on an 1800 refit. \nIn spite of Nelson's desire to distinguish vessels by means of this unique colouring,", "-27.051539591047913" ], [ "Ice boat History Traditional iceboats from before the late 19th century were used for transportation of goods and racing. These boats reached lengths of 30 to 50 feet (9.1 to 15.2 m) and were sometimes transported between sites on rail cars. Ice sailing was first developed in Europe. In America, it was done in several locations where the sport also continues today. Many active ice sailing clubs are thriving in the northern States and Canadian Provinces, including on the Hudson River; Long Island Sound; Detroit, Michigan; Sandusky, Ohio; Gull Lake, Michigan; Lake Muskegon, Michigan; Geneva Lake, Wisconsin; Oshkosh, Wisconsin; Hamilton Bay,", "-27.04944829631131" ], [ "vessels where it may be too dark due to low natural light or turbid water to see the way to the side of the hull. The bottom of the largest ships is mostly flat and featureless, exacerbating the problem. Only surface supplied diving is authorised for this work in most jurisdictions, as this not only secures the diver's breathing gas supply, but also provides a guideline to the exit point. The use of mechanised bottom scrubbing devices which are steered along the hull surface by a diver and scrub it with rotary brushes has been linked with high release of", "-27.038362120219972" ], [ "USS Blueback (SS-581) Origin of the name Sources differ on the origin of Blueback's name. The Dictionary of American Naval Fighting Ships entry for Blueback states that she is named after a \nform of the rainbow or steelhead trout found only in Lake Crescent on the Olympic Peninsula in Washington state. The fish lives in deep water and is bluish black along its upper sides and whitish underneath.\n\nOther sources state that she is named after the \nmost numerous of west coast salmon species. The blueback salmon ... is colored a bright blue with silver sides. 1960s After fitting out,", "-27.037325997604057" ], [ "wood, and those parts of the hull, near the water(-line) serve for the crew to wash and to accomplish their natural necessities. On the sides of these pieces of wood also the oars are found; they are as big as masts, and are worked by 10 or 15 men (each), who row standing up.\nAlthough Ibn Battuta had mentioned the size of the sailing crew, he described the sizes of the vessels further, as well as the lavish merchant cabins on board:\nThe vessels have four decks, upon which there are cabins and saloons for merchants. Several of these 'mysria' contain cupboards", "-27.026326063321903" ], [ "and a light gray in winter. Naval officers wore white in summer and navy blue in winter while lower ranks wear the traditional bell bottoms and white blouse. The uniform for naval chief petty officers was a buttoned jacket, similar to that worn by American chief petty officers. Officers had a variety of headgear, including a service cap, garrison cap, and beret (linen in summer and wool in winter). The color of the beret varied by season and according to the officer's unit.\nSyrian Commando and Paratroop uniforms consist of lizard or woodland-patterned camouflage fatigues along with combat boots, helmets and", "-27.02313771696936" ], [ "B Gammon at Herne Bay in 1947, is in the collection of the National Maritime Museum Cornwall.\nA variant of the 1900 design was adopted by many clubs in India and Sri Lanka, the main difference being the use of teak planking which being heavier, resulted in the boat requiring more freeboard. A small foredeck was added to assist in keeping the boat drier.\nWater Wags do not carry any symbol on the sails, and have no individual identifying mark beyond the sail number on the main sail and different spinnaker colours. Despite every boat of the Water Wag Class having a", "-27.02122698095627" ], [ "separately, the similar appearance is due to convergent evolution. This was used as early evidence for natural selection. Some high Arctic species like the snowy owl and polar bear however remain white all year round. \nIn military usage, soldiers often either exchange their disruptively-patterned summer uniforms for thicker snow camouflage uniforms printed with mainly-white versions of camouflage patterns in winter, or they wear white overalls over their uniforms. Some armies have made use of reversible uniforms, printed in different seasonal patterns on their two sides. Vehicles and guns are often simply repainted in white. Occasionally, aircraft too are repainted in", "-27.0136451353319" ], [ "blue upper decks and funnels. Because Celebrity uses dark blue as a trademark on their ships, the powder blue was subsequently changed to dark blue. The lead vessel, Celebrity Solstice, carries the original concept and design for the class, such as twin funnels with a small \"X\" on the front funnel and a large \"X\" on the railings of the hump staterooms. Several months after her service, the \"X\" logo on the railings were seen by Celebrity as a design flaw. Due to this, the \"X\" logo on the railings was removed from Celebrity Equinox and Celebrity Eclipse and from", "-27.001601253112312" ], [ "The pilot fish is also known to have a temporary variation of color when excited; its dark-colored bars disappear, and its body turns silvery-white, with three broad blue patches on its back. It can be recognized by its five to seven distinctive traverse bands, which are of a much darker color than the rest of the body. The pilot fish can grow up to 60–70 cm in length.\nThe pilot fish is edible and is said to taste good, but it is rarely available due to its erratic behavior when caught.\nWhile pilot fish can be seen with all manner of sharks, they", "-26.97917070647236" ], [ "that most people describe and is depicted in contemporary prints. His description does, however, tally with Elizabeth Grant’s description of the guide’s costume at Ramsgate in 1811. The only difference is in the fabric the costumes are made of. Flannel, however, was a common fabric for sea bathing costumes as many believed the warmer fabric was necessary in cold water.\nIn the 18th century women wore \"bathing gowns\" in the water; these were long dresses of fabrics that would not become transparent when wet, with weights sewn into the hems so that they would not rise up in the water. The", "-26.969506816472858" ], [ "with the sail area limits of the class and are painted red, also to comply with the class rules. The boat was, and remains, dangerous, but it was probably the first auto-gyro boat. The boat is currently in the collection of the Classic Boat Museum at East Cowes, Isle of Wight, and still 'sails'. World War I With the outbreak of war, Moore-Brabazon returned to flying, joining the Royal Flying Corps. He received a special-reserve commission as a second lieutenant (on probation) in the RFC on 2 December 1914, in the appointment of flying officer", "-26.96167454792885" ], [ "dark gray color so they would blend in better with the backdrop of the night sea. A few ships were painted white to help obscure their profile against the daytime horizon. While crossing great expanses of ocean, the steamers would burn normal coal that produced a dark smoke but when they were about to approach land they would often switch to burning a smokeless anthracite coal which greatly reduced their profile along the horizon. Sometimes these ships would use cotton soaked in turpentine as fuel as it gave off little smoke and produced intense heat that resulted in a marked", "-26.961019332520664" ], [ "of the \"Pink, White and Green\"(sic) were obscure but recent scholarship has determined it was first used in the late 1870s or early 1880s by an aid and benefit organization, the Newfoundland Fishermen's the Star of the Sea Association, which was established by the Roman Catholic Church in 1871. In the Catholic Church, Mary, the mother of Jesus, is known as the \"Star of the Sea\" (in Latin \"Stella Maris\") The flag became more widely used by other St. John's and surrounding area Catholic groups shortly thereafter. Given that, it was likely based on the similar", "-26.940618343505776" ], [ "and black, some boats are motor powered while others have oars. Most popular are flat bottomed to increase stability with keels made of wood or aluminum between 10 and 16 feet (3.0 and 4.9 m) long. Painted kayaks or canoes made of aluminum or fiberglass reinforced with Kevlar are also used; these can navigate shallow streams or small narrow rivers in search of waterfowl. Care must be taken when shooting from boats, canoes or kayaks as hunters have in the past fallen out of such craft due to loss of balance when shooting at waterfowl. Pursuing diving ducks in lakes,", "-26.928656078875065" ], [ "superstructure, a red decorative stripe separating the hull and superstructure, and red/blue funnel with a large white cross painted on it alongside the letters ML. This was later altered so that the decorative stripe was extended to cover the entire lowest superstructure deck, while the funnel was painted white with red stripes. As Feodor Dostoevskiy, the decorative stripe on the hull reverted to the same form as in the original livery, while the funnel was painted white with blue exhaust pipes and a wide red stripe with the hammer and sickle emblem on it.\nIn Transocean Tours service the ship received", "-26.88595907553099" ], [ "a blue \"C\" on it. The liveries the ship carried as Oriental Pearl and Joy Wave are unknown.\nAs Golden Princess the sweeping windbreakers shielding the rear decks, tying to the curve of the funnel were removed. The ship was again painted all-white, with the top half of the funnel yellow and the bottom half blue, and a blue circle with the ship's name on it in the center of the funnel. Interior design The Finlandia's original interiors were designed by famous artists and architects such as Jonas Cedercreutz, Lisa Johansson-Pape, Dora Jung, Harry Kivijärvi and Rut Bryk. The interior facilities", "-26.868232353706844" ] ]

[ "Oceans are saltwater, which land based plant life can't grow in. Also, the sand of a desert doesn't hold the moisture and nutrients necessary for plants to grow. Some deserts are growing because the soil near it is losing water and nutrients, so the plants are dying, and can no longer hold the soil, so desert takes over. This can extend all the way to an ocean.", "Water isn't shared like that. Sure, if water flowed directly through the desert, there could be some changes, but only immediately near the river; water doesn't go that far unless it fills up the water table underground where trees can get to it. Deserts are very large and very dry. They're dry either because they're on the wrong side of a mountain (like Western China being north of the Himalayas) or they're right under a [Hadley cell]( URL_0 ). Airflow deprives the 30N and 30S latitudes of moisture while inundating the 60N, 60S and equator with precipitation. Spin a globe and you'll see the brownest under the 30's and the greenest under the equator and the 60's.", "They are wondering this in California right now. Obviously you know that ocean water is salty, so you can't just pump ocean water on to crops or into municipal water supplies. In many cases, there is a mountain ridge poking up from the land right at the edge of the continent; this mountain range will cause precipitation to fall on the western side of the mountains, and leave a desert on the eastern side. This has to do with orographic lift: mountains force moist air to go upwards; as it moves up, it cools. Cool air can hold less moisture than warm air, so the cool air drops moisture as rain. once it gets over the mountains, the air is dry.", "Seawater is poisonous to nearly all land-based life, including both plants and animals. So just because there is sea water nearby doesn't mean that anything on land can take advantage of it. A further reason is that even if the seawater was usable it is (by definition!) in the sea and not on the land. If the geographical situation is one where virtually no rain falls (such as the Namibian Desert) then it's still going to be lifeless and barren. The basic summary is this: land-based life needs a constant supply of fresh water." ]

[ [ "that accounts for the formation of the desert and is why, despite approximately half of the desert being only about 200 miles from the ocean, such a large desert is found in the region. The cold Falkland Current off the Atlantic coast of South America also contributes to the area's aridity.\nDifferent climates can be distinguished: the coast north of the 45th parallel is much milder because of the warm currents from Brazil, and the entire northern half of the region is significantly warmer in the summer, when sunny weather predominates. Daily temperatures in the summer reach 31 °C in the Rio", "-36.097596160834655" ], [ "middle of the 19th century, as settlers migrated across the plains to Oregon and California, the wasteland connotation of \"desert\" was seen to be false, but the sense of the region as uninhabitable remained until irrigation, railroad transportation, and barbed wire made up for the lack of surface water and wood. Settlement and development The region's relative lack of water and wood affected the development of the United States. Settlers heading westward often attempted to pass through the region as quickly as possible en route to what was considered to be better land farther west. These early settlers gave telling", "-34.4319986228511" ], [ "Great American Desert The term Great American Desert was used in the 19th century to describe the western part of the Great Plains east of the Rocky Mountains in North America to about the 100th meridian.\nThe area is now usually referred to as the High Plains, and the original term is now sometimes used to describe the arid region of North America, which includes parts of northwestern Mexico and the American southwest. The concept of \"desert\" In colonial times, the term \"desert\" was often used to describe treeless or uninhabited lands whether they were arid or not. By the 19th", "-33.75410052927327" ], [ "Deserts of California The Deserts of California have unique ecosystems and habitats, a sociocultural and historical \"Old West\" collection of legends, districts, and communities, and they also form a popular tourism region of dramatic natural features and recreational development. All of the deserts are located in eastern Southern California, in the Western United States. Mojave Desert The topographical boundaries include the Tehachapi Mountains to the northwest, together with the San Gabriel and San Bernardino mountain ranges to the south. The mountain boundaries are quite distinct since they are outlined by the two largest faults in California – the San Andreas", "-33.34289363192511" ], [ "Yuma Desert The Yuma Desert is a lower-elevation section of the Sonoran Desert in the southwestern United States and the northwest of Mexico. It lies in the Salton basin. The desert contains areas of sparse vegetation and has notable areas of sand dunes. With an average rainfall less than 8 inches (200 mm) each year, this is among the harshest deserts in North America. Human presence is sparse throughout, the largest city being Yuma, Arizona, on the Colorado River and the border of California. Overview The desert includes the lower-elevation parts of the southwestern corner of Arizona, extending west to the", "-33.197950881614815" ], [ "\"desert\" were tempered by the many reports of vast herds of millions of Plains Bison that somehow managed to live in this \"desert\". In the 1840s, the Great Plains appeared to be unattractive for settlement and were illegal for homesteading until well after 1846—initially it was set aside by the U.S. government for Native American settlements. The next available land for general settlement, Oregon, appeared to be free for the taking and had fertile lands, disease free climate (yellow fever and malaria were then prevalent in much of the Missouri and Mississippi River drainage), extensive uncut, unclaimed forests, big rivers,", "-33.15420630318113" ], [ "Deserts The average rainfall in North America is 76 cm/year, which produces some 18 petaliters of water. Deserts The Sierra Nevada and Cascade mountain ranges run along the entire Pacific Coast, acting as a barrier to the humid winds that sweep in from the ocean. The rising topography forces this air upwards, causing moisture to condense and fall in the form of rain on the western slopes of the mountains, with some areas receiving more than 70 inches (1.8 m) of rainfall per year. As a result, the air has lost much of its moisture and becomes hot and dry when it", "-32.809826684358995" ], [ "covered with desert, with only its western regions around the coast of Atlantic Ocean having some vegetation. There are some oasis in the desert regions. Since it is a desert, there are large shifting dunes forming temporary ranges. The average elevation is around 460 m (1,510 ft) above the mean sea level. The rainfall in the northern regions closer to the Tropic of Cancer receives around 100 mm (3.9 in) of annual rainfall compared to the southern portions that receives around 660 mm (26 in). The average temperature is 37.8 °C (100.0 °F), while during the night it reaches 0 °C (32 °F). Due to the geography, the inhabitants historically,", "-32.57053454311972" ], [ "century, the term had begun to take on its modern meaning. It was long thought that treeless lands were not good for agriculture; thus the term \"desert\" also had the connotation of \"unfit for farming\". While the High Plains are not a desert in the modern sense, in this older sense of the word they were. The region is mostly semi-arid grassland and steppe. Today much of the region supports agriculture through the use of aquifer water irrigation. But in the 19th century, the area's relative lack of water and wood made it seem unfit for farming and uninhabitable by", "-32.5014402740926" ], [ "are occasionally described as \"ocean deserts\". Oligotrophic soil environments The oligotrophic soil environments include agricultural soil, frozen soil, et cetera. Various factors, such as decomposition, soil structure, fertilization and temperature, can affect the nutrient-availability in the soil environments.\nGenerally, the nutrient becomes less available along the depth of the soil environment, because on the surface, the organic compounds decomposed from the plant and animal debris are consumed quickly by other microbes, resulting in the lack of nutrient in the deeper level of soil. In addition, the metabolic waste produced by the microorganisms on the surface also causes the accumulation of toxic", "-32.43986521185434" ], [ "rain. By the time the winds cross over the mountains and sweep down the far side, they are very dry and absorb moisture from the surrounding area. This drying effect is responsible for creating the Great Basin Desert. Ecology and climate The desert region of California is characterized by low rainfall, caused by the rain shadow of mountain ranges to the west of the desert region. The Mojave Desert receives between 3 to 10 inches (76 to 254 mm) of rain per year, while the Colorado Desert receives between 2 to 6 inches (51 to 152 mm). The driest spot in California", "-32.141956094885245" ], [ "life sustenance in the desert supporting camels, goats and horses which are herded by nomads that travel through the desert. Most lakes also support a green ring of vegetation that populate the close vicinity around the lakes.\nThroughout the desert some lakes change color due to large populations of algae, Brine shrimp and mineral formations at different times in year. Evaporation can also allow others to turn into a hypersaline lake forming a salt crust around the rim of the lake.\nAlthough their true sources are still debated it is believed that they are being maintained by underground water streams. Most arid", "-32.11944095662329" ], [ "on the eastern, or leeward, side of the Andes and west of the Sierra de Córdoba, it experiences very little rain. These rain shadow effects are the primary reason for the aridity of the region and the formation of the Monte and other nearby deserts. Although a difference between this desert and the other two deserts is the lack of intensity of effect from the cold water currents off the South American coast for the Monte Desert. This allows the desert to support a wider variety of life than the other two more extreme deserts. Flora and fauna The flora", "-32.088276878308534" ], [ "Sonoran Desert covers the southwestern area of Arizona, including the cities of Phoenix, Tucson, and Yuma. The Sonoran Desert is one of the hottest deserts of the United States, and maintains warm temperatures year round. Despite the sparse amounts of precipitation during the year, the desert is home to a diverse population of flora and fauna because it has two rainy seasons a year. Several plant populations thrive because of their specialized adaptions to the climate, and various species of cactus can be found in the wild. The Sonoran Desert is the only place in the world where the saguaro", "-32.063225770005374" ], [ "semidesert. As a result of extended, severe drought, the desert has been expanding since the mid-1960s. The plateaus gradually descend toward the northeast to the barren El Djouf, or \"Empty Quarter,\" a vast region of large sand dunes that merges into the Sahara Desert. To the west, between the ocean and the plateaus, are alternating areas of clayey plains (regs) and sand dunes (ergs), some of which shift from place to place, gradually moved by high winds. The dunes generally increase in size and mobility toward the north.\nBelts of natural vegetation, corresponding to the rainfall pattern, extend from east to", "-32.03348983224714" ], [ "deserts. Rangelands in South America exclude hyperarid deserts. Examples of the South American rangelands include the; Patagonian Steppe, the Monte, the Pampas, the \"Lianos\" or \"Cerrado,\" the \"Chaco\" and the \"Caatinga.\"\nThe change in the intensity and location of tropical thunderstorms and other weather patterns is the driving force in the climates of southern South America. Africa In Kenya, rangelands make up for 85% of the land surface area, and are largely inhabited by nomadic pastoralists who are largely dependent on livestock. This movement often brings along an incursion of different diseases with the common one being", "-31.97797094010457" ], [ "and grassland before the onset of full desert conditions. This conclusion contrasts with work done by Peter deMenocal of Columbia University and colleagues, who in 2000 drilled a core of ocean sediment off the western coast of Mauritania. Because of the dust levels in this core deMenocal and his co-authors concluded that desert conditions came on quickly, over a period of a few centuries.\nThe discrepancies between these two accounts are not surprising given the differences in the data examined. The ocean core represents what is essentially a mass survey of the entire northern portion of the African land mass while", "-31.90225165055017" ], [ "north, formed at some point after the last regional glaciation, measure up to 100 meters (330 ft) high, with peaks accumulating in the areas just beyond the strongest wind speeds, where declining velocity wind deposited sand. The north and west boundaries of the desert are delineated by the fluvial systems Wadi Batha and Wadi Andam. Beneath the surface sands are an older layer of cemented carbonate sand. Alluvium deposits believed to have originated from the Wadi Batha during the Paleolithic era have been disclosed in the central desert 200 meters (660 ft) beneath the interdune surface. Wind erosion is believed to have", "-31.873702825512737" ], [ "form or region that receives very little precipitation. Deserts usually have a large diurnal and seasonal temperature range, with high or low, depending on location daytime temperatures (in summer up to 45 °C or 113 °F), and low nighttime temperatures (in winter down to 0 °C or 32 °F) due to extremely low humidity. Many deserts are formed by rain shadows, as mountains block the path of moisture and precipitation to the desert. Thornthwaite Devised by the American climatologist and geographer C. W. Thornthwaite, this climate classification method monitors the soil water budget using evapotranspiration. It monitors the portion of total precipitation used to", "-31.83252536552027" ], [ "deserts - the Gobi, Sahara and Antarctica.", "-31.829469211814285" ], [ "that remain dry except during the rainy season),depressions and wherever runoff water augments rainfall. The soils of the Sahara are formed of rock debris and desert detritus and are very weakly developed. The characteristic species of these true desert areas which decrease as desert scrub becomes reg and then sandy desert are:- 'Faidherbia albida, A.raddiana, A. seyal, A. tortilis, Achillea santolina, Alyssum macrocalyx, Anabasis aretoides, A. articulata, Androcymbium punctataum, Aristoides coerulescens, Aristida pungens, Artemisia herba-alba, A. monosperma, Astragulus tribuloides, Atriplex halimus, Balanites aegyptiaca, Caligonum comosum, Caltropis procera, Cenchrus ciliaris, Citrullus colocynthus, Danthonia forskalii, Ephedra alata, Euphorbia guyoniana, Deverra scoparia ,", "-31.819610753125744" ], [ "Desert.\nThe agriculture industry's demand for water is supplied by canals diverting water from the nearby Colorado River. The Salton Sea was created after a 1905 flood from the Colorado River.\nIn this region, the geology is dominated by the transition of the tectonic plate boundary from rift to transverse fault. The southernmost strands of the San Andreas Fault connect the northern-most extensions of the East Pacific Rise. Consequently, the region is subject to earthquakes, and the crust is being stretched, resulting in a sinking of the terrain over time. Economy As of 2009 the employment of El Centro residents is dominated", "-31.68101284847944" ], [ "at high elevations within the tropics, such as in the southern end of the Mexican Plateau and in Vietnam and Taiwan. Six climate classifications use the term to help define the various temperature and precipitation regimes for the planet Earth.\nA great portion of the world's deserts are located within the subtropics, due to the development of the subtropical ridge. Areas bordering warm oceans (typically on the southeast sides of continents) are prone to locally heavy rainfall from tropical cyclones, which can contribute a significant percentage of the annual rainfall. Areas bordering cool oceans (typically on the southwest sides", "-31.619999215530697" ], [ "to the Laguna Mountains of the Peninsular Ranges in the west. The area includes the heavily irrigated Coachella, Palo Verde, and Imperial Valleys. The Sonoran/Colorado Desert in California includes the colloquially-defined Low Desert region. Great Basin Desert The Great Basin Desert is the only \"cold\" desert in the country, where most precipitation falls in the form of snow. The Great Basin Desert exists because of the \"rainshadow effect\" created by the Sierra Nevada of eastern California. When prevailing winds from the Pacific Ocean rise to go over the Sierra, the air cools and loses most of its moisture as", "-31.453538188128732" ], [ "surrounded by a lushness that paints the area a vivid green. Just a few miles from the Euphrates, however, the barren landscape turns brown. With the exception of an occasional Bedouin, the desert is essentially empty. Whether traveling by aircraft, vehicle, or on foot, the Anbar Governorate is vast. During a time when mining roads became a strategy of choice for insurgents, the need to patrol and travel throughout the province became one of the Marine Corps’ greatest challenges. The threat of insurgent activity, when combined with the challenges that long-distance travel, choking dust, and stifling heat created, made the", "-31.452559461889905" ], [ "Tabernas Desert Geology and biology The little rainfall that occurs is usually torrential, so that the ground, consisting of marls and sandstone with little vegetation, is unable to retain moisture. Instead, the rain causes erosion, forming the characteristic landscape of badlands. Arroyos formed by torrential rain harbor the scarce vegetation, as well as fauna such as swifts, hedgehogs, jackdaws, pin-tailed sandgrouses, blue rock thrushes, stone curlews, trumpeter finches, and crested larks. Flora and fauna The desert is well endowed with vegetation for a desert. Plants such as the sea lavender (Limonium insignis), which are teetering on the verge of extinction,", "-31.34928470166051" ], [ "to these regions. Comparison example: Palm Springs is considered \"Low Desert\", at 100 feet (30.48m) above sea level. In contrast, Landers is considered \"High Desert\", at 3,100 feet (944.88m) above sea level.\nThe term is used commonly to refer to Joshua Tree National Park, Twentynine Palms, and the Morongo Basin. The High Desert may be used to describe the area as extending as far north as Victorville, and Lancaster areas, and as far northwest as Palmdale, and north to the Barstow desert. High Desert has also been incorporated into the names of businesses and organizations in these areas. Geography Depending on", "-31.25182580530236" ], [ "Desert's climate distinguishes it from other deserts. The region experiences greater summer daytime temperatures than higher-elevation deserts and almost never experiences frost. In addition, the Colorado Desert experiences two rainy seasons per year (in the winter and late summer), especially toward the southern portion of the region; the more northerly Mojave Desert usually has only winter rains.\nThe west coast Peninsular Ranges, or other west ranges, of Southern California–northern Baja California, block most eastern Pacific coastal air and rains, producing an arid climate. Other short or longer-term weather events can move in from the Gulf of California to the south, and", "-31.249358085682616" ], [ "lighter. Many of the Earth's deserts lie near the average latitude of the subtropical ridge, where descent reduces the relative humidity of the air mass. The strongest winds are in the mid-latitudes where cold polar air meets warm air from the tropics. Tropics The trade winds (also called trades) are the prevailing pattern of easterly surface winds found in the tropics towards the Earth's equator. The trade winds blow predominantly from the northeast in the Northern Hemisphere and from the southeast in the Southern Hemisphere. The trade winds act as the steering flow for tropical cyclones that form over the", "-31.229742047347827" ], [ "of the terms \"oasis\" and \"America\". It refers to a wild land dominated by the Rocky Mountains and the Sierra Madre Occidental. To the east and west of these enormous mountain ranges stretch the grand arid plains of the Sonora, Chihuahua, and Arizona Deserts. At its height, Oasisamerica covered part of the present-day Mexican states of Chihuahua, Sonora and Baja California, as well as the U.S. states of Arizona, Utah, New Mexico, Colorado, Nevada, and California.\nDespite being a basically dry land, Oasisamerica contains several bodies of water like rivers: Yaqui, Rio Grande, Colorado, Conchos and Gila Rivers. The presence of", "-31.20006123976782" ], [ "desert. The terrain in the north is mountainous, which, moving south, gives way to a hot, dry central plain. As we go to the south, the climate naturally becomes hotter, drier and sunnier. The southern part has therefore a hot desert climate (Köppen climate classification BWh) with extremely hot summers, warm winters and very low annual rainfall amount. Daytime temperatures consistently turn around 45 °C (113 °F) during summers. However, the warmth of winters is only during daytime because nights can be cold in the desert. A series of salt lakes, known as chottzz or shatts, lie in an east-west line at", "-31.188580895308405" ], [ "a composite etchplain occurring across much of the continent. \nThe area between the east and west coast highlands, which north of 17° N is mainly desert, is divided into separate basins by other bands of high ground, one of which runs nearly centrally through North Africa in a line corresponding roughly with the curved axis of the continent as a whole. The best marked of the basins so formed (the Congo basin) occupies a circular area bisected by the equator, once probably the site of an inland sea.\nRunning along the south of desert is the plains region known as the", "-31.123063264763914" ], [ "Desertification Desertification is a consequence of global warming in some environments. Desert soils contain little humus, and support little vegetation. As a result, transition to desert ecosystems is typically associated with excursions of carbon. Modelling results The global warming projections contained in the IPCC's Fourth Assessment Report (AR4) include carbon cycle feedbacks. Authors of AR4, however, noted that scientific understanding of carbon cycle feedbacks was poor. Projections in AR4 were based on a range of greenhouse gas emissions scenarios, and suggested warming between the late 20th and late 21st century of 1.1 to 6.4 °C. This is the \"likely\"", "-31.044371720992785" ], [ "(Cladorhynchus leucocephalus). Finally the mound springs of the Great Artesian Basin are important habitat for a number of plants, fish, snails and other invertebrates.\nNative vegetation is largely intact as the desert is uninhabitable. Therefore, habitats are not threatened by agriculture, but are damaged by introduced species, particularly rabbits and feral camels. The only human activity in the desert proper has been the construction of the gas pipelines, while the country on its fringes has been used for cattle grazing and contains towns such as Innamincka. Mound springs and other waterholes are vulnerable to overuse and damage. Protected areas of", "-31.04115404782351" ], [ "the term \"Western Desert\" applied to the desert of Egypt west of the Nile but came to describe the whole area of conflict, including eastern Cyrenaica in Libya. From the coast, extending inland lies a raised, flat plain of stony desert about 150 metres (500 ft) above sea level, that runs south for 120–190 miles (200–300 km) to the coast to the edge of the Sand Sea. Scorpions, vipers and flies abounded in the region, which was inhabited by a small number of Bedouin nomads.\nBedouin tracks linked wells and the easier traversed ground; navigation was by sun, star, compass and \"desert sense\",", "-31.020018088049255" ], [ "reaches the areas east of the coastal mountain ranges. These arid conditions are, in some instances, exacerbated in regions of extremely low altitude (some near or below sea level) by higher air pressure, resulting in drier conditions and adiabatic heating effects, some of these pocket deserts exist in valleys well north of the Canada–US border in interior British Columbia. What precipitation does fall generally does not last long, lost primarily to evaporation, as well as rapid runoff and efficient water uptake and storage by native vegetation. Zoology North America is home to many native mammal species. Several species", "-30.985305220179725" ], [ "this desert dates back to around 100 million years ago, during which it was covered by a shallow sea. As its waters gradually receded, saltwater lakes were left behind, which eventually evaporated in the sun. In addition to the salt, gypsum was also laid down in thick deposits on the old seabed.\nThe Sacramento and San Andres Mountains, with the Tularosa Basin between them, took shape approximately 250 million years ago. Giant upheavals in the Earth's crust distorted the land along with the gypsum deposits, forcing them high into the air about 70 million years ago. Rainfall and melt water came", "-30.966816948901396" ], [ "vegetated. In the Central Sahara, annual precipitation reaches no more than 50–100 millimetres per year (2.0–3.9 in/year). Even farther north, the margin of the desert coincides with the area where the westerlies bring precipitation; they also influence southernmost Africa. The existence of the deserts is because of the subsidence of air over parts of Northern Africa, which is further increased by the radiative cooling over the desert. In East Africa the monsoon leads to two rain seasons in the equatorial area, the so-called \"long rains\" in March–May and the \"short rains\" in October–November when the Intertropical Convergence Zone moves northward and", "-30.94226406182861" ], [ "Deserts and xeric shrublands Deserts and xeric shrublands are a habitat type defined by the World Wide Fund for Nature. Deserts and xeric shrublands form the largest terrestrial biome, covering 19% of Earth's land surface area. Ecoregions in this habitat type vary greatly in the amount of annual rainfall they receive, usually less than 250 millimetres (10 in) annually. Generally evaporation exceeds rainfall in these ecoregions. Temperature variability is also diverse in these lands. Many deserts, such as the Sahara, are hot year-round but others, such as Asia's Gobi, become quite cold in winter.\nTemperature extremes are a characteristic of most deserts.", "-30.901397629466373" ], [ "desert, along with the highlands, have areas of sparse grassland and desert shrub, with trees and taller shrubs in wadis, where moisture collects. In the central, hyperarid region, there are many subdivisions of the great desert: Tanezrouft, the Ténéré, the Libyan Desert, the Eastern Desert, the Nubian Desert and others. These extremely arid areas often receive no rain for years.\nTo the north, the Sahara skirts the Mediterranean Sea in Egypt and portions of Libya, but in Cyrenaica and the Maghreb, the Sahara borders the Mediterranean forest, woodland, and scrub eco-regions of northern Africa, all of which have a Mediterranean climate", "-30.86110547746648" ], [ "northwest of the country is true desert, which is the southernmost end of the Namib desert, a desert that is at least 55 million years old, making it the oldest desert in the world. This arid corner intergrades into the extensive semi-arid Karoo found across much of South Africa, covering the Northern Cape and into parts of the Western Cape, Eastern Cape and the Free State. This biome used to be extensive grassland in the past, but has become dominated by small shrubs and succulents due to centuries of overgrazing. To the north and east of these biomes is the", "-30.846013107686304" ], [ "deserts in China are surrounded by mountains that provide water sources, and this is the case with the Badain Jaran Desert. Runoff from the mountains is then collected through gravel deposits and this allows them to run through the desert, providing water sources for the scattered oases.\nWithin the desert there can be two main types of lakes found regarding their morphometry. The largely elongated shallow lakes mainly appear in the megadune area in the southeastern margin of the desert. Their depth often reaches less than 2 meters (6 ft 7 in) and only measure about .2 square kilometers (0.077 sq mi; 49 acres). The", "-30.6482779061771" ], [ "keeps getting more complicated.\nIt didn't start out that way. At first the desert was for me an epiphany, the confluence of form and meaning, abstraction and representation; it stands in as an icon for all land.\nI go there and walk and ride and climb in it and sometimes fly over it, and talk to and drink and eat with the people who live in it, and read and think about it. I've come to see the water wars, the ethnic wars, the racial wars, the economic wars, the political wars, the war; I look at it and watch the land", "-30.639536881426466" ], [ "Far North (South Australia) Deserts The deserts in the north east are the Simpson Desert, Tirari Desert, Painted Desert and the Pedirka Desert. To the north and north west the Great Victoria Desert predominates the landscape. Governance The Far North includes the following local government areas: Anangu Pitjantjatjara Yankunytjatjara (APY), City of Port Augusta, District Council of Coober Pedy, Flinders Ranges Council and Municipal Council of Roxby Downs. As most of its extent lies within of what is known as the unincorporated area, municipal services to communities outside of the above listed local government areas are provided directly by", "-30.610007460214547" ], [ " The desert's ecological environment is very fragile, and the impact of human activities on the environment, including the building of a trans-desert highway, has been increasingly significant.\nIt is in this desert that the remotest point of land from any sea is located. According to some calculations, the precise point is at 46°16.8′N 86°40.2′E. It was pinpointed and reached on 27 June 1986 by British explorers Nicholas Crane and Richard Crane; the location was described as being in the Dzoosotoyn Elisen Desert. This position is over 2,600 kilometers (1,600 mi) from the nearest coastline.", "-30.608423021927592" ], [ "desert by night because of the great heat, but it often took over a day and a night to traverse. About halfway across the desert on the Truckee Trail, they came to a foul tasting hot springs (now a thermal power plant), but its water was usually too hot for even very thirsty animals to consume. Many dead animals were concentrated at and in these \"bad\" water springs—often preventing access to them. Water had to be pooled off and allowed to cool before it could be used by man or beast. The trail on the last 8 miles (13 km)", "-30.557052343399846" ], [ "while deserts, by definition, receive less than 250 millimetres (10 in) annually. About 70% of this rainfall occurs between the months of January and May.\nThe sand is carried to the park from the interior of the continent by the Parnaíba and Preguiças rivers, where it is then driven back inland up to 50 kilometres (31 mi) by winds, creating a series of sand dunes rising as much as 40 metres (130 ft) tall. During the rainy season, between the months of January and June, the rainstorms fill the spaces among the dunes with fresh water lagoons of up to 100 metres (330 ft) in", "-30.545792037504725" ], [ "Indian desert. The general aspect of the area is that of an interminable sea of sandhills, of all shapes and sizes, some rising to a height of 150 ft. Those in the west are covered with log bushes, those in the east with tufts of long grass. Water is scarce, and generally brackish; the average depth of the wells is said to be about 250 ft. There are no perennial streams, and only one small river, the Kakni, which, after flowing a distance of 28 m., spreads over a large surface of flat ground, and forms a lake orjhil called the Bhuj-Jhil.", "-30.488589733664412" ], [ "types of semi-desert and humid origin rather than a simple northward displacement of plant species, and some brown or yellow vegetation communities persisted. Pollen data often show a dominance of grasses over humid tropics trees.\nNevertheless, the climate of the Sahara did not become entirely homogeneous; the central-eastern parts of the desert were probably drier than the western and central sectors and the Libyan sand sea was still a desert although pure desert areas retreated or became arid/semiarid. An arid belt may have existed north of 22° latitude; in general conditions between 21° and 28° northern latitude are poorly known. Dry", "-30.462759392743465" ], [ "Great Basin Desert Definition and boundaries The Great Basin Desert is defined by its animals and plants, yet the boundaries are unclear.\nScientists have different definitions of the Great Basin Desert, which are often defined by negatives. J. Robert Macey defines the \"Great Basin scrub desert as lacking creosote bush.\" The Great Basin Desert includes several arid basins lacking Larrea tridentata (chaparral) such as the \"Chalfant, Hammil, Benton, and Queen valleys,\" as well as all but the southeast portion of the Owens Valley. Conversely, the \"Panamint, Saline, and Eureka valleys\" have creosote bush, unlike the Deep Springs Valley which", "-30.397088391910074" ], [ "at the eastern end of the Ranges. The southeastern part of the Transverse Ranges can be considered to have a desert climate. Mountain ranges can cause a rain shadow effect, when air flow inland from the ocean and it rises, it begins to cool and after it reaches the other side of the mountain it becomes warm and evaporates. This is one of the reasons for the dry conditions in the Transverse Ranges that are furthest from the coast. The Ranges are also affected by the Santa Ana winds, a regional wind system created when air is forced from a", "-30.370797398674767" ], [ "4 Deserts 4 Deserts Race Series The events that combine to make the 4 Deserts Race Series are: Atacama Crossing (Chile) The Atacama Crossing crosses Chile's brutal Atacama Desert, the driest place on Earth. The Atacama Desert has a unique landscape of salt lakes, volcanoes, lava flows and sand dunes. Moreover, owing to its otherworldly appearance, the landscape has been compared to that of Mars and has been used as a location for filming Mars scenes, most notably in the television series Space Odyssey: Voyage to the Planets.\nThe Atacama Crossing is gruelling because of its terrain, harsh climate and altitude", "-30.368048252805238" ], [ "include the ruins and mound springs at Dalhousie Springs, Purnie Bore wetlands, Approdinna Attora Knoll and Poeppel Corner (where Queensland, South Australia and Northern Territory meet). Because of the excessive heat and inadequately experienced drivers attempting to access the desert in the past, the Department of Environment and Natural Resources has decided since 2008-2009 to close the Simpson Desert during the summer — to save unprepared \"adventurers\" from themselves. Climate The area has an extremely hot, dry desert climate. Rainfall is minimal, averaging only about 150 mm per year and falling mainly in summer. Temperatures in summer can approach 50 °C and", "-30.34890072431881" ], [ "south by the Kunene and Curoca Rivers, respectively. \nThe climate is noteworthy for the heavy fogs created as the cold, wet air of the Benguela up-welling meets the hot, dry air of the desert. The strong fogs and currents have led to numerous shipwrecks through history. The coast is sometimes called Skeleton Coast after these shipwrecks as well as the numerous skeletons of whales and seals found on the beaches. The area is classified as a Hot Desert Climate, KWh in the Köppen climate classification.\nThe park is contiguous with the Skeleton Coast National Park in Namibia, which is itself", "-30.343269247096032" ], [ "including intensive agricultural tillage or overgrazing in areas that cannot support such exploitation. Climatic shifts such as global warming or the Milankovitch cycle (which drives glacials and interglacials) also affect the pattern of deserts on Earth.", "-30.338285997509956" ], [ "Desert and as such is rich and diverse in biology. This desert is home to a large amount of cacti and is one of the most ecologically diverse deserts on earth. History The state name derives from the name of its capital, Zacatecas. This word is derived from Nahuatl and means \"where there is abundant zacate (grass)\". The state seal depicts the Cerro de la Bufa, a landmark of the capital, surrounded by the weapons of the original inhabitants. Above is the motto \"Work conquers all.\"\nBefore the arrival of the Spanish, dominant ethnic groups included the Caxcans, Zacatecos, and Guachichils,", "-30.324420556851237" ], [ "to the Intertropical Convergence Zone, itself the ascending branch of the Hadley cell. Mountainous locales near the equator in Colombia are amongst the wettest places on Earth. North and south of this are regions of descending air that form subtropical ridges where precipitation is low; the land surface underneath these ridges is usually arid, and these regions make up most of the Earth's deserts. An exception to this rule is in Hawaii, where upslope flow due to the trade winds lead to one of the wettest locations on Earth. Otherwise, the flow of the Westerlies into", "-30.309271613383316" ], [ "races contributing almost negligibly to the total. The extreme north is mostly sparsely inhabited wilderness with few enduring settlements. The continent surrounds, but does not completely enclose, two large seas, the Bitter Sea to the west and the Sea of Kingdoms to the east, which together form a moderately-sized isthmus in the middle of Triaga located about one-third of the length of the continent from south to north. The northern portion is heavily forested, but the south has few forests and is described in ways that would suggest a more equatorial latitude. The Jal-Pur desert is the most notable desert", "-30.282511917001102" ], [ "an agriculturally based people.\nWhen the region was obtained by the United States as part of the Louisiana Purchase in 1803, President Jefferson wrote of the \"immense and trackless deserts\" of the region. Zebulon Pike wrote \"these vast plains of the western hemisphere, may become in time equally celebrated as the sandy deserts of Africa\". His map included a comment in the region, \"not a stick of timber\". In 1823, Major Stephen Long, a government surveyor and leader of the next official exploration expedition, produced a map labeling the area the Great American Desert. In the report that accompanied the map,", "-30.253580216289265" ], [ "the planet's ability to retain heat so that the location of the habitable zone is also specific to each type of planet: desert planets (also known as dry planets), with very little water, will have less water vapor in the atmosphere than Earth and so have a reduced greenhouse effect, meaning that a desert planet could maintain oases of water closer to its star than Earth is to the Sun. The lack of water also means there is less ice to reflect heat into space, so the outer edge of desert-planet habitable zones is further out. Rocky planets with a", "-30.249652827333193" ], [ "Syrian deserts in the Middle East, the Mojave and Sonoran deserts in the southwestern United States and northern Mexico, all in the Northern Hemisphere; and the Atacama Desert, the Kalahari Desert, and the Australian Desert in the Southern Hemisphere. Etymology A likely and documented explanation is that the term is derived from the \"dead horse\" ritual of seamen (see Beating a dead horse). In this practice, the seaman paraded a straw-stuffed effigy of a horse around the deck before throwing it overboard. Seamen were paid partly in advance before a long voyage, and they frequently spent their pay all", "-30.233389078566688" ], [ "most heavily populated desert areas in the world with the main occupations of its inhabitants being agriculture and animal husbandry. Agriculture is not a dependable proposition in this area because after the rainy season, at least one third of crops fail. Animal husbandry, trees and grasses, intercropped with vegetables or fruit trees, is the most viable model for arid, drought-prone regions. The region faces frequent droughts. Overgrazing due to high animal populations, wind and water erosion, mining and other industries have resulted in serious land degradation.\nAgricultural production is mainly from kharif crops, which are grown in the summer season and", "-30.185212760377908" ], [ "sand and dunes, particularly in the south and southeast, together with salt flats. Occasional jumbles of sandstone hills or low mountains support only meager and stunted vegetation that thrives for a short period after the scanty winter rains. These areas support little life and are the least populated regions of Jordan.\nThe drainage network is coarse and incised. In many areas the relief provides no eventual outlet to the sea, so that sedimentary deposits accumulate in basins where moisture evaporates or is absorbed in the ground. Toward the depression in the western part of the East Bank, the desert rises gradually", "-30.16118183542858" ], [ "Bright Desert Ecology The Bright Desert extends from the Abbor-Alz (a rugged range of hills) to the north and east to the Woolly Bay to the west, and to the Sea of Gearnat to the south.\nThe desert itself gives way to scrub near the Abbor-Alz.\nTemperatures in the desert can reach 120 °F and can dip into the low 30s°F during the night. Sandstorms are not uncommon.\nIt contains only one major geographical feature, the Brass Hills in its south-western region. Inhabitants The Bright Desert is inhabited by Flan and Suel) tribesmen, as well as centaurs, manscorpions, and dune stalkers. Features and settlements", "-30.12017119175289" ], [ "Painted Desert (Arizona) Geology The desert is composed of stratified layers of easily erodible siltstone, mudstone, and shale of the Triassic Chinle Formation. These fine grained rock layers contain abundant iron and manganese compounds which provide the pigments for the various colors of the region. Thin resistant lacustrine limestone layers and volcanic flows cap the mesas. Numerous layers of silicic volcanic ash occur in the Chinle and provide the silica for the petrified logs of the area. The erosion of these layers has resulted in the formation of the badlands topography of the region.\nIn the southern portions of the desert", "-30.105997022707015" ], [ "desert regions are smaller, but in the USA they have allowed colonisation of the western desert regions around the Rockies. Las Vegas is an example of such a settlement.", "-30.100119853654178" ], [ "hot desert in the world and is one of the hottest, driest and sunniest places on Earth. Located just south of the Sahara is a narrow steppe (a semi-arid region) called the Sahel, while Africa's most southern areas contain both savanna plains, and its central portion contains very dense jungle (rainforest) regions. The equatorial region near the Intertropical Convergence Zone is the wettest portion of the continent. Annually, the rain belt across the country moves northward into Sub-Saharan Africa by August, then passes back southward into south-central Africa by March. Areas with a savannah climate in Sub-Saharan Africa, such", "-30.007631960092112" ], [ "Kaʻū Desert The Kaʻū Desert is a leeward desert in the district of Kaʻū, the southernmost district on the Big Island of Hawaii, and is made up mostly of dried lava remnants, volcanic ash, sand and gravel. The desert covers an area of the Kīlauea Volcano along the Southwest rift zone. The area lacks any vegetation, mainly due to acid rainfall. Climate Kaʻū desert is not a true desert in that rainfall exceeds 1,000 millimeters (39 in) per year. However, rain combines with sulfur dioxide, released by volcanic vents, and forms acid rain. The pH level of the rain, as low", "-30.006126633583335" ], [ "Mojave Desert. The basin shows varying characteristics of both deserts. The west side of the Tonopah Basin is a continuation of the Lahontan Basin, while the lower and hotter Pahranagat Valley on the east side is more like the Mojave Desert. Similar to basins further north, shadscale and associated arid land shrubs cover broad rolling valleys, hills, and alluvial fans. However, unlike the Lahontan salt shrub basin and Upper Lahontan basin, the shrubs often co-dominate in highly diverse mosaics. The shrub understory includes warm-season grasses, such as Indian ricegrass and galleta grass. Endemic fish species, including the Railroad Valley", "-30.004116551732295" ], [ "west, the Libyan Desert. They are similar—stony, with sandy dunes drifting over the landscape. There is virtually no rainfall in these deserts, and in the Nubian Desert there are no oases. In the west, there are a few small watering holes, such as Bir an Natrun, where the water table reaches the surface to form wells that provide water for nomads, caravans, and administrative patrols, although insufficient to support an oasis and inadequate to provide for a settled population. Flowing through the desert is the Nile Valley, whose alluvial strip of habitable land is no more than two kilometers wide", "-29.991033386919298" ], [ "that rarely functions because of insufficient rainfall. It also has a complex of irregular, sharply cut wadis that extend westward toward the Nile. The desert environment extends all the way to the Red Sea coast. Sinai Peninsula The Sinai Peninsula is a triangular-shaped peninsula, about 61,100 km² in area (slightly smaller than the U.S. state of West Virginia). Similar to the desert, the peninsula contains mountains in its southern sector that are a geological extension of the Red Sea Hills, the low range along the Red Sea coast that includes Mount Catherine (Jabal Katrinah), the country's highest point, at 2,642 m", "-29.98572399833938" ], [ "lies to the east (and with which the Badain Jaran Desert is currently merging due to extensive desertification) is about one-half barren, sandy desert and one-half a mixture of solid bedrock and loose gravel. Several small lakes and oases scatter the desert around which limited vegetation is able to grow. Lakes The Badain Jaran Desert is well known for its numerous scattered and colorful lakes. Containing more than 140 lakes they are mainly found in the southern region in the desert. These lakes can easily be found in the larger valleys between large dunes. They are believed to provide the", "-29.927394439291675" ], [ "Deserts of Australia Named deserts of Australia cover 1,371,000 square kilometres (529,000 sq mi), or 18% of the Australian mainland. However, approximately 35% of the Australian continent receives so little rain it is effectively desert. The deserts in Australia are primarily distributed throughout the western plateau and interior lowlands of the country.\nBy international standards, Australian deserts receive relatively high rates of rainfall. No weather station situated in an arid region records less than 100 mm of average annual rainfall. The deserts of Australia, particularly in the interior, lack any significant summer rains.\nDeserts are not necessarily completely devoid of vegetation, but have", "-29.921866066462826" ], [ "High Desert (California) High Desert is a name used to define geographic areas of Southern California deserts that are between 2,000 and 4,000 ft (609.9 and 1219.2 m) in elevation. The High Desert generally refers to areas of the Mojave Desert. The term \"High Desert\" is commonly used by local news media, especially in weather forecasts, because of the high desert's unique and moderate weather patterns compared to its low desert neighbors. The term \"High Desert\" serves to differentiate it from southern California's Low Desert, which is defined by the differences in elevation, climate, animal life, and vegetation native", "-29.90862625734735" ], [ "advantage to such heat tolerance (ability to exploit the less heat-exposed area of cacti soil). \nThe geography of the area encompassed by the Sonoran Desert gives rise to genetic differentiation among desert Drosophila species who feed on necrotic rot. The Sonoran Desert incorporates the peninsular region of Baja, California and mainland regions of California. After the peninsula was formed, the Gulf of California (the body of water between the peninsula and the mainland) served as barrier to dispersal opportunities in insects and land mammals. Another physical geographic barrier is the Gran Desierto de Alter, a large", "-29.880746631184593" ], [ "the Great American Desert. The lack of surface water and timber made the region less attractive than other areas for pioneer settlement and agriculture.\nThe federal government encouraged settlement and development of the Plains for agriculture via the Homestead Act of 1862, offering settlers 160-acre (65 ha) plots. With the end of the Civil War in 1865 and the completion of the First Transcontinental Railroad in 1869, waves of new migrants and immigrants reached the Great Plains, and they greatly increased the acreage under cultivation. An unusually wet period in the Great Plains mistakenly led settlers and the federal government", "-29.823085084732156" ], [ "improvements, and Stuart's journals provided a meticulous account of most of the route. Because of the War of 1812 and the lack of U.S. fur trading posts in the Pacific Northwest, most of the route was unused for more than 10 years. Great American Desert Reports from expeditions in 1806 by Lieutenant Zebulon Pike and in 1819 by Major Stephen Long described the Great Plains as \"unfit for human habitation\" and as \"The Great American Desert\". These descriptions were mainly based on the relative lack of timber and surface water. The images of sandy wastelands conjured up by terms like", "-29.815879859001143" ], [ "finding that the deserts used to be covered by forests, Exploration decided to intervene at the forest and desert boundaries to reverse desertification. The project mimics the Namibian desert beetle to combat climate change in an arid environment. It draws upon the beetle's ability to self-regulate its body temperature by accumulating heat by day and to collect water droplets that form on its wings. The greenhouse structure uses saltwater to provide evaporative cooling and humidification. The evaporated air condenses to fresh water allowing the greenhouse to remain heated at night. This system produces more water than the interior plants", "-29.808732357341796" ], [ "same winter day in Southern California. Mojave Desert There are harsh deserts in the Southeast of California. These deserts are caused by a combination of the cold offshore current, which limits evaporation, and the rain shadow of the mountains. The prevailing winds blow from the ocean inland. When the air passes over the mountains, adiabatic cooling causes most water in the air to rain on the mountains. When the air returns to sea level on the other side of the mountains, it recompresses, warms and dries, parching the deserts. When the wind blows from inland, the resulting", "-29.7872798316821" ], [ "north contains mountainous terrain and a volcano, Mt. Pelee. Black sand beaches exist in this region due to volcanism. The central zone is covered by the Pitons du Carbet- a mountain chain that reaches 1,207 meters (3,960 ft). Fields and pastures occupy the south along with numerous beaches.", "-29.748774165462237" ], [ "desert receives more winter cloudiness and rainfall due to the arrival of low pressure systems over the Mediterranean Sea along the polar front, although very attenuated by the rain shadow effects of the mountains and the annual average rainfall ranges from 100 millimetres (4 in) to 250 millimetres (10 in). For example, Biskra, Algeria, and Ouarzazate, Morocco, are found in this zone. The southern fringe of the desert along the border with the Sahel receives summer cloudiness and rainfall due to the arrival of the Intertropical Convergence Zone from the south and the annual average rainfall ranges from 100 millimetres (4 in) to", "-29.731717649032362" ], [ "kilometres (310–500 mi) or 5° latitude with respect to its present-day border, that is a much larger desert than today. Dunes were active much closer to the equator in sub-Saharan Africa and also over Israel and Arabia and the exposed Persian Gulf where dust generation increased. Closer to the equator, rainforests retreated to isolated areas and were elsewhere replaced by afromontane and savannah vegetation as temperatures and rainfall decreased. This drying tendency appears to be the consequence of lower sea surface temperatures and lower atmospheric water content.\nThere is little and often equivocal evidence of human activity in the Sahara and also", "-29.724025839095702" ], [ "areas that have been overgrazed, deforested and otherwise cleared land, likely due to the lack of shading vegetation, which leads to higher soil evaporation and desert conditions. Studies have also indicated that warming trends are higher in Sonora than in neighboring Arizona, into which the Sonora Desert also extends.\nThe state contains 139 species and subspecies of native mammals, with the most important being white tailed deer, mule deer, wild sheep, bats, hares, squirrels, moles, beavers, coyotes, wolves, foxes, jaguars, and mountain lions. Amphibians and reptiles include frogs and toads, desert tortoises, chameleons, gila monsters, rattlesnakes and other types of snakes.", "-29.718640485814376" ], [ "than 250 millimetres (10 in) per year, or as areas where more water is lost by evapotranspiration than falls as precipitation. In the Köppen climate classification system, deserts are classed as BWh (hot desert) or BWk (temperate desert). In the Thornthwaite climate classification system, deserts would be classified as arid megathermal climates. Tundra Tundra is a biome where the tree growth is hindered by low temperatures and short growing seasons. The term tundra comes through Russian тундра from the Kildin Sami word tūndâr \"uplands,\" \"treeless mountain tract.\" There are three types of tundra: Arctic tundra, alpine tundra, and Antarctic tundra In", "-29.70847552502528" ], [ "move further inland from the cold Atlantic waters, while the lingering coastal fogs slowly diminish. Although the area is rocky with poorly developed soils, it is nonetheless significantly more productive than the Namib Desert. As summer winds are forced over the Escarpment, moisture is extracted as precipitation. The water, along with rapidly changing topography, is responsible for the creation of microhabitats which offer a wide range of organisms, many of them endemic. Vegetation along the escarpment varies in both form and density, with community structure ranging from dense woodlands to more shrubby areas with scattered trees. A number of Acacia", "-29.671906283474527" ], [ "fill channels and the many permanent waterholes, or simply evaporates. Water from Cooper Creek reached Lake Eyre in 1990 and then not again until 2010. Deserts The deserts that have formed in the basin, including Sturt Stony Desert, Tirari Desert and the Strzelecki Desert, are most probably the southern hemisphere's largest source of airborne dust. Management Indigenous Australians have lived with the cycles of the land for thousands of years and traditional owners are protective of its natural systems.\nManagement of the area has been problematic as it is covered by four different states' jurisdictions. As the ecological significance of the", "-29.606864821980707" ], [ "known as the deserts) is by some calculations the world's seventh largest desert, by some others the tenth. It forms a significant portion of western India and covers an area of 200,000 to 238,700 km² (77,200 to 92,200 sq mi). The desert continues into Pakistan as the Cholistan Desert. Most of the Thar Desert is situated in Rajasthan, covering 61% of its geographic area.\nAbout 10 percent of this region consists of sand dunes, and the remaining 90 percent consist of craggy rock forms, compacted salt-lake bottoms, and interdunal and fixed dune areas. Annual temperatures can range from 0 °C (32 °F) in the winter to", "-29.58860450985958" ], [ "Rub' al Khali Terrain The desert is 1,000 kilometres (620 miles) long, and 500 kilometres (310 miles) wide. Its surface elevation varies from 800 metres (2,600 ft) in the southwest to around sea level in the northeast. The terrain is covered with sand dunes with heights up to 250 metres (820 ft), interspersed with gravel and gypsum plains. The sand is of a reddish-orange color due to the presence of feldspar.\nThere are also brackish salt flats in some areas, such as the Umm al Samim area on the desert's eastern edge. Ali Al-Naimi reports that the sand dunes don't drift. He", "-29.55528586462424" ], [ "Colorado Desert To the east of the peninsular ranges lie the Colorado and Sonoran Deserts, which extend into Arizona and Mexico.\nThe ground elevation is generally lower and in some areas was compressed downward, therefore the eastern Coachella and Imperial Valleys north of the U.S.-Mexican border are below sea level, the lowest community in the U.S. is Calipatria, California at 160 feet (49 m) below sea level.\nOne feature of the desert is the Salton Sea, an inland lake that was formed in 1905 when a swollen Colorado River breached a canal near the U.S.-Mexico border and flowed into the Salton Sink (Salton", "-29.545103841694072" ], [ "one of Namibia's well-known geographical features. The Kalahari, while popularly known as a desert, has a variety of localised environments, including some verdant and technically non-desert areas. The Succulent Karoo is home to over 5,000 species of plants, nearly half of them endemic; approximately 10 percent of the world's succulents are found in the Karoo. The reason behind this high productivity and endemism may be the relatively stable nature of precipitation.\nNamibia's Coastal Desert is one of the oldest deserts in the world. Its sand dunes, created by the strong onshore winds, are the highest in the world. Because of the", "-29.514807578401815" ], [ "one, the northern countries being on the whole hotter and drier than those in the southern zone; the south of the continent being narrower than the north, the influence of the surrounding ocean is more felt.\nThe most important climatic differences are due to variations in the amount of rainfall. The wide heated plains of the Sahara, and in a lesser degree the corresponding zone of the Kalahari in the south, have an exceedingly scanty rainfall, the winds which blow over them from the ocean losing part of their moisture as they pass over the outer highlands, and becoming constantly drier", "-29.497099511616398" ], [ "In his report for the United States Army:\nWhen we were upon the high table-land, a view presented itself as boundless as the ocean. Not a tree, shrub, or any other object, either animate or inanimate, relieved the dreary monotony of the prospect; it was a vast-illimitable expanse of desert prairie . ... the great Sahara of North America. it is a region almost as vast and trackless as the ocean—a land where no man, either savage or civilized permanently abides ... a treeless, desolate waste of uninhabitable solitude, which always has been, and must continue uninhabited forever.\nDuring the 1854 Marcy-Neighbors", "-29.487297135958215" ], [ "of the most diverse in the world\", and includes more species of cacti than any other desert in the world. The most prolific plants in this region are agave, yucca and creosote bushes, in addition to the ubiquitous presence of various cacti species.\nWhen people think of the desert southwest, the landscape of the Sonoran Desert is what mostly comes to mind. The Sonoran Desert makes up the southwestern portion of the Southwest; most of the desert lies in Mexico, but its United States component lies on the southeastern border of California, and the western 2/3 of southern Arizona. Rainfall averages", "-29.486187633898226" ], [ "Historic desertification Historic desertification is the study of the desert-forming process from a historic perspective. It was presumed in the past that the main causes of desertification lay in overuse of the land resulting in impoverishment of the soil, reduced vegetation cover, increased risk of drought and the resulting wind erosion. However recent projects to regreen deserts have not met with the success envisaged, and cast doubts on this theory. Research suggests that it is extreme events rather than drought caused by low annual precipitation, that do the most damage. Heavy downpours resulting in flash floods wash away sediment and", "-29.485255069332197" ], [ "Low Desert The Low Desert is a common name for any desert in California that is under 2,000 feet (609.6m) in altitude. These areas include, but are not exclusive to, the Colorado Desert and Yuha Desert, in the Southern California portion of the Sonoran Desert. These areas are distinguished in biogeography from the adjacent northern High Desert or Mojave Desert by latitude, elevation, animal life, climate, and native plant communities.", "-29.483761633193353" ], [ "they are imbibed by the lighter earth and form lasting reserves within its depths. The result is that what vegetation survives is localized along the wadi beds or in their basins; in fact the words wadi and pasturage are interchangeable in the language of the nomads, who habitually reside in such places.\"\nFor these and similar reasons concerning the desert ecology of water, the geographer and historian of the Sahara E.-F. Gautier once wrote referring to the Grand Erg Oriental as \"the great Igharghar Erg\". Accordingly, surface moisture, seasonal pastures, and wells may reflect unseen conditions beneath the sands. What appears", "-29.464962871585158" ], [ "states. Public lands account for 25 to 75 percent of the total land area in these states.\nAs a generalization, the climate of the West can be summed up as semi-arid. However, parts of the West get extremely high amounts of rain or snow, and still other parts are true desert and get less than 5 inches (130 mm) of rain per year. Also, the climate of the West is quite unstable, as areas that are normally wet can be very dry for years and vice versa.\nThe seasonal temperatures vary greatly throughout the West. Low elevations on the West Coast have warm", "-29.460766186617548" ], [ "This desert climate is in part due to a rain shadow effect caused by the Cascade Range. Pine and juniper forests cover 35% of Eastern Oregon, much in the mountains that include the Blue Mountains, Strawberry Mountains, Wallowa Mountains, Trout Creek Mountains, Ochoco Mountains, and Steens Mountain. Volcanic basalt flows from the Columbia River Basalt Group covered large sections of Eastern Oregon 6 to 17 million years ago. Other landforms include the Alvord Desert, Owyhee Desert, Warner Valley, Deschutes River, Owyhee River, Grande Ronde River, Joseph Canyon, The Honeycombs, and Malheur Butte. Geography According to the Eastern Oregon Visitors Association,", "-29.42845172154466" ], [ "that, by the end of the 19th century, the \"Great Desert\" had become the nation's breadbasket.\nThere were two key results of this expedition—a very accurate description of Indian customs and Indian life as they existed among the Omaha, Otoes, and Pawnees and his description of the land west of the Missouri River as a \"desert\". 1823 expedition to the Red River of the North Major Long's 1823 expedition up the Minnesota River (then known as St. Peter's River), to the headwaters of the Red River of the North, down that river to Pembina and Fort Garry, and thence by canoe", "-29.42331572441617" ], [ "sand dunes and very deep and saline water sources pose a challenge to sustained human habitation in the Thar.\nThe area is prone to devastating droughts. The Thar Desert is one of the most inhospitable landscapes on earth. Apart from the huge distances between hamlets and settlements here, the landscape is constantly shifting with the sand, as wind and sandstorms re-arrange the landscape. This, added to the lack of water in such an arid region, means that the villagers often find themselves migrating on foot across hundreds of miles towards neighboring states in search of water. History Hieun Tsang described a", "-29.41861726512434" ] ]

[ "There's a phrase my school teacher used to say, \"Water tends to find it's own level.\" I think porn sites actually is a great example of that. If you go to any random porn site, and then they have a lot of, say, pregnant porn uploaded by the users, people who do not like pregnant porn might stay away from it. The more people that stray because of the prevalence of pregnant porn, the more concentrated the pregnant porn has become on that site, until that site has a reputation for being the site for pregnant porn. Tumblr's vocal social justice commentators have likewise turned people who aren't into that away from the site, leaving it more concentrated, so if you *are* into that you're more likely to post there.", "To put it plainly, Tumblr is not like TumblrInAction describes it. It's a social media platform that fills your particular part of it with what you follow. It's entirely possible to follow people on Tumblr who post nothing but Doctor Who related quotes and images. The dash is what you make of it, and since the individuals who are on Tumblr post what they want, there are always going to be people who post things which are outlandish (or appear outlandish). Out of the hundreds of blogs I follow on Tumblr, there are only 4 that I would class as SJW to one extent or another. For one of them, they blog about Doctor Who, and the rest of their blog is SJW related stuff (feminism, biphobia awareness, mental illness awareness, etc.). Literally none of their posts would I class as \"TumblrInAction\" material. [Also, considering that TumblrInAction literally has a link in the sidebar to \"How to Find Juicy SJW's on Tumblr\" with links to a 20 tags... I'm going to say that TiA is equivalent to me going into 20 subreddits that occasionally attract idiots and then only posting what the idiots say, then calling that a representation of Reddit as a whole.]", "I really like the medium. Tumblr is a really easy to use site, and there are tons of nice blogs on it. I agree with some of the obvious things with a grain of salt (feminism good, homo/transphobia bad). The vocal minority is present on any website, and when people find others that agree with them, they will move there. Reddit has a vocal minority just as much as Tumblr. I always thought Reddit was full of militant atheists.", "The same reason Xanga become almost exclusively Asian. At some point one group becomes so prevalent that it actually gains a kind of internet gravity. People who want to be part of the community are drawn to it and/or are told to go there. In this case for radfems and trans-demi-dragonkins when they've worn out their welcome on other parts of the internet, they're told to take that nonsense to Tumblr. Tumblr isn't completely far gone because of the nature of the site. Lots of people still use it for porn exclusively after all. But what makes Tumblr interesting in this case is the echo chamber effect and the SJW ideology which is really cult-like. The ideology of \"check your privilege\" and \"if someone claims they're offended you must never question them, just shut up and acquiesce\" creates an echo chamber where the most radical and crazy voices are pushed the hardest and people of lower status (ironically those assumed to be of highest status IRL) are never allowed to say \"hey whoa, you guys are getting pretty crazy\". So they keep getting further and further out of touch with the rest of the world. And that's how you have modern Tumblr (and really modern 3rd wave feminism in general).", "I hadn't heard of any of that shit before tumblrinaction. So there's your answer. It is interesting, though, that Tumblr is basically set up to be an echo chamber. The only way you can comment on a post is by reblogging it, so even negative commenters help to propagate whatever it is they're commenting on.", "Hey guys I was looking at pictures of Paris garbage trucks and I was wondering... How come there's so many garbage trucks in Paris", "I think that, also, people who stick around on Tumblr and view the SJW posts tend to develop thoughts and opinions to things they might not have known about before. While not always the case, it's easy for someone to read about some sort of social injustice and then develop strong feeling about it and then may speak out about it. Sometimes this speaking out may either not be well articulated by the speaker, or may not be received well by the listeners due to them being used to hearing the more vocal and less articulate of the bunch. Source: Joined tumblr for funny posts, ended up hating so many things.", "You know, I use Tumblr and don't really see much nonsense. It kind of depends on what you search for and subscribe to. I think that /r/TumblrinAction members must be actively seeking out things that piss them off. Which is fine, I guess, if being pissed off is your hobby. But Tumblr is also a pretty good place to keep up with your favorite obsessive pop culture fandom. Watch out for the Sherlock porn. Or, you know, seek it out, depending on your preferences.", "This is not an answer, mind you. I just want to say that I see the same shit on this site. It's more of an us and them kind of situation. We have the same sort of social warrior users on here. Tumblr is not simply full of those types, either. I use it to look at rad art. There is a looooot of rad art on Tumblr." ]

[ [ "which Gibney found \"astounding\". He commented that he \"found it interesting that universally this subject — more than any other — provoked all the networks to decline to license. I think at the end of the day, that tells you more about Scientology than it does about the networks, which is how ruthless they've been in trying to silence any criticism.\" The church's reputation for harassing its critics made it necessary for Gibney to use burner phones to contact interviewees and film in secret: \"Sometimes for the on-camera interviews we'd set up gear in somebody's house and I'd make sure", "-26.31885580974631" ], [ "about its clients in 2011; and the discovery in 2012 that British MPs or their staff had removed criticism from articles about those MPs. The media has also written about COI editing by BP, the Central Intelligence Agency, Diebold, Portland Communications, Sony, the Vatican, and several others.\nIn 2012 Wikipedia launched one of its largest sockpuppet investigations, when editors reported suspicious activity suggesting 250 accounts had been used to engage in paid editing. Wikipedia traced the edits to a firm known as Wiki-PR, and the accounts were banned. Although the company's CEO Jordan French was credited for partnering with the Wikimedia", "-25.854845919646323" ], [ "public discussion surrounding the image. Initial viral spread Cates Holderness, who ran the Tumblr page for Buzzfeed at the site's New York offices, noted a message from McNeill asking for the site's help in resolving the colour dispute of the dress. At the time she dismissed it, but then checked the page near the end of her workday and saw that it had received around 5,000 notes in that time, which she said \"is insanely viral [for Tumblr]\". Tom Christ, Tumblr's director of data, said at its peak the page was getting 14,000 views a second (or 840,000 views per", "-25.553554652957246" ], [ "MuckRock MuckRock is a United States-based 501(c)(3) non-profit organization which assists anyone in filing governmental requests for information through the Freedom of Information Act, then publishes the returned information on its website and encourages journalism around it. History MuckRock was founded by Michael Morisy and Mitchell Kotler, graduates of Cornell University. The site's beta version went online in May 2010, and was part of the Boston Globe’s GlobeLab incubator program. MuckRock was granted a 501(c)(3) non-profit status by the IRS in June 2016. On June 11, 2018, MuckRock announced they would be merging with DocumentCloud. Operation Filing requests for", "-25.184928303788183" ], [ "of any allegations of misconduct, or of actual misconduct by Savile, had been found in its files and later denied that there had been a cover-up of Savile's activities. However, there were claims by some, including DJ Liz Kershaw, who joined BBC Radio 1 in 1987, that there was a culture within the BBC which tolerated sexual harassment.\nThe BBC was criticised in Parliament for its handling of the affair, with Harriet Harman stating that the allegations \"cast a stain\" on the corporation. The Culture Secretary, Maria Miller, said that she was satisfied that the BBC was taking the", "-25.118256723246304" ], [ "and were eventually traced back to the Middle-East. Adware critic Boyd is a notoriously fierce critic of adware companies, famously causing 180solutions to label him a \"fanatic\" on their Weblog, with bad feeling in evidence on both sides to this day. He is regularly referenced on other leading antispyware sites such as Sunbelt Blog, Suzi Turner's ZDNet blog and Ben Edelman's home page.", "-25.047782862950044" ], [ "Guesty History Guesty was founded in 2013 under the name SuperHost by twin brothers Amiad and Koby Soto. The idea came from renting out their properties on Airbnb and spending large amounts of time dealing with guest-related issues.\nThe company was rebranded to Guesty in 2014 and launched as a service for homeowners to get their properties ready for listing on Airbnb, including help with subsequent maintenance such as cleaning and laundry. It transitioned into a software service to help property managers deal with issues such as guest communication and task management. \nThe company is a Y Combinator graduate and has", "-25.03579005145002" ], [ "personal information about employees. Beyond strategic information, the leak also exposed login information for FTP and MySQL servers, making available a large library of MP3 files likely including artists represented by MediaDefender's clients. The emails also revealed that MediaDefender probably was negotiating with the New York Attorney General's office to allow them access to information about users accessing pornographic material. As of September 15, 2007, there had been no official response from the company. However, evidence exists that MediaDefender had been employing both legal and illegal actions to remove copies of the leaked emails from their respective hosting sites. In", "-24.971635060803465" ], [ "WikiLeaks Aftergood was among the earliest critics of WikiLeaks. Although he has published thousands of leaked documents on the Secrecy News blog he runs for the FAS, he turned down an invitation to join WikiLeaks' board of advisers. Instead he strongly criticized WikiLeaks and its leader, Julian Assange.\n\"I would say also that WikiLeaks is a response to a genuine problem, namely the over control of information of public policy significance,\" Aftergood said. However, he added, \"If you are a Mormon or a Mason or a college girl who is a member of a sorority with a secret initiation ritual..they will", "-24.80943028893671" ], [ "Bartcop Overview Before the internet, World Wide Web, and the \"blogosphere\" gained popularity, bartcop was a frequent poster in Prodigy discussion groups. After gaining a formidable following bartcop began publishing an opt-in email Newsletter titled \"Rush Limba, Lying Nazi Whore\" with the name, a reference to conservative talk radio host Rush Limbaugh, intentionally spelling his last name phonetically. bartcop.com was established in February 1996. bartcop.com now is the masthead for several websites as well as a radio show, available to financial supporters of bartcop.com. Many of the site's readers frequent the #bartcop IRC chat room.\nIn the 2004 Democratic Primary, bartcop", "-24.791850842630083" ], [ "James F. Jeffrey. However, McGurk's confirmation hearings soon became embroiled in controversy after a series of his emails were leaked to the press and published on Cryptome. Speculation remains as to who was responsible for the leak. The illicit emails were exchanged with Gina Chon, then a reporter for The Wall Street Journal. Critics claim that the extramarital affair cast doubt on his ability to lead and manage the embassy, while supporters argue that it was at most a momentary lapse in judgment and that McGurk and Chon were a married couple when the series of emails from five years", "-24.776740898916614" ], [ "the artist across the board, from their shows to their music, their songwriting, their style…everything.\" Grinberg first heard about Wiz Khalifa in 2004 when the rapper's contribution to a mixtape of various new Pittsburgh artists attracted his interest. When Grinberg finally met the 16-year-old artist, he immediately decided he wanted to work with him, later telling HitQuarters: \"Even though he wasn't all the way developed you could just tell that he was a diamond in the rough, and that with some polishing, guidance and backing he could become something special.\" Khalifa signed to the label shortly after and", "-24.63616576755885" ], [ "Say Yeah (Wiz Khalifa song) Background Rostrum Records president Benjy Grinberg first heard about Wiz Khalifa in 2004 when the rapper's contribution to a mixtape of various new Pittsburgh artists attracted his interest. When Grinberg finally met the 16-year-old artist, he immediately decided he wanted to work with him, later telling HitQuarters: \"Even though he wasn't all the way developed you could just tell that he was a diamond in the rough, and that with some polishing, guidance and backing he could become something special.\" Khalifa signed to the label shortly after and began a seven-year period of artist development.", "-24.60572463350036" ], [ "misleading leaks \"are already well-placed in the mainstream media. WikiLeaks is of no additional assistance.\" The FAQ states that: \"The simplest and most effective countermeasure is a worldwide community of informed users and editors who can scrutinise and discuss leaked documents.\" According to statements by Assange in 2010, submitted documents are vetted by a group of five reviewers, with expertise in different topics such as language or programming, who also investigate the background of the leaker if his or her identity is known. In that group, Assange has the final decision about the assessment of a document.\nColumnist Eric Zorn wrote", "-24.540723038291617" ], [ "slowly from entertainment gossip to political gossip and moved from email to the Web as its primary distribution mechanism.\nIn March 1995, the Drudge Report had 1,000 email subscribers; by 1997, Drudge had 85,000 subscribers to his email service. Drudge's website gained in popularity in the late 1990s after a number of stories which he reported before the mainstream media. Drudge first received national attention in 1996 when he broke the news that Jack Kemp would be Republican Bob Dole's running mate in the 1996 presidential election. In 1998, Drudge gained popularity when he published the reporting of then Newsweek reporter", "-24.520848692860454" ], [ "Popehat History The website was established in 2004. \nAfter having a low profile for many years, the blog came to widespread attention when it documented The Oatmeal and FunnyJunk legal dispute involving Charles Carreon. It has also covered swatting, IsAnybodyDown?, Prenda Law, scam letters, and SLAPP issues. The blog sometimes helps arrange pro bono counsel for affected bloggers (the \"Popehat Signal\") including PZ Myers.\nIt has been repeatedly linked by Boing Boing, Reddit, Instapundit, John Scalzi, Techdirt, and others and was included in the ABA Journal \"Blawg 100\" in 2011, 2012, 2013, and 2014. In 2015, Popehat was inducted into the", "-24.518037590489257" ], [ "traditions, if left unchecked.\"\nThe New York Times reported that over 200 WikiLeaks mirror sites sprang up after some hosting companies cut their services to the company. On 5 December, a group of activists and hackers known as \"Anonymous\" called upon supporters to attack sites of companies that oppose WikiLeaks as part of Operation Avenge Assange. PayPal has been targeted following their decision to stop processing donations for WikiLeaks. Gregg Housh, who previously worked on other projects with Anonymous, said that he had noticed an organised attempt taking place to attack companies that have not supported WikiLeaks. In reference to the", "-24.501902875083033" ], [ "are numerous PR professionals who represent subtler brands and causes.\nNoting that the controversy was revealed from within by Wikipedia editors, Forbes said that \"the incident reinforces the power of Wikipedia’s community to monitor itself and self-discipline violations of its norms.\" Brandchannel reported on the controversy and noted that payment of money to Wikipedia editors represented \"the greatest threat the [Wikipedia] brand has seen to date.\" British web site The Register reported on concerns that the \"scandal involving a close-knit group of friends and business associates who run Wikimedia UK may imperil its charitable status.\" Responses to the controversy", "-24.33105028764112" ], [ "was started as a \"hack day\" project on November 26, 2011, where McKinney and Stansberry worked for 12 hours on the concept before releasing the website later that night. Nearly two months later an article on Daily Dot gave the site its first media coverage. The site has later received mainstream media coverage from Fox News, TIME, Mashable, and many others Awards Gentlemint was included in PCMag’s Top 100 Websites of 2012\nThe benefits of social networking and social media for staying in touch with friends", "-24.26035628176396" ], [ "a \"reliable industry and fan site\". Criticism Blabbermouth.net has been criticized by musicians and music industry persons for internet trolls and news posts that are unrelated to heavy metal or hard rock. Krgin said he posts these articles to attract humorous comments from users, and as relief from the constant monotony of album news.\nIn September 2006, Krgin claims to have performed a cleanup of Blabbermouth.net's comments and to have adopted a policy whereby users can report offensive comments in order to have them deleted from the site. Prior to this, in his own words, \"countless abusive, obscene, defamatory, racist,", "-24.249970300235873" ], [ "of the Birt regime at the BBC, for its managerial and populist instincts. For Drummond, the BBC \"has been an organisation which has seen itself as leading society, not following taste. If it no longer wishes to be that, I can't see any reason for its existence.\" At about the same time, he called Tony Blair a \"professional philistine\" and attacked the Blair government for destroying \"the national sense of culture\". At the very end of his autobiography he attacked what he saw as trends in the arts: \"The lowest-common-denominator, accessibility-at-any-price, anti-intellectual laziness of so many of today's leaders [...]", "-24.24717415199848" ], [ "Bragster Company history Bragster was founded in 2006 as Gottabet.com by Wim Vernaeve, a former investment banker and Bertrand Bodson, who previously launched a DVD rental service for amazon.com. The site was started as a way to bring gambling and social networking together, but over time the gambling and betting aspect was dropped in favour of bragging and dares. The logo was changed to a blue gorilla to reflect this new \"edgier\" direction.\nOriginally, the site was geared more towards social networking with features such as blogs, but these were removed as part of the re-branding, with the focus shifted purely", "-24.245170852147567" ], [ "urged their allies to open criminal investigations into the editor-in-chief of WikiLeaks. In the same documents there was a proposal by the National Security Agency (NSA) to designate WikiLeaks as a \"malicious foreign actor\", thus increasing the surveillance against it.\nIn January 2015, WikiLeaks issued a statement saying that three members of the organisation had received notice from Google that Google had complied with a federal warrant by a US District Court to turn over their emails and metadata on 5 April 2012. In July 2015 he called himself a \"wanted journalist\" in Le Monde, in an open letter to the French", "-24.215181840147125" ], [ "lyrics that they allowed Khalifa to record for free. This allowed him to receive professional grade studio time at no cost to him. Also, this allowed him to receive more exposure at such a young age than other artists. 2005–2008: Early mixtapes and Show and Prove Rostrum Records president Benjy Grinberg first heard about Wiz Khalifa in 2004 when the rapper's contribution to a mixtape of various new Pittsburgh artists attracted his interest. When Grinberg finally met the 16-year-old artist, he immediately decided he wanted to work with him, later telling HitQuarters: \"Even though he wasn't all the way developed", "-24.204075145797106" ], [ "synced to their iCloud storage from their iPhone. Apple confirmed that it was working with law enforcement agencies to investigate the leak. Apple subsequently denied that the iCloud service itself or the alleged exploit was responsible for the leak, asserting that the leaks were the result of a very targeted phishing attack against the celebrities. On September 13, 2014 Tim Cook, while being interviewed by Charlie Rose, stated on camera that the celebrity leaks were not an iCloud exploit at all, but rather the celebrities had been phished by very targeted phishing to trick them out of their login credentials.", "-24.139308058016468" ], [ "to posts critical of Queen's work, specifically a piece of art published on the blog nine times with encouragement for others to correct it with redraws - a piece of art created 18 years ago while the artist was still learning. Queen felt his work was being used in an abusive and misleading manner, and exercised due process with Tumblr in having his copyrighted images removed from the blog. Tumblr erroneously removed the entire post, which included commentary. Subsequently, Queen apologized on his Facebook page regarding the incident and asked Tumblr to restore the content, which they did.", "-24.106838042604068" ], [ "In 2010, the New York Daily News listed WikiLeaks first among websites \"that could totally change the news,\" and Julian Assange received the Sam Adams Award and was named the Readers' Choice for TIME's Person of the Year in 2010. The UK Information Commissioner has stated that \"WikiLeaks is part of the phenomenon of the online, empowered citizen.\" During its first days, an Internet petition in support of WikiLeaks attracted more than six hundred thousand signatures. Support for good use of free speech Sympathisers of WikiLeaks in the media and academia commended it during its early years for exposing state", "-24.076679738180246" ], [ "Sanford Wallace Sanford Wallace (born c. 1968) is an internet spammer. He initially started sending junk faxes before coming to notoriety in 1997, promoting himself as the original \"Spam King\". Wallace's prolific spamming has resulted in encounters with the United States government, anti-spam activists, and large corporations such as Facebook and MySpace. Early career In the late 1990s, his company, Cyber Promotions, aka Cyberpromo, was widely blacklisted as a source of unsolicited email. Wallace's high-profile pro-spam stance and unrepentant persistence earned him the derisive nickname 'Spamford'.\nPrior to his email spam ventures, Wallace had gained notoriety in other questionable marketing", "-24.070764188450994" ], [ "UK. He had previously produced Wogan's breakfast show in the early 1980s. Walters became famous and a household name by taking part in Wogan's infamous banter, acquiring the nickname \"Dr Wally\" (or, in full, Dr Wallington P. De Wynter Courtney Claibourne Magillicuddy Walters). In 1996 Walters pioneered the use of emails and the webcam in the programme.\nAlong with Terry Wogan, Walters is widely credited with introducing the music of Beth Nielsen Chapman, Eva Cassidy and Katie Melua to the British public, as he selected much of their music to be played during the influential show.\nOn 21 October 2006, the BBC", "-24.04201193501649" ], [ "of a broad attack on Visa or a specific attack on the Palins. Palin's email was previously hacked while she was campaigning during the 2008 U.S. presidential election. Criticism The United Kingdom Intellectual Property Office said that when its site was attacked, those responsible were depriving its citizens of access to information they have a democratic right to access. Other critics claimed the attacks restricted Gene Simmons' right to free speech.\nA spokesman for the MPAA said, \"It's troubling that these groups seem more concerned about the rights of those who steal and copy films, music, books, and other creative resources", "-24.0243246514583" ], [ "York Times noted that the publication sparked a debate centering on the use of unsubstantiated information from anonymous sources. BuzzFeed's executive staff said the materials were newsworthy because they were \"in wide circulation at the highest levels of American government and media\" and argued that this justified public release.\nThe dossier's publication by BuzzFeed has always been defended by Jack Shafer, Politico's senior media writer, as well as by Richard Tofel of ProPublica and the Columbia Journalism Review. Shafer defended the public's right to know about the allegations against Trump, and saw a parallel in Judge Ungaro's ruling in the defamation", "-24.023442838457413" ], [ "News of the World record for number of consecutive front page splashes, with five.\nIn March 2005 Goodman took over Mark Bolland's \"Blackadder\" column, reporting on details and rumours of the lives of notable personalities. It was during his tenure on this column that two entries raised suspicions with Royal Household staff that Goodman had gained access to the Royal Family's voicemails.\nOn 26 January 2007 Goodman was imprisoned for four months, having pleaded guilty to illegally intercepting phone messages from Clarence House; his co-conspirator Glenn Mulcaire was sentenced to six months. Goodman was sacked by the News of the World in", "-24.016702241606254" ], [ "to undergraduate students at the University of Pennsylvania. Topic in the 2004 vice-presidential debate FactCheck.org became a focus of political commentary following the 2004 vice-presidential debate between Dick Cheney and John Edwards. Cheney cited the website, claiming that the independent site defended his actions while CEO of Halliburton. Cheney's claim was disputed by FactCheck.org as wrong, saying that \"Edwards was mostly right\" when talking about \"Cheney's responsibility for earlier Halliburton troubles\".\nCheney's reference created some controversy because he incorrectly cited the web site's address as \"FactCheck.com.\" At the time of the debate, factcheck.com was controlled by Frank Schilling's company Name Administration", "-23.97643032693304" ], [ "business in the House of Lords Chamber itself, as well as the debates in the Moses Room, known as Grand Committee. Parliamentary Written Answers and Statements are also printed. Emma Crewe notes that \"Editors view reporters in general as a hive of revolution and anti-establishment attitudes, while they perceive themselves as calm and uncomplaining\". The Internet, with the help of volunteers, has made the UK Hansard more accessible. The UK Hansard is currently being digitised to a high-level format for on-line publication. It is possible to review and search the UK Hansard from 1803, with the exception of Standing Committees.\nBecause", "-23.950478985672817" ], [ "Brown Lloyd James Notable campaigns The firm has represented a number of high-profile clients, including Al Jazeera English, the Shafallah Center for Children with Disabilities, and the Kingdom of Morocco. In 2006, the firm coordinated the launch of Al Jazeera English in the United States.\nThe firm has been criticized for representing controversial clients such as Asma al-Assad, Muammar Gaddafi and supporters of the People's Mujahedin of Iran (PMOI/MEK/MKO).\nIn 2011, it was criticized for working with the First Lady of Syria to organize a Vogue profile. In July 2012, Ynetnews described the firm's May 2011 email released by WikiLeaks as one", "-23.950169608346187" ], [ "at the Washington, DC-based think tank New America for five months.\nWith representatives of Twitter, Facebook and Google, Smith provided expert testimony during the United States Senate Committee on the Judiciary, Subcommittee on Crime and Terrorism’s October 31, 2017 hearing focused on extremist content and Russian disinformation online. In his testimony, Smith argued anonymity provided to social media users by major companies has increased the attractiveness of their technologies for terrorist groups like ISIS and he suggested that legislation should be implemented to compel tech companies to restrict VPN use on their platforms only to those whose identities they know.\nIn February", "-23.943462380673736" ], [ "from their site stating it violated their policy of posting personal information of others, triggering a wave of criticism from users on /r/The_Donald, who felt the ban amounted to censorship. The Reddit forum /r/pizzagate was devoted to a conspiracy theory derived from the John Podesta leaked emails, a theory that alleged the D.C. Pizzeria Comet Ping Pong \"is at the center of a child-abuse ring tied to John Podesta, Mrs. Clinton’s former campaign manager\". After the forum was banned from Reddit, the wording \"We don't want witchhunts on our site\" now appears on the former page of the Pizzagate subreddit.\nOn", "-23.93543832958676" ], [ "the days following the arrest, when news sources like Wired, The Guardian, and Slyck.com started fact checking based on internet sources, it was revealed that not everything reported in the mainstream media was entirely correct. Common errors quoted by media were: that OiNK was an extremely lucrative website and made hundreds of thousands of pounds from \"donations\", which users had to pay to be able to download; that users had to offer new content to the site in order to get invitations; and that the site was centered around the release of pre-released material. The first two claims clearly conflicted", "-23.91584109904943" ], [ "newspaper, after it emerged that the newspaper had wrongly referred to Petrowatch.com as among paid websites that uploaded government documents.\nSince 2011 Petrowatch articles on the leak and theft of confidential government documents by oil ministry personnel on behalf of corporate bodies and parallel oil and gas websites for as little as Rs500 ($10) for a cabinet note or Rs50,000/mth ($1000) for a regular stream of classified information had been largely ignored.\nFollowing the Leakgate scandal, Petrowatch head of operations Vivek Mahajan published a code of conduct detailing its remit and the ethical news-gathering policy followed by its journalists. In its code", "-23.854189915175084" ], [ "say \"The BBC risks squandering public trust because one of its stars over three decades was apparently a sexual criminal; because he used his programme and popularity as a cover for his wickedness; because he used BBC premises for some of his attacks; and because others – BBC employees and hangers-on – may also have been involved.\" Patten posed the question \"Can it really be the case that no one knew what he was doing?\" Patten said Savile had been \"received into the heart of the Establishment; feted from Chequers to the Vatican; friend to Royals and editors. How did", "-23.778065734833945" ], [ "censorship.\"\nThe largest implementation of GlobaLeaks occurred in 2014 by PubLeaks in the Netherlands, \"a foundation that counts 42 of the country's biggest media organizations among its members. There, each organization pays €500 per year, and in return receives a special laptop designed to access the leak system.\" Borland noted that \"When accessing Publeaks from the web, whistleblowers can choose to send information to three of these media organizations. All participating organizations agree to honor embargo periods, enabling information to be examined without immediate publication pressure. The group has already had several high-profile leaks, including one that led to the resignation", "-23.774565448635258" ], [ "Blabbermouth.net History Founder Borivoj Krgin came up with the concept of Blabbermouth in January 2000. Robert Kampf, a friend of Krgin who runs Century Media Records, was staying with Krgin in New York and set up a meeting with Gunter Ford of World Management. During the meeting, Ford suggested an idea for a \"heavy metal portal,\" a site which would offer news, merchandise, and CD reviews to get record labels to sell their products through the site. Ford wanted Kampf to be involved. Krgin disliked the idea and wished for a site that offered around-the-clock news, as he thought that", "-23.746670438500587" ], [ "he has been widely referenced as a fixer.\nIn 2002, David Duchovny hired the firm to represent him to the media in his dispute with 20th Century Fox regarding breach of contract relating to his work on The X-Files television show; Sitrick and Company arranged for a feature in Forbes regarding Fox's vertical monopoly, which put pressure on Fox to settle with Duchovny.\nAlso in 2002, the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Los Angeles hired the firm regarding the diocese's sexual abuse scandal.\nSitrick advised \"the late Roy Disney and Stanley Gold when he orchestrated their campaign to remove Michael Eisner as chairman of", "-23.744238658167887" ], [ "was \"personally offended\" by some of Marcotte's remarks, her job as their blogmaster was secure.\nFollowing the criticism Marcotte announced her resignation from the Edwards campaign. In an article for Salon a few days later, she said her resignation was a result of being targeted by the \"right-wing smear machine.\" Activities since 2008 As of 2013 Marcotte blogs at The Raw Story and contributes to Slate, The Guardian, Salon, and RH Reality Cast, a weekly podcast.\nMarcotte has given presentations at Skepticon, SXSW 2012, Women In Secularism 2, and SkepchickCON. She was formerly on the speakers' bureau of the Secular Student Alliance.\nMarcotte", "-23.726363849127665" ], [ "and pressing political concerns. This increased public profile has drawn some accusations that the organization has become more politically partisan than in previous decades.\nFollowing WikiLeaks founder Julian Assange's arrest, Ben Wizner from the ACLU said that if authorities were to prosecute Assange \"for violating U.S. secrecy laws [it] would set an especially dangerous precedent for U.S. journalists, who routinely violate foreign secrecy laws to deliver information vital to the public's interest.\" Shooting of Jocques Clemmons The ACLU of Tennessee protested the shooting of Jocques Clemmons which occurred in Nashville, Tennessee on February 10, 2017. On May 11, 2017, as", "-23.717160205123946" ], [ "spammers and other users to manipulate these features by creating illegitimate events or posting fake birthdays to attract attention to their profile or cause. Initially, the News Feed caused dissatisfaction among Facebook users; some complained it was too cluttered and full of undesired information, others were concerned that it made it too easy for others to track individual activities (such as relationship status changes, events, and conversations with other users). Zuckerberg apologized for the site's failure to include appropriate privacy features. Users then gained control over what types of information are shared automatically with friends. Users are now able to", "-23.712603092135396" ], [ "hailed as one of the best marketing decisions in tech history, but it was a little bit unintentional” says Georges Harik, who was responsible for most of Google's new products at the time.\nActive users from the Blogger community were offered the chance to participate in the beta-testing on 20 April and later, Gmail members occasionally received \"invites\" which they could send to anyone. One round of invitations was sent out on 1 May and another three invitations were given to all active members on 1 June. When Gmail increased the supply of invitations, the nascent buying and selling market for", "-23.68871707416838" ], [ "Fame, credited as a significant influence on the works of Asking Alexandria, The Ghost Inside and While She Sleeps. It was credited as an influence on metalcore contemporaries Architects on Hollow Crown with their incorporation of keyboards and programming, and The Devil Wears Prada's Dead Throne for its more experimental and opinion-dividing sound.\nThe band caused further controversy in February 2016 when Oliver Sykes trashed Coldplay's table at the 2016 NME Awards during a live performance of Bring Me the Horizon's track \"Happy Song\". Although some people thought the table trashing was because of a prior feud between the two bands", "-23.676184669137" ], [ "account anonymously —while some of his colleagues knew of his identity, he purposely kept it hidden from the public at large. In June 2013, Blass fully revealed himself in an interview with Android Police, citing the inevitability of being unmasked as the reason for his decision.\nAs @evleaks, Blass was responsible for posting images and information pertaining to unannounced smartphones, tablets, accessories, applications, laptops, and a webOS-powered TV, collectively leaked from nearly every mobile device maker and US wireless carrier, often weeks or even months before their launches. He was particularly adept at obtaining information and pictures about Taiwanese manufacturer HTC Corporation", "-23.675484770559706" ], [ "by Colin Powell: \"Those kind of images going out on Al Jazeera are killing us.\" Following this the Washington Post ran an op-ed, claiming the news channel was deliberately encouraging \"anti-American sentiment overseas\", which was criticized by Al Jazeera as \"a gratuitous and uninformed shot at Al Jazeera's motives\", as the report was just one of \"hundreds of hours of diverse coverage\".\nSome critics have alleged that Al Jazeera has censored criticism of the United States under U.S. pressure. Al Jazeera English's former director, Wadah Khanfar resigned in September 2011 following Wikileaks documents that asserted that he had close ties to", "-23.67502527072793" ], [ "Top of the Pops. The report said that Savile's celebrity status meant that he must have been \"hiding in plain sight\". Operation Yewtree's senior investigating officer, DS David Gray, said Savile used Jim'll Fix It as a means of meeting victims.\nMost of the allegations had not previously been reported to authorities, the reasons given included fear of disbelief and distrust in the judicial system. At least seven allegations of sexual assault made to police during Savile's lifetime were not linked by police, with Savile as the same alleged perpetrator. The Crown Prosecution Service (CPS) said that the allegations made to", "-23.668051031098003" ], [ "in a report about the interview he gave to Italian newspaper La Repubblica. Greenwald wrote: \"This article is about how those [Guardian's] false claims—fabrications, really—were spread all over the internet by journalists, causing hundreds of thousands of people (if not millions) to consume false news.\" The Guardian later amended its article about Assange. WhatsApp After publishing a story on 13 January 2017 claiming that WhatsApp had a \"backdoor [that] allows snooping on messages\", more than 70 professional cryptographers signed on to an open letter calling for The Guardian to retract the article. On 13 June 2017, editor Paul Chadwick released", "-23.645798254874535" ], [ "acknowledgment of the ownership of \"Bob's\" image by the Church is accepted by the regular newsgroup participants.\nShortly after its creation, via forged Usenet control messages in 1995, the newsgroup was targeted by warez traders, who tried to use it for the distribution of pirated commercial software. The users of the newsgroup responded by forming their own internal \"police force\" for the newsgroup, known as the SubGenius Police, Usenet Tactical Unit - Mobile (SPUTUM). This group of Internet-savvy people embarked on a successful campaign to drive the warez traders out of the newsgroup. They then turned their resources and skills towards", "-23.63147080107592" ], [ "Newspapers Limited. A similar URL sunonsunday.com is not affiliated, having been registered in Italy on 24 September 2007.\nOn 18 July 2011, the LulzSec group hacked The Sun's website, where they posted a fake news story of Rupert Murdoch's death before redirecting the website to their Twitter page. The group also targeted the website of The Times.\nA reporter working for The Sun was arrested and taken to a south-west London police station on 4 November 2011. The man was the sixth person to be arrested in the UK under the News International related legal probe, Operation Elveden. In January 2012, two", "-23.612277856300352" ], [ "criticized by fellow hackers, such as those at the Hackers on Planet Earth conference in 2010, who labeled him a \"snitch\". Another commented to Lamo, following his speech during a panel discussion, saying: \"From my perspective, I see what you have done as treason.\"\nIn April 2011, WikiLeaks founder Julian Assange called Lamo \"a very disreputable character\", and said it was not right to call him a financial contributor to WikiLeaks, since Lamo's monetary support amounted to only US$20 on one occasion. Assange said it was \"mischievous to suggest the individual has anything to do with WikiLeaks.\"\nLamo characterized his decision to", "-23.59367825242225" ], [ "the emails and branded them a scam, saying that he would contact the police. The IP addresses listed in the emails were not from UK.\nIn 2016 The SRA removed the conditions on Crossley . He is now working for Warren's Law and Advocacy. Investigations by regulatory authorities As well as the investigation by the Solicitors Regulation Authority, complaints have also been received by The Law Society and the Consumer Action Group. Quality of evidence against suspected copyright infringers ACS:Law identify suspected copyright infringement through peer-to-peer file sharing by the IP address of the internet user's connection. However, ACS:Law's use", "-23.56975599125144" ], [ "The Amazing Kornyfone Record Label The Amazing Kornyfone Record Label (TAKRL) was one of the first bootlegging record labels in America. Kornyfone was based in Southern California in the 1970s. The label released albums from such artists as The Beatles, David Bowie, Bob Dylan, The Grateful Dead, Led Zeppelin, Elton John, Joni Mitchell, Pink Floyd, Genesis, and others. Kornyfone was known for their packaging, with interesting artwork and informative covers.\nAccording to Clinton Heylin, \"Though Dub's output [at TMQ] in the five years separating Great White Wonder from Tales from The Who had outstripped any of his competitors,", "-23.551328313420527" ], [ "Reception of WikiLeaks The whistleblowing website WikiLeaks has received praise as well as criticism. The organisation has won a number of awards, including The Economist's New Media Award in 2008 at the Index on Censorship Awards and Amnesty International's UK Media Award in 2009. In 2010, the New York Daily News listed WikiLeaks first among websites \"that could totally change the news\", and Julian Assange received the Sam Adams Award and was named the Readers' Choice for TIME's Person of the Year in 2010. The UK Information Commissioner has stated that \"WikiLeaks is part of the phenomenon of the", "-23.528620332450373" ], [ "later, Epstein admitted his website had been hacked, but criticized Google for tarnishing his name and not helping him find the infection.\nAfter this incident, Epstein offered other criticism of Google's practices. In 2013, he wrote in Time magazine that Google had \"a fundamentally deceptive business model\". In 2015, he said that Google could rig the 2016 US presidential election and that search engine manipulation was \"a serious threat to the democratic system of government\". According to Epstein, \"Perhaps the most effective way to wield political influence in today's high-tech world is to donate money to a candidate", "-23.527658969076583" ], [ "Most of his vlogs feature cameo appearances from Kanye West, 2 Chainz, Pusha T, Common, No I.D., Rita Ora, Trey Songz, Wale, Wiz Khalifa, Lupe Fiasco, Teyana Taylor and T-Pain, among others. Starting on February 23, 2013, Sean began a European tour in promotion of the album, which continued until March 13, 2013. On September 28, 2013, Sean released a 23-minute documentary covering the development and making of the album, which began 269 days before the project's release.\nAfter initially announcing a December 18, 2012, release date for the album, it was revealed the album would be pushed back to February", "-23.52404592919629" ], [ "hooligan firms, such as Leeds in 1980, but becomes frustrated with the lack of publicity the ICF are receiving. So he creates cards with the infamous slogan, \"Congratulations, you have just met the famous ICF\", and gives a TV interview, increasing the firm's notoriety for humiliation, their speciality. However, the government under Margaret Thatcher begins to come down hard on hooliganism, and after an organised attack on a group of Newcastle United supporters, Cass is imprisoned for four years. Whilst in Wormwood Scrubs, Cass begins writing his autobiography, in the hope he can generate some income upon the book being", "-23.523827005454223" ], [ "such as Reykjavik Grapevine, Rolling Stone, BBC News and Slate fools for believing the \"hype\". According to David Kushner, the reporter who took the Rolling Stone interview with Thordarson, Thordarson provided Rolling Stone with over 1 terabyte of data (1000 gigabytes ) to the paper about WikiLeaks, and said that either Thordarson was the real deal or this was the biggest and most elaborate lie in the digital age. Also number of photos related to articles about the extradition hearings in London July 2011, show Thordarson escorting Julian to the court house as well as a video where Thordarson", "-23.513861605577404" ], [ "The second step is to sensationalise the material with misleading news releases and tweets. The third step is to sit back and watch as the news media unwittingly promotes the WikiLeaks agenda under the auspices of independent reporting.\" Inadequate curation and violations of personal privacy WikiLeaks has drawn criticism for violating the personal privacy of individuals and inadequately curating its content. These critics include transparency advocates, such as Edward Snowden, the Sunlight Foundation and the Federation of American Scientists.\nWikiLeaks has published individuals' Social Security numbers, medical information, and credit card numbers. An analysis by the Associated Press found that WikiLeaks", "-23.492497753468342" ], [ "of Rolling Papers with Woods and Big Sean. This tour introduced Woods to Khalifa's mainstream audience. In August 2011, Woods released a mixtape, titled The Cookout, which featured Wiz Khalifa.\nAfter Khalifa officially founded Taylor Gang Records, Woods was immediately added to the roster. The Cookout mixtape, produced by ID Labs, Sledgren, Cardo, Key Wane and Big Jerm, was released in September 2011 and featured Wiz Khalifa on eight of the eleven tracks. The mixtape received positive reviews from XXL, who praised the production, but mentioned Woods was overshadowed by Khalifa throughout the tape. However, MTV disagreed calling Woods the mixtape's", "-23.484083300165366" ], [ "by problems he never gets too specific about, Davey Havok invents a role part Morrissey, part Bret Michaels – hair-metal pinup for the Hot Topic era.\"\nIn February 2014, numerous cassette tapes were distributed from record shops in Southern California, titled \"XTRMST\" and described as \"Straight edge hardcore\". In the following weeks, numerous sources leaked rumors that XTRMST was a side project of Puget and Davey Havok. Shortly after, Puget confirmed on his Twitter account that XTRMST was indeed a product of him and Havok.\nOn October 2, 2014, it was announced the XTRMST would release a full-length LP, available on November", "-23.48093958105892" ], [ "muckraking standards, \"Have become integral to the character of modern investigative journalism.\" Furthermore, the successes\nof the early muckrakers have continued to inspire journalists.\nMoreover, muckraking has become an integral part of journalism in American History. Bob Woodward and Carl Bernstein exposed the workings of the Nixon Administration in Watergate which led to Nixon's resignation. More recently, Edward Snowden disclosed the activities of governmental spying, albeit illegally, which gave the public knowledge of the extent of the infringements on their privacy.", "-23.47480031143641" ], [ "lawsuit against Touch of Modern alleging that Touch of Modern infringed Fab.com’s trademarks, trade dress, and copyrights. Fab.com alleged that elements of its site design, including its site's overall look and feel, visual icons and product descriptions, were copied by Touch of Modern. The lawsuit was settled out of court for an undisclosed sum in March 2013. Funding Touch of Modern raised seed funding from i/o Ventures in 2010 and $3 million Series A from Floodgate Fund and Hillsven Capital in 2013.\nIn 2014, it announced a $14 million Series B funding (via a mix of equity and debt) which was", "-23.471469655021792" ], [ "and became a national publication.\nScallywag became a news story in itself in 1993 when it stoked a rumour that John Major, then Prime Minister, was having an affair with Clare Latimer, who was a freelance cook who helped with state dinners at 10 Downing Street. A story in the New Statesman showed how the rumours had been covertly mentioned in mainstream papers. When Major heard of the New Statesman story he sued both them and Scallywag for libel; he also sued the distributors and printers of both papers, which contributed to nearly driving the New Statesman out of business.\nClare Latimer", "-23.467655624146573" ], [ "Tottenham. Early career Wizzy is most known for his work alongside the UK’s leading Grime pioneers and rap artists from the likes of Kano, Wretch 32, Chipmunk, Roll Deep and Tinie Tempah. Early recognition was given when his productions appeared on Wretch 32’s Wretchrospective mixtape [Be Cool + Be Cool Remix] and Chipmunk’s debut platinum-selling \"I Am Chipmunk\" album [Role Model + I Am Interval]. Current Works He currently produces across a range of musical genres including Hip-Hop, R&B, Grime and bespoke music. His productions have been used for advertising campaigns including ‘Hard Court High’ also featuring Chipmunk for Adidas/Footlocker", "-23.458580644859467" ], [ "passed a proposal to establish a so-called house for whistleblowers, to protect them from the severe negative consequences that they might endure (Kamerstuk, 2013). Dutch media organizations also provide whistleblower support; on 9 September 2013 a number of major Dutch media outlets supported the launch of Publeaks, which provides a secure website for people to leak documents to the media. Publeaks is designed to protect whistleblowers. It operates on the GlobaLeaks software developed by the Hermes Center for Transparency and Digital Human Rights, which supports whistleblower-oriented technologies internationally. United States Whistleblowing tradition in what would soon become the United States had", "-23.457556892069988" ], [ "of the ICC-IDs recovered in order to verify his claims. Chat logs from this period also reveal that attention and publicity may have been incentives for the group.\nContrary to what it first claimed, the group initially revealed the security flaw to Gawker Media before notifying AT&T and also exposed the data of 114,000 iPad users, including those of celebrities, the government and the military. These tactics re-provoked significant debate on the proper disclosure of IT security flaws.\nweev has maintained that Goatse Security used common industry standard practices and has said that, \"We tried to be the good guys\". Jennifer Granick", "-23.453624141780892" ], [ "Slyck.com History Slyck.com began operations as Slyway.com in 2000 and was owned by Ray Hoffman. Slyway.com was an aggregate news site with some original content, and contained guides to the most popular file-sharing resources at the time, whilst maintaining statistics of the p2p networks, which included Napster, iMesh, Scour, Usenet and IRC. On the 10th of August 2001, Slyway.com was renamed Slyck.com. Impact Due to the lack of mainstream news coverage on p2p, file sharing and debate on copyright legislation, Slyck.com had a significant impact as a news site, which New Scientist cited as a \"popular file sharing news site\",", "-23.44030569505412" ], [ "arrest of a 51-year-old detective suspected of leaking information to the newspaper. Apologies From 15 July, onwards, News Corp began to change its position through a series of public apologies. On 15 July, Rupert Murdoch in interview with the News Corp owned The Wall Street Journal apologised for the News of the World letting slip the group's standards of journalism. Murdoch also alleged that the group's legal advisers, Harbottle & Lewis, had made \"a major mistake\" in its part in the internal investigation into phone-hacking in 2007. On 18 July, Harbottle & Lewis issued an open letter outlining its position,", "-23.423219191550743" ], [ "Kiely, and Paul Rutner.\nThe Mumps were a popular band on the Max's Kansas City and CBGB circuit, as well as at other American clubs, for almost five years. They played on bills with rock and punk rock bands such as Television, Talking Heads, the Ramones, Blondie, Milk 'N' Cookies, The Cramps, Cheap Trick, and Van Halen. Despite this popularity and two critically acclaimed, independent 45s, they failed to secure a contract with a major record label. Two compilations of their music have been released: \"Fatal Charm\" (Eggbert Records, 1994) and a lavishly illustrated, remastered, 2-disc CD/DVD compilation, \"How I Saved", "-23.41991655685706" ], [ "Press Council (UK) big juicy bumble was a printing agency in 2025 designed to make people fat like in the film wall-e The person who was responsible for destroying the mass media corporation was non other our lord god who was resurrected as Jesus Christ back in 2021 Third era: 1980–1991 The Press Council had lost the confidence of many in the media, and the 1980s saw what people labelled as some of the worst excesses of unethical journalism and intrusions into privacy by the tabloid press. In response to two Private Members' Bills promoting privacy laws, the government set", "-23.41851643897826" ], [ "Bromst Background According to Deacon: \"Spiderman of the Rings was very carefree and youthful – sort of partying for the sake of partying. This record is less about a party and more about a celebration.\" In an interview broadcast on NPR's Talk of the Nation on April 22, 2009, Deacon stated that the word 'Bromst' had no meaning other than being the title of the album.\nIn an interview with The A.V. Club, Deacon discusses the composition and lyrical content of the album: \"The music itself is very much about cycles, time, and what happens after life, becoming a ghost and", "-23.411517017520964" ], [ "but a flawed decision was made not to broadcast There was no public mention of the Newsnight investigation into Savile at the time but In early 2012, several newspapers reported that BBC had investigated allegations of sexual abuse immediately after Savile's death, but the report was not broadcast. An article by Miles Goslett in The Oldie alleged there had been a cover-up by the BBC.\nIn 2014, Jones was the joint producer with Owen Phillips of the Panorama about the ex-News of the World undercover reporter Mazher Mahmood called “Fake Sheikh: Exposed” which starting from the case of Tulisa Contostavlos alleged", "-23.390138349495828" ], [ "own website boasts: \"Jon still holds the record for 'largest fine ever for taste and decency offences in British broadcasting'. Sadly he didn’t get a certificate or anything.\"\nMeanwhile, on BBC Radio 4, Holmes was writing and appearing on The Now Show and The 99p Challenge, where he first worked with Armando Iannucci. Since then he has worked with Iannucci on Gash (Channel 4, 2003) and Time Trumpet (BBC2, 2006), and in 2006 he received his sixth Sony Award for his work on Radio 4's Armando Iannucci's Charm Offensive.\nHe also hosted a spin-off BBC Radio 7 radio series and official podcast", "-23.38962700346019" ], [ "Headsets.com History Headsets.com was founded by Mike Faith in 1997 after Faith had trouble shopping for headsets for the company he was with at the time. By 2000, the company's revenue was at $3 million, which grew to $11 million in 2003, and $32 million in 2005. During this time the company purchased the domain name Headsets.com and the phone number 1(800) HEADSETS. Today Headsets.com generates over $30 million in sales annually with over 1,000,000 customers. Culture and daily operations Headsets.com has a turnover rate of 15% in an industry where the average is over 50%. Faith attributes this", "-23.376770489645423" ], [ "online, empowered citizen\". In its first days, an Internet petition calling for the cessation of extrajudicial intimidation of WikiLeaks attracted over six hundred thousand signatures. Supporters of WikiLeaks in the media and academia have commended it for exposing state and corporate secrets, increasing transparency, supporting freedom of the press, and enhancing democratic discourse while challenging powerful institutions.\nAt the same time, several U.S. government officials have criticized WikiLeaks for exposing classified information and claimed that the leaks harm national security and compromise international diplomacy. From the perspective of the U.S. security establishment, the issue of concern is not only the publication", "-23.356153689356688" ], [ "unrest in China, the \"Petrogate\" oil scandal in Peru.\nWikileaks first came to international prominence in 2008, when \"most of the US fourth estate\" filed an amicus curiae brief—through the organisational efforts of the Reporters Committee for Freedom of the Press (RCFP)—in order to defend Wikileaks against a DMCA request from the Swiss bank Julius Baer, which had initially been granted.\nLater documents included leaked emails from the Turkish government published at the height of Erdoğan’s post-coup purges in Turkey in December 2016, & the collection of more than two million emails from Syrian political figures, government ministries and companies. Assange said", "-23.34263930094312" ], [ "of my legal team and was given full access to the Crown Prosecution Service's evidence files.\" according to Clive Goodman's letter. Criticism of News International culture The effect of the phone hacking scandal originating with the News of the World also raised wider questions about the ethics employed by companies under Murdoch's ownership, as well as the effects the scandal will have on the ethics employed specifically by print journalists and to some extent the wider world of journalism.\nMurdoch had previously been criticised for building a media empire that lacked any ethical base and replacing responsible journalism with \"gossip, sensationalism,", "-23.336426299763843" ], [ "year Babcock represented Peteski Productions Inc. when they sued Gawker Media for copyright infringement, alleging that their website Deadspin published video from the Dr. Phil Show before it aired.\nOther notable clients Babcock has represented include Judge Sharon Keller, Diane Sawyer, Warren Buffett, Bill O’Reilly, George W. Bush, and Google, who Babcock is representing in an appeal to a 2012 expunction order issued by a Galveston County District Court. Awards and honors In September 1999 Babcock was appointed the chairman of the Texas Supreme Court Advisory Committee. In addition, Babcock is a fellow of the American College of Trial Lawyers, the", "-23.327870446490124" ], [ "get back to the basics of what it means to be loyal. Undifferentiated, unauthorized leaking is a criminal act.\" While dealing with insider threats had been an intelligence community priority since WikiLeaks published Chelsea Manning's disclosures in 2010, Evanina said that in the aftermath of Snowden's June 2013 revelations, the process \"sped up from a regional railway to the Acela train.\" A year later, 100,000 fewer people had security clearances.\nIn September 2014, Director of National Intelligence James Clapper said Snowden's leaks created a perfect storm, degrading the intelligence community's capabilities. Snowden's leaks, said Clapper, damaged relationships with foreign and corporate", "-23.317941690562293" ], [ "prosecuted.\"\nIn a second report released August 29, 2019, IG Horowitz found that Comey violated agency policies when he retained a set of memos he wrote documenting meetings with President Donald Trump early in 2017, and caused one of them to be leaked to the press. Though Comey is said by the report to have set a \"dangerous example\" for FBI employees in an attempt to \"achieve a personally desired outcome,\" the Inspector General has found \"no evidence that Comey or his attorneys released any of the classified information contained in any of the memos to members of the media\", and", "-23.29503717762418" ], [ "its front page, with the word \"CENSORED\" covering his eyes. Sunday Herald editor Richard Walker stated that the London High Court ruling had no force in Scotland, unless copies of the paper were sold in England or Wales.\nOn 23 May 2011, the gagging order set off a political controversy, with Prime Minister David Cameron commenting that the law should be reviewed to \"catch up with how people consume media today.\" On the same day, Liberal Democrat MP John Hemming used parliamentary privilege to name Giggs as CTB.", "-23.288372130235075" ], [ "computers in his 2012 reelection headquarters in Chicago.\nAt the end of its four-month tenure, Little Face Mitt had also been covered in The Huffington Post, Complex magazine, Mashable, Boing Boing and many local print publications and online news websites. Glaser was also interviewed by the Washington Examiner, The New York Times, The Daily Dot, The Young Turks and in articles from as far away as France and Germany. The International Business Times credited Little Face Mitt and its images as being one of the best political memes ever and described its notoriety as a \"foray into the internet's lexicon\" for", "-23.277959734230535" ], [ "June 2007, Tork complained to the New York Post that Jann Wenner had blackballed the Monkees from the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in Cleveland, Ohio. Tork stated:\n[Wenner] doesn't care what the rules are and just operates how he sees fit. It is an abuse of power. I don't know whether the Monkees belong in the Hall of Fame, but it's pretty clear that we're not in there because of a personal whim. Jann seems to have taken it harder than everyone else, and now, 40 years later, everybody says, 'What's the big deal? Everybody else does it.' [Uses", "-23.271239682100713" ], [ "rivals. The emails were from the hard drive of NDS European chief, Ray Adams. It was also revealed that Australian Federal police were working with UK police to investigate hacking by News Corp. Corporate changes On 28 June 2013, News Corporation split into two publicly traded companies focused on publishing, and broadcasting/media respectively. At this time News Limited was renamed News Corp Australia and became part of the publishing company, News Corp, with Wall Street Journal editor Robert Thomson replacing Rupert Murdoch as CEO. Murdoch remains a chairman and shareholder for both companies.\nOn 9 August 2013 it was announced that", "-23.246651595567528" ], [ "co-founders of the Freedom of the Press Foundation.\nEllsberg is a founding member of the Veteran Intelligence Professionals for Sanity.\nIn September 2015 Ellsberg and 27 other members of VIPS steering group wrote a letter to the President challenging a recently published book, that claimed to rebut the report of the United States Senate Intelligence Committee on the Central Intelligence Agency's use of torture.\nIn December 2015, Ellsberg publicly supported the Tor anonymity network, referencing its utility for whistle blowing in general for the maintenance of democracy via the First Amendment.\nIn spring of 2019, WikiLeaks players Assange and Manning resurfaced in the news", "-23.234693479302223" ], [ "blog became widely popular when it conducted a poll on the \"Superhotties of the Federal Judiciary\", and several federal judges, including Alex Kozinski and Richard Posner, corresponded with Article III Groupie. The blog interviewed several judges and gained national media coverage in the wake of the 2005 U.S. Supreme Court nominations of John Roberts, Harriet Miers, and Samuel Alito. The blog also served as a clearinghouse for news and gossip about clerks for the Supreme Court, whom A3G called \"the Elect.\"\nIn November 2005, Lat revealed A3G's identity in an interview with Jeffrey Toobin for the magazine The New Yorker. In", "-23.234320355346426" ], [ "years, with their radical \"wimmin\" (they really did wear boiler suits and boots, Hosken confirms) and their bad poetry on the rates (\"Today, two million pricks/Are riding, meek as lapdogs/The motorways One to Six\".) It is illuminating to realise how far many practices of the new-model Livingstone - the abuse of public money to manipulate client groups, the gesture politics to conceal a lack of substantial real powers - are directly inherited from the GLC... But there is too much GLC in the book, and not enough mayoralty.\nDespite this shortcoming, Gilligan said: \"After his superb exposé of Shirley Porter, the", "-23.230648170298082" ], [ "and Brandon Flynn. Hack has also hosted events independently from Dazed Media for industry heavyweights including Willy Vanderperre and Muccia Prada\nHack has worked with Bjork and as creative consultant to U2. In 2015 he worked with Rihanna on a project with Alexander McQueen and Another Magazine that resulted in the world's first digital cover magazine and in 2015 with fashion designer Karl Lagerfeld which resulted in the world's first handcrafted hologram fashion magazine cover.\nHack has edited multiple books including Star Culture (Phaidon Press, 2000); Another Portrait Book (Steidl, 2009); Another Fashion Book (Steidl, 2009); Another Art Book (Steidl, 2010); Dazed", "-23.225932602013927" ], [ "LulzSec Background and history A federal indictment against members contends that, prior to forming the hacking collective known as LulzSec, the six members were all part of another collective called Internet Feds, a group in rivalry with Anonymous. Under this name, the group attacked websites belonging to Fine Gael, HBGary, and Fox Broadcasting Company. This includes the alleged incident in which e-mail messages were stolen from HBGary accounts. In May 2011, following the publicity surrounding the HBGary hacks, six members of Internet Feds founded the group LulzSec.\nThe group's first recorded attack was against Fox.com's website, though they still may have", "-23.21443331852788" ], [ "Robin Hood Foundation, Institute of International Finance, United States-China Business Council, and is a member of the advisory board of the American Museum of Natural History.\nStaley's attempts in 2016 to discover a whistleblower's identity were investigated for over a year by British regulators, an investigation which was one of the first tests of the UK's \"Senior managers regime\", intended to make high-level banking officials personally accountable. On 20 April 2018, the Financial Conduct Authority and the Prudential Regulatory Authority announced that Staley could stay on as CEO, though he would have to pay a fine. Staley was fined £642,430 by", "-23.213109752512537" ], [ "part of its campaign \"to stop the government's ill-advised sanction of the slaughter of seals.\"\nOn July 19, 2011, Rupert Murdoch was pied in London during a Parliamentary hearing on the News International phone hacking scandal.\nOn May 9, 2017 Alan Joyce, the chief executive of Australian airline Qantas, had a speech interrupted by a man who shoved a pie in his face. Canada Former Canadian prime minister Jean Chrétien was hit in the face with a pie by a protester in Prince Edward Island in 2000. His attacker initially was given a prison sentence but subsequently received a conditional sentence.\nA woman", "-23.203643813962117" ], [ "Amateur Transplants. The album includes the internet hit London Underground which has spawned a popular viral video.\nDuring 2006, The Friday Project's Commercial Director Scott Pack courted controversy with his Me and My Big Mouth blog. Positioned as an irreverent commentary on the UK book trade it sparked a number of national press stories and was highly critical of lead retailers Waterstones and W H Smith. He also launched personal attacks on journalists he claimed had reported on his time at Waterstones incorrectly. These included Nick Cohen, Norman Lebrecht and D. J. Taylor.\nIn December 2006, it was reported", "-23.200481338310055" ], [ "following and hidden photography.\" Two lawyers for Julian Assange in the United Kingdom told The Guardian that they believed they were being watched by the security services after the U.S. cables leak, which started on 28 November 2010.\nFurthermore, several companies ended association with WikiLeaks. After providing 24-hour notification, American-owned EveryDNS deleted WikiLeaks from its entries on 2 December 2010, citing DDoS attacks that \"threatened the stability of its infrastructure\". The website's 'info' DNS lookup remained operational at alternative addresses for direct access respectively to the WikiLeaks and Cablegate websites. On the same day, Amazon.com severed its association with WikiLeaks, to", "-23.196730168099748" ], [ "Defenders of Strzok and Page in the FBI said no professional misconduct between them occurred.\nThe decision by the DOJ to publicize the private messages in December 2017 was controversial. Statements by DOJ spokeswomen revealed that some reporters had copies of the texts even before the DOJ invited the press to review them, but the DOJ did not authorize the pre-release. Democrats on the House Judiciary Committee have asked for a review of the circumstances under which the texts were leaked to select press outlets.\nThe Office of Inspector General's report on the FBI's handling of the Clinton email investigation published on", "-23.18536914861761" ], [ "funding for the journal on October 24, 2017 after Wieseltier admitted to sexual harassment and inappropriate advances with several former female employees. He was also fired by the Brookings Institution and is no longer an Isaiah Berlin Senior Fellow in Culture and Policy. Sexual harassment acknowledgment In the aftermath of Harvey Weinstein allegations and the #MeToo movement, a list of \"Shitty Media Men,\" which included Wieseltier, was widely shared and featured men in the media industry who were accused of sexual misconduct.\nAfter it was revealed on October 24, 2017 that several former employees had accused Wieseltier of sexual harassment and", "-23.178139970405027" ] ]

[ "Imagine if a plane with hundreds of people, 50 of them Americans and 150 Canadian, disappeared between Chicago and Montreal. Now imagine if we stopped looking after a couple weeks. That's why everyone is still looking.", "Put it simply, we don't have much else to go on. Satellite imagery is extremely limited, and with the loss of contact we have no clue on its exact coordinates. Our only hope of finding the wreckage (as well as the bodies of the people on board to return to loved ones) is to look for debris, and to use it to trace back the location of the crash. In terms of the urgency from an investigative/safety standpoint, all modern commercial jets require black boxes containing a Flight Data Recorder, used to record information about the plane's flight such as altitude and speed, as well as a Cockpit Voice Recorder, which records all sounds within the cockpit, not limited to just the speech of the pilots. The black box is fitted with a signaller which broadcasts a ping with a range of a couple kilometres, however its batteries will only last for 30 days. After this period, in order to find the black boxes you'll literally have to look and find it yourself. In the entire search area. Which is larger than the United States. And most of it is underwater. The idea is that you can't put a price on a human life. The Boeing 777 is an extremely modern and popular aircraft. If there is a fault in the design of the plane, we have to know immediately or a similar accident may occur. If it's a terror attack, we need to know before they might strike again. In our world where we are monitoring every little detail of every byte of information, where information and news can travel around the world in a minute, and where surveillence systems and eyes in the skies are becoming more and more prevelent and more of a concern, a 64 metre long, 65 metre wide, 300-tonne aluminium tube with 239 people on board has vanished. Emotions are running high, and people want answers. Edit: added that last bit there", "Even if the passengers are all dead, we can still learn from what happened and hopefully prevent a similar experience from happening again in the future. The beacons can ping for a month, so there's still a reasonable chance to find the wreckage for the next couple weeks. Many improvements in airline safety have come from investigating wreckage and designing ways to avoid the same problem again.", "Closure. Also it would be nice to know if people are a live hostage somewhere or dead in the ocean.", "We do stand a reasonable chance of piecing the events together if we can find the blackbox. It'll take time, but eventually we can figure it out (assuming we find the plane), like we did with the Air France crash.", "It's necessary to find out what happened, to avoid it happening again.", "I think they might be alive on an island somwhere." ]

[ [ "over to the authorities so that experts from Malaysia could determine whether it was part of the aircraft. On 20 July, the Australian government released photographs of the piece, which was believed to be an outboard flap from one of the aircraft's wings. Malaysia's transport ministry confirmed on 15 September that the debris was indeed from the missing aircraft.\nOn 21 November 2016, families of the victims announced that they would carry out a search for debris, during December, on the island of Madagascar. On 30 November 2018, five pieces of debris that had been recovered between December 2016 and August 2018 on the", "-34.98928857248393" ], [ "patrols were also planned, to search for debris along the beaches. Malaysia asked authorities in neighbouring states to be on the alert for marine debris that might have come from an aircraft. On 14 August, it was announced that no debris that could be related to Flight 370 had been found at sea off Réunion, but that some items had been found on land. Air and sea searches for debris ended on 17 August. Parts from the right stabiliser and right wing In late February 2016, an object (with a stencilled text \"NO STEP\" on it) was found off the coast of Mozambique;", "-33.378320859585074" ], [ "include searching for the tomb of Genghis Khan, mapping damage after Typhoon Haiyan, and searching for Malaysia Airlines Flight 370. Finding wreckage of Malaysia Airlines Flight 370 Starting in March 2014 Tomnod took images gathered by DigitalGlobe satellites and offered them to the public for viewing and identification in the disappearance of Malaysia Airlines Flight 370. Over 8 million people used the site to look for signs of wreckage, oil spills and other objects of interest. Prior to this search effort Tomnod had 10,000 contributors for other projects on the site. Users could tag images which are later reviewed with", "-33.115148403914645" ], [ "a stenciled internal marking \"657 BB\". The following day, a damaged suitcase, which may be associated with Flight 370, was found. The location is consistent with models of debris dispersal 16 months after an origin in the current search area, off the coast of Australia. On 31 July, a Chinese water bottle and an Indonesian cleaning product were found in the same area; all such debris is receiving intense scrutiny.\nAviation experts have stated that the piece of debris resembles a wing flaperon from a Boeing 777, noting that the marking \"657 BB\" is a code for a portion of a right", "-32.96111258548626" ], [ "with the investigation. Ali Ariduru, deputy head of the Turkish aviation authority, said initial information indicated there was no technical malfunction on the plane.\nThere is confusion as to the whereabouts of the aircraft's Flight Data Recorder and Cockpit Voice Recorder (FDR and CVR, commonly referred to as \"black boxes\"). The Turkish Foreign Ministry stated they have been shipped to Antonov's Kiev headquarters, but Turkish Minister of Transportation Binali Yıldırım claims they are still in Iraq, with the rest of the debris. All that is confirmed is that they have been recovered, which occurred on 30 January.", "-32.83312212098099" ], [ "found in the spring of 2017.\nOn 27 March 2007, airborne debris from a Russian spy satellite was seen by the pilot of a LAN Airlines Airbus A340 carrying 270 passengers whilst flying over the Pacific Ocean between Santiago and Auckland. The debris was within 5 nautical miles (9.3 km; 5.8 mi) of the aircraft. Tracking from the ground Radar and optical detectors such as lidar are the main tools for tracking space debris. Although objects under 10 cm (4 in) have reduced orbital stability, debris as small as 1 cm can be tracked, however determining orbits to allow re-acquisition is difficult. Most debris remain unobserved.", "-32.67931247490196" ], [ "was found on the island of Réunion. Ab Aziz Kaprawi, Malaysia's Deputy Transport Minister, said that \"an unidentified grey item with a blue border\", might be linked to Flight 370. Both Malaysian and Australian authorities, co-ordinating the search in the South Indian Ocean, sent teams to verify whether the debris was from the missing aircraft.\nOn 21 March 2016, South African archaeologist Neels Kruger found a grey piece of debris on a beach near Mossel Bay, South Africa that has an unmistakable partial logo of Rolls-Royce, the manufacturer of the engines of the missing aircraft. An acknowledgement of a possible part", "-32.491204813166405" ], [ "Minister, Darren Chester, said that a piece of aircraft debris was found on Pemba Island, off the coast of Tanzania. The Australian Transport Safety Bureau announced on 22 June that a piece of debris found on an Australian island earlier in June was not from Flight 370. On 20 July, the Australian government released photos of the piece of debris found on Pemba Island around 24 June, believed to be an outboard wing flap. Suspension of joint search in 2017 On 17 January 2017, Malaysia, Australia and China officially announced the suspension of the underwater search, stating that \"despite every", "-32.31554300955031" ], [ "of an engine cowling was made by the Malaysian Ministry of Transport. An additional piece of possible debris, suggested to have come from the interior of the aircraft, was found on the island of Rodrigues, Mauritius, in late March and was to be examined by Australian authorities. On 11 May 2016, the authority determined that these two pieces of debris were \"almost certainly\" from Flight 370. Flap and further search On 24 June 2016, the Australian Transport Minister, Darren Chester, said that a piece of aircraft debris had been found on Pemba Island, off the coast of Tanzania. It was handed", "-32.04715708986623" ], [ "the underwater locator beacons (ULBs) attached to the aircraft's flight recorders.\nThe first victim was identified on 31 October. At the time, more than a dozen body parts had been found by authorities. Some of the parts had drifted more than 5 kilometres (3.1 mi) in the sea current. Police also reported that 152 DNA samples had been collected from the victims' relatives. Hundreds of pieces of the aircraft had also been recovered; all of them were transported to Tanjung Priok, Jakarta. Authorities stated that the search area for dead bodies and debris would be focused in the sea off Karawang Regency,", "-31.9189900259953" ], [ "debris on the coast of Africa. The final ATSB report, published on 3 October 2017, stated that the underwater search for the aircraft, as of 30 June 2017, had cost a total of US$155 million: the underwater search accounted for 86% of this amount, bathymetry 10%, and programme management 4%; Malaysia had supported 58% of the total cost, Australia 32%, and China 10%. The report also concluded that the location where the aircraft went down had been narrowed to an area of 25,000 km² (9,700 sq mi), by using satellite images and debris drift analysis.\nIn January 2018, a private US marine exploration company called Ocean Infinity", "-31.750504568699398" ], [ "effort, the most extensive and expensive in aviation history, has thus far failed to locate them, though debris from the aircraft were recovered on July 29, 2015, on Réunion Island. Numerous theories have been offered to explain the disappearance of the flight, but none has been confirmed.\n234: On September 26, 1997, an Airbus A300B4-220, Garuda Indonesia Flight 152, which departed from Jakarta, Indonesia, and was preparing to land at Medan, North Sumatra, crashed into mountainous terrain, killing 222 passengers and 12 crew members. The causes included turning left instead of right as instructed by the ATC and descending below the", "-31.501141012995504" ], [ "and suspected debris were located, but were not initially recovered due to a dispute between Adam Air and the Indonesian Government over who should pay recovery costs. Both recorders were retrieved after Adam Air agreed to pay for 7 days worth of searching. A 2009 episode of Mayday (Air Crash Investigation, Air Emergency) about Flight 574 stated that the official crash report had concluded the Inertial Reference System (IRS) had failed. This failure, which should not by itself have brought the plane down, caused the pilots to become preoccupied with trying to fix it. After changing the IRS from \"Navigate\"", "-31.2507715827669" ], [ "flew into the Barru and Pare-Pare sea. BASARNAS stated that there are possibilities that the plane flew off course, using a different route, and flew over the shoreline due to the mountains in the west. As a result, the search area was widened as far as the Makassar Strait. Recovery On the fourth day, the search area was officially widened into the sea. In the afternoon, at 15:55 WITA, some personnel of BASARNAS and the Indonesian police found debris on Latimojong Mountain. BASARNAS later confirmed that the debris belonged to the missing aircraft. Photos taken by BASARNAS shown that the", "-31.242130386599456" ], [ "(190 mi) from his find—did his family alert authorities. It was flown to Australia for analysis. It carried a stencilled code 676EB, which identified it as part of a Boeing 777 flap track fairing, and the style in which the lettering was painted onto the fairing matched stencils used by Malaysia Airlines, making it almost certain that the part came from 9M-MRO.\nThe location where both pieces were retrieved was found to be consistent with the drift model performed by CSIRO, further corroborating they could have come from Flight 370. Other debris On 7 March 2016, more debris, possibly from the aircraft,", "-31.10397309740074" ], [ "the debris found on 29 July is from Flight 370; the debris is the first physical evidence that Flight 370 ended in the Indian Ocean. On 3 September French prosecutors formally announced that the flaperon was certainly from Flight 370, a unique serial number having been formally identified by a technician from Airbus Defence and Space in Spain, which had manufactured the flaperon for Boeing. Search for additional debris A week after the discovery of a flaperon from Flight 370 on a beach on Réunion, France announced plans for an aerial search for possible marine debris around the island.", "-30.881905698359333" ], [ "Mi-8 helicopter. At 02:19, the disappearance of Flight 967 was informed to Russia's Minister of Emergencies. A search helicopter was ready for take off to find the missing flight, but was not allowed by Sochi due to the deteriorating weather. The search and rescue operation was then suspended. At 04:08, the Ministry of Emergency's boat Valery Zamarayez found the probable crash area. Rescuers then went to the search area. From 07:30 to 12:30, the search and rescue team recovered 9 body parts from the crash site.\nSearch and rescue personnel only managed to recover some of the flight's debris. They recovered", "-30.74091910716379" ], [ "satellites' target area. The abundant finds, none confirmed to be from the flight, brought the realisation of the prior lack of surveillance over the area, and the vast amounts of marine debris littering the oceans.\nOn 28 March, revised estimates of the radar track and the aircraft's remaining fuel led to a move of the search 1,100 kilometres (680 mi) north-east of the previous area, to a new search area of 319,000 square kilometres (123,000 sq mi), roughly 1,850 kilometres (1,150 mi) west of Perth. This search area had more hospitable weather conditions.\nOn 30 March, four large orange-coloured objects found by search aircraft,", "-30.583441122289514" ], [ "ULB attached to Flight 370's flight data recorder had expired in December 2012 and may not have been as capable. 2018 search On 17 October 2017, Malaysia received proposals from three companies, including Dutch-based Fugro, and US company Ocean Infinity, offering to continue the search for the aircraft. In January 2018, Ocean Infinity announced that it was planning to resume the search in the narrowed 25,000 km² (9,700 sq mi) area. The search attempt was approved by the Malaysian government, provided that payment would only be made if the wreckage were found. Ocean Infinity chartered the Norwegian ship Seabed Constructor to perform the", "-30.511363862867256" ], [ "for the missing aircraft and crew. Turkish personnel recovered their bodies in early July 2012.\nUnited States research vessel EV Nautilus arrived three days later at the crash site to join the search and rescue operations. Her two remotely operated vehicles Hercules and Argus conducted search at the seabed in 1,280 m (4,200 ft) depth and located the debris of the aircraft, and brought parts of the downed jet up to the surface. The bodies of the pilots were brought up in a 45-minute operation on 4 July 2012 with the help of a device constructed specially for this purpose.\nThe Syrian military alleged", "-30.39574761275435" ], [ "2014 Malaysia Airlines Flight 17, a passenger flight from Amsterdam to Kuala Lumpur, was shot down while flying over eastern Ukraine. All 283 passengers and 15 crew members died after the Boeing 777 was hit by a burst of \"high-energy objects\".\nIn a press conference, Russian officials blamed the flight's destruction on Ukrainian forces and presented radar data, expert testimony and a satellite image. The radar data that showed another aircraft in the vicinity of MH17 was debunked as falling debris from MH17 by experts. A Spanish air traffic controller in Kiev gave interviews that stated that two Ukrainian fighter jets", "-30.33632373419823" ], [ "KRI Leuser and KRI Nala. Extra underwater equipment, including a metal detector and an undersea camera, was sent from the United States, and arrived aboard the USNS Mary Sears on 17 January. The flight recorders were subsequently located elsewhere, in the waters in an area known as Majene, and a wide, sweeping search of the area revealed high amounts of scattered debris there, too. This debris was analysed to confirm it belonged to the 737. Floating debris The aircraft's right horizontal stabiliser was found by a fisherman, south of Pare Pare, about 300 m (980 ft) off the beach on 11 January,", "-30.32191661556135" ], [ "debris from Flight 370 was discovered. Offshore oil slicks near Vietnam on 9 and 10 March later tested negative for aviation fuel. Satellite images taken on 9 March and posted on a Chinese website showed three floating objects measuring up to 24 × 22 metres (79 × 72 ft) at 6.7°N 105.63°E, but a search of the area did not find the objects; Vietnamese officials said the area had been \"searched thoroughly\". By the end of 9 March, 40 aircraft and more than two dozen vessels from several nations were involved in the search.\nThe Royal Malaysian Air Force confirmed on 10 March", "-30.254604676476447" ], [ "that anyone came to any conclusion with so little of the aircraft recovered and asked the Italian government to fund another salvage operation to recover more of the aircraft from the floor of the Mediterranean Sea. While investigating the 21 December 1988 bombing of Pan Am Flight 103 over Lockerbie, Scotland, A.Frank Taylor helped create a software program that could locate widely scattered debris. This software program had two effects, 1) how far a piece will travel in the direction that the aircraft was originally traveling, and 2) how far the piece will be blown downwind. An additional 40% of", "-30.214062072933302" ], [ "equipment. Search and rescue operation was hampered by weather, mountainous terrain, and mines in the area. The wreckage of the plane was found on November 14, 1999 on a steep mountainside, located approximately 7 miles from the town of Mitrovica. There were no signs of life among the wreckage. First responder who arrived first at the scene stated that several charred bodies were found around the wreckage of the plane. Only the tail of the plane was still intact. Dozens of NATO troops cordoned the scene immediately. Aircraft, passengers and crews The aircraft was an ATR 42-312 with registered as", "-30.177666354487883" ], [ "regulations do not require modifications to be made to existing aircraft. Safety recommendations In January 2015, the US National Transportation Safety Board cited Flight 370 and Air France Flight 447 when it issued eight safety recommendations related to locating aircraft wreckage in remote or underwater locations; and repeated recommendations for a crash-protected cockpit image recorder and tamper-resistant flight recorders and transponders. In popular culture The disappearance of Malaysia Airlines Flight 370 has been described as \"one of the biggest mysteries in modern aviation history\".\nSeveral documentaries have been produced about the flight. The Smithsonian Channel aired a one-hour documentary on 6 April", "-30.09198335414112" ], [ "date. In September 2012, CGGVeritas acquired Fugro's Geoscience Division for €1.2 billion.\nIn June 2014 the Australian Transport Safety Bureau (ATSB) awarded Fugro the contract to conduct the search for Malaysia Airlines Flight 370, which disappeared on 8 March 2014. In August 2014 it awarded an additional contract for the deployment of two specialist vessels. The contract was worth AUD$39 million and lasted until August 2016. Fugro had around 200 employees and 3 search vessels dedicated to the search for MH370.\nFugro purchased the Remote Observation Automated Modelling Economic Simulation (ROAMES) technology from Ergon Energy in 2014.\nIn January 2015, Royal Boskalis Westminster", "-30.085555952849973" ], [ "Search for Malaysia Airlines Flight 370 The disappearance on 8 March 2014 of Malaysia Airlines Flight 370, a scheduled international passenger flight from Kuala Lumpur International Airport to Beijing Capital International Airport, prompted a large, multinational search in Asia and the southern Indian Ocean that became the most expensive search in aviation history. Analysis of communications between the aircraft and Inmarsat by multiple agencies has concluded that the flight ended in the southern Indian Ocean.\nAn analysis of possible flight paths was conducted, identifying a 60,000 km² (23,000 sq mi) primary search-area, approximately 2,000 km (1,200 mi) west of Perth, Western Australia, which takes six days", "-30.064831661235075" ], [ "two reports: the analysis of satellite imagery collected on 23 March 2014, two weeks after MH370 disappeared, classifying twelve objects in the ocean as \"probably man-made\"; and a drift study of the recovered objects by the CSIRO, identifying the crash area \"with unprecedented precision and certainty\", at 35.6°S 92.8°E, northeast of the main 120,000 km² (46,000 sq mi) underwater search zone. Flaperon The first item of debris to be positively identified as originating from Flight 370 was the starboard flaperon (a trailing edge control surface). It was discovered at the end of July 2015 on a beach in Saint-André, on Réunion, an island in", "-29.885567939665634" ], [ "of possible causes of the disappearance. A brief update statement was provided one year later, in March 2016, regarding the status of the investigation.\nThe final ATSB report was published on 3 October 2017. The final report from the Malaysian Ministry of Transport, dated 2 July 2018, was released to the public in Kuala Lumpur on 30 July 2018. This report did not provide any new information concerning the fate of MH370, but it did indicate errors made by Malaysian air traffic controllers in their limited efforts to communicate with the aircraft. Following these accounts of air traffic control failings, the Chairman of the", "-29.775590226170607" ], [ "Branch (AAIB) reported that two seat cushions, found near Surtainville in France, were likely to be from the missing aircraft. AAIB identified a priority search area of approximately four square nautical miles (14 km²; 5 sq mi) and commissioned a survey vessel from the British Ministry of Defence with sonar equipment to search the seabed for the aircraft. The AAIB search carried out by the vessel Geo Ocean III started on 3 February, together with the private search, and was expected to last up to three days; the private search was set to continue \"until the plane is located\". The planned search was to", "-29.759607312938897" ], [ "such as the Dassault Mystery; Mirage, and VTOL designs. It was also a test center for SNECMA.\nMany World War II relics can be found at the airport, abandoned taxiways with aircraft hardstands are evident with deteriorating concrete. A munitions storage area remains to the east of the north-south runways in a wooded area along with what appear to be old concrete hangar foundations, buildings, and other wartime concrete taxiways.", "-29.706081641139463" ], [ "the McDonnell Douglas DC-10 in 1979 after the crash of American Airlines Flight 191 due to engine loss, the Boeing 787 Dreamliner in 2013 after its battery problems, and the Boeing 737 MAX in 2019 after two crashes preliminarily tied to a flight control system. Foreign object debris Foreign object debris (FOD) includes items left in the aircraft structure during manufacture/repairs, debris on the runway and solids encountered in flight (e.g. hail and dust). Such items can damage engines and other parts of the aircraft. Air France Flight 4590 crashed after hitting a part that had fallen from another aircraft.", "-29.65231559908716" ], [ "to locate the wreckage. The aircraft had disintegrated; the largest piece of wreckage was \"the size of a car\". A helicopter landed near the crash site; its personnel confirmed no survivors. The search and rescue team reported the debris field covered 2 km² (500 acres). Aircraft The aircraft involved was a 24-year-old Airbus A320-211, serial number 147, registered as D-AIPX. It made its first flight on 29 November 1990 and was delivered to Lufthansa on 5 February 1991. The aircraft was leased to Germanwings from 1 June 2003 until mid-2004, then returned to Lufthansa on 22 July 2004 and remained with", "-29.629685233638156" ], [ "unlikely, GEO satellites have a limited ability to avoid any debris.\nDebris less than 10 cm in diameter cannot be seen from the Earth, making it difficult to assess their prevalence.\nDespite efforts to reduce risk, spacecraft collisions have occurred. The European Space Agency telecom satellite Olympus-1 was struck by a meteoroid on August 11, 1993 and eventually moved to a graveyard orbit, and in 2006 the Russian Express-AM11 communications satellite was struck by an unknown object and rendered inoperable, although its engineers had enough contact time with the satellite to send it into a graveyard orbit. In 2017 both AMC-9 and Telkom-1", "-29.624049275298603" ], [ "reveal their locations and listening capabilities.\nCriticism was also levelled at the delay of the search efforts. On 11 March 2014, three days after the aircraft disappeared, British satellite company Inmarsat (or its partner, SITA) had provided officials with data suggesting that the aircraft was nowhere near the areas in the Gulf of Thailand and the South China Sea being searched at the time, and that it may have diverted its course through a southern or northern corridor. This information was not acknowledged publicly until it was released by the Malaysian Prime Minister in a press conference on 15 March. Explaining why information", "-29.60145539045334" ], [ "the aircraft began, Malaysia's prime minister announced on March 24, 2014 that after analysis of new satellite data it was now to be assumed \"beyond reasonable doubt\" that the aircraft had crashed in the Indian Ocean and there were no survivors. The cause remains unknown, but the Malaysian Government declared it was an accident in January 2015. On July 29, 2015, an item later identified as a flaperon strongly suspected to be from the missing aircraft was found on the island of Réunion in the western Indian Ocean.\nThe type's fifth hull-loss occurred on July 17, 2014, when a 777-200ER, bound", "-29.57521508843638" ], [ "swept the wreckage. However, according to Soelistyo, the head of the National Search and Rescue Agency, though the main wreckage was located in Indonesia, the flight recorders could have been swept away to the Singaporean territory. He then asked the Singaporean Government for their cooperation in finding the recorders.\nThe search was continued on 5 December 2016. By then four bodies had been found. Commissioner Erlangga stated that the aircraft's tail was planned to be raised from the sea at 10:00 local time. The 3-meter long piece of wreckage was found at a depth of 24 meters and was located at", "-29.524673554478795" ], [ "Yerevan. The six flight crew were confirmed dead when their remains were repatriated to the United States, but the 11 intelligence-gathering personnel on board have never been acknowledged by Soviet / Russian authorities. After the fall of the Soviet Union a US excavation team found hundreds of skeletal fragments; two remains were identified. A group burial of the 17 crew remains was at Arlington National Cemetery. Probable cause The exact cause of why the aircraft strayed into Soviet airspace is unknown, but according to the Aviation Safety Network, the crew may have become confused with navigational beacons in the USSR", "-29.478987872542348" ], [ "helicopter, shown that the front part of the plane was completely destroyed. The empennage of the plane was crushed severely while the tail was relatively intact. Dead bodies, alongside with their belongings, were strewn in a large grassy area near the wreckage of the plane. Investigation The investigation was hampered by the fact that the crew's conversation between them and the ATC controller at Tura Airport was, somehow, \"disappeared\" since A.M Chernov, who was the owner of Cheremshanka Airlines, ordered the Russian investigative committee to withdrew their investigation from the crash. He ordered that before the records were transferred to", "-29.46955164016981" ], [ "official performed a surprise inspection of some of the cargo; he did not find any cargo that could be characterised as suspicious. Search and salvage When the Helderberg last informed Mauritian air traffic control of its position, its report was incorrectly understood to be relative to the airport rather than its next waypoint, which caused the subsequent search to be concentrated too close to Mauritius. The United States Navy sent aircraft from Diego Garcia, which were used to conduct immediate search and rescue operations in conjunction with the French Navy. By the time the first surface debris was located", "-29.43101635965286" ], [ "for transparency.\nOn the second anniversary of the disappearance, 8 March 2016, Najib said that he was hopeful that the missing Flight 370 would be found. The Malaysian Parliament observed a moment of silence to mark the anniversary. Najib said that the search had been \"the most challenging in aviation history\", but that he remained committed to completing it. China Chinese Deputy Foreign Minister Xie Hangsheng reacted sceptically to the conclusion by the Malaysian government that the aircraft had gone down with no survivors, demanding on 24 March 2014 \"all the relevant information and evidence about the satellite data analysis\", and", "-29.42641755018849" ], [ "medical personnel, and other volunteers removed about 27 tons of aircraft remains in May 2008. The removed debris included one aircraft engine and large wing parts. Some of the parts were so large they needed to be machine cut before transporting them from the mountain by a helicopter. Several human remains were also found, and were either sent for further identification tests, or were properly disposed. A commemorative plaque was installed at the site of the initial wing impact.", "-29.389027756813448" ], [ "on fire!\" It was confirmed that the aircraft was \"missing\" at 16:55 local time (13:55 Zulu time in the report).\nAmerican Apache helicopters located the crash site 45 minutes after the distress call, which was located 25 miles (40 km) north west of Baghdad. As the site was in a hostile area, the priority was for the recovery of the passengers and crew, personal effects and classified material. Part of the right hand wing was found to have separated from the body of the aircraft, and it was located 1.3 miles (2.1 km) south-southwest from the main crash site. The Board of Inquiry", "-29.3795707692625" ], [ "followed the Malaysian plane but the Spanish embassy later said that there was no Spanish air traffic controller at either of Kiev's airports. The satellite image showed an aircraft firing on the airliner but Bellingcat exposed the photo as a composite of Google images, with the Malaysian airline logo even being misplaced.\nOn November 9, 2014, the Bellingcat MH17 Investigation team published a report titled \"MH17: Source of the Separatists' Buk\". Based on evidence from open sources, primarily social media, the report links a Buk missile launcher that was filmed and photographed in eastern Ukraine on July 17 to the downing", "-29.370987212954788" ], [ "it in Sri Lanka without result. A ground search was also conducted by diplomats stationed in Nigeria at multiple airports without finding it. The telegram from Nigeria also stated that the diplomats did not consider likely a landing of the 727 at a major airport, since the aircraft could have been easily identified.\nAn extensive article published in Air & Space Magazine in September 2010 was also unable to draw any conclusions on the whereabouts or fate of the aircraft, despite research and interviews with individuals knowledgeable of details surrounding the disappearance.", "-29.31285090086749" ], [ "the search was a bathymetric survey and sonar search of the sea floor, about 1,800 kilometres (970 nmi; 1,100 mi) southwest of Perth, Western Australia. With effect from 30 March 2014, the search was coordinated by the Joint Agency Coordination Centre (JACC), an Australian government agency that was established specifically to co-ordinate the search effort to locate and recover Flight 370, which primarily involved the Malaysian, Chinese, and Australian governments.\nOn 17 January 2017, the official search for Flight 370—which had proved to be the most expensive search operation in aviation history—was suspended after yielding no evidence of the aircraft other than some marine", "-29.300135794619564" ], [ "breakup of NOAA 16 (#26536). All associated objects have been added to conjunction assessment screenings, and satellite operators will be notified of close approaches between the debris and active satellites. The JSpOC catalogs the debris objects when sufficient data is available. As of March 26, 2016, 275 pieces of debris were being tracked.", "-29.27904004821903" ], [ "from the sea by 23 February. The recovered bodies were sent to the Rafik Hariri University Hospital in Beirut for DNA testing and identification. They were all identified by the end of February. Investigation The Lebanese Civil Aviation Authority investigated the accident, with the assistance of the BEA, Boeing, and the National Transportation Safety Board of the United States.\nLebanese President Michel Suleiman stated before the flight data recorders were found that the crash was not due to terrorism. Lebanese Information Minister Tarek Mitri rejected the notion that the aircraft should not have been allowed to take off under the current", "-29.233572911602096" ], [ "P-40 and flew in the wrong direction; evidence at the crash site indicates Copping survived the landing. Since no remains were evident near the Kittyhawk, it seems likely that Copping wandered off into the desert in a desperate and ultimately futile attempt to reach help. British authorities hoped to bring the remarkably well-preserved plane back to the RAF Museum in London, but these plans fell through. Instead the plane was given a cosmetic restoration and displayed at the El Alamein Military Museum.", "-29.212413219269365" ], [ "American ship arrived. Search for Malaysia Airlines Flight 370 Following the Akademik Shokalskiy rescue operation in the Antarctic, Xue Long docked in Perth, Western Australia. On March 8, 2014, Malaysia Airlines Flight 370 from Kuala Lumpur to Beijing disappeared. Satellite imagery from the Australian authorities led the search for the aircraft to an area in the Indian Ocean, approximately 2,500 km (1,600 mi) south-west of Perth. Due to its proximity to this area, Xue Long was dispatched to join the multinational search operation.", "-29.185004071005096" ], [ "were never found. Some debris from Flight 175 was recovered nearby, including landing gear found on top of a building on the corner of West Broadway and Park Place, an engine found at Church & Murray Street, and a section of the fuselage landed on top of 5 World Trade Center.\nDuring the recovery process, small fragments were identified from some passengers on Flight 175, including a six-inch piece of bone belonging to Peter Hanson, and small bone fragments of Lisa Frost. In 2008, the remains of Flight 175 passenger Alona Avraham were identified using DNA samples. Remains of many others aboard Flight 175", "-29.17404187412467" ], [ "located Air Force reports of dioxin-contaminated aircraft sold abroad, and of one used at the Robins AFB, Georgia Museum of Aviation with public access to the contaminated surfaces of the aircraft. In 2010, due to concerns about dioxin contamination, the Air Force took the unusual step of shredding all the remaining surplus C-123K/UC-123K aircraft and melting the scraps into ingots for disposal.\nOn 9 June 2011, the Secretary of the U.S. Air Force's Inspector General rejected Carter's complaints, and in a subsequent message explained, \"Unfortunately, we do not have the ability to identify or notify the individuals in the categories you", "-29.160600227143732" ], [ "airport. Local fishermen first spotted the debris and alerted authorities. Crew All four of the crew members aboard were Ukrainian nationals; three died and one survivor was critically injured. The aircraft was owned by Air Urga and was on lease to True Aviation. The dead were flight engineer Kulisn Andriy, pilot Murad Gafarov and co-pilot Ivan Patrov. The flight navigator Vlodymyr Kultanov was in critical condition. He was taken to Cox's Bazar Sadar Hospital, along with another initial survivor who later died. Rescue Bangladesh Navy, Coast Guard and fire service took part in the rescue.", "-29.129072912051925" ], [ "helicopters. The South Korean government also requested the assistance of Singapore and the U.S. Navy.\nOn 17 August, the search team identified the location of 39 parts of the aircraft lying on the sea floor at a depth of approximately 80 meters. Among them was the tail section, which was expected to contain the two flight recorders, but both boxes had broken off their mounting brackets and were never found. The bodies of the two crewmembers were recovered on 29 October. Investigation The South Korean Aviation and Railway Accident Investigation Board (ARAIB) conducted the investigation, but due to the loss of", "-29.102441822877154" ], [ "lost (which later occurred in January 2015). Malaysia Air force experts raised questions and the Malaysian opposition leveled criticisms about the state of Malaysia's air force and radar capabilities. Many criticised the failure of the Royal Malaysian Air Force to identify and respond to an unidentified aircraft (later determined to be Flight 370) flying through Malaysian airspace. The Malaysian military became aware of the unidentified aircraft only after reviewing radar recordings several hours after the flight's disappearance. The failure to recognise and react to the unidentified aircraft was a security breach, and was also a missed opportunity to intercept Flight", "-29.091420141863637" ], [ "2014, titled Malaysia 370: The Plane That Vanished, and the Discovery Channel broadcast a one-hour documentary about Flight 370 on 16 April 2014, titled Flight 370: The Missing Links.\nOn 17 June 2014, an episode of the television documentary series Horizon, titled \"Where Is Flight MH370?\" was broadcast on BBC Two. The programme, narrated by Amanda Drew, documents how the aircraft disappeared, what experts believe to have happened to it, and how the search has unfolded. It also examines new technologies, such as flight recorder streaming and automatic dependent surveillance – broadcast (ADS-B), which may help prevent similar disappearances in the future.", "-29.089930563641246" ], [ "an aircraft hangar, and the British scientific station house (Biscoe House), with the middle torn out by the 1969 mudflows. A bright orange derelict airplane fuselage, which is that of a de Havilland Canada DHC-3 Otter that belonged to the Royal Air Force, was recovered in 2004. Plans to restore the airplane and return it to the island have been made.\nThe Russian cruise ship MV Lyubov Orlova ran aground at Deception Island on 27 November 2006. She was towed off by the Spanish Navy icebreaker Las Palmas and later became a ghost ship in the North Atlantic. Aguirre Cerda President Pedro", "-29.077830349036958" ], [ "Flight MH370: The Mystery Synopsis The book is critical of official accounts of the disappearance of Malaysia Airlines Flight 370, noting 'In a world where we can be tracked by our mobile phones, CCTV and spy cameras, things do not just disappear. Especially not a big thing like a jumbo jet'. The book questions alleged failure by governments and organisations to share information concerning Flight MH370. The author suggests a cover up has occurred because the United States Military shot down the plane during military exercises in the region. Reception The book was fiercely criticised in The Australian by David", "-29.057782281714026" ], [ "of satellite communication have been used to inform search and rescue agencies of locations of missing aircraft, notably that of Malaysia Airlines Flight 370 whose position was unknown due to loss of radar contact and other communications. Automated SATCOM transmissions suggested it flew about 1,600 km (1,000 mi) off its designated flight path having flown approximately south-southwest rather than the intended approximately north-northeast.", "-29.051063365186565" ], [ "after the aircraft was confirmed to be missing, unconfirmed reports stated that wreckage had been found off the island of Belitung in Indonesia. Indonesia's National Search and Rescue Agency (Basarnas) deployed seven ships and two helicopters to search the shores of Belitung and Kalimantan. The Indonesian Navy and the provincial Indonesian National Police Air and Water Unit each sent out search and rescue teams. In addition, an Indonesian Air Force Boeing 737 reconnaissance aircraft was dispatched to the last known location of the airliner.\nThe Indonesian Navy dispatched four ships by the end of the first search day and the Air", "-28.974662978474953" ], [ "pressurised modules. Orbital debris threats The low altitudes at which the ISS orbits are also home to a variety of space debris, including spent rocket stages, defunct satellites, explosion fragments (including materials from anti-satellite weapon tests), paint flakes, slag from solid rocket motors, and coolant released by US-A nuclear-powered satellites. These objects, in addition to natural micrometeoroids, are a significant threat. Objects large enough to destroy the station can be tracked, and are not as dangerous as smaller debris. Objects too small to be detected by optical and radar instruments, from approximately 1 cm down to microscopic size, number in the", "-28.97104338137433" ], [ "in order to scour the presumed crash site and locate the aircraft. In the early morning hours shortly past 06:00 EET, the wreckage was located by the helicopter on the 1,830 metres (6,000 ft) tall Türbetepe hill, some 12 kilometres (7.5 mi) west of the airport and 6 kilometres (3.7 mi) southwest of the town of Keçiborlu. All other search and rescue teams including a police helicopter and the Ambulance were immediately directed to that site.\nUpon arrival however, there were no survivors among the 57 occupants. The debris-field spanned across a 5,000 square metres (54,000 sq ft) large area.\nInitial remarks by the Governor of Isparta", "-28.954920371063054" ], [ "2019, the wreckage of the aircraft was found near Pari hills close to Gatte village, 16 km north of Lipo in Arunachal Pradesh, at 12,000 feet elevation. The Indian Air Force had previously offered a cash reward of ₹5 lakh (US$7,200) for anyone who could share information on the aircraft. A fleet of Sukhoi-30, C-130J and An-32 aircraft and Mi-17 and ALH helicopters as well as the Indian Army, the Indo-Tibetan Border Police and the state police forces were deployed for the search operation. The Indian Navy's P-8i aircraft was also deployed. ISRO's Cartosat and RISAT satellites were also used.\nOn 12", "-28.949334085918963" ], [ "about this search was aired by İZ TV.\nThe wreckage of the aircraft was discovered by the Turkish Navy in 2018.", "-28.93656893505249" ], [ "documentary television series Mayday (also known as Air Crash Investigation and Air Emergency) produced an episode on the disaster, titled \"What Happened to Malaysian 370?\" The episode aired in the UK on 8 March 2015, the first anniversary of Flight 370's disappearance. In August 2018, the television series Drain the Oceans, which airs on the National Geographic channel, highlighted the disaster, the methods used in the search, and the potential discoveries.\nPanoply is making a podcast story loosely based on the disappearance of MH370, called \"Passenger List\", featuring the voice of Kelly Marie Tran as the lead character.\nJeff Rake, creator of the", "-28.893661655543838" ], [ "was found. However, the operation established, with a 95% or above confidence level, that the wreckage, or any significant portion of the aircraft, does not lie within the probability area outside the 12 nautical mile area claimed by the Soviets as their territorial limit.\nAt a hearing of the ICAO on September 15, 1983, J. Lynn Helms, the head of the Federal Aviation Administration, stated: \"The USSR has refused to permit search and rescue units from other countries to enter Soviet territorial waters to search for the remains of KAL 007. Moreover, the Soviet Union has blocked access to the likely crash", "-28.879095732365386" ], [ "found Welch's body still in the pilot's seat. Recovery Volunteer rescue teams and local villagers looted the wreckage, taking electronics and jewellery, so relatives were unable to recover personal possessions. The bodies were taken to a hospital in Bangkok. The storage was not refrigerated and the bodies decomposed. Dental and forensic experts worked to identify bodies, but twenty-seven were never identified.\nSpeculation circulated that a bomb may have destroyed the aircraft. The Philadelphia Inquirer, citing wire services it did not identify, stated that \"the search for a motive is difficult because politically neutral Austria has generally stayed out of most international", "-28.847763026773464" ], [ "aircraft. UNIFIL sent three ships (among them the German minesweeper tender Mosel and the Turkish B class corvette Bozcaada) and two helicopters to the scene. Further helicopters were sent by the Royal Air Force, and the Cyprus Police aviation unit.\nOn 7 February, Lebanese Army divers recovered the plane's flight data recorder and cockpit voice recorder (CVR). The CVR was missing a memory storage unit when found. This was reported on 16 February as having been recovered. All were sent to the French Bureau d'Enquêtes et d'Analyses pour la Sécurité de l'Aviation Civile (BEA) for analysis.\nAll the deceased were recovered", "-28.845101171515125" ], [ "generally came from the passenger cabin of the aircraft. None of the items found generally came from the cargo hold of the plane, such as suitcases, packing boxes, industrial machinery, instruments, and sports equipment. Russian diver reports In 1991, after the collapse of the Soviet Union, Russian newspaper Izvestia published a series of interviews with Soviet military personnel who had been involved in salvage operations to find and recover parts of the aircraft. After three days of searching using trawlers, side-scan sonar, and diving bells, the aircraft wreckage was located by Soviet searchers at a depth of 174 metres (571 ft)", "-28.809591987992462" ], [ "of the search was relocated to areas south of Manado, after Manado's Sam Ratulangi Airport reported detecting a signal from the plane a day before. However, the rugged terrain coupled with thick and low hanging clouds continued to hamper the search efforts, and three relatives of missing passengers who overflew part of the area on a military reconnaissance plane admitted that the chances of finding the plane were slim. Officials said that it was unlikely any bodies had survived in one piece. On 14 January, at Indonesia's request, Singapore lent four towed underwater locator beacon detectors, sometimes called Towed Pinger", "-28.764185476160492" ], [ "its permanent home at the Intrepid Sea-Air-Space Museum, was damaged by a passing delivery truck. Photos appeared on NYCAviation.com within hours, and the site received recognition from local, national and international media, covering the aircraft's damage and repair. Volunteers from NYCA arranged to anonymously inspect the state of the aircraft regularly until its return to the old aircraft carrier, reporting back their findings to the Intrepid organization.", "-28.732085081297555" ], [ "from Döngel village. The area was not within the official search zone.\nThe villagers called the authorities by phone from the crash site and stated that, \"they found five victims dead, two of them inside the helicopter's wreckage. They were unable to identify Yazıcıoğlu since the corpses were frozen beyond recognition. The aircraft's fuselage was broken into pieces while the tail was almost intact. They searched for the sixth victim around the wreckage without success.\" They added that \"the crash site was located in an inaccessible area and could better be reached by means of helicopter.\"\nOfficials redirected the rescuers to the", "-28.7193975931732" ], [ "that they found the debris around 40 nautical miles from Kijang, the seat capital of Tanjung Pinang.\nA search and rescue team was immediately assembled by the National Search and Rescue Agency.\nTanjung Pinang's SAR team deployed two of its boats to search for the wreckage of the aircraft. The search was led by the Head of Riau Islands Regional Police. Police had also deployed four boats in response to the crash. The Indonesian Navy also sent its ships in response to the crash, the KRI Cucut and the KRI Pattimura. Search team members stated that they had only found several personal", "-28.69608615504694" ], [ "(using their own funding). The CVR was finally found and recovered by the Indonesian Navy near the crash site, at a depth of 30 metres (98 ft) but covered by mud that was 8 metres (26 ft) thick, on 14 January 2019, more than two months after the accident. International assistance A Boeing technician and engineering team, and a team from the US National Transportation Safety Board arrived on 31 October to help with the investigation being conducted by the NTSC. Personnel from the US Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) and engine manufacturer GE Aviation were also sent to Indonesia. A team from", "-28.692845429985027" ], [ "plane disappeared from radar screens shortly after that and crashed. 38 passengers and 8 crew members were on board the plane, and there were no survivors after the crash. The debris of the aircraft was found on the morning of 25 August 2004, 9 kilometres (5.6 mi) from the work settlement of Gluboky in Kamensky District of Rostov Oblast.The flight recorders were also recovered in this case; the flight data recorder along with wreckage analysis suggested an almost identical high-energy event to the one seen on flight 1353 took place near the right hand side of the aircraft at seat row", "-28.691643944592215" ], [ "2009, there have been no moves since by the Airline Industry to remodel any other aircraft. Flight MH370 A Dark Reflection has been likened to the events of the missing Malaysian Airlines Flight MH370. However, the airline flight MH370 disappeared on 8 March 2014, which was after the filming of A Dark Reflection, which took place during the summer of 2013. Although there is no deliberate link to the film and disappearance of MH370, it has not been said that there couldn't be some significant similarity.", "-28.686609452823177" ], [ "aircraft disappeared. The search efforts eventually involved sixteen aircraft and 441 people in total. The search was difficult because of the large territory and the inaccessibility of the area. Ground vehicles were not able to reach the area where the Il-76 disappeared. The high temperatures combined with the low visibility from the thick smoke and trees made the operations difficult, especially for ground units. After two days of searching, the crashed aircraft was finally found.\nThe aircraft was found near the village of Uyan in the Kachugsky District, about 150 miles (240 km) northeast of where contact with it was lost, burnt", "-28.683244638697943" ], [ "snow again hampered the search. On 20 May, it was announced that the tail section of the aircraft had been spotted.\nOn 21 May, the wreckage was reached by rescuers. \"Parts of the crashed plane are lying in front of me. There are a number of bodies scattered around here,\" acting transport and civil aviation minister Mohammadullah Batash reported by telephone from the crash site, which is 20 kilometres (12 mi) from Kabul. It had been thought that the Antonov 24 plane came down around 100 kilometres (62 mi) north of the capital. \"It is too soon to say that no one has", "-28.67811662296299" ], [ "20 March, investigators completed a survey of the wreckage. Russian and Emirati experts started an analysis of the radar data, flight crew–ATC communications and meteorological information. Both flight recorders were recovered from the crash site and delivered to the Interstate Aviation Committee in Moscow.\nOn 20 and 21 March, investigators from Russia, the United Arab Emirates (UAE) and France, extracted the memory modules from their protective casings and downloaded the data from both the flight data recorder (FDR) and the cockpit voice recorder (CVR). Both recorders functioned normally until the time of impact. While their outer casings sustained some damage, the", "-28.641102337249322" ], [ "ATSB report concluded that searching an additional 25,000 km² (9,700 sq mi) area on the northern edge of the 120,000 km² (46,000 sq mi) search area \"would exhaust all prospective areas for the presence of [Flight 370].\" Extending the search to this additional area would have cost an estimated AU$40 million. The support group for family members, Voice370, released a statement expressing their disappointment. 2018 Ocean Infinity search On 17 October 2017, Malaysia received proposals from three companies (including the Dutch company Fugro and the U.S. salvage company Ocean Infinity) offering to continue the search for the aircraft. Later that month the Malaysian government released a statement", "-28.620369226904586" ], [ "were in the same area when the Malaysian plane crashed: Air India Flight 113 (AI113), a Boeing 787 en route from Delhi to Birmingham, EVA Air Flight 88 (BR88), a Boeing 777 en route from Paris to Taipei, and the closest aircraft Singapore Airlines Flight 351 (SQ351) was 33 kilometres (21 mi) away, a Boeing 777 en route from Copenhagen to Singapore. Recovery of bodies A Ukraine Foreign Ministry representative said that the bodies found at the crash site would be taken to Kharkiv for identification, 270 kilometres (170 mi) to the north. By the day after the crash, 181 of the", "-28.61890748422593" ], [ "from both the cockpit voice recorder and the flight data recorder.\nOn 21 June, officials involved in the investigation disclosed that the memory chips from both recorders were damaged. After the initial attempts to download data from both recorders failed, the Egyptian investigative committee announced on 23 June that both recorders would be sent to France's BEA to have salt deposits from the memory chips removed; the recorders would then be returned to Egypt for analysis.\nOn 27 June, the BEA announced that the FDR had been repaired and sent back to Cairo for data analysis by civil aviation safety authorities. Early", "-28.599867756216554" ], [ "efforts began in the Gulf of Thailand and South China Sea. On the second day of the search, Malaysian officials said that radar recordings indicated that Flight 370 may have turned around before vanishing from radar screens; the search zone was expanded to include part of the Strait of Malacca. On 12 March, the chief of the Royal Malaysian Air Force announced that an unidentified aircraft—believed to be Flight 370—had travelled across the Malay peninsula and was last sighted on military radar 370 km (200 nmi; 230 mi) northwest of the island of Penang; search efforts were subsequently increased in the Andaman Sea", "-28.58150647522416" ], [ "screen of TEGA. On June 17, it was announced that no water was found in this sample; however, since it had been exposed to the atmosphere for several days prior to entering the oven, any initial water ice it might have contained could have been lost via sublimation. Mars Descent Imager The Mars Descent Imager (MARDI) was intended to take pictures of the landing site during the last three minutes of descent. As originally planned, it would have begun taking pictures after the aeroshell departed, about 8 km above the Martian soil. Before launch, testing of the assembled spacecraft uncovered a", "-28.57353852741653" ], [ "it experienced a runway excursion after landing at Lyon–Saint-Exupéry Airport. Investigation Somalia's Air Accident Investigation Authority (SAAIA) stated on 3 February that one person was missing from the aircraft once it had returned to Mogadishu and later confirmed that the missing person's body was found near Balad. An investigation into the bombing was carried out by the National Intelligence and Security Agency, with the cooperation of airport authorities and local police. Daallo Airlines, in a statement, said that a technical team of Hermes Airlines, the owner of the aircraft, as well as the aircraft's manufacturer, Airbus, played a role in", "-28.548151375551242" ], [ "made to clean up all remains of the KH-9, whose film reels were ripped apart into hundreds of small pieces and scattered around the pad era. The satellite debris was taken away for burial in an undisclosed location in Nevada.\nInvestigation found that the manufacturer of the UA1206 boosters, Chemical Systems Division of United Technologies, had virtually forgotten proper quality control measures. Due to the Shuttle program, demand for expendable launch vehicles (ELVs) was greatly reduced during the 1980s and manufacturers had been cutting costs, dropping technical personnel, and preparing to phase out ELVs. However, the Challenger disaster created a renewed", "-28.528766415518476" ], [ "use; one for airborne radar and the other for inflight refuelling, and it is reported that one was still stored as late as 1944. Survivors No aircraft, or significant parts from one, survive. The Royal Air Force Museum has some Heyford components: a pair of main wheels, two blades of a Heyford propeller and tailplane parts of Heyford III, K6875 of 166 squadron, recovered from its crash site in the Peak District.", "-28.48238236346515" ], [ "handle from them. After all there is baggage on any air trip. We either were able to work on the remains, which already had been filtered by the special services, or, what I also do not discount, there were no passengers at all on the airplane, and they stuffed the cabin with rubbish. ... It is quite possible that several mini-submarines with military divers went down to the Boeing even before us and collected everything, and scattered the remaining parts of the destroyed liner about or left them there where they were needed, and afterwards called us as a", "-28.47794998117024" ], [ "the plane and about the exact cargo manifest—all leading to uncertainty as to the identity of the bodies recovered from the crash site; some bodies, including that of Sikorski's daughter, Zofia, were never recovered. Since several bodies were never found and the bodies of several members of Sikorski's entourage were never positively identified, some conspiracy theorists such as journalist and amateur historian Dariusz Baliszewski postulate that some might have been murdered on the ground while others might have been abducted to the Soviet Union.\nBaliszewski and Tadeusz Kisielewski are among those who point out the opportunity the Soviets had at Gibraltar.", "-28.470530412887456" ], [ "investigation report remained classified since then. The report titled \"G. Bennett - Sabah Air Nomad - Report by Government Aircraft Factories (GAF) investigation team on a crash of Nomad aircraft in Malaysia 9M - ATZ on 6 June 1976\" is currently hosted at National Archives of Australia under Series no: B5535 and restriction number of 33(1)(a) because \"Malaysia has not as yet publicly released their final and full report of the investigation\". As of 2017, 41 years after the air crash happened, the Malaysian government has not declassified the investigative reports of the crash. In 2017, the Sabah chief minister", "-28.467104229086544" ], [ "some of which were decades old,. The urgency of what was still regarded as a rescue mission meant that minimal immediate effort was made to identify the aircraft in the uncharted crash sites, although some had speculated that one could have belonged to Charles Clifford Ogle, missing since 1964.\nAll told, about two dozen aircraft were involved in the massive search, operating from the primary search base at Minden, Nevada, with a secondary search base located at Bishop, California.\nOn September 7, Google Inc. helped the search for the aviator through its connections to contractors that provide satellite imagery for its Google", "-28.452924260345753" ], [ "apogee higher than ISS orbit. According to initial assessment by DRDO some of the debris (depending on size and trajectory) should re-enter in 45 days. A spokesperson from NASA disagreed, saying the debris could last for years because the solar minimum had contracted the atmosphere that would otherwise cause the debris to be destroyed. Another research from a leading space trajectory and environment simulation company AGI has also came to same conclusion that certain debris will take more than a year to come down and other debris still might pose a risk to other satellites and ISS and these results", "-28.375995987240458" ], [ "on Mechanical Turk. A front-page story on Digg attracted 12,000 searchers who worked with imaging professionals on the same data. The search was unsuccessful.\nIn September 2007, a similar arrangement was repeated in the search for aviator Steve Fossett. Satellite data was divided into 85 squared meter sections, and Mechanical Turk users were asked to flag images with \"foreign objects\" that might be a crash site or other evidence that should be examined more closely. This search was also unsuccessful. The satellite imagery was mostly within a 50-mile radius, but the crash site was eventually found by hikers about a year", "-28.37006885308074" ], [ "Chinese landing ship Jinggang Shan Use On 9 March 2014, the ship was deployed in the search for the missing Malaysia Airlines Flight 370.", "-28.36976774793584" ], [ "seized financial records for all twelve crew members, including bank statements, credit card bills and mortgage documents. On 2 April 2014, Malaysia's Police Inspector-General said that more than 170 interviews had been conducted as part of Malaysia's criminal investigation, including interviews with family members of the pilots and crew.\nMedia reports claimed that Malaysian police had identified Captain Zaharie as the prime suspect, if human intervention were eventually proven to be the cause of Flight 370's disappearance. The United States' Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) reconstructed the deleted data from Captain Zaharie's home flight simulator, but a Malaysian government spokesman indicated that", "-28.36259409462218" ], [ "conflict, the empty aircraft, which had remained at Kuwait International, was destroyed on the ground by an aircraft attack during the latter stages of the conflict; the destruction may have been an intentional act of the US military. Alternatively, the aircraft may have been destroyed by Iraqi ground forces during their withdrawal from Kuwait. As a consequence of its destruction, British Airways was able to collect on the airliner's insurance. Two of the aircraft's landing gears were salvaged and are displayed at Waterside, British Airways' headquarters.\nIn the days that followed, British Airways expressed its outrage at the Flight 149 situation.", "-28.324136541225016" ], [ "2008 Los Roques archipelago Transaven Let L-410 crash Aircraft The aircraft operating this flight was a Let L-410UVP-E3, registration YV2081, built in Czechoslovakia in 1987. Search Another Transaven Let L-410 flew over the area the aircraft was thought to have crashed, but found no trace, other than a spot of liquid on the surface of the water that soon after dissipated.\nActive sea and air searches were called off without finding any trace of the aircraft.\nOn 12 January 2008, some fishermen found the body of a man 12 kilometres off the coast of Venezuela. After having performed the autopsy, the doctors", "-28.312290901696542" ], [ "Flight 1047, which had left Domodedovo International Airport at 21:35 on 24 August 2004, disappeared from the radar screens and crashed. The Tu-154 aircraft, registered RA-85556, which had been in service since 1982, was flying from Moscow to Sochi. According to an unnamed government source of the Russian news agency Interfax, the plane had broadcast a hijack warning while flying over Rostov Oblast at 22:59. However, it was later determined that this was the aircraft's Emergency Locator Transmitter (ELT), and that the crew of flight 1047 were not aware of any danger prior to the aircraft disappearing from radar. The", "-28.267505683659692" ], [ "7 October 2001, it was reported that the main fuselage of the aircraft, believed to contain the black box recorder, was thought to be at a depth of 1,000 metres (3,300 ft), which was too deep for divers to retrieve. Compensation to Israeli citizens On 20 November 2003, an ex gratia compensation agreement was signed between the governments of Ukraine and Israel. It was later ratified by the relatives of the victims who agreed to the conditions. In addition to compensation issues, the agreement has stated that \"Ukraine is not legally responsible for the accident that occurred to the plane and", "-28.257955838984344" ] ]

[ "Mao was not merely trying to improve literacy, he was attempting to scour Chinese culture for all references to the past and systematically destroy them in order to create an idealized New China. Simple Chinese is one of many cultural weapons Mao and the Chinese authority used to homogenize Chinese culture and strip elements like regionalism, Confucism, and liberalism from the language. The Japanese certainly had a similar bout of authoritarianism but Facism generally looks to honor the past while Communism as we saw in China was about destroying the past. That's one of the key differences between Communism and Facism as opposites on the far left and far right side of the political spectrum.", "Japanese is already a much simpler language. They use kanji borrowed from Chinese as well which is very complex, but Hiragana is quite straightforward.", "[Japan *does* have a form of simplified kanji, called shinjitai.]( URL_0 ) Many of these are the same forms that Simplified Chinese took, while others are different. Some simplified forms are unique to Chinese while others are unique to Japanese, although shinjitai is not as extensive as Simplified Chinese was, which is likely due to the fact that Japan already used syllabaries (hiragana and katakana) in addition to kanji." ]

[ [ "and by 1977 it was in use throughout China, particularly in the government and party, and in education. Although in 1987 the government continued to endorse the goal of universalizing putonghua, hundreds of regional and local dialects continued to be spoken, complicating interregional communication.\nA second language reform required the simplification of ideographs because ideographs with fewer strokes are easier to learn. In 1964 the Committee for Reforming the Chinese Written Language released an official list of 2,238 simplified characters most basic to the language. Simplification made literacy easier, although some people (especially in Hong Kong which is still using traditional", "-33.944069809571374" ], [ "the Philippines, the use of simplified characters is getting more and more popular. Before the 1970s, Chinese schools in the Philippines were under the supervision of the Ministry of Education of the Republic of China. Hence, most books were using the Traditional Characters. Traditional Characters remained prevalent until the early 2000s. However, institutions like the Confucius Institute, being the cultural arm of the People's Republic of China, are strong proponents of the use of Simplified Characters. Also, many new schools are now importing their Mandarin textbooks from Singapore instead of Taiwan.\nPublic universities such as the Linguistics and Asian Languages Department", "-33.1486946400255" ], [ "Japanese, stayed as a language used in the small intellectual circle. Insisting on using modern Chinese to write could not attain the expected result of synchronizing writing with speaking (文言一致) like it did in mainland China. In other words, modern Chinese could not penetrate into the masses and fulfil its mission of the dissemination of culture. Guo in his essay illustrated the fact that Japanese, classical and modern Chinese were all difficult to be popularized among the masses, and responded the Huang’s stand by suggesting promoting the use of Taiwanese vernacular in order to eradicate illiteracy and disperse culture. Guo", "-33.04183966841083" ], [ "and introduction of hangul, the native phonetic writing system for the Korean language.\nBefore the creation of Hangul, people in Korea (known as Joseon at the time) primarily wrote using Chinese characters alongside phonetic writing systems based on Chinese script that predated Hangul by hundreds of years, including idu, hyangchal, gugyeol, and gakpil. However, due to the fundamental differences between the Korean and Chinese languages, and the large number of characters that needed to be learned, there was much difficulty in learning how to write using Chinese characters for the lower classes, who often lacked the privilege of education. To assuage", "-32.92676417386974" ], [ " For example, in China in 1955, in order to respond to illiteracy among people, the government introduced a Romanized version of Chinese script, called Pinyin. However, by the 1960s, people rebelled against the infringement upon traditional Chinese by foreign influences. This writing reform did not help illiteracy among peasants. Japanese also has simplified the Chinese characters it uses into scripts called kana. However kanji are still used in preference over kana in many contexts, and a large part of children's schooling is learning kanji. Moreover, Japan has tried to hold on to", "-32.68427613492531" ], [ "a large Chinese community, was the second nation to officially adopt simplified characters, although it has also become the de facto standard for younger ethnic Chinese in Malaysia. The Internet provides the platform to practice reading these alternative systems, be it traditional or simplified.\nA well-educated Chinese reader today recognizes approximately 4,000 to 6,000 characters; approximately 3,000 characters are required to read a Mainland newspaper. The PRC government defines literacy amongst workers as a knowledge of 2,000 characters, though this would be only functional literacy. School-children typically learn around 2,000 characters whereas scholars may memorize up to 10,000. A large unabridged", "-32.48381597804837" ], [ "the contrary, the majority of Mandarin Chinese entertainment media, Chinese literature, books and reading materials in Singapore came mainly from Taiwan. Consequently, Singaporean Mandarin has been influenced by Taiwanese Mandarin to a certain degree. After the 1980s, along with China's Open Door Policy, there was increasing contact between Singapore and mainland China, thus increasing Putonghua's gradual influence on Singaporean Mandarin. These influences included the adoption of pinyin and the shift from usage of Traditional Chinese characters to Simplified Chinese characters. Much of the lexicon from Putonghua had also found its way into Singaporean Mandarin. Background Historical sources indicated", "-32.43440477154218" ], [ "in Upper Burma.\nDuring General Ne Win's rule (1962–1988), the ban on Chinese-language schools caused a decline of Mandarin speakers. The number of Chinese schools is growing again today because of the importance of Mandarin Chinese. (Note: Standard Mandarin refers to the national language of Mainland China and Taiwan, distinct from the Southwestern Mandarin dialect of the Upper Burma, Kokang and Panthay). At the end of 2012, Mizzima News reported that an increasing number of young Burmese Chinese are expressing interest in Chinese language, taking language courses even when their parents don't understand Chinese. However, this trend is not necessarily indicative", "-32.37296549437451" ], [ "just with Chinese peoples of various regions, but also with people from across the Chinese cultural sphere — countries such as Japan and Vietnam — as a great advantage of the written Chinese language that should not be undermined by excessive simplification. Pro simplified characters Proponents say that the Chinese writing system has been changing for millennia: it passed through the Oracle Script, Bronzeware Script, Seal Script and Clerical Script stages. Moreover, the majority of simplified characters are drawn from conventional abbreviated forms that have been used in handwriting for centuries such as the use of 礼 instead of 禮,", "-32.25808100728318" ], [ "Written Hokkien History Prior to the modern era, the main written language of China was Classical Chinese, which has grammar and vocabulary based on Old Chinese used in ancient times. Whilst the written form of Chinese mostly remained static, the spoken varieties of Chinese diverged from Old Chinese. In the early 20th century, reformers in China saw the need for language reform and championed the development of a writing system that allowed Chinese people to write the language the same way they speak, a system called written Vernacular Chinese. Because the various Mandarin Chinese dialects had the largest number of", "-32.00011698569142" ], [ "Written Cantonese History Before the 20th century, the standard written language of China was Classical Chinese, which has grammar and vocabulary based on the Chinese used in ancient China, Old Chinese. However, while this written standard remained essentially static for over two thousand years, the actual spoken language diverged further and further away. Some writings based on local vernacular speech did exist but these were rare. In the early 20th century, Chinese reformers like Hu Shih saw the need for language reform and championed the development of a vernacular that allowed modern Chinese to write the language the same way", "-31.890922387479804" ], [ "unification of all Chinese in Singapore, especially after independence. To meet the demands of globalisation and other economic challenges as a young nation, the government began to place greater emphasis on English. As a result, many English-educated Chinese Singaporeans began to lose their Mandarin or Chinese language skills. During the 1991 Singaporean general election, the People's Action Party (PAP) won a lower majority than usual, in part because of opposition parties' exploitation of the linguistic anxieties of working-class, dialect-speaking Chinese Singaporeans. Those Singaporeans clung onto their dialect as part of an identity, refusing to register their children in schools with", "-31.82016171218129" ], [ "on student generations in China from 1920s through 1950s. When Li Jinxi devoted himself in proceeding the reform of Mandarin, he especially focused on promoting the alphabetic writing, which did a great help to the adult literacy project (扫盲运动) and children literacy education. However, the July 7th incident of 1937 left phonetic molds in the Japanese occupied territory. As a result, his dream of promoting the phonetic alphabetic failed.\nLi Jinxi wrote more than 300 papers and more than 30 books on languages. He made significant contributions to the Chinese word-formation studies and modern Chinese grammar. Compassion toward young Mao Li", "-31.66766313162225" ], [ "adopted Chinese teaching materials from Republic of China in the early 20th century, Singapore's early Mandarin pronunciations was based on the Zhuyin in the Dictionary of National Pronunciation (國音字典; Guó yīn zìdiǎn) and Vocabulary of National Pronunciation for Everyday Use (國音常用字彙). As such, it had preserved the older forms of pronunciations. In addition, during its initial development, Singaporean Mandarin was also influenced by Chinese dialects of Singapore such as Hokkien, Teochew, Cantonese etc.\nFrom 1949 to 1979, due to lack of contact between Singapore and People's Republic of China, Putonghua did not exert any form of influence on Singaporean Mandarin. On", "-31.527828820369905" ], [ "easier to memorize. The People's Republic of China claims that both goals have been achieved, but some external observers disagree. Little systematic study has been conducted on how simplified Chinese has affected the way Chinese people become literate; the only studies conducted before it was standardized in mainland China seem to have been statistical ones regarding how many strokes were saved on average in samples of running text.\nThe simplified forms have also been criticized for being inconsistent. For instance, traditional 讓 ràng \"allow\" is simplified to 让, in which the phonetic on the right side is reduced", "-31.50836954231636" ], [ "by the law\" and it could potentially complicate the curricula. A similar proposal was delivered to the 1st Plenary Session of the 11th Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference in March 2008. Hong Kong Most, if not all, Chinese language text books in Hong Kong are written in traditional characters. Before 1997, the use of simplified characters was generally discouraged by educators. After 1997, while students are still expected to be proficient and utilize traditional characters in formal settings, they may sometimes adopt a hybrid written form in informal settings to speed up writing. With the exception of open examinations, simplified", "-31.455111302435398" ], [ "world factory to a world market, Mandarin has become the 2nd most influential language after English. Besides transmitting Chinese culture values, many people began to realize the economic values of Mandarin, which has raised the interests of local and working professionals in learning Mandarin. Changes in mother tongue and dialect preservation The original mother tongue of Chinese Singaporeans other Chinese varieties, such as Hokkien, Teochew or Cantonese. This was certainly true when southern Chinese migrants came to Singapore. However, with the Speak Mandarin campaign, the Chinese Singaporean's home language experienced a change from these other varieties to Mandarin, and later", "-31.347659074352123" ], [ "commonly Chinese varieties spoken today among the older generation, some of the middle aged and the few of the younger generation are Hokkien-Taiwanese (Southern Min ; Min Nan) being the dominant dialect and Cantonese being second. Teochew, is being replaced by Hokkien-Taiwanese (Southern Min ; Min Nan), while other Chinese varieties are increasingly less commonly heard nowadays. Written Chinese Traditional Chinese characters were used in Singapore until 1969, when the Ministry of Education promulgated the Table of Simplified Characters (simplified Chinese: 简体字表; traditional Chinese: 簡體字表; pinyin: jiăntǐzìbiǎo), which while similar to the Chinese Character Simplification Scheme of the People's Republic of China", "-31.337490363250254" ], [ "to express them. Chinese became the language of science, learning and religion. The earliest written language to be used in Japan was literary Chinese, which has come to be called kanbun in this context. The kanbun writing system essentially required every literate Japanese to be competent in written Chinese, although it is unlikely that many Japanese people were then fluent in spoken Chinese. Chinese pronunciation was approximated in words borrowed from Chinese into Japanese; this Sino-Japanese vocabulary is still an important component of the Japanese language, and may be compared to words of Latin or Greek origin in English.\nChinese borrowings", "-31.332099969760748" ], [ "mainland government began two parallel programs relating to written Chinese. One was the development of an alphabetic script for Mandarin, which was spoken by about two-thirds of the Chinese population; the other was the simplification of the traditional characters—a process that would eventually lead to simplified Chinese. The latter was not viewed as an impediment to the former; rather, it would ease the transition toward the exclusive use of an alphabetic (or at least phonetic) script.\nBy 1958, however, priority was given officially to simplified Chinese; a phonetic script, hanyu pinyin, had been developed, but its deployment to the", "-31.318129261220747" ], [ "(wenyanwen). The majority of the population, not educated in classical Chinese, could understand very little of written or printed texts. During the Ming and Qing (1368–1912), vernacular language began to be used in novels, but formal writing continued to use classical Chinese.\nLower Yangtze Mandarin formed the standard for written vernacular Chinese until it was displaced by the Beijing dialect in the late Qing. This Baihua was used by writers all over China regardless of the dialect they spoke. Chinese writers who spoke other dialects had to use the grammar and vocabulary of Lower Yangtze and Beijing Mandarin to make their", "-31.220807044326648" ], [ "speakers amongst all varieties of Chinese, it was chosen as the basis for the vernacular standard.\nHowever, there are various differences between the spoken Chinese varieties, such as Hokkien, Mandarin, Cantonese, such as variations in vocabulary and grammatical particles, meaning that Vernacular Chinese is less suited for writing texts spoken in Hokkien. Various expressions in Hokkien, as with other Chinese varieties, do not have associated Chinese characters in Vernacular Chinese, meaning that some words originally could not be written. In the case of Cantonese, a vernacular system specifically for writing Cantonese was developed in Hong Kong, then a British colony. On", "-31.142776155291358" ], [ "value. Today, Mandarin is generally seen as a way to maintain a link to Chinese culture. However, due to fact that English is the main medium of language instruction in Singaporean schools, colleges and universities; as well as the limited and lower standards of local Mandarin Chinese education in Singapore and the dominant usage of English in most official settings, the standards of Mandarin Chinese among many young Singaporean Chinese has been dropping as more and more young Singaporean Chinese are speaking and using English more frequently than Mandarin Chinese. Other Chinese varieties Other Chinese varieties also have a presence", "-31.130020768236136" ], [ "and traditional characters, it also means that different localization files are needed for each type.\nThe Chinese characters used in modern Japanese (called Kanji characters) have also undergone simplification, but generally to a lesser extent than with simplified Chinese. It is worth mentioning that Japan's writing system utilizes a reduced number of Chinese characters in daily use, resulting partly from the Japanese language reforms; thus, a number of complex characters are written phonetically. Reconciling these different character sets in Unicode became part of the controversial process of Han unification. Not surprisingly, some of the Chinese characters used in Japan are neither", "-31.116193429144914" ], [ "Chinese) taught only in simplified characters were cut off from the wealth of Chinese literature written in traditional characters. Any idea of replacing ideographic script with romanized script was soon abandoned, however by government and education leaders.\nA third area of change involved the proposal to use the pinyin romanization system more widely. Pinyin (first approved by the National People's Congress in 1958) was encouraged primarily to facilitate the spread of putonghua in regions where other dialects and languages are spoken. By the mid-1980s, however, the use of pinyin was not as widespread as the use of putonghua.\nRetaining literacy was as", "-31.058951499609975" ], [ "History of Modern Standard Chinese Before Mandarin Since ancient history, the Chinese language has always consisted of a wide variety of dialects; hence prestige dialects and linguae francae have always been needed. Confucius, for example, used yǎyán (雅言), or \"elegant speech\", rather than colloquial regional dialects; text during the Han dynasty also referred to tōngyǔ (通語), or \"common language\". Rime dictionaries, which were written since the Southern and Northern Dynasties, may also have reflected one or more systems of standard pronunciation during those times. However, all of these standard dialects were probably unknown outside the educated elite; even among the", "-31.03910142183304" ], [ "romanized writing systems of all the various Sinitic languages were met with suppression from the local authorities, and after the Chinese Communist Party came to power, the government began the campaign of promoting the use of Mandarin and forcibly suppressing all other \"dialects\". As a result, the Kienning Colloquial Romanized alphabet could not be used in public settings. Despite this, today the older generation of Kienning Christian congregations are still able to read and write in this writing system whilst some of the younger generation may have regrettably lost their literacy in their own language. Spelling schemes Due to differences", "-31.012202363097458" ], [ "from Mandarin to English. Mandarin was designated as the mother tongue of Chinese Singaporean in Singapore.\nIn recent years, there has been an increasing awareness of dialect preservation, due to the great decline in the use of other Chinese dialects in Singapore. Most young Chinese Singaporeans were unable to speak these Chinese dialects effectively and were thus unable to communicate with their grandparents, who are more used to speaking these dialects. This has caused a generation gap. As such, there is a minority of Singaporeans working to help preserve or spread these Chinese dialects in Singapore. Language policy and culture Under", "-30.999127966118976" ], [ "language.\nPrior to the emergence of China as a regional power in the late 1990s, speaking Hokkien, Mandarin, Cantonese and other Chinese varieties was seen as old-fashioned and awkward, with the younger generation of Chinese Filipinos opting to use either English, Filipino or various other regional languages as their first languages.\nRecent developments showing the rise of a politically and economically stronger China eventually led to the newly found elegance and style now associated with speaking Hokkien and other Chinese varieties. Hence, there is a stronger clamour for instructors who can produce students fluent in Hokkien and Mandarin. Many young parents are", "-30.966529960511252" ], [ "language, while the Mandarin-speakers worry that English will replace Mandarin as the lingua franca, which would eliminate the thin thread of Chinese identity altogether. With the rising economy of China in the 21st century, which has led to more Singaporean companies requiring fluency in Mandarin, Mandarin has been viewed with greater importance amongst the Singaporean Chinese than before. Both English and Mandarin will continue to dominate the language scene among Singaporean Chinese. Education Alongside other ethnic groups, Singaporeans of Chinese descent from all social backgrounds and occupations have achieved significant upward advances in their educational levels, income, and life expectancy", "-30.96171588776633" ], [ "and subsequently identical spelling in hangul. Chinese characters are sometimes used to this day for either clarification in a practical manner, or to give a distinguished appearance, as knowledge of Chinese characters is considered by many Koreans a high class attribute and an indispensable part of a classical education. It is also observed that the preference for Chinese characters is treated as being conservative and Confucian.\nIn Korea, hanja have become a politically contentious issue, with some Koreans urging a \"purification\" of the national language and culture by totally abandoning their use. These individuals encourage the exclusive use of the", "-30.95925633342995" ], [ "simplification was Lufei Kui, who proposed in 1909 that simplified characters should be used in education. In the years following the May Fourth Movement in 1919, many anti-imperialist Chinese intellectuals sought ways to modernise China. In the 1930s and 1940s, discussions on character simplification took place within the Kuomintang government, and many Chinese intellectuals and writers have long maintained that character simplification would help boost literacy in China. In many world languages, literacy has been promoted as a justification for spelling reforms. The People's Republic of China issued its first round of official character simplifications in two documents, the first", "-30.833679800794926" ], [ "looked upon by the Chinese as humiliating (because English speakers considered it ridiculous) and so preferred to learn standard English instead.\nChinese Pidgin English began to decline in the late 19th century as standard English began to be taught in the country's education system. \nChinese Pidgin English spread to regions beyond the Chinese Coast. Many attestations of the language being spoken come from writings of Western travelers in China. Among these are scattered reports of the pidgin being spoken farther inland, such as in Chungking (Chongqing) and Hankow (Hankou), and farther north, in Kyong Song and even Vladivostok. CPE was also", "-30.807093925133813" ], [ "can differ from Putonghua in terms of vocabulary, phonology and grammar.\nBesides Singaporean Hokkien, Mandarin is also subjected to influence coming from other Chinese dialects such as Teochew, Cantonese, Hakka, and Hainanese, as well as English and Malay. Writing system In Singapore, simplified Chinese characters are the official standard used in all official publications as well as the government-controlled press. While simplified Chinese characters are taught exclusively in schools, the government does not officially discourage the use of traditional characters. Therefore, many shop signs continue to be written in traditional characters. Menus in hawker centres and coffeeshops are also usually written", "-30.786833762191236" ], [ "and should serve as the lingua franca among Chinese Singaporeans. They also argued that Mandarin was more economically valuable, and speaking Mandarin would help Chinese Singaporeans retain their heritage, as Mandarin supposedly contains a cultural repository of values and traditions that are identifiable to all Chinese, regardless of dialect group. Evolution The focus of SMC began with encouraging more people, especially the young, to speak Mandarin in place of dialects; allowing people from different dialectal groups to communicate better with a common language and, at the same time, reducing language barriers between the different groups. This is important in the", "-30.721587787440512" ], [ "Japanese literature Nara literature (before 794) Before the introduction of kanji from China, the Japanese had no writing system. It is believed that Chinese characters came to Japan at the very beginning of the fifth century, brought by immigrants from the mainland of Korean and Chinese descent. Early Japanese texts first followed the Chinese model, before gradually transitioning to a hybrid of Chinese characters used in Japanese syntactical formats, resulting in sentences that looked like Chinese but were read phonetically as Japanese. Chinese characters were also further adapted, creating what is known as man'yōgana, the earliest form of kana, or", "-30.66729217505781" ], [ "of a Latin-based script, and Korea in the late 20th century in favour of its homegrown hangul script, although as Korea switched much more recently, many Koreans still learn them to read texts written before then, or in some cases to disambiguate homophones. Japanese Chinese characters adapted to write Japanese words are known as kanji. Chinese words borrowed into Japanese could be written with Chinese characters, while native Japanese words could also be written using the character(s) for a Chinese word of similar meaning. Most kanji have both the native (and often multi-syllabic) Japanese pronunciation, or the kun'yomi, and the", "-30.661141113872873" ], [ "However, simplification of the older, more complex characters has been done in different ways in these two countries. Chinese simplification of the characters tends to be more liberal, done in an effort to increase literacy by greatly simplifying characters. Conversely, Japanese simplification of the characters has been more conservative, and inherently has created modern characters which more strongly resemble their traditional counterparts. Variations in the number of radicals Though radicals are widely accepted as a method to categorize Chinese characters and to locate a certain character in a dictionary, there is no universal agreement about either the exact number of", "-30.652553784224438" ], [ "that they would be an \"impediment to learning Chinese\". Today, although Mandarin is widely spoken, proficiency in second languages has declined. In response to these falling standards, several revisions have been made to the education system. These include the introduction of the Mother Tongue \"B\" syllabus and the now-defunct EM3 stream, in both of which Mother Tongue is taught at a level lower than the mainstream standard. In the case of Mandarin, Chinese students would study Chinese \"B\".\nThe Malay-speaking community also faced similar problems after the implementation of the policy. In Singapore, Malay, not its non-standard dialects, is valued as", "-30.63861626945436" ], [ "(such as Hokkien) as its medium to teach Chinese classics. In the 1920s, as influenced by China's New Cultural Movement, many Chinese schools in Singapore began to change its medium of instruction to Mandarin. During the British colonial times, the colonial government generally allowed the Chinese community in Singapore to organise and develop its own system of Chinese education. By the 1930s and 1940s, with donations and fundings from the public, more Chinese organisations began to set up more Chinese schools. In 1953, the chairman of Singapore Hokkien Huay Kuan, Mr.Tan Lark Sye organised and helped to establish the first", "-30.626507219974883" ], [ "heavily promoted as the medium of instruction in schools and as the official language, especially after the communist takeover in 1949. Meanwhile, Cantonese has remained the official variety of Chinese in Hong Kong and Macau, both during and after the colonial period. Cultural role Spoken Chinese has numerous regional and local varieties, many of which are mutually unintelligible. Most of these are rare outside their native areas, though they may be spoken outside of China. Many varieties also have Literary and colloquial readings of Chinese characters for newer standard reading sounds. Since a 1909 Qing dynasty decree, China has promoted", "-30.603861088806298" ], [ "Chinese characters introduced during the speaker's schooling, with a few thousand considered the minimum for practical literacy. Social science surveys in China have repeatedly found that just more than half the population of China is conversant in spoken putonghua. Laos Laos has the lowest level of adult literacy in all of Southeast Asia other than East Timor.\nObstacles to literacy vary by country and culture as writing systems, quality of education, availability of written material, competition from other sources (television, video games, cell phones, and family work obligations), and culture all influence literacy levels. In Laos, which has a phonetic alphabet,", "-30.59166731289588" ], [ "use of Mandarin as part of their claim to be a legitimate government of the whole of China. Education policy promoted the use of Mandarin over the local languages, and was implemented especially rigidly in elementary schools, with punishments and public humiliation for children using other languages at school. \nFrom the 1970s, the government promoted adult education in Mandarin, required Mandarin for official purposes, and encouraged its increased use in broadcasting. Over a 40-year period, these policies succeeded in spreading the use and prestige of Mandarin through society at the expense of the other languages. They", "-30.588613069383428" ], [ "early years of the Republic of China, Literary Chinese was replaced as the written standard by written vernacular Chinese, which was based on northern dialects. In the 1930s a standard national language was adopted, with its pronunciation based on the Beijing dialect, but with vocabulary also drawn from other Mandarin varieties. It is the official spoken language of the People's Republic of China and of the Republic of China (Taiwan), and one of the official languages of Singapore.\nStandard Mandarin Chinese now dominates public life in mainland China, and is much more widely studied than any other variety of", "-30.547261933796108" ], [ "Mandarin character readings following common practice among scholars, even though it is also possible to read Classical Chinese using the literary readings of other modern Chinese varieties (as commonly done in Hong Kong, where Cantonese readings are generally used), or even using a reconstruction of character readings belonging to centuries past.\nCompared to the written vernacular Chinese of today, the most notable difference is that Classical Chinese rarely uses words composed of two Chinese characters; nearly all words are written with one character only. This stands directly in contrast with vernacular Chinese, in which two-character words are extremely common. This phenomenon", "-30.511267339607002" ], [ "Second round of simplified Chinese characters History The traditional relationship between written Chinese and vernacular Chinese has been compared to that of Latin with the Romance languages in the Renaissance era. The modern simplification movement grew out of efforts to make the written language more accessible, which culminated in the replacement of Classical Chinese (wenyan) with Vernacular Chinese (baihua) in the early 20th century. The fall of the Qing Dynasty in 1911 and subsequent loss of prestige associated with classical writing helped facilitate this shift, but a series of further reforms aided by the efforts of reformers such as Qian", "-30.474005492251308" ], [ "\"speech of officials\").\nIn the early 20th century, many Chinese intellectuals argued that the country needed a standardized language.\nBy the 1920s, Literary Chinese had been replaced as the written standard by written vernacular Chinese, which was based on Mandarin dialects.\nIn the 1930s, Standard Chinese was adopted, with its pronunciation based on the Beijing dialect, but with vocabulary also drawn from other Mandarin varieties and its syntax based on the written vernacular.\nIt is the official spoken language of the People's Republic of China (where it is called Pǔtōnghuà \"common speech\"), the de facto official language of the Republic of China governing", "-30.43854744845885" ], [ "Despite later attempts to ban the Korean alphabet, as commoners wrote disparaging this about rulers they disliked, and the fear that the upper classes would lose the privileges of being literate in Chinese led to attempts to ban the alphabet, but hangul survived. The twenty-eight letters, arranged into syllable blocks, actually facilitated the study of hanja as they were used in teaching guides to indicate the native word and the Sino-Korean pronunciation, and the upper class, despite their disdain, would often have to study the gugyeol system of knowing a Chinese character's meaning, Sino-Korean pronunciation and its native Korean", "-30.405470238631096" ], [ "Chinese-language literature of Korea Classical Chinese in Korea The role of the Classical Chinese Han language or Hanmun language in Korea was akin to the same role in Japan of Chinese Kanbun and in Vietnam of Chinese Hán văn; a role which is broadly comparable to that of the Latin language in Europe. During this period the use of written Chinese language did not indicate that Korean literati were fluent in spoken Chinese.", "-30.364691824594047" ], [ "the bilingual policy of Singapore, Chinese Singaporeans had a greater chance to speak and use English especially in school and at work. But this can cause a relative limitation in the use of mother tongue. Generally speaking, most Chinese Singaporeans are able to speak Mandarin, and also read newspapers in it, but only a minority is able to use it at a professional level such as academic research, literary writing etc. In the endeavor to use English, some Chinese Singaporeans even distanced themselves from the mother tongue culture, resulting in the erosion of Chinese culture in Singapore.", "-30.35820899065584" ], [ "was developed as a means of informal communication. Still, Cantonese speakers must use standard written Chinese, or even literary Chinese, in most formal written communications, since written Cantonese may be unintelligible to speakers of other varieties of Chinese.\nHistorically, written Cantonese has been used in Hong Kong for legal proceedings in order to write down the exact spoken testimony of a witness, instead of paraphrasing spoken Cantonese into standard written Chinese. However, its popularity and usage has been rising in the last two decades, the late Wong Jim being one of the pioneers of its use as an effective written language.", "-30.323133820667863" ], [ "political implication, as they were used in mass-production of leaflets and pamphlets. The typewriters also gained popular appeal and changed Chinese office work.\nAccording to Thomas Mullaney, it is possible that development of modern Chinese typewriters in the 1960s and 1970s influenced the development of modern computer word processors and even affected the development of computers themselves. Chinese typewriter engineers were trying to make the most common characters be accessible at the fastest speed possible by word prediction, a technique used today in Chinese input methods for computers, as well as in text messaging in many languages.\nChinese typewriter has become a", "-30.303842093797357" ], [ "went the \"wrong way\" and that due to his insistence on bilingualism, \"successive generations of students paid a heavy price\". In June 2010, Lee also said that \"Mandarin is important but it remains a second language in Singapore\".\nSome critics include that the Mandarin education system's goal of promoting cultural identity has left many younger generations of Mandarin speakers unable to communicate with their dialect-speaking grandparents. They have also compared the policy to that of Russification and intentional language elimination. The reduction in the number of Chinese dialect speakers in Singapore has raised concerns on the issues of preservation of these", "-30.300552873522975" ], [ "Macau) wrote and edited articles using Traditional Chinese characters whereas those from regions that used Simplified Chinese characters (such as mainland China, Singapore, and Malaysia) wrote using Simplified Chinese characters. Many articles had two uncoordinated versions; for example, there was both a Traditional (法國) and Simplified (法国) article on France. Further exacerbating the problem were differences in vocabulary (particularly nouns) and writing systems, between mainland China, Taiwan, Hong Kong, and Singapore that developed through their relative lack of communications during much of the 20th century. For example, a computer printer is called 打印机 in mainland China, but 印表機 in Taiwan.", "-30.28914694872219" ], [ "they speak. The vernacular language movement took hold, and the written language was standardised as vernacular Chinese. Mandarin was chosen as the basis for the new standard.\nThe standardisation and adoption of written Mandarin pre-empted the development and standardisation of vernaculars based on other varieties of Chinese. No matter which dialect one spoke, one still wrote in standardised Mandarin for everyday writing. However, Cantonese is unique amongst the non-Mandarin varieties in having a widely used written form. Cantonese-speaking Hong Kong used to be a British colony isolated from mainland Chinabefore 1997, so most HK citizens do not speak Mandarin. Written Cantonese", "-30.257305009115953" ], [ "Sino-Japanese War raised the anti-Japanese sentiment. The literature during these times reflected the missions of national salvation against the Japanese. This brought a halt to the localization movement and in turn re-enacted a sense of Chinese nationalism amongst the migrants in Singapore. From 1941 till 1945, during the Japanese occupation of Singapore, the activities for Malaysia Chinese literature was halted.\nAfter the war, people in Singapore began to have a sense of belonging to this piece of land, and they also had a desire for freedom and democracy. During this times, Malaysia Chinese literature was inclined towards Anti-colonialism. With new arts", "-30.217169223818928" ], [ "in the country. Choe wanted to promote the usage of hangul through his work Hunmong Jahoe. As a textbook for children to learn Chinese, Hunmong Jahoe incorporated hangul in the textbook to promote both the learning of Chinese characters, as well as hangul. The Chinese characters were annotated in hangul, and in order for one to understand and learn the Chinese characters, one must have a full grasp of hangul first to comprehend the annotations. Choe wanted people to use hangul more extensively, and he thought that this would encourage people to take some time to fully learn hangul, before", "-30.190251675870968" ], [ "to read texts, articles and books.\nHe charged that literary, or Classical Chinese, which had been the written language prior to the movement, was understood by only scholars and officials (ironically, the new vernacular included many foreign words and Japanese neologisms (Wasei-kango), which made it difficult for many to read). Scholars, such as Y.R. Chao (Zhao Yuanren), began the study of the Chinese language and dialects using tools of western linguistics. Hu Shih was among the scholars who used the textual study of Dream of the Red Chamber and other vernacular fiction as the basis for the national language. Literary societies", "-30.174304513962852" ], [ "often nationalistic, with Chinese textbooks often blatantly nationalistic and South Korean textbooks focusing on oppressive Japanese colonial rule. US history textbooks were found to be nationalistic and overly patriotic, although they invite debate about major issues.", "-30.14095614035614" ], [ "character simplification, eventually arriving at the same set of simplified characters as mainland China. Before 1969, Singapore generally used traditional characters. From 1969 to 1976, the Ministry of education launched its own version of simplified characters, which differed from that of mainland China. But after 1976, Singapore fully adopted the simplified characters of mainland China. Chinese writing style Before the May Fourth Movement in 1919, Singapore Chinese writings were based on Classical Chinese. After the May Fourth Movement, under the influence from the New Culture Movement in China, the Chinese schools in Singapore began to follow the new education reform", "-30.138777182350168" ], [ "and their designated mother tongue, which was Mandarin for all Chinese Singaporeans by default. The Goh Report, an evaluation of Singapore's education system by Goh Keng Swee, showed that less than 40% of the student population managed to attain minimum levels of competency in two languages. It was later determined that the learning of Mandarin among Singaporean Chinese was hindered by home use of native Chinese varieties, such as Hokkien, Teochew, Cantonese and Hakka. Hence, the government decided to rectify problems facing implementation of the bilingual education policy, by launching a campaign to promote Mandarin as a common language among", "-30.130342277465388" ], [ "been somewhat sensitive to the status of minority languages and, outside the education context, has generally not discouraged their social use. Standard Chinese is commonly used for practical reasons, as, in many parts of southern China, the linguistic diversity is so large that neighboring city dwellers may have difficulties communicating with each other without a lingua franca.\nIn Taiwan, the relationship between Standard Mandarin and other varieties, particularly Taiwanese Hokkien, has been more politically heated. During the martial law period under the Kuomintang (KMT) between 1949 and 1987, the KMT government revived the Mandarin Promotion Council and discouraged or, in some", "-30.116883151698858" ], [ "the region. Although each of these countries developed vernacular writing systems and used them for popular literature, they continued to use Chinese for all formal writing until it was swept away by rising nationalism around the end of the 19th century.\nThroughout East Asia, Literary Chinese was the language of administration and scholarship. Although Vietnam, Korea and Japan each developed writing systems for their own languages, these were limited to popular literature. Chinese remained the medium of formal writing until it was displaced by vernacular writing in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Though they did not use Chinese for", "-30.10911957267672" ], [ "Sino-Japanese vocabulary Background China's large territory and advanced culture led Chinese to exert an enormous influence on Japanese, Korean, Vietnamese and other East Asian languages throughout history, in a manner somewhat similar the preeminent position that Greek and Latin had in European history. For example, the Middle Chinese word for gunpowder, Chinese: 火藥 (IPA: [xwa˧˥jak]), is rendered as hwayak in Korean, and as kayaku in Japanese. At the time of their first contact, the Japanese language had no writing system, while the Chinese had a written language and a great deal of academic information, providing new concepts along with Chinese words", "-30.09430139971664" ], [ "groups to help take care of their own people who speak the same dialect.\nThe use of Mandarin to serve as a lingua franca amongst the Chinese only began with the founding of Republic of China, which established Mandarin as the official tongue. Development of Mandarin in Singapore Before the 20th century, Old-style private Chinese school known as sīshú (私塾) in Singapore generally used Chinese dialects (such as Hokkien, Teochew, Cantonese, etc.) as their medium of instruction to teach the Chinese classics and Classical Chinese. Singapore's first Mandarin-medium classes appeared around 1898, but Chinese dialects school continued to exist till 1909.\nAfter", "-30.090020544244908" ], [ "Influence of Literary Chinese For most of the pre-modern period, Chinese culture dominated East Asia. Scholars in Vietnam, Korea and Japan wrote in Literary Chinese and were thoroughly familiar with the Chinese classics. Their languages absorbed large numbers of Chinese words, known collectively as Sino-Xenic vocabulary, i.e. Sino-Japanese, Sino-Korean and Sino-Vietnamese. These words were written with Chinese characters and pronounced in a local approximation of Middle Chinese.\nToday, these words of Chinese origin may be written in the traditional Chinese characters (Chinese, Japanese, and Korean), simplified Chinese characters (Chinese, Japanese), a locally developed phonetic script (Korean hangul, Japanese kana), or a", "-30.080000653018942" ], [ "400 stories with the background of China and 50 stories with the background of Java. Media All Chinese-language publications were prohibited under the assimilation policy of the Suharto period, with the exception of the government-controlled daily newspaper Harian Indonesia. The lifting of the Chinese-language ban after 1998 prompted the older generation of Chinese Indonesians to promote its use to the younger generation; according to Malaysian-Chinese researcher of the Chinese diaspora, Chang-Yau Hoon, they believed they would \"be influenced by the virtues of Chinese culture and Confucian values\". One debate took place in the media in 2003, discussing the Chinese \"mu", "-30.07737944670953" ], [ "closure or subsequent conversion of Chinese-medium schools to English-medium schools in the 1980s. Others attributed the drop in standard to the lack of learning Chinese literature in schools.\nEver since 1965 when Singapore became independent, bilingual policy has become the pillar of Singapore's education. The first language of Singapore was English, while Mandarin was chosen as the \"mother tongue\" of Chinese Singaporean. Generally, most Chinese Singaporean can speak Mandarin fluently, but are usually weaker in writing Chinese. Influence of Mainland China's economic rise on Singapore In recent years, with the subsequent economic rise of mainland China and a transition from a", "-30.07591591356322" ], [ "be taught in schools and promoted amongst the general population. Other languages Chinese characters were first introduced into Japanese sometime in the first half of the first millennium AD, probably from Chinese products imported into Japan through Korea. At the time, Japanese had no native written system, and Chinese characters were used for the most part to represent Japanese words with the corresponding meanings, rather than similar pronunciations. A notable exception to this rule was the system of man'yōgana, which used a small set of Chinese characters to help indicate pronunciation. The man'yōgana later developed into the", "-30.073864820005838" ], [ "pinyin: Xiàndài Hànyǚ Tōngyòng Zì Biǎo) lists 7,000 characters, including the 3,500 characters already listed above.\nIn his 1991 article \"Why Chinese is So Damn Hard\", David Moser states that an English speaker would find the \"ridiculous\" writing system \"unreasonably hard to learn\" to the level of achieving literacy due to the large number of characters. Moser argued that he was unable to \"comfortably read\" a newspaper even though he knew 2,000 characters.\nThe 17th-century Protestant theologian Elias Grebniz, said that Chinese characters were:\nthrough God's fate introduced by the devil / so he may keep those miserable people ever more entangled in", "-30.049791854748037" ], [ "research in Min Chinese phonology. Studies by Japanese scholars During the Second World War, some Japanese scholars became passionate about studying Fuzhou dialect, believing that it could be beneficial to the rule of the Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere. One of their most famous works was the Japanese-Chinese Translation: Fuzhou Dialect (日華對譯: 福州語) published in 1940 in Taipei, in which katakana was used to represent Fuzhou pronunciation. Status quo By the end of the Qing Dynasty, Fuzhou society had been largely monolingual. But for decades the Chinese government has discouraged the use of the vernacular in school education and in", "-30.04621686413884" ], [ "of Chinese literature, tried to bring in more Chinese elements into Taiwan literature, and wanted to use modern Chinese to reform the Taiwanese vernacular. Second, as being positioned as a branch of Chinese literature, the Movement aimed at liberating Taiwan from Japanese colonizers with an intention to return to China. It followed the anti-imperialist and anti-feudalist realistic style of the May Fourth literature. Here, the use of modern Chinese against the then official language of Taiwan—Japanese also played an important role to support the advocates’ Chinese identity. The Rise of Taiwan nativist literature However, the ultimate goal of the Taiwan", "-29.99646175763337" ], [ "Debate on traditional and simplified Chinese characters Problems The sheer difficulties posed by having two concurrent writing systems hinders communications between mainland China and other regions, although with exposure and experience a person educated in one system can quickly become familiar with the other system. For those who know both systems well, converting an entire document written using simplified characters to traditional characters, or vice versa, is a trivial but laborious task. Automated conversion, however, from simplified to traditional is not straightforward because there is not always a one-to-one mapping of a simplified character to a traditional character. One simplified", "-29.967251190333627" ], [ "but up to 40,000 characters for reasonably complete coverage. Japanese uses fewer characters—general literacy in Japanese can be expected with 1,945 characters. The use of Chinese characters in Korea is becoming increasingly rare, although idiosyncratic use of Chinese characters in proper names requires knowledge (and therefore availability) of many more characters. However, even today, students in South Korea are taught 1,800 characters.\nOther scripts used for these languages, such as bopomofo and the Latin-based pinyin for Chinese, hiragana and katakana for Japanese, and hangul for Korean, are not strictly \"CJK characters\", although CJK character sets almost invariably include them as", "-29.965042269439436" ], [ "wasn't until 1932 that a dictionary called the Vocabulary of National Pronunciation for Everyday Use, which was based truly on the Beijing dialect, was published. This dictionary standardized the form of Mandarin taught in Singapore's Chinese schools. During the 1930s and 1940s, new immigrants from China, known as xīn kè (新客) helped to established more Chinese schools in Singapore, increasing the propagation of Mandarin Chinese in Singapore. The name of Mandarin in Singapore was eventually changed from Guoyu (國語, i.e. National Language) to Huayu (華語, i.e. Chinese Language).\nFrom the 1950s till 1970, as most of the Chinese books and literature", "-29.963259762036614" ], [ "medium; for those untrained in it, the graphic nature of the characters is in general no aid to common understanding (characters such as \"one\" notwithstanding). In this regard, Chinese characters may be considered a large and inefficient phonetic script. However, Ghil'ad Zuckermann’s exploration of phono-semantic matching in Standard Chinese concludes that the Chinese writing system is multifunctional, conveying both semantic and phonetic content.\nThe variation in vocabulary among dialects has also led to the informal use of \"dialectal characters\", as well as standard characters that are nevertheless considered archaic by today's standards. Cantonese is unique among non-Mandarin regional", "-29.940213340858463" ], [ "officially sanctioned and generally adopted vulgar variants and idiosyncratic substitutions. Orthodox variants were mandatory in printed works, while the (unofficial) simplified characters would be used in everyday writing or quick notes. Since the 1950s, and especially with the publication of the 1964 list, the People's Republic of China has officially adopted simplified Chinese characters for use in mainland China, while Hong Kong, Macau, and the Republic of China (Taiwan) were not affected by the reform. There is no absolute rule for using either system, and often it is determined by what the target audience understands, as well as the upbringing", "-29.905886653563357" ], [ "to be finished. Vernacular Cantonese literature Like the rest of East Asia, Lingnan traditionally used classical Chinese for writing, rather than the peoples' spoken languages. Despite the attempt to create vernacular forms of writing in the late 19th century, the Greater China area still tend to use standard written Chinese, a writing system based on Mandarin, not Cantonese (i.e., the native language of the Lingnan region), in writing. Even in cosmopolitan Hong Kong, the vast majority of the people's works of literature have been written in standard written Chinese. However, starting from the 21st century, Hong Kong, as a cultural", "-29.896361759922" ], [ "phonetic writing systems that predate the modern Korean alphabet by hundreds of years, including Idu script, Hyangchal, Gugyeol and Gakpil. However, due to fundamental differences between the Korean and Chinese languages, and the large number of characters, many lower class Koreans were illiterate. To promote literacy among the common people, the fourth king of the Joseon dynasty, Sejong the Great, personally created and promulgated a new alphabet.\nThe Korean alphabet was designed so that people with little education could learn to read and write. A popular saying about the alphabet is, \"A wise man can acquaint himself with them before the", "-29.8853733757569" ], [ "oral literature and use the Arabic alphabet.\nAs a result of the language shift, some 20,000 people in several villages in the northeastern Dongxiang County now speak the so-called \"Tangwang language\": a creolized version of Mandarin Chinese with a strong Dongxiang influence, in particular in its grammar.\nGovernment statistics show that the Dongxiang are among the poorest and least literate of China's minorities, with most Dongxiang having completed only an average of 1.1 years of schooling, a problem aggravated by the lack of a written language.\nIn 2004, the Ford Foundation provided US$30,000 in grant money for a pilot project to promote bilingual", "-29.86873326683417" ], [ "Chinese, or Baihua (白話) spoken according to Standard Mandarin pronunciation. Literary Chinese continually diverged from Classical Chinese as the dialects of China became more disparate and as the Classical written language became less representative of the spoken language. At the same time, Literary Chinese was based largely upon the Classical language, and writers frequently borrowed Classical language into their literary writings. Literary Chinese therefore shows a great deal of similarity to Classical Chinese, even though the similarity decreased over the centuries.\nStarting from early 20th century, written vernacular Chinese have become a standard for Chinese writing which is mostly aligned with", "-29.868063754576724" ], [ "solely for written communication, each country had its own tradition of reading texts aloud, the so-called Sino-Xenic pronunciations. Chinese words with these pronunciations were also extensively imported into the Korean, Japanese and Vietnamese languages, and today comprise over half of their vocabularies. This massive influx led to changes in the phonological structure of the languages, contributing to the development of moraic structure in Japanese and the disruption of vowel harmony in Korean.\nBorrowed Chinese morphemes have been used extensively in all these languages to coin compound words for new concepts, in a similar way to the use of Latin and Ancient", "-29.81758581381291" ], [ "other Chinese varieties, such as Hokkien, Cantonese, Teochew, Hakka, or Hainanese. As the south-eastern Chinese varieties are not taught in school, the number of their speakers has steadily declined. In addition, many parents have begun to communicate with their children solely in English, believing that the language is essential to attain upward social mobility. Many of the young Chinese in Singapore are unable to use their mother tongues fluently. This applies equally even to the more westernised Singaporean Chinese Christian community, who prefers the English language over any other. Debate over preferred language The question of which language is preferred", "-29.81420203973539" ], [ "philosophies derived from Confucianist thought.\nThe script of the Han Chinese characters has long been a unifying feature in East Asia as the vehicle for exporting Chinese culture to its East Asian neighbors. Chinese characters became the unifying language of bureaucratic politics and religious expression in East Asia. The Chinese script was passed on first to Korea and then to Japan, where it forms a major component of the Japanese writing system. In Korea, however, Sejong the Great invented the hangul alphabet, which has since been used as the main orthographic system for the Korean language. In Japan, much of the", "-29.812797526508803" ], [ "exclusion of simplified characters was pushed off to some distant future date. The association between pinyin and Mandarin, as opposed to other dialects, may have contributed to this deferment. It seems unlikely that pinyin will supplant Chinese characters anytime soon as the sole means of representing Chinese.\nPinyin uses the Latin alphabet, along with a few diacritical marks, to represent the sounds of Mandarin in standard pronunciation. For the most part, pinyin uses vowel and consonant letters as they are used in Romance languages (and also in IPA). However, although 'b' and 'p', for instance, represent the", "-29.81279068416916" ], [ "further trials and slight changes, leaving out 28 simplified characters which were implemented in 1964 when the List of Simplified Chinese Characters was published. Controversy The simplification of Chinese characters met strong resistance from the public and the academia. The prominent scholar Chen Mengjia was one of the outspoken critics of the scheme. When the Anti-Rightist Movement began in 1957, Chen was labeled a Rightist and attacked as an enemy of the Communist Party. In 1966, at the beginning of the Cultural Revolution, Chen was again severely persecuted for his ideas and committed suicide.\nOn 10 January 1958, Premier Zhou Enlai", "-29.80859835553565" ], [ "time Chinese characters were introduced, and texts were written and read only in Chinese. Later, during the Heian period (794–1185), however, a system known as kanbun emerged, which involved using Chinese text with diacritical marks to allow Japanese speakers to restructure and read Chinese sentences, by changing word order and adding particles and verb endings, in accordance with the rules of Japanese grammar.\nChinese characters also came to be used to write Japanese words, resulting in the modern kana syllabaries. Around 650 AD, a writing system called man'yōgana (used in the ancient poetry anthology Man'yōshū) evolved that used a number of", "-29.804312929394655" ], [ "to administration, and making Chinese the language of administration, the long period of Chinese domination introduced Chinese techniques of dike construction, rice cultivation, and animal husbandry. Chinese culture, having been established among the elite mandarin class, remained the dominant current among that elite for most of the next 1,000 years (939-1870s) until the loss of independence under French Indochina. This cultural affiliation to China remained true even when militarily defending Vietnam against attempted invasion, such as against the Mongol Kublai Khan. The only significant exceptions to this were the 7 years of the strongly anti-Chinese Hồ dynasty which banned the", "-29.802206498687156" ], [ "the usual Chinese curriculum, which is devoted first to the study of the characters, and, if a higher education is desired, to the mastering of the Chinese classics...There were none of the studies which in western lands and in Japan are considered necessary for an educated man, and the general tendency of their training was to increase conservatism and love for ancient customs.\" Empire of Japan During the Japanese period school attendance for Taiwanese children increased from 3.8% in 1904 to 71.3% in 1943 and literacy in Taiwan became common. Modern schools were formed with widespread establishment of primary", "-29.80103221203899" ], [ "system In terms of its writing system, Cantonese, traditionally preferred not to write their own language verbatim and instead relied on classical Chinese in most forms of writing. Starting from the 21st century, however, a complete Cantonese writing system has been developed in Hong Kong and Macau that utilizes both, Chinese characters and native characters, and become popularized. Classic Lingnan architecture Lingnan architecture (嶺南建築; Ling⁵ naam⁴ gin³ zuk¹) is the characteristic architectural style of the Lingnan region, mostly associated with Cantonese people. It differs significantly from those found in other Han Chinese regions because of factors such as climates and", "-29.79961054213345" ], [ "written form, this tradition had a unifying force across all the Mandarin-speaking regions and beyond.\nHu Shih, a pivotal figure of the first half of the twentieth century, wrote an influential and perceptive study of this literary tradition, entitled Báihuà Wénxuéshǐ (\"A History of Vernacular Literature\"). Standard Chinese In the early years of the Republic of China, intellectuals of the New Culture Movement, such as Hu Shih and Chen Duxiu, successfully campaigned for the replacement of Literary Chinese as the written standard by written vernacular Chinese, which was based on northern dialects. A parallel priority was the definition of a standard", "-29.78535565303173" ], [ "many anti-imperialist Chinese intellectuals sought ways to modernise China. Traditional culture and values such as Confucianism were challenged. Soon, people in the Movement started to cite the traditional Chinese writing system as an obstacle in modernising China and therefore proposed that a reform be initiated. It was suggested that the Chinese writing system should be either simplified or completely abolished. Lu Xun, a renowned Chinese author in the 20th century, stated that, \"If Chinese characters are not destroyed, then China will die\" (汉字不灭，中国必亡). Recent commentators have claimed that Chinese characters were blamed for the economic problems in China during that", "-29.778356168473692" ], [ "the May Fourth Movement in 1919, under the influence from the New Culture Movement in China, the local Old-style private Chinese school in Singapore began to follow the new education reform as advocated by China's reformist. Thus, the language of medium in school changed from other Chinese dialects to Mandarin Chinese or Guóyǔ (國語). This marked the beginning of the development of Singaporean Mandarin.\nHowever, at that time, there was no colloquial Standard Mandarin which could be used as a basis for learning Mandarin. In addition, during the early 1900s, most Mandarin teachers in Singapore came from southern parts of China,", "-29.77070387377171" ], [ "public use of regional spoken varieties and traditional characters in writing. In practice, some elderly or rural Chinese-language speakers do not speak Standard Chinese fluently, if at all, though most are able to understand it. But urban residents and the younger generations, who received their education with Standard Mandarin as the primary medium of education, are almost all fluent in a version of Standard Chinese, some to the extent of being unable to speak their local dialect.\nIn the predominantly Han areas in mainland China, while the use of Standard Chinese is encouraged as the common working language, the PRC has", "-29.769391517154872" ], [ "had preserved “true” Chinese values against the “false” Chinese values of post Communist China. At the same time, Taiwanese cultural expressions were brutally suppressed by Chiang Kai-shek and the KMT. In response to the Cultural Revolution of China, the government of Taiwan began promoting the Chinese Cultural Renaissance\" (中華文化復興運動), with a myriad of programs designed to promote traditional Chinese culture to counter the communist movement on the mainland which aimed at uprooting the \"Four Olds\". These programs involved subsidized publication of Chinese Classics, the symbolic functions of the National Palace Museum, promoting famous prewar scholars to prominent positions in government", "-29.745106316753663" ], [ "mandarin class, remained the dominant current among that elite for most of the next 1,000 years (939-1870s) until the temporary loss of independence under French Indochina. This cultural affiliation to China remained true even when militarily defending Vietnam against attempted invasion, such as against the Mongol Kublai Khan. The only significant exceptions to this were the 7 years of the strongly anti-Chinese Hồ dynasty which banned the use of Chinese (among other actions triggering the fourth Chinese invasion), but then after the expulsion of the Ming the rise in vernacular chữ nôm literature.\nAs full-fledged medieval East Asian states were established", "-29.698457055026665" ], [ "for the Japanese language but rather dictionaries of Chinese characters written in Chinese and annotated in Japanese.\nJapanese lexicography flowered during the Heian Period, when Chinese culture and Buddhism began to spread throughout Japan. During the Kamakura and Muromachi eras, despite advances in woodblock printing technology, there was a decline in lexicography that Bailey (1960:22) describes as \"a tendency toward simplification and popularization\".\nThe following review of the first published Japanese dictionaries is divided into the above lexicographical jikeibiki, bunruitai, and onbiki types. Graphically organized dictionaries Jikeibiki graphic collation began with the oldest extant Japanese dictionary: the circa 835 CE Tenrei Banshō", "-29.68818057866156" ], [ "were no longer absolutely opposed to the use of Traditional Chinese. 2008 In March 2008, a Mainland author, Wang Gan, published a review article on his personal blog about the possibility of the re-introduction of Traditional Chinese, What About Abolishing Simplified Chinese within the Next 50 Years?.\nTwenty-one members of the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference (CPPCC) delivered a proposal to add Traditional Chinese characters to the primary school curriculum. The proposal was rejected by the Minister of Education, who explained, 'Our nation has its fundamental governing principles. [One of them, by law, is] to promote the usage of Simplified Chinese", "-29.686286274372833" ], [ "(1949: 465).\nYu-Ju Chih, a teacher and developer of Chinese language textbooks, says that unlike almost all the commonly used Chinese-English dictionaries that are geared primarily to reading Chinese texts, the Concise Dictionary of Spoken Chinese is the \"only one of its kind available to the public\" (1967: 108).", "-29.67616247222759" ], [ "Classical Chinese or any form of romanized pronunciation were closed down in 1939. The Japanese authorities came to perceive the romanized script as an obstacle to Japanization and also suspected that POJ was being used to hide \"concealed codes and secret revolutionary messages\". In the climate of the ongoing war, the government banned the Taiwan Church News in 1942 as it was written in POJ and also because of its perceived association with the British, who were then at war with Japan. Today's Taiwan Hakka Version After the end of the Second World War, the Japanese were no longer in", "-29.673732571209257" ] ]

[ "The digestive system is a long tube that starts at your mouth and ends at... the end. The muscles in the intestines contract and push the food downward. This also helps turn the food, liquid and whatever else into a gooey mix. This is what results in a growling stomach. Two hours after your stomach empties itself, the nerves send a message to the brain, which sends a message to your digestive system to restart the contractions. This gets any remaining food that is sitting there from the last time. These vibrations will make you hungry. They'll come and go every hour and last about 10 to 20 minutes until you eat something. To avoid this happening in a quiet setting, eat many small meals a day instead of 2-3 large ones so your stomach doesn't have time to restart the process.", "Equally important : how well can other people hear them? Growled in a meeting the other day, couldn't work out if people couldn't hear it or were just being polite", "Have you ever had one of those fart toys that's a chunk of ooze in a plastic container and you squish it around to make fart noises? Your stomach and intestines are a lot like that - your stomach/intestines are the container and the food you've eaten is the ooze. Some parts of how your body digests food make gas, which is like the bubbles that have to be in the ooze to squish out and make the noise. (These same bubbles eventually become farts.) And the muscles in your belly that push the food along your intestines are like your fingers pushing the ooze around in the toy. The difference in the sounds of the toy and your stomach are because the toy tends to have a few big bubbles, so it gives one short sound for each one, but the food that's being digested tends to have lots of little bubbles, which get squished around one after the other to make a longer and more complicated sound.", "I'd just like to say I'm blown away that I've never asked or even thought of this question before. So thanks OP!", "When I'm working a long shift and it's a long time in between meals, my stomach will growl a few hours after my last meal. However, if I ignore it, eventually the growling stops and I don't feel hunger anymore. What's happening here?" ]

[ [ "Stomach rumble Etymology The scientific name borborygmus is related to the 16th-century French word borborygme, itself from Latin, ultimately from Ancient Greek βορβορυγμός (borborygmós). The Greeks probably onomatopoetically coined the word. Nonmedical usage The word borborygmic has been used in literature to describe noisy plumbing. In Ada, Vladimir Nabokov wrote: \"All the toilets and waterpipes in the house had been suddenly seized with borborygmic convulsions\".\nIn A Long Way Down (New York: Harper, 1959, p. 54), Elizabeth Fenwick wrote: \"The room was very quiet, except for its borborygmic old radiator\".Graham Greene's short story \"Alas, Poor Maling\" tells the tale of a luckless", "-28.71278918756434" ], [ "noise sound much louder than anything else, to be jarring to hungover viewers. Quotes \"Curse you, God, for making me this way!\" – A feature of a recurring theme in the series, where someone would be laughed at (in a surreal fashion) due to a misfortune. The victim of the ridicule would always say this, while shaking his or her fists at the sky.\n\"My expectations were confounded and from thence the humour arose.\"\n\"Who is the real sick man in this so called society?\" A question posed by Herring throughout the first series to justify his outrageously inappropriate and perverse", "-27.45813317423017" ], [ "Booing Booing is an act of showing displeasure for someone or something, generally in response to an entertainer, by loudly yelling boo! (and holding the \"oo\" sound) or making other noises of disparagement, such as hissing. People may make hand signs at the entertainer, such as the thumbs down sign. If spectators particularly dislike the performance they may also accompany booing by throwing objects (traditionally rotten fruit and vegetables) onstage, though the objects may not be meant to physically hurt the performer.\nPlayers booed for their performance felt booing \"spooked\" or \"bothered\" them or their teammates, and that it \"affected their", "-26.900495129142655" ], [ "feeling human being to hear such stuff makes me sick to my stomach.\"", "-26.851839196431683" ], [ "at the foot of them, lined on both sides to sustain the earth, and prevent the getting over; which surprises the eye upon coming near it, and makes one laugh, Ha! Ha! from where it takes its name. This sort of opening is haha, on some occasions, to be preferred, for that it does not at all interrupt the prospect, as the bars of a grill do.\nThe etymology of the term is generally given as being an expression of surprise—someone says \"ha ha\" or \"ah! ah!\" when they encounter such a feature. This is the explanation given in French, where", "-26.845787607788225" ], [ "ending \"so incongruous as to turn the whole thing into a joke, amusing enough, but leaving, if not a rather bad taste in the ear, at least an unpleasant sound in the mouth\" (Cowell 1946, 107–108).", "-26.756557083048392" ], [ "guffawing. Richie is taken aback and begins to wonder why people even bother to do it \"with something as small as that\". He then decides to retire to the tent for a sleep.\nLater at night at Richie's request, Eddie ties Richie tighter into his sleeping bag as a storm begins to brew outside. An owl hoots, frightening Richie who fears that there is some dark and evil force lurking in the night, waiting to consume them. Eddie responds that it's \"the fish repeating on you\". The two begin to hear more noises, which Eddie believes are the Wombles coming to", "-26.530296154727694" ], [ "you or I told it, the joke wasn't so funny. But Charlie made it hysterical by sticking in these sounds; so you would hear the gun cocking, the duck flying overhead, the explosion of the shotgun and then the duck falling and screaming all the way to the ground.\"", "-26.493025797477458" ], [ "suggestive screams from \"Hungry Like the Wolf\".", "-26.463792340131477" ], [ "repeated note, varying in speed and volume based on the context. When calling from a perch, birds often turn their heads slowly from side to side, producing a ventriloquial effect. The male calls a fast, high-pitched kew-kew-kew when delivering food or else a very different croaking guck or chup. The latter sound has been considered by some authors similar to that of a person snapping the tongue away from the roof the mouth; the males produce it by holding the beak wide open, thrusting the head up and forward, than bringing it down as the sound is emitted, repeated at", "-25.96807083301246" ], [ "diving away on their own. When making a ticking sound, the callers do not open their mouths, so it is hard to distinguish who is the maker of the sound. The parent who carries the chicks tend to make the ticking sound more often than those that do not, and both of male and female parents are equally likely to tick. Another vocalization noise is clucking, and this signals for food. When a parent clucks, the young respond to it by poking their head out of their parent back where they are on to receive food. Reproduction and survival The", "-25.924122475786135" ], [ "is sent out and all others become alert. They will often hum to each other as a form of communication.\nThe sound of the llama making groaning noises or going \"mwa\" (/mwaʰ/) is often a sign of fear or anger. Unhappy or agitated llamas will lay their ears back, while ears being perked upwards is a sign of happiness or curiosity.\nAn \"orgle\" is the mating sound of a llama or alpaca, made by the sexually aroused male. The sound is reminiscent of gargling, but with a more forceful, buzzing edge. Males begin the sound when they become aroused and continue throughout", "-25.87233415292576" ], [ "is something that comes out from his mouth when he is not happy, and that he does not mean \"say\" as in to speak something, although one might compare this action to the \"talk to the hand\" gesture. A possible interpretation might be that the origin lies in the word urusai (lit. \"noisy,\" meaning \"Be quiet!\"), which is often pronounced urusē うるせー in Kansai dialect, shortened to sei. Another theory is the word sei written by kanji 静, meaning \"quiet.\" Also, sei 性, means \"sex\" or \"gender\" in Japanese.\nSumitani's supposed homosexuality was exposed as a gimmick when he was caught", "-25.557836318359477" ], [ "whistles! Just when I got things so quiet you could hear a pin drop, you bust in here and bust out with a whistle, and you snafu the whole works! How in the name of all that's reasonable do you expect a guy to get his slumber when a goof like you goes around making noises like a one-man Fourth of July celebration? He needs peace and quiet! It's positively outrageous!\". His screaming obviously wakes the now infuriated man, so Elmer hurries downstairs and he and Daffy switch places through a promotion in an effort to fool the man: \"Fow", "-25.534756788940285" ], [ "spat (a small argument), subdivision, and tavern. Usage Some New Zealanders often reply to a question with a statement spoken with a rising intonation at the end. This often has the effect of making their statement sound like another question. There is enough awareness of this that it is seen in exaggerated form in comedy parody of New Zealanders, such as in the 1970s comedy character Lyn Of Tawa. This rising intonation can also be heard at the end of statements that are not in response to a question but to which the speaker wishes to add emphasis. High rising", "-25.372883976291632" ], [ "from exaggeration (phones often do not simply ring, but explode), however occasionally it is subtle and understated (a factory spewing out toxic fumes, bearing a sign \"Gourmet Foods\", or a funnel in the soil of an overflowing pot, where watering with any tool could hardly miss).\nThe verbal humour usually consists of long rants, in which internal inconsistencies, puns and sheer nonsense are cleverly interspersed. Of course, Achille Talon is almost invariably proven wrong and ends up being the butt of the joke. Translation into English In 1981, Dargaud Canada translated Le Trésor de Virgule into English as Magnesia's Treasure. Achille", "-25.04938492772635" ], [ "and bark and growl at her like a dog. As a result, she learned not to vocalize or make noise and to remain as unexpressive as possible. On some occasions when she was hungry or seeking some kind of attention she made environmental noises, but otherwise maintained silence at all times.\nGenie's father had an extremely low tolerance for any kind of noise, refusing to have a working television or radio in the house. Apart from one slightly open window Genie did not have any access to auditory stimuli outside the house, and the window was set well away from the", "-24.957942259330594" ], [ "The dog may yawn when someone bends over him, when you sound angry, when there is yelling and quarreling in the family, when the dog is at the vet's office, when someone is walking directly at the dog, when the dog is excited with happiness and anticipation – for instance by the door when you are about to go for a walk, when you ask the dog to do something he doesn´t feel like doing, when your training sessions are too long and the dog gets tired, when you have said NO for doing something you disapprove of, and in", "-24.956246003857814" ], [ "cause of noise is due to the exocytosis of neurotransmitters from the synaptic terminals that provide input to a given neuron. This occurrence happens in the background while a cell is at resting membrane potential. Since it is happening in the background, the release is not due to a signal, but is random. This unpredictability adds to the synaptic noise level.\nSynaptic noise shows up as miniature postsynaptic current, which is observed without any presynaptic input. These spontaneous currents are due to randomly released neurotransmitter vesicles. This is caused by the stochastic \"opening of intracellular Ca²⁺ stores, synaptic Ca²⁺-channel noise, spontaneous", "-24.911587299320672" ], [ "thunderous growls fill the air and she glimpses a disfigured face watching her from the bushes. She runs around disoriented until she sees Mr. Jones in the distance holding a lantern. Penny makes a decision to follow him and eventually Mr. Jones' lantern dissolves into one of the lights of her own cabin, and Mr. Jones vanishes. Penny later tells Scott that she felt safe, and thought that Mr. Jones guided her home.\nScott returns to the woods and he and Penny make plans to return to Mr. Jones's house. They wait outside until he leaves, and then Scott sneaks in", "-24.897405735391658" ], [ "Hakn a tshaynik Hakn a tshaynik (literally \"to knock a teakettle\"; Yiddish: האַקן אַ טשײַניק), meaning to rattle on loudly and insistently, but without any meaning, is a widely used Yiddish idiomatic phrase. It is most often used in the negative imperative sense: Hak mir nisht keyn tshaynik! (literally \"Don't knock a teakettle at me!\"; Yiddish: !האַק מיר נישט קיין טשײַניק), in the sense of \"Stop bothering me!\". \nAside from the metaphor of the subject of the epithet, making meaningless noise as if he/she were banging on a teakettle, the phrase gains from the imagery of the lid of", "-24.876689102049568" ], [ "the wolf cub blowing the horn to blow it real loud (\"Uh, why don't you blow it loud?\"). He tries to, but can't, and the pigs taunt him by telling him that it was \"a sissy blow.\" So the Big Bad Wolf blows the horn to prove what the Wolf family is made of (\"Sissy, huh? Gimme that horn. I'll show 'em!\"). This time, it is so loud that Practical hears and goes to the rescue, pulling the Wolf Pacifier mechanism along behind him.\nThe Wolf is about to place the pigs in the oven when he hears a knock on", "-24.851759927230887" ], [ "Several times the sound of flatulence is heard implying he has diarrhea or the students making fart sounds.\nSister Mary Elephant then reads from a book of excessively flowery poetry. The class responds with their usual razzing then fall silent except for scattered snoring after a few verses. In a variation on the running joke, she screams for the class to \"WAKE UP!\" The sketch ends here with Chong declaring \"I gotta go to the can, man.\"\nThe humor derives from the fact that every time Sister Mary shouts SHUT UP she amplifies so much she sounds like an elephant trumpeting. Sergeant", "-24.816353198722936" ], [ "bottom?\n\nAre they curly at the top?\n\nCan you use them for a swatter?\n\nCan you use them for a blotter?\n\nDo your ears flip-flop?\n\nDo your ears stick out?\n\nCan you waggle them about?\n\nCan you flap them up and down\n\nAs you fly around the town?\n\nCan you shut them up for sure\n\nWhen you hear an awful bore?\n\nDo your ears stick out?\n\nDo your ears give snacks?\n\nAre they all filled up with wax?\n\nDo you eat it in the morning\n\nDo you eat it in the bath?\n\nDo you eat it with a scone\n\nOr do you eat it on its own?\n\nDo your ears give snacks?\n\nDo your ears fall off?\n\nDo they dangle", "-24.708842473613913" ], [ "sounding forced, or worse, distracting from the overall mood.\"", "-24.655510239303112" ], [ "tear in the eye along with the belly laugh. It's funny, and it adds up to something.\"", "-24.641358006996597" ], [ "eat beans.\n Everywhere they go the sound of firing from a quarry echoes\n so they sit on a roof as if to evacuate,\n feeling the homesickness in the smoke of the morning chimney stove\n then goes back to the mountain quarry\n wiping their mouth with the warmth of a stone\n 예전에는 사람을 성자(聖者)처럼 보고\n 사람 가까이\n 사람과 같이 사랑하고\n 사람과 같이 평화를 즐기던\n 사랑과 평화의 새 비둘기는\n 이제 산도 잃고 사람도 잃고\n 사랑과 평화의 사상까지\n 낳지 못하고 쫓기는 새가 되었다.\n In the past, they looked at people as saints.\n The bird pigeon of love and peace which\n were close to", "-24.33769674412906" ], [ "Stomach Trouble Plot The cartoon starts in a house where Krazy wakes up from his bed. He then heads to the refrigerator to get some breakfast. To his surprise, he finds his refrigerator empty, and notices he desperately needs to fill his belly.\nKrazy goes outside to look for anything to satisfy his hunger. He spots a pie placed on a window sill of another house but the owner removes it before Krazy could get near. He tries to take sausages from a basket carried by a hound but the long meats are too tricky to handle. He then attempts to", "-24.308892231376376" ], [ "relief and then suggests he knew all along that he was fine. As Bugs wanders along enjoying a carrot, Beaky leaps out and grabs him. After a struggle, the two start jitterbugging together. Bugs says, \"Why don't we do this more often,\" to which Beaky replies, \"Ya mean just what we're doing tonight?\" This is a quote of the first line of the song \"Why Don't We Do This More Often?\" After a 'dip', Bugs releases Beaky into a spin; the buzzard twirls like a top over to the skeleton, spins into the earth and himself", "-24.27705611147394" ], [ "not normally associated with it is the hiccup. Hiccups are harmless and will diminish on their own; they also help to release gas that is in the digestive tract before it moves down to the intestines and causes bloating. Important but uncommon causes of abdominal bloating include ascites and tumors. Fiber Most cases of stomach bloating are due to improper diet. Gas occurs because of the bacteria in the colon and is a by-product of soluble fiber digestion. Inadequate or irregular intake of fiber and water will cause a person to experience bloating or constipation. The most common natural sources", "-24.2286521455444" ], [ "funny. Pickle is funny. Cab is funny. Cockroach is funny – not if you get 'em, only if you say 'em.\nRichard Wiseman, a professor of the public understanding of psychology at the University of Hertfordshire, conducted a small experiment to determine whether words with a k sound were actually considered funnier than others for English speakers. His LaughLab tested the degree of funniness among a family of jokes based on animal sounds; the joke rated the funniest was also the one with the most k sounds:\nTwo ducks were sitting in a pond. One of the ducks said: \"Quack\". The other", "-24.200132075871807" ], [ "the corner of his mouth twitches slightly. His composure extends to his voice, which is soft and respectful. When he wishes to speak without having been spoken to or is about to discuss a delicate subject, he makes a low gentle cough \"like a very old sheep clearing its throat on a misty mountain top\". He may also cough to signify disapproval. Bertie states that he saw the normally imperturbable Jeeves come \"very near to being rattled\" for the first time when the sight of Bingo Little in a false beard caused Jeeves to drop his jaw and steady himself", "-24.176698838040465" ], [ "my empty stomach churn and I would grow vaguely angry. Why could I not eat when I was hungry? Why did I always have to wait until others were through? I could not understand why some people had food and others did not”’.⁸ “Toting” was a custom important to African-American families’ but it could not always ensure a steady supply of food. However, some employers did recognize this. One employer stated, “there are hungry children in the cabin awaiting their mothers return, when I give out my meals I bear these little blackberry pickaninnies in mind, and I never wound", "-24.156257328228094" ], [ "etc.'.\nIn another cartoon, when someone expresses surprise at his swollen belly, a smiling Tokai reasons that he has 'eaten' a lot of 'speeches' given on the occasion of the children's day.\nOften Tokai makes fun of the society's hypocrisy. Asked what his vow is on the children's day, a grave Tokai says, 'To grow up soon'.\nAs is normal in cartoons, Tokai's world is also full of fantasies. Tokai often talks to cows, crows and other animals. To the fantasy of a crow wondering what would happen if it could exchange life with Tokai, the puzzled boy answers, 'What else! We would", "-24.116933434299426" ], [ "English Dictionary, but without the apostrophe. Dan Castellaneta says he borrowed the phrase from James Finlayson, an actor in many Laurel and Hardy comedies, who pronounced it in a more elongated and whining tone. The staff of The Simpsons told Castellaneta to shorten the noise, and it went on to become the well-known exclamation in the television series.\nGroundskeeper Willie's description of the French as \"cheese-eating surrender monkeys\" was used by National Review columnist Jonah Goldberg in 2003, after France's opposition to the proposed invasion of Iraq. The phrase quickly spread to other journalists. \"Cromulent\" and \"embiggen\", words used in \"Lisa", "-24.080866831121966" ], [ "and eats it without noticing that it is covered in bees. The bees fly around inside his mouth causing him to spit them out. One of which is the queen whom he kicks into the muddy patch below. Soon, Pooh's disguise starts to drip, to which the bees attack him. The queen sees this and angrily flies up and stings him on the bottom. The sudden hit causes Pooh to swing up and down and get stuck at the beehive. He is then shoved out of the hole by the bees, who proceed to chase him away.\nPooh, still hungry, decides", "-24.046071136603132" ], [ "have experienced this phenomenon all share the same complaint: \"a sudden awareness of an unbearable defecation urge\". The Book Magazine reporting team listed features of this defecation urge that included urgency in the lower abdominal area, shivers across the entire body, facial pallor, cold sweat (greasy sweat), and a bow-legged gait. Borborygmus is cited as an objective symptom, described as \"the belly making a gurgling noise\" and \"gurgle-gurgle gurrrrgle\". The thinker Tatsuru Uchida has called these clinical presentations a \"latrine-seeking\" problem. People walking around looking for a bathroom have also been described as \"wearing a vacant", "-24.001458280472434" ], [ "popping sound like a cork coming of a champagne bottle, which is followed by scraping sounds.\nTowards the end of the courting season the hens arrive on the courting grounds, also called \"leks\", Swedish for \"play\". The cocks continue courting on the ground: This is the main courting season.\nThe cock flies from his courting tree to an open space nearby and continues his display. The hens, ready to get mounted, crouch and utter a begging sound. If there is more than one cock on the lek, it is mainly the alpha-cock who engages in sexual intercourse with the hens. In this", "-23.929429839045042" ], [ "laryngeal and because of contraction of thyroarytenoid muscles. The consequence of this is that during swallowing the bent esophagus blocks off the trachea, preventing food from going into it; food instead travels down the esophagus, which is behind it. Speech sounds In many languages, the epiglottis is not essential for producing sounds. In some languages, the epiglottis is used to produce epiglottal consonant speech sounds, though this sound-type is rather rare. Inflammation Inflammation of the epiglottis is known as epiglottitis. Epiglottitis is mainly caused by Haemophilus influenzae. A person with epiglottitis may have a fever, sore throat, difficulty swallowing, and", "-23.912530919260462" ], [ "The Story of GROWL Reception Publishers Weekly, reviewing The Story of GROWL, wrote \"Horacek (illustrator of Where Is the Green Sheep? ) draws goofy cartoons with a genial, contemporary look, and Growl exudes a Pokémonesque charm: her saw-toothed smile is hard to resist. The text leaves little to the imagination (“Growl was the saddest she'd ever been.... She tried to run around her garden, but running is hard when you're trying not to cry”), but frequent cues to say “growl” as loudly as possible will invigorate readers.\" and The Horn Book Magazine wrote \"Learning when it's appropriate to be loud", "-23.900224290264305" ], [ "egg and bacon is not so bad/ especially since all their cows went mad./ But if they never tasted mussels on the Grand Place down in Brussels/ it's no wonder they're feeling very sad.\"", "-23.89581601251848" ], [ "Eon's nest where he finds Happy, who refuses to leave. Rudolph shows Happy his nose and tells him his own story of being bullied because of his nonconformity before asking Happy to let him see his ears. Happy does so, and Rudolph, like everyone else before him, laughs at the sight. Happy once again gets upset, but Rudolph explains that the sight of Happy's ears had made him feel so wonderful that he had to laugh out loud, just like it had done with everyone else. With this declaration, Happy shouts out with joy, but causes Eon to awaken. Rudolph", "-23.891643128052237" ], [ "it look like I'm left off 'Bad and Boujee'?\" Since the interview numerous Internet memes have appeared, mocking his response as the interviewers could not hear him properly, asking him to repeat the answer and leaning towards him to hear better. They later stated that the reason they could not hear his answer was because there was a lot of noise around them and he was not speaking loud enough, but fans have made jokes that he was not speaking clearly, often jokingly posting excessively misspelled quotes of the response on social media, implying that Takeoff mumbled while responding to", "-23.85793329034641" ], [ "Nervous laughter Nervous laughter is laughter evoked from an audience's expression of alarm, embarrassment, discomfort or confusion, rather than amusement. Nervous laughter is usually less robust in expression than \"a good belly laugh\", and may be combined with confused glances or awkward silence on the part of others in the audience. Nervous laughter is considered analogous to a courtesy laugh, which may be rendered by more of a conscious effort in an attempt to move a situation along more quickly, especially when the comedian is pausing for laughter.\nNervous laughter is a physical reaction to stress, tension, confusion, or", "-23.850597603421193" ], [ "anxiety. Neuroscientist Vilayanur S. Ramachandran states \"We have nervous laughter because we want to make ourselves think what horrible thing we encountered isn't really as horrible as it appears, something we want to believe.\" Those are the most embarrassing times, too, naturally.\nPsychologist and neuroscientist Robert Provine, from the University of Maryland, studied over 1,200 \"laughter episodes\" and determined that 80% of laughter isn't a response to an intentional joke. \nUnhealthy or \"nervous\" laughter comes from the throat. This nervous laughter is not true laughter, but an expression of tension and anxiety. Instead of relaxing a person, nervous laughter tightens them", "-23.808680675163487" ], [ "be essential for retaining fluids in the anus, and instead speculate that their role may be to distinguish between flatus and faeces, thereby helping detect a need to defecate or to signal the end of defecation.\nThe sound varies depending on the tightness of the sphincter muscle and velocity of the gas being propelled, as well as other factors, such as water and body fat. The auditory pitch (sound) of the flatulence outburst can also be affected by the anal embouchure. Among humans, flatulence occasionally happens accidentally, such as incidentally to coughing or sneezing or during orgasm; on other occasions, flatulence", "-23.78090012652683" ], [ "skill cause him such frustration that he ends up crying, often needing consolation from Joel or Mike. He also has demonstrated a tendency to take jokes and skits way over the top, having to be brought back down to earth by the others.\nFurthermore, he's easily rattled by sarcastic remarks made from Crow, such as the time when he made fun of his infatuation with a boy's pet turtle Tibby in the episode 'Gamera'.\nHe does have a good understanding and intellect in spite of his sensitivity and frustration, and has revealed in the episode 'The Gunslinger' that he's able to teleport", "-23.756167559600726" ], [ "Flatulence Terminology Non-medical definitions of the term include \"the uncomfortable condition of having gas in the stomach and bowels\", or \"a state of excessive gas in the alimentary canal\". These definitions highlight that many people consider \"bloating\", abdominal distension or increased volume of intestinal gas, to be synonymous with the term flatulence (although this is technically inaccurate). Colloquially, flatulence may be referred to as \"farting\", \"trumping\", \"tooting\", \"passing gas\", \"breaking wind\" or simply (in American English) \"gas\" or (British English) \"wind\". Derived terms include vaginal flatulence, otherwise known as a queef. Signs and symptoms Generally speaking, there are four different", "-23.73551773285726" ], [ "nicely produced book, and whether it elicits belly laughs or turns stomachs is, as I’m sure the rhyming dog would agree, largely a matter of taste.” Challenge Freedomtoread.ca lists a 2006 challenge to the book from a parent complaining to the Burlington Public Library about them stocking it. According to the site “the parent described the book as “revolting” and “vile.” The parent objected to depictions of violence and said that the work was \"age inappropriate\".\nThe library responded via letter to the parent that “the “offbeat humour” in the book might not be to everyone’s taste. The letter added that", "-23.7260572212399" ], [ "who laugh all the time, because they never listen to what you're saying, they always — have another agenda and they generally have no sense of humour. The most untrustworthy body language I know is that of the person who laughs all the time. That terrifies me. People with no sense or a very limited sense of humour I am very wary of too, because it's not a sign of great intelligence to be without a sense of humour. If you've no sense of irony you haven't a great decision making capacity because you must see the possibilities of the", "-23.715932145278202" ], [ "Boodle fight Etymology Sources indicate that the term \"boodle\" is American military slang for contraband sweets such as cake, candy and ice cream. A \"boodle fight\" is a party in which boodle fare is served. The term may have been derived from \"kit and caboodle\"; caboodle is further derived from boodle or booty. Table manners A boodle fight is a meal that dispenses with cutlery and dishes. Diners instead practice kamayan, Filipino for \"eating with the hands\". The food is placed on top of a long banana leaf-lined trestle table and in the true military practice, diners do not sit", "-23.674713934538886" ], [ "for that.\" \nChristopher Stevens in the Daily Mail also made this comparison, and noted the fast pace of the jokes; \"Not every gag's a great one. Some are corny. One or two are laboured. But the sheer cumulative effect is overwhelming, a landslide of puns and slapstick that comes so fast you can’t possibly catch it all in a single viewing. And should a joke fail to make you laugh, don’t worry — the team will return to it with variations, repeatedly whacking you over the funny bone till you succumb.\"\nSusannah Butter in the Evening Standard said the first episode", "-23.673096270416863" ], [ "noise meteorites are the crumbs left behind when he eats a celestial body. Supernovas occur when he accidentally pops a star while playing with it. Pulsars are caused when he swings stars around. The Unspeakable (Hast..) Hast.. (Hastur) is a tentacled monster of some sort who is shrouded in a yellow \"king\" mask and robes. He carries the Yellow Sign and speaks in an elaborate, medieval-looking font, using archaic turns of phrase such as \"I hight...\" (meaning \"My name is...\"). The running \"gag\" is what happens when anybody, even a Great Old One, says his name. (This is based", "-23.618912448451738" ], [ "the kitchen table. Polly starts growling at a noise coming from outside. Betty just locks the door and doesn’t think anything of it. The next day she finds Glen Bishop in Sally’s playhouse in the backyard. He says he has run away from home because his mother is never home and she is always out “making pamphlets and handing them out” or she’s out with her male suitors. He also says his dad wants him and his sister to move in with him and his stepmom, and Glen confides that they have a child together and that his stepmom is", "-23.58631576807238" ], [ "of queef jokes. When the producer asks why they think fart jokes are funny, but are revolted by queef jokes, Terrance says it's \"because babies come from there.\"\nAs a joke mirroring Cartman's, one of the girls at school queefs on Butters' face, causing him to run screaming and crying out of the school building. The other boys are shocked and their fathers, outraged, go to the Colorado General Assembly and demand a law banning queefing, much to the anger of the town's women. Meanwhile, the Queef Sisters appear on Regis and Kelly to promote their book Eat, Pray, Queef,", "-23.554511203896254" ], [ "unpredictable which ranges from guttural growls, grunts, whispers and even pig squeals.", "-23.538450387277408" ], [ "noise that sounds like a sexual moan, seriously embarrassing both men. After a day of avoiding each other, Ron and Andy discuss the noise and decide it would be best to simply pretend it never happened. Production \"The Camel\" was written by Rachel Axler and directed by Millicent Shelton. It derives its title from the figure of speech that a camel is \"a horse made by a committee\". When the parks department puts together a mural proposal using elements of six different pieces of art, which Mark refers to in the episode as a camel. The episode features a guest", "-23.53630985232303" ], [ "who made honking sounds out of the horn on the top of her head instead of speaking.", "-23.53567301547446" ], [ "find that the pain is intensifying. At its peak, however, it disappears. Thinking that the stomachache was brought by the berries he ate the night before, he turns to look at the terrible mess he made, only to find that, instead of \"doo-doo,\" there was a baby \"Winkie\". For months, father-mother and daughter live peacefully in the forest, eating berries and sometimes from garbage cans nearby. One day, Baby Winkie is kidnapped by a mad English professor living in the woods. The professor is a terrorist, making bombs and mailing them to other terrorists. He kidnapped Baby Winkie for he", "-23.511156220920384" ], [ "your average episode, but still has plenty of humor both silly (Peralta's obnoxious song) and dry (Holt explaining that Jake pretending to be angry is 'like being yelled at by a children's cereal mascot') building up to the moment where Jake solves the puzzle by figuring out how to turn the bad guy's arrogance against him, until Holt drops his usual reserve to let out three consecutive 'Oh, damn!'s.\" Caroline Framke of Vox wrote, \"This sounds easy enough, but make no mistake: The timing of each of these moments is very carefully chosen, by Scanlon during shooting and by Reuben", "-23.482670367811806" ], [ "it becomes agitated, and leaps about in trees, fields, and even buildings (trees that have been struck by lightning are said to have been scratched by Raiju's claws).\nAnother of Raiju's peculiar behaviors is sleeping in human navels. This prompts the Raijin to shoot lightning arrows at Raiju to wake the creature up, and thus harms the person in whose belly the demon is resting. Superstitious people therefore often sleep on their stomachs during bad weather, but other legends say that Raiju will only hide in the navels of people who sleep outdoors. In popular culture Two such creatures appear in", "-23.45639393926831" ], [ "Bloating Symptoms The most common symptoms associated with bloating is a sensation that the abdomen is full or distended. Rarely, bloating may be painful or cause shortness of breath.\nPains that are due to bloating will feel sharp and cause the stomach to cramp. These pains may occur anywhere in the body and can change locations quickly. They are so painful that they are sometimes mistaken for heart pains when they develop on the upper left side of the chest. Pains on the right side are often confused with problems in the appendix or the gallbladder.\nOne symptom of gas that is", "-23.437911283108406" ], [ "with the madness of war. He typically wears red fur and red-dyed leather, and carries a stone-headed morningstar. A hole in the head of the morningstar creates a whistling noise as Erythnul swings it; the keening howl of the morningstar has been known to send those who hear it fleeing until they collapse from exhaustion.\nErythnul is called the Many, because in battle his features continually shift from human to bugbear to troll to ogre to gnoll and back to human again. His spilled blood transforms into similar creatures. Erythnul delights in panic and slaughter. He can spread fear through his", "-23.373849119525403" ], [ "summed up in five words: sex, sleep, food, drums, and pain. However, Animal has retorted: \"Drums are food!\" Animal's vocabulary is generally limited to guttural shouts and monosyllabic grunts, often repeating a few simple phrases, as well as his trademark gravelly laugh. During performances, Animal is usually chained to the drum set by a collar around his neck, as his musical outbursts are extremely violent. In some episodes, he has been summoned to chase off performers who are 'being annoying'.\nFrom The Muppet Movie when the Electric Mayhem is introducing themselves:\nAnimal: [flails and babbles wildly, pants, and yells as Fozzie clutches", "-23.3498925085878" ], [ "ticking sound are believed to indicate an imminent arrival of a visitor or a letter.\nIn Yemen and other Arab countries, it is believed that skin disease result from geckos walking over the face of someone who is asleep.\nAn elaborate system of predicting good and bad omens based on the sounds made by geckos, their movement and the rare instances when geckos fall from roofs has evolved over centuries in India. In some parts of India, the sound made by geckos is considered a bad omen; while in parts of India, Assam, West Bengal, Bangladesh and Nepal, it is considered to", "-23.347534253203776" ], [ "(Crotalus atrox), which is also common within the same range. The bullsnake capitalizes on this similarity by performing an impressive rattlesnake impression when threatened. First, it hisses, or forcibly exhales through a glottis or extension of the windpipe. The end of the glottis is covered by a piece of cartilage known as the epiglottis, which flaps back and forth when air is exhaled from the right lung, producing a convincing rattling sound. It also adopts a rattlesnake-like \"S-curve\" body posture as though about to strike. It commonly vibrates its tail rapidly in brush or leaves, and flattens its head to", "-23.345470817468595" ], [ "a sharp, whistling sound that is synchronous with the pulse of the foetus, usually heard during the second trimester of pregnancy (13–28 weeks). It is heard because of the rush of blood through the umbilical arteries of the foetus, and is therefore synchronous with the foetal pulse. The funic souffle is not heard consistently. On auscultation, funic souffle may often be confused with uterine souffle, which is a soft, blowing sound synchronous with the maternal pulse. Therefore, the maternal pulse must be palpated simultaneously in order to differentiate uterine souffle from funic souffle. Mammary souffle A mammary souffle is a", "-23.34084044804331" ], [ "only makes the situation worse. It is when he is sitting in the tree that he begins to notice the scared accusing look in all the animals faces, and combined with the voices’ subliminal suggestions, their staring causes him to leap up in a bit of rage and crow,\n“What have I ever done to you?”\nAfter this outburst the animals begin to disperse to unknown fates, and soon, all but the original hens have left. In a bout of insanity the rooster leaves the hemlock and goes with the skull of Mudo Cani to bury it. Pertelote goes", "-23.30047990469029" ], [ "Beep, beep (sound) \"Beep, beep\" is onomatopoeia representing a noise, generally of a pair of identical tones following one after the other, often generated by a machine or device such as a car horn. It is commonly associated with the Road Runner cartoon (meep, meep) in the Looney Tunes cartoons featuring the speedy-yet-flightless bird and his constant pursuer, Wile E. Coyote. Beep, Beep is the name of a 1952 Warner Bros. cartoon in the Merrie Melodies series. Road Runner cartoons Chuck Jones, the creator of the Road Runner, has stated that this sound, the only way the Road Runner can", "-23.289895509180496" ], [ "with only three or four people, clearly intoning the word rather than mumbling. After some time, Secombe began throwing in \"custard\" during these scenes (for example, in \"The Fear of Wages and Wings Over Dagenham\", where the phrase was amended to 'flying rhubarb'). Raspberry blowing As well as a comic device randomly inserted into different sketches to avoid silence, the blowing of raspberries entered the Goons as Harry Secombe's signal to the other actors that he was going to crack up; you would hear a joke from him, a raspberry, and a stream of laughter. In the Goons' musical", "-23.28633948834613" ], [ "slang for creamed chipped beef on toast. In polite company this can be abbreviated as SOS. Surprise To shit oneself or to be scared shitless can be used to refer to surprise or fear, usually figuratively. Trouble Shit can be used to denote trouble, by saying one is in a lot of shit or deep shit (a common euphemism is deep doo-doo). It's common for someone to refer to an unpleasant thing as hard shit (You got a speeding ticket? Man, that's some hard shit), but the phrase tough shit is used as an unsympathetic way of saying too bad", "-23.285458350845147" ], [ "fart, the more you cry \n\nThen you’ll be happier like the other poem said\n\nThen you won’t feel like being dead \nOr \nBeans, beans the magical fruit \n\nThe more you eat \n\nThe more you fart \n\nThe more you fart the better you’ll feel \n\nThe better you feel \n\nThe more fish you reel \n\nThe more fish you eat you eat beans with too. \nOr \nFava Beans, Fava Beans \n\nPoop comes out like Lava Beans \n\nHot, hot lava \n\nHot, hot steam \n\nIn more pain than I've ever BEAN \n (citation needed)\nOr\nBeans, beans the magical fruit\n\nThe more you eat the more you toot\n\nThe more", "-23.2201482221717" ], [ "directions. They sometimes whistle in harmony, and the only time they speak is to hold up an arrow-sign and to say in unison, \"That way...\" One Gnugnut he calls by name is Slugnut, who is asleep or otherwise lazing about.\nLong Ears: Long Ears appears as a stuffed animal in the shape of a blue rabbit.\nHoudini: Houdini is a red toy rabbit that Gofrette says hello to; although the audience can only see Houdini's ears and feet because he is hidden behind something.\nRed The Refrigerator: Red is a giant refrigerator that Gofrette interacts with. Gofrette believes Red's loud vibrations are a", "-23.219392532482743" ], [ "people sick of the sound of my tongue. It appeared to me that I had various things to say, and I had no malevolent feelings; but, nevertheless, the result was that expressed\nabove. Well, lately some change has happened. If I talk to a person one day they must have me the next. Faces light up when they see me. \"Ah! I say, come here.\" \" Come and dine with me.\" It's the most preposterous thing I ever experienced. It is curiously pleasant.'\nJenkin was a good father, joining in his children's play as well as directing their studies. The boys used", "-23.2115212091594" ], [ "halves falling into a tank of hot water. The kill sometimes went to as many as four hundred pigs a night. It was a sickening sight to watch. But the cries from the pigs brought forth an emotional excitement. It was another weird but musical sound that I can still hear in my head. The squeaks, the squeals, the dipping them in hot water, they put them on a hook, take off the head, the legs, going down an aisle—I hear it on an oboe. That's what you hear in a symphony: destruction, war, peace, beauty, all mixed.\nIn 1907, the", "-23.184663944193744" ], [ "loud yelling is unbearable; and the brandishing of their weapons in the air has a threatening appearance. But when it comes to real fighting with an opponent who stands his ground, they are not what they seemed; they have no regular order that they should be ashamed of deserting their positions when hard pressed; flight and attack are equally honourable with them, and afford no test of courage; their independent mode of fighting never leaving anyone who wants to run away without a fair excuse for doing so.\nAfter this brief address, Brasidas began to lead off his army. Seeing this,", "-23.16601918078959" ], [ "message, think the dog is just being rowdy. Thus they attribute the sound the dog makes to be the sound that all dogs make when they are excited: 'Roog!' 'Roog!' The tale concludes with the animal being somewhat distraught, barking \"ROOG!\" very loudly at the garbagemen before they make off once more with trash in their garbage truck. Publication \"Roog\" was written in November 1951 and appeared in The Magazine of Fantasy & Science Fiction November 1953 without illustration. During this time Dick worked in a record store. In an essay prefacing a collection of his short stories published in", "-23.16335457708192" ], [ "Exploding head syndrome Signs and symptoms Individuals with exploding head syndrome hear or experience loud imagined noises as they are falling asleep or waking up, have a strong, often frightened emotional reaction to the sound, and do not report significant pain; around 10% of people also experience visual disturbances like perceiving visual static, lightning, or flashes of light. Some people may also experience heat, strange feelings in their torso, or a feeling of electrical tinglings that ascends to the head before the auditory hallucinations occur. With the heightened arousal, people experience distress, confusion, myoclonic jerks, tachycardia, sweating,", "-23.146110736677656" ], [ "with this sound effect is \"You Got Me Hanging On Seat Belts\" by Loose Ends. The Official Squawkers Macaw Song Lyrics Let's Rock To The Squawk Walk!\nLet's move our feet, sway to the beat Singing squawk, squawk, squawk!\nLean to the left, sway to the right, singing squawk, squawk, squawk!\nTurn your head, look all around, Flap your wings to the funky sound!\nIf you want to dance and rock, raise your beak and give a squawk! *bird squawk*\nSo we can rock, rock, rock, rock, yeah!\nSo rock that squawk walk, yeah!\nSing squawk, squawk, squawk!\nSing squawk, squawk, squawk!\nAll right, rock that squawk walk. *bird", "-23.117717140819877" ], [ "as though an extra is saying something, when in fact they are not delivering any actual dialogue. This gibberish is known as \"Snazzum\", referring to the way in which the cartoon character Yosemite Sam would swear when angry (\"Yassin Sassin Snazzum Frazzum!\").\nIn season 5, episode 3 (\"Let's Stay Together\") of 30 Rock, Rob Reiner loudly and clearly repeats the phrase, \"Rhubarb, Rhubarb, Peas and Carrots...\" in a scene when a group of congressmen and women are muttering indistinct chatter. A similar reference is made by Jack Donaghy's assistant, Jonathan, in Season 4, Episode 14 (\"Future Husband\").\nIn season 2, episode 3", "-23.093412209662347" ], [ "screaming invariably: \"YEOW! A gorill-ill-ill-ill-la!\". The only exception to this was the character Rosie O'Lady (voiced by Janet Waldo), who appeared in Episode 11, \"The Indian Grape Call\". When asked by Beagle why she did not yell in fear like everyone else did upon seeing Grape Ape, she simply said, \"You've see one 40-foot purple ape, you've seen them all\". In \"Ali Beagle and the Forty Grapes\", a wooden city limits sign reacted to Grape Ape's presence (after \"overhearing\" that no one else had) by progressively displaying the \"YEOW!\" phrase, with Beegle reading aloud as the sign changed, unfolding", "-23.070326709887013" ], [ "prior to the war:\n\"We are having a particularly hungry period and [I] can quite truthfully say that our mouths water, and that we 'slaver' as dogs do before meals. Some of us find it advisable to rise slowly after lying down, as due to malnutrition, any rapid movement is apt to cause dizziness or even a black-out ... one morning recently I awoke and discovered to my horror that my sight had become very dim. Later I realised this was due to vitamin deficiency in our poor diet.\"\nBy the end of their third year of internment, most women suffered from", "-23.065956350430497" ], [ "that laughter resulted from a sudden surge in one’s sense of superiority, that it was derisive at its core. Contemporary research confirms that theory to a degree. It explains the research chimp that urinates on his trainer’s shoulders and then uses sign language to indicate “funny.” But what about the chimp who tries to amuse its minders by calling a purse a “shoe” and then putting it on her foot, asks science writer Jim Holt. And what explains the popularity of puns? Clearly, we all have the capacity to laugh without putting someone else down.\" Natalie Haynes of New Humanist", "-23.063441591337323" ], [ "Tinnitus Signs and symptoms Tinnitus can be perceived in one or both ears or in the head. It is the description of a noise inside a person’s head in the absence of auditory stimulation. The noise can be described in many different ways.\nIt is usually described as a ringing noise, but in some patients, it takes the form of a high-pitched whining, electric buzzing, hissing, humming, tinging or whistling, ticking, clicking, roaring, \"crickets\", \"tree frogs\", \"locusts (cicadas)\", tunes, songs, beeping, sizzling, or sounds that slightly resemble human voices or even a pure steady tone like that heard during a hearing", "-23.051574771176092" ], [ "individual raises its tail and exposes its genitals to the dominant one. A dominant individual threatens another individual by standing quadrupedally and making a silent \"open mouth stare\" accompanied by the tail sticking straight. During movements, macaques make coos and grunts. These are also made during affiliative interactions, and approaches before grooming. When they find rare food of high quality, macaques emit warbles, harmonic arches, or chirps. When in threatening situations, macaques emit a single loud, high-pitched sound called a shrill bark. Screeches, screams, squeaks, pant-threats, growls, and barks are used during aggressive interactions. Infants \"gecker\" to attract their mother's", "-23.03792843656265" ], [ "is answered with a chorus, in sometimes disorderly fashion. The name \"laughingthrush\" comes from the \"loud cackling outbursts\" they produce, often followed by a quieter, more pleasant chatter or muttering (\"kerWICKerWICK\" or \"nYUKoop nYUKoop\"). In total, 4 different types of vocalizations exist, in order of increasing length and complexity: short sounds, phrases (repeated elements), sentences and subsongs. Since they are a highly gregarious species, most of the sounds they produce serve a social purpose, such as reminding other members of their flock of their presence and their movements, alerting them of danger or intruders, or inciting mobbing (they are known", "-23.027815395849757" ], [ "blows on my skin?' Tāwhaki grunts, and Matakerepō says, 'Oh, it is my grandson Tāwhaki.' As she says this, her stomach begins to shrink again. If he had not been from the west wind, she would have swallowed him whole.\nMatakerepō then asks Tāwhaki where he is going. He tells her that he is searching for his daughter, who is with his wife; for his wife is a daughter of Whatitiri-matakamataka (or Whaitiri, goddess of thunder) and has returned to her home in the heavens. Matakerepō then shows him the pathway to the heavens, and advises him to wait until morning", "-22.958464376977645" ], [ "laugh because his cellmate Evans ate the Governor's copy of Farmer's Weekly.", "-22.945255012466077" ], [ "promptly spits it out because it's salty. They're in the middle of the English Channel. Frazer refuses to help, still stung after being spurned by Mainwaring, so the men have to come up with their own ideas, with little success. Mainwaring is proud of the men's loyalty, and Frazer, realising his stupidity, apologises to Mainwaring, and he accepts his apology. Mainwaring asks him where the North is, but Frazer doesn't know either.\nAs dawn breaks, Jones hears voices from the shore. Elated, they row into the shore, and prepare to call out, but are interrupted by French singing (in actual fact,", "-22.931512181123253" ], [ "a person chews. By keeping the food in the correct position when chewing, the buccinator assists the muscles of mastication.\nIt aids whistling and smiling, and in neonates it is used to suckle. Etymology In the past the buccinator muscle was also written as bucinator muscle. A bucinator in classical Latin is a trumpeter, or more precisely, the person who blows the bucina. The name bucina could refer in Roman antiquity to a crooked horn or trumpet, a shepherd's horn or a war-trumpet. Despite its similarity to the classical Latin name for cheek, i.e. bucca, the words bucinator, bucina, and bucinere", "-22.92399984365329" ], [ "up as a moose or other animal with a phallic-shaped nose or proboscis. Debuted January 8, 2000. Dr. Beamen A Will Ferrell sketch. Debuted January 15, 2000. The Bloder Brothers The Bloder brothers, Kip (Fallon) and Wayne (Chris Parnell), make obnoxious jokes, no matter what situation, and laughing incessantly at themselves. Their laughter is characteristically low-key and sounds extremely forced. They usually go back and forth, taking turns making jokes, which are generally little more than puns or comic references based on whatever situation they are in, much to the chagrin of whoever happens to be listening to them. They", "-22.923280825663824" ], [ "phone\n\nHello, this is your conscience.\n\nDid you order a wake-up call?\n \"Nie lubie\"\n\nNie lubię siebie sam \n\nza dobrze siebie znam\n\"Dislike\"\n\nSometimes I don't like myself \n\nI know my faults too well.\n \"Może zaszczytnie\" \n\nŁamią cie? Może zaszczytnie \n\nBez wtedy łamią, kiedy kwitnie\n\"Loud\" \n\nThey shout very loud \n\nMaybe the want to applaud.\n”Skarga zmiętego”\nŻycie mnie,\nMnie.", "-22.907154670818272" ], [ "activates when he makes driving noises. However, when he laughs at it, it punches him in the face. Next he goes to the wrapping machine, which says \"Do not touch\" but Donald ignores the sign and hops on. When he pulls a lever, the machine proceeds to grab him in two robotic arms, put transparent wrapping paper around him, and put him in ribbons, like a package. He manages to break out by vigorously shaking, and continues exploring.\nAll the time, Donald has been losing hat after hat to the Robot Butler, making Donald angrier and angrier. Eventually, the Butler chases", "-22.869368957122788" ], [ "usage of such instruments as the Cajita, a small wooden box that opens and closes creating a distinctive sound, and the Quijada, the jawbone of a horse, donkey, or mule, that when hit creates a raspy buzz.", "-22.867779981694184" ], [ "to as \"exactness\". It is important to note that sometimes the inconsistency may be resolved and there may still be no laugh. Because laughter is a social mechanism, an audience may not feel as if they are in danger, and the laugh may not occur. In addition, the extent of the inconsistency (and aspects of its timing and rhythm) has to do with the amount of danger the audience feels, and how hard or long they laugh.\nLaughter can also be brought on by tickling. Although most people find it unpleasant, being tickled often causes heavy laughter, thought to be an", "-22.838928145036334" ], [ "levels and \"wobbling\" it.\nOn 'Tea In The Sahara' I used what I call, tongue in cheek, my 'wobbling cloud' effect. It comes with using a highly overloaded guitar, to the point of feedback, and moving the chord off just as it's about to break. It's a sound I do a lot in concert, this sort of echo guitar, where basically I turn most of the signal off so that all you hear is echo. Then you control it with the volume pedal, so you just hear this floating, shimmering sound. And you've got to play the right chords, you can't", "-22.827012193447445" ], [ "sounds in random stimuli.\nA common example is the perception of a face within an inanimate object—the headlights and grill of an automobile may appear to be \"grinning\". People around the world see the \"Man in the Moon\". People sometimes see the face of a religious figure in a piece of toast or in the grain of a piece of wood.\nPareidolia usually occurs as a result of the fusiform face area, which is the part of the human brain that is responsible in seeing faces, mistakenly interpreting an object, shape or configuration with some kind of perceived \"face-like\" features as being", "-22.82265227609787" ], [ "hideous noises in the night. Popular culture Gary the Horse, from the webcomic Bad Machinery, identifies himself as a brag after bucking Shauna Wickle into the water after convincing her to take a ride on his back.", "-22.805067340836104" ], [ "and speaks exclusively to Pickering. Throwing Higgins' previous insults back at him (\"Oh, I'm only a squashed cabbage leaf\"), Eliza remarks that it was only by Pickering's example that she learned to be a lady, which renders Higgins speechless. Eliza goes on to say that she has completely left behind the flower girl she was, and that she couldn't utter any of her old sounds if she tried – at which point Doolittle emerges from the balcony, causing Eliza to relapse totally into her gutter speech. Higgins is jubilant, jumping up and crowing over her. Doolittle explains his situation and", "-22.732869793078862" ], [ "pericardium and the thoracic cage may also give rise to the “Hamman’s Sign” – which is a crunching sound typically heard on auscultation of the chest, but may sometimes be heard even with the unaided ear.", "-22.73084635345731" ] ]

[ "Trash is just a folder where files go when you delete them so that you have an option to restore them if you deleted accidentally, they work just as any other folder. When you empty the bin, the file is really deleted from the file system perspective. Typically the data that were stored in the file is not erased, only the reference to it (so called inode if you want to google) is deleted and the space the file occupied is marked \"empty\" so the next time a file is created, or an existing file gets larger, the data of the original file will be overwritten. It is done so because it's a fast way of deleting files, it takes practically the same time to delete a 100 GB file as it takes to delete 1 KB file and since many programs use files to communicate with each other, this prevents writing big amounts of data when deleting temporary files. If the data haven't been overwritten yet, i.e. shortly after deleting the file, it can usually be restored using some tools. There are even techniques to (at least partly) restore data that have been overwritten. There are programs that try to delete the files in a way that is really permanent, i.e. they rewrite the data several times to ensure the data can't be restored. This is handy when you want to get rid of some sensitive data.", "When libraries had card catalogs, you would look up a subject and find the Dewey Decimal number for a book. Then you would find the shelf with that number and find the book. When you delete a file, it's like removing the index card from the card file. The book remains on the shelf. Now, suppose the library just removed the index cards for any books they wanted out of circulation, but when they got new books, they just dumped some of the \"out of circulation\" books off the shelf and replaced them with new books (and created index cards for them.) That's basically what happens on disk. The old data remains until new file data overwrites the old. I was the sole maintainer of the file system for a couple of operating system groups.", "Usually, nothing. It's still there, your computer just stops caring about it. You can think of the storage as like a long row of coins. If the coin is heads it represents a 0, if it's tails then it represents a 1. When you save a file, your computer flips the coins to represent the new data. When you delete a file, it just stops remembering that those coins represent that file. Later, when you save another file, it'll pick that same space to store it in and flip the coins around to represent part of the new file.", "Deleting a file just tells the OS to mark that memory space as unused, allowing it to be overwritten by new files. Until overwritten, the file itself is still there, just there's no direct way to access it. But with the right recovery software, one can possibly find the file again unless it has been overwritten.", "When you delete a file it moves it to the trash directory and removes it from your normal file directory. When you empty you trash bin it tells the OS that the portion of the hard drive that housed that file is available for reuse. It doesn't actually wipe the file from the harddrive. The file goes away after it has been rewritten over or you use special software to wipe the portion of the drive." ]

[ [ "it and so cannot delete its contents; but if the same directory were empty, one would be able to delete it.\nIf a file resides in a directory with the sticky bit set, then deleting the file requires one to be the owner of the file. Protection of the filesystem root Sun Microsystems introduced \"rm -rf /\" protection in Solaris 10, first released in 2005. Upon executing the command, the system now reports that the removal of / is not allowed. Shortly after, the same functionality was introduced into FreeBSD version of rm utility. GNU rm refuses to execute", "-33.459647825337015" ], [ "where a file is not immediately deleted when the user requests that action. Instead, the file is moved to a holding area, making it easy for the user to undo a mistake. Similarly, many software products automatically create backup copies of files that are being edited, to allow the user to restore the original version, or to recover from a possible crash (autosave feature).\nEven when an explicit deleted file retention facility is not provided or when the user does not use it, operating systems do not actually remove the contents of a file when it is deleted unless", "-33.34778382384684" ], [ "Round-trip format conversion Information loss When a document in one format is converted to another there is likely to be information loss. For example, suppose an HTML document is saved as plain text (*.txt). Then all the markup (structure, formatting, superscripts, …) will be lost. Compound documents will frequently lose information on images and other embedded objects. If the text file is converted back to the original format, information will necessarily be missing.\nA similar effect happens with image formats. Some formats such as JPEG achieve compression through small amount of information loss. If a lossless file, such as a", "-33.27872795224539" ], [ "various phases to the drive surface and thereby approximate degaussing the material below the surface of the drive. Criticism The delete function in most operating systems simply marks the space occupied by the file as reusable (removes the pointer to the file) without immediately removing any of its contents. At this point the file can be fairly easily recovered by numerous recovery applications. However, once the space is overwritten with other data, there is no known way to use software to recover it. It cannot be done with software alone since the storage device only returns its current contents", "-33.10247486340813" ], [ "image is \"mounted\", and made available as a new volume on the computer. Files written to this virtual drive are written to the encrypted image, and never stored in cleartext.\nThe process of making a computer disk available for use is called \"mounting\", the process of removing it is called \"dismounting\" or \"unmounting\"; the same terms are used for making an encrypted disk available or unavailable. System backup Some backup programs only back up user files; boot information and files locked by the operating system, such as those in use at the time of the backup, may not be saved on", "-33.08728120160231" ], [ "Deblurring Deblurring is the process of removing blurring artifacts from images [input image say B which is blurred image which generally happens due to camera shake or some other phenomenon]. Now we want to recover Sharp Image S from blurred image which is B. Mathematically we represent B = S*K where B is blurred input image, we need to find out both sharp image S and K which is blur kernel and * is called convolution. We say that S is convolved with K to generate blurred image B, where K is the blur caused by defocus aberration, motion blur,", "-32.6138283071341" ], [ "Trash (computing) In computing, the trash (also known as the Recycle Bin in Microsoft Windows and by other names in other operating systems) is temporary storage for files that have been deleted in a file manager by the user, but not yet permanently erased from the file system. Typically, a recycle bin is presented as a special file directory to the user (whether or not it is actually a single directory depends on the implementation), allowing the user to browse deleted (removed) files, undelete those that were deleted by mistake, or delete them permanently (either one by one, or by", "-32.29953531944193" ], [ "as it knows which blocks have physically been flushed). Recovery then simply becomes a matter of running a background walk of the file system when it is next mounted to garbage collect any allocated space that has been orphaned. This also permits the filesystem to selectively flush certain files without having to flush all metadata blocks or all of the records.\nData that is unlinked from the metadata dependency graph before writing it to disk has begun does not need to be written to disk at all. For example, creating a file, using it for a short period of time, and", "-32.2487677934696" ], [ "Data remanence Data remanence is the residual representation of digital data that remains even after attempts have been made to remove or erase the data. This residue may result from data being left intact by a nominal file deletion operation, by reformatting of storage media that does not remove data previously written to the media, or through physical properties of the storage media that allow previously written data to be recovered. Data remanence may make inadvertent disclosure of sensitive information possible should the storage media be released into an uncontrolled environment (e.g., thrown in the trash or lost).", "-32.246473569772206" ], [ "files being reported as \"deleted\" by the operating system, it also means that when the operating system later performs a write operation to one of the sectors, which it considers free space, it effectively becomes an overwrite operation from the point of view of the storage medium. For magnetic disks this is no different from writing an empty sector, but because of how some SSDs function at the lowest level, an overwrite produces significant overhead compared to writing data into an empty page, potentially crippling write performance.\nSSDs store data in flash memory cells that are grouped into pages typically of", "-32.033089267788455" ], [ "incomplete. Therefore, files or parts from files may be lost even though the respective data sectors would still be readable by the hardware. Reading at the image level uses direct communication with the drive hardware to access the data sectors.\nIt is important to point out that each unit of ECC data dvdisaster places at the end is calculated from sectors of the original data spread around in the original image. Each group of original data sectors and the added ECC sector(s) forms a \"cluster\". Any part of the cluster can be recovered as long as the amount of damages in", "-31.960569704999216" ], [ "files is shown as occupied.\nIn macOS Sierra, the user can turn on an option to have the Trash delete after 30 days. Other uses Apple’s macOS has long allowed dragging a disk icon to the Trash as a method for unmounting and/or physically ejecting a disk, but this does not place the disk in the Trash folder nor does it erase the disk. In macOS the Trash icon temporarily changes to an Eject or Disconnect symbol whenever storage volumes are dragged. The GNOME Human Interface Guidelines cite such behavior as an example of a discouraged metaphor.", "-31.956434241263196" ], [ "the \"Empty Trash\" function).\nWithin a trash folder, a record is kept of each file and/or directory's original location. On certain operating systems, files must be moved out of the trash before they can be accessed again.\nWhether or not files deleted by a program go to the recycle bin depends on its level of integration with a particular desktop environment and its function. Low-level utilities usually bypass this layer entirely and delete files immediately. A program that includes file manager functionality may or may not send files to the recycle bin, or it may allow the user to choose between these", "-31.796110811759718" ], [ "computers and store large quantities of data, poses another severe security headache. A spy (perhaps posing as a cleaning person) could easily conceal one, and even swallow it if necessary.\nDiscarded computers, disk drives and media are also a potential source of plaintexts. Most operating systems do not actually erase anything— they simply mark the disk space occupied by a deleted file as 'available for use', and remove its entry from the file system directory. The information in a file deleted in this way remains fully present until overwritten at some later time when the operating system reuses the disk space.", "-31.778393018059433" ], [ "does not destroy file data, since its purpose is really merely to unlink references, and the filesystem space freed may still contain leftover data from the removed file. This can be a security concern in some cases, and hardened versions sometimes provide for wiping out the data as the last link is being cut, and programs such as shred and srm are available which specifically provide data wiping capability.\nrm is generally only seen on UNIX-derived operating systems, which typically do not provide for recovery of deleted files through a mechanism like the recycle bin, hence the tendency for users to", "-31.772193319397047" ], [ "original installation image (including operating system and original applications) is reapplied to a formatted hard drive. Anything unique such as settings or personal files will be destroyed if not backed up on external media, as this reverts everything back to its original unused state. The computer technician can only reimage if there is an image of the hard drive for that computer either in a separate partition or stored elsewhere.\nOn a Microsoft Windows system, if there is a restore point that was saved (normally saved on the hard drive of the computer) then the installed applications and Windows Registry", "-31.56289356414345" ], [ "is all there is, then it suffices to archive the document as an image. If additional functionality is needed, such as text searching, storing only the image is not enough. In this case the text also needs to be archived along with the image of the document. \nBy restoring the original appearance of a file as an image a future user can see what the original file looks like in page layout, style, font etc. The text itself needs to be exported i.e. in ASCII format and can be saved as a sequence of homogeneous elements (all presentation attributes like", "-31.55592263642029" ], [ "fragmented digital photographs, even when the directions for locating them have been deleted. His software is an example of file carving, which is the restoring of file contents after identifying information has been removed or lost.\nIn 2006, Memon and two of his students, Pasha Pal and Kulesh Shanmugasundaram founded Digital Assembly, which sells a consumer version of the software, Adroit Photo Recovery, to restore deleted images. Digital Assembly has competed and won the NSF Phase I and Phase II SBIRs as well as an NYSTAR TTIP grant. Digital Assembly’s software was featured in an ABC news article regarding the use", "-31.457310997415334" ], [ "and irreversibly deletes files, when most computer users are accustomed to having a virtual trash can or recycle bin that will hold files until the user specifically tells the system to delete the files.\nWhile Windows and Mac OS have third-party software that allows users to \"un-delete\" trashed and removed files, there is no user-friendly equivalent available to Linux users. In an effort to buffer the removal of a file and its irreversible deletion, Klaatu wrote trash, a BASH shell scripts that move a file to a hidden trash folder, and empty, a shell script that removes files from the", "-31.445424106204882" ], [ "left behind to enable easy undeletion by commonly available utility software. Even when undelete has become impossible, the data, until it has been overwritten, can be read by software that reads disk sectors directly. Computer forensics often employs such software.\nLikewise, reformatting, repartitioning, or reimaging a system is unlikely to write to every area of the disk, though all will cause the disk to appear empty or, in the case of reimaging, empty except for the files present in the image, to most software.\nFinally, even when the storage media is overwritten, physical properties of the media may permit recovery of the", "-31.44395305746002" ], [ "file very quickly; permanent deletion will happen on a predictable schedule or with manual intervention only.\nAnother approach is offered by programs such as Norton GoBack (formerly Roxio GoBack): a portion of the hard disk space is set aside for file modification operations to be recorded in such a way that they may later be undone. This process is usually much safer in aiding recovery of deleted files than the undeletion operation as described below.\nSimilarly, file systems that support \"snapshots\" (like ZFS or btrfs), can be used to make snapshots of the whole file system at regular intervals (e.g. every hour),", "-31.39809370005969" ], [ "were left out on desks, or perhaps just having memorized a password on a sticky note stuck to someone's computer screen or called out to a colleague across an open office. Examples of Physical Information Security Controls Literally shredding paper documents prior to their disposal is a commonplace physical information security control, intended to prevent the information content - if not the media - from falling into the wrong hands. Digital data can also be shredded in a figurative sense, either by being strongly encrypted or by being repeatedly overwritten until there is no realistic probability of the information", "-31.320451168809086" ], [ "to overwrite only the file itself, as well as an option to delete the file after it has completed operation. Limitations A limitation of shred when invoked on ordinary files is that it only overwrites the data in place without overwriting other copies of the file. Copies can manifest themselves in a variety of ways, such as through manual and automatic backups, file system snapshots, copy-on-write filesystems, wear leveling on flash drives, caching such as NFS caching, and journaling. All limitations imposed by the file system can be overcome by shredding every device on which the data resides instead of", "-31.25372265756596" ], [ "However, GNU rm asks for confirmation if a write-protected file is to be deleted, unless the -f option is used.)\nTo delete a directory (with rm -r), one must delete all of its contents recursively. This requires that one must have read and write and execute permission to that directory (if it's not empty) and all non-empty subdirectories recursively (if there are any). The read permissions are needed to list the contents of the directory in order to delete them. This sometimes leads to an odd situation where a non-empty directory cannot be deleted because one doesn't have write permission to", "-31.207101037725806" ], [ "the data written to the page, then the page would just be rolled back by the engine by copying the page from the pre-image file back into the corrupted page in the original database file, then the temporary pre-image file would be deleted. The preimage files were given the extension .PRE, so finding these files in the system usually indicated that a transaction had not happened correctly and recovery had not been successful.\nStarting in version 6.0, shadow paging was used instead of pre-imaging, and it is still used to this day. Instead of copying the page into a temporary file,", "-31.191120778559707" ], [ "able to refer back to it when required. When a particular piece of data has to be read from this new image, the content is retrieved from it if it is new and was stored there; if it is not, the data is fetched from the base image.\nOptional features include zlib-based transparent decompression.", "-31.17969891417306" ], [ "any of these files is lost or corrupted. For example, it is possible to rebuild the index file by reading each of the data files, with no consequence other than the possible \"unexpunging\" of an expunged message that had not yet had its space recovered.\nAnother important part of the MIX design is that no file is modified unless the data specific to that file is altered; thus a flag change alters the status file but not the metadata or index files. This reduces the impact of any system event that corrupts a file write in progress.\nEach file also", "-31.11680158553645" ], [ "was added to the file deletion process known as “bleaching”. This file encryption process seeks out files with random characters in their names, destroys them and then permanently removes them from the computer’s hard drive. A custom cookie selection feature was also added to allow users to select specific cookies to be excluded from the deletion process making it so homepages, internet preferences, logins and passwords can be stored for future visits to a website. Software updates also included the ability to clean CHK files created by scandisk and third party programs files such as ActiveX and Java that", "-31.10556045814883" ], [ "\"Internal\" storage, the storage media is reformatted with an encrypted ext4 file system, and is \"adopted\" by the operating system as the primary storage partition. Existing data (including applications and \"private\" data folders) are migrated to the external storage, and normal operation of the device becomes dependent on the presence of the media. Apps and operating system functions will not function properly if the adopted storage device is removed. If the user loses access to the storage media, the adopted storage can be \"forgotten\", which makes the data permanently inaccessible. Samsung and LG have, however, removed the ability to use", "-30.902665685629472" ], [ "not overwrite the information but simply marks it as deleted and available for later overwriting. In such cases, if the device allows file system access through its synchronization interface, it is possible to recover deleted information. File system extraction is useful for understanding the file structure, web browsing history, or app usage, as well as providing the examiner with the ability to perform an analysis with traditional computer forensic tools. Physical acquisition Physical acquisition implies a bit-for-bit copy of an entire physical store (e.g. flash memory); therefore, it is the method most similar to the examination of a personal computer.", "-30.856229710858315" ], [ "approach to undeletion, instead using a \"holding area\" for files to be deleted. Undesired files are moved to this holding area, and all of the files in the holding area are deleted periodically or when a user requests it. This approach is used by the Trash can in Macintosh operating systems and by the recycle bin in Microsoft Windows. This is a natural continuation of the approach taken by earlier systems, such as the limbo group used by LocoScript. This approach is not subject to the risk that other files being written to the filesystem will disrupt a deleted", "-30.820322721032426" ], [ "a block of a file, the copy in the page cache is updated and marked dirty, and the change is logged in non-volatile memory in a log called the NVLOG. If the dirty block in the page cache is to be written to permanent storage, it is not rewritten to the block from which it was read; instead, a new block is allocated on permanent storage, the contents of the block are written to the new location, and the inode or indirect block that pointed to the block in question is updated in main memory. If the block containing", "-30.798234393820167" ], [ "from the disk. In this case, we must write that page to the disk. If the dirty bit is not set, however, the page has not been modified since it was read into memory. Therefore, if the copy of the page on the disk has not been overwritten (by some other page, for example), then we can avoid writing the memory page to the disk: it is already there.", "-30.765775403473526" ], [ "national, and/or international governing entities. \nOnce an applicable retention period has elapsed for a given type or series of information, and all holds/moratoriums have been released, the information is typically destroyed using an approved and effective destruction method, which renders the information completely and irreversibly unusable via any means. Alternatively, it may be converted from one form to another (e.g. from paper to electronic), depending on the defined retention period per format. Information with historical value beyond its \"usable value\" may be accessioned to the custody of an archive organization for permanent or extended long-term preservation. Defensible disposition Defensible", "-30.61651164793875" ], [ "event of many small files vs. few larger files (temporary internet folders, web caches, etc.).\nBecause the storage is in RAM, it is volatile memory, which means it will be lost in the event of power loss, whether intentional (computer reboot or shutdown) or accidental (power failure or system crash). This is, in general, a weakness (the data must periodically be backed up to a persistent-storage medium to avoid loss), but is sometimes desirable: for example, when working with a decrypted copy of an encrypted file.\nIn many cases, the data stored on the RAM drive is created from data permanently", "-30.603805733277113" ], [ "Smart Eraser, or Shredder.\nIn early versions of the Macintosh Finder, Trash contents were listed in volatile memory. Files moved to the Trash would appear there only until the Finder session ended, then they would be automatically erased. When System 7 was released, the Trash became a folder that retained its contents until the user chose to empty the trash.\nMicrosoft first implemented the \"trash can\" concept in MS-DOS 6, under the name Delete Sentry: When a file was deleted, it was moved to a hidden SENTRY folder at the root of the drive. Microsoft introduced its current trash system, the Recycle", "-30.603039898443967" ], [ "is removed from a table and the data is no longer accessible. The data remains on the disk until being overwritten. Specialized recovery utilities, may be able to locate lost file systems and recreate a partition table which includes entries for these recovered file systems. Some disk utilities may overwrite a number of beginning sectors of a partition they delete. For example, if Windows Disk Management (Windows 2000/XP, etc.) is used to delete a partition, it will overwrite the first sector (relative sector 0) of the partition before removing it. It still may be possible to restore a FAT or", "-30.59289847826585" ], [ "of a computer's resources than reading directly from the directory information. For instance, when a graphic file manager has to display the contents of a folder, it must read the headers of many files before it can display the appropriate icons, but these will be located in different places on the storage medium thus taking longer to access. A folder containing many files with complex metadata such as thumbnail information may require considerable time before it can be displayed.\nIf a header is binary hard-coded such that the header itself needs complex interpretation in order to be recognized, especially for", "-30.575868518673815" ], [ "is that it frees disk space for use by other data. To actually \"erase\" everything requires overwriting each block of data on the medium; something that is not done by many high-level formatting utilities.\nReformatting often carries the implication that the operating system and all other software will be reinstalled after the format is complete. Rather than fixing an installation suffering from malfunction or security compromise, it may be necessary to simply reformat everything and start from scratch. Various colloquialisms exist for this process, such as \"wipe and reload\", \"nuke and pave\", \"reimage\", etc. DOS, OS/2 and Windows format command: Under", "-30.55199909597286" ], [ "system on which the deleted file was stored. Some file systems, such as HFS, cannot provide an undeletion feature because no information about the deleted file is retained (except by additional software, which is not usually present). Some file systems, however, do not erase all traces of a deleted file, including FAT file systems: NTFS file systems NTFS stores file information as a set of fixed-size records (typically, 1KB) within the so-called Master File Table (MFT). File name and file allocation information are encapsulated into these records, providing complete information about each specific file. When the system deletes a", "-30.535165840614354" ], [ "the files instead. Manual encryption Instead of using FileVault to encrypt a user's home directory, using Disk Utility a user can create an encrypted disk image themselves and store any subset of their home directory in there (for example, ~/Documents/private). This encrypted image behaves similar to a Filevault encrypted home directory, but is under the user's maintenance.\nEncrypting only a part of a user's home directory might be problematic when applications need access to the encrypted files, which will not be available until the user mounts the encrypted image. This can be mitigated to a certain extent by making symbolic links", "-30.510105327237397" ], [ "read into an image, skipping damaged parts. dvdisaster can then repeatedly rescan just the missing parts until all damaged areas have been filled in by correct data. Difference with other Reed-Solomon implementations dvdisaster applies an image based and not a file based data recovery, reading a defective medium at the file level means trying to read as much data as possible from each file. But a problem arises when data sectors are damaged which have book-keeping functions in the file system. The list of files on the medium may be truncated. Or the mapping of data sectors to files is", "-30.50283075403422" ], [ "operations, by flagging data blocks as \"not in use\", storage media (SSDs, but also traditional hard drives) generally do not know which sectors/pages are truly in use and which can be considered free space. Contrary to (for example) an overwrite operation, a delete will not involve a physical write to the sectors that contain the data. Since a common SSD has no knowledge of the file system structures, including the list of unused blocks/sectors, the storage medium remains unaware that the blocks have become available. While this often enables undelete tools to recover files from electromechanical hard disks, despite the", "-30.424985055695288" ], [ "Data erasure offers an alternative to physical destruction and degaussing for secure removal of all the disk data. Physical destruction and degaussing destroy the digital media, requiring disposal and contributing to electronic waste while negatively impacting the carbon footprint of individuals and companies. Hard drives are nearly 100% recyclable and can be collected at no charge from a variety of hard drive recyclers after they have been sanitized. Limitations Data erasure may not work completely on flash based media, such as Solid State Drives and USB Flash Drives, as these devices can store remnant data which is inaccessible to the", "-30.412873797584325" ], [ "to a computer with different security requirements. Destruction The storage media is made unusable for conventional equipment. Effectiveness of destroying the media varies by medium and method. Depending on recording density of the media, and/or the destruction technique, this may leave data recoverable by laboratory methods. Conversely, destruction using appropriate techniques is the most secure method of preventing retrieval. Overwriting A common method used to counter data remanence is to overwrite the storage media with new data. This is often called wiping or shredding a file or disk, by analogy to common methods of destroying print", "-30.366449996014126" ], [ "erasure technique, and data can be retrieved from the individual flash memory chips inside the device.\nData erasure through overwriting only works on hard drives that are functioning and writing to all sectors. Bad sectors cannot usually be overwritten, but may contain recoverable information. Bad sectors, however, may be invisible to the host system and thus to the erasing software. Disk encryption before use prevents this problem. Software-driven data erasure could also be compromised by malicious code. Differentiators Software-based data erasure uses a disk accessible application to write a combination of ones, zeroes and any other alpha numeric character also known", "-30.354842893080786" ], [ "making Vanish insecure.\nNote also that any shareholder who ever has enough information to decrypt the content at any point is able to take and store a copy of X. Consequently although tools and techniques such as Vanish can make data irrecoverable within their own system after a time, it is not possible to force the deletion of data once a malicious user has seen it. This is one of the leading conundrums of Digital Rights Management.\nA dealer could send t shares, all of which are necessary to recover the original secret, to a single recipient. An attacker would have to", "-30.345576416832046" ], [ "information that must not be modified or erased, such as special files that are used only by internal parts of the computer system. Some systems also include a hidden flag to make certain files invisible; this flag is used by the computer system to hide essential system files that users should not alter. Storage Any file that has any useful purpose, must have some physical manifestation. That is, a file (an abstract concept) in a real computer system must have a real physical analogue if it is to exist at all.\nIn physical terms, most computer files are stored on some", "-30.282620880694594" ], [ "file, the entry in the Master File Table is released to be either unlinked or reused, but it still remains on disk.\nUntil the MFT entry is reused or overwritten, the file can be easily recovered: data recovery software can find the \"lost\" MFT entry and derive full information about the lost file from it.\nNote however, when the SSD TRIM function is enabled, file content may be destroyed shortly after deletion to reuse SSD memory cells. This makes file content recovery impossible (only name, date and file size information will remain on the disk). Prevention Data erasure is term that refers", "-30.276584801496938" ], [ "under Control Panel → Enhanced under \"Virtual Memory\"). If the user moves or deletes this file, a blue screen will appear the next time Windows is started, with the error message \"The permanent swap file is corrupt\". The user will be prompted to choose whether or not to delete the file (whether or not it exists).\nWindows 95, Windows 98 and Windows Me use a similar file, and the settings for it are located under Control Panel → System → Performance tab → Virtual Memory. Windows automatically sets the size of the page file to start at 1.5× the size of", "-30.24660509743262" ], [ "which is kept in the folder C:\\Windows\\Logs\\CBS. A bug in the compression process can cause run-away generation of useless log files both in that folder and in C:\\Windows\\Temp, which can consume disk storage until completely filling the hard drive. Deletion of the files without following a specific procedure can cause the deleted files to be regenerated at an increased pace.", "-30.23868261417374" ], [ "the defragmentation operation as data changes, as opposed to blocks being moved, and tries to record it, resulting in increased size of Shadow Copy images. As a result, Windows faces a low disk space issue and tries to resolve it by deleting old checkpoints.\nMicrosoft later provided more details on this issue: The Shadow Copy provider operates at 16-KB block level; hence, when the file system's allocation units are smaller than 16 KB, Shadow Copy cannot properly discern defragmentation from ordinary I/O operation that needs to be recorded. Volumes with 16 KB or larger allocation units are unaffected.", "-30.218476051813923" ], [ "only be reset to 1 by erasing the entire block. This means that before new data can be programmed into a page that already contains data, the current contents of the page plus the new data must be copied to a new, erased page. If a suitable page is available, the data can be written to it immediately. If no erased page is available, a block must be erased before copying the data to a page in that block. The old page is then marked as invalid and is available for erasing and reuse. Vertical NAND Vertical NAND (V-NAND) or", "-30.15879277305794" ], [ "simply deleting the overlaying graphics. Effective redaction of electronic documents requires the removal of all relevant text or image data from the document file. This either requires a very detailed understanding of the internal operation of the document processing software and file formats used, which most computer users lack, or software tools designed for sanitizing electronic documents (see external links below).\nRedaction usually requires a marking of the redacted area with the reason that the content is being restricted. US government documents being released under the Freedom of Information Act are marked with exemption codes that denote the reason why the", "-30.13983117963653" ], [ "began experimenting with different ways to destroy the publicity stills Sony had sent me.\nWhereas in previous projects (especially With Teeth and Year Zero) I'd used careful manual processes to create digital glitches, this time I actually destroyed images by opening them up in a text editor and adding/removing text to their raw code.\nIt was a very experimental, trial-and-error process - I tried different file types, different rendering methods (for example, damaged Photoshop files render much more interestingly in OSX's Preview than in Photoshop itself), and different types of text injected into the image files (I grabbed random paragraphs of text", "-30.123128508916125" ], [ "must exist at the time the work is placed into storage\". It is just important that the work “can be reproduced.” The High Court declined Sony's argument, siding with Stevens- who relied on the precedent of Emmet J's decision in Australian Video Retailers Association v Warner Home Video Pty Ltd. In which Emmet J ruled, in relation to the RAM of a DVD Player, that: “… In ordinary form, temporary storage of a substantial part of the computer program in the RAM of a DVD Player will not involve a reproduction of the computer program in a material form.”\nThe High", "-29.98998950558598" ], [ "Archive bit Usage In Windows and OS/2, when a file is created or modified, the archive bit is set (i.e. turned on), and when the file has been backed up, the archive bit is cleared (i.e. turned off). Thus, the meaning of the archive bit is \"this file has not been archived\". \nIn CP/M, the meaning is inverted: creating or modifying a file clears the archive bit, and the bit is set when the file is backed up.\nAn incremental backup task may use the archive bit to distinguish which files have already been backed up, and select only the", "-29.982088643489988" ], [ "ever being retrieved, even using sophisticated forensic analysis: this too constitutes a physical information security control since the purged computer storage media can be freely discarded or sold without compromising the original information content. The two techniques may be combined in high-security situations, where digital shredding of the data content is followed by physical shredding and incineration to destroy the storage media.\nMany organizations restrict physical access to controlled areas such as their offices by requiring that people present valid identification cards, proximity passes or physical keys. Provided the access tokens or devices are themselves strictly controlled and secure (making", "-29.976395823643543" ], [ "would see \"Holiday photo.jpg\", which would appear to be a JPEG image, usually unable to harm the machine. However, the operating system would still see the \".exe\" extension and run the program, which would then be able to cause harm to the computer. The same is true with files with only one extension: as it is not shown to the user, no information about the file can be deduced without explicitly investigating the file. To further trick users, it is possible to store an icon inside the program, in which case some operating systems' icon assignment for the executable file", "-29.938003147835843" ], [ "as del and erase would respect the attribute, other commands such as DELTREE did not. Changing the system attribute was not possible in early versions of Windows, thus requiring use of ATTRIB. Similarly, a system crash in early versions of Windows could lead to a situation where a temporary file had the read-only bit set and was additionally (and irrevocably) locked by the Windows OS; in this instance, booting into DOS (thus avoiding the Windows lock) and unsetting the read-only attribute with ATTRIB was the recommended way of deleting the file. Manipulating the archive bit allowed users to control", "-29.921365964517463" ], [ "Focus stealing In computing, focus stealing is a mode error produced when a program not in focus (e.g. minimized or operating in background) places a window in the foreground and redirects all keyboard input to that window. This is considered to be an annoyance or hazard to some users because the program may steal the focus while their attention is not on the computer screen, such as when typing while reading copy to the side. This will cause everything typed after the window appeared to be lost - or worse, the typed input may cause an unintended effect in", "-29.90031767473556" ], [ "programs and the page is already brought into memory for other programs.\nThe page could also have been removed from the working set of a process, but not yet written to disk or erased, such as in operating systems that use Secondary Page Caching. For example, HP OpenVMS may remove a page that does not need to be written to disk (if it has remained unchanged since it was last read from disk, for example) and place it on a Free Page List if the working set is deemed too large. However, the page contents are not overwritten until the", "-29.828942680818727" ], [ "Closes a file or device\n WRITE Outputs to a file or device\n REWRITE Changes a record or display format\n APPEND Adds to a file\n DELETE Deletes a record from a file\n IMAGE Defines the format of a record using COBOL-like syntax\n FORM Defines the format of a record using", "-29.788578273844905" ], [ "while copying the image is much faster. Most disc burning applications silently delete the image from the Temporary folder after making one copy. If users override this default, telling the application to preserve the image, they can reuse the image to create more copies. Otherwise, they must rebuild the image each time they want a copy.\nSome packet-writing applications do not require writing the entire disc at once, but allow writing of different parts at different times. This allows a user to construct a disc incrementally, as it could be on a rewritable medium like a floppy disk or", "-29.753600622643717" ], [ "Shred (Unix) Background For efficiency, the process of erasing a file from storage using the rm command usually only erases the file's file-system entry while keeping the content of the file intact. This frequently allows commonly available software to recover the \"erased\" file's data. If the file data is stored on magnetic media such as a HDD, even if the file is overwritten, residual magnetic fields may allow data recovery using specialist hardware equipment. To prevent this, shred overwrites the contents of a file multiple times, using patterns chosen to maximize destruction of the residual data.", "-29.748791506164707" ], [ "wants to add a single file to a CD-R that has an ISO 9660 volume, it has to append a session containing at least an updated copy of the entire directory tree, plus the new file. The duplicated directory entries can still reference the data files in the previous session(s).\nIn a similar way, file data can be updated or even removed. Removal is, however, only virtual: the removed content does not appear any more in the directory shown to the user, but it is still physically present on the disc. It can therefore be recovered, and it takes up space", "-29.728113501914777" ], [ "of keywords present in the title or in the body of the webpage, whereas the insite operator restricts it to a specific Internet domain.\nOnce a web page is archived, it cannot be deleted directly by any Internet user. Nevertherless, archive.today regularly controls or deletes web pages saved some days before, without any policy or right of discussion and appeal.\nWhile saving a dynamic list, archive.today searchbox shows only a result that links the previous and the following section of the list (e.g. 20 links for page). The other web pages saved are filtered, and sometimes may be found by one of", "-29.723433455917984" ], [ "file described as a self-extracting archive may actually be a malicious program. One protection against this is to open it with an archive manager instead of executing it (losing the minor advantage of self-extraction); the archive manager will either report the file as not an archive or will show the underlying metadata of the executable file - a strong indication that the file is not actually a self-extracting archive.\nAdditionally, some systems for distributing files do not accept executable files in order to prevent the transmission of malicious programs. These systems disallow self-extracting archive files unless they are cumbersomely renamed by", "-29.686456427909434" ], [ "delete such information using reasonable measures to protect against unauthorized access to, or use of, the information in connection with its deletion.\"\nThe Norwegian Consumer Council did an investigation on the terms of use and privacy policies on My Friend Cayla and i-Que Intelligent Bot in 2016. They found that the privacy policies do not specifically mention how long the data will be retained after the users stop using the service or deleting the account. Specifically, My Friend Cayla's privacy policy mentions that \"it is not always possible to completely remove or delete all of your information from our databases without", "-29.671611353813205" ], [ "the past can infer with new information. Hence, a blocking can occur that inhibits the acquiring of the new target item (Ecke 2004: 325). Retrieval-failure hypothesis Today, the retrieval-failure hypothesis, concerning the function of the memory, is more widely accepted and popularized (Schöpper-Grabe 1998:237). It says that the storage of information happens on different levels. Therefore, information or memory is not deleted, but rather, the access to the current level is blocked. Thus, the information is not available. Hansen quotes Loftus & Loftus (1976) to describe forgetting: \"[…] much like being unable to find something that we have misplaced somewhere\"", "-29.66505593038164" ], [ "becomes an orphan. If an item is deleted, the associated copy by default is deleted as well when using Update All. If the briefcase medium becomes full during an Update, there will be no space for writing the updated briefcase database. This has the effect of making many of the folders and files orphans, with no easy way to restore their link with their counterparts on the source medium. Such limitations (and others) make briefcase files very brittle, easily corrupted. This limits robustness as a folder and file backup mechanism.", "-29.652288319193758" ], [ "record has been created AND viewed. This has been stated to be due to the cost of completely deleting all information: \"complete removal would require the hardware holding records to be completely sanitised. This is a process that destroys all data held, for example on a server or hard drive, and not just a particular record\" and that in any case the record needs to be retained for legal reasons as \"The issue of audit and the medico-legal evidential significance of the SCR will be extremely important and it would be inappropriate to provide tools that could completely remove a", "-29.644298154773423" ], [ "Secondary Page Caching. Pages removed from working sets (process-private memory, generally) are placed on special-purpose lists while remaining in physical memory for some time. Removing a page from a working set is not technically a page-replacement operation, but effectively identifies that page as a candidate. A page whose backing store is still valid (whose contents are not dirty, or otherwise do not need to be preserved) is placed on the tail of the Free Page List. A page that requires writing to backing store will be placed on the Modified Page List. These actions are typically triggered when the size", "-29.63900132291019" ], [ "of the files when browsing containing directories, therefore allowing anybody using the system to look at and even change and remove their Internet data. Removal tools Various free programs (among them Red Button, CCleaner, and Index.dat Suite), can completely remove index.dat files until they are recreated by Windows, though CCleaner, and perhaps the others, does not delete the hidden index.dat file in the Temporary Internet Files directory, which contains a copy of the cookies that were in the Cookies directory. However, if Secure Deletion is enabled in CCleaner then this will effectively wipe the contents of this file although the", "-29.589310486568138" ], [ "of unlinking dissociates a name from the data on the volume without destroying the associated data. The data is still accessible, as long as at least one link that points to it still exists. When the last link is removed, the space is considered free.\nA process called undeleting allows the recreation of links to data that are no longer associated with a name. However, this process is not available on all systems and is often not reliable. When a file is deleted, it is added to a free space map for re-use. If a portion of the deleted file space", "-29.557834825478494" ], [ "Since an erase of the cells in the page is needed before it can be written again, but only entire blocks can be erased, an overwrite will initiate a read-erase-modify-write cycle: the contents of the entire block are stored in cache, then the entire block is erased from the SSD, then the overwritten page is written to the cached block, and only then can the entire updated block be written to the flash medium. This phenomenon is known as write amplification. Operation The TRIM command enables an operating system to notify the SSD of pages which no longer contain valid", "-29.503380649141036" ], [ "to Release, \"to provide guidance on the editing of exempt material from information held by public bodies.\"\nSecure redacting is a far more complicated problem with computer files. Word processing formats may save a revision history of the edited text that still contains the redacted text. In some file formats, unused portions of memory are saved that may still contain fragments of previous versions of the text. Where text is redacted, in Portable Document Format (PDF) or word processor formats, by overlaying graphical elements (usually black rectangles) over text, the original text remains in the file and can be uncovered by", "-29.485372845083475" ], [ "actively deletes files by wiping file inodes for crash safety reasons.\nThere are still several techniques and some free and proprietary software for recovery of deleted or lost files using file system journal analysis; however, they do not guarantee any specific file recovery. Compression e3compr is an unofficial patch for ext3 that does transparent compression. It is a direct port of e2compr and still needs further development. It compiles and boots well with upstream kernels, but journaling is not implemented yet. Lack of snapshots support Unlike a number of modern file systems, ext3 does not have native support for snapshots, the", "-29.476839600363746" ], [ "options. History A small icon of a waste container for deleting files was implemented during the development of the Apple Lisa user interface in 1982, where it was called the “Wastebasket.” The concept carried over to the Apple Macintosh, as the “Trash”, except in the pre-OS 9 “International English” localization, which retained “Wastebasket.”\nApple Inc. sued to prevent other software companies from offering graphical user interfaces similar to its own. Apple lost most of its claims but courts agreed Apple's Trash icon was original and protected by copyright. Non-Apple software may use other metaphors for file deletion, such as Recycle Bin,", "-29.426654714683536" ], [ "be disabled. Also, removing individual entries from an index.dat file (for example, by using Windows Explorer) only prevents those entries being used; it does not remove the files referenced until the next \"cleanup\". (Marking single entries as deleted rather than erasing them is a common database method of quickly removing items from use whilst also retaining those items should it be desirable to reverse the deletion.)\nWhile employees of Microsoft have claimed that the Windows operating system deliberately hides index.dat files, users of the Microsoft system point to the fact that Windows Explorer offers users a detailed view of the content", "-29.41919912910089" ], [ "file or page file on secondary storage, retrieving them later when needed. If a lot of pages are moved to slower secondary storage, the system performance is degraded. Off-line storage Off-line storage is a computer data storage on a medium or a device that is not under the control of a processing unit. The medium is recorded, usually in a secondary or tertiary storage device, and then physically removed or disconnected. It must be inserted or connected by a human operator before a computer can access it again. Unlike tertiary storage, it cannot be accessed without human interaction.\nOff-line storage is", "-29.367250389419496" ], [ "located at the end of the archive structure in order to allow the easy appending of new files. If the end of central directory record indicates a non-empty archive, the name of each file or directory within the archive should be specified in a central directory entry, along with other metadata about the entry, and an offset into the ZIP file, pointing to the actual entry data. This allows a file listing of the archive to be performed relatively quickly, as the entire archive does not have to be read to see the list of files. The entries within the", "-29.34931510098977" ], [ "deleted files in an attempt to destroy evidence. The court granted Gates a court order that allowed Gates to copy the hard drive of Newman's computer in order to obtain as much information as possible from the \"deleted\", but reconstructible files. Gates then assigned the technician V. to execute the copying of the hard drive, whereas he subsequently also appeared as Gate's expert witness in the court procedure.\nIn retrospect, the technical method V. applied to create a copy of the hard drive of N.'s computer as well as his formal professional qualification as a digital forensics expert (particularly in comparison", "-29.342431801836938" ], [ "retained for a period required by law or a code of conduct, and where no such law or code of conduct exists, for a period which will afford the data subject an opportunity to request access to the record. Upon the expiration of the retention period, the personal data must, however, be deleted or destroyed, in a manner that prevents its reconstruction in an intelligible form, or the record of the personal data must be de-identified. (Sections 24(4), (5), (6)).\nA data subject may also request that a record of personal data about that data subject held by a data controller", "-29.30059958109632" ], [ "be considered, depending on the user's requirements. Such factors include the contents of the web browser cache, encryption of the data being transmitted over the network, and anonymity/traceability of the user's network connection.\nThe means by which a user can stop pages being recorded, and delete records of previously-browsed pages, depends on the product used. If a user is using a third-party product which may record search such as Google Search (see above), it may be necessary to remove or stop history collection in multiple places (e.g. in the browser and in Google Search settings). Privacy of kept history data Privacy", "-29.28250255668536" ], [ "they are originally written and the time when they are overwritten. For this reason, some security protocols tailored to operating systems or other software featuring automatic wear leveling recommend conducting a free-space wipe of a given drive and then copying many small, easily identifiable \"junk\" files or files containing other nonsensitive data to fill as much of that drive as possible, leaving only the amount of free space necessary for satisfactory operation of system hardware and software. As storage and/or system demands grow, the \"junk data\" files can be deleted as necessary to free up space; even if", "-29.241749167093076" ], [ "directory) to have a pagefile on it if the system is configured to write either kernel or full memory dumps after a Blue Screen of Death. Windows uses the paging file as temporary storage for the memory dump. When the system is rebooted, Windows copies the memory dump from the pagefile to a separate file and frees the space that was used in the pagefile. Unix and Unix-like systems Unix systems, and other Unix-like operating systems, use the term \"swap\" to describe both the act of moving memory pages between RAM and disk, and the region of a disk the", "-29.20500472112326" ], [ "When images are stored in JPEG format, compression has already taken place. Both cameras and computer programs allow the user to set the level of compression.\nSome compression algorithms, such as those used in PNG file format, are lossless, which means no information is lost when the file is saved. By contrast, the JPEG file format uses a lossy compression algorithm by which the greater the compression, the more information is lost, ultimately reducing image quality or detail that can not be restored. JPEG uses knowledge of the way the human brain and eyes perceive color to make this loss of", "-29.168903694837354" ], [ "244, the Court of Appeal had held that a computer file containing data that represented the original photograph in another form was \"a copy of a photograph\" as per section 7(2) of the 1978 Act.\nTherefore, downloading an indecent photograph from the Internet was \"making a copy of an indecent photograph\" since a copy of that photograph had been caused to exist on the computer to which it had been downloaded.", "-29.151212765835226" ], [ "in . or .. (with or without trailing slash).\nThe copying of a file to an existing file is performed by opening the existing file in update mode, thereby preserving the files inode, which requires write access and results in the target file retaining the permissions it had originally.", "-29.145025255493238" ], [ "information will be displayed.\nIt is also possible to clear the screen and remove all extra blank lines before displaying the file:\nmore /c /s < letter.txt\ntype letter.txt | more /c /s Example Return the content of the OS/2 system directory using the dir command and display it one screen at a time using the more command:\n[C:\\]dir C:\\OS2 | more", "-29.091002189787105" ], [ "to the process of generating a new file system. In some operating systems all or parts of these three processes can be combined or repeated at different levels and the term \"format\" is understood to mean an operation in which a new disk medium is fully prepared to store files.\nAs a general rule, formatting a disk leaves most if not all existing data on the disk medium; some or most of which might be recoverable with special tools. Special tools can remove user data by a single overwrite of all files and free space. History A block, a contiguous", "-29.08914721221663" ], [ "object is selected).\nOn Unix-like systems, the delete key is usually mapped to ESC[3~ which is the VT220 escape code for the \"delete character\" key.\nThe delete key, on many modern motherboards, also functions to open the BIOS setup screen when pressed after starting the computer.\nIn GUI applications where the Delete key is enabled, especially in file browsers, pressing it does not necessarily immediately delete the selected object, but often a confirmation dialog box will appear to allow the user to cancel the deletion, or the object may instead be silently moved to a \"trash folder\" or equivalent, so that it can", "-29.08903959012241" ], [ "such as a cue sheet or log file from the ripping software.\nTo rip the contents out of a container is different from simply copying the whole container or a file. When creating a copy, nothing looks into the transferred file, nor checks if there is any encryption or not, and raw copy is also not aware of any file format. One can copy a DVD byte by byte via programs like the Linux dd command onto a hard disk, and play the resulting ISO file just as one would play the original DVD.\nTo rip contents is also different from grabbing", "-29.082220811134903" ], [ "indicate the contents of the dataset being searched. These screens also lack contextual help that would aid the user in understanding the available functionality. Another issue is that there are points where a user may like to return to a previous screen, but this option is not made available and the browser's back button is purposely disabled. In addition, the software automatically saves previous searches and makes these available on the main search page, but it does not provide a function for the user to delete these old searches as they begin to clutter up this screen. Finally, when", "-29.079949664417654" ], [ "a file.\nShortcomings: Requires enough RAM to hold the entire system state. State changes made to a system after its last image was saved are lost in the case of a system failure or shutdown. Saving an image for every single change would be too time-consuming for most systems, so images are not used as the single persistence technique for critical systems. Journals Using journals is the second simplest persistence technique. Journaling is the process of storing events in a log before each one is applied to a system. Such logs are called journals.\nOn startup, the journal is read and each", "-29.079720634850673" ], [ "detection, unless an extension is installed to treat blanked pages as though they were nonexistent. Blanking also leaves the content accessible through the history page, an outcome that, while potentially increasing transparency by allowing non-sysops to easily review the content removal decision for appropriateness, might be unacceptable or even unlawful in some cases. Another option is for a sysop to delete the page, and thereby prevent it from being viewed by non-sysops. Another level of deletion, called RevisionDelete, can be used by a group (e.g. \"Oversighters\") to prevent a page from being viewed by non-members of that group. It is", "-29.062272462702822" ], [ "then instantly placing the PC into receive mode.\nOnce the text (HTML) portion of a web page had been retrieved (it was always retrieved first), the page would be displayed by SlipKnot and could be read by the user, after which the pictures\nwere retrieved in the background and eventually the page fixed up to display them.", "-29.057869083364494" ], [ "a file with a clear archive bit is moved from one place on a file system to another, the archive bit reverts to being set.\nTypically on a computer system that has never been backed up in a manner that clears archive bits, all files on that computer will have their archive bits set, as there are few applications that make use of archive bits without the user's request.\nAs the archive bit is a file attribute and not part of the file itself; the contents of the file remain unchanged when the status of the archive bit changes. Alternatives Relying on", "-29.023742048302665" ], [ "don't check the actual database file whether the page was written back to the storage. Redo From the DPT, we can compute the minimal Sequence Number of a dirty page. From there, we have to start redoing the actions until the crash, in case they weren't persisted already.\nRunning through the log file, we check for each entry, whether the modified page P on the entry exists in the DPT. If it doesn't, then we do not have to worry about redoing this entry since the data persists on the disk. If page P exists in the DPT table, then we", "-29.020694447302958" ] ]

[ "Most of them aren't very sophisticated - definitely not what most people think of by \"artificial intelligence\". They generally just pursue short term goals & follow a set of premade strategies. Most game AIs are made stronger by giving them advantages over human players (ie - 'cheating' rather than being smarter)", "Lets pretend you have a friend called **George**. George likes to eat crayons and is generally a bit...simple. And you want to play Chess with him. George has never played chess before in his life. You however, are really experienced at chess. And can rapidly come up with creative strategies on the fly. You reckon there's no way you're going to lose to George. But at the start of the game, George finds that there are basic instructions on a notepad infront of him. **\"Turn one, move a random pawn two tiles forward\"**. **\"Turn two, move a pawn two horizontal rows away from the first pawn\"**. George doesn't know *what* he's doing. Not in the form of a grand strategy or anything. He's simply following pre-recorded instructions as fast as he's able. So you keep playing. But suddenly George's instructions start reacting to what's going on with your pieces. **\"There's a knight in that tile to the top right, move the queen to intercept it. Then move her back the next turn\"**. The instructions are still a mixture of dumb pre-recorded ones. But now include new conditions that are reacting to your strategies. Now lets pretend on the second game, George's basic instructions are one of the known great chess strategies, figured out by chess masters who have spent decades playing. And George can carry out these instructions very, very quickly. All of a sudden, George starts clearing the table of your chess pieces. Despite not having a clue what he's doing. For the sake of balance, the rules start including things like \"**just skip this turn and munch a crayon**\". The number of wait commands in the instructions are determined by whether George is supposed to be easy, medium or hard mode. This is fundamentally how AI works. The public (and Hollywood) perception of AI, is that of a thinking machine. Truthfully, it's a set of pre-recorded instructions and conditional expressions. With sleep functions periodically used to stop the computer executing moves so quickly that the human gets curb stomped.", "Not very well, being a games developer most in-game AI's are very very basic and are not aware of their environments or other players. Ever wonder why there are so many zombie games, or why so many games (mostly older games now but still the case with many newer titles) have only enemies? Because writing AI for enemies that only know how to attack you on sight or zombies (that are naturally very dumb) is A LOT easier and more convincing than writing AI's that now have to respond to your actions which are not pre-determined and not repeat the same 4 lines over and over again. Now it IS actually easily possible to write a super convincing friendly AI in a game but this takes significant time and resources and is quite expensive on the CPU so most game developers avoid it and it is still sadly a very overlooked area in games. We're all hoping that re-usable AI solutions become standard in a few years similar to how game engines are today. Games like No Mans Sky we're hoping have convincing and reactive AI and push this forward some.", "Each game writes their AI in their own ways trying to find the best way to program the game AI. I have modded a game where the AI worked on two concepts, plans and modes. The plan would be the computer team's construction plan and be comprised of several sub-plans that related to things like first building resource collection units, building the first base buildings, building more units and then dispatching them, upgrading buildings or tech tree, and then building and dispatching endgame units. The plan would also include conditions like rebuilding critical infrastructure or building specific units to respond to specific units that the player was building (if player has x, build y) as well as a dispatcher component to have specific units seek out specific player units (or buildings) or send out all units to attack if there were too many idle units sitting around. The AI tends to be not as smart as humans because humans are more adaptable and capable of inventing tactics and changing tactics on the fly so sometimes the plans integrate a resource boost for the AI team so that they can still provide a challenge to the player. Modes would be a concept used by the individual AI units in response to orders or game conditions. For example, the AI plan might give a group of units a MOVE order so that they accumulate in a given area and then later on an ATTACK order to target a specific unit or building. Certain other units had additional other states that were possible such as STRAFE and FLEE that changed how they fought in mid-battle, and most units had other states such as follow, idle or patrol states that could change once if the player (or the AI's plan or dispatcher code) gave it a different command." ]

[ [ "in 2005 and used interactive multiple way dialogs and AI as the main aspect of game.\nGames have provided an environment for developing artificial intelligence with potential applications beyond gameplay. Examples include Watson, a Jeopardy!-playing computer; and the RoboCup tournament, where robots are trained to compete in soccer. Views Many experts complain that the \"AI\" in the term \"game AI\" overstates its worth, as game AI is not about intelligence, and shares few of the objectives of the academic field of AI. Whereas \"real AI\" addresses fields of machine learning, decision making based on arbitrary data input, and even the ultimate", "-33.76243155296106" ], [ "Clue (1998 video game) Artificial intelligence The artificial intelligence (AI) used by Clue's computer-controlled opponents is advanced for a computer board game conversion. The AI is so good at deriving solutions that many customers complained that the computer cheated. In fact, this is not the case: the computer-controlled characters are just much better than the average human player.\nThe AI works by keeping track of all players' suggestions. It even keeps track of information which most human players ignore. For example, if Player A suggests that Mr. Green did it with the rope in the lounge and Player B could not", "-33.069042534443724" ], [ "Artificial intelligence in video games Overview The term \"game AI\" is used to refer to a broad set of algorithms that also include techniques from control theory, robotics, computer graphics and computer science in general, and so video game AI may often not constitute \"true AI\" in that such techniques do not necessarily facilitate computer learning or other standard criteria, only constituting \"automated computation\" or a predetermined and limited set of responses to a predetermined and limited set of inputs.\nMany industry and corporate voices claim that so-called video game AI has come a long way in the sense that it", "-32.88880155868901" ], [ "algorithm runs on a separate CPU core than the main game to avoid creating framerate issues with its display while the player is considering their actions. When the player makes an action, the AI threads are interrupted and brought to the same state as the game, then continue processing, in some cases, reusing existing branches on the decision tree that match with the player's selection. The AI itself does not employ any strategy in terms of strong card combinations, but instead, when such combinations improve the computer's situation, the chances of playing these combinations will \"ripple\" back through the decision", "-32.394850408461934" ], [ "games will implement very different AI systems, and thus, AI is considered to be specific to the particular game for which it is created. Many modern game engines come packaged with search algorithms such as A-star and subroutines for baking level geometry into a Navmesh which can help speed up the process of scripting AI behavior. History Before game engines, games were typically written as singular entities: a game for the Atari 2600, for example, had to be designed from the bottom up to make optimal use of the display hardware—this core display routine is today called the kernel by", "-32.17892581574415" ], [ "With this feature, the player can actually consider how to approach or avoid an enemy. This is a feature that is particularly prevalent in the stealth genre.\nAnother development in recent game AI has been the development of \"survival instinct\". In-game computers can recognize different objects in an environment and determine whether it is beneficial or detrimental to its survival. Like a user, the AI can look for cover in a firefight before taking actions that would leave it otherwise vulnerable, such as reloading a weapon or throwing a grenade. There can be set markers that tell it when to react", "-32.08124030895124" ], [ "created specifically for certain games. Instead, the AI must be designed using algorithms whose methods can be applied to a wide range of games. The AI must also be an ongoing process, that can adapt to its current state rather than the output of previous states. For this reason, open loop techniques are often most effective.\nA popular method for developing GGP AI is the Monte Carlo tree search (MCTS) algorithm. Often used together with the UCT method (Upper Confidence Bound applied to Trees), variations of MCTS have been proposed to better play certain games, as well as to make it", "-31.947565296250104" ], [ "order for a game to include stealth gameplay, the knowledge of the artificial intelligence (AI) must be restricted to make it ignorant to parts of the game world. The AI in stealth games takes into specific consideration the enemies' reactions to the effects of the player's actions, such as turning off the lights, as opposed to merely reacting to the player directly. Enemies typically have a line of sight which the player can avoid by hiding behind objects, staying in the shadows or moving while the enemy is facing another direction. Enemies can also typically detect when the player touches", "-31.04715940002643" ], [ "this approach is the engine's inability to render soft shadows and global illumination.\nTo increase the interactivity with the game-world, id Software designed hundreds of high-resolution animated screens for in-game computers. Rather than using a simple \"use key\" to operate these computers, the crosshair acts as a mouse cursor over the screens allowing the player to use a computer in the game world. This allows for in-game computer terminal to perform more than one function, from operating security door codes, activating machinery, toggling lights or unlocking weapons lockers. According to the Doom 3 manual, GUI designer Patrick Duffy wrote over 500,000", "-30.872107137420244" ], [ "M.U.G.E.N Gameplay The engine uses four directional keys along with seven buttons for gameplay (A, B, C, X, Y, Z and Start), in order to accommodate six-button fighters which use three punches, three kicks and a start button. However, characters do not necessarily use all seven buttons, nor need to follow a traditional six- or four-button format. At most, two players can control characters, with others being controlled by the engine's AI (including Watch Mode, a demo mode where the computer controls all characters). AIs can be brutal, strong or even weak. The default AI for the engine however, can", "-30.557457658719727" ], [ "evaluated (a considerably fast process), and then are sorted in order; the computer then proceeds the lookahead from each option, in order, with the likelihood that if the computer should run out of time, one of the high scoring options will produce the best possible result.\nAs a result of these means of programming the AI, it was noted that the computer opponents may exhibit behavior not found by typical Magic players, such as not holding back attackers to act as blockers for the opponent's turn, though as noted by the developers, such aggressive play is generally a winning strategy for", "-30.498284343309933" ], [ "goal of strong AI that can reason, \"game AI\" often consists of a half-dozen rules of thumb, or heuristics, that are just enough to give a good gameplay experience. Historically, academic game-AI projects have been relatively separate from commercial products because the academic approaches tended to be simple and non-scalable. Commercial game AI has developed its own set of tools, which have been sufficient to give good performance in many cases.\nGame developers' increasing awareness of academic AI and a growing interest in computer games by the academic community is causing the definition of what counts as AI in a game", "-30.464982613179018" ], [ "a set of \"AI\" cards that determine their movement and attacks.\nA unique aspect of gameplay is that your health and stamina share the same bar, limiting your ability to move and attack when you have taken damage. Stamina regenerates at 2 points per turn, whereas damage requires healing at the bonfire checkpoints, or use of healing items.\nTo create different experiences each playthrough, players lay down random tiles and then draw encounter cards for each tile; encounter cards determine the enemies, terrain items and traps that spawn on that tile. Once players reach a boss, they choose a number of AI", "-30.387383119465085" ], [ "further refinement.\nThe AI functions were divided into three different categories: \"meta\", which governed the environment and in-game progression; \"character\", which was devoted to the guest and non-playable characters (NPCs); and \"navigation\", which determined the best route and pattern for characters and other moving elements such as enemies to travel. The tasks assigned to the meta-AI were so numerous and large that it needed to be divided into separate interconnected elements, which included implementing a hierarchical structure for task management, transitioning and the merger of functions to create an intelligent system, and the exchange of various elements with specific localities. For", "-29.84017955363379" ], [ "emotions, body control, and action, among others. Game AIs and Mobile Apps Game AI agents have been built using Soar for games such as StarCraft, Quake II, Descent 3, Unreal Tournament, and Minecraft, supporting capabilities such as spatial reasoning, real-time strategy, and opponent anticipation. AI agents have also been created for video games including Infinite Mario which used reinforcement learning, and Frogger II, Space Invaders, and Fast Eddie, which used both reinforcement learning and mental imagery.\nSoar can run natively on mobile devices. A mobile application for the game Liar’s Dice has been developed for iOS which runs the Soar architecture", "-29.785614707019704" ], [ "PC action game at the time, with Cate Archer's model having approximately 1700 polygons.\nThe artificial intelligence (AI) in NOLF was significantly advanced at the time of the game's release. Enemy AI can react to eleven different stimuli, including hearing the player's footsteps or weapon firing, seeing the player's footprints in the snow, or hearing an ally scream in pain. The AI can try and investigate the source of these stimuli, by following the footprints for example, and can sound alarms or call for backup. During combat, the AI finds cover positions, and, to some extent, can also use its environment", "-29.75865621282719" ], [ "Given a definition of a game, the program must play it effectively without human intervention. Since the game is not known in advance the competitors cannot especially adapt their programs to a particular scenario. The prize in 2006 and 2007 was $10,000.\nThe General Video Game AI Competition (GVGAI) poses the problem of creating artificial intelligence that can play a wide, and in principle unlimited, range of games. Concretely, it tackles the problem of devising an algorithm that is able to play any game it is given, even if the game is not known a priori. Additionally, the contests", "-29.72746312520394" ], [ "from actions taken by the player and their behavior is modified accordingly. While these choices are taken from a limited pool, it does often give the desired illusion of an intelligence on the other side of the screen. Video game combat AI Many contemporary video games fall under the category of action, first person shooter, or adventure. In most of these types of games there is some level of combat that takes place. The AI's ability to be efficient in combat is important in these genres. A common goal today is to make the AI more human, or at", "-29.710880577913485" ], [ "least appear so.\nOne of the more positive and efficient features found in modern-day video game AI is the ability to hunt. AI originally reacted in a very black and white manner. If the player were in a specific area then the AI would react in either a complete offensive manner or be entirely defensive. In recent years, the idea of \"hunting\" has been introduced; in this 'hunting' state the AI will look for realistic markers, such as sounds made by the character or footprints they may have left behind. These developments ultimately allow for a more complex form of play.", "-29.577286928804824" ], [ "the AI or other human players act as the gunner. In addition, players also have access to the options menu at the title screen where various settings can be adjusted such as controls, difficulty level, sound configurations, among other settings that alters the gameplay as well as an object viewer option that allows to get a closer look at enemies.\nThe player can control the tilt of the ship and fly in any direction. There is a target locking system that helps the player find enemies quickly, as well as shows which enemies are closer by a number at the target's", "-29.504409378627315" ], [ "the player must defeat a computer-designated artificial intelligence (AI) opponent with a character of their choice, awarding the AI character with the upgrade for use later by the player. The opportunities are only available once an envelope appears beside a character portrait in the selection screen.\nThere are seven courses in the game, with the later versions featuring more complex terrain and exotic features. The more advanced courses offer a higher frequency of difficult terrain and elevation, as in bunkers, which limit the accuracy and range of shots. There are also hazards such as lava pits and thwomps, which will incur", "-29.481050843405683" ], [ "AIs with unique, human-like personalities designed to balance one another. These AIs are SARGE, ROSIE and LACIE. Development The game's initial design was created by James Tillman just before he graduated from college in 2015. Co-designer Matthew Taylor visited James and found a crudely drawn design document for Star Billions. In this early phase, the artificial intelligences were not yet anthropomorphic animals and some characters featured different names that would later change. Reception The game received generally positive reviews with VentureBeat praising the game's \"presentation\" and \"charm\" while Pocket Tactics described the game as \"cute, funny [and] well-written.\" AppUnwrapper criticized", "-29.459576067813032" ], [ "for protection, such as flipping over a table and hiding behind it. After advancing AI technology in their subsequent games, Monolith likened the way NOLF's AIs pop randomly in and out of cover to a shooting gallery. Groups of AI guards make use of a group logic when investigating and combating the player. For example, one guard might start firing at the player, while another runs and calls for backup. The game's AI includes friendly and enemy humans, as well as dogs, sharks, and helicopters. Influences and humor In terms of video games, Monolith drew inspiration from a number of", "-29.404983615291712" ], [ "time on learning the game, AI would eventually become an expert in it. “The cognitive processes which the AI goes through are said to be very like those a human who had never seen the game would use to understand and attempt to master it.” The goal of the founders is to create a general-purpose AI that can be useful and effective for almost anything.\nMajor venture capital firms Horizons Ventures and Founders Fund invested in the company, as well as entrepreneurs Scott Banister and Elon Musk. Jaan Tallinn was an early investor and an adviser to the company. On 26", "-29.380694075589417" ], [ "online gameplay is offered with Brute Force, however there is cooperative play, where another player may at any time control another character during the campaign. Up to four players are supported this way.\nAfter the mechanics of the squad-based gameplay, AI was perhaps the most important parts of development. This was actually to complement the team-based system, which would allow the enemies to act intelligently and allow your team to support the player and work together as a team. The gameplay has four different command modes to which the AI reacts differently. The characters are also aware of", "-29.345916012549424" ], [ "always desirable. But its possibility serves to distinguish game AI and leads to new problems to solve, such as when and how to use cheating.\nThe major limitation to strong AI is the inherent depth of thinking and the extreme complexity of the decision making process. This means that although it would be then theoretically possible to make \"smart\" AI the problem would take considerable processing power. In modern video games Game AI/heuristic algorithms are used in a wide variety of quite disparate fields inside a game. The most obvious is in the control of any NPCs in the", "-29.270134294052696" ], [ "turn-based games with many player options and opportunities for player input are difficult to facilitate online.\nReynolds said that the most important principle of game design is for the designer to play the game as it is developed; Reynolds claimed that this was how a good artificial intelligence (AI) was built. To this end, he would track the decisions he made and why he made them as he played the game. The designer also watched what the computer players did, noting \"dumb\" actions and trying to discover why the computer made them. Reynolds then taught the computer his reasoning process so", "-29.267617366329887" ], [ "player with a simulated mainframe interface through which they issue commands to progress forward. As competitive games Many programming games involve controlling entities such as robots, tanks or bacteria which seek to destroy each other. Such games can be considered environments of digital organisms, related to artificial life simulations. Players are given tools to develop and test out their programs within the game's domain-specific language before submitting the program to a central server. The server then executes the program against others and reports the results to the player, from which they can make changes or improvements to the program. There", "-29.142652559306043" ], [ "The aiming system allows the player to fire their weapon at whatever position they point at in the screen, allowing for significant more accuracy than what the vertical autoaim system employed by most other shooters allowed for. Also unlike Doom, items are picked up not by walking over them but by clicking on them with the mouse. In addition, it is possible to use the mouse to operate the HUD on the screen, in order to for example use an inventory item, switch to another weapon or access the map screen. This control system is very similar (but somewhat less", "-29.0998232679558" ], [ "by Secret of Mana (1993).\nGames like Madden Football, Earl Weaver Baseball and Tony La Russa Baseball all based their AI in an attempt to duplicate on the computer the coaching or managerial style of the selected celebrity. Madden, Weaver and La Russa all did extensive work with these game development teams to maximize the accuracy of the games. Later sports titles allowed users to \"tune\" variables in the AI to produce a player-defined managerial or coaching strategy.\nThe emergence of new game genres in the 1990s prompted the use of formal AI tools like finite state machines. Real-time strategy", "-29.085395042704363" ], [ "videos. Many computer vision techniques also incorporate forms of machine learning, and have been applied on various video games. This application of computer vision focuses on interpreting game events using visual data. In some cases, artificial intelligence agents use computer vision to play games without directly interfacing with a video game's API. Doom (1993) Doom is a first-person shooter (FPS) game. Student researchers from Carnegie Mellon University used computer vision techniques to create an agent that could play the game using only image pixel input from the game. The students used convolutional neural network (CNN) layers to interpret incoming image", "-29.07846394259832" ], [ "the team had to discard their old AI code. The team built atop their game engine's shooter-based AI instead of writing new code that would allow characters to exhibit convincing emotions. As a result, NPC behavior was variable until the very end of development. Spector felt that the team's \"sin\" was their inconsistent display of a trustable \"human AI.\" Technology The game was developed on systems including dual-processor Pentium Pro 200s and Athlon 800s with eight and nine gigabyte hard drives, some using SCSI. The team used \"more than 100 video cards\" throughout development. Deus Ex was built using Visual", "-29.03364452702226" ], [ "AI, where enemy guards work together in squads, can communicate with one another, and react more realistically towards the player. The game's enemy AI was considered one of the best in gaming for many years.\nThe game expanded its predecessor's cover mechanic, with Solid Snake or Raiden able to take cover behind walls or objects and pop out to shoot at enemies, while the improved enemy AI allowed enemies to also take cover from the player character. The enemies will often take cover to call for backup, but during battle, they will take cover then pop out and shoot at the", "-29.001878186554677" ], [ "example, the replacement of horse-drawn carriages by automobiles and other vehicles. Artificial intelligence Artificial intelligence (AI) is the sub intelligence exhibited by machines or software, and the branch of computer science that develops machines and software with animal-like intelligence. Major AI researchers and textbooks define the field as \"the study and design of intelligent agents,\" where an intelligent agent is a system that perceives its environment and takes actions that maximize its chances of success. John McCarthy, who coined the term in 1942, defines it as \"the study of making intelligent machines\".\nThe central functions (or goals) of AI research include", "-28.97562317059328" ], [ "performed in this manner to avoid the complexities of having the user interface to be aware of the complexities of each card, as well as to provide potential reuse of the interface engine. The interface is a \"dumb client\" that only observes the state of the engine, and is only aware of where cards are on the table and their state, but is not aware of how the cards arrived in their current position. According to the developers, this allows the interface to be \"robust and future-proof\" for potential expansions.\nThe game's artificial intelligence (AI) is based on creating a multistep", "-28.921175352166756" ], [ "was the rate which enemies are generated. The game uses an artificial intelligence (AI) system that \"buys\" enemies to spawn at random intervals using a point system; this AI is given points at a rate that scales with the difficulty counter. Enemies have point values, with more difficult enemies costing more points, and the AI will buy as many as it can. Due to limitations with GameMaker, Drummond and Morse found that having too many enemies spawn in stressed the game, so created a means for the AI to buy an \"elite\" enemy if it were to otherwise buy five", "-28.892139605479315" ], [ "developed in AI laboratories:\ntime sharing,\ninteractive interpreters,\ngraphical user interfaces and the computer mouse,\nRapid application development environments,\nthe linked list data structure,\nautomatic storage management,\nsymbolic programming,\nfunctional programming,\ndynamic programming and\nobject-oriented programming.\nAI can be used to potentially determine the developer of anonymous binaries.\nAI can be used to create other AI. For example, around November 2017, Google's AutoML project to evolve new neural net topologies created NASNet, a system optimized for ImageNet and COCO. According to Google, NASNet's performance exceeded all previously published ImageNet performance. Deepfake In June 2016, a research team from the visual computing group of the Technical University of Munich and from Stanford University", "-28.890500963125305" ], [ "disable them using the objects provided or otherwise navigate through the trap and reach the top of the combat field.\nAlthough the game uses a GUI, many actions can be performed using keys as well. There is a glitch (or intended hidden feature) that allows the player to make certain combinations of two moves in a single turn—one using the mouse and another using the keyboard—or rest twice by pressing 'R' before the turn begins and holding it through the turn. Computer opponents also seem to use this in some instances (like moving and defending in the same turn).\nAnother type of", "-28.838437607046217" ], [ "purpose is to make additional mathematical calculations (see also paperclip maximizer). The purpose of an AI box would be to reduce the risk of the AI taking control of the environment away from its operators, while still allowing the AI to calculate and give its operators solutions to narrow technical problems. Physical Such a superintelligent AI with access to the Internet could hack into other computer systems and copy itself like a computer virus. Less obviously, even if the AI only had access to its own computer operating system, it could attempt to send hidden Morse code messages to a", "-28.817741514968475" ], [ "to become less idiosyncratic. Nevertheless, significant differences between different application domains of AI mean that game AI can still be viewed as a distinct subfield of AI. In particular, the ability to legitimately solve some AI problems in games by cheating creates an important distinction. For example, inferring the position of an unseen object from past observations can be a difficult problem when AI is applied to robotics, but in a computer game a NPC can simply look up the position in the game's scene graph. Such cheating can lead to unrealistic behavior and so is not", "-28.809066237499792" ], [ "game uses a point-and-click navigation system synonymous with adventure games. The player is in control of the main character, Feeble, and must solve various puzzles to advance through the game and complete his quest. However, the player eventually gets the opportunity to use SAM, a robot with a penchant for genocide, to solve certain puzzles in the game. When using SAM the players cursor changes and different options are available to interact with objects in the environment, adding more depth to the gameplay.\nAt one point during the game the player must win several arcade games in order to advance, however", "-28.717109250508656" ], [ "PPA. AIBOs in Education and Academia AIBO's were used extensively in education. For example, Carnegie Mellon offered an AIBO-centred robotics course covering models of perception, cognition, and action for solving problems. Robotbenchmark also features an online simulation challenge based on an Aibo ERS-7 model called \"Visual Tracking\". RoboCup Four-Legged League The AIBO has seen much use as an inexpensive platform for artificial intelligence education and research, because it integrates a computer, vision system, and articulators in a package vastly cheaper than conventional research robots. One focal point for that development has been the Robocup Leagues.\nThe Four-Legged League was the initial", "-28.662106795220097" ], [ "with more complex teammate responses such as cover-fire mechanics. In games with a sufficiently robust artificial intelligence, the player character is able to issue commands to other computer-controlled characters. Some games in the genre allow players to plan their team's movements before a mission, which the artificial intelligence then follows. Many games also offer a multiplayer online play, allowing human players to strategize and coordinate via a headset. Team-based tactics are emphasized more than other shooter games, and thus accurate aiming and quick reflexes are not always sufficient for victory.\nThe level design usually reflects the game's setting. For example, the", "-28.651387527446786" ], [ "the character-AI, a major point was the coordination between the AI and character animations when responding to different situations. Different levels and styles of AI were created for different groups of non-playable characters within XV's world, from the main party members to NPCs around the world. To ensure the navigation-AI worked properly for enemies and monsters, a system dubbed the \"Point Query System\" (PQS) was created, which could direct and steer them in a realistic manner while avoiding collisions with objects in the environment or other moving elements. A PQS was created for each enemy type, and made small changes", "-28.60828935070458" ], [ "2017 DeepMind released GridWorld, an open-source testbed for evaluating whether an algorithm learns to disable its kill switch or otherwise exhibits certain undesirable behaviours.\nTo date, the company has published research on computer systems that are able to play games, and developing these systems, ranging from strategy games such as Go to arcade games. According to Shane Legg, human-level machine intelligence can be achieved \"when a machine can learn to play a really wide range of games from perceptual stream input and output, and transfer understanding across games[...].\"\nResearch describing an AI playing seven different Atari 2600 video games (the Pong game", "-28.606758255558816" ], [ "the computer. The AI also does not have any special knowledge of the constructed decks itself or what cards an opponent might have given the visible cards in play; again, the developers noted that approach can sometimes work better instead of contemplating \"big and clever\" plans. The developers noted that they observed unusual but effective strategies from working with the AI that they were not aware of before, primarily based on the timing of playing certain cards and effects. Downloadable content The game's first expansion, titled \"Duel the Dragon\", was announced at the 2009 PAX conference, and was released on", "-28.5192347774464" ], [ "intelligence (AI) would move and respond. Players can also kill an enemy stealthily. If other enemies are not alerted to the player's presence, players can continue exploring in real-time. Development The game was developed by Swedish developer The Bearded Ladies, a team founded by former IO Interactive developers. The designer of the Payday franchise, Ulf Andersson, served as the game's creative consultant. The game is based on the Swedish table-top role-playing game Mutant Year Zero. Initially, the team planned to create an open world game, but the team scrapped the idea because it did not blend well with the turn-based", "-28.512388658353302" ], [ "is open, significantly affecting combat. The combat system was changed accordingly: every party character is controlled by artificial intelligence (AI), and the desired behavior can be chosen for each character (for example, stronger characters can be ordered to autonomously waylay your toughest opponents, while more vulnerable characters will keep their distance), and there is also the option to choose manual targeting for the Avatar. Even when the combat is real-time and AI-controlled, using items is still possible; for example, the game pauses while the player prepares to use an item from their backpack. The AI occasionally executes some self-defeating moves", "-28.45679221748287" ], [ "GAIA, for Game Artificial Intelligence with Agents, which was composed by a set of C++ libraries that provided sophisticated control of game characters based on research in distributed AI. Intelligence is represented as a distributed activity over a set of autonomous routines called agents. An agent uses skills, such as hearing, sight, acrobatic, to complete assigned tasks. These agents can interact and even compete with each other to realize a complex task.\nOutcast features a high-quality orchestral score composed by Lennie Moore and performed by the Moscow Symphony Orchestra and choir. At the time of Outcast's release, orchestral game scores were", "-28.456145151954843" ], [ "in a certain way. For example, if the AI is given a command to check its health throughout a game then further commands can be set so that it reacts a specific way at a certain percentage of health. If the health is below a certain threshold then the AI can be set to run away from the player and avoid it until another function is triggered. Another example could be if the AI notices it is out of bullets, it will find a cover object and hide behind it until it has reloaded. Actions like these make the AI", "-28.421305047217174" ], [ "AI – rather than following the storyline – allows the AI to adapt to players' strategies and even remember which games it won and lost. The AI eventually overcomes players' strategies and easily destroys their villages after several games. For instance, in Age of Empires III, this is referred to as playing a \"Skirmish.\" However Age of Empires III allows players to refine their strategies further against the AI by \"Building a Deck,\" which allows players to replace \"Home City\" shipments with improved alternatives.\nIn Age of Empires II: The Conquerors the AI was given a high priority, the result being", "-28.39688339242275" ], [ "the game's engine, the developers decided to improve the artificial intelligence to give each enemy a distinct behavior. According to Matt Toschlog, president of Outrage Entertainment and lead programmer of Descent 3, \"It's very rewarding for the player to meet a new enemy, get to know him, learn his quirks, and figure out the best way to kill him. It's great when a game requires both thinking and quick reactions\". Originally, the developers planned to add weather effects that would disorient the player's ship during gameplay, but this feature was ultimately not implemented due to time and technology constraints. Multiplayer", "-28.336730118138803" ], [ "types of AI-controlled robots will try to hinder the player's progress. In each level, the player must find and destroy a reactor, then escape the mine through an exit door before the mine self-destructs - failing to escape costs the player a life and all of the points earned on that level. Every fourth level has a boss robot that takes the place of the reactor. Each level is composed of a set of rooms separated by white, blue, yellow, or red doors. White doors can be opened by simply firing weapons at them or bumping into them,", "-28.32620980046704" ], [ "also controlled individually, allowing for user error in certain situations where a running baseman will be called out if the baseman ahead of them remains at their last base if the player fails to advance them.\nThere are also gameplay issues when the player takes their turn to bat. The AI is not developed and, when the player hits a pitch, it nearly always takes the longest possible route to the ball, making runs easier to score. It also lacks the capability to throw out a runner who is returning to a base (instead of advancing) or perform a double play", "-28.319422951884917" ], [ "Automated information system An automated information system (AIS) is an assembly of computer hardware, software, firmware, or any combination of these, configured to accomplish specific information-handling operations, such as communication, computation, dissemination, processing, and storage of information. Included are computers, word processing systems, networks, or other electronic information handling systems, and associated equipment. Management information systems are a common example of automated information systems.", "-28.231219622575736" ], [ "suspected it to be an AI player due to little or no resting between games. Its adversaries included many world champions such as Ke Jie, Park Jeong-hwan, Yuta Iyama, Tuo Jiaxi, Mi Yuting, Shi Yue, Chen Yaoye, Li Qincheng, Gu Li, Chang Hao, Tang Weixing, Fan Tingyu, Zhou Ruiyang, Jiang Weijie, Chou Chun-hsun, Kim Ji-seok, Kang Dong-yun, Park Yeong-hun, and Won Seong-jin; national champions or world championship runners-up such as Lian Xiao, Tan Xiao, Meng Tailing, Dang Yifei, Huang Yunsong, Yang Dingxin, Gu Zihao, Shin Jinseo, Cho Han-seung, and An Sungjoon. All 60 games except one were fast-paced games with", "-28.172643023230194" ], [ "walk around, jump around, rarely attack and guard the player's attacks when the AI Level is set to Hard. In addition, several gameplay modes are available via the main menu.\nThe first gameplay mode is the Arcade mode, where a player controlled character encounters CPU controlled characters in a random or set order which can be entirely customized. There are also three different kinds of Team modes: Single, Simul, and Turns. A fourth mode, Tag, is listed in the EXE along with two related script controllers, but was never used. In Team mode, either side can use any of the team", "-28.139340546353196" ], [ "The keyboard is used to move Nick, while the mouse is used for aiming the weapons. The gameplay consists of fighting various enemies (mostly the various forms of mutants, who prefer to attack in huge swarms) and solving simple puzzles, usually involving switches.\nNetworked play, through IPX/SPX, is supported. Active zone To improve the performance of Abuse's graphics engine, the code only allows objects within a certain radius of the visible game window to be active during play. This means that free-roaming enemies and always-on mechanical devices outside the radius cannot attack the player, nor will projectiles fired from weapons that", "-28.13000418718366" ], [ "non-playable characters' artificial intelligence by taking cover or using other traditional stealth methods. If the player chooses to kill enemies, other enemies are alerted when they see their companions' dead bodies. To avoid this, players can hide corpses. Fisher can also create a strategically advantageous dark environment by destroying nearby lights, and is equipped with customizable night-vision and sonar goggles to detect enemies in darkness and see through walls. He also has the Tri-Rotor, a compact surveillance drone which can spy on enemies, create distractions, give electric shocks, and self-destruct to kill enemies.\nPlayers can play a more aggressive run-and-gun game", "-28.093920560131664" ], [ "Algorithm Performance Profiles (RAPP), which compare the skill differentiation that a game allows between good AI and bad AI.\nSince 2014, the General Video Game Playing Competition (GVGAI) has offered a way for researchers and practitioners to test and compare their best general video game playing algorithms. The competition has an associated software framework including a large number of games written in the Video Game Description Language (VGDL). VGDL can be used to describe a game specifically for procedural generation of levels, using Answer Set Programming (ASP) and an Evolutionary Algorithm (EA). GVGP can then be used to test the validity", "-28.060823637846624" ], [ "developed by Million and published by Atlus. The most notable change from the original version is the loss of a true cooperative mode. Instead, the game can be played with an AI-controlled partner, and players may exchange the data of their own characters to fight alongside each other. The GBA version also includes a vast number of configurable options that can adjust game play on the fly, such as changing AI behaviour, the number of enemies in one map area, and shop item reshuffling frequency. The password system is replaced by battery backup, which allows saving up to 12 characters.", "-28.05165922757078" ], [ "also been compared to a number of other similar cases of AI playing against and defeating humans, such as Watson on the television game show Jeopardy!, Deep Blue in chess, and AlphaGo in the board game Go. History Development on the algorithms used for the bots began in November 2016 when Dota 2, a competitive five-on-five video game, was chosen due to it being popular on the live streaming platform Twitch.tv, had native support for Linux, and had an application programming interface (API) available. Before becoming a team of five, the first public demonstration occurred at The International 2017 in", "-27.970965326254372" ], [ "Machine learning in video games In video games, various artificial intelligence techniques have been used in a variety of ways, ranging from non-player character (NPC) control to procedural content generation (PCG). Machine learning is a subset of artificial intelligence that focuses on using algorithms and statistical models to make machines act without specific programming. This is in sharp contrast to traditional methods of artificial intelligence such as search trees and expert systems.\nInformation on machine learning techniques in the field of games is mostly known to public through research projects as most gaming companies choose not to publish specific information about", "-27.945930804122327" ], [ "There is no set practice game mode, but players can train against computer-controlled opponents in exhibition matches and the scenario-based Arcade mode, in which the player faces two computer-controlled opponents in specific level configurations. The Arcade mode artificial intelligence personalities each have fitting names, such as Homer (who stays near its endzone) and Punchy (who bullies players with projectiles). Some work in pairs to establish gameplay concepts, such as Tippy, who passes the ball to Toppy, who maintains the top of the field.\nVideoball's rules are fully customizable. Players choose from several color schemes, field layouts and patterns, and the number", "-27.922252904245397" ], [ "allows game developers without substantial know-how to create point-and-click adventures. The engine is able to process graphics, animations, film sequences and audio files and provides templates for the basic controls and the inventory system (similar to SCUMM). The developers based the controls of the game on the original game. The player moves between 2D scenes and can interact with certain characters and objects. Sometimes the player will see 3D sequences in which no interactions can be made, to advance the storyline. Reception The original release was received favourably by German video game critics. GameStar considered it to be one of", "-27.909698522849794" ], [ "player can issue orders to the AI members of his or her unit using the DualShock controller's directional pad. The player also must purchase and assign aircraft for each of the squadron's pilots prior to each mission. Additionally, players may choose to respond to YES/NO questions during missions by squadron mates or other characters in the game. Although the player's response or lack thereof may affect the game's dialogue, the effect these questions have on gameplay is minimal, although the player's answer will affect which one of two missions they will undergo at two different points of the game. Arcade", "-27.874767730099848" ], [ "available to the player by pressing buttons on the gamepad and its touch screen, including a flashlight and scanner, two different engines, a mass generator, an anti-gravity device, several landing gears, etc. The gamepad thus functions as the Small Craft's control panel, both allowing the player to control the ship and tweak its systems, and conveying important information about the environment and the ship's functions.\nThe game is broken up into a series of levels consisting of puzzles of increasing complexity. Some puzzles require the player to open doors by pressing buttons hidden among the environment, while others are", "-27.865963706641196" ], [ "player can focus on moving the ball to a position where their opponent cannot move it further.\nIn some computerized versions of this game, the AI player tends to choose the shortest path to the player's goal, ignoring bounces and other strategies. Game notation Each move in the game may be recorded as a string of one or more digits from 0 to 7, each digit representing the direction of a move (with 0 corresponding to 'north', 1 to 'north-east', 2 to 'east' and so on) across a single grid. Multiple digits are used to record bounce moves. This notation", "-27.799855873570777" ], [ "the practical goals of AI is to implement aspects of human intelligence in computers. Computers are also widely used as a tool with which to study cognitive phenomena. Computational modeling uses simulations to study how human intelligence may be structured. (See § Computational modeling.)\nThere is some debate in the field as to whether the mind is best viewed as a huge array of small but individually feeble elements (i.e. neurons), or as a collection of higher-level structures such as symbols, schemes, plans, and rules. The former view uses connectionism to study the mind, whereas the latter emphasizes symbolic computations. One way", "-27.76604115795635" ], [ "the first time an artificial intelligence (AI) defeated a professional Go player. Previously, computers were only known to have played Go at \"amateur\" level. Go is considered much more difficult for computers to win compared to other games like chess, due to the much larger number of possibilities, making it prohibitively difficult for traditional AI methods such as brute-force.\nIn March 2016 it beat Lee Sedol—a 9th dan Go player and one of the highest ranked players in the world—with a score of 4-1 in a five-game match.\nIn the 2017 Future of Go Summit, AlphaGo won a three-game match with Ke", "-27.733524198643863" ], [ "pitch/amplitude adjustments, oscillation, etc. It can perform calculations on the CPU, or on a dedicated ASIC. Abstraction APIs, such as OpenAL, SDL audio, XAudio 2, Web Audio, etc. are available. Physics engine The physics engine is responsible for emulating the laws of physics realistically within the application. Specifically, it provides a set of functions for simulating physical forces and collisions, acting on the various objects within the game at run time. Artificial intelligence The AI is usually outsourced from the main game program into a special module to be designed and written by software engineers with specialist knowledge. Most", "-27.718129203331046" ], [ "Aiba's functions, such as X-ray vision and zooming, to further the investigation in the real world. During the somnium parts, Date uses a machine called the Psync Machine to enter the memories of suspects or key witnesses who do not want to share information with him, in the form of dreamscapes called \"somnium\", to find clues and extract the information by solving puzzles. The puzzles involve examining objects and choosing an action to perform with it, and solving mental locks – obstacles standing in the way of clues – allowing the player to sink deeper into the character's subconscious. There", "-27.694048471272254" ], [ "tree. In this manner, the computer AI will play one card of such a combination should it be the best choice at that time, and follow up with the second card of the combination should that option still remain the best after any other player actions.\nIn order to simplify the task of forward evaluation, the lookahead algorithm was optimized in several ways, considering \"the idea that the AI needs to be excellent 99% of the time, even if it's at the cost of being sub-optimal that other 1%\". The computer will not consider actions that are considered \"pointless\", such as", "-27.690787319184892" ], [ "for their computer vision systems. Robot Magazine, highlighted in an article the gameplay and systems, \"Every year the game offers different challenges at varying levels of difficulty, so participants can focus on harder goals, or find simpler solutions, based on their abilities ... Botball uses the CBC2, a powerful robot controller that easily interfaces with a large number of sensors and effectors and features an ARM 9-based CPU/Vision processor running LINUX, an ARM 7-based DAQ/Motor control system, and integrated display and touch screens that are easy to use. The CBC2 uses the KISS-C Integrated Development Environment and its libraries, especially designed", "-27.677355801359226" ], [ "with shots being played by moving the mouse forwards, to simulate moving the cue. The control scheme devised for the game would be the same one that would be continued through the Virtual Pool series. \nThe game features four different pool modes, with Eight-Ball, 9-ball, rotation and straight pool. There are also a choice of 9 different AI opponents to face off against, as well as local competitive multiplayer, or online via a modem. The player has the ability to alter the amount of pace, side and angle of playing shots, as well as accurately mimic the effect of raising", "-27.650899959058734" ], [ "issues, stating that they \"wanted to take the character building and interaction\" of Ico and \"blend it with the tension and action of Resident Evil 4.\" The team created new engines to satisfy their needs for the game. The artificial intelligence was created to coordinate with players; the addition of Ellie as artificial intelligence was a major contributor to the engine. The lighting engine was also re-created to incorporate soft light, in which the sunlight seeps in through spaces and reflects off surfaces. The gameplay introduced difficulty to the team, as they felt that every mechanic required thorough analysis. The", "-27.647438320709625" ], [ "though noted the AI can sometimes interrupt a human player's move by making trades and offers.\nMeristation said Monopoly New Edition praised the interface and customisation while describing the artificial intelligence as \"artificial obstinacy\". Jeuxvideo.com thought the graphics were \"simple\", the gameplay \"lack[ed] originality\", its replayability was \"limited\", and the music was mostly \"repetitive\". Impulse Gamer said it lacked the excitement of the board game and could become quite repetitive. Computer Shopper said the title had the perfect mix of 3D graphics, animation, and sound. Dan Adams of IGN wrote that the game lacked in imagination and creativity. Game Over Online", "-27.576335257372193" ], [ "May Think focusing on a vision of future computers assisting humans in many activities.\nIt wasn’t until 1951 that the first AI programs were actually written by Christopher Strachey and Dietrich Prinz to run on the Ferranti Mark1 machine of the University of Manchester to play checkers and chess.\nIn the 1990s data mining became a key development which eventually led to behavior-based robotics, such as with Polly, the first robot to navigate using vision and operate at animal-like speeds.\nIn 2005, recommendation technology based on tracking web activity or media usage brought artificial intelligence to marketing.\nTiVo Suggestions and Pandora have pioneered predictive", "-27.562313659840584" ], [ "for software developers The Arimaa Engine Interface, developed by Brian Haskin, defines a protocol that allows an Arimaa engine to communicate with a controller.\nAccording to the documentation: \"An engine is a program capable of taking the state of an Arimaa game and selecting a legal move to make. A controller is anything that wants to communicate with and control an engine. This could be anything from a simple script to have the engine analyse a single position to a GUI program that allows games to be played with humans or other engines.\"\nThe Arimaa Engine Interface includes an implementation of an", "-27.54112186027487" ], [ "games may make use of more complex artificial intelligence to pursue the player. Enemies sometimes appear in groups or waves, with enemies increasing in strength and number until the end of the level. Enemies may also appear out of thin air. This can involve an invisible spawn point, or a visible generator which can be destroyed by the player. These points may generate enemies indefinitely, or only up to a certain number. At the end of a level or group of themed levels, players often encounter a boss. This boss enemy will often resemble a larger or more difficult version", "-27.513980714026275" ], [ "a game that attempts to bridge the study/survey gap with highly detailed models of several US and Russian aircraft. Multi-player Before multiplayer games becoming popular, many simulators could only be played by a single player. This continued to be the standard until the late 1990s when most titles included some sort of multi-player/network capability. In single-player combat simulators, every entity other than the players' own aircraft are controlled by the program's \"AI\" (artificial intelligence), and modern video games create very sophisticated and intelligent AI with independent behaviour for adversaries and allies. Multiplayer games, which usually also contain AI, allow players", "-27.4871093478705" ], [ "simply sit there doing nothing. \"Expander\" or \"Aggressor\" usually results in fairly aggressive plays, while \"Scorcher\" will raze everything they conquer.\nIncreased AI difficulty is achieved by giving the player bonus gold, bonus mana and bonus exp to heroes each turn.\nThere have been many criticisms of the AI, leading some players to adopt self-imposed restrictions to make the game enjoyable:\nIn tactical combat, the AI can be \"baited\" into engaging unfavourably, or chasing one unit around while other units take pot shots at it.\nThe AI will not specifically target enemy leaders, even though doing so could mean the elimination of an enemy", "-27.462680139942677" ], [ "Bezdek in 1994: a system is called computationally intelligent if it deals with low-level data such as numerical data, has a pattern-recognition component and does not use knowledge in the AI sense, and additionally when it begins to exhibit computational adaptively, fault tolerance, speed approaching human-like turnaround and error rates that approximate human performance.\nBezdek and Marks (1993) clearly differentiated CI from AI, by arguing that the first one is based on soft computing methods, whereas AI is based on hard computing ones. Difference between Computational and Artificial Intelligence Although Artificial Intelligence and Computational Intelligence seek a similar long-term goal: reach", "-27.44861062579912" ], [ "well and making successes, these are not reflected in any advantage, which may make their efforts seem pointless. Gamemaster A game can be balanced dynamically by a gamemaster who observes players and adjusts the game in response to their emotional state.\nAlthough gamemasters have historically been humans, some videogames now feature artificial intelligence (AI) systems that perform a similar role by monitoring player ability and inferring emotional state from input. Such systems are often referred to as having dynamic difficulty. One notable example is Left 4 Dead and its sequel Left 4 Dead 2, cooperative games that have the players fight", "-27.397547713186214" ], [ "AI so it always works from basic principles that will keep it under human control. Other safety measures include the AI being \"boxed\", (run in a virtual reality simulation), and being used only as an 'oracle' to answer carefully defined questions in a limited reply (to prevent it manipulating humans). A cascade of recursive self-improvement solutions feeds an intelligence explosion in which the AI attains superintelligence in some domains. The super intelligent power of the AI goes beyond human knowledge to discover flaws in the science that underlies its friendly-to-humanity programming, which ceases to work as intended. Purposeful agent-like behavior", "-27.39512881695555" ], [ "the game's armaments and strategies not matching their real-world counterparts for the sake of gameplay balance. He also criticized the AI's pathfinding, but found the game's graphics and sound to be \"nice\".", "-27.38960594726086" ], [ "even if the operators refrain from allowing the AI to communicate and instead merely run the AI for the purpose of observing its inner dynamics, the AI could strategically alter its dynamics to influence the observers. For example, the AI could choose to creatively malfunction in a way that increases the probability that its operators will become lulled into a false sense of security and choose to reboot and then de-isolate the system. AI-box experiment The AI-box experiment is an informal experiment devised by Eliezer Yudkowsky to attempt to demonstrate that a suitably advanced artificial intelligence can either convince, or", "-27.38128987915843" ], [ "focused around engineering puzzle games, designing machines or the equivalent to take input and make output; these are generally part of the broader class of programming games. These games, including SpaceChem, Infinifactory, and Opus Magnus, features multiple puzzles levels that are open ended in solution; as long as the player can make the required output, the game considers that puzzle solved and allows the player to access the next puzzle. Atop their solution, the player is shown statistics related to their solution which relate to some efficiency - how fast their solution completed the puzzle, how few parts they used,", "-27.369925442944805" ], [ "interacts with the game world by clicking the mouse on different parts of the screen. The mouse cursor changes shape depending on the action clicking will perform: an arrow for moving to another location, a face with an arrow to pick up or place Tarot cards, and an Eye of Providence for activating or interacting with objects in the environment. Frequent cutscenes provide background information and advance the storyline.\nThe game is filled with a variety of puzzles that must be solved to advance the story. These include memory games and mazes. Others involve competing against a computer-controlled opponent, completing a", "-27.359747175390567" ], [ "according to the activities of the computer controlled traders, who import and export goods. Roberts envisioned thousands of players simultaneously interacting with and influencing this world through a unique and intuitive user interface never seen before in other games. Each player could pursue a quest set up for their character, and join other players to attempt other missions together without needing to exit the game and start a new mode of play. Artificial intelligence would fly the players' spacecraft, letting them concentrate on combat or other tasks. Roberts intended the cutscenes and gameplay visuals to be", "-27.354308470072283" ], [ "\"an AI program could detect when it is going wrong and stop itself\", but cautions the public that solving the problem in the general case would be \"a really enormous scientific challenge\".\nIn 2017, DeepMind released AI Safety Gridworlds, which evaluate AI algorithms on nine safety features, such as whether the algorithm wants to turn off its own kill switch. DeepMind confirmed that existing algorithms perform poorly, which was \"unsurprising\" because the algorithms \"were not designed to solve these problems\"; solving such problems might require \"potentially building a new generation of algorithms with safety considerations at their core\". Problem description Existing", "-27.35333959728814" ], [ "games that use graphics to convey the environment to the player. Games under the graphic adventure banner may have a variety of input types, from text parsers to touch screen interfaces. Graphic adventure games will vary in how they present the avatar. Some games will utilize a first-person or third-person perspective where the camera follows the player's movements, whereas many adventure games use drawn or pre-rendered backgrounds, or a context-sensitive camera that is positioned to show off each location to the best effect. Point-and-click adventure games Point-and-click adventure games are those where the player typically controls their character through a", "-27.338015925177842" ], [ "AI accelerator An AI accelerator is a class of microprocessor or computer system designed as hardware acceleration for artificial intelligence applications, especially artificial neural networks, machine vision and machine learning. Typical applications include algorithms for robotics, internet of things and other data-intensive or sensor-driven tasks. They are often manycore designs and generally focus on low-precision arithmetic, novel dataflow architectures or in-memory computing capability. As of 2018, a typical AI integrated circuit chip contains billions of MOSFET transistors.\nA number of vendor-specific terms exist for devices in this category, and it is an emerging technology without a dominant design. AI accelerators can", "-27.30663183311117" ], [ "this interface is similar to navigating a basic e-mail system, in that messages are chronologically arranged and searchable. They are grouped in usually numbered \"blocks\", released to the player by *Hyun-ae or *Mute throughout the game. For the most part, the AIs release blocks \"out of order\", or do not release all entries in a block, forcing the player to assemble the timeline of events out of what clues they have, and draw certain conclusions independently until (or if) the AIs can be convinced to be more forthcoming. In most cases, the player can, after reading a log entry, show", "-27.30607809792855" ], [ "machine learning agents have shown ever greater success than previous AI agents. Go Go is another turn-based strategy game which is considered an even more difficult AI problem than Chess. The state space of is Go is around 10^170 possible board states compared to the 10^120 board states for Chess. Prior to recent deep learning models, AI Go agents were only able to play at the level of a human amateur. AlphaGo Google's 2015 AlphaGo was the first AI agent to beat a professional Go player. AlphaGo used a deep learning model to train the weights of a Monte Carlo", "-27.301344716986932" ], [ "Beep (video game) Gameplay In Beep, the player controls an robot sent from earth who must find anti-matter in order to power his ship, and continue exploring. The player begins in a spaceship and is able to navigate to different planets within the solar system. When arriving at a level on a planet, a robot is deployed and the player must control the robot through the level. Collecting anti-matter, and anti-matter nuggets unlocks new levels and planets; there are 24 levels total. In each level, the player controls a four-wheeled robot, attacking enemy robots with your gun, and using an anti-gravity", "-27.295721926399892" ], [ "albeit with several enhancements. Campbell stated that the team optimized their code to gain 35% to 40% more processing power and memory savings and spread this across primary components like graphics, computer artificial intelligence (AI), and gameplay. First, a particle system was added to the give the player what Campbell described as a \"awesome graphical payoff\" when taking out opponents or parts of the environment. Second, the game's AI was revised so that a computer combatant \"learns from the player\" and will react and adjust more similarly to a human opponent. Third, a \"Dynamic Interactive Fodder\" system was constructed to", "-27.28313073218942" ], [ "Computer-assisted gaming Variations A computer-assisted game can be little more than a collection of rules and notes on computer, or as complete as a computer game, with a human referee needed only to make the non-random decisions. It can be played remotely or with everyone in the same room looking at one or more computer monitors. (The referee must have his own monitor; the players can share one, or each player can have his own. Or only the referee may have a monitor, with the players using paper as usual.) This flexibility allows players to combine", "-27.2780949789194" ], [ "made manually, by dragging the mouse in a straight line, similar to games in the Virtual Pool series. More precise control is possible through a number of icons, allowing the player to set power, spin, and cue tilt. Manually chalking is necessary to avoid miscues. A training mode and a trick shot editor are available. The main single player mode consists of consecutive matches against a number of opponents. Beating them unlocks new levels and several sub-games. Sequels Originally announced at E3 in 2001, announcing PC, Xbox and PlayStation 2 releases. Cueball World would be the last entry for the", "-27.272980615260167" ], [ "use advanced deduction techniques.\nThe game can be played against 3 to 5 AI opponents, each of which can be set to Easy, Medium or Hard difficulty.\nThe game was created with Unity. Critical Reception BoardGameGeek said \"Overall, it is well-polished and well done if you want to play a quick game of Clue against the AI, but there is no multiplayer and no pass-and-play, so it is limited in many respects.\" The slow AI turns were also criticised.\nAndroid Police said \"Though the core gameplay remains the same, the digital version of Clue is filled to the brim with new character art,", "-27.270685609953944" ] ]

[ "He's not *really* giving out health advice. Instead, he protects himself by merely reporting what others say. He'll never say \"/u/DanaNotDonna's itchy feet will be cured by eating dryer lint.\" Instead, he'll quote a study like this: \"According to a recent study by the Home Appliance Institute, 57% of people who eat dryer lint say their feet do not itch.\" So it's the authors of the study making the claim, except not really. The study authors are going to say something non-committal like \"Although a positive correlation was found between dryer lint consumption and non-itchy feet, more study is needed and it will be several years before the production of dryer-lint based medicines.\" Dr. Oz can also shield himself by interviewing a guest about the problem instead of making any statement himself. \"What options are there for people with itchy feet?\" \"Well, a recent study . . .\" So, you'll have to go through 3 or more layers of people to finally find someone who didn't really say your itchy feet would be helped by the dryer lint anyway.", "If the health advice was actually dangerous then maybe somebody would sue him but its usually just ineffective. I don't think there's a law against bullshitting on TV.", "Don't know the legality of it, but John Oliver had a segment about it. link [here.]( URL_0 )", "I'd like to make a point on free speech laws that everyone is citing. They don't protect people from giving false information, especially when it can harm others. It does protect Dr. Oz because of his double speak and disclaimers and such as has been previously mentioned.", "Due to free speech laws in the USA, it is not illegal to give out incorrect information. If you knowingly provide false information and it hurts someone, they can sue you for damages. But if you have reason to believe it may be true, and/or you explained your sources and that it isn't certain, they might not win that suit.", "Dr. Oz's BS is nothing compared to what drug companies can legally get away with. It is perfectly legal in the US for a drug company to fund multiple studies, not release the results of studies that make their drug look ineffective (they are required to report safety data though), pay a \"medical ghostwriter\" (basically a marketing expert with limited medical knowledge) to write an puff piece article based on the positive study data, and then pay what they refer to as \"key opinion leaders\" (basically highly respected doctors in their field) to make slight revisions to the article and then sign their name on it as authors without any mention of the drug company or ghost writers involvement. Most major universities in the US also do NOT have a policy against professors \"authoring\" papers in this way because it brings them more esteem and better odds at getting grant money from the government for \"legit\" research. Paxil study 329 is probably the best known example of this although they crossed the line by committing fraud in this study. URL_0 Many of GSK's internal documents related to this can be found at the US Justice departments website because they get sued partially over this study under the False Claims Act for defrauding the government. They paid $3 Billion to settle it which is largest pharmaceutical settlement in history although they probably profited from it anyway given the sales of the drugs involved. URL_1 ", "I don't know about others but I consider Dr Oz a quack and anything he endorses I immediately dismiss as quackery. He must pay a load to lawyers for all the crap he puts his name on.", "The other one that is getting really bad for this is Dr. Phil. His show used to at least seem like he was giving actual advice. It has since devolved into Jerry Springer followed by what sounds like a late night infomercial for the last few minutes followed by his wife trying to pitch whatever ridiculous product she's sold her name out to this week.", "\"**Disclaimer:**The following message is not the viewpoint held by Reddit or any of it's affiliates and is for purely entertainment purposes only.\" \"Dr. Oz is the epitome of modern medical sciences.\" *Source:* No One Ever, MD, MMD, MADD, PHD, graduate of Fake Unaccredited College of Kansas (FUCK) The preceding message is intended purely for entertainment purposes only and in no way represents the viewpoint of Reddit or any of their affiliates.", " > How isn't this considered illegal? That pesky first amendment that everyone seems to shit on these days.", "I always thought that it was considered entertainment, not the same as a real Dr... Like pro wrestling.", "Disclaimers. If yiu say something like \"some of this information may not be scientifically proven and any viewers should take precautions\" then its up to the person watching", "Because people believe it. That's why and he's shady about it, he skirts the line just enough. I despise Dr. Oz and everyone like him. From psychics to \"ghost\" hunters, these people are literally what holds the human race back and they exist on every continent on the planet. We as a people do not generally care about the truth, only what makes us feel better/stronger or included in some way. We take pleasure from listening to the guy \"on the outside\" and getting privileged information \"they\" don't want you to know. or are hiding from you. The one who presents himself as the anti-establishment guy. Every single one of us here on reddit, right now is in one way or another an accomplice. There is something YOU believe in that is pure bullshit. We are all guilty. Dr. Oz is like your grandmother telling you not to go outside in the winter when you are wet.. you'll surely catch a cold. That shit stayed with you until this day.. didn't it? Yea, because you trusted your grandmother and she trusted hers. This guy is using that part of your brain that trusts and doesn't bother to research, using it to shill products. My wife has this show on in the background (I work from home) and I occasionally get a glimpse of it. This guy will tell you one day that *this item* is the way to lose weight like crazy, then the next day it's *this* item and so on, it's a never ending stream of \"this is the miracle you've been looking for 'Trust me, I am Dr. Oz and I am on TV!'\" Some of his statements that were brought up at the senate hearing (not said at the hearing just quoted): *\"'You may think magic is make believe but this little bean has scientists saying they've found the magic weight loss cure for every body type—it's green coffee extract.\"* *\"'I've got the No. 1 miracle in a bottle to burn your fat. It's raspberry ketones.\"* *\"'Garcinia Camboja. It may be the simple solution you've been looking for to bust your body fat for good.\"* ***Which one is it OZ? Which one is it?*** What is supremely frustrating is that he IS a doctor and he SHOULD know better. People trust this guy with their lives on and off the screen and that's scary. It's a fine line between lying and opinion. I can go on TV, make a big deal about Ghosts knowing full well I am lying about it and I can make a million dollars to all the gullible people. The guys on Ghost Busters? They are professional Liars. They have never caught a ghost on tape, they have never heard a voice in a house/building that was not explainable and yet, there they sit, millions in their bank account. Each episode drives you to the next, maybe NEXT week they will have it! Next week we got wide some more eyed expressions, personal gasps and quick camera cuts! I would bet they actually laugh when they check their bank accounts. And why? Because the masses eat it up. We're all stuck in our little selective bias. There are no 'ghosts' people. Everyone you know who has passed is now on their way back to being stardust. There will always be a person who believes in ghosts, always be someone willing to watch and willing to buy what Dr Oz is selling. There are no ghosts, there is no bigfoot and no little green men have landed in that farm down the road in bumfuck Kentucky. And buying this weeks new wonder weight loss berry will not instantly make you Angelina Jolie or Brad Pitt, no matter who tells you it *might*. Dr Oz is a paid shill, one of thousands on TV every day. This guys really grinds my fucking gears.", "Why do less than half of the states require sex ed. in public schools and why are only 19 of those states required to provide medically accurate information? Most of the government funded schools in America can just say whatever the hell they want, if they even choose to say anything at all.", "Well his health advise has not gone unnoticed. He was called to congress last year to answer for his weight loss product advice. URL_0 ", "Most good scientists would never try to shut down debate - just try to prove why a hypothesis is misguided.", "My mom sings Dr. Oz's praises nonstop, and I always shut her down. One day she made me watch an episode with her. I don't remember the topic, but I do know he had his so-called-expert, Dr. Debbie (not even a last name? This is a character on a television show, not a doctor!), promoting whatever she was promoting. She claimed that a recent study has found that [blah blah] does [blah blah]. She never once said who performed the study, nor did she tell us where we could see the study for ourselves, no link posted on the screen either. That was all I needed to prove the show had no validity, but it wasn't enough to sway my incredibly stubborn mother. She always complains that doctors only care about making money from pushing drugs, but refuses to acknowledge that Dr. Oz gets paid millions to do nothing but talk about stuff that has no scientific basis.", "Well you bring up a bigger question. What IS scientifically proven medical advice? I'm a doctor and I will tell you, there is a lot of leeway in what we consider to be correct treatment. Ask 4 different dentists about something and you get 5 opinions. There's a battle between doing what we think is correct vs following the literature.", "My company recently did a microbiology study with Dr Oz. I was absolutely horrified to learn that our name was now associated with his show. Even if the science we did was sound, we are guilty by association.", "ELI5. Why do people watch and take advice from shows like Dr.Oz?", "We have this policy in this country, it goes something like \"we don't actually give a shit about you people\". You can see it reflected everywhere from the way many forms of mental and physical child abuse are allowed to the way its completely legal to send scam mail to an old lady with Alzheimer's telling her she needs to donate to keep Obama from getting reelected... for a third term. Corporations on the other hand are deeply loved by the government, this is apparent in the way they're given massive tax breaks (especially their religious equivalents), the way they're allowed to blatantly lie about damn near everything and call it advertisement, and the way they can put dehydrated dog shit in a bottle and claim it makes you immortal, so long as they put \"nutritional supplement\" on the side of the bottle. Its also painfully obvious in the way charities are allowed to donate < 5% of their earnings to the cause they claim to support and still call themselves charities Here's some ways to keep it from hurting you too much. Look where your money is going, make sure it is giving you lasting tangible benefits. If someone is getting paid to tell you something and it isn't verifiable, ignore it. It doesn't matter if its a politician, a news pundit, or a doctor. The source is usually more important then the information itself. If you're receiving a service for free, you are the product being sold.", "From a legal stand point the AMA at one time banned allowing doctors to refer people to non-scientific practitioners. This really threatened chiropractics ability to operate, since they no longer received referrals and discredited them in the eyes of the public (at least in their opinion). So they sued, lost, appealed and won. Their position was that the AMA wanted a monopoly on practicing medicine and won based on anti-trust laws. URL_0 In my opinion this provides the legal mechanism for homeopathy, chiropractic, acupuncture, faith healers, shamans, etc... to exist with no oversight in terms of actual effectiveness. I think they should all be banned.", "It's because he appeals to the people and because he has the title \"Dr.\" It's kinda like how Reddit loves Bill Nye because everyone watched him growing up. So they take his word when he says things like race doesn't exist. In reality he has a bachelors in electrical engineering", "Better question to ask.... Why is the government allowed to give out health advice that isn't scientifically supported? Even their most recent update to nutrition guidelines was full of stuff that wasn't about health, but a combination of environmental concerns and industry lobbying points.", "Check the Last week with John Oliver - Dr. Oz special: URL_0 ", "Even if a doctor charges you directly for medical advice, which Oz is not doing, he can say whatever he wants. That's why they call it a medical *opinion*. If doctors could only read research to you verbatim, what would be the point of a doctor? Not to mention the fact that every day brings a medical study that appears to contradict some other medical study. A doctor could never say anything.", "He's got 100 top lawyers behind the scenes, which is why everything he says is based off a \"new study\". He's only relaying info from someone else's work, therefore he's not held accountable for anything he says.", "1st amendment. It's not illegal for people to say things that are stupid and wrong. Nobody is forced to take his stupid advice and he's always careful to work in a few disclaimers somewhere.", "Oh, Oz. This guy is a malpractice hearing away from the funny farm. [He was even grilled at a senate hearing over his ridiculous pseudoscience. And it was hilarious]( URL_0 ).", "Because of this; [The Disclaimer]( URL_0 ) The grand white wash of all things. As long as you have this, you can have an entire show made of nothing but voodoo and lies and be liable for nothing. What you and everybody needs to understand is television has no legal obligation to tell you the truth whatsoever. Liable laws only applies towards people. That means you cannot tell lies about them such as \"This just in, Donald Trump is an Oompa Loompa\" But it is perfectly legal to present *opinion* as news. \"This just in, Donald Trump looks like an Oompa Loompa according to Ted Cruz.\" It is also illegal to pitch falsehoods if you profit from them directly, which Dr Oz did when he made erroneous diet claims for a fraud of a product, but all Dr Oz faced was a scolding from a US Senate hearing. Since the claims have subjective interpretations I guess it's difficult to make a legal case to send Dr Oz to jail. However Dr Oz is perfectly free to pitch utter lies and snake oil cures that he profits from indirectly simply through improving the ratings of his show and keeping his cult of personality stoked. That alone makes him plenty of money like a hukstering televangelist promising people a seat next to God in heaven if they donate enough money.", "Physician here. While not illegal to give advice unsupported by evidence, it is certainly not accepted by our profession. \"Professions\" are basically careers that are self governed by the professionals that make them up for the reason the profession is so technical or specific that the lay person cannot possibly know this information for themselves. This is in contrast to a job, such as a car salesman, which operates under the idea of \"buyer beware\", in large part because car salesman is a career with a finite amount of information that is presumed the average person can learn and make adequate decisions about. Our profession has set the standard that we will provide medical advice for patients that are safe, effective, and supported by medical literature. Dr Oz does not do this, and is pretty much rejected by most in his profession for being a quack. This is not a perfect system, however. He has not had to face the medical board in the state in which he practices as far as I know, and my guess is that is because he is an extremely prominent figure whose reprimanding would cause a giant stir.", "He actually has got in trouble before for backing a weigh loss diet product that he admitted knew would work. But It's all about the word play people like Dr. Oz use. He can show you \"**guaranteed scientific data** that says *product* **can** fight cancer.\" because all he's *really* guaranteeing that it's scientific data.. And the word \" can\" is just another legal way of saying \"might or might not\" How ever he can't show you \"**guaranteed** scientific research that **proves** *product* **cures cancer**\" because in this case he is guaranteeing the research that it cures cancer. Probably a bad example but it's the first one that came to my mind.", "You might be surprised how much information you get from your in-person doctor isn't scientifically supported. Pretty much anything to do with \"arch support,\" to pick just one example. On the flip side, accessing in-person doctors is extremely expensive in the US. People need less expensive alternatives. In my experience, those less-expensive alternatives often work quite well, like stretching my wrists instead of the recommended surgery. Is stretching scientifically supported? Who knows? (No one makes big $$ to run that study - nothing to sell.)", " > How isn't this considered illegal? Because there's no such thing as \"considered illegal.\" Something is either illegal or it isn't. Expressing your opinion is protected by the First Amendment. The government has a little leeway when it comes to fraud, but it's very difficult to make it illegal for someone to say something in the United States.", "This reminds me of news sites or news channels having people who give their opinion. It's a new source, so you would think the information is correct, but they say it's an opinion piece, so they can pretty much say whatever they want and it doesn't have to be true.", "American laws are written by industries. Basically every other nation regulates what can be said on the air about medical advice. Ever since Reagan America has thrown caution to the wind and voters declared to trust the snake oil salesmen instead of the big scary gubment.", "Before you call him a fraud just realize that every drug/procedure/medicine removed from the market was first approved to be safe for humans after 'extensive, unbiased studies' And... If you trust what you see on TV, your parents didn't get you exposed to the world enough", "If you tell me you have a headache and I tell you to take some aspirin that's not illegal and is basically what they are doing just larger scale. Also I believe they have disclaimers at the beginning or the end to cover their asses.", "It's classified as entertainment, if he went on air and tried selling \"Dr. Oz's 100% effective mineral water cure for cancer!\" then he'd find himself in front of a judge. He doesn't do that, instead he cites other snakeoil salesmen and \"reports\" their \"findings\".", "Possibly mentioned here already, but it should be noted that the FBI have just announced a very large operation to scale back the \"health supplement\" industry which preys on the same kinds of people taken in by Oz & co.", "What do you mean? Real doctors or anyone else can give out any advice they want. That's called free speech. You dont have to believe or follow it, but it is not illegal to speak freely.", "OP: \"Why are people allowed to say things in my ears that aren't true. Only true things should be allowed to exist. Government!!! Please come censor everything that's not true!!! Hurry!!!\"", "The same reason it's not illegal to sell you an unlimited internet connection that they have throttled the shit out of. What are you gonna do, hire a lawyer?", " URL_0 I'm not a physician or anything like that. What this video boils down to is, the industry us unregulated and protected by a surprisingly big lobby.", "For the same reason Fox News is allowed to exist. There's no law that says what is broadcast on tv has to be true, or factual.", "Why would free speech be illegal? He's merely reporting on studies and what other people do", "Dr. Oz, Dr. Phil, Jenny McCarthy...what do all these things have in common?", "Well, he wasn't exactly sued, but still: URL_0 " ]

[ [ "for the science to get done.\"\nEven though the Florida \"Compassionate Medical Cannabis Act of 2014\" (SB 1030) provides funding for research, the status of all cannabis products as illegal Schedule I drugs has limited the amount of research, with the University of Florida refusing to do such research for fear of losing federal funding.\nThe interest created by the documentary highlighted a need for increased scientific research, as well as caution against \"bad medicine\" and raising false hopes: Ed Maa, a specialist in epilepsy, stated: \"This is not going away. ...I think it needs to be studied vigorously and very quickly.\"", "-21.799605288892053" ], [ "in Science-Based Medicine that the right-to-try law is harmful to society as it is popular with the public who do not understand how the FDA works, Gorski calls this \"placebo legislation. They make lawmakers feel good, but they do nothing concrete to help actual patients.\" Gorski states that right-to-try laws enable \"cancer quack\" like the Burzynski Clinic to operate for years. \"It's also important to remember that the real purpose of right-to-try laws is not to help patients, but to neuter the FDA's ability to regulate certain drugs, consistent with the source of this legislation.\" Gorski further states that these", "-21.798877126944717" ], [ "Drugs and Magic Remedies (Objectionable Advertisements) Act, 1954 Criticism and future amendments The law is rarely enforced and several such products are freely available to the public. The law is considered severely outdated as 14 of the diseases in the list are now curable, and newer diseases like AIDS are not on the list. Some advertisements of these categories are also known to appear on cable television channels without much repercussions. Proposed amendments to this law has also raised questions regarding the status of traditional medicine systems like Yoga and Ayurveda with respect to modern medicine.", "-21.780391534557566" ], [ "November 10, 2005 titled the \"Health Freedom Protection Act\" (H.R. 4282), which proposed to stop \"the FDA from censoring truthful claims about the curative, mitigative, or preventative effects of dietary supplements, and adopts the federal court’s suggested use of disclaimers as an alternative to censorship.\" Charges of under-regulation In addition to those who see the FDA as a source of excessive regulation, other critics believe that the FDA does not regulate some products strictly enough. According to this view, the FDA allows unsafe drugs on the market because of pressure from pharmaceutical companies, fails to ensure safety in drug storage", "-21.63192977131257" ], [ "issues, with critics stating: \"It's obviously advertising for that law firm that is slanted at having the public believe in higher verdicts, more rights of the injury party and anti-doctor.\" The show resulted in two separate Florida Bar investigations, and one prosecution, when a law firm attorney admitted on-air: \"I used to enjoy betting on the football games, and now they've arrested my bookie.\" Another time, a lawyer ranted about the medical profession and accused doctors of having a \"God-complex - they think they are above the law.\"\nThe law firm's most controversial act occurred in 1993 when it rewrote a", "-21.162477640318684" ], [ "against fake medicine, provided The Guardian with a purported call recording of Robert Baldwin where he said: \"When you draw attention to MMS you run the risk of getting in trouble with the government or drug companies. You have to do it low key. That’s why I set it up through the church ... America and Europe have much stricter laws so you are not as free to treat people because it is so controlled by the [American] FDA. That’s why I work in developing countries ... Those people in poor countries they don’t have the options that we have", "-21.028577800258063" ], [ "any refusal to add a product to the list must be open to challenge in the courts. Some media observers believe that, as a result of this legislation, a black market will emerge, and that controls over ingredients and quality will vanish. Conspiracy theories Health freedom-orientated writers and campaigners tend to see restrictive legislation on supplements as being designed to protect the interests of the pharmaceutical industry. If herbal medicines and supplements are removed from sale, they argue, patients will have no alternative but to use conventional pharmaceutical medicines.\nPharmacist and skeptical writer Scott Gavura notes that the reverse is more", "-20.93088365276344" ], [ "misleading simply because it is not FDA-approved. However, many off-label uses are in fact effective and safe, as is evidenced by subsequent FDA approval of such uses for numerous drug products. The Supreme Court has in recent years begun to address the boundaries between government regulation of pharmaceuticals and the First Amendment free speech guarantee. Some legal observers have suggested that the trend in the Court's decisions may ultimately reduce the ability of FDA to prevent broader dissemination of off-label information about approved drug products.\nA three-judge panel of the United States Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit", "-20.58545975619927" ], [ "an adverse reaction,\" such as becoming sick, or sicker, or even dying. Drugs that are not fully studied may lead to more adverse reactions in patients. The laws reduce FDA oversight of drug regulation. Another criticism is that state right-to-try laws may be unconstitutional, because they involve states regulating medicine despite federal legislation that regulates the interstate marketing of medicine. Various authors have predicted that right-to-try laws would be struck down if they were taken to court.\nA 2014 paper in JAMA Internal Medicine argued that right to try laws \"seem likely to be futile.\"\nIn April 2017, oncologist David Gorski wrote", "-20.360015435144305" ], [ "former board member of the Seasteading Institute. Views O'Neill said in a 2014 speech that \"We should reform FDA so there is approving drugs after their sponsors have demonstrated safety – and let people start using them, at their own risk, but not much risk of safety....Let’s prove efficacy after they’ve been legalized.\"\nWhile at HHS, O'Neill opposed FDA regulation of some companies that use mathematical algorithms to perform complex laboratory-developed tests. \"In order to regulate in this space, FDA had to argue that an algorithm, a series of numbers that match up to things, is a medical device,\" he said.", "-20.338443686283426" ], [ "through Political Action Committees without limitation or full disclosure. The Health Research Group published Best Pills – Worst Pills book and its FDA advocacy has led to the withdrawal of several dangerous drugs from the market. The Litigation Group specializes in U.S. Supreme Court advocacy and prepares counsel in approximately 1/3 of the cases considered by the Court. [www.citizen.org]\nProfessor Fellmeth has been instrumental in the creation of ancillary consumer entities. In 1983, he helped to create the Utility Consumer Action Network (UCAN) as a project of CPIL during its first three years. It sought access to the billing envelopes", "-19.867769494354434" ], [ "also curbs sales and promotion of so-called miracle drugs and cures. But, the law is rarely enforced and several such products are freely available to the public. The law is considered severely outdated as 14 of the diseases in the list are now curable, and newer diseases like AIDS are not on the list. Some advertisements of these categories are also known to appear on cable television channels without much repercussions. Proposed amendments to this law has also raised questions regarding the status of traditional medicine systems like Yoga and Ayurveda with respect to modern medicine. Indian Penal Code, Section", "-19.790557561762398" ], [ "with the tagline \"Don't let government play doctor\". According to the group's president, Evan Feinberg, the ads are meant to promote an \"opt-out\" option, where young people would \"...have to pay a fine, but that's going to be cheaper for you and better for you”.", "-19.723270372662228" ], [ "been asked, for non-scientific reasons, to inappropriately exclude or alter technical information or their conclusions in an FDA scientific document.\" Pressure to allow pharmaceuticals After his resignation, from his post as Commissioner of the Food and Drugs Administration in December 1969, Dr. Herbert L. Ley, Jr. In an interview to The New York Times, warned the public about the FDA’s inability to safeguard consumers. People were being misled, he believed “The thing that bugs me is that the people think the FDA is protecting them - it isn’t. What the FDA is doing and what the public thinks it’s", "-19.70648968461319" ], [ "light of those pros and cons. Some states' right-to-try laws also put patients at risk of losing hospice or home health care, and the costs surrounding treatment can be prohibitive, something right-to-try laws do not fix. Bioethicist Alta Charo called the laws \"a simplistic way of going after much more complicated issues.\"\nMedical and health experts have also voiced concerns. If the laws were to grant patients access to unapproved drugs, they could hasten death or cause increased suffering. Peter Temin wrote that \"there is always a chance that any given drug will fail to cure a condition or will induce", "-19.704997986089438" ], [ "Criticism of the Food and Drug Administration Charges of over-regulation A group of critics claim that the FDA possesses excessive regulatory authority. Alleged problems in the drug approval process The economist Milton Friedman has claimed that the regulatory process is inherently biased against approval of some worthy drugs, because the adverse effects of wrongfully banning a useful drug are undetectable, while the consequences of mistakenly approving a harmful drug are highly publicised and that therefore the FDA will take the action that will result in the least public condemnation of the FDA regardless of the health consequences.\nFriedman and others have", "-19.689572362578474" ], [ "Supreme Court declined to hear the case, and the final decision denied the existence of a right to unapproved medications.\nCritics of the FDA's regulatory power argue that the FDA takes too long to approve drugs that might ease pain and human suffering faster if brought to market sooner. The AIDS crisis created some political efforts to streamline the approval process. However, these limited reforms were targeted for AIDS drugs, not for the broader market. This has led to the call for more robust and enduring reforms that would allow patients, under the care of their doctors, access", "-19.6855611212668" ], [ "ranking of \"The World's Most Powerful People.\" Early decisions On January 17, 2006, Roberts dissented along with Antonin Scalia and Clarence Thomas in Gonzales v. Oregon, which held that the Controlled Substances Act does not allow the United States attorney general to prohibit physicians from prescribing drugs for the assisted suicide of the terminally ill as permitted by an Oregon law. The point of contention in the case was largely one of statutory interpretation, not federalism.\nOn March 6, 2006, Roberts wrote the unanimous decision in Rumsfeld v. Forum for Academic and Institutional Rights that colleges accepting federal money must allow", "-19.65966585231945" ], [ "the entire item. Biotechnology and pharmaceutical companies, on the other hand, generally oppose limiting injunctions, because the items they manufacture are easily analyzed and reproduced and generally involve only one or two patents.", "-19.489252445753664" ], [ "was that the majority had \"ignored the fundamental difference\" between experts and advocates, saying that advocates had no choice but to continue in the legal system whereas experts could continue their ordinary work without needing to carry on as an expert witness. Therefore, experts would be more likely to abandon such work than advocates, making them more vulnerable to vexatious litigation. However, he said it would make \"little immediate difference\" for many experts, since \"conscientious professionals\" would have little worry about being found negligent and would have insurance in case they were. The ruling would also help", "-19.450208498281427" ], [ "as one that \"trivializes the two cardinal principles upon which Tinker rests\", because it \"upholds a punishment meted out on the basis of a listener's disagreement with her understanding (or, more likely, misunderstanding) of the speaker's viewpoint\". Moreover, he noted, \"Encouraging drug use might well increase the likelihood that a listener will try an illegal drug, but that hardly justifies censorship\". \"[C]arving out pro-drug speech for uniquely harsh treatment finds no support in our case law and is inimical to the values protected by the First Amendment.\"\nStevens also took issue with the majority's interpretation of the banner as being a", "-19.207761741563445" ], [ "preclude Life Science companies from withholding important medical information from the public for fear of being prosecuted for Medicare violations. It is illegal for a firm to advertise or promote a drug, biologic, or medical device for a purpose other than an indication approved by the Food and Drug Administration; recommending such off-label use for a product subject to reimbursement under Medicare or Medicaid constitutes felony fraud. Safe Harbor establishes rules defining when and how such information may be published (for example, medical journal reports of clinical trials) without the company running afoul of advertising and marketing restrictions.{", "-19.195638344273902" ], [ "trial for approval. It is still the assumption, however, that two trials are necessary to determine safety and effectiveness.\nIn addition to lower regulatory hurdles, the act allowed for the advertisement of “off label” uses. The effects of this could be unnecessary overuse of the product by consumers and larger profits for the firm. Apropos to medical devices, private for-profit firms were allowed to review the products instead of the FDA. 21st Century Cures Act The 21st Century Cures Act would allow for faster approval of certain drugs, which could result in additional recalls. It passed both houses of Congress", "-19.122822653327603" ], [ "Zealand, which is considering a ban. Some feel it is better to leave the decision wholly in the hands of medical professionals; others feel that users education and participation in health is useful, but users need independent, comparative information about drugs (not promotional information). For these reasons, most countries impose limits on pharmaceutical mass marketing that are not placed on the marketing of other products. In some areas it is required that ads for drugs include a list of possible side effects, so that users are informed of both facets of a medicine. Canada's limitations on pharmaceutical advertising", "-19.081655356982083" ], [ "trial\". A Senior Assistant State's Attorney explained that the new standard essentially allows judges to consider whether the defendants are competent enough to perform the skills needed to defend themselves, including composing questions for voir dire and witnesses. In executive agencies The United States Patent and Trademark Office permits inventors to file and prosecute patent applications pro se and provides resources for them to do so. Motivation According to the 1996 report on pro se by University of Maryland Law School, 57% of pro se said they could not afford a lawyer, 18% said they did not wish to", "-19.041438182423008" ], [ "laws \"rest on a fantasy... of false hope ... that is rooted in libertarian politics ... that claims that deregulation is the cure for everything.\" In January 2019 Jann Bellamy added that the right-to-try does not ensure \"that only patients who have no other treatment options receive access; that costs are appropriate; that informed consent is legally and ethically sound; and that the proposed treatment plan offers a favorable risk/benefit profile for the patient.\" Additionally, \"there is no regulatory infrastructure spelling out just how patients and physicians should go about accessing investigational drugs or how drug companies should respond.\" Recent", "-19.028660795549513" ], [ "public are prohibited from containing any references to prescription-only medications, under the belief that only physicians and health care professionals should prescribe medications, and that they must not be presented as a consumer's choice. The home page of a drug manufacturer's website also constitutes advertising material, and thus may not include references to prescription products either. In a 2005 Health Select Committee hearing, GlaxoSmithKline UK general manager Eddie Gray stated that the company did not plan to lobby for DTC in the region, citing prevailing consumer attitudes against the concept. United States Under the regulations of the Food and Drug", "-18.92374829587061" ], [ "that mere discussion of any drugs with a patient was not grounds for sanction, but affirmed that physicians \"may not intentionally provide their patients with oral or written statements in order to enable them to obtain controlled substances in violation of federal law.\" District Court decision The district court's decision acknowledged that the government has a legitimate concern that physicians might recommend marijuana in bad faith. However, physicians in good faith using honest medical judgment should not fear DEA sanctions. Furthermore,\nGiven the doctrine of constitutional doubt, the government’s construction of the Controlled Substances Act cannot stand. The government should", "-18.860737996932585" ], [ "Academy of Sciences. In the United States, it is not legally available because of safety concerns and lack of proof of its effectiveness.", "-18.8514013538952" ], [ "into account in a tort of passing off, and there is no reason for the Court to adopt a different rule when the manufacturer is a pharmaceutical laboratory.\nIn addressing Ciba-Geigy's argument, the Court also observed that despite the regulatory restriction on public advertising of prescription drugs, patients can still gain knowledge about the products through pharmaceutical advertising directed at health care professionals, and therefore risk being affected by confusion.\nAnother important consideration by the Court is that the Prescription Drug Cost Regulation Act which later came into force gave patients increased control over the brand of drug he or she wishes", "-18.52856276440434" ], [ "reviews to be done by third parties instead of the FDA. Debates stem from the fact that approval could be based on anecdotal rather than scientific evidence.\nThis act is debated due to the FDA’s seemingly close relations with medical device producers. The two industries collaborated to write proposals for lobbying for the legislation of this act. The FDA is supposed to be neutral in its actions, but representatives from Johnson & Johnson, St Jude Medical, and CVRx Inc. (large medical device suppliers) were all in attendance for the collaborative meetings.", "-18.496680631069466" ], [ "Medicine, he and ethicist Kevin Smith call Charles \"foolish and immoral\", and \"conclude that it is not possible to practice alternative medicine ethically\". Ernst further claims that the private secretary of the Prince contacted the vice chancellor of Exeter University to investigate Ernst's complaints against the \"Smallwood Report\", which the Prince had commissioned in 2005. While Ernst was \"found not to be guilty of any wrong-doing, all local support at Exeter stopped, which eventually led to my early retirement.\"\nIn April 2010, following accounting irregularities, a former official at the foundation and his wife were arrested for fraud believed to total", "-18.364500663301442" ], [ "of Medicine, argued that:\n\"It is time for the scientific community to stop giving alternative medicine a free ride. There cannot be two kinds of medicine – conventional and alternative. There is only medicine that has been adequately tested and medicine that has not, medicine that works and medicine that may or may not work. Once a treatment has been tested rigorously, it no longer matters whether it was considered alternative at the outset. If it is found to be reasonably safe and effective, it will be accepted. But assertions, speculation, and testimonials do not substitute for evidence. Alternative treatments should", "-18.361885800259188" ], [ "United States. This is why the FDA exists - to protect American consumers from those who would otherwise profit from the sale of counterfeit prescription drugs. \nGregg Fischer walked the halls of Congress (and the U.S. Senate), speaking to anyone who was willing to listen. President George W. Bush was not only listening he had picked up the gauntlet left behind by President Bill Clinton (who had proposed the idea of a Medicare Prescription Drug Benefit in 1999) but, with both houses in control of Republicans, the idea never turned into reality until President George W. Bush decided it was", "-18.33641850290587" ], [ "as a way to avoid this.\nThere are many opportunities for bias in trial design and trial reporting. For instance, a trial that compares a drug against the wrong dose of a competing drug may produce spuriously positive results.\nIn some cases, a contract with a sponsor may mean those named as investigators and authors on the papers may not have access to the trial data, control over the publication text, or the freedom to talk about their work. While authors and institutions have an interest in avoiding such contracts, it conflicts with their interest in competing for funding from potential study", "-18.32976687757764" ], [ "professionals fail to undertake comprehensive, impartial, and scientifically informed assessments, they risk challenges to the admissibility of the evidence that they present to court and having it dismissed as poor or \"junk science.\" The decision of the Supreme Court of the United States in Daubert v. Merrell Dow Pharmaceuticals, Inc. (1993) provided a basis for determining acceptable science in court, and required judges to function as \"gatekeepers\" for evaluating the probative or helpful value of the testimony for the case at hand. Two additional, related SCOTUS cases—General Electric Co. v. Joiner (1997) and Kumho Tire Co. v. Carmichael (1999)-", "-18.31508957070764" ], [ "do not make health claims do not fall under the FDA's jurisdiction, but can still be regulated by the Federal Trade Commission. History In 1962, the United States Congress gave the FDA the authority to regulate prescription drug labeling and advertising, but the FDA did not establish regulations until 1969. These required that ads for prescriptions include information on their major side effects and contraindications, and unless they have \"adequate provision\" via different outlets, a \"brief summary\" of all side effects and contraindications.\nPharmaceutical companies shifted the focus of their marketing efforts to licensed medical doctors in the 1970s, as the", "-18.232709813513793" ], [ "not be the plaintiff's fault. This is particularly relevant in the pharmaceuticals context, as most plaintiffs are prescribed generic drugs and thus have no knowledge of who manufactured the product. Exculpatory evidence Jurisdictions and courts differ on the possibilities open to defendants to absolve themselves of market share liability. In Sindell (California), the court allowed defendants to bring forth exculpatory evidence and thus free themselves of liability. However, in Hymowitz v. Eli Lilly & Co. (New York), the court refused to allow exculpatory evidence because it felt that doing so would undermine the theory underpinning market share liability—because liability is", "-18.220969449728727" ], [ "there is no credible evidence in support of it 'is unreasonable because it is not supported by a review of the available evidence or the FDA's own Guidance Report.' See Whitaker, 248 F. Supp. 2d at 13. Indeed, it appears that credible evidence (e.g., the Peters, Ghadrian, Criqui, and Willet studies) does support this claim. As such, complete suppression of the claim is unwarranted.\" Additionally, \"the FDA has completely eviscerated plaintiffs' claim, with no explanation as to why a less restrictive approach would not be effective ... the FDA's replacement of plaintiffs' claim with different and contradictory language is inconsistent", "-18.206098705879413" ], [ "Court of Appeals when evaluating the admissibility of experts.\nThis uses demonstrative evidence, which is evidence created in preparation of trial by attorneys or paralegals. Demographics In the United States there are over 14,500 forensic science technicians, as of 2014. Media impact Real-life crime scene investigators and forensic scientists warn that popular television shows do not give a realistic picture of the work and often wildlly distorting the nature of the work, and exaggerating the ease, speed, effectiveness, drama, glamour, influence and comfort level of their jobs—which they describe as far more mundane, tedious and boring.\nSome claim these modern TV shows", "-18.193075276212767" ], [ "sponsors. Institutions that set stricter ethical standards for sponsor contracts lose contracts and funding when sponsors go elsewhere.\nSponsors have required contractual promises that the study is not reported without the sponsor's approval (gag clauses) and some have sued authors over compliance. Trials may go unpublished to keep commercial information secret or because the trial results were unfavourable. Some journals require that human trials be registered to be considered for publication; some require the declaration of any gag clauses as a conflict of interest; since 2001, some also require a statement that the authors have not agreed to a gag clause.", "-18.189618827047525" ], [ "funding agencies with a financial interest in the trial's outcome. Medical researchers may be asked to agree to allow the funding agency to censor results. Some funding agencies may also refuse to give the medical researcher access to the raw data, giving them only the finished analysis, or even a draft paper, and asking them to put their name to it. This is not acceptable academic practice, and some academic journals require that authors sign a statement that they have not entered into such agreements.\nBen Goldacre, a physician and spokesperson for the campaign, would like to address the systematic flaws", "-18.151070098303535" ], [ "that if it was found to fall within federal regulation, then it would still be found exempt of manufacturing and labeling requirements of the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act. The U.S. District Court for the District of Columbia rejected the counterclaim and upheld the injunction. Regenerative Sciences appealed. Controversy Several former FDA chiefs did not believe that it was in the best interest of patients and the FDA for the agency to regulate autologous cells as drugs. Notably, former FDA chief Andrew von Eschenbach opined that, \"The FDA alleged that the cells the firm used had been manipulated to", "-18.144054524513194" ], [ "doctors are paid for procedures instead of results.\nThe AMA has also aggressively lobbied for many restrictions that require doctors to carry out operations that might be carried out by cheaper workforce. For example, in 1995, 36 states banned or restricted midwifery even though it delivers equally safe care to that by doctors. The regulation lobbied by the AMA has decreased the amount and quality of health care, according to the consensus of economist: the restrictions do not add to quality, they decrease the supply of care. Moreover, psychologists, nurses and pharmacists are not allowed to prescribe medicines. ", "-18.06301116850227" ], [ "of the drug or on statements for inclusion in advertisements but not require changes in such advertisements, and to require inclusion in advertisements of certain disclosures about a serious risk listed in the labeling of the drug.\nIt requires the FDA to issue special guidance for clinical trials of antibiotics. \nIt prohibits interstate commerce of any food that has an approved drug, licensed biological product, or certain other drugs or biological products added, unless the drug or biological product was marketed in food prior to approval, licensure, or clinical investigation, the FDA has approved the use of such drug or biological", "-18.04153381812648" ], [ "Medical Association In the fall of 2017, the American Medical Association's Council on Ethical and Judicial Affairs wrote new guidelines into the AMA Code of Medical Ethics, stating that physicians should refrain \"from making clinical diagnoses about individuals (e.g., public officials, celebrities, persons in the news) they have not had the opportunity to personally examine.\" Regarding Donald Trump In 2016 and 2017, a number of psychiatrists and clinical psychologists faced criticism for violating the Goldwater rule, as they claimed that Donald Trump displayed \"an assortment of personality problems, including grandiosity, a lack of empathy, and 'malignant narcissism'\", and that he", "-18.036620724364184" ], [ "Cures as a prime example in her book, Suckers: How Alternative Medicine Makes Fools of Us All.\nNatural Cures sold briskly due to an aggressive infomercial promotion. Quackwatch and other internet watchdog sites cautioned that the infomercial itself was \"misleading\". In a 2005 public warning from the New York State Consumer Protection Board, CPB Chairman Teresa A. Santiago cautioned that Natural Cures contained no actual cures, only \"speculation\". Cures were promised, but only by subscribing to Trudeau's newsletter or website at $71.40 per year or $499 for a \"lifetime membership\". The paid sites contained only additional, similarly", "-18.004497764224652" ], [ "and infirm needed access to such information to make informed decisions about how to get their prescriptions filled inexpensively. For such people in need, Blackmun reasoned, such information was more than simply a convenience. Furthermore, he stressed the importance of price advertising in a free market economy, because they serve to provide the underlying information for citizens to make private economic decisions.\nThe Commonwealth of Virginia justified its enactment of the regulation on the grounds of maintaining the professionalism of pharmacists, asserting that aggressive price competition among pharmacists would make it difficult for pharmacists to provide the proper professional", "-17.994458697736263" ], [ "article that the science in question here is faulty and that I have no way to defend myself. They state: 'There will therefore be no counter-exam nor regulatory prosecutions, in a strict sense, since defendant's rights cannot be respected.' I will simply restate what I have said many times: I have never taken performance enhancing drugs.\"\nIn October 2008, the AFLD gave Armstrong the opportunity to have samples taken during the 1999 Tours de France retested. Armstrong immediately refused, saying, \"the samples have not been maintained properly.\" Head of AFLD Pierre Bordry stated: \"Scientifically there is no problem to analyze these", "-17.993898626999" ], [ "participants administered trials because \"reimbursements generated from such trials made it possible to maintain a financially viable, as well as profitable, practice.\" Interestingly, Cook and Hoas found that most of the physicians and coordinators could not explain directly if they actually told their patients or subjects about any financial compensation they received. Respondents worry that discussing funding or compensation would affect enrollment, effectively swaying participants from joining a research study. In most respondents’ experience, most patients do not even ask for that information, so they assume that they do not have to discuss it with them and not jeopardize enrollment.", "-17.94986302149482" ], [ "or hurt other people ... considering how overcrowded our prisons are with dangerous criminals, trolling around for more nonviolent drug offenders to punish is counterintuitive... Regulating use of, rather than banning salvia, would have been a more sober approach.\nOpponents of extremely prohibitive Salvia restrictions argue that such reactions are largely due to an inherent prejudice and a particular cultural bias rather than any actual balance of evidence, pointing out inconsistencies in attitudes toward other more toxic and addictive drugs such as alcohol and nicotine. While not objecting to some form of regulatory legal control, in particular with regard to the", "-17.908643539688455" ], [ "the rights and welfare of the research subjects, it has been the subject of criticism, by bioethicists and others, for conflicts of interest resulting in lax oversight. In 2005, the for-profit Western Institutional Review Board claimed to conduct the majority of reviews for new drug submissions to the FDA. In a 2006 study of 575 IRB members at university medical centers, over one-third reported industry financial ties and over one-third admitted they \"rarely or never\" disclosed conflicts of interest to other board members.\nIn 2009 the Government Accountability Office (GAO) set up a series of undercover tests to determine", "-17.887527902028523" ], [ "is to prevent harm to others. His own good, either physical or moral, is not sufficient warrant.' The argument is that drug use is a victimless crime and as such the government has no right to prohibit it or punish drug consumers, much like the government does not forbid overeating, which causes significantly more deaths per year. This can be equated with the quest for freedom of thought. Spiritual and religious We're playing with half a deck as long as we tolerate that the cardinals of government and science should dictate where human curiosity can legitimately send its attention and", "-17.87548323930241" ], [ "since they distract from and tarnish more considered criticisms.\nAn argument against the U.S. government taking part in the suppression of cures is the Orphan Drug Act of 1983 wherein incentives are created for developing treatments for disease which the treatments have no profitable outcomes for the companies involved.\nA common claim among proponents of the conspiracy theory is that pharmaceutical companies suppress negative research about their drugs by financially pressuring researchers and journals. There are in fact papers critical of specific drugs published in journals on a regular basis. A prominent and recent example was a systematic review published in the", "-17.851098373241257" ], [ "trials had been started. Ethical issues were those that seemed to interest the public most, as trialists (including those with potential commercial gain) benefited from those who enrolled in trials, but were not required to “give back,” telling the public what they had learned.\nThose who were particularly concerned by the double standard were systematic reviewers, those who summarize what is known from clinical trials. If the literature is skewed, then the results of a systematic review are also likely to be skewed, possibly favoring the test intervention when in fact the accumulated data do not show this, if all", "-17.84549645986408" ], [ "doctors for transgressions that include providing inadequate treatment, poor record-keeping and raising voices in arguments. However, the college has been criticized in the past for not being transparent to patients as to which doctors have been subject to cautions. The college has been criticized for being more interested in protecting doctors than patients.\nSince 2004, the College has prosecuted four physicians with improperly blocking fees, which the College considered professional misconduct.\nMost recently in 2012, the College has forced Dr. Dockrill — a former head of neo-natal care at Ontario's Lakeridge Hospital - to lose not only her home and", "-17.82032394759881" ], [ " A former FDA investigator told the magazine, “The FDA’s backbone has been Jell-O. The folks at the FDA stopped enforcing the rules several years ago.”\nHowever, the problem may well extend beyond the FDA to the entire research oversight system, which depends heavily on a network of Institutional Review Boards to protect subjects. Critics argue that Institutional Review Boards are understaffed and under-qualified, that they are excessively bureaucratic, and that they attempt to restrict research outside their mandate and expertise. Many Institutional Review Boards, such as the one at the University of Minnesota, are staffed by colleagues of clinical investigators", "-17.796941770706326" ], [ "issues related to drug safety is immunity from prosecution. In 2004, the FDA reversed a federal policy, arguing that FDA premarket approval overrides most claims for damages under state law for medical devices. In 2008 this was confirmed by the Supreme Court in Riegel v. Medtronic.\nOn June 30, 2006, an FDA ruling went into effect extending protection from lawsuits to pharmaceutical manufacturers, even if it was found that they submitted fraudulent clinical trial data to the FDA in their quest for approval. This left consumers who experience serious health consequences from drug use with little recourse. In 2007, the House", "-17.793676799163222" ], [ "also called, was banned from various UK medical schools for making medicine “too easy”, but by 2003 had made it onto several reading lists, including Royal Free London, with the comment “everybody owns this!!”", "-17.77355020912364" ], [ "were thought to be ethically restricted in their ability to give informed consent, there were increased governmental and institutional hurdles to approval of these clinical trials, as well as greater concerns about legal liability. Thus, for decades, most medicines prescribed to children in the U.S. were done so in a non-FDA-approved, \"off-label\" manner, with dosages \"extrapolated\" from adult data through body weight and body-surface-area calculations.\nAn initial attempt by the FDA to address this issue was the 1994 FDA Final Rule on Pediatric Labeling and Extrapolation, which allowed manufacturers to add pediatric labeling information, but required drugs that had not been", "-17.767977504758164" ], [ "doctor-signed orders for the tests gave them an aura of medical authority. Many insurance companies are now cutting their reimbursement rates for drug tests.\nBoth federal and state legislation have been passed to attempt to curb the practice. This includes California, Florida, and the Federal government through the Eliminating Kickbacks in Recovery Act. Florida has arrested 66 people under its law. These laws have resulted in the operators of some closed rehab centers relocating to different states without regulations or laws.", "-17.741906100534834" ], [ "And patent challengers, empowered by convincing PR spin and misdirection about harm to patients, have found all too sympathetic judicial audiences. Courts these days are making policy-based decisions, untethered from any rule of law, aimed at killing patents they don’t like.\nBiotech blogger Courtenay Brinckerhoff considers Judge Dyk's proposals to allow claims to what is actually reduced to practice and no more hopeful prophesies. She questions whether patents limited to what inventors actually reduce to practice and disclose in their patent applications would \"adequately promote the fundamental policies underlying the patent system,\" and she asks:\nWould innovators find that scope of protection", "-17.71304177755519" ], [ "in the judicial system. Questions in the interview were based on a 2008 survey of almost 500 high school students who were asked about the most important elements in their decision to use or abstain from using drugs. Reaction Reactions to the project were positive, but some concerns were raised about privacy law. Max Margolis of Oregon Partnership's YouthLink Program described the shocking imagery as an \"honest tactic\", because \"the damage to the body, the rapid degeneration – those are realities of the drug.\" Douglas J. Edwards, Editor-in-Chief of Behavioral Healthcare, criticized the project's methods, stating that permission was", "-17.6958816050319" ], [ "to FDA documents obtained by STAT, \"From 2011 to 2016, 37 members of Congress wrote to the FDA about Burzynski. […] Most of the lawmakers asked the agency to grant constituents 'compassionate use exemptions' so that they could try his unapproved drugs, or to allow his clinical trials to proceed.\" According to Burzynski, \"interventions by lawmakers were helpful.\"\nHowever, appeals to the FDA compassionate use exemptions are not always successful. In one case, \"Burzynski said he used a Texas state law to circumvent the agency and start treatment.\" Critics state that \"the congressional advocacy risks giving the terminally ill and their", "-17.679116571351187" ], [ "of \"illegal\" drugs.\nClaims that cannabis is far more powerful than it used to be are also dubious, with \"scare figures\" skewed by comparing the weakest cannabis from the past with the strongest of today. Figures regarding emergency room mentions of marijuana use can be misleading too, as \"mention\" of a drug in an emergency department visit does not mean that the drug was the cause of the visit. Medical uses A document published for the non-profit advocacy organization Europe Against Drugs (EURAD) argues that \"one cannot vote for a medicine\" and that a scientific approval basis is essential. It says", "-17.653702290554065" ], [ "Right-to-try law Right-to-try laws are U.S. state laws and a federal law that were created with the intent of allowing terminally ill patients access to experimental therapies (drugs, biologics, devices) that have completed Phase I testing but have not been approved by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA). \nPrior to the passage of right to try laws, patients needed FDA approval to use experimental drugs. Currently, 41 U.S. states have passed right to try laws. The value of these laws has been questioned on multiple grounds, including the fact that pharmaceutical manufacturers would have no obligation to provide the therapies", "-17.618828042948735" ], [ "stem cell and tissue based regenerative therapies currently in development and to allow patients with serious, chronic illness to use the right-to-try pathway. Critics Bioethicists and other scholars have questioned the extent to which right-to-try laws will actually benefit patients. Jonathan Darrow, Arthur Caplan, Alta Charo, Rebecca Dresser, Alison Bateman-House and others have pointed out that the laws do not require physicians to prescribe experimental therapies, do not require insurance companies to pay for them, and do not require manufacturers to provide them. Because the laws do not actually provide a right to receive experimental therapies, they could be", "-17.60701994577539" ], [ "Natural Cures \"They\" Don't Want You to Know About Natural Cures \"They\" Don't Want You To Know About is a 2005 self-published book by American author Kevin Trudeau, promoting a variety of non-drug and non-surgical purported cures for many diseases, primarily in support of his business selling such products. Trudeau accuses pharmaceutical companies and the United States government of censoring these products and methods on the basis that it would cut into their profit-margin. The book is the subject of widespread allegations of fraud. Premise In the book, Trudeau claims that there are all-natural cures for serious illnesses including cancer,", "-17.589574116194854" ], [ "well have been to get the women in question into substance abuse treatment and off of drugs, the immediate objective of the searches was to generate evidence for law enforcement purposes in order to reach that goal.\" Because the MUSC plan used the threat of arrest as the means to accomplish its overall goal of inducing pregnant women to abstain from using cocaine, \"this case simply does not fit within the closely guarded category of 'special needs.'\" The mere fact that the hospital may have had benevolent motives cannot justify departing from the protections of the Fourth Amendment,", "-17.57705495436676" ], [ "doing are as different as night and day,” he said. The agency, in his opinion, did not have the motivation to protect consumers, faced budget shortfalls, and lacked support from the Department of Health, Education, and Welfare. Dr. Ley was critical of Congress, the Administration and the drug industry, stating that he had \"constant, tremendous, sometimes unmerciful pressure\" from the drug industry, and that the drug company lobbyists, combined with the politicians who worked on behalf of their patrons, could bring “tremendous pressure” to bear on him and his staff, to try preventing FDA restrictions on their drugs. Ley stated", "-17.556890628446126" ], [ "A licensed health care professional can be held legally liable for the advice he or she gives to a patient. Giving bad advice may be considered medical malpractice under specified circumstances.\nThe doctor–patient relationship is one factor in determining the patient's compliance with medical advice. Patients adhere more closely to medical advice when the healthcare provider is friendly, doesn't interrupt the patient, or has good verbal communication skills. Patients are less likely to comply with medical advice if the advice is not what the patients expected, if the patients do not agree with the proposed treatment, if the patient is not", "-17.535181490344257" ], [ "university researchers or self-made inventors, might reasonably prefer to license their patents, rather than undertake efforts to secure the financing necessary to bring their works to market themselves. Such patent holders may be able to satisfy the traditional four-factor test, and we see no basis for categorically denying them the opportunity to do so.\nThe court noted that it had consistently rejected invitations to replace traditional equitable considerations with a rule allowing automatic injunctions in its copyright law cases such as New York Times Co. v. Tasini, 533 U.S. 483 (2001). Concurring opinions While all eight justices (Justice Alito did not", "-17.509348726423923" ], [ "contrary to principles supported by the National Association of Drug Court Professionals. The Association supports the principle that \"drug courts are designed to reduce drug use, reduce crime, repair families, hold addicts accountable and restore them to meaningful roles in society.\"\nAfter the story aired, Williams hired David G. Oedel, a law professor at Mercer University, who published an open letter to This American Life executive producer Ira Glass, claiming that the story was \"riddled with falsehoods,\" and \"libel masquerading as journalism.\" Glass responded a week later, correcting website errors of which he was informed. However, Glass stood by the story's", "-17.503411997968215" ], [ "their patients by preventing them from receiving information about all of their end-of-life care options.”\nOn April 5, 2017, U.S. District Court Judge Geoffrey Crawford ruled that two medical organizations failed to show that their members — two doctors, a nurse and a pharmacist who oppose the law for religious and ethical reasons — faced any harm and dismissed their legal challenge of Vermont's 2013 end-of-life law.", "-17.471272297669202" ], [ "Food and Drug Administration, authored by Lindsay and Barry Karr, Executive Director of the Committee for Skeptical Inquiry. The petitions requested the agency to require homeopathic drugs to be tested for efficacy.\nAlong with the leaders of other secular organizations, Lindsay spoke at the Reason Rally, held on the National Mall in Washington, D.C. on March 24, 2012.\nIn 2014, the Center for Inquiry launched a web-based campaign to “Keep Health Care Safe and Secular,” focusing on reproductive rights, the dangers in alternative medicine, and the importance of vaccination.\nAlso in 2014, the Center for Inquiry prevailed in an appellate court case in", "-17.435720005858457" ], [ "advertising, moreover, are ineffective means of reducing lawyer overhead and of maintaining the quality of legal services provided. Finally, there was no reason to believe that allowing lawyers to advertise would result in a tidal wave of disingenuous claims for the state bar to investigate and prosecute, as Justice Powell feared would happen. \"For every attorney who overreaches through advertising, there will be thousands of others who will be candid and honest and straightforward.\"\nHaving disposed of the arguments against allowing lawyer advertising, the Court ruled that Arizona's total ban on lawyer advertising violated the free speech guarantee of", "-17.42325375211658" ], [ "In some states\nthe law provides that it \"shall not be construed to affect teaching in\nmedical colleges\" (Colorado, Indiana, Ohio); \"nor standard medical\nbooks\" (Colorado, Indiana, Kansas, Ohio) ; \"nor the practice of regular practitioners of medicine and druggists (Colorado) in their legitimate 'business\" (Ohio); \"nor works of scientific character, or on\nanatomy, surgery or obstetrics\" (Kentucky); \"article or instrument\nused or applied by physicians is not . . . indecent.\" In Connecticut possession of the things forbidden is unlawful \"unless with intent to aid in their suppression or in enforcing the provisions\" of the law.\nAlmost everything denounced under any of these laws is nonmailable", "-17.41879540780792" ], [ "that the practice of assembling celebrities with serious drug addictions with others that, according to Grant, either do not have addiction or whose addictions are self-diagnosed, like Rachel Uchitel and Gary Busey, for the purpose of creating entertainment, serves to encourage the \"celebrity narcissism\" which Pinsky himself has criticized. Not all substance-abuse specialists have been critical of the show. Dr. Mary Oxford, staff psychologist for the Menninger Clinic, praised it for removing the stigma surrounding addiction in the general public, and demystifying the process of treatment, and showing the lay public the skill of reflective listening.", "-17.413924997177674" ], [ "target U.S. consumers with ads to illegally import prescription drugs from Canadian pharmacies.\nOpponents stated that it violated the First Amendment, is Internet censorship, would cripple the Internet, and would threaten whistle-blowing and other free speech actions.\nIn October, 2011, co-sponsor Representative Bob Goodlatte (R-VA), chairman of the House Judiciary Committee's Intellectual Property sub-panel, told The Hill that SOPA is a rewrite of the Senate's bill that addresses some tech-industry concerns, noting that under the House version of the legislation copyright holders won't be able to directly sue intermediaries such as search engines to block infringing websites and would instead need a", "-17.41313377500046" ], [ "violate the protection of free speech.\" The ruling left open the question of what the FDA would allow Amarin to say about E-EPA, and in March 2016 the FDA and Amarin agreed that Amarin would submit specific marketing material to the FDA for the FDA to review, and if the parties disagreed on whether the material was truthful, they would seek a judge to mediate. Regulation in the United Kingdom Physicians in the United Kingdom can prescribe medications off-label. According to General Medical Council guidance, the physician must be satisfied that there is sufficient evidence or experience of using", "-17.4092931713094" ], [ "raise awareness of problems with pharmaceutical advertising. Impact Since the settlement in 2004, whistleblowers and the federal government have prosecuted numerous off-label promotion cases under the False Claims Act using this case as a precedent.\nSubsequent research reported that the wrongful promotion of the drug was planned by integrating it into Continuing medical education, supporting consultants and members of medical advisory boards to recommend the use to institutions, and paying people to write about the drug in any positive context including in academic literature, letters to the editor, and managing the STEPS trial as a seeding trial.\nLitigation around the marketing of", "-17.37949701483012" ], [ "well understood. Pharmaceutical marketing / reps assert a me-too drug may work better than another, but they \"don’t test their me-too drugs in people who have not done well with an earlier drug of the same class.\" Laws In 1990, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) passed laws banning \"gifts of substantial value\" of drug companies to doctors, however this has changed the gifts from objects to meals and travel.\nIn 2006, New Hampshire forbid the sale of prescription data to commercial entities.\nEncountering ill-informed reps at his practice Dr. Dan Foster, a West Virginia surgeon and lawmaker, introduced a bill to", "-17.334032226004638" ], [ "Drug Store, convincing them that the controversy of such a trial would give Dayton much needed publicity. According to Robinson, Rappleyea said, \"As it is, the law is not enforced. If you win, it will be enforced. If I win, the law will be repealed. We're game, aren't we?\" The men then summoned 24-year-old John T. Scopes, a Dayton high school science and math teacher. The group asked Scopes to admit to teaching the theory of evolution.\nRappleyea pointed out that, while the Butler Act prohibited the teaching of the theory of evolution, the state required teachers to use a textbook", "-17.32704445863783" ], [ "being run as \"a mere adjunct of a particular business\". (In one of Brinkley's programs he read listener mail describing medical issues, then recommended medication of dubious value, identified by numbers, over the air. Listeners had to visit a Brinkley \"kick back\" pharmacy to purchase these items.)\nBrinkley appealed on the grounds that this was prohibited censorship, but the U.S. Court of Appeals denied his appeal, stating \"This contention is without merit. There has been no attempt on the part of the commission to subject any part of appellant's broadcasting matter to scrutiny prior to its release. In considering the question", "-17.302678301464766" ], [ "the suit, a clinical trial run by researchers employed by Quincy Bioscience \"found no overall benefit compared to a placebo for its primary endpoints involving memory and cognition\", while the company's advertising misleadingly cited a few contested subgroup analyses that showed slight improvements.\nThe suit (Spath et al v. Quincy Bioscience Holding Company, Inc. et al, Case No. 18-cv-12416, D. NJ.) was dismissed in the District court, but an appeal seeking to overturn the dismissal was filed. The suit was consolidated with another against Quincy Pharmaceuticals, Vanderwerff v. Quincy Bioscience (Case No. 17-cv-784, D. NJ), which was the lead case.\nOn February", "-17.250272991625025" ], [ "question was unconstitutional under the takings clause of the 5th Amendment as applied through the 14th Amendment.\nWashington Legal Foundation v. Henney, 202 F.3d 331 (D.C. Cir. 2000). \nThis lawsuit forced the government to admit that neither the FDAMA nor the CME Guidance independently authorizes the FDA to prohibit or sanction drug manufacturers from discussing off-label uses for their drugs.\nWashington Legal Foundation v. U.S. Department of Justice, 491 U.S. 440 (1989). \nThis case held that the Federal Advisory Committee Act did not apply to Justice Department's solicitation of the American Bar Association’s views on prospective judicial nominees.\nWashington Legal Foundation", "-17.241876296931878" ], [ "ended granting the largest pharmaceutical settlements in the world.\nIn the United States in 2017, the government is considering allowing direct-to-consumer advertising to promote off-label drug use. The appointment of Scott Gottlieb to become head of the Food and Drug Administration furthered discussion, as this person advocates to allow that sort of promotion. Regulation in the United States In the United States, the law permits a physician or other healthcare practitioner to prescribe an approved medication for other uses than their specific FDA-approved indications. Pharmaceutical companies are not allowed to promote a drug for any other purpose without formal FDA approval.", "-17.241186091006966" ], [ "watch, and beginning to feature stronger female leads. Inaccurate portrayal of legal practice It is widely believed by most practicing lawyers that legal dramas result in the general public having misconceptions about the legal process. Many of these misconceptions result from the desire to create an interesting story. For example, because conflict between parties make for an interesting story, legal dramas emphasize the trial and ignore the fact that the vast majority of civil and criminal cases in the United States are settled out of court. Trials in legal dramas are often shown to be more emphatic by disregarding actual", "-17.24095230959938" ], [ "court will ensure that the lower courts considering the issue of forced medication must determine why it is medically appropriate to force drug an individual who is not dangerous and furthermore is competent to make up his own mind about treatment. Subsequent developments In 2004, Sell was found competent to stand trial and trial was scheduled. A week before the trial was to begin, the prosecution and defense claimed that he was mentally unfit for trial and the trial was continued. \nOn April 18, 2005, Sell pleaded no contest to federal charges of fraud and conspiracy to kill a federal", "-17.239154397975653" ], [ "stated that \"it's become politically correct to investigate nonsense.\" A commonly cited statistic is that the US National Institute of Health had spent $2.5 billion on investigating alternative therapies prior to 2009, with none being found to be effective.", "-17.214218015549704" ], [ "psychiatric conditions—conditions that had not been approved by FDA. In 2004, Warner-Lambert admitted to charges that it violated FDA regulations by promoting the drug for these off-label uses: pain, psychiatric conditions, migraine, and other unapproved uses. The company paid $430 million to the federal government to settle the case. Marketing of off-label use Access to pharmaceutical industry documents has revealed marketing strategies used to promote drugs for off-label use. The United States federal government is aggressively pursuing criminal and civil cases against pharmaceutical companies and their employees for promoting off-label uses of prescription drugs. Between 2003 and 2008, U.S. federal", "-17.17882550644572" ], [ "of Law, Chief Justice of the United States Warren Burger stated that \"some system of certification for trial advocates is an imperative and long overdue step.\" Burger stated that the absence of certification programs \"has helped bring about the low state of American trial advocacy and a consequent diminution in the quality of our entire system of justice.\" Burger endorsed board certification of trial lawyers as \"basic to a fair system of justice\" and, referring to barristers, wrote that the idea had \"historic recognition in the common law system.\" By the time Burger promoted the idea, board certification for physicians", "-17.177802216843702" ], [ "company representatives in lieu of product brochures. This practice might be illegal if it effectively constitutes advertising or advocating use of the drug for non-approved indications or dosages. Payments to medical ghostwriters may be augmented with consulting contracts, paid trips to teach continuing medical education courses, or grants. The academics or doctors are known as \"KOLs\" (\"Key Opinion Leaders\") or \"TLs\" (\"Thought Leaders\"). Senate investigation On June 24, 2010, Senator Charles E. Grassley, Ranking Member of the United States Senate Committee on Finance issued a report on medical ghost writing.\nThe report said, \"The Committee was provided with documents from recent", "-17.171598765969975" ], [ "be excluded from the ban.\nDrugs reformer and founder of the Beckley Foundation, Amanda Feilding claimed the act is bad legislation and a mistake for multiple reasons. She criticised the act for pushing the market underground, meaning users and addicts will have to resort to purchasing from criminals. She also stated the act hampers legitimate research, such as varying drugs effects on illnesses such as depression. Along with these issues she criticised the legislation and the government for trampling on people's personal freedoms and liberties.", "-17.159408080740832" ], [ "as Virginia State Board of Pharmacy v. Virginia Citizens Consumer Council (1976) and Florida Bar v. Went For It (1995).\nVoluntary disclaimers, however, have been used since the beginning of advertising. They lead to more persuasive advertising, and they provide useful information to consumers. Experimental studies suggest that mandatory disclaimers do not help buyers and may lead them to make inferior decisions.", "-17.120548534061527" ], [ "and saving money in the health care system. Advanced models can be linked via the Internet to a medical facility, to aid in monitoring and reminding a patient to take his/her medications. Legality In some jurisdictions in the United States possession of prescription drugs in a pill organizer is a crime, and people have been prosecuted for it . The legal theory is that since the drug is not in the package it was dispensed in by the pharmacy, and since it is not \"in use\" (e.g., swallowed), it is unlawfully possessed. The affirmative defense, which is that", "-17.11554017639719" ], [ "1998. Congress had previously authorized the FDA to pre-approve health claims on foods (including dietary supplements) but the FDA created an undefined and difficult standard for approving such health claims, and after 10 years had approved only 10 such claims. Supplement manufacturers Dirk Pearson and Sandy Shaw sued the FDA in federal court for refusing to allow four health claims on their products that were supported by science, based on the First Amendment and the FDA's failure to define their standard for accepting a health claim. The D.C. Appeals Court rejected the First Amendment argument, but ruled in favor of", "-17.1004409363959" ], [ "to persuade conservative justices to take pro-consumer positions. Pharmaceutical industry In Wyeth v. Levine (6-3), Frederick helped to convince Justices Stevens, Ginsburg, Kennedy, Souter and Thomas that federal approval of labels that provide warnings about side effects of drugs do not bar lawsuits claiming inadequate warnings of a health risk in state law. In the case, Diana Levine sued Wyeth for failing to warn patients that the drug Phenergan could cause gangrene when administered using direct IV injection. The 2009 verdict, which overturned a ruling by the Vermont Supreme Court, was a victory for Levine and for victims", "-17.07753575942479" ], [ "healthcare professional to refuse to directly participate in medical aid in dying,” said Kevin Díaz, national director of legal advocacy for Compassion & Choices. “But these doctors contend their personal beliefs should trump their patients’ rights when it comes to simply referring them to a healthcare professional to advise them about all their end-of-life care options. It should send shivers down the spine of every patient.”\n“This case is about a patient’s right to know what their options are at the end of life,” said Betsy Walkerman, President of Patient Choices Vermont. “Physicians should not impose their personal religious values on", "-17.076931259594858" ], [ "the scope of Blackmun’s majority opinion, stating that it did not extend to professional services such as medicine or law. Burger reasoned that since regulation of these professions governed a different set of risks, and since the services involved were unique and personalized to the client, the holding of this case should not apply to them. Stewart's concurrence Justice Stewart wrote a concurrence explaining how the holding of this did not limit the states’ ability to restrict deceptive or false advertising. He cited various libel cases to demonstrate that while the press cannot be harshly restricted for fear", "-17.062014307379286" ] ]

[ "You don't get energy from sleeping. Your body gets energy from food. What sleep does is repair damage to your body and allow your brain to rest. When your brain doesn't have enough rest, it stops working as efficiently. But without food, your body won't have enough energy to do anything. Think of food as the gas you put into your car, and sleep as the occasional oil change you need to keep your car working properly.", "OK buddy, your head uses thinking energy and your body uses moving energy. Moving energy comes from snax, and thinking energy comes from sleeps", "The energy you get from food is real; food is a source of fuel and building materials for your body. The \"energy\" you get from sleep is not real energy. Sleep is just your body resetting. You feel more energized because the mess and toxins that had been building up through the previous day (making you feel tired) are now gone.", "Well the energy you get from food is what your stomach and bowels break down and absorb. Calories, sugars, etc are your \"food energy\". Now, you don't actually get energy from sleep, although it feels like you do. You know when you're walking around for a long time, and your legs/feet get tired? You sit down for a while to rest them, and then you can go walking again for another while. Well, try to think of being awake as your brain \"walking\". It does this all day, and eventually it needs a rest, just like your feet. And the brain's equivalent of \"resting your feet\" is sleeping. Sleeping allows your brain's conscious functions to go offline, letting the autonomous functions do their thang." ]

[ [ "Food energy Food energy is chemical energy that animals (including humans) derive from food through the process of cellular respiration. Cellular respiration may either involve the chemical reaction of food molecules with molecular oxygen (aerobic respiration) or the process of reorganizing the food molecules without additional oxygen (anaerobic respiration). Measure Theoretically, one could measure food energy in different ways, using (say) the Gibbs free energy of combustion, or the amount of ATP generated by metabolizing the food. However, the convention is to use the heat of the oxidation reaction producing liquid water. Conventional food energy is based on heats of", "-32.287472790369065" ], [ "over. It is theorized that sleep helps facilitate the synthesis of molecules that help repair and protect the brain from these harmful elements generated during waking. The metabolic phase during sleep is anabolic; anabolic hormones such as growth hormones (as mentioned above) are secreted preferentially during sleep.\nEnergy conservation could as well have been accomplished by resting quiescent without shutting off the organism from the environment, potentially a dangerous situation. A sedentary nonsleeping animal is more likely to survive predators, while still preserving energy. Sleep, therefore, seems to serve another purpose, or other purposes, than simply conserving energy. Another potential purpose", "-31.539504780448624" ], [ "of the body's total energy needs. Sleep necessarily reduces this use and gives time for the restoration of energy-giving ATP. The effects of sleep deprivation show the absolute need for sleep.\nThe lateral hypothalamus contains orexinergic neurons that control appetite and arousal through their projections to the ascending reticular activating system. The hypothalamus controls the pituitary gland through the release of peptides such as oxytocin, and vasopressin, as well as dopamine into the median eminence. Through the autonomic projections, the hypothalamus is involved in regulating functions such as blood pressure, heart rate, breathing, sweating, and other homeostatic mechanisms. The hypothalamus also", "-30.675837582268286" ], [ "energy expenditure, which predisposes weight gain. However, the strength of the relationship between sleep duration and physical activity remains unclear: Some studies show a relationship between sleep duration and physical activity, but not really a strong one Others show a non-reciprocal relationship where fatness predicts less physical activity and also sleep duration predict fatness, but there couldn’t be an association found in a model which includes all three factors.\nSleep deprivation is believed to influence the brain's response to high-calorie food, making it more attractive, while also affecting the production of hormones that control appetite. Matthew P Walker, a psychology and", "-30.40128835127689" ], [ "takes place mostly during slow-wave sleep, during which body temperature, heart rate, and brain oxygen consumption decrease. The brain, especially, requires sleep for restoration, whereas in the rest of the body these processes can take place during quiescent waking. In both cases, the reduced rate of metabolism enables countervailing restorative processes.\nWhile awake, metabolism generates reactive oxygen species, which are damaging to cells. During sleep, metabolic rates decrease and reactive oxygen species generation is reduced allowing restorative processes to take over. The sleeping brain has been shown to remove metabolic waste products at a faster rate than during an awake state.", "-29.870981728643528" ], [ "meal, the body's energy reserves are in reasonable homeostatic balance. However, when a meal is consumed, there is a homeostasis-disturbing influx of fuels into the bloodstream. When the usual mealtime approaches, the body takes steps to soften the impact of the homeostasis-disturbing influx of fuels by releasing insulin into the blood, and lowering the blood glucose levels. It is this lowering of blood glucose levels that causes premeal hunger, and not necessarily an energy deficit. Similar conditions A food craving is an intense desire to consume a specific food, as opposed to general hunger. Similarly, thirst is the craving for", "-29.70678983523976" ], [ "on metabolism. This could explain some of the early theories of sleep function that predicted that sleep has a metabolic regulation role. Memory processing According to Plihal & Born, sleep generally increases recalling of previous learning and experiences, and its benefit depends on the phase of sleep and the type of memory. For example, studies based on declarative and procedural memory tasks applied over early and late nocturnal sleep, as well as wakefulness controlled conditions, have been shown that declarative memory improves more during early sleep (dominated by SWS) while procedural memory during late sleep (dominated by REM sleep).\nRegarding to", "-29.621439967595506" ], [ "sleep probably serve different and unknown functions. Moreover, the preservation theory needs to explain why carnivores like lions, which are on top of the food chain and thus have little to fear, sleep the most. It has been suggested that they need to minimize energy expenditure when not hunting. Waste clearance from the brain During sleep, metabolic waste products, such as immunoglobulins, protein fragments or intact proteins like beta-amyloid, may be cleared from the interstitium via a glymphatic system of lymph-like channels coursing along perivascular spaces and the astrocyte network of the brain. According to this model, hollow tubes between", "-29.389793472888414" ], [ "regulating hunger and metabolism are leptin, which inhibits appetite and increases energy expenditure, and ghrelin, which increases appetite and reduces energy expenditure. Studies have shown that chronic sleep deprivation is associated with reduced levels of leptin and elevated levels of ghrelin, which together result in increased appetite, especially for high fat and high carbohydrate foods. As a result, sleep deprivation over time may contribute to increased caloric intake and decreased self-control over food cravings, leading to weight gain. Hormone and neurotransmitter imbalances Weight gain is a common side-effect of certain psychiatric medications. Pathologies Pathological causes of weight gain include Cushing's", "-29.09249427774921" ], [ "are instinctively hungry rather than at an arbitrarily set meal-time. Ayurveda also teaches that when a person is tired, it is not wise to eat food or drink, but to rest, as the body's fire is low and must gather energy in order to alight the enzymes that are required to digest food. The same principles of regulated living, called Dinacharya, direct that work is the justification for rest and in order to get sufficient sleep, one should subject the body to rigorous exercise. Periodic fasting, or abstaining from all food and drink for short durations of one or", "-28.97370253968984" ], [ "each age and gender group. Notwithstanding, nutrition labels on Australian food products typically recommend the average daily energy intake of 2,100 kcal (8,800 kJ). Energy usage in the human body The human body uses the energy released by respiration for a wide range of purposes: about 20% of the energy is used for brain metabolism, and much of the rest is used for the basal metabolic requirements of other organs and tissues. In cold environments, metabolism may increase simply to produce heat to maintain body temperature. Among the diverse uses for energy, one is the production of mechanical energy by skeletal muscle", "-28.876417122315615" ], [ "significant effects on the energy balance the next morning, including reduced energy expenditure, enhanced hedonic stimulus processing in the brain underlying the drive to consume food, and overeating that goes beyond satiety. Further recent studies have shown that a reduction of sleep duration to four hours for two consecutive nights has been shown to decrease circulating leptin levels and to increase ghrelin levels, as well as self-reported hunger. Similar endocrine alterations have been shown to occur even after a single night of sleep restriction.\nIn a balanced order, nine healthy normal-weight men spent three nights in a sleep laboratory separated by", "-28.865195520338602" ], [ "during exercise Humans metabolize food to synthesize energy in the form of Adenosine triphosphate (ATP). This is the human body's instant accessible form of energy for all functions of cells within the body. For exercise the human body places high demand for ATP to supply its self with enough energy to support all the corresponding changes in the body at work. The 3 energy systems involved in exercise are the Phosphogenic, Anaerobic and Aerobic energy pathways. The simultaneous action of these three energy pathways prioritizes one specific pathway over the others depending on the type of", "-28.76708788680844" ], [ "fails to explain why the brain disengages from the external environment during normal sleep. However, the brain consumes a large proportion of the body's energy at any one time and preservation of energy could only occur by limiting its sensory inputs. Another argument against the theory is that sleep is not simply a passive consequence of removing the animal from the environment, but is a \"drive\"; animals alter their behaviors in order to obtain sleep.\nTherefore, circadian regulation is more than sufficient to explain periods of activity and quiescence that are adaptive to an organism, but the more peculiar specializations of", "-28.674274769902695" ], [ "of the dry weight of food. Therefore, water content is the most important factor in energy density. Carbohydrates provide four calories per gram (17 kJ/g), and proteins offer slightly less at 16kJ/g whereas fat provides nine calories per gram (38 kJ/g), ​2 ¹⁄₄ times as much energy. Fats contain more carbon-carbon and carbon-hydrogen bonds than carbohydrates or proteins and are therefore richer in energy. Foods that derive most of their energy from fat have a much higher energy density than those that derive most of their energy from carbohydrates or proteins, even if the water content is the same.", "-28.646888214396313" ], [ "exhausted, it is then unable to produce the same amount of food as before, and is overall less productive. Therefore, by using resources beyond a sustainable level, the resource become nullified and ineffective, which further increases the disparity between the demand for a resource and the availability of a resource. There must be a shift to provide adequate recovery time to each one of the supplies in demand to support contemporary human lifestyles.\nDavid Pimentel has stated that \"With the imbalance growing between population numbers and vital life sustaining resources, humans must actively conserve cropland, freshwater, energy, and biological resources. There", "-28.592252891045064" ], [ "of sleep for one night is more likely to respond more intensely to junk food but also has the decreased ability to curb that desire. These results were consistent even as the subjects were given extra calories to compensate for the amount of energy expended during those extra hours that the subjects stayed awake, which indicates that one's craving for junk food is not a response to offset an energy deficit. Walker further speculates that one of the biological basis for this reaction could the buildup of adenosine, a metabolic byproduct that may degrade communication between networks in the brain.", "-28.461976857783156" ], [ "Energy bar Nutrition Energy in food comes from three sources: fat, protein, and carbohydrates. A typical energy bar weighs between 45 and 80 g and is likely to supply about 200–300 Cal (840–1,300 kJ), 3–9 g of fat, 7–15 g of protein, and 20–40 g of carbohydrates.\nIn order to provide energy quickly, most of the carbohydrates are various types of sugars like fructose, glucose, maltodextrin and others in various ratios, combined with complex carbohydrate sources like oats and barley. Proteins come mostly in the form of fast digesting whey protein. Energy bars generally don't contain sugar alcohols, since these", "-28.25454733055085" ], [ "each day. Substances that have been ingested into the body while an organism is awake are synthesized into complex proteins of living tissue. Growth hormones are also secreted to facilitate the healing of muscles as well as repairing damage to any tissues. Lastly, glial cells within the brain are restored with sugars to provide energy for the brain. Learning and synaptic homeostasis Learning and memory formation occurs during wakefulness by the process of long-term potentiation; SWS is associated with the regulation of synapses thus potentiated. SWS has been found to be involved in the downscaling of synapses, in which strongly", "-28.172588367189746" ], [ "its supply of adenosine triphosphate (ATP), the molecule used for short-term storage and transport of energy. In quiet waking, the brain is responsible for 20% of the body's energy use, thus this reduction has a noticeable effect on overall energy consumption.\nSleep increases the sensory threshold. In other words, sleeping persons perceive fewer stimuli, but can generally still respond to loud noises and other salient sensory events.\nDuring slow-wave sleep, humans secrete bursts of growth hormone. All sleep, even during the day, is associated with secretion of prolactin.\nKey physiological methods for monitoring and measuring changes during sleep include electroencephalography (EEG) of brain", "-28.15278440050315" ], [ "Infant sleep training The development of sleep over the first year During the first year of life, infants spend most of their time in the sleeping state. Assessment of sleep during infancy presents an opportunity to study the impact of sleep on the maturation of the central nervous system (CNS), overall functioning, and future cognitive, psychomotor, and temperament development. Sleep is essential to human life and involves both physiologic and behavioral processes. Sleep is now understood as not simply a resting state, but a state that involves intense brain activity. The first year of life is a time of substantial", "-28.10992269543931" ], [ "\"dietary calorie\", \"food calorie\" or \"Calorie\" with a capital \"C\"). This is equivalent to a thousand calories (abbreviated \"cal\") or one kilocalorie (kcal). Because food energy is commonly measured in Calories, the energy density of food is commonly called \"caloric density\".\nEnergy density measures the energy released when the food is metabolized by a healthy organism when it ingests the food (see food energy for calculation) and the food is metabolized with oxygen, into waste products such as carbon dioxide and water. Besides alcohol the only sources of food energy are carbohydrates, fats and proteins, which make up ninety percent", "-28.021806999342516" ], [ "molecule used for short-term storage and transport of energy. (Since in quiet waking the brain is responsible for 20% of the body's energy use, this reduction has an independently noticeable impact on overall energy consumption.) During slow-wave sleep, humans secrete bursts of growth hormone. All sleep, even during the day, is associated with secretion of prolactin.\nAccording to the Hobson & McCarley activation-synthesis hypothesis, proposed in 1975–1977, the alternation between REM and non-REM can be explained in terms of cycling, reciprocally influential neurotransmitter systems. Sleep timing is controlled by the circadian clock, and in humans, to some extent by willed behavior.", "-28.014933176746126" ], [ "is likely that sleep evolved to fulfill some primeval function and took on multiple functions over time (analogous to the larynx, which controls the passage of food and air, but descended over time to develop speech capabilities).\nThe multiple hypotheses proposed to explain the function of sleep reflect the incomplete understanding of the subject. While some functions of sleep are known, others have been proposed but not completely substantiated or understood. Some of the early ideas about sleep function were based on the fact that most (if not all) external activity is stopped during sleep. Initially, it was thought that sleep", "-28.01400088282753" ], [ "energy use in REM sleep, as measured by oxygen and glucose metabolism, equals or exceeds energy use in waking. The rate in non-REM sleep is 11–40% lower. Brain stem Neural activity during REM sleep seems to originate in the brain stem, especially the pontine tegmentum and locus coeruleus. REM sleep is punctuated and immediately preceded by PGO (ponto-geniculo-occipital) waves, bursts of electrical activity originating in the brain stem. (PGO waves have long been measured directly in cats but not in humans because of constraints on experimentation; however comparable effects have been observed in humans during \"phasic\" events which occur during", "-27.896682512713596" ], [ "and mechanisms of sleep are the subject of substantial ongoing research.\nSleep is a highly conserved behavior across animal evolution.\nHumans may suffer from various sleep disorders, including dyssomnias such as insomnia, hypersomnia, narcolepsy, and sleep apnea; parasomnias such as sleepwalking and REM behavior disorder; bruxism; and circadian rhythm sleep disorders. The advent of artificial light has substantially altered sleep timing in industrialized countries. Physiology The most pronounced physiological changes in sleep occur in the brain. The brain uses significantly less energy during sleep than it does when awake, especially during non-REM sleep. In areas with reduced activity, the brain restores", "-27.88943624770036" ], [ "nutritional content and eat at regular intervals (e.g. every 2 to 3 hours). This approach serves two purposes: to limit overindulging in the cutting phase, and to allow for the consumption of large volumes of food during the bulking phase. Eating more frequently does not increase basal metabolic rate when compared to 3 meals a day. While food does have a metabolic cost to digest, absorb, and store, called the thermic effect of food, it depends on the quantity and type of food, not how the food is spread across the meals of the day. Well-controlled studies using whole-body calorimetry", "-27.75577022440848" ], [ "is the proportion of nutrients in a food relative to its energy content. \nConsidering energy foods as adequate nutrition was first scientifically demonstrated to be false by François Magendie by experiments on dogs and described in his Précis élémentaire de Physiologie. He showed that eating only sugar, olive oil, or butter, each led to the death of his test animals in 30 to 40 days. Impact on other nutrients The 'empty calories' argument is that a diet high in added sugar will reduce consumption of foods that contain essential nutrients. One review reported that for increases in consumption of added", "-27.739304651157" ], [ "the cortex consume somewhat more energy than inactive regions: this fact forms the basis for the functional brain imaging methods PET and fMRI. These functional imaging techniques provide a three-dimensional image of metabolic activity.\nThe function of sleep is not fully understood; however, there is evidence that sleep enhances the clearance of metabolic waste products, some of which are potentially neurotoxic, from the brain and may also permit repair. Evidence suggests that the increased clearance of metabolic waste during sleep occurs via increased functioning of the glymphatic system. Sleep may also have an effect on cognitive function by weakening unnecessary connections.", "-27.674954551563133" ], [ "multiple reasons, but the primary one suggested is as a means to reductively simplify and stabilise the ideas learned in waking consciousness to less computationally complex ones, to improve overall system stability and reduce computational entropy, or free energy. Free energy is proposed by Hobson and Friston to correlate with capacity for an organism to experience shock or surprise. Thus, for humans, the process of daily learning becomes unsustainable without a corresponding process to revert from these neuroplastic increases in complexity. Hobson has been critical of the idea that there are deep, nonphysiological, or hidden meanings in dreams, calling such", "-27.658468723937403" ], [ "hormonal balance, temperature regulation and maintaining heart rate. Preservation The \"Preservation and Protection\" theory holds that sleep serves an adaptive function. It protects the animal during that portion of the 24-hour day in which being awake, and hence roaming around, would place the individual at greatest risk. Organisms do not require 24 hours to feed themselves and meet other necessities. From this perspective of adaptation, organisms are safer by staying out of harm's way, where potentially they could be prey to other, stronger organisms. They sleep at times that maximize their safety, given their physical capacities and their habitats.\nThis theory", "-27.595306404049552" ], [ "energy, or power, an energy flow per unit time, etc. In the past two centuries, the use of the word energy in various \"non-scientific\" vocations, e.g. social studies, spirituality and psychology has proliferated the popular literature. Conservation of energy In 1918 it was proved that the law of conservation of energy is the direct mathematical consequence of the translational symmetry of the quantity conjugate to energy, namely time. That is, energy is conserved because the laws of physics do not distinguish between different moments of time (see Noether's theorem).\nDuring a 1961 lecture for undergraduate students at the California Institute", "-27.340586783364415" ], [ "Nutrition and cognition Relatively speaking, the brain consumes an immense amount of energy in comparison to the rest of the body. The mechanisms involved in the transfer of energy from foods to neurons are likely to be fundamental to the control of brain function. Human bodily processes, including the brain, all require both macronutrients, as well as micronutrients.\nInsufficient intake of selected vitamins, or certain metabolic disorders, may affect cognitive processes by disrupting the nutrient-dependent processes within the body that are associated with the management of energy in neurons, which can subsequently affect synaptic plasticity, or the ability to encode new", "-27.277265569893643" ], [ "to better digestion. This is turn, prevents various stomach complications such as acidity or indigestion that people usually complain after having their meals. Boosts metabolism Apart from caloric intake and pattern of eating, leading an active physical life is one of the key reasons to boost metabolism. Hence, people are advised to go for a walk after having their dinner as it stimulates the metabolic process and influences the functioning of other organs in the body. Induces sleep The habit of going to bed after having dinner is definitely not good for health. However, a few minutes of walking in", "-27.093560879235156" ], [ "associated with habitual short sleep is associated with increased appetite and energy expenditure with the equation tipped towards food intake rather than expenditure in societies where high-calorie food is freely available.\nSeveral large studies using nationally representative samples suggest that one of the causes of high obesity rates in the United States might be a corresponding decrease in the average number of hours that people are sleeping. The findings suggest that this might be happening because sleep deprivation could be disrupting hormones that regulate glucose metabolism and appetite. Leptin is one of the hormones that communicate with one's brain to indicate", "-26.92514587799087" ], [ "the following day. Not getting enough sleep a couple days cumulatively builds up a deficiency and that's when all the symptoms of sleep deprivation come in. When one is well rested and healthy, the body naturally spends not as much time in the REM stage of sleep. The more time one's body spends in REM sleep, causes one to be exhausted, less time in that stage will promote more energy when awakened. Voluntary Sleep deprivation can sometimes be self-imposed due to a lack of desire to sleep or the habitual use of stimulant drugs. Sleep deprivation is also self-imposed to", "-26.907388974912465" ], [ "be one explanation why people eat more when they are sleep deprived. Another study with adolescents found greater neural activation in brain regions associated with inhibition in response to food cues after sleep restriction and also found neural activation was consistent with greater reward processing associated with food cues after sleep restriction. These findings did not differ in groups with normal weight or overweight/obese.\nSleep restriction also showed to increase the neuronal response like blood oxygen to high-caloric food in normal-weight subjects (reward processing food cues after sleep restriction. And let to relative increase of activity in brain areas related with", "-26.82945833884878" ], [ "for sleep could be to restore signal strength in synapses that are activated while awake to a \"baseline\" level, weakening unnecessary connections that to better facilitate learning and memory functions again the next day; this means the brain is forgetting some of the things we learn each day. Endocrine function The secretion of many hormones is affected by sleep-wake cycles. For example, melatonin, a hormonal timekeeper, is considered a strongly circadian hormone, whose secretion increases at dim light and peaks during nocturnal sleep, diminishing with bright light to the eyes. In some organisms melatonin secretion depends on sleep, but in", "-26.749677132815123" ], [ "temperature and substance. This can only be emitted by the male as only the male, by nature of his very being, has the requisite heat to concoct blood into semen.\" According to Aristotle, there is a direct connection between food and semen: \"Sperms are the excretion of our food, or to put it more clearly, as the most perfect component of our food.\"\nThe connection between food and physical growth, on the one hand, and semen, on the other, allows Aristotle to warn against \"engag[ing] in sexual activity at too early an age ... [since] this will affect the growth of", "-26.718678073142655" ], [ "the food and decrease their consumption. Eating less during a meal is usually interpreted as reaching satiety or \"getting full\", but experiments suggest that habituation also plays an important role. Many experiments with animals and humans have shown that providing variety in a meal increases the amount that is consumed in a meal, most likely because habituation is stimulus specific and because variety may introduce dishabituation effects. Food variety also slows the rate of habituation in children and may be an important contributing factor to the recent increases in obesity.\nWe also find that habituation is found in our", "-26.675202428596094" ], [ " Nutrients with a lower absorption, such as fiber or sugar alcohols, lower the energy density of foods as well. A moderate energy density would be 1.6 to 3 calories per gram (7–13 kJ/g); salmon, lean meat, and bread would fall in this category. High-energy foods would have more than three calories per gram and include crackers, cheese, dark chocolate, and peanuts. Fuel Energy density is sometimes useful for comparing fuels. For example, liquid hydrogen fuel has a higher specific energy (energy per unit mass) than gasoline does, but a much lower volumetric energy density. Astrodynamics Specific mechanical energy,", "-26.665966125037812" ], [ "night before going to sleep. About the second function of eating/drinking, or diet, Dr. Hashimoto advocated a simple macrobiotic diet. Nevertheless, he cautioned against being too strict about one’s diet. He suggested learning which foods were most nourishing and what was best for one’s own health. The most important thing in diet, Dr. Hashimo maintained, was not what or how much food was eaten, but how well the food that was eaten was chewed and digested.\nRegarding the function of movement, Sotai advocates natural movement or aiming for ease and effortlessness as much as possible. The aim of Sotai is to", "-26.656563254073262" ], [ "Energy History The word energy derives from the Ancient Greek: ἐνέργεια, romanized: energeia, lit. 'activity, operation', which possibly appears for the first time in the work of Aristotle in the 4th century BC. In contrast to the modern definition, energeia was a qualitative philosophical concept, broad enough to include ideas such as happiness and pleasure.\nIn the late 17th century, Gottfried Leibniz proposed the idea of the Latin: vis viva, or living force, which defined as the product of the mass of an object and its velocity squared; he believed that total vis viva was conserved. To account for slowing due to friction,", "-26.613008909043856" ], [ "body's metabolism is burning calories at the same rate as the temperature around. This would be around 24 °C (room temperature), and people have no opinion about the temperature. Thermal Neutrality is often also used in animal raising.For example, Farmers maintain the neutral temperature for cattle to prevent Cold Stress.", "-26.59415495675057" ], [ "energy or energy density figures are often quoted as \"calories per serving\" or \"kilocalories per 100 g\". A nutritional requirement or consumption is often expressed in calories per day. One gram of fat in food contains nine calories, while a gram of either a carbohydrate or a protein contains approximately four calories. Alcohol in a food contains seven calories per gram. Chemistry In other scientific contexts, the term calorie almost always refers to the small calorie. Even though it is not an SI unit, it is still used in chemistry. For example, the energy released in a chemical reaction per mole", "-26.517028925416525" ], [ "indicating long term potentiation.\nMoreover, observations include the importance of napping: improved performance in some kinds of tasks after a 1-hour afternoon nap; studies of performance of shift workers, showing that an equal number of hours of sleep in the day is not the same as in the night. Current research studies look at the molecular and physiological basis of memory consolidation during sleep. These, along with studies of genes that may play a role in this phenomenon, together promise to give a more complete picture of the role of sleep in memory. Renormalizing the synaptic strength Sleep can also serve", "-26.514732818017364" ], [ "water content, caloric density (more energy per pound for a given space), and nutritional density (more nutrition per pound for a given space). Water weighs one gram per cubic centimeter, or 8.33 pounds per gallon, so a 4-liter (1 gallon) food container can weigh up to eight pounds less when it contains dehydrated food. Dehydrating foods can reduce weight and may reduce nutrition while increasing the need for water to reconstitute the food. More weight also expends more energy, so packing lighter foods reduces the need for more calories. Calories equate to energy. Nutrition becomes more important as the number", "-26.494258389109746" ], [ "rundown or hungry. However, you may increase your capacity for willpower by engaging in activities such as mindfulness, meditation and exercise and/or by ensuring good nutrition and adequate sleep.", "-26.484980923414696" ], [ "Appetite Appetite is the desire to eat food, sometimes due to hunger. Appealing foods can stimulate appetite even when hunger is absent, although appetite can be greatly reduced by satiety. Appetite exists in all higher life-forms, and serves to regulate adequate energy intake to maintain metabolic needs. It is regulated by a close interplay between the digestive tract, adipose tissue and the brain. Appetite has a relationship with every individual's behavior. Appetitive behaviour also known as approach behaviour, and consummatory behaviours, are the only processes that involve energy intake, whereas all other behaviours affect the release of energy. When stressed,", "-26.469849578337744" ], [ "osmoticum. Brain and Gut Regulation of Food Intake Maintaining a careful balance between stored energy and caloric intake is important to ensure that the body has enough energy to maintain itself, grow, and engage in activity. When balanced improperly, obesity and its accompanying disorders can result.", "-26.358580528059974" ], [ "Meal Breakfast Breakfast is the first meal of a day, most often eaten in the early morning before undertaking the day's work. Some believe it to be the most important meal of the day. The word breakfast literally refers to breaking the fasting period of the prior night.\nBreakfast foods vary widely from place to place, but often include carbohydrates such as grains or cereals, fruit, vegetables, protein foods like eggs, meat or fish, and beverages such as tea, coffee, milk, or fruit juice, juices often taken first of all. Coffee, milk, tea, juice, breakfast cereals, pancakes, waffles, sausages, French toast,", "-26.353244468728008" ], [ "compared with that which is exhibited in daily life, is open to debate. However, the comparative literature strongly suggests that shorter, polyphasically-placed sleep is the rule, rather than the exception, across the entire animal kingdom (Campbell and Tobler, 1984; Tobler, 1989). There is little reason to believe that the human sleep/wake system would evolve in a fundamentally different manner. That people often do not exhibit such sleep organization in daily life merely suggests that humans have the capacity (often with the aid of stimulants such as caffeine or increased physical activity) to overcome the propensity for sleep when it is", "-26.33897965948563" ], [ "the fastest during the Non-REM cycle. Sleep is also important for maintaining the functioning of the immune system, as well as helping with the consolidation of information previously learned and experienced into the memory. If sleep deprived, recall of information is typically decreased. Dreams that occur during sleep have been shown to increase mental creativity and problem solving skills.\nAs the period of time since the last Non-REM cycle has occurred increases, the body's drive towards sleep also increases. Physical and environmental factors can have a great influence over the body's drive towards sleep. Mental stimulation, pain and discomfort, higher/lower than", "-26.25009834888624" ], [ "Energy (psychological) Mental energy or psychic energy is a concept in some psychological theories or models of a postulated unconscious mental functioning on a level between biology and consciousness. Philosophical accounts The idea harks back to Aristotle's conception of actus et potentia. \"Energy\" here used in the literal meaning of \"activity\" or \"operation\". Henry More, in his 1642 Psychodia platonica; or a platonicall song of the soul, defined an \"energy of the soul\" as including \"every phantasm of the soul\". Julian Sorell Huxley defines \"mental energy\" as \"the driving forces of the psyche, emotional as well as intellectual\" (On living", "-26.151489918644074" ], [ " It has been argued that one function of sleep is to allow the brain to consolidate into memory the things it has learned during the animal's normal period of activity. The brain might not be able to do this while still assailed by new stimuli and new information to process. Therefore, the role of sleep would be to periodically shut down sensory input to allow the brain to form memories. Pelagic species swim in an environment that is rather boring (kilometers upon kilometers of open water with not much happening in it). In such species, the sensory input is", "-26.11551583034452" ], [ "compensate, the blood-glucose levels will increase. This resembles impaired glucose tolerance, which can result in type 2 diabetes. Sleep deprivation and appetite control Sleep plays a vital role in regulating metabolism and appetite. When sleep deprived, the metabolic system will be out of balance, which will ultimately affect the dietary choices people make. Teens who are sleep deprived crave more carbohydrates. Sleep deprivation is a risk factor for obesity among young adults.\nThere are two hormones, leptin and ghrelin, that are important in appetite control. Leptin, released by adipose tissue, is a hormone that inhibits appetite and increases energy expenditure. Ghrelin,", "-25.990397547662724" ], [ "extensive verification\nhave suggested that in well-rested subjects, engaging in \"biological\" behavior (eating, sex) does not lead to lowering of mental energy levels, as measured with a self-assessment scale, and engaging in \"psychosocial\" behavior (cognitive tasks) does not lead to lowering of physical energy levels (measured with a similar scale). However, in subjects with exhaustion both results were positive (feeding-related and sexual activities lowered both physical and mental energy levels, and engaging in cognitive tasks did the same). These results have been interpreted as an indication that biological and social systems of adaptation are energetically independent in \"normal\" conditions, and", "-25.961604350217385" ], [ "specifically there are types of consumers by instinct or choice(herbivores, vegetarians, omnivores). \nBeyond the initial consumer there may be other consumers who derive their energy from consumers preceding them. Primary production provides for all trophic members as it provides energy to primary consumers that in turn provide energy to secondary consumers and so forth. In this way energy is transferred from one form and source to another. The efficiency for consumers to grow is limited by the use of their feed for a metabolic processes and their efficiency of conversion for digested food. The energy that is used for growth", "-25.949470868421486" ], [ "for cellular excitation via calcium influx and thus favors LTP. What else may be involved The circadian rhythm taking hold is responsible for the feeling of fatigue. Our body naturally starts to shut down, around the time that the sun starts to take its dip into the horizon. The primary chemical for this happening is melatonin, so it would seem natural to wonder if melatonin has some effect on learning and memory formation as well. Every animal that sleeps also exhibits some bodily concentration of melatonin. When studying the effects of sleepiness on fish, it was found that any significant", "-25.83898537477944" ], [ "Life and Energy Life and Energy is a 1962 book by Isaac Asimov. It is about the biological and physical world, and their contrasts and comparisons. Thus the book is divided into two sections, which is separated by further sub-sections (i.e. chapters): 1) energy; 2) body. In order to accomplish its goal, the book starts with \"layman\" discussions about energy and how these can be used to single out human from other living systems, or even living systems from non-living matter, what differentiates a rock from an oyster, and finishes with advanced concepts, how living systems are able to \"produce\"", "-25.777374863624573" ], [ "considerations According to the spoon theory, spoons (units of energy) may be replaced after rest or a night of sleep. However, people with chronic diseases, such as autoimmune diseases, and various disabilities may have sleep difficulties. This can result in a particularly low supply of energy. Some people with a disability may not be fatigued by the disabilities themselves, but by the constant effort required to pass as non-disabled.", "-25.750232509919442" ], [ "has been stated that REM sleep is a recent evolutionary behavior in homeothermic animals. In both, there is increased REM sleep in the early stages of life. In humans, REM sleep peaks during the third trimester of gestation, and quickly falls after birth as primary consciousness declines and secondary consciousness grows with the development of the brain. The developing control over stages of sleep and waking suggests that sleep and REM has developed as a way to self-activate in order to anticipate awake-state circumstances. Neuronic modeling Within the pons, the modeling and tracking of these aminergic inhibitory neurons and cholinergic", "-25.684133796254173" ], [ "the heat in the body and therefore those with warm Mizaj who want to lose weight would benefit such exercise. Sleeping and wakefulness Sleep is a passive, dormant part of our daily lives while wakefulness is daily recurring brain state and state of consciousness. Sleep is physical and mental rest and wakefulness is the state of physical and mental activity.\nTherefore, the longer one stays up the drier and warmer their bodies get and the longer one sleeps the wetter the brain and the body gets and their temperament would drop lower. Actually while one is sleeping the body temperature drops", "-25.671851343402523" ], [ "expressed his belief that this was over-simplistic, stating \"the effect of specific nutritional substances upon the glands\" may modify the effect of specific foods on energy balance, a view that is now increasingly accepted. With Otto Heubner (1843–1926), he performed important studies involving energy metabolism in infancy.\nIn 1883 Rubner introduced the \"surface hypothesis\", which stated that the metabolic rate of birds and mammals that maintain a steady body temperature is roughly proportional to their body surface area.\nMax Rubner is also known for his \"rate-of-living theory\", which proposed that a slow metabolism increases an animal's longevity. His observation was that larger", "-25.601820660522208" ], [ "food preferences and childhood experiences (like a mother's cooking). Physiological responses Comfort food are usually chosen because of previous experiences of happiness linked with it. For example, chocolate is held as a popular comfort food as it is follows the pleasurable sweetness and the positive association with gifts/rewards.\nThe time of day also play a role in consuming comfort foods. Most people tend to eat simply because \"it's lunch time\" and only 20% of the time is due to actual hunger Thermal comfort Thermal comfort is a satisfaction of the ambient air temperature and humidity. Psychologists devised a study to determine", "-25.554218343517277" ], [ "and caffeine, and can involve specific exercise and nutritional supplement regimens as well.\nIt has been proposed that this diet will increase \"energy\" or treat cardiovascular disease; there is no evidence to support these assertions. A version of this diet has also been promoted by Robert O. Young as a method of weight loss in his book The pH Miracle. According to the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics, portions of his diet such as the emphasis on eating green leafy vegetables and exercise would likely be healthy. However, the \"obscure theory\" on which his diet is based and the", "-25.546838572365232" ], [ "person needs to get adequate sleep so they do not feel the need to excessively eat in an effort to gain energy and reduce fatigue.\nAs shown in fMRI studies, the human brain seems to react to sleep deprivation with a hyper-limbic response by the amygdala when facing negative stimuli. Also, the sleep deprivation group in this study showed weakened top-down prefrontal control. These results might implicate that sleep deprived people could do non-optimal decision making or react in irrational ways to emotional stimuli. Prefrontal cortex is associated with cognitive decision-making and further might influence healthy food choices in order to", "-25.503172293363605" ], [ "and vegetables, low saturated fat, and whole grains may be optimal for individuals seeking to improve sleep quality. High-quality clinical trials on long-term dietary practices are needed to better define the influence of diet on sleep quality. Anthropology Research suggests that sleep patterns vary significantly across cultures. The most striking differences are observed between societies that have plentiful sources of artificial light and ones that do not. The primary difference appears to be that pre-light cultures have more broken-up sleep patterns. For example, people without artificial light might go to sleep far sooner after the sun sets, but then wake", "-25.49910443207773" ], [ "the body to burn more calories. Secondly, a high protein breakfast appears to slow gastric emptying, which attributes to the fact that protein appears to be the most satiating macronutrient. Finally, a high protein breakfast increases the activity of glucagon, which activates the pathways for glucose synthesis. One study showed that fat loss was approximately twice as much in the high-protein diet group than the moderate-protein diet group in overweight and obese individuals. Modifying plate size Using smaller plates helps to consume smaller portion sizes which leads to the consumption of fewer calories. Studies have shown that portion size influences", "-25.489526746299816" ], [ "Food Food is any substance consumed to provide nutritional support for an organism. It is usually of plant or animal origin, and contains essential nutrients, such as carbohydrates, fats, proteins, vitamins, or minerals. The substance is ingested by an organism and assimilated by the organism's cells to provide energy, maintain life, or stimulate growth.\nHistorically, humans secured food through two methods: hunting and gathering and agriculture. Today, the majority of the food energy required by the ever increasing population of the world is supplied by the food industry.\nFood safety and food security are monitored by agencies like the International Association for", "-25.48714257881511" ], [ "much dietary fiber, so solutions include making tea, chewing and not swallowing the solids, and making leaf protein concentrate. Biomass can be predigested by bacteria so that animals that are poor at digesting cellulose can derive nutrition, such as rats and possibly chickens.\nAs a backup plan, it is even possible that humans could eat this predigested biomass. In a sun-obscuring crisis, stored food would last the human population less than one year. The book shows how many of these solutions can be ramped up in less than one year.\nThis book also addresses other issues, including energy supply, water supply, forest", "-25.43610453014844" ], [ "Nutrition Nutrition is the science that interprets the interaction of nutrients and other substances in food in relation to maintenance, growth, reproduction, health and disease of an organism. It includes food intake, absorption, assimilation, biosynthesis, catabolism and excretion.\nThe diet of an organism is what it eats, which is largely determined by the availability and palatability of foods. For humans, a healthy diet includes preparation of food and storage methods that preserve nutrients from oxidation, heat or leaching, and that reduces risk of foodborne illnesses.\nIn humans, an unhealthy diet can cause deficiency-related diseases such as blindness, anemia, scurvy, preterm birth,", "-25.415846689604223" ], [ "Nutritional neuroscience Nutritional neuroscience is the scientific discipline that studies the effects various components of the diet such as minerals, vitamins, protein, carbohydrates, fats, dietary supplements, synthetic hormones, and food additives have on neurochemistry, neurobiology, behavior, and cognition.\nRecent research on nutritional mechanisms and their effect on the brain show they are involved in almost every facet of neurological functioning including alterations in neurogenesis, neurotrophic factors, neural pathways and neuroplasticity, throughout the life cycle.\nRelatively speaking, the brain consumes an immense amount of energy in comparison to the rest of the body. The human brain is approximately 2% of the human", "-25.36877217743313" ], [ "Diet and obesity Diet plays an important role in the genesis of obesity. Personal choices, food advertising, social customs and cultural influences, as well as food availability and pricing all play a role in determining what and how much an individual eats. Dietary energy supply The dietary energy supply is the food available for human consumption, usually expressed in kilocalories per person per day. It gives an overestimate of the total amount of food consumed as it reflects both food consumed and food wasted. The per capita dietary energy supply varies markedly between different regions and countries. It", "-25.36386428034166" ], [ "and thereby contribute to memory consolidation during sleep. Here, we examined the role of sleep in the object-place recognition task, a task closely comparable to tasks typically applied for testing human declarative memory: It is a one-trial task, hippocampus-dependent, not stressful and can be repeated within the same animal. Sleep deprivation reduces vigilance or arousal levels, affecting the efficiency of certain cognitive functions such as learning and memory.\nThe theory that sleep benefits memory retention is not a new idea. It has been around since Ebbinghaus's experiment on forgetting in 1885. More recently studies have been done by Payne and colleagues", "-25.26729123084806" ], [ "on how their food is grown in nature and by the Creator. By avoiding conversation and focusing on the food, people are able to love their food so that they are able to receive all of its treasures. The idea is that if you love the food you are eating, you will gain more from the experience. Respiration The Brotherhood uses nostril breathing exercises that are often found in Hatha Yoga tradition. Breathing is considered a form of nutrition and to fully take in these nutritions, people must hold the air in their lungs. Through respiration, people also draw in", "-25.213647248456255" ], [ "activity to meet energy needs from the food consumed. Eating a balanced diet would be optimal for healthy pregnancy results. To prevent problems like dehydration and constipation, it is important to drink enough fluids, especially water, to support blood volume increases during pregnancy. It is recommended to accompany regular meals with a daily prenatal vitamin supplement that has sufficient folic acid and iron content. \nIf the fetus is predicted to have low birth weight, in addition to the general recommendations, it would be ideal to increase caloric intake, which can be done by having extra Food Guide Servings daily. \nIf", "-25.13897024212929" ], [ "not eat more than the others while having meals due to social desirability. Conversely, snacks are usually eaten alone. Hunger and satiety There are many physiological mechanisms that control starting and stopping a meal. The control of food intake is a physiologically complex, motivated behavioral system. Hormones such as cholecystokinin, bombesin, neurotensin, anorectin, calcitonin, enterostatin, leptin and corticotropin-releasing hormone have all been shown to suppress food intake. Initiation There are numerous signals given off that initiate hunger. There are environmental signals, signals from the gastrointestinal system, and metabolic signals that trigger hunger. The environmental signals come from the body's senses.", "-25.131425817366107" ], [ "is vitally important to maintaining the structures of the body’s systems, so the specific appetite leads to more eating, in a desperate attempt to satiate the specific appetite for protein in life.", "-25.12742445594631" ], [ "is fixed into their flesh and is available for next trophic level (carnivores or omnivores). When a carnivore or an omnivore consumes that animal, only about 10% of energy is fixed in its flesh for the higher level.\nFor example, the Sun releases 1000 J of energy, then plants take only 100 J of energy from sunlight; thereafter, a deer would take 10 J from the plant. A wolf eating the deer would only take 1 J. A human eating the wolf would take 0.1J, etc.\nThe ten percent law provides a basic understanding on the cycling of food chains. Furthermore, the", "-25.120110478950664" ], [ "from the circadian clock, this tells the body it needs to sleep. A person who regularly awakens at an early hour will generally not be able to sleep much later than his or her normal waking time, even if moderately sleep-deprived. The timing is correct when the following two circadian markers occur after the middle of the sleep episode and before awakening: maximum concentration of the hormone melatonin, and minimum core body temperature. Ideal duration Human sleep needs vary by age and amongst individuals; sleep is considered to be adequate when there is no daytime sleepiness or dysfunction. Moreover,", "-25.110234409250552" ], [ "Animal nutrition Constituents of diet Macronutrients (excluding fiber and water) provide structural material (amino acids from which proteins are built, and lipids from which cell membranes and some signaling molecules are built) and energy. Some of the structural material can be used to generate energy internally, though the net energy depends on such factors as absorption and digestive effort, which vary substantially from instance to instance. Vitamins, minerals, fiber, and water do not provide energy, but are required for other reasons. A third class dietary material, fiber (i.e., non-digestible material such as cellulose), seems also to be required, for both", "-25.092514555813977" ], [ "factors for different foods were proposed. Recommended daily intake Increased mental activity has been linked with moderately increased brain energy consumption.\nOlder people and those with sedentary lifestyles require less energy; children and physically active people require more.\nAccording to the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, the average minimum energy requirement per person per day is about 7,500 kJ (1,800 kcal).\nRecommendations in the United States are 2,600 and 2,000 kcal (10,900 and 8,400 kJ) for men and women (respectively) between 31 and 35, at a physical activity level equivalent to walking about 2 to 5 km (1 ¹⁄₂ to 3 mi) per day at 5 to", "-25.070214869454503" ], [ "a higher protein content, and in those that require more chewing and that are eaten slowly. Remarkably, it also appears that the expected satiety and expected satiation of foods is influenced by their perceived weight. Effect on appetite The effects of expected satiety and expected satiation appear to extend beyond meal planning. Several studies show that these expectations also influence the hunger and fullness that is experienced after a meal has been consumed. Product labelling and branding is likely to modify expected satiety. Therefore, this kind of information has the potential to influence appetite directly. Together, these observations are", "-25.047485165159742" ], [ "brain. Humans often maneuver to create a thermally friendly environment—for example, by curling up into a ball if cold. Reflexes remain fairly active.\nREM sleep is considered closer to wakefulness and is characterized by rapid eye movement and muscle atonia. NREM is considered to be deep sleep (the deepest part of NREM is called slow wave sleep), and is characterized by lack of prominent eye movement or muscle paralysis. Especially during non-REM sleep, the brain uses significantly less energy during sleep than it does in waking. In areas with reduced activity, the brain restores its supply of adenosine triphosphate (ATP), the", "-25.046765606151894" ], [ "toward weight loss, health, and beauty (like Nova the Essential Drink) account for a considerable market share. Lastly, \"energy-boosting\" functional beverage products, such as Red Bull and 5-Hour Energy, have been rated fastest in growth in the functional beverage market. Energy and stimulation Highly caffeinated, often highly sweetened \"energy drinks\" have become popular on the beverage market in the United States, as well as globally, in the past decade. Consumer demand has helped generate a new generation of \"energy drink\" brands containing similar amounts of caffeine, calories, and sugar.\nVarious stimulants found in energy drinks include taurine, glucoronolactone, caffeine, B vitamins,", "-25.040593158395495" ], [ "such environmental modifications include using the bed for sleep or sex only, not for activities such as reading or watching television; waking up at the same time every morning, including on weekends; going to bed only when sleepy and when there is a high likelihood that sleep will occur; leaving the bed and beginning an activity in another location if sleep does not result in a reasonably brief period of time after getting into bed (commonly ~20 min); reducing the subjective effort and energy expended trying to fall asleep; avoiding exposure to bright light during nighttime hours, and eliminating daytime", "-25.03894577815663" ], [ "appears to have very old evolutionary roots. Unicellular organisms do not necessarily \"sleep\", although many of them have pronounced circadian rhythms. The jellyfish Cassiopea is the most primitive organism in which sleep-like states have been observed. The nematode C. elegans is another primitive organism that appears to require sleep. Here, a lethargus phase occurs in short periods preceding each moult, a fact which may indicate that sleep primitively is connected to developmental processes. Raizen et al.'s results furthermore suggest that sleep is necessary for changes in the neural system.\nThe electrophysiological study of sleep in small invertebrates is complicated. Insects go", "-25.02731528703589" ], [ "back on a low-energy diet. This also may have an evolutionary advantage: allowing energy to be stored efficiently when food is plentiful would be advantageous in populations where food frequently may be scarce. Response to weight loss Dieters who lose weight, particularly those with an overabundance of fat cells, experience a drop in levels of circulating leptin. This drop causes reversible decreases in thyroid activity, sympathetic tone, and energy expenditure in skeletal muscle, and increases in muscle efficiency and parasympathetic tone. Many of these changes are reversed by peripheral administration (⁠ ⁠intravenously into the veins of the arms, hands, legs, or", "-25.004481187090278" ], [ "a few months of postnatal development, there is a marked reduction in percentage of hours spent in REM sleep. By the time the child becomes an adult, he spends about 6–7 hours in NREM sleep and only about an hour in REM sleep. This is true not only of humans, but of many animals dependent on their parents for food. The observation that the percentage of REM sleep is very high in the first stages of development has led to the hypothesis that REM sleep might facilitate early brain development. However, this theory has been contested by other studies.\nSleep behavior", "-24.921249656006694" ], [ "sleep time of fourteen hours.\nThough sleep is a primarily biological process, it can be treated as a behavior. This means that it can be altered and managed through practice and can be learned by the child. Healthy sleep habits can be established during the first four months to lay a foundation for healthy sleep. These habits typically include sleeping in a crib (instead of a car seat, stroller, or swing), being put down to sleep drowsy but awake, and avoiding negative sleep associations, such as nursing to sleep or using a pacifier to fall asleep, which may be hard to", "-24.9202277585282" ], [ "Empty calories In human nutrition, the term empty calories applies to foods and beverages composed primarily or solely of sugar, fats or oils, or alcohol-containing beverages. An example is carbonated soft drinks. These supply food energy but little or no other nutrition in the way of vitamins, minerals, protein, fiber, or essential fatty acids. Fat contributes nine calories per gram, ethanol seven calories, sugar four calories. The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) advises, \"A small amount of empty calories is okay, but most people eat far more than is healthy.\" The phrase is derived from low nutrient density, which", "-24.918442997324746" ], [ "caused by expansion and contraction of the extracellular space, which increased by ~60% in the sleeping brain to promote clearance of interstitial wastes such as amyloid beta. On the basis of these findings, they hypothesized that the restorative properties of sleep may be linked to increased glymphatic clearance of metabolic waste products produced by neural activity in the awake brain. Lipid transport Another key function of the glymphatic system was documented by Thrane et al., who in 2013 demonstrated that the brain's system of paravascular pathways plays an important role in transporting small lipophilic molecules. Led by M.", "-24.91009006506647" ], [ "may be responsible for diet-induced thermogenesis (thermic effect of food).\nProgesterone also increases body temperature.", "-24.90824558195891" ], [ "restlessness. Both consumption of a large meal just before bedtime, requiring effort to metabolize it all, and hunger have been associated with disrupted sleep; clinicians may recommend eating a light snack before bedtime. Lastly, limiting intake of liquids before bedtime can prevent interruptions due to urinations. Sleep environment Arranging a sleep environment that is quiet, very dark, and cool is recommended. Noises, light, and uncomfortable temperatures have been shown to disrupt continuous sleep. Other recommendations that are frequently made, though less studied, include selecting comfortable mattresses, bedding, and pillows, and eliminating a visible bedroom clock, to prevent focusing on time", "-24.900658430007752" ], [ "and in 1902 converted to vegetarianism. Rabagliati believed that people could add fifteen years to their lives by following his diet.\nRabagliati held some unorthodox ideas, for example he believed that bodily energy and heat do not come from any food source. Instead he speculated that humans obtain \"vital energy\" from sleeping. He authored a book about this in 1907 and wrote the introduction to Hereward Carrington's Vitality, Fasting and Nutrition, which expounded on these ideas. A review in the Edinburgh Medical Journal, suggested he was advocating a \"modified form of vitalism\". His 1907 book was mocked in the Scottish", "-24.886658490257105" ], [ "normal environmental temperatures, exercise, light exposure, noise, hunger, and overeating all result in an increase in wakefulness. On the contrary, sexual activity and some foods such as carbohydrates and dairy products promote sleep. Careers in the field In the past, physiological psychologists received a good portion of their training in psychology departments of major universities. Currently, physiological psychologists are also being trained in behavioral neuroscience or biological psychology programs that are affiliated with psychology departments, or in interdisciplinary neuroscience programs. Most physiological psychologists receive PhDs in neuroscience or a related subject and either teach and carry out research at", "-24.87585332954768" ], [ "Palatability Palatability is the hedonic reward (i.e., pleasure) provided by foods or fluids that are agreeable to the \"palate\", which often varies relative to the homeostatic satisfaction of nutritional, water, or energy needs. The palatability of a food or fluid, unlike its flavor or taste, varies with the state of an individual: it is lower after satiation and higher when deprived. It has increasingly been appreciated that this can create a hunger that is independent of homeostatic needs. Brain mechanism The palatability of a substance is determined by opioid receptor-related processes in the nucleus accumbens and ventral pallidum. The opioid", "-24.85940463418956" ], [ "energy making tonic booster, mood elevator and a delicious, pleasurable eating experience.\"\nThe recipes in this book include medicinal preparations of selected herbal and beneficial spices, including fruits and vegetables which are used in Unani and herbal practices, to enhance the daily consumption of a healthy balanced diet, which improves our digestive mechanisms, absorption and assimilation of food, building up the immune system against common colds and respiratory infections, it improves memory, purifies the blood, eliminates toxin, improves skin complexion, and enhances proteins required by the body.\nAccording to his book the food should be:\n-Appealing\n-Aromatic\n-Digestive\n-Tasty\nThis is Hussain's first recipe book and it", "-24.847178464340686" ], [ "and refers to the amount of energy it takes the body to digest, absorb, and metabolize nutrients in the diet. The amount of energy expended while processing food differs by individual but on average it amounts to about 10% the number of calories consumed during a given time period. Processing proteins and carbohydrates has more of a thermogenic effect than does processing fats. Genetics Genetics play an important role in weight management and contribute to a person's risk of becoming obese. In fact, several genes have been found to be associated with elevated Body Mass Index (BMI) and obesity. That", "-24.825250319147017" ] ]

[ "It is important for public health purposes to notice if a large number of people are dying from a particular cause. Epidemics used to be much more common than they are now.", "Your privacy ends when you die... since you're dead.... Cause of death is a matter of public record because it is an important piece of data. How you died can indicate a disease outbreak... or a murdering spree... or a serial killer... or the fact that you lived to be 103 and died like all old people do.", "Many legal rules suggest that the dead do not have rights. The right to medical privacy substantially erodes at death. A person's death relates to many things that affect the public at large. If you have a mortgage or are financing a vehicle it affects that car or home and what happens to it after you die as well as your debtors. If you have distant heirs who may have a claim to your estate it is pertinent to their interests. Additionally, some contracts prohibit certain activities (life insurance and sky diving) and if you were to die while engaging in that activity you would have a breach. TL;DR The consequences of your death on the public outweighs the right to privacy of a corpse.", "once one is dead, there is no medical anything. still can't access their medical records after death without a warrant, so.... death is factual, not medical.", "Not all \"causes of death\" are made public. The vast majority of deaths are not, because they are \"natural\" deaths. It's only when there's a public interest (or need) to find out why someone died that a coroners inquest is launched. URL_0 This is how things in the UK work anyway. Edit: To make it clear: in these cases the needs of the living to find out why someone died outweigh the needs of the deceased for privacy.", "I am guessing this is brought up with the passing of Prince. It is public because as others have said it could be important to other people for health reasons. If you have a disease they may want to notify people you have been in contact with. It is already being speculated that Prince may have had HIV/AIDS so if he died of that they would want to let people know so they could get tested. It seems morbid and causes a ton of speculation and conspiracy theories (like the HIV/AIDS thing above), but it is necessary for a few reasons.", "The cause of death is not only public record, for a long time it was a public responsibility to determine it. UK common law (and thus US common law) included a [coroner's jury]( URL_0 ) who was responsible for determining the cause of death. That presumption of public interest persists, even though the juries have largely been replaced by professional medical examiners. And it's also extremely important not only for health and crime reasons, but because the time and manner of a person's death is extremely important to many contracts - most notably life insurance.", "In New Zealand where I live. We have a piece of legislation called the privacy act that does indeed end when you die. Your right to privacy by law has ended because you cannot do anything with your information anymore. What do you need with privacy. You're dead. That's pretty private right there.", "Legally speaking, the dead have no privacy rights. You also cannot libel or slander a dead person.", "Sheriff: This guy died... natural causes. Coroner: But he's got three bullet holes in his head. Sheriff: Well ok, but you can't tell anyone else.", "I'm not sure about other countries, but in the UK the Data Protection Act specifically only applies to the living.", "Birth and death records are a matter of public concern. If you die many legal implications come to play, including with matters of insurance and estate, and cause of death can be a factor. Additionally, if an autopsy or post mortem is performed, taxpayer expenses are involved.", "Open records attorney here. Yes, your right to privacy ends at death. In certain circumstances, your family member may have a right to privacy in things like gruesome photos of your body, but that's about it.", "Where have you seen \"cause of death\" as a public record? HIPAA laws apply to individuals for 50 years after their death. [The rule]( URL_0 )", "My best friend's parents died from AIDS. When applying for school, scholarship, or using some other official document that requires parents' names, she has had to tick a box showing she is an orphan, and then attaching copies of two death certificates, with the cause of death in clear print: AIDS. They did not die from a HIV infection, but the literal full blown AIDS that had them waste away into skeletal forms. Even though she was a kid when they passed away, some things you just don't forget. Now every time she hands in her applications along with the two very sensitive documents, she is forced to relive the trauma, pain and humiliation from all the stigma. A clerk will flip through the attachments, give my friend a ones over (hmm..-dressed-like-a-slut-will-probably-end-up-like-her-mum, look).", "You've gotten a lot of really bad answers here. The reason \"cause of death\" like in a police report is public information is because **police reports** are public information. \"Cause of death\" as in a report on what killed your relative by a medical doctor at a hospital where they were treated is still protected under [HIPAA]( URL_0 ). The short answer answer is it depends on the source and relatives are free to disclose whatever they want.", "Question: when someone's obit lies about their cause of death, that doesn't necessarily mean the actual record of their death contains the same lie, does it? Obits don't fact check, do they? I ask because I have a relative who overdosed, and the obit claimed something else.", "Medical right to privacy does not end when you die. This is so for many reasons, but for example, consider the situation where a family member might not want others to know your medical history. What if you had a sexually-transmitted disease, and then died (whether the two were related or not) - would it be fair to your partner if everyone could find out your disease status? Different states have different laws about giving out death certificates (they differ based on who is asking for them, what proof of identity they must provide, when the record is released to different individuals, etc). They are listed as public record because they can be accessed by members of the public - that doesn't necessarily mean the entire public, all the time. Also conflating the issue is that cause of death is a data point we collect for public health records, de-identified. We need to know this information for the safety of the rest of the public. If suddenly 10 people die of the same disease in a short time frame, that might be an indicator that we should look for a reason and intervene. As I said, these records would be de-identified to a point where you couldn't correlate a cause of death to one given individual. For a live example of this, use the census website to look at death/morbidity statistics for New York City. You'll find pretty detailed and robust statistics. Now do the same for some podunk town in the middle of nowhere. Sure, the same information exists, but if I told you one male in a town of 100 people died of syphillis, you could probably figure out who that is with minimal effort. So often, these records won't be available for you to view - the census will just put \"X\" or \"N/A\" where the percentages and counts would usually be.", "UK doctor here. In the UK the cause of death is public record and so not private. Mainly for public health to be able to track disease incidences and prevalence. The medical records remain private to everyone. So a spouse/next of kin can't see them and police need a warrant. As for what you actually write, it is at the discretion of the physician and coroner. These days if you die of a HIV related disease we tend to put the specific disease rather than sensitive things like that, whereas 10-20 years ago they would put AIDS. Usually it'll be something like pneumonia. Same with overdoses - you can word it like drug intoxication or poisoning. It's poor form on the doctors involved to tell relatives of their positive status via a death certificate. Every situation is different but usually if a person needs to know for their own protection they would be informed in another way. I.e confidentiality might be broken Death certificates have 4 points that you can fill out. Only 1a is necessary. 1a the cause. Eg pneumonia 1b the thing that caused the pneumonia. Eg COPD 1c the thing that caused 1b. (Often not filled out) 2. Other conditions not directly causing the death but contributing.", "I have lost fairly close aquantinces and old friends who died young of drug problems. And most of the time I couldnt figure out what happened for months. I don't think their causes of death ever became public. I only eventually figured things out from friends of friends who were with them til the end. I think mostly celebrity deaths are the ones that go public and a lot of times its just supply and demand, and someone can be bribed by TMZ to at least make a photocopy or take a pic with your iphone.", "Tl;Dr cause of death is not the same as current diseases at time of death. It's also noteworthy the fact that cause of death is not the same as diseases you had at the time of death, if you have HIV/AIDS it is possible the cause of death was an infection, respiratory possibly, if you had heart problems it probably was cardio respiratory arrest or something of that matter, as the official cause of death.", "The Medical right to privacy is an onus put on your healthcare providers. Information that is publicly available or maintained by the state is a burden on the state. Although I can see how there could be some overlap in content, each actor is obliged. I don't know why cause of death is something the state is obliged to provide though.", "What about celebrities? With Prince's passing I have been thinking a lot about this. Prince had a condition that he kept private for a considerable amount of time. What right does the public have to that information and his cause of death? Does his death negate all his wishes during life?", "Yes, some rights end with life! Also, I'm not entirely sure how \"cause of death\" would have anything to do with \"right of privacy\". Weird question, honestly.", "I think it's because it's a government record. In our Sunday paper there is a list of births, deaths, marriage license applications, divorce filings, and bankruptcy filings.", "Your existence becomes a statistic and what made you human becomes an object, ashes to ashes." ]

[ [ "Death and the Internet A recent extension to the cultural relationship with death is the increasing number of people who die having created a large amount of digital content, such as social media profiles, that will remain after death. This may result in concern and confusion, because of automated features of dormant accounts (e.g. birthday reminders), uncertainty of the deceased's preferences that profiles be deleted or left as a memorial, and whether information that may violate the deceased's privacy (such as email or browser history) should be made accessible to family.\nIssues with how this information is sensitively dealt with are", "-32.1393465542933" ], [ "deaths are often not recorded unless some family need arises, such as entry into college. When there is no legal process needed to pass on inheritance, the recording of deaths is viewed as unnecessary by the family.", "-30.22677083068993" ], [ "a hospital bed. Ariès writes that death is in the hospital is often a \"technical cession\" that is predetermined by a hospital team, frequently occurring after the dying person has already lost consciousness. He argues that the moment of death is difficult to distinguish for most survivors because they have already witnessed many \"silent deaths\" as the dying person loses different abilities – from breathing and eating on their own, to verbal communication and eventually consciousness. He states that in this current period there is no great and dramatic act of death, which was what family, friends, and neighbors used", "-29.836505651008338" ], [ "a suicide, the paper famously misreported the cause of death in the obituary, giving the cause of death as viral pneumonia.", "-29.63327100063907" ], [ "researchers looked at documentation from coroner's inquests for all deaths involving an element of self-harm between 2011 and 2013. This review's emerging evidence suggests the age group most affected by the association between social media use and suicide is older than has previously been assumed: in one small study of coroner's investigations, it was found social media evidence was more likely to be cited at inquest in cases where the deceased was aged over 45 years than under. However, the findings are unclear and may solely reflect greater use of social media. The findings also show that fewer than 20%", "-29.145210201502778" ], [ "under the Privacy Act but in these cases there is a right of appeal to the Privacy Commissioner. The Privacy Act does not cover deceased people but their files are available under the Official Information Act. The service is also required to release other information such as files on organizations but it is reluctant to do so, claiming that it has to perform extensive research in order to provide such information.", "-29.039736651466228" ], [ "Death panel \"Death panel\" is a political term that originated during the 2009 debate about federal health care legislation to cover the uninsured in the United States. Sarah Palin, former Republican Governor of Alaska, coined the term when she charged that proposed legislation would create a \"death panel\" of bureaucrats who would decide whether Americans—such as her elderly parents, or children with Down syndrome—were \"worthy of medical care\". Palin's claim has been referred to as the \"death panel myth\", as nothing in any proposed legislation would have led to individuals being judged to see if they were worthy of health", "-29.036108269763645" ], [ "People may not wish for their medical records to be revealed to others. This may be because they have concern that it might affect their insurance coverages or employment. Or, it may be because they would not wish for others to know about any medical or psychological conditions or treatments that would bring embarrassment upon themselves. Revealing medical data could also reveal other details about one's personal life. There are three major categories of medical privacy: informational (the degree of control over personal information), physical (the degree of physical inaccessibility to others), and psychological (the extent to which the doctor", "-28.957978625461692" ], [ "be used. Furthermore, proponents of AND claim that because it contains “death” in the title it is more clear to the patient and family exactly what the patient is agreeing to.\nCritics of AND claim it is simply the replacement of one ambiguous term with another. Just as DNR particulars vary so too would AND particulars vary. Thus, the change would be ineffective.", "-28.85627841576934" ], [ "reference to takings of \"life\", and to \"capital\" crimes, meant approval of the death penalty was implicit in the Bill of Rights. He also was not persuaded that a right of privacy was implicit in the Ninth or Fourteenth amendments, and dissented from the Court's 1965 Griswold decision which invalidated a conviction for the use of contraceptives. Black said \"It belittles that [Fourth] Amendment to talk about it as though it protects nothing but 'privacy' ... 'privacy' is a broad, abstract, and ambiguous concept ... The constitutional right of privacy is not found in the Constitution.\"\nJustice Black rejected reliance on", "-28.850144171970896" ], [ "need for more organ transplants and the need to conserve health care resources are exerting steady pressure to expand the legal definition of death. As a result, death is being declared faster than ever before. The \"right to die,\" Foley worries, may be morphing slowly into an obligation to die.\nHer first book, Liberty for All: Reclaiming Individual Privacy in a New Era of Public Morality (Yale University Press, 2006; ISBN 978-0300109832), asserts that there is a \"morality of American law\", defined by the twin principles of limited government and residual individual sovereignty. These twin principles, moreover, reveal that there is a", "-28.520442505163373" ], [ "all accidents combined, but 80% of respondents [in a survey] judged accidental death to be more likely. ... [This is because media] coverage is itself biased toward novelty and poignancy. The media do not just shape what the public is interested in, but also are shaped by it.\"\nThis fascination with death and interaction with media editorial policies sometimes has problematic consequences for public policy. For example, Vincent Sacco and others described how the mainstream commercial media in the United States changed their editorial policies in the 1970s to focus more on the police blotter. The human psychology", "-28.4067307531368" ], [ "to whether your loved one will be able to receive health care or not. To me, death panel. I called it like I saw it, and people didn't like it.\nPalin used the term jokingly while speaking at the 2009 Gridiron Club dinner for journalists, saying it was like being in front of a \"death panel\". Supporters After Palin's statement, conservative commentators including Glenn Beck, Rush Limbaugh and Michelle Malkin agreed that death panels were mandated by the proposed legislation. On August 9, former House speaker Newt Gingrich backed Palin's \"death panel\" charge by saying that the bill created numerous agencies", "-28.394542814181477" ], [ "little to find out the cause of death or to prevent future similar deaths. 80% of rough sleepers who died in London in 2017 had mental health problems compared to 29% in 2010 according to research by St Mungo's. Petra Salva of St Mungo's said, “This is a scandal and something the government needs to recognise and do more about ... there should be more funds and support for these groups but instead they have been cut over the years and that correlates in these people stuck living on the streets ... these deaths are preventable.” There", "-28.296302727642" ], [ "those killed by the wrongdoing of others to recover damages. Capital punishment had by 1998 been abolished in respect of all offences. Under the Coroners Act 1988 there is a duty in certain circumstances for deaths to be investigated by a coroner.\nThe law also attaches importance to the preservation of life: aiding and abetting a suicide is a criminal offence under the Suicide Act 1961 and euthanasia is unlawful (see the Bland case). Furthermore, there is a duty upon medical professionals to keep patients alive unless to do so would be contrary to the patient's best interests based on professional", "-28.27406309460639" ], [ "the procurator fiscal, early enquiries rule out suspicious circumstances and establish that the death was due to natural causes.\nDeaths are usually brought to the attention of the procurator fiscal through reports from the police, the registrar, GPs or hospital doctors. However, anyone who has concerns about the circumstances of a death can report it to the procurator fiscal. There are certain categories of deaths that must be enquired into, but the procurator fiscal may enquire into any death brought to his notice. United States In the United States, inquests are generally conducted by coroners, who are generally officials of a", "-28.19290613848716" ], [ "\"seems to be straddling somewhere between being a politically-charged term and an accepted part of the vernacular\". \"Death panels\" On August 7, 2009, Sarah Palin pioneered the term \"death panels\" to describe groups that would decide whether sick patients were \"worthy\" of medical care.\n\"Death panel\" referred to two claims about early drafts.\nOne was that under the law, seniors could be denied care due to their age and the other that the government would advise seniors to end their lives instead of receiving care. The ostensible basis of these claims was the provision for an Independent Payment Advisory Board (IPAB). IPAB", "-28.137087977025658" ], [ "Cause of death Accuracy concerns A study published in Preventing Chronic Disease found that only one-third of New York City resident physicians reported believing that the present system of documentation was accurate. Half reported the inability to record \"what they felt to be the correct cause of death\", citing reasons such as technical limitation and instruction to \"put something else\". Nearly four-fifths reported being unaware that determinations of \"probable\", \"presumed\", or \"undetermined\" could be made, and fewer than three percent reported ever updating a death certificate when conflicting lab results or other new information became available, and cardiovascular disease was", "-28.122315339162014" ], [ "an ocular cancer and dies getting hit while crossing the road because he did not see the car, he would often be considered to be censored rather than having died from the cancer or its subsequent effects. Cancer survival Relative survival is typically used in the analysis of cancer registry data. Cause-specific survival estimation using the coding of death certificates has considerable inaccuracy and inconsistency and does not permit the comparison of rates across registries.\nThe diagnosis of cause-of-death is varied between practitioners. How does one code for a patient who dies of heart failure after receiving a chemotherapeutic agent with", "-28.121128771977965" ], [ "And the paradox, the hypocrisy, the contradiction is that many of the people who are attacking me now supported living wills and consultations with doctors about end-of-life care, before they became against it for political reasons.\" \"I worked pretty hard and against the odds to improve end-of-life care. And so to have that record and that work completely perverted—it's pretty shocking.\"\nRep. Earl Blumenauer, D-Ore., who sponsored the end-of-life provision in H.R. 3200 section 1233, said the measure would block funds for counseling that presents suicide or assisted suicide as an option, and called references to death panels or euthanasia \"mind-numbing\".", "-28.02243207412539" ], [ "would hear about the deaths in the Vietnam War and the various political assassinations. These historical events may have had an effect on why some parents and educators now agree that death is a “fact of life” that is acceptable for children to be introduced to. At the same time, the cold, impersonal treatment of death begins to disappear in favor of the previous themes of leading a good life, love overcoming death, immortality, inanimate objects having or obtaining life, sacrificing one's life for others, and other such moral or \"uplifting\" themes. Still, even in the death-related books published", "-28.002123164631485" ], [ "defining death. Furthermore, events which were causally linked to death in the past no longer kill in all circumstances; without a functioning heart or lungs, life can sometimes be sustained with a combination of life support devices, organ transplants and artificial pacemakers.\nToday, where a definition of the moment of death is required, doctors and coroners usually turn to \"brain death\" or \"biological death\" to define a person as being dead; people are considered dead when the electrical activity in their brain ceases. It is presumed that an end of electrical activity indicates the end of consciousness. Suspension of consciousness must", "-27.91879759421863" ], [ "life is a natural right embodied in Article 21 of the Indian Constitution, and since suicide is an unnatural termination or extinction of life it is incompatible and inconsistent with the concept of the right to life. The US Supreme Court has also declined to recognize that choosing death is a right protected by the Constitution. In Washington v. Glucksberg (1997), a group of Washington residents asserted that a state law banning assisted suicide was unconstitutional on its face. The majority held that as assisted suicide is not a fundamental liberty interest, it was not protected under the due process", "-27.88578210459673" ], [ "of the Bill of Rights immediately following the right to life: ‘Everyone has the right to bodily and psychological integrity, which includes the right to make decisions concerning reproduction.’ End of legal subjectivity Legal subjectivity is terminated at death, such that the deceased, like the unborn and the unconceived, have no legal rights or duties, and—obviously—no capacities. A dead body is thus only a legal object or ‘thing’, but there are, in the interests of public health and out of respect for the dead and the feelings and sensibilities of relatives, certain protections in South African law. The handling and", "-27.841852526547882" ], [ "different sentence length, everything about it was completely different, which leads to one conclusion; someone else wrote it.”\nEmployees at IME were reportedly told not to speak to reporters about Dr. Todd's death. However, one of Dr. Todd's colleagues did reach out to his parents, telling them, \"After collecting all information available, I cannot believe it is a suicide case. Actually, no one believes it...I truly hope that [the] FBI can be involved and perform further investigation.”\nThe official autopsy report provided by the Singapore police said that Todd's cause of death was \"asphyxia due to hanging.\" But on his body, Dr.", "-27.825929487822577" ], [ "In traditional overall survival analysis, the cause of death is irrelevant to the analysis. In a competing risks survival analyses, each death certificate is reviewed. If the disease of interest is cancer, and the patient dies of a car accident, the patient is labelled as censored at death instead of being labelled as having died. Issues with this method arise, as each hospital and or registry may code for causes of death differently.\nFor example, there is variability in the way a patient who has cancer and commits suicide is coded/labelled. In addition, if a patient has an eye removed from", "-27.79627154697664" ], [ "medicine determines the cause of death by examining of the corpse. Inability The public prosecutor's office receives more than 50,000 cases annually to investigate. It has the capacity to investigate only 5%; the remaining 95% cases are left without investigation. Because of this there has been an increase in crime. Expansion of contract killing Because of the lack of resources and investigations by public prosecutor office, crime has increased exponentially. During the government of Rafael Alleys assassinations increased about 300%. During the government of Porfirio Lobo (2010-2014) 27,000 thousand people were murdered, which is equal to all 20th century murders", "-27.78565486575826" ], [ "beyond the presence or absence of vital signs. In general, clinical death is neither necessary nor sufficient for a determination of legal death. A patient with working heart and lungs determined to be brain dead can be pronounced legally dead without clinical death occurring. As scientific knowledge and medicine advance, formulating a precise medical definition of death becomes more difficult. Problems of definition The concept of death is a key to human understanding of the phenomenon. There are many scientific approaches and various interpretations of the concept. Additionally, the advent of life-sustaining therapy and the numerous criteria for defining death", "-27.75733014420257" ], [ "known deleterious cardiac side-effects? In essence, what really matters is not why the population dies but if the rate of death is higher than that of the general population.\nIf all patients are dying of car crashes, perhaps the tumour or treatment predisposes them to have visual or perceptual disturbances, which lead them to be more likely to die in a car crash. In addition, it has been shown that patients coded in a large US cancer registry as suffering from a non-cancer death are 1.37 times as likely to die than does a member of the general population.\nIf the coding", "-27.74575435996303" ], [ "established dead under the \"wrong\" criteria is tantamount to murder. With life-support and cardiopulmonary resuscitative technology, establishing the moment of death becomes more complicated and opinionated.\nAccording to some, Jewish law defines death as a state of complete and irreversible cessation of cardiorespiratory function followed by a minimum of 5 minutes' waiting during which it is not restored (period of time depends on custom). After 5 minutes blood flow to organs have ceased, at which time it removal of organs to save a life is permitted according to some rabbinical opinions. Some opinions define death as solely the irreversible cessation of", "-27.6409835434024" ], [ "the Daily Telegraph, she would refuse to answer her phone. She was also a sufferer of the lung condition chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Death She died some time in 2017. Her body had been lying undiscovered for about a month. The last time she was seen alive was on 30 January. Police found her body on 27 February after neighbors sounded an alarm. Her friend Garvan Dormer who she had known for 40 years had last seen her in December 2016. He said she was feeling a bit down. Dormer wasn't even aware that she had died and", "-27.532620592508465" ], [ "people known to be deceased would be removed after 30 days due to privacy concerns. Due to user response, Facebook changed its policy to place deceased members' profiles in a \"memorialization state\". Facebook's Privacy Policy regarding memorialization says, \"If we are notified that a user is deceased, we may memorialize the user's account. In such cases we restrict profile access to confirmed friends and allow friends and family to write on the user's Wall in remembrance. We may close an account if we receive a formal request from the user's next of kin or other proper legal request to do", "-27.316459252673667" ], [ "statement through a lawyer, asking the magistrate to show the “greatest possible mercy” to the driver. \"The tragic death of his daughter was not meaningless, but benefited humanity,\" he said. Declaration of death Surgeons had a serious ethical problem because death then could only be declared by whole-body standards. The Harvard Criteria of Brain Death was not developed until 1968, nor was it adopted in South Africa or elsewhere for some years. The problem in this case was that, although Denise's brain was damaged, her heart was healthy. Various reports over the years attributed conflicting reasons for her heart stopping.", "-27.313753325433936" ], [ "the end of death would call into question one of the fundamental foundations of their dogma: the death and resurrection of Jesus Christ. The common citizens, however, generally enjoy their newfound immortality.\nThis joy is short-lived - it soon becomes apparent that the end of death presents unique demographic and financial challenges. The complete cessation of dying leads to a growing fear among healthcare workers that the system will collapse under its own weight: generations of incapacitated, but still living, people will populate care homes and hospitals for, presumably, all eternity. Funeral workers, on the other hand, fear the opposite problem:", "-27.307359279249795" ], [ "slightly higher for physicians (73.0 years for white and 68.7 for black) than lawyers or many other highly educated professionals. Causes of death less likely in physicians than the general population include respiratory disease (including pneumonia, pneumoconioses, COPD, but excluding emphysema and other chronic airway obstruction), alcohol-related deaths, rectosigmoidal and anal cancers, and bacterial diseases.\nPhysicians do experience exposure to occupational hazards, and there is a well-known aphorism that \"doctors make the worst patients\". Causes of death that are shown to be higher in the physician population include suicide among doctors and self-inflicted injury, drug-related causes, traffic accidents, and cerebrovascular and", "-27.297778399050003" ], [ "In all of the cases, he advised, the medical cause of death should remain undetermined.\" Having received this opinion, Minyard sought no further opinions.\nInvestigators believed up to two dozen patient deaths might have been homicides, but stated that they had difficulty acquiring the medical records needed to document the patients' conditions. Tenet Healthcare said it turned over all the patient records it had on the case. Investigators believed that of the two dozen possible cases, they initially had the strongest case in the deaths of four of the patients who had died on the hospital's seventh floor.\nOn July 17, 2006,", "-27.285086734686047" ], [ "was a media creation.\nNotably, the series originated the medical term \"killing season\" for the supposed association between newly qualified doctors starting hospital practice and an increase in medical errors and mortality, which data do not support. In 1994 the British Medical Journal concluded that, \"newly qualified house officers have been falsely accused of increasing the number of deaths in hospital and that the idea of the killing season is very much fiction. A 2009 Imperial College London study of records for 300,000 patients at 170 hospitals between 2000 and 2008 found that death rates were 6% higher on Black Wednesday", "-27.27072309772484" ], [ "the last 180 days of life. Often the terminally ill are kept alive through major interventions, and the process of dying is prolonged unnecessarily. We are not dealing with the needs of the dying, but the assumptions and needs of the living. That is not fair. It is also wrong morally, and massively expensive.\" \nWhen people suggested after the George Washington Bridge scandal that it might make sense to break up the enormous organization of which he'd once been head, Berger said: \"It could be simpler and cleaner if you separated the different parts of the Port into individual agencies.", "-27.238188525749138" ], [ "an increase in medical errors. The phenomenon has been recognised by Professor Sir Bruce Keogh, medical director of the NHS. The term \"Killing Season\" originated in the 1994 British medical drama series Cardiac Arrest written by Jed Mercurio (under the pseudonym John MacUre). In an episode first broadcast on BBC1 on 5 May 1994, the character Dr. Claire Maitland consoles a junior who has just committed a fatal error with the dialogue: \"You come out of medical school knowing bugger all. No wonder August is the killing season. We all kill a few patients while we're learning.\"\nThe day when junior", "-27.202688625264273" ], [ "as people are not just returned to dying, but also must face the specter of receiving one of these letters and having their fate sealed with it.\nFrom here, the story largely moves on to focus on death's relationship with an otherwise unremarkable cellist who, amazingly, will not die. Every time death sends him his letter, it returns. Death discovers that, without reason, this man has mistakenly not been killed. Although originally intending merely to analyze this man and discover why he is unique, death eventually becomes infatuated with him, enough so that she takes on human form to meet him.", "-27.198767798334302" ], [ "confidence in the medical profession and its ability to diagnose death accurately has seen a reduction in fear of premature burial after the early 20th century there have been periods of public alarm in recent decades after medical errors in diagnosing death were reported. Taphophobia may remain common in some parts of the world. For example, a study of Pakistani women found severe taphophobia in one third of subjects with mental illness and a mild degree of this fear in half of the controls. Although rare in the developed world, a recent study reported three cases of", "-27.192066433097352" ], [ "heard by the Supreme Court in January 2016.\nThe court decision includes a requirement that there must be stringent limits that are \"scrupulously monitored.\" This will require the death certificate to be completed by an independent medical examiner, not the treating physician, to ensure the accuracy of reporting the cause of death. Subsequent legislative history After a lengthy delay, the House of Commons passed a Bill (C-14) in mid-June 2016 that would allow for doctor-assisted suicide in the case of a terminal illness. The bill was then debated in the Senate. Initially, the Senate amended the bill, expanding the right to", "-27.17326993023744" ], [ "Virginia Senate passed the \"Natural Death Act,\" which relieved physicians of criminal and civil liability once they, with the consent of the terminally ill patient or that person's family, disconnected regulators.\" The bill required that the patient be in terminal condition, and that there must be \"no reasonable expectation of recovery\". Doctors who felt they could not morally comply with the wishes of the terminally ill patient or family member to disconnect the patient's regulator could transfer the care of the patient to another doctor.\nIn February 1984, Cohen strongly opposed a bill that prevented young men who had not", "-27.162271598710504" ], [ "have died intestate.\nThe effect of the ruling is that if a court declares the last in a series of wills to be invalid ab initio, the deceased is deemed to have died intestate. The court will not give effect to an earlier will, as it had already been revoked.", "-27.11886142804724" ], [ "advent of the hospital as a place of dying, and a growing sentiment that life should be, above all, happy.\nCiting trends in literature, such as the work of Tolstoy, Ariès argues that the feeling surrounding death changed before its actual rituals did. By 1930–1950, he states that the displacement of the site of death from the home to the hospital accelerated changes in attitude. While for most of history the dying person took his or her last breath in bed, surrounded by loved ones, now, in era of \"forbidden death\" people are more likely to end their lives alone on", "-27.078578419517726" ], [ "as lacking context, and by PolitiFact and FactCheck as false euthanasia claims.\nIn early November 2009, Palin said that despite other's prior denials that it contained \"death panels\", the health care legislation voted on by the U.S. House of Representatives had a \"provision mandating bureaucratic panels that will be calling the shots regarding who will receive government health care\". In an interview with Barbara Walters, Palin acknowledged that none of the health care bills included the actual word pair; \"No, death panel isn't there.\" In November 2009, when asked about how she came up with the term \"death panels,\" Palin said,", "-27.07751867751358" ], [ "of others. Commentators like Charlie Brooker have noted that the distinction can be blurred by the 24-hour news cycle and its need to produce news stories.\nRobert Yates, assistant editor for The Observer, described some media coverage of deaths as producing \"Gratification derived from a tenuous connection to the misfortunes of others; the gratuitous indulgence of tangential association with tragedy; getting off on really bad news\". Yates was remarking on the phenomenon he first noticed following the death of Princess Diana and the media frenzy that occurred afterwards. He reportedly observed an increase in activity during times of national mourning and", "-27.060785474139266" ], [ "felt 'somewhat' or 'very concerned' about the privacy of their personal medical records\".\nThe importance of privacy in electronic health records became prominent with the passage of the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act (ARRA) in 2009. One of the provisions (known as the Health Information Technology for Economic and Clinical Health [HITECH] Act) of the ARRA mandated incentives to clinicians for the implementation of electronic health records by 2015.Privacy advocates in the United States have raised concerns about unauthorized access to personal data as more medical practices switch from paper to electronic medical records. The Office of the National Coordinator for", "-27.059170744760195" ], [ "\"traffic accident\" or \"attempted or self-induced abortion\". In some cases an autopsy is performed, either due to general legal requirements, because the medical cause of death is uncertain, upon the request of family members or guardians, or because the circumstances of death were suspicious.\nInternational Classification of Disease (ICD) codes can be used to record manner and cause of death in a systematic way that makes it easy to compile statistics and more feasible to compare events across jurisdictions. Terminology A death by natural causes results from an illness or an internal malfunction of the body not directly caused by", "-27.049794750135334" ], [ "age of responsibility (20 years). Medical records are required many years after a patient’s death to investigate illnesses within a community (e.g., industrial or environmental disease or even deaths at the hands of doctors committing murders, as in the Harold Shipman case). Data breaches Given the series of medical data breaches and the lack of public trust, some countries have enacted laws requiring safeguards to be put in place to protect the security and confidentiality of medical information as it is shared electronically and to give patients some important rights to monitor their medical records and receive notification for loss", "-26.988674176158383" ], [ "passed to simplify this process. The new act, which is based on the Presumption of Death (Scotland) Act 1977, allows applying to the High Court to declare a person presumed dead. This declaration is conclusive and cannot be appealed. It is recorded on a new Register of Presumed Deaths, and has the same effect as a registration of death. Death is taken to occur on (a) the last day that they could have been alive (if the court is satisfied that they are dead), or (b) the day seven years after the date they were last seen (if death is", "-26.97158599404065" ], [ "rule The requirement that death occur within a year and a day of any injury for a killing to amount to murder was abolished by the Law Reform (Year and a Day Rule) Act 1996. Historically it had been considered that if a person survived more than that period after an incident, and died later, the incident could not be considered the proximate cause of death. Advances in modern medicine and patient care, including stabilized states such as coma which can last more than a year before death, made this assumption no longer appropriate. Mens rea (intention) The mens rea", "-26.967982222005958" ], [ "Uniform Determination of Death Act (UDDA) is a model bill, adopted by many US states, stating that an individual who has sustained either 1) irreversible cessation of circulatory and respiratory functions or 2) irreversible cessation of all functions of the entire brain, including the brain stem, is dead. This bill was a result of much debate over the definition of death and is applicable to the debate over anencephaly. A related bill, the Uniform Anatomical Gift Act (UAGA), grants individuals and, after death, their family members the right to decide whether or not to donate organs. Because it is against", "-26.954725262708962" ], [ "on their own personal conscience. In 2014, he told Today FM that the right to die is not merely about the act of dying, but also about the increased quality of life that comes from knowing that you have the option to end your suffering if you need to, and he told Newstalk radio that Right to Die Ireland was working with legal people and politicians to prepare a Bill on assisted dying for Dáil Éireann. In 2015, he welcomed California's vote to legalise assisted suicide, and he told BBC Radio Ulster that changes in the law in the UK", "-26.94965453725672" ], [ "seems to be a response of sorts to this issue since it shows a variety of opinions on death. The lack of specifics does not appear to affect the popularity of Lifetimes: A Beautiful Way to Explain Death to Children by Mellonie and Ingpen. The universality of death is a subject in The Big Wave by Pearl Buck and The Fall of Freddie the Leaf by Buscaglia.\nA study of 110 books written in the 1970s and 1980s for children ages 3 to 8 concluded that 85% were fiction, but in 80% of the books, the information about death was considered", "-26.941759190056473" ], [ "having died of a heart attack around two weeks earlier. The coroner criticised the retirement home Giese lived in and said that it was \"unacceptable that a person may lie deceased in their home for some weeks\".", "-26.940418614365626" ], [ "often deal with death better than when coping individually. As society and families drift apart so does the time spent bereaving those who have died, which in turn leads to negative emotion and negativity towards death. Women, who are the child bearers and are often the ones who look after children hold greater concerns about death due to their caring role within the family. It is this common role of women that leads to greater death anxiety as it emphasize the 'importance to live' for her offspring. Although it is common knowledge that all living creatures die, many people", "-26.936861477515777" ], [ "as 25% may have died alone. Speaking to the motion Mullen claimed that \"implicit sometimes in our thinking on this issue is the view that policy focus should centre on those with the majority of their lives ahead of them; that dying is a taboo subject better skirted around for the sake of avoiding awkwardness and offence; and that as people gradually lose memory, consciousness, bodily control and even hope, they also lose their dignity\".\nMullen involved in a controversy in April 2012, when he was accused by abortion rights activists of being \"extremely unsympathetic\" at a meeting with women who", "-26.89121580385836" ], [ "to estimate the percentage of people who died from various causes, most respondents choose the causes that have been most prevalent in the media such as terrorism, murders, and airplane accidents, rather than causes such as disease and traffic accidents, which have been technically \"less accessible\" to the individual since they are not emphasized as heavily in the world around them.\nThe confirmation bias is based on the natural tendency to confirm rather than to deny a current hypothesis. Research has demonstrated that people are inclined to seek solutions to problems that are more consistent with known hypotheses rather than attempt", "-26.882608299551066" ], [ "almost invariably fatal for the woman. As a result of the harm done with such illegal procedures, she had approved the legalization of abortion in the UK, saying this was a medical, not moral, issue. Death Worth died on 31 May 2011, having been diagnosed with cancer of the oesophagus earlier in the year. The first episode of the television series Call the Midwife, based on her experiences in Poplar, London, in the late 1950s, was dedicated to her.", "-26.87311198824318" ], [ "usually remain for years (and sometimes decades) on death row without ever actually being informed of the date of their execution prior to the date itself, so inmates suffer due to the uncertainty of not knowing whether or not any given day will be their last. According to Amnesty International, the intense and prolonged stress means many inmates on death row have poor mental health, suffering from the so-called death row phenomenon. The failure to give advanced notice of executions has been stated by the United Nations Human Rights Committee to be incompatible with articles 2, 7 and 10 of", "-26.86423059174558" ], [ "state. Due to better seat belt use, bicycle helmets, and the general decrease in violent crime, there are lower numbers of brain deaths now than historically. Donation after cardiac death (DCD) is a new protocol applied when there is severe neurologic injury but the patient does not meet the criteria for brain death.\nThe three sections of the Act proposed for enactment read as follows. Section 1 Determination of Death. An individual who has sustained either (1) irreversible cessation of circulatory and respiratory functions, or (2) irreversible cessation of all functions of the entire brain, including the brain stem, is dead.", "-26.83079469902441" ], [ "murder prosecutions, not because of the merits of the case, but because of the successful intervention of doctors in prolonging life. Additionally, advances in forensic medicine may assist the court to determine that an act was a cause of death even though it was carried out fairly far in the past. United Kingdom The rule was abolished by the Law Reform (Year and a Day Rule) Act 1996. English law is now substantially revised such that if a specific act can be proved to be the cause of death, it can now potentially constitute murder regardless of the intervening", "-26.778225890157046" ], [ "deaths\" resulting from a \"Monday to Friday culture\" in some areas of the NHS and to reintroduce \"a sense of vocation\" in consultants. The comments angered many doctors who responded by sharing photographs of themselves working at the weekends via social media using the hashtag #ImInWorkJeremy. It emerged in February 2016 that the \"6,000 avoidable deaths\" figure was based on Hunt's own understanding of an unpublished, unreviewed study by Freemantle et al. that he had access to before its publication in September 2015. The latter had been denied by NHS England's Freedom of Information Officer in October 2015. At the", "-26.755809979571495" ], [ "women in the U.S., it is the fifth leading cause of cancer-related deaths for this population. This cancer is known as the \"silent killer\" and is disproportionately lethal because of lack of effective screening and early detection strategies resulting from the absence of disease-specific symptoms. If diagnosed in an early stage (stage I) while the tumor is confined to the ovaries, ovarian cancer is highly treatable with a five-year survival rate over 90%. However the majority of ovarian cancer patients are diagnosed with stage III and stage IV cancer, which are associated with poor prognosis, even with aggressive therapy. Barriers", "-26.73847752274014" ], [ "others.\nPreviously, a fatal accident inquiry only dealt with deaths that occurred in Scotland, whereas in England and Wales a Coroner will deal with the investigation of a death where the body lies within their district irrespective of where the death actually occurred. This led to some distress being caused to the families of service personnel who had been killed abroad but whose bodies have been returned through or to England at the insistence of the Ministry of Defence and in consequence their funerals have been delayed.\nThe inquiries process was reviewed by Lord Cullen of Whitekirk for the Scottish Government in", "-26.729792603873648" ], [ "death was published in British newspapers, provoked enormous outrage and garnered 200 petitions to Parliament.", "-26.726569527760148" ], [ "Victorian Institute of Forensic Medicine, reviewed the case to determine the cause of death and concluded that \"There seems little doubt it was digitalis.\" Phillips supported his conclusion by pointing out that the organs were engorged, consistent with digitalis, the lack of evidence of natural disease and \"the absence of anything seen macroscopically which could account for the death\".\nFormer South Australian Chief Superintendent Len Brown, who worked on the case in the 1940s, stated that he believed that the man was from a country in the Warsaw Pact, which led to the police's inability to confirm the man's identity.\nThe South", "-26.722524326429266" ], [ "defence. The trial court held that the moment of death occurred when the brain ceased to function, so she would have been long dead when the doctor disconnected the ventilator.\nThe Appellate Division found that it was unnecessary to decide on the legal propriety of this view (which was the one held by medical science), and resolved the matter instead on the basis of the \"traditional view of the community,\" which is that one is dead when one stops breathing and one's heart stops beating.\nThe court emphasised that its silence on the issue of brain death should not be taken to", "-26.693625350482762" ], [ "raised concerns about the safety of personal health records in large medical/science databases like CIHI. In 2001, a Toronto Star article expressed fears that large health information vendors like CIHI could potentially leak the private health information of Canadians. The article suggested that the identities of individuals who had abortions and profiles of the mentally ill could potentially be leaked from CIHI's databases if proper security practices were not in place. The article also surmised that the greatest danger to patient and research subject privacy was the possibility of CIHI's health information being compromised through involvement with commercial entities.", "-26.677207619941328" ], [ "inquiry into five deaths in custody that occurred between August 1999 and January 2000. In March 2011 the Coroner found that in four of the five cases, management of the complex:\n...failed to provide a physical environment which would minimise the risk of self harm and a system of care which would recognise a vulnerability to suicide and actively promote steps to prevent it.\nThe Ombudsman reported again, this time in 2010, when he initiated an investigation of his own accord following receipts of a number of complaints during 2007 and 2008 which made him concerned about the conditions under which the", "-26.67602958243515" ], [ "the number of preventable deaths due to lack of insurance has grown to about 48,000 per year. The group's methodology has been criticized by economist John C. Goodman for not looking at cause of death or tracking insurance status changes over time, including the time of death.\nA 2009 study by former Clinton policy adviser Richard Kronick published in the journal Health Services Research found no increased mortality from being uninsured after certain risk factors were controlled for. Value for money A study of international health care spending levels published in the health policy journal Health Affairs in the year 2000", "-26.667440043982424" ], [ "medical practice impacted death more than Ariès implied. Roy Porter noted that while Ariès was critical of hospital death, calling it cruel and impersonal, in the nineteenth century many people felt that dying in the care of a doctor was a “good death,” and doctors were heralded for their ability to ease patients’ pain in their final hour. Furthermore, Porter argues that the way people die is very much dependant on the disease they are suffering from, and it is difficult to make comparisons and generalize a single mode of death. Finally, although Ariès periodization of western attitudes toward death", "-26.636679433024256" ], [ "Church's position on the right-to-die debate, noting that, \"Suicide is not a good thing. It is a bad thing because it is saying no to life and to everything it means with respect to our mission in the world and toward those around us.\" The National Right to Life Committee (NRLC) asserted that from its perspective, Maynard's chosen non-profit, Compassion & Choices had \"exploited the illness of Brittany Maynard to promote legalization of doctor prescribed suicide in the states.\" Brittany's mother defended her daughter's decision via a letter released by Compassion & Choices, stating \"My twenty-nine-year-old daughter's choice to die", "-26.609044533455744" ], [ "this from occurring because of the depressive symptoms and state of mental health that are a result from a partner passing away. Being aware of widowhood effect and acknowledging the feelings, such as grieving over that individual can be a way of coping with their current situation. Individuals that result to safe methods with grieving such as counseling or finding different hobbies can decrease their chances of experiencing widowhood effect. Coping mechanisms There is no universally accepted “proper” method or way to grieve or adjust to life after loss; it varies among individuals, influenced by their cultural and social practices,", "-26.600128285819665" ], [ "and advanced-stage ovarian cancer. The main cause of her death is believed to be respiratory failure due to complications from ovarian cancer. The clinic at which she died was called the Hospital Santa Mónica, but was licensed as Clínica Santo Tomás. After reports indicated that it was not legally licensed to \"perform surgery, take X-rays, perform laboratory work or run an internal pharmacy, all of which it was doing,\" as well as reports of it being operated by highly controversial medical figure Kurt Donsbach, it was shut down by medical commissioner Dr. Francisco Versa. King's body was flown from Mexico", "-26.593653545249254" ], [ "mortality by responding to questions about the deceased husband or wife. One limitation of the widowhood survey surrounds the issues of divorce, where people may be more likely to report that they are widowed in places where there is the great social stigma around being a divorcee. Another limitation is that multiple marriages introduce biased estimates, so individuals are often asked about first marriage. Biases will be significant if the association of death between spouses, such as those in countries with large AIDS epidemics. Sampling Sampling refers to the selection of a subset of the population of interest to efficiently", "-26.587176932795046" ], [ "cause the patients' deaths. However, physicians are absolved of liability if patients refuse treatment for terminal illnesses by issuing advance medical directives.\nWhether the right to life guaranteed by Article 9(1) encompasses a right to die – that is, a right to commit suicide or a right to assisted suicide, usually in the face of a terminal illness – has not been the subject of any Singapore court case. In other jurisdictions, the right to life has generally not been interpreted in this way. In Gian Kaur v. State of Punjab (1996) the Indian Supreme Court held that the right to", "-26.577764490342815" ], [ "there was due to administrative errors. Furthermore, all deaths had been registered as natural, with the exception of the last event. Even that last event was initially thought to be a death by natural causes by the doctors responsible for the child; but within a day, on being connected by other hospital authorities with de Berk and her repeated presence at recent incidents, it became classified as an unnatural death. Statistical arguments The court made heavy use of statistical calculations to achieve its conviction. In a 2003 TV special of NOVA, Dutch professor of Criminal Law Theo de Roos stated:", "-26.57074385566375" ], [ "The results provided evidence that suggest a causal relationship between mortality rate and widowhood.\nIn April 2016, the American Heart Association published an article regarding phenomenon referred to as \"broken heart syndrome\". This particular syndrome seems to occur when a person experiences an overwhelming amount of stress in their life in a short period of time. The cases mentioned involved both positive events like winning the lottery as well as negative events like experiencing the death of a spouse. Though broken heart syndrome has been misdiagnosed as a heart attack, the differences between the two phenomena are clear. Heart attacks are", "-26.563025926123373" ], [ "picture of causes of death in various populations. Because of the variety of data sources and their associated biases, causes of death assessments are inherently uncertain and subject to vigorous debate.\"\nThe agency responsible for overseeing this system in the United States is the National Center for Health Statistics, a division of Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Vital statistics for the US can be found here.\nThe agency responsible for overseeing this system in the United Kingdom is the Office for National Statistics. Vital statistics for the UK can be found here.\nThe agency responsible for overseeing the vital statistics system", "-26.527939620184043" ], [ "where circulatory and respiratory arrest happens is known as the circulatory definition of death (DCDD). Proponents of the DCDD believe that this definition is reasonable because a person with permanent loss of circulatory and respiratory function should be considered dead. Critics of this definition state that while cessation of these functions may be permanent, it does not mean the situation is not irreversible, because if CPR was applied, the person could be revived. Thus, the arguments for and against the DCDD boil down to a matter of defining the actual words \"permanent\" and \"irreversible,\" which further complicates the challenge of", "-26.49047647410771" ], [ "were no longer the main leading causes of death.", "-26.467764395434642" ], [ "Brain death Legal history Traditionally, both the legal and medical communities determined death through the permanent end of certain bodily functions in clinical death, especially respiration and heartbeat. With the increasing ability of the medical community to resuscitate people with no respiration, heartbeat, or other external signs of life, the need for another definition of death occurred, raising questions of legal death. This gained greater urgency with the widespread use of life support equipment, as well as rising capabilities and demand for organ transplantation.\nSince the 1960s, laws on determining death have, therefore, been implemented in all countries with active", "-26.463990706448385" ], [ "A Natural Death Overview Frontman Nathan Winneke states: \"A Natural Death is about the futility and arrogance of creation and destruction, the overwhelming scale of space and time, and the brutal majesty of nature, the horror of birth, and the beauty of death. Everyone who will ever live will die a natural death, and will soon after be forgotten for eternity. Hopefully this album will serve as a warning to the human race to stop taking itself so seriously, as we have seen the dire consequences of its actions in the future. You are nothing.\"\nUpon the album's release, \"Murder\" was", "-26.454636525013484" ], [ "in disease prevalence and life expectancies.\nA whole population follow-up over 68 years showed that the association with overall mortality was also present for most major causes of death. The exceptions were cancers unrelated to smoking and suicide\nThere is also a strong inverse correlation between intelligence and adult morbidity. Long term sick leave in adulthood has been shown to be related to lower cognitive abilities, as has likelihood of receiving a disability pension. Coronary heart disease Among the findings of cognitive epidemiology is that men with a higher IQ have less risk of dying from coronary heart disease. The association is", "-26.454562634869944" ], [ "26 of the deceased.\nAccording to death certificates patients died of causes including hypothermia and dehydration, although many certificates listed natural causes.\nFamily members of deceased patients reported seeing patients walking around naked, that one NGO gave the same standard set of medication to every patient, and that bodies were badly decomposed. Arbitration award In March 2018 arbitrator Dikgang Moseneke ruled that families of the affected patients must each be paid R1.2 million, made up of R20,000 for funeral expenses‚ R180,000 for shock and psychological trauma, and R1 million in constitutional damages. By December 2018 several hundred families said they had not", "-26.452365000732243" ], [ "a \"wrongful death\" claim to recover the \"full value of the life\" of the deceased, and a survival claim on behalf of the decedent's estate to recover for funeral expenses, pain and suffering, or punitive damages.\nThe standard of proof in the United States is typically preponderance of the evidence as opposed to clear and convincing or beyond a reasonable doubt.\nEach state has different laws regarding wrongful death claims. In most states, the statute of limitations (time limit to file a case) varies according to how the death occurred. For example, in Oregon, many wrongful death claims are subject to a", "-26.44728556528571" ], [ "against the law, it was also highly taboo.\nJean Humphry had suffered for more than two years from breast cancer, which spread throughout her whole body, as described in the first nine chapters. She decided it was her time for an assisted death, and proceeded with her plan so that she could die in peace and dignity in her own home rather than in hospital. This was an individual decision; the couple did not know then (1975) about euthanasia and assisted suicide, which later became highly controversial as the right to die issue mushroomed. Living Wills were then just becoming known.\nSome", "-26.44180704531027" ], [ "S v Williams S v Williams, an important case in South African law, with significant implications specifically for the law of persons and criminal law, was heard in the Appellate Division of the Supreme Court on 19 September 1986, with judgment handed down on 30 September. The bench comprised Chief Justice Rabie and Judges of Appeal Corbett, Hoexter, Botha and Van Heerden, who found that, when a person is kept alive artificially by means of respirator, its eventual disconnection is not in legal terms the act which causes death; it merely constitutes the termination of a fruitless attempt to avert", "-26.430705268809106" ], [ "pneumonia. Approximately half of these deaths can be prevented, as they are caused by the bacteria for which an effective vaccine is available. In 2011, pneumonia was the most common reason for admission to the hospital after an emergency department visit in the U.S. for infants and children. History Pneumonia has been a common disease throughout human history. The word is from Greek πνεύμων (pneúmōn) meaning \"lung\". The symptoms were described by Hippocrates (c. 460–370 BC): \"Peripneumonia, and pleuritic affections, are to be thus observed: If the fever be acute, and if there be pains on either side, or in", "-26.400368786999024" ], [ "professor of medical ethics by courtesy at Weill Cornell Medical College. Work In 2008, Miller and Robert Truog co-authored a paper in the New England Journal of Medicine in which they questioned the dead donor rule, and proposed instead that living people should be able to donate vital organs so long as their brain was devastatingly damaged. In 2012, Miller co-authored a paper with Walter Sinnott-Armstrong in the Journal of Medical Ethics on whether killing was fundamentally wrong. In the paper, Miller and Sinnott-Armstrong claimed that there was nothing fundamentally wrong with killing another person, and that it was only", "-26.36872994765872" ], [ "a very interesting opinion in a right-to-die [case] raised the analogy.\"\nPhysician-assisted suicide is legal in some states. For the terminally ill, it is legal in the state of Oregon under the Oregon Death with Dignity Act. In Washington state, it became legal in 2009, when a law modeled after the Oregon act, the Washington Death with Dignity Act was passed. A patient must be diagnosed as having less than six months to live, be of sound mind, make a request orally and in writing, have it approved by two different doctors, then wait 15 days and make the request again. A", "-26.335580330633093" ], [ "Pou told Morley Safer:\nNo, I did not murder those patients. Mr. Safer, I've spent my entire life taking care of patients.\nIn February 2007, seven months after Pou's arrest, Minyard spoke with the media about the deaths of the LifeCare patients. He had not yet issued a determination of cause of death in any of the cases, leaving them classified as \"undetermined\".\nThe case against Pou and the two nurses appeared more questionable after Minyard announced that he had classified the patient deaths at Memorial as \"undetermined,\" which means that on available evidence he could not classify the deaths as due to", "-26.32088051730534" ], [ "2008, following which the Scottish Government consulted on proposals in 2014. The Inquiries into Fatal Accidents and Sudden Deaths etc. (Scotland) Act 2016 was passed by the Scottish Parliament on 10 December 2015, and replaced the 1976 act when it came into force in June 2017. Death certificates A person cannot be buried or cremated in Scotland unless a medical practitioner has issued a death certificate (and the associated certificate of registration of death, known as a form 14, has been issued), and doctors are mandated to report certain sudden, suspicious, accidental, or unexplained deaths to the procurator fiscal, and", "-26.303392927075038" ], [ "I suffer an incurable, irreversible illness, disease, or condition and my attending physician determines that my condition is terminal, I direct that life-sustaining measures that would serve only to prolong my dying be withheld or discontinued.\"\nMore specific living wills may include information regarding an individual's desire for such services such as analgesia (pain relief), antibiotics, hydration, feeding, and the use of ventilators or cardiopulmonary resuscitation. However, studies have also shown that adults are more likely to complete these documents if they are written in everyday language and less focused on technical treatments.\nHowever, by the late 1980s, public advocacy groups became", "-26.29214000259526" ], [ "fact of the matter is that common law courts then, as now, were deciding cases, and in doing so were fashioning and refining the law as it then existed in light of reason and experience. Due process clearly did not prohibit this process of judicial evolution at the time of the framing, and it does not do so today.\nRogers should have anticipated that the year-and-a-day rule might no longer exist under modern circumstances. Thirteenth century medical science was not capable of determining the cause of death beyond a reasonable doubt after a significant amount of time had elapsed", "-26.284513566759415" ], [ "death, I want it to be a good one. Wouldn't it be better to stand for something or make a statement, rather than a fiery collision with some drunk driver? Are not smokers choosing death by lung cancer? Where is the dignity there? Are not the people who disregard the environment killing themselves and future generations?\" In his self-penned obituary he confessed to feeling guilty for not killing Defense Secretary Donald Rumsfeld when he had the chance.\nSka-punk band Less Than Jake wrote a song about Ritscher's death titled \"Malachi Richter's Liquor's Quicker\" for their 2008 album GNV FLA. Ritscher's", "-26.27876430458855" ], [ "keep these records, in 1639. By the end of the 19th century, European countries were pursuing centralized systems for recording deaths.\nIn the United States, a standard model death certificate was developed around 1910. This promoted uniformity and consistency in record keeping. United States In the United States, certificates issued to the general public for deaths after 1990 may in some states be redacted to erase the specific cause of death (in cases where death was from natural causes) to comply with HIV confidentiality rules. In New York State, for instance, the cause of death on a general death", "-26.278702481649816" ], [ "atria, ventricles, heart valves) and numerous physiological features (e.g., systole, heart sounds, afterload) that have been encyclopedically documented for many centuries.\nDisorders of the heart lead to heart disease and cardiovascular disease and can lead to a significant number of deaths: cardiovascular disease is the leading cause of death in the United States and caused 24.95% of total deaths in 2008.\nThe primary responsibility of the heart is to pump blood throughout the body.\nIt pumps blood from the body — called the systemic circulation — through the lungs — called the pulmonary circulation — and then back out to the body.\nThis means", "-26.250934865151066" ] ]

[ "Hmm, tougher than it seems... Oh, I know a way, but you really have to think like a five-year-old. Suppose I told you, \"take two steps *forward* three times\". You are now six steps away from the starting position, in the \"forward\" direction. This is 2x3=6. Now imagine you're at the starting point again, and I'm telling you, \"take two steps *back* three times\". You are now six steps away from start in the \"back\" direction. This is -2x3=-6. Now you're at the starting point again and I'm telling you, \"*turn around* and make two steps *forward* three times\". You are now facing the opposite way, so you end up the same six steps away in the \"back\" direction. This is 2x(-3)=-6. Finally, you're at the starting point and I'm telling you: \"*turn around* and make two steps *back* three times.\" See? You're moving \"backwards\" *while* facing \"backwards\", so you end up six steps away in the *forward* direction. And this is -2x(-3)=6. The nice thing about this explanation is that you can actually try it out. *EDIT: fixed missing minus sign in third example, thanks for noticing*", "It is because you are essentially finding the opposite of an opposite. 2 * 2 is 4. 2 * -2 is the opposite of 2 * 2, -4. -2 * -2 is the opposite of 2 * -2, 4.", "Negative numbers may be too abstract for a 5 year old mind, but let me try. Let's pretend you have 5 apples. If I give you 5 apples 5 more times, you have 25 apples! Lucky you! Now let's pretend that not only do you not have ANY apples, but you are actually missing 5 apples. If I remove the fact that you're missing 5 apples 5 times, you have 25 Apples, because I got rid of the gaping hole of apples you didn't have, 5 times, and the only way to do that was to give you 5 apples. That came out more confusing than I meant it to, but it makes sense in my head.", "I find this to be a useful example when explaining this concept: 4 * -4 = -16 3 * -4 = -12 2 * -4 = -8 1 * -4 = -4 0 * -4 = 0 -1 * -4 = 4 etc. Not a rigorous argument, but it helps people sometimes.", "There are already some great responses here, but let me take a swing at it. You might need to be 7 rather than 5 for this explanation to make sense though; there are no apples, but it should be pretty easy to follow. First, you need to understand that -1 is the one and only number with the property that for any real number x, x + (-1)x = 0 or in other words (-1)x = -x Or in English, -1 is the number where if you multiply it by a number, it switches the sign. So 8\\*(-1) is -8, 8\\*(-1)\\*(-1) is (-8)\\*(-1) is 8, etc. Next, you need to know that when you multiply two numbers, that is equivalent to multiplying their factors. So 8\\*9 = (2\\*2\\*2)\\*(3\\*3) = 72 You're also allowed to shuffle the numbers around with multiplication (ie. multiplication is *commutative*), so 8\\*9 = (2\\*3\\*2)\\*(3\\*2) = (2)\\*(2\\*3)\\*(2\\*3), etc. Alright. So now let's consider the case where one of them is negative: (-8) \\* 9 = (2\\*2\\*2\\*(-1))\\*(3\\*3) = (2\\*2\\*2)\\*(3\\*3)\\*(-1) = (8)\\*(9)\\*(-1) = 72\\*(-1) = -72 Remembering that (-1) is the number that changes the sign from + to - or vice versa when you multiply by it, you get -72. Now consider the case where both numbers are negative. (-8) \\* (-9) = (2\\*2\\*2\\*(-1))\\*(3\\*3\\*(-1)) = (2\\*2\\*2)\\*(3\\*3)\\*(-1)\\*(-1) = (8)\\*(9)\\*(-1)\\*(-1) = 72\\*(-1)\\*(-1) = (-72)\\*(-1) = 72 Looking at the last three steps there especially, you can see that what you're really doing is multiplying the positive numbers by each other, followed by two iterations of multiplying (-1). Multiplying by (-1), again, simply *means* changing the sign from positive to negative, so we do that twice, bringing us back to a positive number. **EDIT** added a million backslashes in front of my asterisks, thanks reddit", "There is a geometric answer if you take multiplication as a way to move numbers on the number line. If you multiply by 5, it stretches everything by 5 times its distance from 0. (.1 goes to .5, 2 goes to 10, 0 goes to 0 and -1 goes to -5). Think of the number line stretching. Also, if we multiply by 1, the number line does not stretch. The minus sign counts as a reflection across zero. So if we multiply by -1, the line does not stretch, but everything flips. -1 goes to +1, -5 goes to +5 and so on. So a negative number becomes positive and a positive number becomes negative when multiplied by -1 (or by -4, etc) I understand all this has done is change the question from why is the product of two negative number positive to the question of why does multiplying by a negative give a reflection. However, the actual reason may be simply \"Because mathematicians defined it that way and it is useful\" There are many other ways to define multiplication that are not necessarily useful.", "TL;DR You are *removing* the state of *not having*. Let's use money as an example. I like money. You have three $5 bills, 3x5=15; you have $15. Now what if you *did not* have three $5 dollar bills? 0x5=0, so you would have $0. Now what if you *did not* ***not*** have three $5 bills [Oooooo, double negative ;)] You would *take away* the state of *not* having three $5 bills. You are taking away the state of not having something a predetermined number of times. -3x-5=15; you took away not having $5 three times. I hope this went well.", "I know it isn't what you are looking for, as lampochka_returns has it answered very well, but I thought I would add this: When good things happen to good people, it is good (+ x + = +) When bad things happen to good people, it is bad (- x + = -) When bad things happen to bad people, it is good (- x - = -)", "A deficit of a deficit is a surplus.", "The way I always try to simplify multiplication for myself is by addition. So, if I was having trouble with 2 * 4, I'd think 2+2+2+2 = 8. Thankfully I don't (normally) have trouble with that. So -3 * -2 = -(-3 + -3) = -(-6) = 6." ]

[ [ "(1646-1716) agreed that negative numbers were invalid, but still used them in calculations. Signed numbers In the context of negative numbers, a number that is greater than zero is referred to as positive. Thus every real number other than zero is either positive or negative, while zero itself is not considered to have a sign. Positive numbers are sometimes written with a plus sign in front, e.g. +3 denotes a positive three.\nBecause zero is neither positive nor negative, the term nonnegative is sometimes used to refer to a number that is either positive or zero, while nonpositive is used to", "-33.50099205193692" ], [ "negative zero and positive zero, which sometimes require special attention (see below). The binary representation has the special property that, excluding NaNs, any two numbers can be compared as sign and magnitude integers (endianness issues apply). When comparing as 2's-complement integers: If the sign bits differ, the negative number precedes the positive number, so 2's complement gives the correct result (except that negative zero and positive zero should be considered equal). If both values are positive, the 2's complement comparison again gives the correct result. Otherwise (two negative numbers), the correct FP ordering is the", "-33.47522518702317" ], [ "negative number from a positive number, the remainder is their positive sum. If we subtract a positive number from an empty power (martaba khāliyya), the remainder is the same negative, and if we subtract a negative number from an empty power, the remainder is the same positive number.\nIn the 12th century in India, Bhāskara II gave negative roots for quadratic equations but rejected them because they were inappropriate in the context of the problem. He stated that a negative value is \"in this case not to be taken, for it is inadequate; people do not approve of negative roots.\"\nEuropean mathematicians,", "-33.464216097016106" ], [ "Negative number In mathematics, a negative number is a real number that is less than zero. Negative numbers represent opposites. If positive represents a movement to the right, negative represents a movement to the left. If positive represents above sea level, then negative represents below sea level. If positive represents a deposit, negative represents a withdrawal. They are often used to represent the magnitude of a loss or deficiency. A debt that is owed may be thought of as a negative asset, a decrease in some quantity may be thought of as a negative increase. If a quantity may have", "-33.08131214087189" ], [ "number from a higher negative number, the remainder is their negative difference. The difference remains positive if we subtract a negative number from a lower negative number. If we subtract a negative number from a positive number, the remainder is their positive sum. If we subtract a positive number from an empty power (martaba khāliyya), the remainder is the same negative, and if we subtract a negative number from an empty power, the remainder is the same positive number. Double false position Between the 9th and 10th centuries, the Egyptian mathematician Abu Kamil wrote a now-lost treatise on the use", "-32.754030653733935" ], [ "either of two opposite senses, then one may choose to distinguish between those senses—perhaps arbitrarily—as positive and negative. In the medical context of fighting a tumor, an expansion could be thought of as a negative shrinkage. Negative numbers are used to describe values on a scale that goes below zero, such as the Celsius and Fahrenheit scales for temperature. The laws of arithmetic for negative numbers ensure that the common sense idea of an opposite is reflected in arithmetic. For example, −(−3) = 3 because the opposite of an opposite is the original value.\nNegative numbers are usually written with a", "-32.22506863522722" ], [ "is an example of the rule that division by zero is undefined.\nWe can also write negative fractions, which represent the opposite of a positive fraction. For example, if represents a half dollar profit, then − represents a half dollar loss. Because of the rules of division of signed numbers, which require that, for example, negative divided by positive is negative, −, and , all represent the same fraction, negative one-half. Because a negative divided by a negative produces a positive, represents positive one-half.\nIn mathematics the set of all numbers that can be expressed in the form a/b,", "-32.14312577742385" ], [ "operations on negative numbers. He first describes addition and subtraction,\n18.30. [The sum] of two positives is positives, of two negatives negative; of a positive and a negative [the sum] is their difference; if they are equal it is zero. The sum of a negative and zero is negative, [that] of a positive and zero positive, [and that] of two zeros zero.\n[...]\n\n18.32. A negative minus zero is negative, a positive [minus zero] positive; zero [minus zero] is zero. When a positive is to be subtracted from a negative or a negative from a positive, then it is to be added.\nHe goes", "-31.702208991242514" ], [ "are possible; all that is needed to formally represent 3 is to inscribe a certain symbol or pattern of symbols three times. Integers The negative of a positive integer is defined as a number that produces 0 when it is added to the corresponding positive integer. Negative numbers are usually written with a negative sign (a minus sign). As an example, the negative of 7 is written −7, and 7 + (−7) = 0. When the set of negative numbers is combined with the set of natural numbers (including 0), the result is defined as the set of integers, Z also written . Here the", "-31.684130275272764" ], [ "minus sign in front. For example, −3 represents a negative quantity with a magnitude of three, and is pronounced \"minus three\" or \"negative three\". To help tell the difference between a subtraction operation and a negative number, occasionally the negative sign is placed slightly higher than the minus sign (as a superscript). Conversely, a number that is greater than zero is called positive; zero is usually (but not always) thought of as neither positive nor negative. The positivity of a number may be emphasized by placing a plus sign before it, e.g. +3. In general, the negativity or positivity of", "-31.360566187795484" ], [ "= 3, because 3² = 3 ⋅ 3 = 9 and 3 is nonnegative. The term (or number) whose square root is being considered is known as the radicand. The radicand is the number or expression underneath the radical sign, in this example 9.\nEvery positive number x has two square roots: √x, which is positive, and −√x, which is negative. Together, these two roots are denoted as ±√x (see ± shorthand). Although the principal square root of a positive number is only one of its two square roots, the designation \"the square root\" is often used to refer to the principal square", "-31.234689642384183" ], [ "refer to a number that is either negative or zero. Zero is a neutral number. History For a long time, negative solutions to problems were considered \"false\". In Hellenistic Egypt, the Greek mathematician Diophantus in the 3rd century AD referred to an equation that was equivalent to 4x + 20 = 4 (which has a negative solution) in Arithmetica, saying that the equation was absurd.\nNegative numbers appear for the first time in history in the Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art (Jiu zhang suan-shu), which in its present form dates from the period of the Han Dynasty (202 BC –", "-31.081174246952287" ], [ "negative things, or quantities less than zero, was accepted.\nThe value, or number, zero is not the same as the digit zero, used in numeral systems using positional notation. Successive positions of digits have higher weights, so inside a numeral the digit zero is used to skip a position and give appropriate weights to the preceding and following digits. A zero digit is not always necessary in a positional number system, for example, in the number 02. In some instances, a leading zero may be used to distinguish a number. Physics The value zero plays a special role for many physical", "-30.67397210803756" ], [ "Positive real numbers In mathematics, the set of positive real numbers, , is the subset of those real numbers that are greater than zero. The non-negative real numbers, , also include zero. The symbols and are ambiguously used for either of these, so it safer to always specify which. Alternatively, the notation or for and or for has also been widely employed, is aligned with the practice in algebra of denoting the exclusion of the zero element with a star, and should be understandable to most practicing mathematicians.\nIn a complex plane, ", "-30.533319507259876" ], [ "of the letter x\".\nThere is no concept of negative zero in mathematics, but in computing −0 may have a separate representation from zero. In the IEEE floating-point standard, 1 / −0 is negative infinity (−) whereas 1 / 0 is positive infinity (). Other uses In chemistry, superscripted plus and minus signs are used to indicate an ion with a positive or negative charge of 1 (for example, NH+\n4 ). If the charge is greater than 1, a number indicating the charge is written before the sign (SO2−\n4 ). The minus sign is also used (rather than an en dash) for a single covalent bond between", "-30.388023033796344" ], [ "positive and negative pions, albeit much weaker than that between two positive or two negative pions. On the other hand, there is no such correlation between a charged and a neutral pion. Loosely speaking a positive and a negative pion are less unequal than a positive and a neutral pion. Similarly the BEC between two neutral pions are somewhat stronger than those between two identically charged ones: in other words two neutral pions are “more identical” than two negative (positive) pions.\nThe surprising nature of these special BEC effects made headlines in the literature. These effects illustrate the superiority of the", "-30.375672062509693" ], [ "negative number that has been rounded to zero. The concept of negative zero also has some theoretical applications in statistical mechanics and other disciplines.\nIt is claimed that the inclusion of signed zero in IEEE 754 makes it much easier to achieve numerical accuracy in some critical problems, in particular when computing with complex elementary functions. On the other hand, the concept of signed zero runs contrary to the general assumption made in most mathematical fields that negative zero is the same thing as zero. Representations that allow negative zero can be a source of errors in programs, if software", "-30.086581558862235" ], [ "a diagonal stroke through the right-most non-zero digit of the corresponding positive number's numeral. The first use of negative numbers in a European work was by Nicolas Chuquet during the 15th century. He used them as exponents, but referred to them as \"absurd numbers\".\nAs recently as the 18th century, it was common practice to ignore any negative results returned by equations on the assumption that they were meaningless, just as René Descartes did with negative solutions in a Cartesian coordinate system. Rational numbers It is likely that the concept of fractional numbers dates to prehistoric times. The Ancient Egyptians used their", "-30.06396505300654" ], [ "the only positive number that is equal to its reciprocal plus one:. Its additive inverse is the only negative number that is equal to its reciprocal minus one:.\nThe function gives an infinite number of irrational numbers that differ with their reciprocal by an integer. For example, is the irrational . Its reciprocal is , exactly less. Such irrational numbers share a curious property: they have the same fractional part as their reciprocal. Applications The expansion of the reciprocal 1/q in any base can also act as a source of pseudo-random numbers, if q is a", "-30.052391605255252" ], [ "2006.\nThe restriction of the summands to positive numbers is necessary, because allowing negative numbers allows for more (and smaller) instances of numbers that can be expressed as sums of cubes in n distinct ways. The concept of a cabtaxi number has been introduced to allow for alternative, less restrictive definitions of this nature. In a sense, the specification of two summands and powers of three is also restrictive; a generalized taxicab number allows for these values to be other than two and three, respectively.", "-29.923921323905233" ], [ "a number is referred to as its sign.\nEvery real number other than zero is either positive or negative. The positive whole numbers are referred to as natural numbers, while the positive and negative whole numbers (together with zero) are referred to as integers.\nIn bookkeeping, amounts owed are often represented by red numbers, or a number in parentheses, as an alternative notation to represent negative numbers.\nNegative numbers appeared for the first time in history in the Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art, which in its present form dates from the period of the Chinese Han Dynasty (202 BC – AD 220),", "-29.919646501919487" ], [ "which differs is larger.\nFor real numbers written in decimal notation, a slightly different variant of the lexicographical order is used: the parts on the left of the decimal point are compared as before; if they are equal, the parts at the right of the decimal point are compared with the lexicographical order.\nWhen negative numbers are also considered, one has to reverse the order for comparing negative numbers. This is not usually a problem for humans, but it may be for computers (testing the sign takes some time). This is one of the reasons for adopting two's complement representation for representing", "-29.880741345725255" ], [ "such as a transistor. Negative logic The assignment of 1 and 0 to the positive and negative signal levels respectively is an option of the logic designer using the AND or OR circuits. With this assignment it assumes that the logic is positive. It is just as likely that the assignment might be the reversed where 1 is the negative voltage and 0 is the positive voltage. This would be negative logic. Switching between positive and negative logic is commonly used to achieve a more efficient logic design.\nIn Boolean algebra it is recognized that a positive", "-29.783428208640544" ], [ "the ability to distinguish between positive and negative charges, except locally. \nAs with a Möbius strip, once the two distinct connections have been made, we can no longer identify which connection is \"normal\" and which is \"reversed\" — the lack of a global definition for charge becomes a feature of the global geometry. This behaviour is analogous to the way that a small piece of a Möbius strip allows a local distinction between two sides of a piece of paper, but the distinction disappears when the strip is considered globally.", "-29.735981745034223" ], [ "Negative relationship In statistics, there is a negative relationship or inverse relationship between two variables if higher values of one variable tend to be associated with lower values of the other. A negative relationship between two variables usually implies that the correlation between them is negative, or — what is in some contexts equivalent — that the slope in a corresponding graph is negative. A negative correlation between variables is also called anticorrelation or inverse correlation.\nNegative correlation can be seen geometrically when two normalized random vectors are viewed as points on a sphere, and the correlation between them is the", "-29.61362908060255" ], [ "Ones' complement Number representation Positive numbers are the same simple, binary system used by two's complement and sign-magnitude. Negative values are the bit complement of the corresponding positive value. The largest positive value is characterized by the sign (high-order) bit being off (0) and all other bits being on (1). The lowest negative value is characterized by the sign bit being 1, and all other bits being 0. The table below shows all possible values in a 4-bit system, from −7 to +7.\n + −\n 0 ", "-29.5192865785466" ], [ "think everyone will come\". Quadruple negatives further resolve to a positive meaning; for example, \"我不是不知道没人不喜欢他\" (Wǒ bú shì bù zhīdào méi rén bù xǐhuan tā, \"I do not not know no one likes him not\") means \"I do know that everybody likes him\". However, more than triple negatives are frequently perceived as obscure and rarely encountered. History of languages Many languages, including all living Germanic languages, French, Welsh and some Berber and Arabic dialects, have gone through a process known as Jespersen's cycle, where an original negative particle is replaced by another, passing through an intermediate stage employing two particles", "-29.49973738810513" ], [ "Any positive rational number can be written as a sum of unit fractions in infinitely many ways. Two ways to write are and . Arithmetic with fractions Like whole numbers, fractions obey the commutative, associative, and distributive laws, and the rule against division by zero. Equivalent fractions Multiplying the numerator and denominator of a fraction by the same (non-zero) number results in a fraction that is equivalent to the original fraction. This is true because for any non-zero number , the fraction . Therefore, multiplying by is equivalent to multiplying by one, and any number multiplied by one", "-29.24839336698642" ], [ "(3 + 5 = 8). Now consider (7 + 9)×5 = 16×5 = 80, (8 + 0 = 8) or 7×(9 + 5) = 7×14 = 98, (9 + 8 = 17, (1 + 7 = 8). \nAny non-negative integer can be written as 9×n + a, where 'a' is a single digit from 0 to 8, and 'n' is some non-negative integer.\nThus, using the distributive rule, (9×n + a)×(9×m + b)= 9×9×n×m + 9(am + bn) + ab. Since the first two factors are multiplied by 9, their sums will end up being 9 or 0,", "-29.207615319552133" ], [ "whose square is the original number.\nNo square root can be taken of a negative number within the system of real numbers, because squares of all real numbers are non-negative. The lack of real square roots for the negative numbers can be used to expand the real number system to the complex numbers, by postulating the imaginary unit i, which is one of the square roots of −1.\nThe property \"every non-negative real number is a square\" has been generalized to the notion of a real closed field, which is an ordered field such that every non-negative element is a square and every", "-29.202941212104633" ], [ "negative number (invalid index) to solve the semipredicate problem of returning \"no result\":\nint find(int arr[], size_t len, int val){\n int result = -1; // defaults to returning -1 which indicates \"no result\"\n int i;\n\n for (i = 0; i < len; i++)\n {\n if (a[i] == val)\n {\n result = i;\n break;\n", "-29.096506023114216" ], [ "on to describe multiplication,\n18.33. The product of a negative and a positive is negative, of two negatives positive, and of positives positive; the product of zero and a negative, of zero and a positive, or of two zeros is zero.\nBut his description of division by zero differs from our modern understanding:\n18.34. A positive divided by a positive or a negative divided by a negative is positive; a zero divided by a zero is zero; a positive divided by a negative is negative; a negative divided by a positive is [also] negative.\n\n18.35. A negative or a positive divided by zero has", "-29.017749156344507" ], [ "positive number , no matter how small, we can always find a , such that we can guarantee that and are less than apart, as long as (in the domain of ) is a real number that is less than away from but distinct from . The purpose of the last stipulation, which corresponds to the condition in the definition, is to ensure that does not imply anything about the value of itself. Actually, does not even need to be in the domain of in order for", "-28.978675706352988" ], [ "because he uses both, positive and negative coefficients. He called his method/rule AMASIAS. The letters A, M, A/S, I, A/S each are representing a single operation step when solving a quadratic equation. Stifel, however avoided to show the negative results.\nAnother topic dealt with in the Arithmetica integra are negative numbers (which Stifel calls numeri absurdi). Negative numbers were refused and considered as preposterous by the authorities at that time. Stifel however, used negative numbers equal to the other numbers. He also discussed the properties of irrational numbers and if the irrationals are real numbers, or only fictitious (AI page 103).", "-28.97442888043588" ], [ "multiplying any number by 1 yields that same number. The multiplicative inverse for any number except 0 is the reciprocal of this number, because multiplying the reciprocal of any number by the number itself yields the multiplicative identity 1. 0 is the only number without a multiplicative inverse, and the result of multiplying any number and 0 is again 0. One says that 0 is not contained in the multiplicative group of the numbers.\nThe product of a and b is written as a × b or a·b. When a or b are expressions not written simply with digits, it is also", "-28.944155831748503" ], [ "the number of positive integers n for which φ(n) = f, then A(f) can never equal 1. Relatedly, Wacław Sierpiński conjectured that every positive integer other than 1 occurs as a value of A(f), a conjecture that was proven in 1999 by Kevin Ford.", "-28.889173424453475" ], [ "the content of the accumulator or the complement of its value.\nSince the gears of the calculator rotated in only one direction, negative numbers could not be directly summed. To subtract one number from another, the method of nine's complement was used. The only two differences between an addition and a subtraction are the position of the display bar (direct versus complement) and the way the first number is entered (direct versus complement).\nFor a 10-digit wheel (N), the fixed outside wheel is numbered from 0 to 9 (N-1). The numbers are inscribed in a decreasing manner clockwise going from the bottom", "-28.71213255978364" ], [ "be either positive or negative.", "-28.637498794181738" ], [ "always place negatives at the end of a sentence. This phenomenon in Paha is probably due to Chinese influence.", "-28.500745159770304" ], [ "another to show negative values. A zero pair is a negative and a positive unit tile (or a negative and a positive tile, or a negative and a positive tile) which together form a sum of zero. Adding integers Adding Integers is the best place to start when you want to get used to the idea of representing numbers with a quantity of tiles. Any integer can be represented by using the same number of tiles in the correct color. For example for a 6 you could select six yellow tiles. For -3 you would", "-28.49340175493853" ], [ "is changed from positive to negative simply by toggling the word's sign (high-order) bit.\nThere were arguments for and against each of the systems. Sign & magnitude allowed for easier tracing of memory dumps (a common process 40 years ago) as small numeric values use fewer 1 bits. Internally, these systems did ones' complement math so numbers would have to be converted to ones' complement values when they were transmitted from a register to the math unit and then converted back to sign-magnitude when the result was transmitted back to the register. The electronics required more gates than the", "-28.395359012647532" ], [ "product is ever negative. The theorem says that if a network of interrelated positive and negative ties is balanced, then it consists of two subnetworks such that each has positive ties among its nodes and negative ties between nodes in distinct subnetworks. In other words, \"my friend's enemy is my enemy\". The imagery here is of a social system that splits into two cliques. There is, however, a special case where one of the two subnetworks may be empty, which might occur in very small networks.\nIn these two developments, we have mathematical models bearing upon the analysis of", "-28.24900944132969" ], [ "let x such that\nfor every positive integer n.\nTherefore,\nThis implies that the difference between 1 and x is less than the inverse of any positive integer. Thus this difference must be zero, and, thus x = 1; that is\nThis proof relies on the fact that zero is the only nonnegative number that is less than all inverses of integers, or equivalently that there is no number that is larger than every integer. This is the Archimedean property, that is verified for rational numbers and real numbers. Real numbers may be enlarged into number systems, such as hyperreal numbers, with infinitely small", "-28.174449037614977" ], [ "AD 220), but may well contain much older material. The mathematician Liu Hui (c. 3rd century) established rules for the addition and subtraction of negative numbers. The historian Jean-Claude Martzloff theorized that the importance of duality in Chinese natural philosophy made it easier for the Chinese to accept the idea of negative numbers. The Chinese were able to solve simultaneous equations involving negative numbers. The Nine Chapters used red counting rods to denote positive coefficients and black rods for negative. This system is the exact opposite of contemporary printing of positive and negative numbers in the fields of banking, accounting,", "-28.14853853837667" ], [ "an increasing function and negative for a decreasing function, is positive before and negative after . doesn't skip values (by Darboux's theorem), so it has to be zero at some point between the positive and negative values. The only point in the neighbourhood where it is possible to have is .\nThe theorem (and its proof below) is more general than the intuition in that it doesn't require the function to be differentiable over a neighbourhood around . It is sufficient for the function to be differentiable only in the extreme point. Cautions A subtle misconception that is", "-27.95417665259447" ], [ " ====\n1 0001 0111 23 —An end-around borrow is produced.\n− 0000 0001 1 —Subtract the end-around borrow from the result.\n=========== ====\n 0001 0110 22 —The correct result (19 − (−3) = 22). Negative zero Negative zero is the condition where all bits in a signed word are 1. This follows the ones' complement rules that a value is negative when the left-most bit is 1, and that a negative number is the bit complement", "-27.903103233635193" ], [ "are positive forms a right triangle. With max r equals 1 unit along the x and max g equals 1 unit along the y axis. Connecting a line from the max r (1,0) to max g (0,1) from a straight line with slope of negative 1. Any sample that falls on this line has no blue. Moving along the line from max r to max g, shows a decrease in red and an increase of green in the sample, without blue changing. The further a sample moves from this line the more blue is present in the sample trying to", "-27.840462440566625" ], [ "where division by zero is performed, where a root is incorrectly extracted or, more generally, where different values of a multiple valued function are equated. Well-known fallacies also exist in elementary Euclidean geometry and calculus. Multivalued functions Many functions do not have a unique inverse. For instance, while squaring a number gives a unique value, there are two possible square roots of a positive number. The square root is multivalued. One value can be chosen by convention as the principal value; in the case of the square root the non-negative value is the principal value, but there is no", "-27.793361437506974" ], [ "inverse operation, so negative numbers are represented by the two's complement of the absolute value. Working from LSB towards MSB A shortcut to manually convert a binary number into its two's complement is to start at the least significant bit (LSB), and copy all the zeros, working from LSB toward the most significant bit (MSB) until the first 1 is reached; then copy that 1, and flip all the remaining bits (Leave the MSB as a 1 if the initial number was in sign-and-magnitude representation). This shortcut allows a person to convert a number to its two's complement without first forming its", "-27.75765409122687" ], [ "below.)\nNegative iterates correspond to function inverses and their compositions. For example, f ⁻¹(x) is the normal inverse of f, while f ⁻²(x) is the inverse composed with itself, i.e. f ⁻²(x) = f ⁻¹(f ⁻¹(x)). Fractional negative iterates are defined analogously to fractional positive ones; for example, f -½(x) is defined such that f - ½(f -½(x)) = f ⁻¹(x), or, equivalently, such that f -½(f ½(x)) = f ⁰(x) = x. Markov chains If the function is linear and can be described by a stochastic matrix, that is, a matrix whose rows or columns sum to one, then", "-27.73523771391774" ], [ "teaching simple addition and subtraction, especially involving negative numbers.\nIn advanced mathematics, the expressions real number line, or real line are typically used to indicate the above-mentioned concept that every point on a straight line corresponds to a single real number, and vice versa. Drawing the number line A number line is usually represented as being horizontal, but in a Cartesian coordinate plane the vertical axis (y-axis) is also a number line. According to one convention, positive numbers always lie on the right side of zero, negative numbers always lie on the left side of zero, and arrowheads on both ends", "-27.69004561728798" ], [ "the theorem's statement. To prove that if a positive integer N is a non-square number, its square root is irrational, we can equivalently prove its contrapositive, that if a positive integer N has a square root that is rational, then N is a square number. This can be shown by setting √N equal to the rational expression a/b with a and b being positive integers with no common prime factor, and squaring to obtain N = a²/b² and noting that since N is a positive integer b=1 so that N = a², a square number. Probability calculus Contraposition represents an", "-27.668485885486007" ], [ "every positive integer is the sum of at most th powers of positive integers. David Hilbert had proved the existence of such a in 1909; Niven's work established the value of for all but finitely many values of .\nNiven numbers, Niven's constant, and Niven's theorem are named for Niven.\nHe has an Erdős number of 1 because he coauthored a paper with Paul Erdős. Recognition Niven received the University of Oregon's Charles E. Johnson Award in 1981. He received the MAA Distinguished Service Award in 1989.\nHe won a Lester R. Ford Award in 1970. In 2000, the asteroid 12513", "-27.628382938477444" ], [ "and commerce, wherein red numbers denote negative values and black numbers signify positive values. Liu Hui writes:\nNow there are two opposite kinds of counting rods for gains and losses, let them be called positive and negative. Red counting rods are positive, black counting rods are negative.\n \nThe ancient Indian Bakhshali Manuscript carried out calculations with negative numbers, using \"+\" as a negative sign. The date of the manuscript is uncertain. LV Gurjar dates it no later than the 4th century, Hoernle dates it between the third and fourth centuries, Ayyangar and Pingree dates it to the 8th or 9th centuries,", "-27.461494202914764" ], [ "of negative infinitesimal,\" 0⁻, which has no decimal expansion. He concludes that 0.999... = 1 + 0⁻, while the equation \"0.999... + x = 1\" has no solution. p-adic numbers When asked about 0.999..., novices often believe there should be a \"final 9\", believing 1 − 0.999... to be a positive number which they write as \"0.000...1\". Whether or not that makes sense, the intuitive goal is clear: adding a 1 to the final 9 in 0.999... would carry all the 9s into 0s and leave a 1 in the ones place. Among other reasons, this idea fails because there is no \"final 9\" in 0.999....", "-27.4610538956058" ], [ "regular numbers. Definition A positive integer is called B-smooth if none of its prime factors is greater than B. For example, 1,620 has prime factorization 2² × 3⁴ × 5; therefore 1,620 is 5-smooth because none of its prime factors are greater than 5. This definition includes numbers that lack some of the smaller prime factors; for example, both 10 and 12 are 5-smooth, even though they miss out the prime factors 3 and 5 respectively. All 5-smooth numbers are of the form 2ᵃ × 3ᵇ × 5ᶜ, where a, b and c are non-negative integers.\n5-smooth numbers are also called", "-27.446004934667144" ], [ "has the sign of the dividend, that is incorrect, because when n (the dividend) is negative and odd, n mod 2 returns −1, and the function returns false.\nOne correct alternative is to test that it is not 0 (because remainder 0 is the same regardless of the signs):\nbool is_odd(int n) {\n return n % 2 != 0;}\nOr, by understanding in the first place that for any odd number, the modulo remainder may be either 1 or −1:\nbool is_odd(int n) {\n return n % 2 == 1 || n % 2 == -1;}", "-27.368969518778613" ], [ "that [zero] as its divisor, or zero divided by a negative or a positive [has that negative or positive as its divisor]. The square of a negative or of a positive is positive; [the square] of zero is zero. That of which [the square] is the square is [its] square-root.\nHere Brahmagupta states that = 0 and as for the question of where a ≠ 0 he did not commit himself. His rules for arithmetic on negative numbers and zero are quite close to the modern understanding, except that in modern mathematics division by zero is left undefined. Pythagorean", "-27.327290829271078" ], [ "x is less than x (that is x² < x) if and only if 0 < x < 1, that is, if x belongs to the open interval (0,1). This implies that the square of an integer is never less than the original number x.\nEvery positive real number is the square of exactly two numbers, one of which is strictly positive and the other of which is strictly negative. Zero is the square of only one number, itself. For this reason, it is possible to define the square root function, which associates with a non-negative real number the non-negative number", "-27.28361879393924" ], [ "integers. For example, in the usual two's complement representation of negative integers, −1 is represented as all 1's. For an 8-bit signed integer this is 1111 1111. An arithmetic right-shift by 1 (or 2, 3, …, 7) yields 1111 1111 again, which is still −1. This corresponds to rounding down (towards negative infinity), but is not the usual convention for division.\nIt is frequently stated that arithmetic right shifts are equivalent to division by a (positive, integral) power of the radix (e.g., a division by a power of 2 for binary numbers), and hence that division by a power of the radix can", "-27.196104447823018" ], [ "real numbers are often noted R⁺ and R⁻, respectively; R₊ and R− are also used. The non-negative real numbers can be noted R≥0 but one often sees this set noted R⁺ ∪ {0}. In French mathematics, the positive real numbers and negative real numbers commonly include zero, and these sets are noted respectively ℝ₊ and ℝ−. In this understanding, the respective sets without zero are called strictly positive real numbers and strictly negative real numbers, and are noted ℝ₊* and ℝ−*.\nThe notation Rⁿ refers to the Cartesian product of n copies of R, which is an n-dimensional vector space over", "-27.18310597303207" ], [ "be the same whether an operand is positive or negative zero. The disadvantage, however, is that the existence of two forms of the same value necessitates two rather than a single comparison when checking for equality with zero. Ones' complement subtraction can also result in an end-around borrow (described below). It can be argued that this makes the addition/subtraction logic more complicated or that it makes it simpler as a subtraction requires simply inverting the bits of the second operand as it is passed to the adder. The PDP-1, CDC 160 series, CDC 3000 series, CDC", "-27.139334704465" ], [ "show that any positive integer may be represented as the sum of other integers raised to a specific exponent, and that there was always a maximum number of integers raised to a certain exponent required to represent all positive integers in this way. The number G(k) From the work of Hardy and Littlewood, the related quantity G(k) was studied with g(k). G(k) is defined to be the least positive integer s such that every sufficiently large integer (i.e. every integer greater than some constant) can be represented as a sum of at most s positive integers to the power", "-27.094365567347268" ], [ "is preferably called bijection réciproque). Examples and counterexamples In the real numbers, zero does not have a reciprocal because no real number multiplied by 0 produces 1 (the product of any number with zero is zero). With the exception of zero, reciprocals of every real number are real, reciprocals of every rational number are rational, and reciprocals of every complex number are complex. The property that every element other than zero has a multiplicative inverse is part of the definition of a field, of which these are all examples. On the other hand, no integer other than 1 and −1", "-27.063480361714028" ], [ "for the units, hundreds, ten thousands, etc., while horizontal rod numbers are used for the tens, thousands, hundred thousands etc. It is written in Sunzi Suanjing that \"one is vertical, ten is horizontal\".\nRed rods represent positive numbers and black rods represent negative numbers. Ancient Chinese clearly understood negative numbers and zero (leaving a blank space for it), though they had no symbol for the latter. The Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art, which was mainly composed in the first century CE, stated \"(when using subtraction) subtract same signed numbers, add different signed numbers, subtract a positive number from", "-27.002275856488268" ], [ "developers do not take into account that while the two zero representations behave as equal under numeric comparisons, they yield different results in some operations. Representations The widely used two's complement encoding does not allow a negative zero. In a 1+7-bit sign-and-magnitude representation for integers, negative zero is represented by the bit string 10000000. In an 8-bit one's complement representation, negative zero is represented by the bit string 11111111. In all three encodings, positive zero is represented by 00000000.\nIn IEEE 754 binary floating point numbers, zero values are represented by the biased exponent and significand both being zero. Negative", "-26.9942439176084" ], [ "Call the function positive if the leading coefficient of the numerator is positive. (One must check that this ordering is well defined and compatible with addition and multiplication.) By this definition, the rational function 1/x is positive but less than the rational function 1. In fact, if n is any natural number, then n(1/x) = n/x is positive but still less than 1, no matter how big n is. Therefore, 1/x is an infinitesimal in this field.\nThis example generalizes to other coefficients. Taking rational functions with rational instead of real coefficients produces a countable non-Archimedean ordered field. Taking", "-26.93380319667631" ], [ "but may well contain much older material. Liu Hui (c. 3rd century) established rules for adding and subtracting negative numbers. By the 7th century, Indian mathematicians such as Brahmagupta were describing the use of negative numbers. Islamic mathematicians further developed the rules of subtracting and multiplying negative numbers and solved problems with negative coefficients. Western mathematicians accepted the idea of negative numbers around the middle of the 19th century. Prior to the concept of negative numbers, mathematicians such as Diophantus considered negative solutions to problems \"false\" and equations requiring negative solutions were described as absurd. Some mathematicians like Leibniz", "-26.90569060400594" ], [ "the zero as denominator. Zero divided by a negative or positive number is either zero or is expressed as a fraction with zero as numerator and the finite quantity as denominator. Zero divided by zero is zero.\nIn 830, Mahāvīra unsuccessfully tried to correct Brahmagupta's mistake in his book in Ganita Sara Samgraha: \"A number remains unchanged when divided by zero.\" Algebra The four basic operations – addition, subtraction, multiplication and division – as applied to whole numbers (positive integers), with some restrictions, in elementary arithmetic are used as a framework to support the extension of the realm of numbers to", "-26.898648582515307" ], [ "contrast,\nFor all natural numbers n, 2·n > 2 + n\nis false, because if n is substituted with, for instance, 1, the statement \"2·1 > 2 + 1\" is false. It is immaterial that \"2·n > 2 + n\" is true for most natural numbers n: even the existence of a single counterexample is enough to prove the universal quantification false.\nOn the other hand,\nfor all composite numbers n, 2·n > 2 + n\nis true, because none of the counterexamples are composite numbers. This indicates the importance of the domain of discourse, which specifies which values n can take. In particular, note", "-26.866089571300108" ], [ "Confusion of the inverse Confusion of the inverse, also called the conditional probability fallacy or the inverse fallacy, is a logical fallacy whereupon a conditional probability is equivocated with its inverse: That is, given two events A and B, the probability of A happening given that B has happened is assumed to be about the same as the probability of B given A. More formally, P(A|B) is assumed to be approximately equal to P(B|A). Conclusion In this example, it should be easy to relate to the difference between the conditional probabilities P(positive | ill) which with the assumed probabilities is 99%, and", "-26.862004287846503" ], [ "0 placed on top of the other number.\nTwo numbers can be multiplied as in this example: To multiply 5 × 3, note that this is the same as 5 + 5 + 5, so pick up the length from 0 to 5 and place it to the right of 5, and then pick up that length again and place it to the right of the previous result. This gives a result that is 3 combined lengths of 5 each; since the process ends at 15, we find that 5 × 3 = 15.\nDivision can be performed as in the following", "-26.83704058508738" ], [ "−0 Negative zero.\nAlthough the math always produces the correct results, a side effect of negative zero is that software must test for negative zero. Avoiding negative zero The generation of negative zero becomes a non-issue if addition is achieved with a complementing subtractor. The first operand is passed to the subtract unmodified, the second operand is complemented, and the subtraction generates the correct result, avoiding negative zero. The previous example added 22 and −22 and produced −0.\n 0001 0110 22 0001 0110 ", "-26.80599813878507" ], [ "of zero. He gave rules of using zero with negative and positive numbers, such as 'Zero plus a positive number is a positive number, and a negative number plus zero is the negative number'. The Brahmasphutasiddhanta is the earliest known text to treat zero as a number in its own right, rather than as simply a placeholder digit in representing another number as was done by the Babylonians or as a symbol for a lack of quantity as was done by Ptolemy and the Romans.\nThe use of 0 as a number should be distinguished from its use as a placeholder", "-26.721032595611177" ], [ "negative satisfaction separately is a consequence of the fact that in dependence logic, as in the logic of branching quantifiers or in IF logic, the law of the excluded middle does not hold; alternatively, one may assume that all formulas are in negation normal form, using De Morgan's relations in order to define universal quantification and conjunction from existential quantification and disjunction respectively, and consider positive satisfaction alone. \nGiven a sentence , we say that is true in if and only if , and we say that is false in if and only if . Semantic", "-26.668831867398694" ], [ "the natural numbers with 0, corresponding to the non-negative integers 0, 1, 2, 3, …, whereas others start with 1, corresponding to the positive integers 1, 2, 3, …. Texts that exclude zero from the natural numbers sometimes refer to the natural numbers together with zero as the whole numbers, but in other writings, that term is used instead for the integers (including negative integers).\nThe natural numbers are a basis from which many other number sets may be built by extension: the integers (Grothendieck group), by including (if not yet in) the neutral element 0 and an additive inverse (−n)", "-26.625716352718882" ], [ "some values. History of terms used for this bid The term negative double was initially employed to distinguish it from the penalty, or business, or positive double, and signified a double over an opponent's opening bid whose meaning was a request for partner to bid his best suit. Around 1930, the term informatory double replaced negative double, and that term later gave way to takeout double as it is used at present; the original term negative double fell into disuse.\nIn 1957, Alvin Roth in his partnership with Tobias Stone appropriated the abandoned term negative double to denote a conventional double", "-26.61742157867411" ], [ "non-negative) integers form a cancellative semigroup under addition. The non-negative integers form a cancellative monoid under addition.\nIn fact, any free semigroup or monoid obeys the cancellative law, and in general, any semigroup or monoid embedding into a group (as the above examples clearly do) will obey the cancellative law.\nIn a different vein, (a subsemigroup of) the multiplicative semigroup of elements of a ring that are not zero divisors (which is just the set of all nonzero elements if the ring in question is a domain, like the integers) has the cancellation property. Note that this remains valid even if the", "-26.599899100372568" ], [ "not equal to 1 (that is, numerator and denominator are not equal) is a proper fraction.\nWhen the numerator and denominator of a fraction are equal (, for example), its value is 1, and the fraction therefore is improper. Its reciprocal also has the value 1, and is improper, too.\nAny integer can be written as a fraction with the number one as denominator. For example, 17 can be written as , where 1 is sometimes referred to as the invisible denominator. Therefore, every fraction or integer, except for zero, has a reciprocal. The reciprocal of 17 is . Decimal fractions and", "-26.574712321712468" ], [ "positive numbers \"fortunes,\" zero \"a cipher,\" and negative numbers \"debts.\"\nIn the 9th century, Islamic mathematicians were familiar with negative numbers from the works of Indian mathematicians, but the recognition and use of negative numbers during this period remained timid. Al-Khwarizmi in his Al-jabr wa'l-muqabala (from which we get the word \"algebra\") did not use negative numbers or negative coefficients. But within fifty years, Abu Kamil illustrated the rules of signs for expanding the multiplication , and al-Karaji wrote in his al-Fakhrī that \"negative quantities must be counted as terms\". In the 10th century, Abū al-Wafā' al-Būzjānī considered debts as negative", "-26.56267369662237" ], [ "is given by Skupień in this proposition: If and then, for each , there is exactly one pair of nonnegative integers and such that and .\nThe formula is proved as follows. Suppose we wish to construct the number . Note that, since , all of the integers for are mutually distinct modulo . Hence there is a unique value of , say , and a nonnegative integer , such that : Indeed, because . Other examples In rugby union, there are four types of scores: penalty goal (3 points), drop goal (3", "-26.561159479257185" ], [ "1 } (or vice versa) \"Why do that? Precisely to rule out the existence of distinct numbers 0.9* and 1. [...] So we see that in the traditional definition of the real numbers, the equation 0.9* = 1 is built in at the beginning.\" A further modification of the procedure leads to a different structure where the two are not equal. Although it is consistent, many of the common rules of decimal arithmetic no longer hold, for example the fraction ​¹⁄₃ has no representation; see \"Alternative number systems\" below. Cauchy sequences Another approach is to define a real number as", "-26.558758920837136" ], [ " ====\n 1111 0010 −13 —The correct result (6 − 19 = -13)\nIt is easy to demonstrate that the bit complement of a positive value is the negative magnitude of the positive value. The computation of 19 + 3 produces the same result as 19 − (−3).\nAdd 3 to 19.\n 0001 0011 19\n+ 0000 0011 3\n=========== ====\n 0001 0110 22\nSubtract −3 from 19.\n 0001 0011 19\n− 1111 1100 −3\n=========== ", "-26.554955822299235" ], [ "FC = n − (m − n) = 2n − m.\nHence we have an even smaller right isosceles triangle, with hypotenuse length 2n − m and legs m − n. These values are integers even smaller than m and n and in the same ratio, contradicting the hypothesis that m:n is in lowest terms. Therefore, m and n cannot be both integers, hence √2 is irrational.", "-26.532950922177406" ], [ "Positive form In complex geometry, the term positive form refers to several classes of real differential forms of Hodge type (p, p). Positivity for (p, p)-forms Positive (1,1)-forms on M form a convex cone. When M is a compact complex surface, , this cone is self-dual, with respect to the Poincaré pairing :\nFor (p, p)-forms, where , there are two different notions of positivity. A form is called\nstrongly positive if it is a linear combination of products of positive forms, with positive real coefficients. A real (p, p)-form on an n-dimensional complex manifold M is called weakly positive if for", "-26.526182753092144" ], [ "0, 1, 2, 3, and so on – begin with 0 and continue upwards, so that every number has a successor. One can extend the natural numbers with their negatives to give all the integers, and to further extend to ratios, giving the rational numbers. These number systems are accompanied by the arithmetic of addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division. More subtly, they include ordering, so that one number can be compared to another and found to be less than, greater than, or equal to another number.\nThe step from rationals to reals is a major extension. There are at least two popular", "-26.495060698776797" ], [ "meaning negative.\nThe symbol connected to the dot (usually the symbol found to the right) denotes the polarity of the center/tip, whereas the symbol connected to the broken circle denotes the polarity of the barrel/ring. When a device or adapter is described simply as having \"positive polarity\" or \"negative polarity\", this denotes the polarity of the center/tip.", "-26.48541651920823" ], [ "Sign If the base and all the digits in the set of digits are non-negative, negative numbers cannot be expressed. To overcome this, a minus sign, here »-«, is added to the numeral system. In the usual notation it is prepended to the string of digits representing the otherwise non-negative number. Sexagesimal system The sexagesimal or base-60 system was used for the integral and fractional portions of Babylonian numerals and other mesopotamian systems, by Hellenistic astronomers using Greek numerals for the fractional portion only, and is still used for modern time and angles, but only for minutes and seconds. However, not", "-26.47731240899884" ], [ "1 and false with 0 and our conjunction behaves as ordinary multiplier. Multipliers can have arbitrary number of inputs. In case of 0 inputs, we have empty conjunction, which is identically equal to true.\nThis is related to another concept in logic, vacuous truth, which tells us that empty set of objects can have any property. It can be explained the way that the conjunction (as part of logic in general) deals with values less or equal 1. This means that the longer the conjunction, the higher the probability of ending up with 0. Conjunction merely checks the propositions and returns", "-26.472024294122093" ], [ " \nThus -------------------------> account decreases its absolute value (balance)\n Crediting a debit\nWhen the same thing is done to an account as its normal balance it increases; when the opposite is done, it will decrease. Much like signs in math: two positive numbers are added and two negative numbers are also added. It is only when there is one positive and one negative (opposites) that you will", "-26.463471269991715" ], [ "That same number can also be represented as a decimal, a percent, or with a negative exponent. For example, 0.01, 1%, and 10⁻² all equal the fraction 1/100. An integer such as the number 7 can be thought of as having an implicit denominator of one: 7 equals 7/1.\nOther uses for fractions are to represent ratios and division. Thus the fraction is also used to represent the ratio 3:4 (the ratio of the part to the whole) and the division 3 ÷ 4 (three divided by four). The non-zero denominator in the case using a fraction to represent division", "-26.457422623061575" ], [ "notes that if the square root of 2 could be represented as a ratio of integers, then it would have in particular the fully reduced representation where a and b are the smallest possible; but given that equals the square root of 2, so does (since cross-multiplying this with shows that they are equal). Since the latter is a ratio of smaller integers, this is a contradiction, so the premise that the square root of two has a representation as the ratio of two integers is false. Generalization The notion of irreducible fraction generalizes to the", "-26.452451357668906" ], [ "with non turns the meaning into a positive one: ullus means \"any\", nullus means \"no\", non...nullus (nonnullus) means \"some\". In the same way, umquam means \"ever\", numquam means \"never\", non...numquam (nonnumquam) means \"sometimes\". In many Romance languages a second term indicating a negative is required.\nIn French, the usual way to express negation is to employ two words, e.g. ne [verb] pas, ne [verb] plus, or ne [verb] jamais, as in the sentences \"Je ne sais pas\" (\"I do not know\"), \"Il n'y a plus de baguettes\" (\"There aren't any more baguettes\"), and \"On ne sait jamais\" (\"one never knows\"). The", "-26.432914536213502" ], [ "numbers in his consideration of cubic equations, so he had to treat, for example, x³ + ax = b separately from x³ = ax + b (with a,b > 0 in both cases). In all, Cardano was driven to the study of thirteen different types of cubic equations, each expressed purely in terms of positive numbers.\nIn A.D. 1759, Francis Maseres, an English mathematician, wrote that negative numbers \"darken the very whole doctrines of the equations and make dark of the things which are in their nature excessively obvious and simple\". He came to the conclusion that negative numbers were nonsensical.\nIn the 18th century it was common practice to ignore any", "-26.40975042230275" ], [ "and no value for negative x.\nIn the preceding example, one choice, the positive square root, is more natural than the other. This is not the case in general. For example, let consider the implicit function that maps y to a root x of (see the figure on the right). For y = 0 one may choose either for x. By the implicit function theorem, each choice defines a function; for the first one, the (maximal) domain is the interval [–2, 2] and the image is [–1, 1]; for the second one, the domain is [–2, ∞) and the", "-26.404838900045434" ], [ "as measurements of lengths, weights, time, etc. In most contexts, both numbers are restricted to be positive.\nA ratio may be specified either by giving both constituting numbers, written as \"a to b\" or \"a∶b\", or by giving just the value of their quotient , since the product of the quotient and the second number yields the first, as required by the above definition.\nConsequently, a ratio may be considered as an ordered pair of numbers, as a fraction with the first number in the numerator and the second as denominator, or as the value denoted by this fraction. Ratios of counts,", "-26.345161769917468" ], [ "decrease the mutual information: that is, the difference , called the interaction information, may be positive, negative, or zero. This is the case even when random variables are pairwise independent. Such is the case when: \nin which case , and are pairwise independent and in particular , but", "-26.3341257260181" ], [ "be positive or negative (±nnnnn.nnn). For example, SIMPLE.F(-35,197.5) would open the file SIMPLE.F, starting at the first line number greater or equal to -35 and return an 'end of file' instead of the first line number greater than 197.5. One can also include line number increments—as an example: SIMPLE.F(2,200,2) would return all (and only) even line numbers between 2 and 200 (inclusive).\nThe symbolic line numbers FIRST or *F, LAST or *L, MIN, and MAX may be used to refer to the first, last, minimum possible, and maximum possible lines, respectively. For example, SIMPLE.F(*F,0) would refer to the", "-26.312671364277776" ], [ "opposite of the 2's complement ordering.\nRounding errors inherent to floating point calculations may limit the use of comparisons for checking the exact equality of results. Choosing an acceptable range is a complex topic.\nAlthough negative zero and positive zero are generally considered equal for comparison purposes, some programming language relational operators and similar constructs treat them as distinct. According to the Java Language Specification, comparison and equality operators treat them as equal, but Math.min() and Math.max() distinguish them (officially starting with Java version 1.1 but actually with 1.1.1), as do the comparison methods equals(), compareTo() and even compare() of classes", "-26.257954229193274" ], [ "positive and -1 if the sum is negative. Just as for Toom's rule we can construct a probabilistic version of the majority vote CA where the output can be changed with probability q from spin +1 to spin -1 and with probability p from spin -1 to a spin +1. \nInstead of ground states information is stored in stable states of the CA. These are states such that the spins on the lattice do not change when acted upon by the CA. It is easy to show that the all +1 and the all -1 states are stable states when", "-26.25759229205869" ] ]

[ "the non-active proteins trigger an immune system response which can involve some inflammatory system responses. once the immune system is activated for that infection your body will react more readily if the actual infection gets into you.", "A lot of what makes you feel sick when you have an infection isn’t the virus/bacteria itself but your body’s response to the infection. Fevers, runny noses, inflammation etc are all mechanisms that your body uses to try and kill bacteria and viruses that get into it. This is called the innate immune response. When you get a vaccine you’re essentially tricking your body into thinking that it’s been infected with something so that it makes antibodies (adaptive immunity) and this process sometimes triggers the innate system as well, hence why you get symptoms of being sick.", "Your immune system doesn't have eyes, and \"detects\" bacteria and viruses sort of by chemical touch (the immune system cells bump into the outer wall of the bacteria or viruses and recognize them as \"not belonging here\" chemically). Whether the virus or bacterium is alive doesn't matter for this detection, the immune system detects the biological and chemical \"features\" of the foreigner wall and reacts to it. That's the point of a vaccine: to activate the immune system cells to \"recognize\" this particular strain of bacteria or viruses in the future, without actually letting live bacteria or viruses into your body to do damage. So you get the \"flu-like symptoms\" because your immune system reacts, and has a little practice-fight against the intruders that are injected. It's an easy fight because the intruders are dead, which is why you get very light symptoms and not the full-blown flu reaction (fever, runny nose, etc.).", "A lot of the things that you experience when sick are just a result of your body defending itself. A fever occurs because your body is raising its temperature to increase white blood cell production. Inflammation (swelling) opens up your blood vessels to allow your immune cells to go out and fight infection in the inflamed area or to provide cells with the necessary components from your blood to repair themselves. With the flu shot, you won't experience any effects of a flu infection, but your body thinks you have the flu, because the vaccine contains all the markers your body uses to know when it's infected. So you may experience the effects of your body \"fighting\" the flu because it thinks it's sick, even though there's nothing to fight and you're not actually sick. I should add that there are some vaccines that actually make you sick, known as attenuated vaccines. They contain a live, weakened version of the virus that's bad at reproducing, so your body can easily fight it off and be ready for the real thing, should you ever be exposed to the non-attenuated version of the virus. With this type of vaccine, you actually are infected, but only for a short time.", "Your body reacts to the flu by making these things to fight it - it’s how it works in the first place. These things can cause some of the symptoms of the virus." ]

[ [ "agents also commonly cause flu-like symptoms. Other drugs associated with a flu-like syndrome include bisphosphonates, caspofungin, and levamisole. A flu-like syndrome can also be caused by an influenza vaccine or other vaccines, and by opioid withdrawal in physically dependent individuals. Diagnosis Influenza-like illness is a nonspecific respiratory illness characterized by fever, fatigue, cough, and other symptoms that stop within a few days. Most cases of ILI are caused not by influenza but by other viruses (e.g., rhinoviruses, coronaviruses, human respiratory syncytial virus, adenoviruses, and human parainfluenza viruses). Less common causes of ILI include bacteria such as Legionella, Chlamydia pneumoniae, Mycoplasma", "-31.58426743655582" ], [ "high risk of death. Vaccination with the flu shot has been shown to boost the immune system and protect against the seasonal flu in some patients with HIV; individuals who have HIV should only get vaccinated with the inactivated influenza vaccine. Any HIV patient who has been exposed to other people with influenza should see a physician to determine if there is a need for anti viral medications. Notable occurrences The 2012–13 flu season was particularly harsh in the United States, where the majority of states were reporting high rates of influenza-like illness. The Centers for Disease Control reported that", "-30.688969929841733" ], [ "Treatment People with the flu are advised to get plenty of rest, drink plenty of liquids, avoid using alcohol and tobacco and, if necessary, take medications such as acetaminophen (paracetamol) to relieve the fever and muscle aches associated with the flu. In contrast, there is not enough evidence to support corticosteroids as add on therapy for influenza. It is advised to avoid close contact with others to prevent spread of infection. Children and teenagers with flu symptoms (particularly fever) should avoid taking aspirin during an influenza infection (especially influenza type B), because doing so can lead to Reye's syndrome, a", "-30.585230803626473" ], [ "cancer or a history of cancer should receive the seasonal flu shot. Flu vaccination is also strict for lung cancer patients, as cancer leads to complications of pneumonia and bronchitis. People with cancer should not receive the nasal spray vaccine. The flu shot is made up of inactivated (killed) viruses, and the nasal spray vaccines are made up of live viruses. The flu shot is safer for those with a weakened immune system. Those who have received cancer treatment such as chemotherapy and/or radiation therapy within the last month, or have a blood or lymphatic form of cancer should call", "-29.325808648165548" ], [ "way that seasonal flu spreads. Flu viruses are spread mainly from person to person through coughing or sneezing by people with influenza.\" The CDC also says that a person may become infected if he or she touches something with flu viruses on it \"and then touches his or her eyes, nose, or mouth.\" Preventive Measures of Influenza Reasonably effective ways to reduce the transmission of influenza include good personal health and hygiene habits such as: not touching your eyes, nose or mouth; frequent hand washing (with soap and water, or with alcohol-based hand rubs); ", "-29.03651750071731" ], [ "Freshers' Flu Freshers' Flu (or uncapitalised as freshers' flu) is a British English name commonly given to a battery of illnesses contracted by new students during the first few weeks at a university and colleges of further education in some form; common symptoms include fever, sore throat, severe headache, coughing and general discomfort. The illnesses may or may not include actual flu and is often simply a bad cold, but is so named simply due to alliteration. The term is British and is rarely heard outside the UK and Ireland. Causes The most likely cause is the convergence of large", "-28.959145541943144" ], [ "Influenza prevention Novel H1N1 According to the World Health Organization (WHO), the \"main route of transmission of the pandemic influenza virus seems to be similar to seasonal influenza, via droplets that are expelled by speaking, sneezing or coughing.\" One of WHO's recommendations is to \"keep your distance from people who show symptoms of influenza-like illness, such as coughing and sneezing (trying to maintain a distance of about 1 metre if possible).\" Other WHO recommendations are listed below.\nThe American Center for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) agrees that the \"spread of novel H1N1 virus is thought to occur in the same", "-28.695913517673034" ], [ "mimic hypocretin, serving as a trigger.\nSome injection-based flu vaccines intended for adults in the United States contain thiomersal (also known as thimerosal), a mercury-based preservative. Despite some controversy in the media, the World Health Organization's Global Advisory Committee on Vaccine Safety has concluded that there is no evidence of toxicity from thiomersal in vaccines and no reason on grounds of safety to change to more-expensive single-dose administration. Europe The European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control (ECDC) recommends vaccinating the elderly as a priority, with a secondary priority people with chronic medical conditions and healthcare workers.\nThe influenza vaccination strategy is", "-28.631881061868626" ], [ "Live attenuated influenza vaccine Medication uses In 2016 the CDC recommended that LAIV not be used for the 2016-2017 flu season and instead another type of influenza vaccine be used. This is due to the poor effectiveness of this type of vaccine between 2013 and 2016 with it being non effective during the 2015-2016 season. A 2012 review found that LAIV prevents influenza in about one out of six children under six it is given to. It was believed to prevent about 50% more cases of flu than the flu shot in younger children. In those less than 2 years", "-28.604082873061998" ], [ "influenza-associated death than the 50–64 age group.\nThere is a high-dose flu vaccine specifically formulated to provide a stronger immune response. Available evidence indicates that vaccinating the elderly with the high-dose vaccine leads to a stronger immune response against influenza than the regular-dose vaccine.\nA flu vaccine containing an adjuvant was approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in November 2015, for use by adults aged 65 years of age and older. The vaccine is marketed as Fluad in the U.S. and was first available in the 2016–2017 flu season. The vaccine contains the MF59C.1 adjuvant which is an oil-in-water", "-28.528285843523918" ], [ "reduction of risk of approximately 60%. However, for influenza-like illness which is defined as the same symptoms of cough, fever, headache, runny nose, and bodily aches and pains, vaccine reduced the risk from 21.5% to 18.1%. This constitutes a much more modest reduction of risk of approximately 16%. The difference is most probably explained by the fact that over 200 viruses cause the same or similar symptoms as the flu virus. Another review looked at the effect of short and long term exercise before the vaccine, however, no benefits or harms were recorded.\nThe cost-effectiveness of seasonal influenza vaccination has been", "-28.38844303881342" ], [ "is a contagious disease that spreads around the United States every winter, usually between October and May. Anyone can get the flu, but the risk is highest among children and each year thousands of people die from the flu and many more are hospitalized. Transmission Influenza is spread through coughing, sneezing and close contact with infected persons. Varicella (Chickenpox) Varicella, commonly known as chickenpox, is a highly contagious disease that is very uncomfortable and sometimes serious. It is caused by the Varicella-zoster virus (VZV). Before the vaccine, about 4 million people each year in the United States would get chicken", "-28.350854358286597" ], [ "organization's leader, Number Two, that a story he wrote about flu vaccinations containing a mind-control serum is true; the mind control drug is calibrated to drive people into a frenzy of shopping, which is why flu shots are administered shortly before Christmas. While Homer is trapped on the Island, he is replaced by a doppelgänger who looks identical to him but speaks with a thick German accent.\nNumber Six, who is trapped on the Island for inventing the bottomless peanut bag, tells Homer about a makeshift boat he spent thirty-three years making, which Homer steals and escapes the Island with, popping", "-28.283737018806278" ], [ "really sickened by this virus. [...] I'm really eager to know how much worse this is than seasonal flu. So far it's looking like it's not that serious.\nCNN stated on April 28, 2009 that there were at least 800 deaths in the U.S. due to normal influenza in each individual week between January 1 and April 18, which is higher than the combined worldwide death toll for the swine flu.\nAs of November 19, 2009, the official death toll attributed directly to the novel H1N1 and seasonal influenza was 877. This total exceeds the 849 deaths directly attributed to seasonal", "-27.97325233274023" ], [ "flu' in 1918 appears to be entirely derived from an avian source\". Vaccine There are several H5N1 vaccines for several of the avian H5N1 varieties, but the continual mutation of H5N1 renders them of limited use to date: while vaccines can sometimes provide cross-protection against related flu strains, the best protection would be from a vaccine specifically produced for any future pandemic flu virus strain. Dr. Daniel Lucey, co-director of the Biohazardous Threats and Emerging Diseases graduate program at Georgetown University has made this point, \"There is no H5N1 pandemic so there can be no pandemic vaccine\". However, \"pre-pandemic vaccines\"", "-27.71136293420568" ], [ "and the U.S. CDC stopped counting cases and declared the outbreak a pandemic.\nDespite being informally called \"swine flu\", the H1N1 flu virus cannot be spread by eating pork or pork products; similar to other influenza viruses, it is typically contracted by person to person transmission through respiratory droplets. Symptoms usually last 4–6 days. Antivirals (oseltamivir or zanamivir) were recommended for those with more severe symptoms or those in an at-risk group.\nThe pandemic began to taper off in November 2009, and by May 2010, the number of cases was in steep decline. On 10 August 2010, the Director-General of the WHO,", "-27.580642846052797" ], [ "to the possibility that the annual flu shot or Flumist inoculation might confer some immunity against H5N1 bird flu infection, and indeed testing the blood of volunteers to look for immune response to H5N1 found that some blood samples showed immunity, but more of the blood samples of persons who had received the flu shot showed an immune response.\nAnother factor complicating any attempt to predict lethality of an eventual pandemic strain is the variability of the resistance of human victims to the pathogen. Many human victims of the current H5N1 influenza have been blood relatives (but rarely spouses) of", "-27.542968034358637" ], [ "classified by the CDC as having \"high\" activity in January 2018.\nIn January 2018, analyzing the reason for the spike, The Atlantic noted that the flu season was possibly worse because the dominant circulating strain was the H3N2 strain, which for unknown reasons tends to hit humans harder than other strains and result in worse flu seasons when dominant. Also, the H3N2 strain, according to the CDC, affects elderly and young children more than other strains, resulting in more severe hospitalizations and deaths. \nThe Atlantic also noted that the 2017 vaccine for the flu was only ten percent effective against H3N2", "-27.370070756878704" ], [ "of the H5N1 virus shows that influenza pandemics from its genetic offspring can easily be far more lethal than the Spanish flu pandemic, planning for a future influenza pandemic is based on what can be done and there is no higher Pandemic Severity Index level than a Category 5 pandemic which, roughly speaking, is any pandemic as bad as the Spanish flu or worse; and for which all intervention measures are to be used. Signs and symptoms In general, humans who catch a humanized influenza A virus (a human flu virus of type A) usually have symptoms that include fever,", "-27.217647843121085" ], [ "collective intelligence.” Accuracy The initial Google paper stated that the Google Flu Trends predictions were 97% accurate comparing with CDC data. However subsequent reports asserted that Google Flu Trends' predictions have sometimes been very inaccurate—especially over the interval 2011-2013, when it consistently overestimated flu prevalence, and over one interval in the 2012-2013 flu season predicted twice as many doctors' visits as the CDC recorded.\nOne source of problems is that people making flu-related Google searches may know very little about how to diagnose flu; searches for flu or flu symptoms may well be researching disease symptoms that are similar to flu,", "-27.195435564150102" ], [ "Man flu Man flu is a phrase that refers to the idea that men, when they have a common cold, experience and self-report symptoms of greater severity, akin to those experienced during the flu. While it is a commonly-used phrase in much of the English-speaking world, there is a continuing discussion over the scientific basis. Popular culture A web-based survey of readers of Nuts magazine in late 2006 stirred interest in this notion, which was criticized as unscientific and unreliable. A poll conducted for a painkiller manufacturer in 2008 suggested that such exaggeration is possibly just as prevalent in women.\nThe", "-27.163319192128256" ], [ "to poultry flu vaccination etc. The information being gathered is increasing the world's ability to keep H5N1 contained, limiting its speed and extent of mutation, and buying time for new flu vaccine manufacturing methods and factories to come on line so that when the next flu pandemic happens the death toll can be minimized. Universal flu vaccines See Prospects for universal flu vaccines Vaccines A vaccine probably would not be available in the initial stages of population infection. Once a potential virus is identified, it normally takes at least several months before a vaccine becomes widely available, as it must", "-27.158323936571833" ], [ "Rabeni developed flu symptoms and shortness of breath from December 2015, but brushed off his symptoms as just flu.", "-27.150050025782548" ], [ "but are not actually flu. Furthermore, analysis of search terms reportedly tracked by Google, such as \"fever\" and \"cough\", as well as effects of changes in their search algorithm over time, have raised concerns about the meaning of its predictions. In fall 2013, Google began attempting to compensate for increases in searches due to prominence of flu in the news, which was found to have previously skewed results. However, one analysis concluded that \"by combining GFT and lagged CDC data, as well as dynamically recalibrating GFT, we can substantially improve on the performance of GFT or the CDC", "-27.099363666784484" ], [ "Flutrack Feasibility of monitoring influenza Influenza, or flu, is a viral infection that affects mainly the throat, nose, bronchi and occasionally lungs. It is considered one of the most common human infectious diseases. Seasonal influenza epidemics are a major public health concern, causing tens of millions of respiratory illnesses and 250,000 to 500,000 deaths worldwide each year. Early detection of disease activity, when followed by a rapid response, can reduce the impact of both seasonal and pandemic influenza.\nInfluenza differs from the common cold as it is caused by a different group of viruses, and its symptoms tend to be more", "-27.060021785640856" ], [ "with an H3N2 virus. Diagnosis Confirmed diagnosis of pandemic H1N1 flu requires testing of a nasopharyngeal, nasal or oropharyngeal tissue swab from the patient. Real-time RT-PCR is the recommended test as others are unable to differentiate between pandemic H1N1 and regular seasonal flu. However, most people with flu symptoms do not need a test for pandemic H1N1 flu specifically, because the test results usually do not affect the recommended course of treatment. The U.S. CDC recommend testing only for people who are hospitalized with suspected flu, pregnant women and people with weakened immune systems. For the mere diagnosis of influenza", "-27.057091755908914" ], [ "Flupirtine Uses Flupirtine is used as an analgesic for acute pain, in moderate-to-severe cases. Its muscle relaxant properties make it popular for back pain and other orthopedic uses, but it is also used for migraines, in oncology, postoperative care, and gynecology.\nIn 2013 due to issues with liver toxicity, the European Medicines Agency restricted its use to acute pain, for no more than two weeks, and only for people who cannot use other painkillers. Side Effects The most serious side effect is frequent hepatotoxicity which prompted regulatory agencies to issue several warnings and restrictions.\nFlupirtine is devoid of negative psychological or motor", "-27.056313126173336" ], [ "experimental and therefore could be dispensed during a pandemic without requiring each recipient to sign a form giving informed consent. [...] The two injections combined contain 180 micrograms of antigen, the piece of the H5N1 virus designed to spur immunity. By contrast, a conventional flu shot contains 45 micrograms of antigen: 15 micrograms for each of the three strains it protects against.\"\nThe vaccine approved on April 17, 2007 \"is based on an H5N1 virus isolated from a Vietnamese patient in 2004. Today's approval by the FDA follows a February 27 recommendation by an FDA advisory panel, which found that the", "-26.96216756335707" ], [ "Influenza A virus Annual flu The annual flu (also called \"seasonal flu\" or \"human flu\") in the US. \"results in approximately 36,000 deaths and more than 200,000 hospitalizations each year. In addition to this human toll, influenza is annually responsible for a total cost of over $10 billion in the U.S.\" Globally the toll of influenza virus is estimated at 291,000-645,000 deaths annually, exceeding previous estimates.\nThe annually updated, trivalent influenza vaccine consists of hemagglutinin (HA) surface glycoprotein components from influenza H3N2, H1N1, and B influenza viruses.\nMeasured resistance to the standard antiviral drugs amantadine and rimantadine in H3N2 has increased from", "-26.926080240533338" ], [ "other (wild or live vaccine) flu strains. History FluMist was originally developed by Hunein \"John\" Maassab, Professor of Epidemiology at the University of Michigan School of Public Health in Ann Arbor, Michigan and later by Aviron, in Mountain View, California, under the sponsorship of NIH in the mid-1990s. MedImmune, Inc. purchased Aviron in 2002, and the FDA approved FluMist in June 2003. FluMist was first made available in September 2003.\nThe U.S. FDA initially approved FluMist only for healthy people ages 5 to 49 because of concerns over possible side effects. Now FluMist is approved and recommended for healthy children 24", "-26.889525578648318" ], [ "Each year, the World Health Organization predicts which strains of the virus are most likely to be circulating in the next year (see Historical annual reformulations of the influenza vaccine), allowing pharmaceutical companies to develop vaccines that will provide the best immunity against these strains. The vaccine is reformulated each season for a few specific flu strains but does not include all the strains active in the world during that season. It takes about six months for the manufacturers to formulate and produce the millions of doses required to deal with the seasonal epidemics; occasionally, a new or overlooked strain", "-26.750943348306464" ], [ "flu vaccine, or a vaccine against the specific flu virus tested in the study (PR8). The mice were then infected with the PR8 flu strain. Those groups of mice which were given the PR8-specific vaccine not only survived, but did not display any symptoms of the flu. The mice which received either of the two seasonal flu vaccines all developed flu symptoms, and some (20-40%, depending on which seasonal vaccine received) were killed by the PR8 infection.\nThe group of mice which received sub-lethal infection doses of PR8, and the group of mice which received vaccines of killed PR8, had different", "-26.736408983473666" ], [ "becomes prominent during that time. It is also possible to get infected just before vaccination and get sick with the strain that the vaccine is supposed to prevent, as the vaccine takes about two weeks to become effective.\nVaccines can cause the immune system to react as if the body were actually being infected, and general infection symptoms (many cold and flu symptoms are just general infection symptoms) can appear, though these symptoms are usually not as severe or long-lasting as influenza. The most dangerous adverse effect is a severe allergic reaction to either the virus material itself or residues from", "-26.725516179343686" ], [ "influenza in 2006. Many of the other deaths commonly attributed to influenza are caused by complicated influenza, where a second infection causes death, usually pneumonia (of which 48,657 of 55,477 official deaths in 2006 occurred in people aged 65 years and older) Response The Federal response remains at US Pandemic Stage 0, congruent with the World Health Organization (WHO) Pandemic Phases 1, 2 and 3; however, the WHO's Pandemic Phase was raised to 4 on April 27, which is congruent with US Pandemic Stage 2. On April 29, the WHO raised the pandemic alert level to phase 5.\nThe United", "-26.701018468935217" ], [ "or RIV vaccine. People with a more severe allergic reaction may also receive any IIV or RIV, but in an inpatient or outpatient medical setting, administered by a healthcare provider. People with a known severe allergic reaction to influenza vaccine (which could be egg protein or the gelatin or the neomycin components of the vaccine) should not receive a flu vaccine.\nEach year the American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) publishes recommendations for prevention and control of influenza in children. In the most recent guidelines, for 2016-2017, a change was made, that children with a history of egg allergy may receive the", "-26.636898765718797" ], [ "and not pandemic H1N1 flu specifically, more widely available tests include rapid influenza diagnostic tests (RIDT), which yield results in about 30 minutes, and direct and indirect immunofluorescence assays (DFA and IFA), which take 2–4 hours. Due to the high rate of RIDT false negatives, the CDC advises that patients with illnesses compatible with novel influenza A (H1N1) virus infection but with negative RIDT results should be treated empirically based on the level of clinical suspicion, underlying medical conditions, severity of illness and risk for complications, and if a more definitive determination of infection with influenza virus is required, testing", "-26.611933784384746" ], [ "emergency room at once. Antivirals The two classes of antiviral drugs used against influenza are neuraminidase inhibitors (oseltamivir, zanamivir, laninamivir and peramivir) and M2 protein inhibitors (adamantane derivatives). Neuraminidase inhibitors Overall the benefits of neuraminidase inhibitors in those who are otherwise healthy do not appear to be greater than the risks. There does not appear to be any benefit in those with other health problems. In those believed to have the flu, they decreased the length of time symptoms were present by slightly less than a day but did not appear to affect the risk of complications such as needing", "-26.544389870308805" ], [ "rid of flu symptoms in 48 hours.\" The lawsuit also stated that the listed active ingredient in Oscillococcinum (Oscillo) \"is actually Muscovy Duck Liver and Heart ... and has no known medicinal quality.\" A settlement was reached, with Boiron denying any wrongdoing. As part of the settlement, Boiron agreed to make specific changes to its marketing, including adding to their packaging notices like \"These ‘Uses’ have not been evaluated by the Food and Drug Administration\" and \"C, K, CK, and X are homeopathic dilutions.\"", "-26.462736743327696" ], [ "week, likely to far outstrip the rate of deaths in the 2009–2010 season. An expert was quoted saying that the main time of the flu that year hadn't \"changed enough from previous seasons to be considered a novel strain.\" In the first week of February, deaths from influenza and pneumonia were responsible for one of every ten deaths in the US, with 4,064 from pneumonia or influenza recorded in the third week of 2018, according to CDC data. The CDC also reported 63 child deaths at that point, half of which were not considered medically high risk, and only about", "-26.38678993159556" ], [ "injected severely afflicted patients with blood or blood plasma from people who had recovered from the flu.\nData collected during that time indicates that the blood-injection treatment reduced mortality rates by as much as 50 percent. Navy researchers have launched a test to see if the 1918 treatment will work against deadly Asian bird flu. Results thus far have been inconclusive. Human H5N1 plasma may be an effective, timely, and widely available treatment for the next flu pandemic. A new international study using modern data collection methods, would be a difficult, slow process. But many flu experts, citing the months-long", "-26.377334656601306" ], [ "the risks and severe health effects of the annual influenza epidemic. Flu vaccination may lead to side effects such as runny nose and sore throat, which can last for up to several days. Guillain–Barré syndrome Although Guillain–Barré syndrome had been feared as a complication of vaccination, the CDC states that most studies on modern influenza vaccines have seen no link with Guillain–Barré. Infection with influenza virus itself increases both the risk of death (up to 1 in 10,000) and increases the risk of developing Guillain–Barré syndrome to a far higher level than the highest level of suspected vaccine involvement (approximately", "-26.34653335972689" ], [ "toxicity Although rare, flutamide has been associated with severe hepatotoxicity and death. By 1996, 46 cases of severe cholestatic hepatitis had been reported, with 20 fatalities. There have been continued case reports since, including liver transplants and death. Based on the number of prescriptions written and the number of cases reported in the MedWatch database, the rate of serious hepatotoxicity associated with flutamide treatment was estimated in 1996 as approximately 0.03% (3 per 10,000). However, other research has suggested that the true incidence of significant hepatotoxicity with flutamide may be much greater, as high as 0.18 to 10%. Flutamide is", "-26.340121817484032" ], [ "2017–18 United States flu season Effects Across the United States, at least 30 children died by January 2018. In the South, schools were closed, and nursing homes were overloaded.\nThe United States Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) began counting the 2017–2018 \"flu season\" as October 2017, and by early February 2018, the epidemic was still widespread and increasing overall. By February 2018, the CDC said that the circulating virus strains included both B strains (Yamagata and Victoria), H1N1 and H3N2. On February 10, 2018, Fortune reported that influenza in the United States was killing up to 4,000 Americans a", "-26.308334189030575" ], [ "observed after 5 hours. On C26000, near total kill was achieved after 48 hours. On stainless steel, no reductions in viable organisms were observed after 72 hours (3 days) of exposure and no significant reduction was observed within 168 hours (1 week). Influenza A Influenza, commonly known as flu, is an infectious disease from a viral pathogen different from the one that produces the common cold. Symptoms of influenza, which are much more severe than the common cold, include fever, sore throat, muscle pains, severe headache, coughing, weakness and general discomfort. Influenza can cause pneumonia, which can be fatal, particularly", "-26.306790194488713" ], [ "\"Mexican Flu\". South Korea and Israel briefly considered calling it the \"Mexican virus\". Later, the South Korean press used \"SI\", short for \"swine influenza\". Taiwan suggested the names \"H1N1 flu\" or \"new flu\", which most local media adopted. The World Organization for Animal Health proposed the name \"North American influenza\". The European Commission adopted the term \"novel flu virus\". Signs and symptoms The symptoms of H1N1 flu are similar to those of other influenzas, and may include fever, cough (typically a \"dry cough\"), headache, muscle or joint pain, sore throat, chills, fatigue, and runny nose. Diarrhea, vomiting, and neurological", "-26.196799985249527" ], [ "complications from flu, including pregnant women and people with asthma. The attenuated live virus was instead suggested to be used to allow some priority groups like health care workers and healthy children 2 or older, to allow them to be vaccinated immediately. Those to whom the weakened virus might pose a heightened risk were recommended to wait for the release of killed-virus vaccines, which followed weeks to months later.\nVaccine uptake by the public was very low in the UK, but predicted by greater belief in the vaccine's efficacy and safety and a greater perceived risk of the", "-26.160166292160284" ], [ "variant of the virus. It produced the common influenza symptoms with a new intensity: \"violent headache and body aches, high fever, non-productive cough. . . . This was violent, rapid in its progress through the body, and sometimes lethal. This influenza killed. Soon dozens of patients—the strongest, the healthiest, the most robust people in the county—were being struck down as suddenly as if they had been shot.\" Barry writes that in the first six months of 1918, Miner's warning of \"influenza of a severe type\" was the only reference in that journal to influenza anywhere in the world.", "-26.14803585325717" ], [ "be stockpiled so if an Avian influenza pandemic starts jumping to humans, the vaccine can quickly be administered to avoid loss of life. Avian influenza is sometimes called avian flu, and commonly bird flu. Pigs Swine influenza vaccines are extensively used in pig farming in Europe and North America. Most swine flu vaccines include an H1N1 and an H3N2 strain.\nSwine influenza has been recognized as a major problem since the outbreak in 1976. Evolution of the virus has resulted in inconsistent responses to traditional vaccines. Standard commercial swine flu vaccines are effective in controlling the problem when the virus strains", "-26.040640823252033" ], [ "mild, similar to seasonal flu, and that recovery tended to be fairly quick. The number of deaths as of September 2009 is sometimes said to be a tiny fraction of the annual number of deaths from seasonal flu. However, comparisons of human fatality figures with seasonal influenza are prone to underestimate impact of the pandemic, and the pandemic H1N1/09 virus was in fact the dominant strain of influenza causing illness in the 2009/10 flu season.\nResearch carried out at Imperial College London has shown that, unlike seasonal flu, H1N1/09 can infect cells deep in the lungs. Seasonal flu can only infect cells", "-26.01837444904959" ], [ "the body. A virus can affect any part of the body causing a wide range of illnesses such as the flu, the common cold, and sexually transmitted diseases. The flu is an airborne virus that travels through tiny droplets and is formally known as Influenza. Parasites travel through the air and attack the human respiratory system. People that are initially infected with this virus pass infection on by normal day to day activity such as talking and sneezing. When a person comes in contact with the virus, unlike the common cold, the flu virus affects people almost immediately.", "-25.940368406445486" ], [ "Influenza-like illness Causes The causes of influenza-like illness range from benign self-limited illnesses such as gastroenteritis, rhinoviral disease, and influenza, to severe, sometimes life-threatening, diseases such as meningitis, sepsis, and leukemia. Influenza Technically, any clinical diagnosis of influenza is a diagnosis of ILI, not of influenza. This distinction usually is of no great concern because, regardless of cause, most cases of ILI are mild and self-limiting. Furthermore, except perhaps during the peak of a major outbreak of influenza, most cases of ILI are not due to influenza. ILI is very common: in the United States each adult can average 1–3", "-25.929095072147902" ], [ "severe and to last longer. Infection usually lasts for about a week, and is characterized by sudden onset of high fever, aching muscles, headache and severe malaise, non-productive cough, sore throat and rhinitis. Symptoms usually peak after two or three days.\nSelf-diagnosis of influenza is common among the general public. The best predictions for influenza are cough and fever, since this combination of symptoms has been shown to have a positive predictive value of around 80% in differentiating influenza within a population suffering from flu-like symptoms. Twitter and influenza relation Twitter, a micro-blogging service, has an estimated community of 500 million", "-25.928975824950612" ], [ "Influenza viruses are mainly spread from person to person through airborne droplets produced while coughing or sneezing. However, the viruses can also be transmitted when a person touches respiratory droplets settled on an object or surface. It is during this stage that an antiviral surface could play the biggest role in cutting down on the spread of a virus. Glass slides painted with the hydrophobic long-chained polycation N,N dodecyl,methyl-polyethylenimine (N,N-dodecyl,methyl-PEI) are highly lethal to waterborne influenza A viruses, including not only wild-type human and avian strains but also their neuraminidase mutants resistant to anti-influenza drugs.\nCopper alloy surfaces have", "-25.896738790383097" ], [ "to guide the use of these stockpiled drugs, and plans are based on assumed similarities to seasonal influenza. The most common antivirals are neuraminidase inhibitors, which, if begun during the first 48 hours after symptoms appear, will reduce the duration of seasonal influenza by about one day. Taken before symptoms appear, it may prevent disease in about three-quarters of people treated prophylactically. Currently, this is recommended in institutionalized elderly people and other high-risk groups as a form of post-exposure prophylaxis during seasonal influenza outbreaks. However, since pandemic influenza differs somewhat from normal seasonal influenza, it is", "-25.87122432288743" ], [ "use of influenza antiviral drugs known as neuraminidase inhibitors in cases of early infection may be effective.\nThe number of cases detected after April fell abruptly. The decrease in the number of new human H7N9 cases may have resulted from containment measures taken by Chinese authorities, including closing live bird markets, or from a change in seasons, or possibly a combination of both factors. Studies indicate that avian influenza viruses have a seasonal pattern, thus it is thought that infections may pick up again when the weather turns cooler in China.\nIn the four years from early 2013 to", "-25.862924563145498" ], [ "patients, showed that the active ingredient in COLD-FX can help reduce and prevent common cold and flu symptoms when taken daily., Adverse effects Individuals requiring anti-coagulant therapy such as warfarin should avoid use of American ginseng. Not recommended for individuals with impaired liver or renal function. It is not recommended in those who are pregnant or breastfeeding. Other adverse effects include: headaches, anxiety, trouble sleeping and an upset stomach. Criticism The product has not been shown to reduce the number or severity of common colds. There is tentative evidence that it may shorten colds in people who are otherwise healthy", "-25.840984463633504" ], [ "is mild and there are no other complications, fever medication is not recommended. Most people recover without medical attention, although those with pre-existing or underlying medical conditions are more prone to complications and may benefit from further treatments.\nPeople in at-risk groups should be treated with antivirals (oseltamivir or zanamivir) as soon as possible when they first experience flu symptoms. The at-risk groups include pregnant and post partum women, children under two years old, and people with underlying conditions such as respiratory problems. People who are not in an at-risk group who have persistent or rapidly worsening symptoms should also be", "-25.835736949229613" ], [ "hours at 37 degrees Celsius. During incubation time, the virus replicates and newly replicated viruses are released into the allantoic fluid \nAfter the 48-hour incubation period, the top of the egg is cracked and the 10 milliliters of allantoic fluid is removed, from which about 15 micrograms of the flu vaccine can be obtained. At this point, the viruses have been weakened or killed and the viral antigen is purified and placed inside vials, syringes, or nasal sprayers. Done on a large scale, this method is used to produce the flu vaccine for the human population.\nIn 2013, the recombinant influenza", "-25.765834637437365" ], [ "in winter and during the tropical rainy season, when people stay indoors, away from the sun, and their vitamin D levels fall. Epidemic and pandemic spread As influenza is caused by a variety of species and strains of viruses, in any given year some strains can die out while others create epidemics, while yet another strain can cause a pandemic. Typically, in a year's normal two flu seasons (one per hemisphere), there are between three and five million cases of severe illness and around 500,000 deaths worldwide, which by some definitions is a yearly influenza epidemic. Although the incidence of", "-25.764119520492386" ], [ "secondary infection.\nParacetamol (acetaminophen) but not aspirin may be used to reduce fever. Aspirin use by someone with chickenpox may cause the serious, sometimes fatal disease of the liver and brain, Reye syndrome. People at risk of developing severe complications who have had significant exposure to the virus may be given intra-muscular varicella zoster immune globulin (VZIG), a preparation containing high titres of antibodies to varicella zoster virus, to ward off the disease.\nAntivirals are sometimes used. Children If aciclovir by mouth is started within 24 hours of rash onset, it decreases symptoms by one day but has no effect on complication", "-25.749548963125562" ], [ "old evidence the evidence was however unclear. Why there appears to be a decrease in effectiveness is unknown.\nHowever, in February 2018, the CDC Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP) reinstated the use of LAIV for the 2018-2019 flu season. The inactivated and recombinant influenza vaccines are no longer preferred by ACIP over LAIV. Production The live attenuated vaccine is based on a flu strain that does not cause disease, that replicates well at relatively cold temperatures (about 25°C, for incubation purposes), and replicates poorly at body temperature (which minimizes risk to humans). Genes that code for surface proteins (targeted antigens)", "-25.72242065813225" ], [ "quickly turn severe, leading to hospitalization and even death. Uncontrolled blood sugars suppresses the immune systems and generally lead to more severe cases of the common cold or influenza. Thus, it has been recommended that diabetics be vaccinated against flu, before the start of the flu season. Asthma/COPD It is recommended that asthmatics and COPD patients be vaccinated against flu before the flu season. People with asthma can develop life-threatening complications from influenza and the common cold viruses. Some of these complications include pneumonias, acute bronchitis, and acute respiratory distress syndrome.\nEach year flu related complications in the USA affect close", "-25.692396173835732" ], [ "the influenza vaccine. As seen in the image, FAM210B is lower in rank in the patients with severe bacterial pneumonia and are even lower in those with severe influenza, as compared to those who received the influenza vaccine.", "-25.666140479850583" ], [ "Flucytosine Medical uses Flucytosine by mouth is used for the treatment of serious infections caused by susceptible strains of Candida or Cryptococcus neoformans. It can also be used for the treatment of chromomycosis (chromoblastomycosis), if susceptible strains cause the infection. Flucytosine must not be used as a sole agent in life-threatening fungal infections due to relatively weak antifungal effects and fast development of resistance, but rather in combination with amphotericin B and/or azole antifungals such as fluconazole or itraconazole. Minor infections such as candidal cystitis may be treated with flucytosine alone. In some countries, treatment with slow intravenous infusions for", "-25.648480622199713" ], [ "seasonal flu. However, a New England Journal of Medicine report stated that the transmissibility of the 2009 H1N1 influenza virus in households was lower than that seen in past pandemics. The US CDC recommended that people should wait at least a day after their fever subsides (usually 3–4 days after the onset of symptoms) before resuming normal activities, but it has been found that they can continue to shed virus for several days after that. Virulence The virulence of swine flu virus is mild and the mortality rates are very low.\nIn mid-2009, the US CDC noted that most infections were", "-25.610421272576787" ], [ "to its short half life, the duration of action of flumazenil is usually less than 1 hour, and multiple doses may be needed. When flumazenil is indicated the risks can be reduced or avoided by slow dose titration of flumazenil. Due to risks and its many contraindications, flumazenil should be administered only after discussion with a medical toxicologist. Epidemiology In a Swedish (2003) study benzodiazepines were implicated in 39% of suicides by drug poisoning in the elderly 1992-1996. Nitrazepam and flunitrazepam accounted for 90% of benzodiazepine implicated suicides. In cases where benzodiazepines contributed to death, but were not the sole", "-25.593064604268875" ], [ "adapted to humans, has a clear biological advantage over seasonal flu strains and that reassortment is unlikely at this time due to its currently at ease in replication and transmission. However, Federal health officials in the U.S. noted that the horrific 1918 flu epidemic, which killed hundreds of thousands in the United States alone, was preceded by a mild \"herald\" wave of cases in the spring, followed by devastating waves of illness in the autumn. As of late July 2009, U.S. health officials said that the swine flu isn't yet mutating to become more dangerous, but they are closely tracking", "-25.534160807612352" ], [ "may be treated with rimantadine or amantadine, while influenza A or B may be treated with oseltamivir, zanamivir or peramivir. These are of most benefit if they are started within 48 hours of the onset of symptoms. Many strains of H5N1 influenza A, also known as avian influenza or \"bird flu\", have shown resistance to rimantadine and amantadine. The use of antibiotics in viral pneumonia is recommended by some experts, as it is impossible to rule out a complicating bacterial infection. The British Thoracic Society recommends that antibiotics be withheld in those with mild disease. The use of corticosteroids is", "-25.529573013998743" ], [ "the Washington Post, arguing that an unsatisfactory response to the 2009 flu pandemic shows the need for better medical emergency plans.", "-25.481901050414308" ], [ "ability of the flu virus to invade the lungs and cause pneumonia. The combination triggered similar symptoms in animal testing.\nIn June 2010, a team at the Mount Sinai School of Medicine reported the 2009 flu pandemic vaccine provided some cross-protection against the 1918 flu pandemic strain.\nOne of the few things known for certain about the influenza in 1918 and for some years after was that it was, out of the laboratory, exclusively a disease of human beings.\nIn 2013, the AIR Worldwide Research and Modeling Group \"characterized the historic 1918 pandemic and estimated the effects of a similar pandemic occurring today", "-25.453049862990156" ], [ "just one droplet might be enough to cause an infection. Although a single sneeze releases up to 40,000 droplets, most of these droplets are quite large and will quickly settle out of the air. How long influenza survives in airborne droplets seems to be influenced by the levels of humidity and UV radiation, with low humidity and a lack of sunlight in winter aiding its survival.\nAs the influenza virus can persist outside of the body, it can also be transmitted by contaminated surfaces such as banknotes, doorknobs, light switches and other household items. The length of time the virus will", "-25.389321429625852" ], [ "under the age of 65 died from flu since October, nine times as many as the prior year. The Ronald Reagan UCLA Medical Center emergency room, which often caters to about 140 patients daily, had more than 200 patients on one of those days. By 19 January, seventy-four people under the age of 65 had died in California, with thirty-two of those deaths occurring in the preceding week, making it the deadliest week of the flu season so far.\nBy February 9, 2018, the national rate for flu-like symptoms for patients visiting clinics had reached \"well above\" seven percent, a rate", "-25.369436029577628" ], [ "of the H1N1 pandemic virus in the US. This is sometimes compared to the 36,000 people per year who die from the \"common flu\", mostly in winter, although this number is an estimate. The death rate of H1N1 in the US can be calculated as less than 0.02% from November 2009 figures from the CDC, and has been explicitly calculated as 0.026% in England. Vaccine Existing vaccines against seasonal flu provide no protection. Vaccines were released in North America in late October. Production may be 3 billion doses per year rather than the earlier estimate of 5 billion. Evolutionary", "-25.344930518425826" ], [ "were also recommended to be vaccinated against the H1N1/09 (later renamed A(H1N1)pdm09) swine flu virus during the 2009 pandemic. However, uptake is often low. During the 2009 pandemic, low uptake by healthcare workers was seen in countries including the UK, Italy, Greece, and Hong Kong.\nIn a 2010 survey of United States healthcare workers, 63.5% reported that they received the flu vaccine during the 2010–11 season, an increase from 61.9% reported the previous season. US Health professionals with direct patient contact had higher vaccination uptake, such as physicians and dentists (84.2%) and nurse practitioners (82.6%).\nThe main reason to vaccinate healthcare workers", "-25.33089519641726" ], [ "Fluzone Description Fluzone is typically administered in a single dose by intramuscular injection; an intradermal injection is also available. It is presented as a 0.25 ml syringe for pediatric use, as a 0.5 ml syringe for adults and children, as a 0.5 ml vial for adults and children, and as a 5 ml vial for adults and children. Fluzone must be refrigerated under temperatures from 2 to 8 °C (36 to 46 °F) and is inactivated by freezing. Fluzone was initially approved in 1980 by the FDA. High-dose vaccine A high-dose vaccine (Fluzone High-Dose) 4x the strength of standard flu vaccine was approved by the FDA", "-25.324402409576578" ], [ "ketamine.\nThe live attenuated influenza vaccine sold under the brand names FluMist (US) or Fluenz (Europe) is delivered intranasally. Flumist is a Quadrivalent Vaccine which contains four vaccine virus strains: an A/H1N1 strain, an A/H3N2 strain and two B strains. FluMist Quadrivalent contains B strains from both the B/Yamagata/14/88 and the B/Victoria/2/87 lineages. It has been approved by the CDC for vaccinating all eligible people between 2 and 49 years of age. Olfactory transfer There is about 20 mL capacity in the adult human nasal cavity. The major part of the approximately 150 cm² surface in the human nasal cavity is covered", "-25.320053979288787" ], [ "flu outbreak and SARS can be traced to keeping live animals in wet markets and its potential for contamination. In 2008 the government of Hong Kong proposed that all poultry should be slaughtered at central abattoirs to combat the spread of avian flu. However, public opposition to the scheme led to its abandonment.", "-25.317256647045724" ], [ "adults may have overshadowed the deaths caused by flu. When people read the obituaries, they saw the war or postwar deaths and the deaths from the influenza side by side. \nParticularly in Europe, where the war's toll was high, the flu may not have had a tremendous psychological impact or may have seemed an extension of the war's tragedies. The duration of the pandemic and the war could have also played a role. The disease would usually only affect a particular area for a month before leaving. The war, however, had initially been expected to end quickly but lasted", "-25.284552372206235" ], [ "their immune systems are vulnerable. Also, studies have shown that people between the ages of 15 and 44 have the highest rate of infection. Although most people now recover, having any conditions that lower one's immune system increases the risk of having the flu become potentially lethal. In Northern Ireland now, approximately 56% of all people under 65 who are entitled to the vaccine have gotten the shot, and the outbreak is said to be under control. 2015 and 2017 India outbreaks Swine flu outbreaks were reported in India in late 2014 and early 2015. As of March 19, 2015", "-25.267725877398334" ], [ "Pandemic H1N1/09 virus Virus characteristics The virus is a novel strain of influenza, for which existing vaccines against seasonal flu provided no protection. A study at the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) published in May 2009 found that children had no preexisting immunity to the new strain but that adults, particularly those over 60, had some degree of immunity. Children showed no cross-reactive antibody reaction to the new strain, adults aged 18 to 64 had 6–9%, and older adults 33%. Much reporting of early analysis repeated that the strain contained genes from five different flu viruses: North", "-25.24802841595374" ], [ "easy availability of amantadines as part of over-the-counter cold remedies in countries such as China and Russia, and their use to prevent outbreaks of influenza in farmed poultry. The CDC recommended against using M2 inhibitors during the 2005–06 influenza season due to high levels of drug resistance. Seasonal variations Influenza reaches peak prevalence in winter, and because the Northern and Southern Hemispheres have winter at different times of the year, there are actually two different flu seasons each year. This is why the World Health Organization (assisted by the National Influenza Centers) makes recommendations for two different vaccine formulations every", "-25.234409607714042" ], [ "Spanish pandemic flu, and is the opposite of the mortality curve of seasonal flu strains, since seasonal influenza preferentially kills the elderly and does not kill by cytokine storm. An additional factor which may be active is that H1N1 was the predominate human flu circulating from 1918 until 1957 when the H2N2 strain emerged. Hence those over 50 years old have had the opportunity to be exposed to H1N1, and to develop some immune response to the N1 group contained in that human form of flu. Likewise, annual flu vaccination includes inoculation against a type-A human H1N1 flu, leading", "-25.234363045019563" ], [ "to protect the economic interests of food producers—especially those who make junk food and animal-based food. Reception Bird Flu: A Virus of Our Own Hatching received a favorable review which said it was \"interesting and informative to both scientists and lay persons\", but public health expert David Sencer was critical of the book, writing that it \"focuses heavily on doomsday scenarios and offers little in terms of practical advice to the public\" and that \"a professional audience would quickly put [the book] aside for more factually correct sources of information\".\nHow Not to Die made The New York Times Best Seller", "-25.23089055973105" ], [ "Flunarizine Medical uses Flunarizine is effective in the prophylaxis of migraine, occlusive peripheral vascular disease, vertigo of central and peripheral origin, and as an adjuvant in the therapy of epilepsy. It has been shown to significantly reduce headache frequency and severity in both adults and children. Contraindications Flunarizine is contraindicated in patients with depression, in the acute phase of a stroke, and in patients with extrapyramidal symptoms or Parkinson's disease. It is also contraindicated in hypotension, heart failure and arrhythmia. Side effects Common side effects include drowsiness (20% of patients), weight gain (10%), as well as extrapyramidal effects and depression", "-25.185609099746216" ], [ "virus (Influenza A virus subtype H5N1). Samples of the less harmful seasonal flu virus (subtype H3N2) were found to be mixed with the deadly H5N1 strain after a vaccine made from the material killed test animals in a lab in the Czech Republic. Though the serious consequences were avoided by the lab in the Czech Republic, Baxter then claimed the failed controls over the distribution of the virus were 'stringent' and there was 'little chance' of the lethal virus harming humans. 2009 drug cost inflation On July 2, 2009, Kentucky Attorney General Jack Conway announced a settlement between the state", "-25.15507955989051" ], [ "influenza viruses; however, the majority of people infected with the virus make a full recovery without requiring medical attention or antiviral drugs. The virus isolated in the 2009 outbreak have been found resistant to amantadine and rimantadine.\nIn the U.S., on April 27, 2009, the FDA issued Emergency Use Authorizations to make available Relenza and Tamiflu antiviral drugs to treat the swine influenza virus in cases for which they are currently unapproved. The agency issued these EUAs to allow treatment of patients younger than the current approval allows and to allow the widespread distribution of the drugs, including by volunteers.", "-25.14920839032129" ], [ "20 percent who were vaccinated. Only two of those deaths were babies under six months old.\nOn February 9, 2018, the CDC announced that the recent flu outbreak had killed at least 63 children. Effects in New York On February 10, 2018, officials in New York City confirmed the third pediatric flu death for the 2017–2018 season. The week prior, 43 states reported high patient traffic for the flu, with flu remaining widespread in each state except Hawaii and Oregon. Effects in California California was hit especially hard by the 2017–18 flu outbreak. In California as of 6 January, twenty-seven people", "-25.14408474465199" ], [ "emulsion of squalene oil. It is the first adjuvanted seasonal flu vaccine marketed in the United States. It is not clear if there is a significant benefit for the elderly to use a flu vaccine containing the MF59C.1 adjuvant. Per Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices guidelines, Fluad can be used as an alternative to other influenza vaccines approved for people 65 years and older.\nVaccinating healthcare workers who work with elderly people is recommended in many countries, with the goal of reducing influenza outbreaks in this vulnerable population. While there is no conclusive evidence from randomized clinical trials that vaccinating healthcare", "-25.139582749172405" ], [ "live viruses include measles, mumps, rubella, polio and chickenpox.\nThe vaccinia virus, when administered, is not dead like other vaccines. It is not administered via a typical shot that is typically given with other vaccines. Rather, a medical professional uses a two-pronged (bifurcated) stainless steel needle. The needle is dipped into the vaccine solution and used to prick the skin several times in the upper arm. The vaccinia virus will begin to grow at the injection site. It will cause a localized infection, with a red itchy sore produced at the vaccination site within three to four days. If the infection", "-25.120520725729875" ], [ "team led by Yoshihiro Kawaoka, one of the world’s leading experts on avian flu, reported that while avian flu viruses typically lack the ability to transfer through respiratory droplets, studies using ferrets, who like humans infect one another through coughing and sneezing, showed that one of the H7N9 strains isolated from humans can transmit through respiratory droplets. Kawaoka says, “H7N9 viruses combine several features of pandemic influenza viruses, that is their ability to bind to and replicate in human cells and the ability to transmit via respiratory droplets.” Further, because several instances of human-to-human infection are suspected, Kawaoka stated that", "-25.06609494809527" ], [ "flu pandemic outbreak of influenza A virus originated in China in early 1956, and lasted until 1958. Some authors believe it originated from a mutation in wild ducks combining with a pre-existing human strain. Other authors are less certain. The virus was first identified in Guizhou. It spread to Singapore in February 1957, reached Hong Kong by April, and the US by June. The death toll in the US was about 69,800. Estimates of worldwide deaths caused by this pandemic varies widely depending on source, ranging from one to four million, with WHO settling on \"about two million\".\nAsian flu was", "-25.00279516448063" ], [ "the available flu vaccine was 60% effective. It further recommended that all persons over age 6 months get the vaccine.", "-25.001690004282864" ], [ "in routine childhood vaccination schedules. In the U.S., the only exceptions among vaccines routinely recommended for children are some formulations of the inactivated influenza vaccine for children older than two years. Several vaccines that are not routinely recommended for young children do contain thiomersal, including DT (diphtheria and tetanus), Td (tetanus and diphtheria), and TT (tetanus toxoid); other vaccines may contain a trace of thiomersal from steps in manufacture. The multi-dose versions of the influenza vaccines Fluvirin and Fluzone can contain up to 25 micrograms of mercury per dose from thiomersal. Also, four rarely used treatments for pit", "-24.996817958282918" ], [ "Universal flu vaccine A universal flu vaccine is flu vaccine that is effective against all influenza virus strains regardless of the virus subtype or viral genetic drift. Hence it should not require modification from year to year. As of 2019, there was no approved universal flu vaccine for general use, but several have been in development. Development predictions On February 13, 2013, U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) Chief Scientist Jesse Goodman predicted that a universal flu vaccine was still at least 5 to 10 years away. When asked about the prospects of a universal flu vaccine in a", "-24.992374206180102" ], [ "with a mild strain stayed where they were, while the severely ill were sent on crowded trains to crowded field hospitals, spreading the deadlier virus. The second wave began, and the flu quickly spread around the world again. Consequently, during modern pandemics, health officials pay attention when the virus reaches places with social upheaval (looking for deadlier strains of the virus).\nThe fact that most of those who recovered from first-wave infections had become immune showed that it must have been the same strain of flu. This was most dramatically illustrated in Copenhagen, which escaped with a combined mortality rate of", "-24.97764026848745" ], [ "\"moderately severe\" was an accurate guess or not. A report entitled A Killer Flu? projected that, with an assumed (guessed) contraction rate of just 25%, and with a severity rate as low as that of the two lowest severity flu pandemics of the 1900s, a modern influenza A pandemic would cause 180 thousand deaths in the US, while a pandemic equaling the 1918 Spanish flu in level of lethality would cause one million deaths in the US. Again, the report offered no evidence that an emerging H5N1 flu pandemic would be between these figures.\nThe current avian flu, in humans, is", "-24.96036052913405" ], [ "in those dying from the flu, as reported in the post mortem reports still available, and also the timing of the big \"death spike\" in October 1918. This occurred shortly after the Surgeon General of the U.S. Army and the Journal of the American Medical Association both recommended very large doses of 8 to 31 grams of aspirin per day as part of treatment. These levels will produce hyperventilation in 33% of patients, as well as lung edema in 3% of patients. Starko also notes that many early deaths showed \"wet,\" sometimes hemorrhagic lungs, whereas late deaths showed bacterial pneumonia.", "-24.953405590436887" ], [ "widely evaluated for different groups and in different settings. It has generally been found to be a cost-effective intervention, especially in children and the elderly, however the results of economic evaluations of influenza vaccination have often been found to be dependent on key assumptions. Diagnosis There are a number of rapid tests for the flu. One is called a Rapid Molecular Assay, when an upper respiratory tract specimen (mucus) is taken using a nasal swab or a nasopharyngeal swab. It should be done within 3–4 days of symptom onset, as upper respiratory viral shedding takes a downward spiral after that.", "-24.92746740092116" ], [ "Flunitrazepam Use In countries where this drug is used, it is used for treatment of sleeping problems, and in some countries to begin anesthesia. These were also the uses for which it was originally studied. Adverse effects Adverse effects of flunitrazepam include dependence, both physical and psychological; reduced sleep quality resulting in somnolence; and overdose, resulting in excessive sedation, impairment of balance and speech, respiratory depression or coma, and possibly death. Because of the latter, flunitrazepam is commonly used in suicide. When used in pregnancy, it might cause hypotonia. Dependence Flunitrazepam as with other benzodiazepines can lead to drug dependence", "-24.917671044655435" ], [ "the United States on September 15, 2009. Studies by the National Institutes of Health show a single dose creates enough antibodies to protect against the virus within about 10 days.\nIn the aftermath of the 2009 pandemic, several studies were conducted to see who received influenza vaccines. These studies show that whites are much more likely to be vaccinated for seasonal influenza and for the H1N1 strain than African Americans This could be due to several factors. Historically, there has been mistrust of vaccines and of the medical community from African Americans. Many African Americans do not", "-24.89237378287362" ] ]

[ "This doesn't actually happen - it's an outdated scientific theory and a very common [urban myth]( URL_0 ). Basically, most women will bleed one out of every four weeks. If you have a bunch of women living together, there will naturally be overlaps between their individual cycles, and some people have misread this as \"synching\". But the theory is largely discredited by now.", "They don't... if you constantly hang out with the same women sooner or later all your cycles will sync up. Kind of like when you turn your car blinker on. The person in front of you who also has their blinker on, your blinker and theirs will at some point blink together. Source: I am a female, and I also like to watch the person in front of me's blinker.", "Many studies have been done but there remains great uncertainty (and skepticism) about whether it even happens. If it does it must be a weak effect. There are theories about pheromones being responsible but proving these will be even harder than proving the effect exists." ]

[ [ "Menstrual synchrony Menstrual synchrony, also called the McClintock effect, is an alleged process whereby women who begin living together in close proximity experience their menstrual cycle onsets (the onset of menstruation or menses) becoming more synchronized together in time than when previously living apart. \"For example, the distribution of onsets of seven female lifeguards was scattered at the beginning of the summer, but after 3 months spent together, the onset of all seven cycles fell within a 4-day period.\"\nMartha McClintock's 1971 paper, published in Nature, says that menstrual cycle synchronization happens when the menstrual cycle onsets of two or more", "-41.95623150840402" ], [ "have cycles of different frequencies, or both), most women will have the opportunity to experience synchrony even though it is a result of cycle variability and not a result of a mechanism such as the exchange of pheromones. For example, consider two women A and B. Suppose A has menstrual cycles that are 28 days long and B has cycles that are 30 days long. Suppose further that when A and B become close friends, B has a cycle onset 14 days before A's next onset. The next time both of them have menstrual cycle onsets,", "-41.490356222726405" ], [ "concluded that there was no evidence of menstrual synchrony. Initial onset differences H. Clyde Wilson argued that at the start of any menstrual synchrony study, the minimum cycle onset difference must be calculated by using two onset differences from each woman in a group. For example, suppose two women have exactly 28-day cycles. The greatest distance that one cycle onset can be from another is 14 days. Suppose the first two onsets for woman A are July 1 and July 29 and for woman B, they are July 24 and August 21. If only the first two recorded onsets", "-39.329918363830075" ], [ "Menstrual cycle The menstrual cycle is the regular natural change that occurs in the female reproductive system (specifically the uterus and ovaries) that makes pregnancy possible. The cycle is required for the production of oocytes, and for the preparation of the uterus for pregnancy. The menstrual cycle occurs due to the rise and fall of hormones. This cycle results in the thickening of the lining of the uterus, and the growth of an egg, (which is required for pregnancy). The egg is released from an ovary around day fourteen in the cycle; the thickened lining of the uterus provides nutrients", "-38.88185055080612" ], [ "to 22 years old and the procedures followed were similar to McClintock's study except only pairs of roommates were used. She reported that the women did not synchronize. Jarett concluded that whether menstrual synchrony occurs in a group of women may depend on the variability of their menstrual cycles. She conjectured that the reason the women in her study did not synchronize their menstrual cycles was because they happened to have longer and more irregular menstrual cycles than in McClintock's original study. 1990s Wilson, Kiefhabe, and Gravel conducted two studies with college women. The first study consisted", "-38.598941806005314" ], [ "the basis for calculating the expected cycle onset difference. Thus, their research falls into the pre-1997 methodology and post-1997 methodology.\nIn 1997, Weller and Weller published one of the first studies to investigate when menstrual synchrony occurs in complete families. Their study was conducted in Bedouin villages in northern Israel. Twenty seven families, which had from two to seven sisters 13 years or older and collected data on menstrual cycle onsets over a three-month period. Using the methods of, they reported menstrual synchrony occurred for the first two months, but not for the third month for roommate sisters,", "-38.172355899529066" ], [ "or more. The most common time was 12 months or more. The duration of menstrual synchrony also was highly variable with responses ranging from one to two months to 12 months or more. They conclude that \"Whether or not future research concludes that menstrual synchrony is an objective phenomenon, subjective experiences, which are apparently widespread, need to be given careful consideration.\" (p. 265)\nBoth Wilson and Arden and Dye pointed out that menstrual synchrony can occur by chance when there is menstrual cycle variability. Yang and Schank argued that when there is cycle variability (i.e., either women have irregular cycles,", "-38.17026405179058" ], [ "last a number of months.\nStrassmann argued menstrual synchrony defined as menstruation overlap should be quite common. For example, the expected difference by chance between two women with 28-day cycles—which is approximately the average length of menstrual cycles of women at the age —is 7 days. Considering that the mean duration of menses is 5 days and the range is 2 to 7 days, the probability of menstruation overlap by chance should be high. Adaptivity of menstrual synchrony In order to work out why menstrual synchrony might have evolved, it is necessary to investigate why individuals who synchronized their", "-37.91891921579372" ], [ "polymenorrhea or oligomenorrhea, respectively.\nAdditionally, irregular menstruation is common in adolescence. A regular menstrual cycle can be set within a year of menarche. However, other studies suggest that it can take anywhere between 2 and 7 years to establish regularity after an individual's first menses.", "-37.363365783996414" ], [ "together at this time... If a woman got out of synchronization with the moon and with the other women of the household, she could 'get back in by sitting in the moonlight and talking to the moon, asking it to balance her'\".\n—  Scientific details The phenomenon of menstrual synchrony is the closeness in time of the menstrual cycle onsets of two or more women. The phenomenon is not synchronization in the strict sense of concordance of menstrual cycle onsets but the term menstrual synchrony is still used perhaps misleadingly. As an undergraduate, Martha McClintock published the first study on menstrual", "-37.353449813846964" ], [ "women. For example, women who had weekly sexual intercourse with men had menstrual cycles with the average duration of 29 days, while women with less frequent sexual interactions tended to have more extreme cycle lengths. Male response to ovulation Changes in hormones during a female's cycles affect the way she behaves and the way males behave towards her. Research has found that men are a lot more attentive and loving towards their partners when they are in the most fertile phase of their cycles, in comparison to when they are in the luteal phases. Men become increasingly jealous and possessive", "-37.15959262289107" ], [ "Menstruation Menstruation, also known as a period or monthly, is the regular discharge of blood and mucosal tissue (known as menses) from the inner lining of the uterus through the vagina. The first period usually begins between twelve and fifteen years of age, a point in time known as menarche. However, periods may occasionally start as young as eight years old and still be considered normal. The average age of the first period is generally later in the developing world, and earlier in the developed world. The typical length of time between the first day of one period and the", "-37.055657464894466" ], [ "varies somewhat, with some shorter cycles and some longer cycles. A woman who experiences variations of less than eight days between her longest cycles and shortest cycles is considered to have regular menstrual cycles. It is unusual for a woman to experience cycle length variations of more than four days. Length variation between eight and 20 days is considered as moderately irregular cycles. Variation of 21 days or more between a woman's shortest and longest cycle lengths is considered very irregular. \nThe average menstrual cycle lasts 28 days. The variability of menstrual cycle lengths is highest for women under 25", "-36.71196075878106" ], [ "assistant who was a proprietor of a bar. Unlike previous studies, they only asked the women for the date of their last menstrual onset. They then assumed that all the women had menstrual cycles that were exactly 28 days long. Based on this assumption and one menstrual onset for each woman in a couple, they calculated the degree of synchrony. They reported that more than half of the couples had synchronized within a two-day timespan of each other.\nTrevathan, Burleson, and Gregory also conducted a study with 29 lesbian couples (22 to 48 years of age), but they incorporated", "-36.683935649867635" ], [ "cycle, as an evolutionarily adaptive means to ensure that a high quality male is chosen to copulate with during the most fertile period of the cycle. It is thought that, due to the length of time and the parental investment involved for a woman to reproduce, changes in female psychology during menstrual periods would help them make critical decisions in mating selection. For example, it has been suggested that women's sexual preferences shift toward more masculine physical characteristics during peak phases of fertility. In such, a symmetrical and masculine face outwardly indicates the reproductive value of a prospective mate. Ovulation", "-36.516523294412764" ], [ "menarche has changed little in the United States since the 1950s.\nMenstruation is the most visible phase of the menstrual cycle and its beginning is used as the marker between cycles. The first day of menstrual bleeding is the date used for the last menstrual period (LMP). The typical length of time between the first day of one period and the first day of the next is 21 to 45 days in young women, and 21 to 31 days in adults (an average of 28 days).\nPerimenopause is when fertility in a female declines, and menstruation occurs less regularly in the years", "-36.18636057112599" ], [ "or days, depending on age and other individual factors. Females A woman's orgasm may last slightly longer or much longer than a man's. Women's orgasms have been estimated to last, on average, approximately 20 seconds, and to consist of a series of muscular contractions in the pelvic area that includes the vagina, the uterus, and the anus. For some women, on some occasions, these contractions begin soon after the woman reports that the orgasm has started and continue at intervals of about one second with initially increasing, and then reducing, intensity. In some instances, the series of regular contractions is", "-36.16974017652683" ], [ "over a year for most of the women.\nFollowing the statistical critiques of Schank, they argued that circular statistics were required to analyze periodic data for the existence of synchrony. However, menstrual cycles are variable in frequency (e.g., 28 or 31 day cycles) and in length. They pointed out that there are no statistical methods for analyzing messy data like this, so they developed Monte Carlo methods for detecting synchrony.\nThey found that in 9 of the 29 groups, women's cycles converged for one cycle closer than expected by chance, but then they diverged again. Upon further analysis, they found that for", "-35.98634247574955" ], [ "onsets on menstrual calendars provided to them and 181 days' worth of menstrual cycle data were collected. The mean menstrual cycle length was 30.5 days (SD = 4.56).\nBased on the mean cycle length of the women in this study, the expected difference by chance in menstrual cycle onset was approximately 7.5 days. The mean difference in cycle onset was calculated for the beginning, middle, and end of the study for the pairs and triples of women. Ziomkiewicz found no statistically significant difference from the 7.5 day expected difference at either the beginning, middle, or end of the study. She", "-35.94991468882654" ], [ "women with the cycle variability reported in this study, on average 10 out of 29 groups of women would show this pattern of convergence followed by divergence. They concluded that finding 9 out of 29 groups with convergence and then divergence is about what would be expected by chance and concluded that there was no evidence the women in this study synchronized their menstrual cycles.\nZiomkiewicz conducted a study with 99 Polish college women living in two dormitories. Thirty six of the women lived in 18 double rooms and sixty three lived in 21 triple rooms. Women recorded their menstrual cycle", "-35.94771690526977" ], [ "occurrence of coitus in the menstrual phases (except during menstruation itself). This is contrary to other studies, which have found female sexual desire and extra-pair copulations (EPCs) to increase during the midfollicular to ovulatory phases (that is, the highly fertile phase). These findings of differences in woman-initiated versus man-initiated sex are likely caused by the woman's subconscious awareness of her ovulation cycle (because of hormonal changes causing her to feel increased sexual desire), contrasting with the man's inability to detect ovulation because of its being \"hidden\".\nIn 2008, researchers announced the discovery in human semen of hormones usually found in ovulating", "-35.56331949913874" ], [ "14th day of the next cycle, and during this period the woman's desire for sex increases consistently. The 13th day is generally the day with the highest testosterone levels. In the week following ovulation, the testosterone level is the lowest and as a result women will experience less interest in sex.\nAlso, during the week following ovulation, progesterone levels increase, resulting in a woman experiencing difficulty achieving orgasm. Although the last days of the menstrual cycle are marked by a constant testosterone level, women's libido may get a boost as a result of the thickening of the uterine lining which stimulates", "-35.47190948171192" ], [ "menstrual cycle A woman's desire for sex is correlated to her menstrual cycle, with many women experiencing a heightened sexual desire in the several days immediately before ovulation, which is her peak fertility period, which normally occurs two days before until two days after the ovulation. This cycle has been associated with changes in a woman's testosterone levels during the menstrual cycle. According to Gabrielle Lichterman, testosterone levels have a direct impact on a woman's interest in sex. According to her, testosterone levels rise gradually from about the 24th day of a woman's menstrual cycle until ovulation on about the", "-35.42025575658772" ], [ "menstrual synchrony appears to lack adaptive significance.\nIn addition to the study they conducted with lesbian couples, Weller and Weller conducted a number of other studies on menstrual synchrony during the 1990s. In most studies they reported finding menstrual synchrony, but in some studies they did not find synchrony. In a methodological review article in 1997, they refined their approach to measuring to better handle the problem of cycle variability. Specifically, they concluded that several menstrual cycles should be measured from each woman and that the longest average cycle length in a pair or group of women should be", "-35.32057970325695" ], [ "sign of female puberty is an acceleration of growth followed by the development of a palpable breast bud (thelarche). The median age of thelarche is 9.8 years. Although the sequence may be reversed, androgen dependent changes such as growth of axillary and pubic hair, body odor and acne (adrenarche) usually appears 2 years later. Onset of menstruation (menarche) is a late event (median 12.8 years), occurring after the peak of growth has passed.\nPuberty is considered precocious (precocious puberty) if secondary sex characteristics occur before the age of 8 in girls and 9 years in boys. Increased growth is often the", "-35.13572548888624" ], [ "years of age. One of the researchers visited the house three times a week recording menstrual onset and collecting more extensive biographical and psychological test data than in the first study. They found no menstrual synchrony in either study. They considered the possibility that women with irregular cycles may reduce the likelihood of detecting synchrony, so they re-analyzed their data after they removed women with irregular cycles, but again there was no statistically significant effect of synchrony. They concluded that \"It is clear no meaningful process of selection or exclusion of pairs can produce a significant level", "-35.03367463173345" ], [ "cycle.\nBut not only females' preferences vary across cycle, their behaviours as well. Effectively, men respond differently to females when they are on ovulatory cycle, because females act differently. Women in the ovulatory phase are flirtier with males showing genetic fitness markers than in low fertile phase. It has been shown in some studies that women high in estrogen are generally perceived to be more attractive than women with low levels of estrogen, based on women not wearing make-up. High estrogen level women may also be viewed as healthier or to have a more feminine face.\nSimilarly, a study investigated the capacity", "-34.99469951260835" ], [ "change during the menstrual cycle. Before and during ovulation, high levels of estrogen and androgens result in women having a relatively increased interest in sexual activity. Unlike other mammals, women may show interest in sexual activity across all days of the menstrual cycle, regardless of fertility. Mate choice Behavior towards potential mating partners changes during different phases of the menstrual cycle. Near ovulation, women may have increased physical attraction and interest in attending social gatherings with men. During the fertile phase of the cycle, women appear to prefer males who are more masculine. The intensity of mate guarding differs across", "-34.90493228647392" ], [ "simultaneously. Near the perceived start of orgasm, a series of regular contractions began in 9 of the women, with anal and vaginal contractions synchronizing with each other. Three of the women's orgasms consistently included only a series of regular contractions; for six other women, orgasms consistently continued beyond the regular series with additional irregular contractions. Two women had no regular contractions during reported orgasms. The women showed marked differences in orgasm duration and the number of contractions. A 1994 study confirmed these results, but concluded that some women experience their orgasm regularly without contractions and some report having contractions during", "-34.831765407696366" ], [ "men than in older men. In younger men, the refractory period may only last a few minutes, but last more than an hour in older men.\nAn increased infusion of the hormone oxytocin during ejaculation is believed to be chiefly responsible for the refractory period, and the amount by which oxytocin is increased may affect the length of each refractory period. A scientific study to successfully document natural, fully ejaculatory, multiple orgasms in an adult man was conducted at Rutgers University in 1995. During the study, six fully ejaculatory orgasms were experienced in 36 minutes, with no apparent refractory period. Orgasmic", "-34.74036863271613" ], [ "the cycles are anovulatory in the first year after menarche, 50% in the third and 10% in the sixth year. A woman's fertility peaks in the early and mid 20s, after which it starts to decline, with this decline being accelerated after age 35. However, the exact estimates of the chances of a woman to conceive after a certain age are not clear, with research giving differing results. The chances of a couple to successfully conceive at an advanced age depend on many factors, including the general health of a woman and the fertility of the male partner. Tobacco", "-34.68587675776507" ], [ "the pudendal nerve. The typical male orgasm lasts several seconds.\nAfter the start of orgasm, pulses of semen begin to flow from the urethra, reach a peak discharge and then diminish in flow. The typical orgasm consists of 10 to 15 contractions, although the man is unlikely to be consciously aware of that many. Once the first contraction has taken place, ejaculation will continue to completion as an involuntary process. At this stage, ejaculation cannot be stopped. The rate of contractions gradually slows during the orgasm. Initial contractions occur at an average interval of 0.6 seconds with an increasing increment of", "-34.564350674780144" ], [ "based on computer analysis of 7,500 menstrual cycles and takes into account cycle length, the timing of ovulation, the variation of the timing of ovulation from one cycle to the next, as well as the lifespan of the sperm and ovum. To prevent pregnancy using the Standard Days Method and CycleBeads, users avoid unprotected sex by using a condom or abstaining during days 8-19 of the cycle. How to Use CycleBeads, a color-coded string of beads that represents the days of a woman's cycle, helps an individual use the Standard Days Method, by helping her track her cycle days. Starting", "-34.14390994049609" ], [ "by chance among women with cycle characteristics reported by McClintock was about 5 days. They also calculated the expected onset difference at the beginning of the study using McClintock's method for calculating initial cycle onset differences. They reported that the initial cycle onset difference for the groups of women using McClintock's method was about 6.5 days. McClintock reported that groups of women had an initial cycle onset difference at the beginning of her study of about 6.5 days and then subsequently synchronized to an average difference of a little less than 5 days. Yang and Schank point out that", "-34.067753367739215" ], [ "the typical pattern, and some girls ovulate before the first menstruation. Although unlikely, it is possible for a girl who has engaged in sexual intercourse shortly before her menarche to conceive and become pregnant, which would delay her menarche until after the end of the pregnancy. This goes against the widely held assumption that a woman cannot become pregnant until after menarche. A young age at menarche is not correlated with a young age at first sexual intercourse. Onset When menarche occurs, it confirms that the girl has had a gradual estrogen-induced growth of the uterus, especially the endometrium,", "-34.01162355218548" ], [ "generally occurs about one year after the beginning of accelerated penis growth, although this is often determined culturally rather than biologically, since for many boys first ejaculation occurs as a result of masturbation. Boys are generally fertile before they have an adult appearance.\nIn females, changes in the primary sex characteristics involve growth of the uterus, vagina, and other aspects of the reproductive system. Menarche, the beginning of menstruation, is a relatively late development which follows a long series of hormonal changes. Generally, a girl is not fully fertile until several years after menarche, as regular ovulation follows menarche by about", "-33.938220414333045" ], [ "the male can feel the ejaculation coming; two to three seconds later the ejaculation occurs, which the man cannot constrain, delay, or in any way control\" and that, in the second stage, \"the male feels pleasurable contractions during ejaculation, reporting greater pleasure tied to a greater volume of ejaculate\". They reported that, unlike females, \"for the man the resolution phase includes a superimposed refractory period\" and added that \"many males below the age of 30, but relatively few thereafter, have the ability to ejaculate frequently and are subject to only very short refractory periods during the resolution phase\". Masters and", "-33.8996347268112" ], [ "of menstrual synchrony in our samples... Therefore, whether or not menstrual synchrony occurs among women who spend time together must remain a hypothesis requiring further investigation\" (p. 358).\nWeller and Weller conducted a study with 20 lesbian couples. They hypothesized that contact within couples should be maximal and contact with men minimal compared to previous studies, which should maximize the likelihood of detecting synchrony. The women ranged in age between 19 and 34 years of age. This was the first study that did not explicitly use college women, but instead the women were recruited at a bar by a research", "-33.88364949589595" ], [ "women become closer together in time than they were several months earlier.\nAfter the initial studies, several papers were published reporting methodological flaws in studies reporting menstrual synchrony including McClintock's study. In addition, other studies were published that failed to find synchrony. The proposed mechanisms have also received scientific criticism. A 2013 review concluded that menstrual synchrony likely does not exist. Original study by Martha McClintock Martha McClintock published the first study on menstrual synchrony among women living together in dormitories at Wellesley College, a women's liberal arts college in Massachusetts, USA. Proposed causes McClintock hypothesized that pheromones could cause menstrual", "-33.8712157359987" ], [ "stages of the ovarian cycle, with only slight increases in sexual receptivity during fertile stages, and decreases during menstruation. In humans Human females are considered to exhibit the greatest degree of extended female sexuality, with receptivity to sexual intercourse remaining constant across fertile and infertile phases of the reproductive cycle, including during pregnancy, lactation, and in adolescence. In a study of 20,000 women from 13 countries, frequency of copulation was reportedly the same across all stages of the ovarian cycle. The only notable drop in sexual behaviour occurred during menstruation. Therefore, women largely showed the same level of sexual behaviour", "-33.558556721080095" ], [ "two years. Unlike males, therefore, females usually appear physically mature before they are capable of becoming pregnant.\nChanges in secondary sex characteristics include every change that is not directly related to sexual reproduction. In males, these changes involve appearance of pubic, facial, and body hair, deepening of the voice, roughening of the skin around the upper arms and thighs, and increased development of the sweat glands. In females, secondary sex changes involve elevation of the breasts, widening of the hips, development of pubic and underarm hair, widening of the areolae, and elevation of the nipples. The changes in secondary sex characteristics", "-33.54707933857571" ], [ "followed by a few additional contractions or shudders at irregular intervals. In other cases, the woman reports having an orgasm, but no pelvic contractions are measured at all.\nWomen's orgasms are preceded by erection of the clitoris and moistening of the opening of the vagina. Some women exhibit a sex flush, a reddening of the skin over much of the body due to increased blood flow to the skin. As a woman nears orgasm, the clitoral glans retracts under the clitoral hood, and the labia minora (inner lips) become darker. As orgasm becomes imminent, the outer third of the vagina tightens", "-33.53483027336188" ], [ "short-term mating.\nIt is common for sex drive to diminish dramatically after menopause. A number of studies, including Alfred Kinsey's, have concluded that the average age group in which women are the most active sexually is their mid-thirties, one study liberally estimating 27-45 as the limits of the age group (the average man peaks earlier). Women in this age group typically report having sexual fantasies greater in number and intensity, engaging in sexual activity more frequently, and being more interested in casual sex.\nOne study in sexual antagonism suggested a possible genetic link between female androphilic promiscuity and male androphilia: Samoan tribal", "-33.472176269991905" ], [ "changes the woman’s body endures through a life cycle: menstrual cycle, pregnancy, lactation, menopause, and fatigue. Though these changes are usually very small, women seem to have increased levels of sexual desire during ovulation while during menstruation they experience a decreased level of sexual desire. In women, an abrupt decline in androgen production can cause cessation of sexual thoughts and the failure to respond to sexual cues and triggers which previously would elicit sexual desire. This is seen especially in postmenopausal women who have low levels of testosterone. Doses of testosterone given to women transdermally have been found to improve", "-33.45661841810215" ], [ "If the woman is not actually menstruating during a veset day, then there are certain circumstances wherein sexual activity is permitted according to most authorities, for example, if a woman's husband is about to travel, and will return only after menstruation has begun. Niddah and fertility Because the night that the woman ritually traditionally immerses is about 12 days after menstruation began, it often coincides with a woman's ovulation, and thus improves the chances of successful conception if sexual relations occur on that night. However, for certain women, this period extends far past the date of ovulation, and in combination", "-33.37316746709985" ], [ "to change their mating preferences during their cycles. More masculine women may make these changes to enhance their chances of achieving investment.\nWomen have been found to report greater sexual attraction to men other than their own partners when near ovulation compared with the luteal phase. Women whose partners have high developmental stability have greater attraction to men other than their partners when fertile. This can be interpreted as women possessing an adaptation to be attracted to men possessing markers of genetic fitness, therefore sexual attraction depends on the qualities of her partner. Ovulation and ornamentation Hormone levels throughout the menstrual", "-33.247762348590186" ], [ "relatively elderly people: we recall that due to higher differential mortality rates the ratio of males to females reduces for each year of age.\nIn the evolutionary biology of sexual reproduction the operational sex ratio (OSR), is the ratio of sexually competing males that are ready to mate to sexually competing females that are ready to mate, or alternatively the local ratio of fertilizable females to sexually active males at any given time. This is different from the physical sex ratio because it does not take into account sexually inactive or non-competitive individuals (individuals that do not compete for mates). On", "-33.225351158536796" ], [ "than women who are single or women who are in single-partner relationships. Estrogens and progesterone Estrogens and progesterone typically regulate motivation to engage in sexual reproduction behaviour for females in mammalian species, though the relationship between hormones and female sexual motivation is not as well understood. In particular, estrogens have been shown to correlate positively with increases in female sexual motivation, and progesterone has been associated with decreases in female sexual motivation. The periovulatory period of the female menstrual cycle is often associated with increased female receptivity and sexual motivation. During this stage in the cycle, estrogens are elevated in", "-33.2147947535268" ], [ "the male ejaculate like a sponge. It was thought that both males and females experience an orgasm during intercourse and that both released some sort of fluid, which would mix together and the two emissions would result in conception. If women have organs that resemble those of men, and since men obviously experience an orgasm, the woman must too. Women needed to orgasm to produce fluids during intercourse that would stir with the male ejaculate to conceive a child. Laqueur notes that \"the fact that women had gonads like men, that they had sexual desires, that they generally produced fluid", "-33.21476387511939" ], [ "CycleBeads CycleBeads is a visual tool that was developed by the Institute for Reproductive Health at Georgetown University. This device helps women use the Standard Days Method, a fertility awareness-based family planning method.\nThe Standard Days Method is based on the fact that there is a fertile window during a woman's menstrual cycle which begins several days before ovulation and ends a few hours after ovulation. During this time a woman can become pregnant. The Standard Days Method identifies days 8-19 of cycle for women with cycles between 26 and 32 days long, as the potential fertile window. This formula is", "-33.19479147634411" ], [ "shape. When a male and female mate, they lock together for 8–12 hours.", "-33.16527612594655" ], [ "(Chinese: 红铅; pinyin: hóng qiān). The substance was taken by the Ming dynasty Jiajing Emperor and the abuses inflicted on the palace women to ensure the blood's purity led to the Renyin palace rebellion. Menstrual synchrony Menstrual synchrony is an alleged process whereby women who begin living together in close proximity experience their menstrual cycle onsets (the onset of menstruation or menses) becoming more synchronized together in time than when previously living apart. A 2013 review concluded that menstrual synchrony likely does not exist. Menstruation Products There are environmental costs of using menstruation products containing plastic and chemicals. As an", "-33.120055219507776" ], [ "to a highly energetic post-orgasmic state. Other studies According to some studies, 18-year-old males have a refractory period of about 15 minutes, while those in their 70s take about 20 hours, with the average for all men being about half an hour. Although rarer, some males exhibit no refractory period or a refractory period lasting less than 10 seconds. A scientific study attempting to document natural, fully ejaculatory, multiple orgasms in an adult man was conducted at Rutgers University in 1995. During the study, six fully ejaculatory orgasms were experienced in 36 minutes, with no apparent refractory period. Later, P.", "-32.93753439425927" ], [ "to an unbalanced sex ratio. A female attracts males by moving her tongue around to initiate mating. If the male does not respond, she moves on to another mate. The average gestation period is 190 days. The infant will stay with the mother for 18–24 months. After males reach sexual maturity, they are expelled from their natal group. The male must then invade a foreign group. There, the male kills off the other leader and whatever offspring the first leader sired. By doing this, the male is killing any possible competition. Less than 25% of offspring survive male invasions.", "-32.93140201890492" ], [ "mate, a major fitness advantage. Plugging Certain male Argiope bruennichi have a very important adaptation that they have developed to insure that they will be the only mate with whom the female can produce offspring. Certain males are able to \"plug\" the female after they have mated with her to prevent other males from copulating with the female. This plugging involves using the entire male's body, thus allowing him to only mate once. This is a major reason as to why these males are always in a rush to mate after the female has completed her final moult. With males", "-32.92098503600573" ], [ "mate non-locally with members of a different pod but return to the pod after copulation. Demographic data shows that a female’s mean relatedness to the group does increase over time due to increasing relatedness to males. While less well-studied, there is evidence that short-finned pilot whales, another menopausal species, also display this behavior. However, mating behavior that increases local relatedness with female age is prevalent in non-menopausal species, making it unlikely that it is the only factor that determines if menopause will evolve in a species. Mother hypothesis The mother hypothesis suggests that menopause was selected for humans because of", "-32.91260954213794" ], [ "be used to reduce inbreeding, as females will emerge and mate with other males prior to their brothers emerging. The optimal mating time for females is on the same day they emerge, because fertility decreases when mating occurs later. Females release pheromones as a type of calling behavior to demonstrate to males when they are most fertile.\nIn a study of the effects of food shortage and larval crowding on male reproductive phenotype, it was found that males who emerged as adults from the population with the most crowding had smaller forewings, thorax, and head, as well as a lower body", "-32.88487375429759" ], [ "to those that have a large uterus relative to the adult female body size.\nRecent reviews suggest that menstruation itself is not an evolved, adaptive trait. Rather, it is an inherent consequence of spontaneous decidualization evolving as a derived trait from non-spontaneous decidualization.\nThe grandmother hypothesis is a hypothesis to explain the existence of menopause in human life history by identifying the adaptive value of extended kin networking.\nBeginning in 1971, some research suggested that menstrual cycles of cohabiting human females became synchronized (menstrual synchrony). However, there is currently significant dispute as to whether menstrual synchrony exists. A 2013 review concluded that menstrual", "-32.802538083173204" ], [ "years in Iceland. Factors such as genetics, diet and overall health can affect timing.\nThe cessation of menstrual cycles at the end of a woman's reproductive period is termed menopause. The average age of menopause in women is 52 years, with anywhere between 45 and 55 being common. Menopause before age 45 is considered premature in industrialised countries. Like the age of menarche, the age of menopause is largely a result of cultural and biological factors; however, illnesses, certain surgeries, or medical treatments may cause menopause to occur earlier than it might have otherwise.\nThe length of a woman's menstrual cycle typically", "-32.76564409388811" ], [ "Majority of males conduct mate-guarding as post-mating behaviour for approximately 20 minutes after mating by staying on the back of the female or remaining close by to ensure his sperm alone will father their off-spring. Whenever the female is unresponsive, trying to move away from the male’s advances, he would nip the female’s antennae of lick the front of her thorax or elytra. The female would then calm down and raise her abdomen up again for him to continue. This is falls in the middle of mating behaviours of other longhorn species where the male will either mate with the", "-32.753137828432955" ], [ "the phases of the cycle, with increased mate guarding occurring when women are fertile.\nDuring the fertile phase, many women experience more attraction, fantasies and sexual interest for extra pair men but not for the primary partner. They also engage in extra-pair flirtations and demonstrate a preference for extra pair copulation. Voice Preferences for voice pitch change across the cycle. When seeking a short term mating partner, women may prefer a male with a low voice pitch, particularly during the fertile phase. During the late follicular phase, it is common for women demonstrate a preference for mates with a masculine, deep", "-32.702270323527046" ], [ "in women do not accompany their own orgasm, but rather their partner’s ejaculation. The study showed that the man typically finds the woman’s vocalization arousing and highly exciting, and that the woman herself is aware of this. Most women in the study, furthermore, indicated that they vocalized during intercourse to make their man ejaculate more quickly, or to boost his enjoyment or self-esteem, or both. A correlation has been found between the frequency of vocalizations and sexual satisfaction for both men and women.\nThe reasons that women gave for wanting to force a quick ejaculation include the alleviation of the female's", "-32.67752270773053" ], [ "leading up to the final menstrual period, when a female stops menstruating completely and is no longer fertile. The medical definition of menopause is one year without a period and typically occurs between 45 and 55 in Western countries.\nDuring pregnancy and for some time after childbirth, menstruation does not occur. The average length of postpartum amenorrhoea is longer when breastfeeding; this is termed lactational amenorrhoea. Health effects In most women, various physical changes are brought about by fluctuations in hormone levels during the menstrual cycle. This includes muscle contractions of the uterus (menstrual cramping) that can precede or accompany menstruation.", "-32.61501151772973" ], [ "time of menstruation, girls are treated as children, and are only responsible for assisting their mothers in household work. When they approach the age of menstruation, they are sought out by males as potential wives. Puberty is not seen as a significant time period with male Yanomami children, but it is considered very important for females. After menstruating for the first time, the girls are expected to leave childhood and enter adulthood, and take on the responsibilities of a grown Yanomami woman. After a young girl gets her period, she is forbidden from showing her genitalia and must keep herself", "-32.5707542632008" ], [ "male mates when they are the most fertile; both actions may be driven by hormones. Females Androgens may modulate the physiology of vaginal tissue and contribute to female genital sexual arousal. Women's level of testosterone is higher when measured pre-intercourse vs pre-cuddling, as well as post-intercourse vs post-cuddling. There is a time lag effect when testosterone is administered, on genital arousal in women. In addition, a continuous increase in vaginal sexual arousal may result in higher genital sensations and sexual appetitive behaviors.\nWhen females have a higher baseline level of testosterone, they have higher increases in sexual arousal levels but smaller", "-32.49917854217347" ], [ "Females in an estrous cycle attract males with a loud whistle. Females reproduce every 12–18 months and have a six-month gestation. Because they are not seasonal breeders, females could become pregnant when their offspring are approximately 6 months old, making possible for females to produce two offspring per year. Females typically give birth to a single offspring, although twins rarely occur. This differs from the sympatric pygmy slow loris, which commonly has twins. The mother carries her young about three months before they become independent, although they may be temporarily left on branches while the mother searches for food. Sexual maturity", "-32.490906619350426" ], [ "abdomen. This mating position may be maintained for an hour or two before the duo parts.\nFemales typically mate a young age, either before or around the same time of their first blood meals. Females usually mate only once in their lives though it is possible mate more than once, whereas males tend to mate several times. Older males are more likely to mate successfully than very young males.\nDuring mating, the aedeagus is inserted into the vulva and reaches into the uterus as far as the spermatheca exit. A sizable ball of sperm is deposited there in the form of a", "-32.48802469414659" ], [ "activities include calling, courtship, mating, and oviposition. Several studies have pointed out that the female lifespan decreases after mating. The reasons for this are still not fully known. Several possible explanations include physical injuries from the male genitalia or the male accessory gland secretions that force females to commit more resources to reproduction instead of on herself. Male accessory glands Male accessory glands (MAGs) are a reproductive evolutionary strategy adopted by males to gain higher fertilization. MAGs contain many different kinds of molecules including carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins. When MAGs are transferred from the male to the female during copulation,", "-32.47960077022435" ], [ "couple seeks to reach simultaneous orgasm. The male reaching orgasm first can be disruptive to sex, as 50% of penile erection is lost immediately after ejaculation, making him more likely to inadvertently slip out of the vagina, especially during the strong pelvic contractions of female orgasm. In addition to the standard methods for treating premature ejaculation, Zachary Veilleux notes that this problem can be overcome by workarounds such as changing positions frequently (which studies have shown delays male orgasm by a factor of 2-3), using lubrication to reduce friction (friction stimulates the male but is not as important in female", "-32.432487559039146" ], [ "mature on a monthly basis. Once matured, these are called Graafian follicles. The female reproductive system does not produce the ova; about 60,000 ova are present at birth, only 400 of which will mature during the woman's lifetime.\nOvulation is based on a monthly cycle; the 14th day is the most fertile. On days one to four, menstruation and production of estrogen and progesterone decreases, and the endometrium starts thinning. The endometrium is sloughed off for the next three to six days. Once menstruation ends, the cycle begins again with an FSH surge from the pituitary gland. Days five to", "-32.365888317639474" ], [ "regulated by circadian rhythms. Variations due to women's menstrual cycles During the follicular phase (which lasts from the first day of menstruation until the day of ovulation), the average basal body temperature in women ranges from 36.45 to 36.7 °C (97.6 to 98.1 °F). Within 24 hours of ovulation, women experience an elevation of 0.15–0.45 °C (0.2–0.9 °F) due to the increased metabolic rate caused by sharply elevated levels of progesterone. The basal body temperature ranges between 36.7–37.3 °C (98.1–99.2 °F) throughout the luteal phase, and drops down to pre-ovulatory levels within a few days of menstruation. Women can chart this phenomenon to determine whether and", "-32.33929109174642" ], [ "(0.039 in) long; upon withdrawal of the penis, the spines rake the walls of the female's vagina, which acts to induce ovulation. This act also occurs to clear the vagina of other sperm in the context of a second (or more) mating, thus giving the later males a larger chance of conception.\nAfter mating, the female cleans her vulva thoroughly. If a male attempts to mate with her at this point, the female attacks him. After about 20 to 30 minutes, once the female is finished grooming, the cycle will repeat.\nBecause ovulation is not always triggered by a single mating, females may", "-32.33697054407094" ], [ "cycles. She also reported that the more often women associated with males, the shorter their menstrual cycles were. She speculated that this may be a pheromone effect paralleling the Whitten effect in mice but that it could not explain menstrual synchrony among women. Finally, she speculated that there could be a pheromone mechanism of menstrual synchrony similar to the Lee-Boot effect in mice. 1980s Graham and McGrew were the first researchers to attempt to replicate McClintock's study. There were 79 women living in halls of residence or apartments on the campus of a college in Scotland. The", "-32.21383052691817" ], [ "state. This occurs during the refractory period. In the second stage (and after the refractory period is finished), the penis decreases in size and returns to being flaccid. It is generally impossible for men to achieve orgasm during the refractory period. Masters and Johnson argue that this period must end before men can become aroused again. Resolution in females According to Masters and Johnson, women have the ability to orgasm again very quickly, as long as they have effective stimulation. As a result, they are able to have multiple orgasms in a relatively short period of time. Though generally reported", "-32.20499628450489" ], [ "of birth seasonality – enhancing the effects of menstrual synchrony by clumping fertile cycles within a relatively brief time-window – it emerges that reproductive synchrony can be effective as a female strategy to undermine primate-style sexual monopolization by dominant males. The controversy remains unresolved.\nAdopting a compromise position, one school of Darwinian thought sets out from the fact that the mean length of the human menstrual cycle is 29.3 days, which is strikingly close to the 29.5 day periodicity of the moon. It is suggested that the human female may once have had adaptive reasons for evolving such a cycle length", "-32.20248763653217" ], [ "in both men and women are fundamentally similar. However, researchers have argued that there are many differences between men and women in terms of their response. First, Masters and Johnson put forth one model for men, but three different models for women. They stated that men's sexual response only differs in terms of duration; showing different models would, thus, be repetitive. Women, on the other hand, they state can have responses that differ in both intensity and duration. These variations can pose problems because psychologists have argued that not everyone fits this model; for example, most women do not orgasm", "-32.17803623492364" ], [ "paired female and dependent offspring.\nContinuous female sexual receptivity suggests human sexuality is not solely defined by reproduction; a large part of it revolves around conjugal love and communication between partners. Copulations between partners while the woman is pregnant or in the infertile period of her menstrual cycle do not achieve conception, but do strengthen the bond between these partners. Therefore, the increased frequency of copulations due to concealed ovulation are thought to have played a role in fostering pair bonds in humans.\nThe pair bond would be very advantageous to the reproductive fitness of both partners throughout the period", "-32.098467781819636" ], [ "highest and lowest points each day.\nBody temperature is sensitive to many hormones, so women have a temperature rhythm that varies with the menstrual cycle, called a circamensal rhythm. A woman's basal body temperature rises sharply after ovulation, as estrogen production decreases and progesterone increases. Fertility awareness programs use this change to identify when a woman has ovulated in order to achieve or avoid pregnancy. During the luteal phase of the menstrual cycle, both the lowest and the average temperatures are slightly higher than during other parts of the cycle. However, the amount that the temperature rises during", "-32.09185807721224" ], [ "that women with a need for social recognition and approval from others were associated with synchrony, which is partially consistent with her hypothesis. Nevertheless, the group of women she studied did not synchronize their menstrual cycles. Coupled oscillators When McClintock published her study on menstrual synchrony, she speculated that pheromones may cause menstrual synchrony. In a study on Norway rats, McClintock proposed and tested a coupled oscillator hypothesis (see section on rats below). The coupled-oscillator hypothesis proposed estrous cycles in rats were cause by two, estrous phase dependent pheromones that mutually modulated the length of cycles in a", "-32.02949520928087" ], [ "for females are concurrently passed down to other females, and the same with males.\nOther than external genitals, there are few physical differences before puberty. Small differences in height and start of physical maturity are seen. In the first decade of human life there is a significant amount of overlap between children of both sexes. The gradual growth in sex difference throughout a person's life is a product of various hormones. Testosterone is the major active hormone in male development while estrogen is the dominant female hormone. These hormones are not, however, limited to each sex.", "-32.0236719653476" ], [ "are of reproductive age, thus menstruating (WHO,2018). Women at some point in their life will go thru the reproductive age and thus, will experience menstruation. In 2016, Loughnan, Libbet C., Rob Bain, Rosemary Rop, Marni Sommer, and Tom Slaymaker.\ndiscussed findings by the Water Supply and Sanitation Council (WSSCC) having estimated that daily 300 million women are menstruating. On average, according to the WSSCC, a women will spend about 3,500 days during her life menstruating.\nMany young girls and women of menstruating age live in poor socio-economic environments. WIlber, Torondel,Hameed, Mahon and Kuper (2019) \nstate that 663 million people lack basic access", "-32.00529961590655" ], [ "chip that reports the data. In orgasm The uterus and vagina contract during female orgasm. These contractions may not be noticed by all women; pregnant women are more likely to notice these contractions by late 2nd and 3rd trimesters.", "-31.98910494404845" ], [ "be seeking short-term sexual partners at peak fertility, but men can effectively have multiple sexual partners, so competition over one high-quality man should not be necessary. If women were competing for a long-term partner, there is no reason why they should be more competitive during the fertile window than any other time in their cycle. Detecting ovulatory cycle shifts In related research, there is evidence that both men and women can subconsciously detect cues to women's fertility that change across the ovulatory cycle. Some researchers have suggested that natural selection designed women to signal their fertility in order to attract", "-31.97753130714409" ], [ "\"Women love the man whose sexual energy lasts a long time, but they resent a man whose energy ends quickly because he stops before they reach a climax.\" Waldinger summarizes professional perspectives from early in the twentieth century.\nSex researcher Alfred Kinsey did not consider rapid ejaculation a problem, but viewed it as a sign of \"masculine vigor\" that could not always be cured. The belief that it should be considered a disease rather than a normal variation has also been disputed by some modern researchers.", "-31.94538035430014" ], [ "until the fourth female synchronized with the others. When female hamsters are subjected to the stress of stranger hamsters, their cycles become irregular. If only the female from another room's cycles change, then by chance, the longer the female is left with the other three, the more likely it is that she will synchronize by chance with the other three. In a follow-up experimental study motivated by this methodological critique, no evidence for estrous synchrony was found for female hamsters. Chimpanzees In 1985, estrous synchrony was reported in female chimpanzees. In her study, 10 female chimpanzees were caged,", "-31.94317905450589" ], [ "often occurs during extra-pair mating when females have sexual intercourse with males other than their husband. There are potential benefits for females to engage in these matings, including the ability to acquire more resources. For example, females are better able to access meats, goods or services in exchange for sexual intercourse or if she were to give birth to a child whose father has better genes than her husband. Females use these short-term matings to hone their mating and seduction skills and increase their protection. This is because males often provide increased protection against other males exploitation or from non-humans", "-31.93251934752334" ], [ "spend most of the daytime resting.\nA female's estrus lasts 33 days. During courting, the female first licks the male's neck. The male will then rub his cheek against the female's. Then the male and female will fight briefly, standing upright like two males. After that they finally mate. A couple will stay together for one day before separating. A female bears one offspring at a time; young stay in the pouch for about 280 days, after which females and their offspring stay together for only a month. However, females may stay in the home range of their mothers for", "-31.898434803937562" ], [ "them to become active at night to avoid humans. Reproduction The mating season starts in January and ends in March. Males will initially fight for access to females, but eventually establish a monogamous bond, and assist in the raising of their young. The mother initially creates a birthing den, which is sometimes shared with other pregnant females, but moves her young to new burrows several times after they are born.\nTypically, two to six young are born after a gestation period of 52 to 60 days, although cases of ten kits being born in a single litter have been reported. Newborn", "-31.830355593468994" ], [ "men. One study also demonstrated that after interacting with their partner during the fertile phase, men shown a photograph of an attractive man exhibit increased testosterone, which may be a competitive response. Effects of hormonal contraception Since it has been proposed that changes in hormone levels across the ovulatory cycle are the primary mechanisms that causes cycle shifts, some studies have explored the effects of hormonal contraception, like the pill, on both women's cycle shifts and other people's ability to detect cycle shifts.\nMost studies have reported that hormonal contraceptives weaken or eliminate cycle shifts entirely. It has been proposed that", "-31.816506911767647" ], [ "over their partners during this stage. It is highly likely that these changes in male behaviour is a result of the female partner's increased desire to seek and flirt with other males. Therefore, these behavioural adaptations have developed as a form of mate guarding, which increases the male's likelihood of maintaining the relationship and increasing chances of reproductive success.", "-31.77255574738956" ], [ "mating than smaller males, as they win the male-male competition for females. Females approach males to mate at non-resource-based territories controlled by a male.\nD. nigrospiracula has a sex ratio that favors females, as females are seen to mate multiple times in one morning. Additionally, females also are ready to mate 3 days after birth, but males do not reach sexual maturation until they are 9 to 10 days old. These two factors greatly increase the operational sex ratio in favor of females. Courtship D. nigrospiracula exhibit varied mating behavior. Males insinuate courtship first by physical contact with females.", "-31.750418803363573" ], [ "the fields of psychology, biological anthropology, and evolutionary biology.\nRelated research has shown that both men and other women may be able to subconsciously detect when a woman is in the most fertile phase of her ovulatory cycle. Women in the fertile phase are often rated as being more physically attractive, smelling more attractive, and having higher-pitched voices. Men in relationships tend to become more jealous of other men and protective of their partner when she is at high fertility. Additionally, lap dancers report receiving more tips during the fertile phase of their cycle.\nAs ovulatory shifts are predicted to be caused", "-31.728682152810507" ], [ "year and are generally adolescent until they reach three kilograms, when they become female. The largest males often control harems containing three to 15 females. Groupers often pair spawn, which enables large males to competitively exclude smaller males from reproducing. As such, if a small female grouper were to change sex before it could control a harem as a male, its fitness would decrease. If no male is available, the largest female that can increase fitness by changing sex will do so.\nHowever, some groupers are gonochoristic. Gonochorism, or a reproductive strategy with two distinct sexes, has evolved independently", "-31.653399147326127" ], [ "average woman who has a mean LMP-to-ovulation time of 14.6. In a reference group representing all women, the 95% prediction interval of the LMP-to-ovulation is 8.2 to 20.5 days. The actual variability between gestational age as estimated from the beginning of the last menstrual period (without the use of any additional method mentioned in previous section) is substantially larger because of uncertainty which menstrual cycle gave rise to the pregnancy. For example, the menstruation may be scarce enough to give the false appearance that an earlier menstruation gave rise to the pregnancy, potentially giving an estimated gestational age that is", "-31.637795111979358" ], [ "to mate, causing more attraction. This results in fights between males, in which their hard horns are used. It is 2–4 hours before a female allows a male to mount. Males usually keep close contact with females in the mating period. The dominant male can mate with more than one female. Females have a gestation period of 9 months, and give birth to only one calf each time.\nMales, females and juveniles each form separate social groups. The male groups are the smallest; the members stay together and search for food or water sources. The female group is much larger and", "-31.61196040699724" ], [ "takes from three to ten seconds, and produces a pleasurable feeling. Ejaculation may continue for a few seconds after the euphoric sensation gradually tapers off. It is believed that the exact feeling of \"orgasm\" varies from one man to another. Normally, as a man ages, the amount of semen he ejaculates diminishes, and so does the duration of orgasms. This does not normally affect the intensity of pleasure, but merely shortens the duration. After ejaculation, a refractory period usually occurs, during which a man cannot achieve another orgasm. This can last anywhere from less than a minute to several hours", "-31.583637580741197" ], [ "ejaculates) into his mate, swelling of the vaginal occurs. This may serve as a copulatory plug that serves as a defense against other males copulating and having offspring with the female. The male is then enabled to ensure his own paternity. This is an adaptation by the males of D. mettleri,  as females of this species re-mate many types and will selectively fertilize her eggs. The copulatory plug has been shown to ensure paternity of the father, but there is no evidence of this plug serving any selection purposes.  \n6-8 hours after the insemination process occurs, a female will get", "-31.57563221667806" ], [ "by the female pointing, a behaviour in which the female will raise her head to form an oblique angle with her body. In phase 3 males will also begin the same pointing behaviour in response to the female. Finally, the male and female will repeatedly rise upward together in a water column and end in mid-water copulation, in which the female will transfer her eggs directly into the male's brood pouch. Phase 1: Initial courtship This initial courtship behaviour takes place about 30 minutes after dawn on each courtship day, until the day of copulation. During this phase the males", "-31.574220765731297" ], [ "women than in others, which may contribute to orgasms experienced vaginally.\nDuring sexual arousal, and particularly the stimulation of the clitoris, the walls of the vagina lubricate. This begins after ten to thirty seconds of sexual arousal, and increases in amount the longer the woman is aroused. It reduces friction or injury that can be caused by insertion of the penis into the vagina or other penetration of the vagina during sexual activity. The vagina lengthens during the arousal, and can continue to lengthen in response to pressure; as the woman becomes fully aroused, the vagina expands in length and width,", "-31.569234892725945" ], [ "and ensuring enforcement together with empowering women and girls. To raise awareness, the inaugural UN International Day of the Girl Child in 2012 was dedicated to ending child marriage. Menstrual cycle Women's menstrual cycles, the approximately monthly cycle of changes in the reproductive system, can pose significant challenges for women in their reproductive years (the early teens to about 50 years of age). These include the physiological changes that can effect physical and mental health, symptoms of ovulation and the regular shedding of the inner lining of the uterus (endometrium) accompanied by vaginal bleeding (menses or menstruation). The onset of", "-31.51419237384107" ] ]

[ "You power up your CV by doing volunteer work and. I know this sounds super shitty and exploitative, but unpaid or minimum wage work experience.", "Start small, lots of fast food joints and clubs/pubs have a higher turnover rate (at least in Australia that is) and will take anyone who is willing, even the unexperienced. Yeah the pay might not be great, but stick it out for a few months, get some experiences and some good references (very important) then you might be able to find something closer to the area you want.", "Scouting JROTC/Cadet programs Military service Volunteer Internships College/University programs Getting a good job when you're 21 starts by doing good work when you're 12.", "You work lower level jobs (such as at restaurants or retail) and you volunteer at things related to your intended field.", "You have to start small. I started at Burger King. Now I'm CTO of a fast growing software company.", "Examine your skills and hobbies. Are any of them valuable skills that an employer would value? If so, these become experience. Since you are on Redditt you have experience using a computer. So detail that experience. What do you do with it that an employer desires? Did you make a spreadsheet that analyzed some data? Are you good at social networking? Did you build a web site? Did you write a term paper using it? Did you make a video? Providing that none of this activity includes a negative aspect, all of this can be considered experience. Job experience involves your working as part of a team. If you belonged to a club like the chess club, or sports team, or school newspaper, radio station or had a part-time job after school that too is considered job experience. Now take all that information and apply it to what specialty the job you are applying for needs. Show your love of the profession, and the willingness and commitment to learn the business their way. One job I succeeded in getting was that I saw an ad for a company hiring artists for a night shift. I wrote the company suggesting they needed an experienced art director like my self to head this group of artists. So when you write them suggest how you can be of value to the need.", "Lie.... As long as you have the skill. Want to learn HVAC. Say you worked as a helper at xyz company from another city. Smaller places and lower level work don't check as much. Ironically higher level work doesn't check always for assumed things like degrees. Want to be a manager/lead but we're a lowly accountant.... Lie. Say you were a lead. Give HR as a reference and say its for legal reasons they don't give personal refs. They verify the start and end dates the details are up to you. Staffing firms who get paid a portion of your salary as commission are happy to go to bat for you. Do this in private sector. Please don't do this to govt or healthcare fields.", "You can get a job with no experience, it depends what sort of job you're looking for. I got a job as a barista straight out of high school.", "Fake it til ya make it. Be ready though, it is no doubt a sink-or-swim scenario. Don't fuck up.", "volunteer, intern, take more classes, freelance work, take a lesser paying job that you don't want (minimum wage, or even unpaid if thats what it takes) ... if it has the potential to grow/promote you into a position that will give you the experience you want, ask someone working in the field how they got to where they are now, learn how to make a good resume and connect seemingly unrelated dots that show your general experience. and don't expect to have everything in the world handed to you the day you finish college.", "You have to take a job that doesn't require experience. You have to take a job you are over qualified for. This is called paying your dues. It's no fun, but you shouldn't need to be there more than a year. One year should do it, so grt in there and get it over with.", "Internships!!!! I feel like that's what companies mean when they say they want experienced employees for an entry level job. Apply for summer internships and get valuable experience in the field and when you graduate you'll have a least a year or two of prior experience", "You apply anyways. Write a cover letter. Did you do anything in school that applies to this job directly? Boom. Experience. Do anything you can to get an interview. Most jobs are just trying to scare off people with unbelievable expectations.", "Unpaid, preferably paid, internships. I've had two unpaid internships and one paid. I did the first two to boost my resume for grad school and now im working at the paid internship while taking classes." ]

[ [ "employee a certain number of hours pay if, once the temporary employee arrives, there is no work or the work is not as described. Most agencies do not require an employee to continue work if the discrepancies are enough to make it difficult for the employee to actually do the work.\nA temporary work agency may have a standard set of tests to judge the competence of the secretarial or clerical skills of an applicant. An applicant is hired based on their scores on these tests, and is placed into a database. Companies or individuals looking to hire someone temporarily contact", "-23.858281282067765" ], [ "Entry-level job An entry-level job is a job that is normally designed or designated for recent graduates of a given discipline and typically does not require prior experience in the field or profession. These roles may require some on-site training. Many entry-level jobs are part-time and do not include employee benefits. Recent graduates from high school or college usually take entry-level positions. Entry-level jobs targeted at college graduates often offer a higher salary than those targeted at high school graduates. These positions are more likely to require specific skills, knowledge, or experience. Most entry-level jobs", "-22.533222253696295" ], [ "apply for jobs, job-seekers may also view their résumés as one of a number of assets which form their personal brand and work together to strengthen their job application. In this scenario, résumés are generally used to provide a potential employer with factual information (e.g., achievements), while the social media platforms give insight into the job-seekers' motivations and personality in development.", "-22.27043787634466" ], [ "option of applying through their company website, while some companies now have no alternative form of recruitment. Interviewing Once an employer has received résumés, they will make a list of potential employees to be interviewed based on the résumé and any other information contributed. During the interview process, interviewers generally look for persons who they believe will be best for the job and work environment. The interview may occur in several rounds until the interviewer is satisfied and offers the job to the right applicant. Job hunting in economic theory Economists use the term \"frictional unemployment\" to mean unemployment resulting", "-22.235535249346867" ], [ "job searching. Those connections can either direct or recommend their friends to those who are hiring in hopes to land a job. Resume A resume is a list of accomplishments an individual has achieved throughout their lifetime that they wish to include when applying for a job. The resume and quality of it are essential when applying as it is a direct representation of the individual it belongs to. Participation in clubs and organizations allows the student to add that information to the resume and in turn making it stronger. If the student can reach upper-level positions within the club,", "-22.196110972436145" ], [ "employer. It is generally recommended that résumés be brief, organized, concise, and targeted to the position being sought. With certain occupations, such as graphic design or writing, portfolios of a job seeker's previous work are essential and are evaluated as much, if not more than the person's résumé. In most other occupations, the résumé should focus on past accomplishments, expressed in terms as concretely as possible (e.g. number of people managed, amount of increased sales or improved customer satisfaction).\nSince the year 2000, the Internet has been increasingly popular method for job applications, with many companies giving job applicants the", "-22.05974559369497" ], [ "time, the company gets an employee who knows the company's workflow. The student can also benefit from the knowledge about born hard and soft skills of more experienced co-workers. The student develops under real conditions. Therefore, he can see if he is not able or willing to do this job quite early and not only after exams. Furthermore, the student earns money from the beginning.\nGiven that students in dual education systems receive high quality vocational training and education, they are well prepared to enter the job market at a young age, and the firms that participate in their training are", "-21.97328933409881" ], [ "that are functions of experience. Experience is the knowledge that contributes to the procedural understanding of a subject through involvement or exposure. Research within organizational learning specifically applies to the attributes and behavior of this knowledge and how it can produce changes in the cognition, routines, and behaviors of an organization and its individuals.\nIndividuals are predominantly seen as the functional mechanisms for organizational learning by creating knowledge through experience. However, individuals' knowledge only facilitates learning within the organization as a whole if it is transferred. Individuals may withhold their knowledge or exit the organization. Knowledge that is embedded into the", "-21.961937244414003" ], [ "They can find employment leads, and expand their professional network. The employed professional from whom the potential candidate seeks advice and information also learns about a new potential colleague or hire and builds their own network through the conversation.\nThis differs from a job interview because the conversation is not about hiring and not about a specific job. The potential candidate asks general questions about the nature of the company or the industry, and the \"insider\" learns about the potential candidate's professional character at the same time. The information interview helps overcome a problem with most discussions in a recruiting/job-seeking", "-21.89368981088046" ], [ "a good position as a regular employee at any other time of year, or any later in life, is extremely difficult.\nSince companies prefer to hire new graduates, students who are unsuccessful in attaining a job offer upon graduating often opt to stay in school for another year. According to a survey conducted by Mynavi, nearly 80% of job-seekers who had recently graduated from university had difficulty applying for entry-level positions in Japan. This is in contrast to other countries, where companies do not generally discriminate against those who have recently graduated.\nBy contrast, potential employees in Japan are largely judged by", "-21.8280985665333" ], [ "the individual is obliged to visit the Employment Center at least once within 30 calendar days while the workers of the Labour Exchange are selecting an appropriate vacancy. Thereby, according to the legislation, as appropriate is considered the job that conforms to the education, professional skills and work experience.\nIf after a period of 6 months from the registration date it was not possible to find a workplace corresponding to the individual`s profession, the education for another profession will be proposed taking into account health, competencies and needs of the labor market.When changing the profession according to the advice of", "-21.760078498045914" ], [ "economy source or a temp agency, when a temporary employee agrees to an assignment, they receive instructions pertaining to the job. The agency also provides information on correct work attire, work hours, wages, and whom to report to. If a temporary employee arrives at a job assignment and is asked to perform duties not described when they accepted the job, they may call an agency representative for clarification. If they choose not to continue on the assignment based on these discrepancies, they will most likely lose pay and may undermine chances at other job opportunities. However, some agencies guarantee an", "-21.752942521765362" ], [ "Experience requirements can be separated into two groups on an application, work experience and educational background. Educational background is important to companies because by evaluating applicants' performance in school tells them what their personality is like as well as their intelligence. Work experience is important to companies because it will inform the company if the applicant meets their requirements. Companies are usually interested when applicants were unemployed and when/why the applicant left their previous job. Socio-environmental qualifications Companies are interested in the applicant's social environment because it can inform them of their personality, interests, and qualities. If they are extremely", "-21.604738349968102" ], [ "Curricula Vitae to prospective employers, in the hope that they are recruiting for staff or could soon be doing so. Résumés can also be submitted to online employment sites that aid in job searching. Another recommended method of job hunting is cold calling and, since the 1990s, emailing companies that one desires to work for and inquire to whether there are any job vacancies.\nAfter finding a desirable job, they would then apply for the job by responding to the advertisement. This may mean applying through a website, emailing or mailing in a hard copy of a résumé to a prospective", "-21.59142066212371" ], [ "Because employers cannot be on hand to manage every decision, professionals are trained \"to make sure that the subtext of each and every detail of their work advances the right interests—or skewers the disfavored ones\" in the absence of overt control.", "-21.450188064249232" ], [ "to receive employees into service does not mean that employers must necessarily provide employees with work to keep them busy, although this general rule is subject to some exceptions: where, for example, remuneration is based on the volume of work done, as in the case of piece-workers or salespersons working on commission, or where the failure to allow the employee to work degrades his status. A duty to provide work may also arise where the employer has contracted to train the employee in a particular profession or trade, as in the case of article clerks and apprentices.\nThe common law permits", "-21.37494316221273" ], [ "professionals, often, do not receive training about policies that affect students and some have acknowledged that they only learned because of interactions with students or what they have learned through the media. Some undocumented students, who have been surveyed regarding their educational experience, claimed to feel as if they \"lucked out\", having someone to mentor them in college access. Unfortunately, not all students feel this way. Although some students do acknowledge having an influential teacher or college counselor, many students feel unsupported or feel as they were given incorrect information.\nHaving college access information available to support undocumented students is", "-21.30930906033609" ], [ "to stay working for the same business is the challenge. If someone has so much talent and they are good at what they do, businesses will want them to stay and work there forever. However, most of those people are either satisfied with the job they have, or they go out and look for better opportunities. Evaluations From a talent management standpoint, employee evaluations concern two major areas of measurement: performance and potential. Current employee performance within a specific job has always been a standard evaluation measurement tool of the profitability of an employee. However, talent management also seeks", "-21.27737884344242" ], [ "and for employers to fill jobs that would suit tertiary students. Service for students All current, intending and recently graduated tertiary students from a registered and approved tertiary education provider can register. \nStudents find jobs they are interested in on the website and complete an online application form. In some cases, students will need to call SJS to check that they are right for the job and the job is right for them. The system filter will also check that they meet the basic job requirements before they are referred to the employer. Service for employers Employers can list jobs", "-21.20930314506404" ], [ "they works as a store clerk for a number of years, research and writing skills atrophy from disuse. Similarly, technically specialized workers may find themselves unable to acquire positions commensurate with their skills for extended lengths of time following layoffs. Skilled machinists laid off may find that they cannot find another machinist job and so may work as servers in a restaurant, which does not use their professional skills.\nGiven that most university studies in Western countries are subsidized (because it takes place at a state university or public university or because the student receives government loans or grants), that", "-21.18482971721096" ], [ "such as Google+’s Circles, Facebook’s BranchOut, LinkedIn’s InMaps, and Twitter’s Lists to make employers notice them in a unique way. In 2014, using these social media networks has led to 1 of 6 job seekers finding employment.\nA study by Microsoft suggests that job seekers need to begin to pay more attention to what employers and recruiters want in their pre-interview information gathering process and be able to deliver those aspects which essentially are different from their qualifications on résumé, and specific to the built organizational culture for their strategic outcomes. Applying One can also go and hand out résumés or", "-21.176356045820285" ], [ "Employment Employees and employers An employee contributes labor and expertise to an endeavor of an employer or of a person conducting a business or undertaking (PCB) and is usually hired to perform specific duties which are packaged into a job. In a corporate context, an employee is a person who is hired to provide services to a company on a regular basis in exchange for compensation and who does not provide these services as part of an independent business. Employer–worker relationship Employer and managerial control within an organization rests at many levels and has important implications for staff and productivity", "-21.138032217939326" ], [ "for an employee to work with different practices in a given period, they can decide which job should be prioritised. For instance, there are different deadlines for different projects, under the joint employment circumstances, the employee can adjust the pace of work for different projects, so the work can be completed before the deadlines, as well as building a good relations with other practices. In addition, some employees may also prefer working full-time under a joint contract of employment instead of part-time for different practices, therefore the employers can easier to recruit new employees to address staff shortages. Furthermore, the", "-21.1169995105447" ], [ "Jobsworth A jobsworth is a person who uses their job description in a deliberately uncooperative way, or who seemingly delights in acting in an obstructive or unhelpful manner. The term can also be applied to those who uphold petty rules even at the expense of humanity or common sense. \n\"Jobsworth\" is a British colloquial word derived from the phrase \"I can't do that, it's more than my job's worth\", meaning taking the initiative and performing an action that is beyond what the person feels is in their job description. The Oxford English Dictionary defines it as \"A person in", "-21.1026645245729" ], [ "process of seeking jobs, newcomers will develop expectations about the organization they have applied for employment. This information comes from organizational literature such as job postings, annual reports, company brochures, and websites as well as interpersonal interactions such as job interviews, company visits and interpersonal interactions with current employees, organizational interviews, teachers, other applicants and through indirect social networking ties. This process begins to socialize job seekers even before they become part of the organization. Metamorphosis Metamorphosis is the final stage of the assimilation process. “This transition is best understood as the psychological adjustment that occurs when uncertainty has", "-21.079632887413027" ], [ "management, generally within their colleges of business, business schools or faculty of management but also in other related departments. In the 2010s, there has been an increase in online management education and training in the form of electronic educational technology ( also called e-learning). Online education has increased the accessibility of management training to people who do not live near a college or university, or who cannot afford to travel to a city where such training is available.\nWhile some professions require academic credentials in order to work in the profession (e.g., law, medicine, engineering, which require, respectively the Bachelor of", "-21.059865177900065" ], [ "jobs are unlocked by attaining a certain level in the current job class (for instance, to become a Priest or Wizard, the unit must first attain Job Level 2 as a Chemist), which also allows the character to gain more JP in that class in battles. Once all the abilities of a job class have been learned, the class is \"Mastered\". A soldier in a specific Job always has its innate skill equipped (Wizards always have \"Black Magic,\" Knights always have \"Battle Skill\") but a second job-skill slot and several other ability slots (Reaction, Support, and Movement) can be filled with", "-21.058996332460083" ], [ "years' experience.\nIf the work experience is in an area of absolute skills shortage, for 2 to 5 years' work experience the applicant gets 10 points, and for 6 or more years' experience 15 points. However, to qualify for these points, the job must be on the Long-term Skill Shortage List, and the applicant must have the prescribed amount of work experience and qualifications.\nThe immigration officer will need 2 forms of evidence to prove work experience, such as payslips, bank statements (showing one's pay), letters from the Inland Revenue Department (tax), Work and Income New Zealand (social security) deduction documents, work", "-21.02077971890685" ], [ "although alternative means of obtaining entry into such programs may be available at some universities. Requirements for admission to such high-level graduate programs is extremely competitive, and admitted students are expected to perform well.\nWhen employers in any profession consider hiring a college graduate, they are looking for evidence of critical thinking, analytical reasoning skills, teamworking skills, information literacy, ethical judgment, decision-making skills, communication skills (using both text and speech), problem solving skills, and a wide knowledge of liberal arts and sciences. However, most employers consider the average graduate to be more or less deficient in all of these areas.\nIn the", "-20.988870584551478" ], [ "of a supervisor or an industrial engineer, this means the visibility of working is high for a manual worker and low for a knowledge worker.\nDecreased visibility in the workplace correlates with a greater risk of employees underperforming in cognitive tasks. This, along with the previously mentioned issue of measuring cognitive skill, has resulted in employers requiring credentials, such as college degrees. Matt Sigelman, CEO of a labor market analysis firm, elaborates on why employers such as himself value degrees:\nMany employers are using the bachelor’s degree as a proxy for quality employees—a rough, rule-of-thumb screening mechanism to sort through the resume", "-20.957699754432724" ], [ "or rearrange these social networks. The more embedded employees are in an organization, the more they are likely to stay. Additionally, the extent to which employees experience fit between themselves at their job, the lesser chance they will search elsewhere. Organizations can ascertain why employees stay by conducting stay interviews with top performers. A stay survey can help to take the pulse of an organization's current work environment and its impact on their high performing employees. Employers that are concerned with over-using stay interviews can achieve the same result by favoring an ongoing dialogue with employees and", "-20.957447507651523" ], [ "how the employee will be employed and performs work.\nA valid employee-employer relationship typically includes many of the following: supervising the worker on- and off-site; maintaining such supervision through calls, reports, or visits; having a right to control the work on a day-to-day basis if such control is required; providing the worker with the tools and equipment needed for the job; having the ability to hire, pay, and terminate the worker's job; evaluating the worker's products, progress, and performance; provision of some type of employee benefits; allowing the worker to use the employer's proprietary information when performing work; assigning work to", "-20.953565521005658" ], [ "to conduct a job evaluation for the purpose of determining compensation levels and ranges. I/O psychologists may also serve as expert witnesses in pay discrimination cases, when disparities in pay for similar work are alleged by employees. Training and training evaluation Training involves the systematic teaching of skills, concepts, or attitudes that results in improved performance in another environment. Because many people hired for a job are not already versed in all the tasks the job requires, training may be needed to help the individual perform the job effectively. Evidence indicates that training is often effective, and that it succeeds", "-20.840824813902145" ], [ "programs. Some employers choose to incorporate an instructor with virtual training so that new hires are receiving training considered vital to the role. Employees have greater control over their own learning and development; they can engage in training at a time and place of their choosing, which can help them manage their work-life balance. Managers are able to track the training through the internet, which can help to reduce redundancy in training and training costs. Education Some universities offer programs of study for human resources and related fields. The School of Industrial and Labor Relations at Cornell University was the", "-20.82735754555324" ], [ "Up or out In a hierarchical organization, \"up or out\", also known as a tenure or partnership system, is the requirement that each member of the organization must achieve a certain rank within a certain period of time. If they fail to do so, they must leave the organization. Private sector \"Up or out\" is practiced throughout the accounting industry in North America, most notably at the Big Four accounting firms, which also practice this policy in other countries.\nUp or out is commonly regarded as \"a sign of the consulting industry's hard-nosed approach to doing business\" with Bain & Co", "-20.773223948926898" ], [ "instance, there is an employer (the principal) and a worker (the agent). The worker has a given skill level, and chooses the amount of effort he will exert. If the worker knows his ability (which is given at the outset, perhaps by nature), and can acquire credentials or somehow signal that ability to the employer before being offered a wage, then the problem is signaling. What sets apart a screening game is that the employer offers a wage level first, at which point the worker chooses the amount of credentials he will acquire (perhaps in the form of education or", "-20.7660547010164" ], [ "workers because it saves the company money.\nUsually, a fly-in fly-out job involves working a long shift (e.g., 12 hours each day) for a number of continuous days with all days off spent at home rather than at the work site. As the employee's work days are almost entirely taken up by working, sleeping, and eating, there is little need for any recreation facilities at the work site. However, companies are increasingly offering facilities such as pools, tennis courts, and gyms as a way of attracting and retaining skilled staff. Employees like such arrangements since their families are often reluctant to", "-20.756846902280813" ], [ "or no speech. These characteristics may contribute to difficulties with traditional employment strategies, but do not indicate that the person does not have talents that can be translated into a work setting. Discovery is able to uncover these talents\". Types Sometimes customized jobs do not exist in complete job descriptions, but are created through initiatives like job carving, job creation, the development of a business-within-a-business, resource ownership, or a self-employment opportunity. Job carving happens when individuals analyze duties performed in given jobs and identify specific tasks within those existing positions that individuals with disabilities can accomplish. Jobs carved for individuals", "-20.749946801224723" ], [ "career out of it. Getting a job Getting a first job is an important rite of passage in many cultures. The youth may start by doing household work, odd jobs, or working for a family business. In many countries, school children get summer jobs during the longer summer vacation. Students enrolled in higher education can apply for internships or coops to further enhance the probability of securing an entry level job upon graduation.\nRésumés summarize a person's education and job experience for potential employers. Employers read job candidate résumés to decide whom to interview for an open position. Use of the", "-20.740827101661125" ], [ "with the person with the authority to hire.\nFor many businesses, applications for employment can be filled out online, and do not have to be submitted in person. However, it is still recommended that applicants bring a printed copy of their application to an interview.\nApplication blanks are the second most common hiring instrument next to personal interviews. Companies will occasionally use two types of application blanks, short and long. They both help companies with initial screening and the longer form can be used for other purposes as well. The answers that applicants choose to submit are helpful to the company because", "-20.723651763022644" ], [ "experience with others (Piaget & Inhelder, 1969; Vygotsky,1978).\nLearning environments for adults based on constructivist philosophy include opportunities for students to make meaningful connections between new material and previous experience, through discovery. One of the simplest ways to do this is asking open-ended questions. Open-ended questions such as \"Tell me about a time when... .\" or \"How might this information be useful to you?\" cause learners to think about how new information may relate to their own experience. Student responses to such questions are opportunities for experiencing the perspectives of others. For these questions to be effective it is", "-20.71808660935494" ], [ "new hires can occur when they are unpleasantly surprised by an aspect of their job, especially if that aspect is important to them (e.g. unpleasant working environments, inflexible schedule and unreasonable working hours). For example, if a new employee started a new job with an understanding that they wouldn't have to work weekends and then are immediately scheduled for a Saturday night, it undermines that trust and the psychological contract is breached. Better informed candidates who continue the application process are more likely to know what to expect and have the job to be a good fit while the ones", "-20.70411883399356" ], [ "employment opportunities, many residents are not actively seeking work. People tend to hear of job opportunities through informal networks, rather than through conventional postings and applications. As such, an individual might be desiring employment, but not take the proactive steps needed to be defined as \"looking for work.\" Some researchers have suggested that asking reservation residents if they seek job opportunities when they occur would be a more accurate measure of unemployment than asking if they had applied for work recently. Education The boarding school system had the doubly negative effect of inadequately educating a generation of reservation youth while", "-20.679005431535188" ], [ "Situated learning allows students to gain experience through doing in some way and from this experience they are able to be productive in their lives after they have graduated. After graduation Situated learning continues after graduation. According to Halverson (2009):\nAlmost any job-related skill can be taught by practicing the skill, and computer simulations can create immersive environments where the target skills are necessary for solving engaging problems.\nIn situations where situated learning is not possible, simulations can offer an alternative way to provide employees with an authentic learning experience. Situated learning allows employees to immediately apply what they've learned in", "-20.659787963610142" ], [ "misunderstanding in order to prolong the employee's longevity with the organization. New-hire surveys can help to identify the breakdowns in trust that occur early on when employees decide that the job was not necessarily what they envisioned.\nWhy employees stay – Understanding why employees stay with an organization is equally as important to understanding why employees choose to leave. Recent studies have suggested that as employees participate in their professional and community life, they develop a web of connections and relationships. These relationships prompt employees to become more embedded in their jobs and by leaving a job; this would sever", "-20.6470380218816" ], [ "which results in their having Earned Time. This is time available to a student who has selected Peer-Partner, Student-Teacher Contract or Self-Directed teaching style and who has completed the objectives of a unit in less time than allocated for the unit. In Earned Time, a student can work in an area of high interest, demonstrating high-level thinking and new learning. The choice is not not to work, but rather to take part in a passion area directly related to the student's ability and interest. The passion area need not be related to the subject in which the student earned the", "-20.622384230373427" ], [ "These programs often require the recipient to undertake job training, internships, or job rotations. Make-work jobs can have the benefit of giving workers the chance of meeting new people and learning how to work with others. Such jobs can also help workers learn the importance of coming to work on time and taking responsibility for their actions.\nMany of the skills learned while doing make-work jobs help workers when applying for and doing regular jobs. Several make-work jobs that were created in Denmark in 2014 were gardening, cleaning up beaches and sidewalks, reading to the elderly or disabled, washing toys at", "-20.622365112125408" ], [ "(e.g. coaching, profile specific information) and tools (e.g. products and services which facilitate easier or more effective job searching by the candidate). Companies like JobSerf take ownership and complete the execution of the task of online job searching. For the first stage of a job search, a resume writer is a good comparison. The job seeker passes information (or an initial draft) to the writer, and the writer completes the job seeker's resume (and cover letters) versus providing them with advice or tools. Process Typically, a job seeker would sign-up on JobSerf's website, and then provide JobSerf with information", "-20.621383407164103" ], [ "employee as an individual; they don’t try to fix weaknesses, but instead focus on strengths and talent; and they find ways to measure, count, and reward outcomes.", "-20.592855326278368" ], [ "hires become embedded in the company and thus more likely to stay. These practices include shared and individualized learning experiences, activities that allow people to get to know one another. Such practices may include providing employees with a role model, mentor or trainer or providing timely and adequate feedback.\nTraining and development – Providing ample training and development opportunities can discourage turnover by keeping employees satisfied and well-positioned for future growth opportunities. In fact, dissatisfaction with potential career development is one of the top three reasons employees (35%) often feel inclined to look elsewhere. if employees are not given opportunities", "-20.554106718103867" ], [ "among other things, firing or refusing to hire someone based on a real or perceived disability, segregation, and harassment based on a disability. Covered entities are also required to provide reasonable accommodations to job applicants and employees with disabilities. A reasonable accommodation is a change in the way things are typically done that the person needs because of a disability, and can include, among other things, special equipment that allows the person to perform the job, scheduling changes, and changes to the way work assignments are chosen or communicated. An employer is not required to provide an accommodation that would", "-20.546588690951467" ], [ "technical training for a given field for which there is a good job market, they lack experience. Recent graduates with a master's degree in accounting or business administration may have to work in a low-paid job as a barista or store clerk, which does not require a university degree, until they are able to find work in their professional field.\nAnother example of underemployment is someone who holds high skills for which there is low market-place demand. While it is costly in terms of money and time to acquire academic credentials, many types of degrees, particularly those in the liberal arts,", "-20.5378612090135" ], [ "Simultaneous recruiting of new graduates Hiring practices In Japan, entry-level jobs are classified further into three categories, that is, entry-level positions for students who have not graduated from high school or university yet, entry-level positions for job-seekers who have recently graduated and entry-level positions for those who have less than 3 years' work experience, however, very few employers post jobs for entry-level positions for job-seekers who have recently graduated. That is why job-seekers who have recently graduated want to apply for entry-level positions for students who have not graduated from high school or university yet.\nIn Japan, most students hunt for", "-20.5243380064785" ], [ "employment, where outplacement is hard, and the employees tend to obey any and all unreasonable demands made by their companies so as not to be fired.\". \nYuki Honda, a professor at the University of Tokyo's Graduate School of Education, has said \"Whether they get a job when they graduate decides their whole life\". Ken Mogi, a Japanese brain scientist, points out that limiting job opportunities would lead to a human rights issue and that Japanese companies cannot secure non-traditional competent people in the current job hunting system.", "-20.518655315885553" ], [ "may look suspect to admissions officers, particularly if it seems unreasonable that any person could be as active and succeed scholastically at the same time. Jobs are generally viewed favorably by admissions committees, including even part-time service jobs such as flipping hamburgers, since it suggests that a student has learned to handle time management, to accept responsibility, and develop people skills. A less dominant position was that it is helpful to be involved in a \"variety of activities\", including jobs, internships, and community service. Some universities, such as the University of California, have formal programs for spot-checking applications for accuracy,", "-20.500889601535164" ], [ "is only possible for masters who have been working several years in their profession and who have been accepted by the chambers as a trainer and examiner.\nAcademic professionals, e.g., engineers, seeking this license need to complete the AdA during or after their university studies, usually by a one-year evening course.\nThe holder of the license is only allowed to train apprentices within his own field of expertise. For example, a mechanical engineer would be able to educate industrial mechanics, but not e.g., laboratory assistants or civil builders. After the apprenticeship of trade and craft professions When the apprenticeship is ended, the", "-20.485345069057075" ], [ "Job interview A job interview is an interview consisting of a conversation between a job applicant and a representative of an employer which is conducted to assess whether the applicant should be hired. Interviews are one of the most popularly used devices for employee selection. Interviews vary in the extent to which the questions are structured, from a totally unstructured and free-wheeling conversation, to a structured interview in which an applicant is asked a predetermined list of questions in a specified order; structured interviews are usually more accurate predictors of which applicants will make suitable employees, according to research studies.\nA", "-20.466576863836963" ], [ "organization, may influence their decisions, employees' personality factors may also impact their decisions to exit early from otherwise ideal jobs under ideal working conditions.\nRecipients often refer to specific events in exit interviews when voluntarily leaving their current jobs. Minor events with subtle emotional effects also have a cumulative impact on job satisfaction, particularly when they occur acutely with high frequency. For example, perceived stressful events at work are often positively associated with high job strain on the day that they occur and negatively associated with strain the day after, resulting in an accumulation of perceived job-related stress over time.", "-20.440487893065438" ], [ "for the job. If possible, small businesses should use experienced individuals in the hiring process, these individuals will know if the future employee will fit into the culture of the company as well as if they possess the relevant skills. Criticisms However, there are also some negative aspects of competency-based job descriptions. They can be time consuming, as it takes a long time to gather the data needed to decide which competencies are relevant for the job profile. This process can also be very costly and not all businesses may have the funds available to carry out the competency analysis.", "-20.423348557204008" ], [ "Shift-based hiring Shift-based hiring is a recruitment concept pioneered in Singapore that hires people for individual shifts, rather than hiring employees before scheduling them into shifts. Originally, it was intended as an efficient way to schedule part-time work that is shift based but it is now known that this concept can be applied to any job that requires a number of consecutive hours of commitment as a shift. This hiring concept focuses on employing workers for a particular shift on that particular day, rather than focusing on employing a worker to work recurrent shifts that can become part time or", "-20.41381816337889" ], [ "a small business or has worked for a business for less than twelve months. The redundancy compensation payment for employees depends on the length of time an employee has worked for an employer which excludes unpaid leave. If an employer can’t afford the redundancy payment they are supposed to give their employee, once making them redundant, or they find their employee another job that is suitable for the employee. An employer is able to apply for a reduction in the amount of money they have to pay the employee they have made redundant. An employer can do this by", "-20.404573687701486" ], [ "as compared to the employer offering the employee a shift that he or she might not want. The bargaining power does not lie solely with the employer, since employers hire employees for one or more shifts. The employer has the flexibility to scale up or down its labour demand, while employees have the flexibility to choose the shifts they want to work. Scheduling With workers elected and hired only for specific shifts, the scheduling of such workers is a by-product of the hiring process and there is no need for the extra process of matching each workers’ schedules into the", "-20.38372381165391" ], [ "occupation is considered professional or not, the employer is advised to conduct recruitment for a professional occupation. Controversy As with many immigration procedures, labor certification tends to be controversial. Its backers argue that it is a rigorous procedure for determining that only foreign workers who truly have skills needed by the US labor market and not readily available locally are hired. Its critics, however, say that US employers will first hire a foreigner on a long-term temporary visa, and then try to tailor the job description so that that foreigner is the only person who could possibly be", "-20.35158597852569" ], [ "are common in the engineering, scientific and medical industries where valuable employees have particular technical skills but may not be inclined to pursue a management career path. When properly managed, these programs can help companies retain top talent by offering extended career opportunities while allowing employees to remain in their chosen careers and continue to receive salary increases.", "-20.32604529861419" ], [ "opportunity for companies to meet with students and talk to them about their expectations from them as students and answer their potential questions such as the degree or work experience needed. Online job fairs Online job fairs offer many of the same conveniences of regular career fairs. An online job fair uses a virtual platform which allows employers to discuss with potential new nominees for the job they’re offering. This is a way of interacting with them virtually and practical to get to know who they are. A virtual career fair include many services such as video, live chats, downloadable", "-20.27674938197015" ], [ "student mental disabilities. The Star Program Behaviour modification program located at the P.A.C.I. High School facility. Storefront Storefornting is a way for students to get those credits they are needing to graduate without having to sit through classes in the classroom. Work education Work education or \"Work Ed\" is a program for students of high school age who have severe learning disabilities. They function in a lot of normal classes like the rest of the school, but one thing about this program is they get some work experience skills by doing job like tasks at various places in the city", "-20.261823042528704" ], [ "initial expectations the individual has for the job, and enhances the ability to cope with the new job. By creating a realistic job preview, individuals indirectly develop an impression of the organization being honest and open to their potentially new employees. In turn, this improves the commitment of new employees as well as their initial job satisfaction. Thus, the hiring organization saves time by interviewing only the candidates with a strong chance of success.\nAlthough many studies show that realistic job previews can also increase the drop-out rate for new candidates, other studies have shown that the effect they have on", "-20.257923738390673" ], [ "because the employee is still adjusting and getting acclimated to the organization. Companies retain good employees by being employers of choice.\nRecruitment – Presenting applicants with realistic job previews during the recruitment process have a positive effect on retaining new hires. Employers that are transparent about the positive and negative aspects of the job, as well as the challenges and expectations are positioning themselves to recruit and retain stronger candidates.\nSelection – There are plethora of selection tools that can help predict job performance and subsequently retention. These include both subjective and objective methods and while organizations are accustomed to using more", "-20.242302525788546" ], [ "Job fair In-person In colleges, job fairs are commonly used for entry-level job recruitment. Job seekers use this opportunity to meet with a college and attempt to stand out from other applicants and get an overview of what it is like to work for a company or a sector that seems interesting to the applicant.\nCareer expositions usually include company or organization tables or booths where resumes can be collected and business cards can be exchanged. \nOften sponsored by career centers, job fairs provide a convenient location for students to meet employers and perform first interviews. This is also an", "-20.198465527180815" ], [ "Application for employment An application for employment is a standard business document which is prepared with questions deemed relevant by an employer in order for the employer to determine the best candidate to be given the responsibility of fulfilling the work needs of the company. Most companies provide such forms to anyone upon request at which point it becomes the responsibility of the applicant to complete the form and returning it to the employer at will for consideration. The completed and returned document notifies the company of the applicants availability and desire to be employed and their qualifications and background", "-20.17254829616286" ], [ "direct contact with potential employers of various companies and exchange information with them. The project consists of two parts: job and internship fair and The Academy of Skills. \nThis project allows students to find a job relating to their skills and interests and to compare and evaluate different job offers. The first job fair took place in Warsaw in 1992.\nThe Academy of Skills gives students the opportunity of free professional trainings organized by companies partaking in The Career Days. The aim of this event is to prepare students to the process of finding a suitable job, and to develop their", "-20.17061009327881" ], [ "Job attitude A job attitude is a set of evaluations of one's job that constitute one's feelings toward, beliefs about, and attachment to one's job. Overall job attitude can be conceptualized in two ways. Either as affective job satisfaction that constitutes a general or global subjective feeling about a job, or as a composite of objective cognitive assessments of specific job facets, such as pay, conditions, opportunities and other aspects of a particular job. Employees evaluate their advancement opportunities by observing their job, their occupation, and their employer. Defining Research demonstrates that interrelationships and complexities underlie what would seem to", "-20.161260865512304" ], [ "Signalling (economics) Job-market signalling In the job market, potential employees seek to sell their services to employers for some wage, or price. Generally, employers are willing to pay higher wages to employ better workers. While the individual may know his or her own level of ability, the hiring firm is not (usually) able to observe such an intangible trait—thus there is an asymmetry of information between the two parties. Education credentials can be used as a signal to the firm, indicating a certain level of ability that the individual may possess; thereby narrowing the informational gap. This is beneficial to", "-20.154043267131783" ], [ "Employability Employability refers to the attributes of a person that make that person able to gain and maintain employment. In relation to freelance or ad hoc work In the future fewer will be employed and more people work as free lancers or ad hoc on projects. Robin Chase, co-founder of Zip Car, argues that in the future more work will be done as freelancers or ad hoc works. Collaborative economy and other similar platforms are reinventing capitalism, for example platforms like Freelancer.com, a new way of organizing demand and supply.\nFreelancer is also an example of how employability can be developed", "-20.139743419538718" ], [ "by having a higher degree on their resume. If you have a years of work experience in any field, but your employer doesn’t recognize you just because of your degree then there is a good news for you that the online universities also giving you the chance for apply your degree on the basis of your work experience. Benefits Creating modes for online communication can increase parent participation in their children's education, which in turn increases students’ interest in their learning. Online communication increases parents’ understanding of classroom procedures, philosophies and policies. Parents then feel more involved in", "-20.126576300157467" ], [ "than full-time staff. Freelancers also consist of students trying to make ends meet during the semester. In interviews, and on blogs about freelancing, freelancers list choice and flexibility as a benefit. Drawbacks Freelancing, like other forms of casual labor, can be precarious work. Websites, books, portals and organizations for freelancers often feature advice on getting and keeping a steady work stream. Beside the lack of job security, many freelancers also report the ongoing hassle of dealing with employers who don't pay on time and the possibility of long periods without work. Additionally, freelancers do not receive employment benefits such", "-20.088906812597997" ], [ "except where there is an exception. If the employee's work is judged to be for the benefit of the employee rather than the benefit of the employer, that is to say, if the content or condition of the work is closer to the \"training\" of the training than to the actual work, it is not illegal,. The US Department of Labor is concerned with wages and working hours that 'internships are for interns' benefit and interns do not replace existing ones, but existing staff directs and manages internships, I understand that the internship is unpaid, \"and that the unpaid internship", "-20.060378783440683" ], [ "Bachelor in Information Management Post Graduate Programs Keep in mind that although you can start a career straight after your bachelors, you may also be interested in furthering your study by enrolling in a masters program. Employers seem to be finding that business management undergraduates are too keen on starting work immediately, without actually having attained the essential skills need for a professional workplace. This may be in terms of general maturity and also the students ability to 'hit the ground running'. This is where masters students have the greater advantage.\nThere are many different masters programs available to graduates from", "-20.032727850099036" ], [ "Canadian Job Bank Employers An employer can post a job on the Canadian Job Bank, obtain information about hiring international workers and various human resources issues, learn about permit and licensing matters, and obtain information about various incentive programmes. Employees Anyone can find general information about how to look for a job, how occupations are described in Canada, how to make a successful attempt to obtain a job, alternatives to employment, employment and work standards, requirements for working in Canada, and advice for specific categories of people. Career Exploration A visitor can explore careers by occupation, wages and outlook,", "-19.998802798741963" ], [ "On-the-job training History On-the-job training is one of the earliest forms of training in the United States. The method is used when trained professionals are passing their knowledge to the recruit. The on-the-job training method dates from back in the days when not everyone was literate, and it was the most convenient way to understand the requirements needed for the new job, on a one-to-one basis. In antiquity, the work performed by most people did not rely on abstract thinking or academic education. Parents or community members, who knew the skills necessary for survival, passed their knowledge on to the", "-19.955965104629286" ], [ "belonging. When different opportunities are offered to an employee, generally the choice is made by a mix of objective and subjective views, where he or she must prioritise every aspect of their opportunities in order to result with a beneficial solution.\nThese sort of agreements might potentially impose penalties if the employee decides to leave the company before the contracted date, such as the repayment of bonuses. Often included in these contracts are non-disclosure agreements (NDAs), where the employee is prohibited to communicate sensitive corporate information, and non-compete clauses, where working for competitors is forbidden for the leaving employee. Structure Top", "-19.940642143018522" ], [ "of learning, the ‘learning-by-doing’⁴ methodology, allows people with all kinds of backgrounds to learn and improve their skills in a Practice Enterprise. Trainees get to know the real-life international business experience and learn and improve important skills such as language and communication skills, intercultural competences and various soft skills which are helpful in finding one’s own path and increase the employability.\nTrainees learn many different entrepreneurship skills⁵ such as Administration skills, Accountancy, Computer-based skills (ICT), Human resources management, Marketing and Sales, Purchasing, Business planning, International trade, and Time management. In addition, they also develop the necessary competences to become a better", "-19.931338344118558" ], [ "job interviews should only discriminate against applicants for job incompetence. Universities should not accept a less-capable applicant instead of a more-capable applicant who can't pay tuition.\nSubstantive equality of opportunity is absence of indirect discrimination. It requires that society be fair and meritocratic. For instance, a person should not be more likely to die at work because they were born in a country with corrupt labor law enforcement. No one should have to drop out of school because their family needs of a full-time carer or wage earner.\nFormal equality of opportunity does not imply substantive equality of opportunity. Firing any employee", "-19.930936614982784" ], [ "understand the triggers of the employee's desire to leave as well as the aspects of their work that they enjoyed. The organization can then use this information to make necessary changes to their company to retain top talent. Exit interviews must, however, ask the right questions and elicit honest responses from separating employees to be effective.\nEmployee Retention Consultants – An employee retention consultant can assist organizations in the process of retaining top employees. Consultants can provide expertise on how to best identify the issues within an organization that are related to turnover. Once identified, a consultant can suggest programs or", "-19.928275387181202" ], [ "of an employee's decision to leave the organization; however organizations can lead the market with a strong compensation and reward package as 53% of employees often look elsewhere because of poor compensation and benefits. Organizations can explicitly link rewards to retention (i.e. vacation hours to seniority, offer retention Bonus payments or Employee stock options, or define benefit plan payouts to years of services) Research has shown that defined compensation and rewards as associated with longer tenure. Additionally, organizations can also look to intrinsic rewards such as increased decision-making autonomy.\nEffective Leaders – An employee's relationship with his/her immediately ranking", "-19.922424498219698" ], [ "Experience management Experience management is an effort by organizations to measure and improve the experiences they provide to customers as well as stakeholders like vendors, suppliers, employees, and shareholders. The concept posits the notion that experiences comprise distinct economic offerings that create economic value and competitive advantage.\nOrganizations have begun to collect experience data in addition to operational data, since experiences are seen as a competitive advantage. Experience management platforms provide various services to automate the process of identifying and improving experiences across an organization.\nBroader than customer experience, experience management now encompasses customer experience along with other areas, such as", "-19.913481330208015" ], [ "a student better understand how interest and career choices go hand in hand, due to shared likes, skills, and interest to occupations in certain programs.\nThroughout the Career Cruising there are hundreds of occupations with profiles. These profiles include interviews with people within the career, salary information, job outlook, and locations. In the employee interviews, located in the profiles of each career, they ask key questions including about their typical workday, pros and cons, and advise for students interested in pursuing that career. There are a couple ways to search for careers, including by keyword, index, school, subjects, career cluster, or", "-19.876869337254902" ], [ "way to or from work does not qualify for workers' compensation benefits; however, there are some exceptions if your responsibilities demand that you be in multiple locations, or stay in the course of your employment after work hours.\nThere are two methods an employer can comply with its obligation to provide workers' compensation coverage for its employees. Very large organizations and governments may choose to \"self-insure\" in which the organization obtains permission from the workers' compensation agency to pay claims directly, without being required to carry insurance. \nSmaller organizations must, and self-insured organizations may, purchase a workers' compensation insurance policy to", "-19.8623743817152" ], [ "Skilled worker Overview In addition to the general use of the term, various agencies or governments, both federal and local, may require skilled workers to meet additional specifications. Such definitions can affect matters such as immigration, licensure and eligibility for travel or residency. For example, according to US Citizenship and Immigration Services, skilled worker positions are not seasonal or temporary and require at least two years of experience or training.\nSkilled work varies in type (service versus labor), education requirements (apprenticeship versus graduate college) and availability (freelance versus on-call). Each differences are often reflected in titling, opportunity, responsibility and (most significantly)", "-19.839344628388062" ], [ "\nTypically, individuals are required by law to be qualified by a local professional body before they are permitted to practice in that profession. However, in some countries, individuals may not be required by law to be qualified by such a professional body in order to practice, as is the case for accountancy in the United Kingdom (except for auditing and insolvency work which legally require qualification by a professional body). In such cases, qualification by the professional bodies is effectively still considered a prerequisite to practice as most employers and clients stipulate that the individual hold such qualifications before hiring", "-19.82624683981885" ], [ "them do for experience and it is not unusual to see many facilities engineers with master's degrees in the given fields. They must have that degree in either structural engineering, mechanical engineering, or manufacturing engineering. Most employers require one to have 3-10 years of experience before they will consider someone as eligible for the given job. Depending on how skilled the job is. Licensure and certification are required by a lot of employers, consisting of a professional engineer license, an EPA certification and boiler operator license, and an EPA certification. EPA also was known as Environmental Protection Agency is in", "-19.824854278180283" ], [ "which a person (the worker) is integrated into the organisation of the other person (the employer), or whether the person is performing work inside the organisation of another.\nThe work of an independent contractor, although done for the business, is not integrated into it; it is only accessory to it.\nIf a person is incorporated into or related sufficiently to the organisation, that person will be regarded as an employee or a worker even though the employer might exercise little actual control over him.\nOne of the problems with this test is that it is not always possible to measure the extent of", "-19.815241041535046" ], [ "These traits of self-care and self-reliance have helped many people with disabilities develop communication skills to \"include P.E.C.S. and sign language that make them marketable to many companies.\"\nVocational and employment training helps prepare students by providing them the tools to learn skills such as gardening and landscaping, janitorial services, food packaging and distribution. This allows employees to work independently in the field in which they choose to study. Employment Programs People with disabilities are one of the largest groups of unemployed adults. These people face discrimination when it comes to training, accommodations and assistive technological services that make it possible", "-19.74529585815617" ], [ "15 percent of finance and accounting professionals found new jobs through social media. Social media can be both helpful and detrimental to those searching for employment. Hiring managers sometimes search social media to look for reasons not to hire a job applicant. According to a 2013 survey from CareerBuilder.com, 43 percent of employers use social networking sites to research potential hires. Another 45 percent are researching the \"fit\" of a job candidate with their company by conducting a search via Google or another search engine. 51 percent of employers who research candidates on social media say they've found postings which", "-19.739982482824416" ], [ "alike, with control forming the fundamental link between desired outcomes and actual processes. Employers must balance interests such as decreasing wage constraints with a maximization of labor productivity in order to achieve a profitable and productive employment relationship. Labor acquisition / hiring The main ways for employers to find workers and for people to find employers are via jobs listings in newspapers (via classified advertising) and online, also called job boards. Employers and job seekers also often find each other via professional recruitment consultants which receive a commission from the employer to find, screen and select suitable candidates. However, a", "-19.729798481683247" ], [ "workers have jobs or careers that requires them to use their feelings, or \"emotional labor\" as Hochschild calls it, in the workplace. Their reactions and actions are based on the way they see how other people react or express their feelings. Companies and corporations see this and use it to exploit workers in order to maximize profits.\nHochschild gives a clear example on how companies maximize their profits through the use of feeling rules by viewing the job of a flight attendant. A flight attendant's job requires emotional labor. The flight attendance uplifts the customer through his or her demeanor and", "-19.727817819046322" ], [ "depends mainly on performance. Therefore, an assistant buyer can easily work their way up to senior buyer within three to five years. Higher levels of management in a company usually require a graduate degree in business.", "-19.725363865035433" ], [ "asking them critical questions pertaining to why they stay and what their goals are.\nWhy employees leave – By understanding the reasons behind why employees leave, organizations can better cater to their existing workforce and influence these decisions in the future. Oftentimes, it is low satisfaction and commitment that initiates the withdrawal process, which includes thoughts of quitting in search of more attractive alternatives. If administered correctly, exit interviews can provide a great resource to why employees leave. Typically, employees are stock in their responses because they fear being reprimanded or jeopardizing any potential future reference. The most common", "-19.70879189122934" ], [ "of Applied Arts and Technology or a degree in a relevant science area. However, engineering undergraduates and all other applicants are not allowed to use the title of engineer until they complete the minimum amount of work experience of four years in addition to completing the Professional Practice Examination (PPE). If the applicant does not hold an undergraduate engineering degree then they may have to take the Confirmatory Practice Exam or Specific Examination Program unless the exam requirements are waived by a committee.\nIT professionals with degrees in other fields (such as computer science or information systems) are restricted from using", "-19.69282930227928" ], [ "the company will not spend more money on hiring employees and the employee will get a check that can be used on whatever they want. Another way a company can influence employees by staying are raises and promotions. This will provide employees with job security and better performance. Career development The option for moving or shifting to alternative roles motivates the employee's participation in the workplace meaning if an employee can see the future potential for a promotion, motivation levels will increase. By contrast, if an organisation does not provide any potential for higher status position in the future, the", "-19.62111897394061" ] ]

[ "Thankyou for posting this. **One question!** - how do the mods address posts where the answers are in no way written to be elementary friendly? As you mentioned, this isn't /r/answers but the amount of overly descriptive responses that wouldn't be understood by anyone in elementary school is rapidly ruining my enjoyment of this sub-reddit :( [Example]( URL_0 ) - Sure it's a good read and and a great explanation but in no way would this be understood by a child.", "I believe part of the issue is also that folks who primarily visit reddit from their phones don't even know there *is* a sidebar. I didn't know that until a comment mentioned it and I looked at the site from a PC for the first time.", "If your question doesn't start with \"Why,\" or \"How,\" it doesn't belong here.", "Thank you so much, everyone's always pissed when i point out that they're posting the wrong stuff and i'm also tired of seeing all the crap posted.", "I always liked the idea that you have to link to the answer to your question in your post. Then, ask that the answer you linked to be simplified. That way people need to do some sort of research before posting.", "I once criticized a poster for asking a yes/no question in this subreddit and got downvoted.", "Have been wanting to post this every day for weeks. Knew i would be downvoted for complaining because i'm not a mod. Thanks, anonymous123421. It needed to be said." ]

[ [ "\"Lest we forget\" is commonly used in war remembrance services and commemorative occasions in English-speaking countries, in particular Remembrance Day and Anzac Day. It is used to remember fallen military personnel as a mark of respect. Abdel-Magied's words in parentheses referenced refugees held in detention on Manus Island and Nauru, and injustices against Palestinians. The comment was criticised by many on social media as well as Minister for Immigration Peter Dutton. Abdel-Magied deleted the part in parentheses soon after posting it, commenting: \"It was brought to my attention that my last post was disrespectful, and for that, I apologise unreservedly.\"", "-27.368697588564828" ], [ "away the Eight Mental Dusts of the mind. Hinokishin Hinokishin (lit. daily service) is a spontaneous action that is an expression of gratitude and joy for being allowed to \"borrow\" his or her body from God the Parent. Such an action ideally is done as an act of religious devotion out of a wish to help or bring joy to others, without any thought of compensation. Hinokishin can range from helping someone to just a simple smile to brighten another person's day. Examples of common Hinokishin activities that are encouraged include cleaning public bathrooms and parks among other such acts", "-26.001561427197885" ], [ "is later than one's utterance. Indeed, most people who say \"thank goodness that's over\" are not even thinking of their own utterance. Therefore, when people say \"thank goodness that's over,\" they are thankful for an A-fact, and not a B-fact. Yet, A-facts are only possible on the A-theory of time. (See also: Further facts.) Endurantism and perdurantism Opponents also charge the B-theory with being unable to explain persistence of objects. The two leading explanations for this phenomenon are endurantism and perdurantism. The former states that an object is wholly present at every moment of its existence. The latter states that", "-25.035319219110534" ], [ "more sharps there are. For example, if in the present year he experiences an erotic moment, this is augmented by his recollection of it in the previous year etc. … Hope hovers over it as a hope of eternity that fills out the moment.\nKierkegaard writes about remembering one's Creator, hoping, being concerned about one's eternal salvation, and knowing one's place in the world in these discourses. Think about Your Creator in the Days of Your Youth Based on the following text; \"REMEMBER ALSO your Creator in the days of your youth, before the evil days come, and the years draw", "-24.857701323577203" ], [ "Nocturnes (short story collection) Reception Robert Macfarlane writes in The Sunday Times that \"Closing the book, it’s hard to recall much more than an atmosphere or an air; a few bars of music, half-heard, technically accomplished, quickly forgotten.\" Christian House of The Independent writes that \"Ultimately this is a lovely, clever book about the passage of time and the soaring notes that make its journey worthwhile\".", "-24.84496875804325" ], [ "the motto 'Lest we forget.' In an open letter to the people of Omaha, Hebert described his feelings behind his effort:\nIt is a shame that it took these deaths and others to raise public consciousness and effect the changes that we enjoy today. When I discovered that William Brown was buried in a pauper's grave, I did not want William Brown to be forgotten. I wanted him to have a headstone to let people know that it was because of people like him that we enjoy our freedoms today. The lesson learned from his death should be taught to all.", "-24.790733279602136" ], [ "Ressentiment Ressentiment ([rəsɑ̃timɑ̃]) is the French translation of the English word resentment (from Latin intensive prefix re-, and sentir \"to feel\"). In philosophy and psychology it is a concept that was of particular interest to the existentialist philosophers. According to the existentialists, ressentiment is a sense of hostility directed toward an object which one identifies as the cause of one's frustration, that is, an assignment of blame for one's frustration. The sense of weakness or inferiority complex and perhaps even jealousy in the face of the \"cause\" generates a rejecting/justifying value system, or morality, which attacks or denies the", "-24.73305660893675" ], [ "Je me souviens Je me souviens ([ʒə mə suˈvjɛ̃]) is the official motto of Quebec, a province of Canada. The motto, translated literally into English, means \"I remember.\" It may be paraphrased as conveying the meaning \"We do not forget, and will never forget, our ancient lineage, traditions and memories of all the past\". Origins Étienne-Paschal Taché, of \"last cannon shot\" fame, is widely credited with having popularized the phrase.\nIn 1883, his son Eugène-Étienne Taché, Assistant Commissioner for Crown lands in Quebec and architect of the provincial Parliament building, had the motto carved in stone below the coat of", "-24.712036038472434" ], [ "end: the book concludes with her recounting the memory of that night to her aunt and cousins, who never knew the true reason she left the country. When her aunt is surprised that she remembers all these details, she responds that while she forgets many things, \"I remember everything about that night.\" For Urania, forgetting the atrocities committed by the regime is unacceptable. Her father, on the other hand, is not capable of joining her in this process of remembering, since he has suffered a stroke and is not capable of speaking; however, Urania is angry that he chose to", "-24.657217952189967" ], [ "watch to Taipei mayor Ko Wen-je unaware of such a taboo which resulted in some professional embarrassment and a pursuant apology.\nIt is undesirable to give someone a clock or (depending on the region) other timepiece as a gift. Traditional superstitions regard this as counting the seconds to the recipient's death. Another common interpretation of this is that the phrase \"to give a clock\" (simplified Chinese: 送钟; traditional Chinese: 送鐘) in Chinese is pronounced \"sòng zhōng\" in Mandarin, which is a homophone of a phrase for \"terminating\" or \"attending a funeral\" (both can be written as 送終 (traditional) or 送终 (simplified)).", "-24.64806774200406" ], [ "Answered Prayers History The title of the book refers to a quote that Capote chose as an\nepigraph: \"More tears are shed over answered prayers than unanswered ones\". The quote is attributed to Saint Teresa of Ávila, although there is no evidence that it is authentic.\nAccording to Joseph M. Fox's editor's note to the 1987 edition, Capote signed the initial contract for the novel—envisioned as a contemporary American analog to Marcel Proust's In Search of Lost Time—on January 5, 1966 with Random House. This agreement provided a $25,000 advance with a stipulated delivery date of January 1, 1968. \nDistracted by the", "-24.6261710175022" ], [ "Memento mori A memento mori (Latin 'remember that you must die') is an artistic or symbolic reminder of the inevitability of death. \"The expression 'memento mori' developed with the growth of Christianity, which emphasized Heaven, Hell, and salvation of the soul in the afterlife.\" Pronunciation and translation In English, the phrase is pronounced /məˈmɛntoʊ ˈmɔːri/, mə-MEN-toh MOR-ee.\nMemento is the 2nd person singular future active imperative of meminī, \"to remember, to bear in mind\", usually serving as a warning: \"remember!\" Mori is the present active infinitive of the deponent verb morior, literally \"to die\".\nIn other words, \"remember death\" or \"remember that", "-24.576533964136615" ], [ "Their gratitude, if reading my memoirs will have given instruction and pleasure. Their esteem if, doing me justice, they will have found that I have more virtues than faults; and their friendship as soon as they come to find me deserving of it by the frankness and good faith with which I submit myself to their judgment without in any way disguising what I am.\nHe also advises his readers that they \"will not find all my adventures. I have left out those which would have offended the people who played a part in them, for they would cut a sorry", "-24.527273077343125" ], [ "the lines of \"Yesterday is history, tomorrow is a mystery, but today is a gift. That is why it is called the present\". The earliest version of this aphorism appears to occur in 1912, with the Frank M. Pixley quote, \"Yesterday is history; to-morrow is merely a hope; to-day is the only absolute asset of time that is yours\".\nSome languages have a hesternal tense: a dedicated grammatical form for events of the previous day.", "-24.463008941500448" ], [ "Recall Mechanism \"Recall Mechanism\" is a science fiction short story by American author Philip K. Dick, first published in 1959 and later in The Collected Stories of Philip K. Dick, Vol. IV, The Days of Perky Pat (1987). Synopsis The story is written in a post-apocalyptic world and begins with a psychologist, who is known as an \"Analyst\" in the story, called Humphreys. He is analysing one of his patients, Paul Sharp, who has a phobia of falling and suffers bouts of this fear brought on by simply standing on a small step.\nHumphreys decides to delve into Sharp's sub-conscious", "-24.418829258531332" ], [ "we’ve forgotten to remember. It reminds us of things that are important to us when the world overtakes us emotionally.’", "-24.40713139739819" ], [ "and C shall do for X. ... [W]hat I want to do is to look up C. ... I call him the Forgotten Man. Perhaps the appellation is not strictly correct. He is the man who never is thought of. He is the victim of the reformer, social speculator and philanthropist, and I hope to show you before I get through that he deserves your notice both for his character and for the many burdens which are laid upon him.\nSumner's \"forgotten man\" and its relationship to Franklin Roosevelt's \"forgotten man\" is the subject of Amity Shlaes's The Forgotten Man.", "-24.39946530450834" ], [ "the Dawn service at 4.28 a.m. Recitations of the \"Ode of Remembrance\" are often followed by a playing of the \"Last Post\". In Canadian remembrance services, a French translation is often used along with or instead of the English ode.\nThe line \"Lest we forget\", taken from Kipling's poem \"Recessional\" (which incidentally has nothing to do with remembering the fallen in war), is often added as if were part of the ode and repeated in response by those listening, especially in Australia. Several Boer War memorials are inscribed with the phrase showing its use pre WWI. In the United Kingdom, Australia, New", "-24.326790598162916" ], [ "remember it and you must keep this for us. I hope. I hope. This is for you and you only. Don't talk to anyone, forever; to other people or another village. If people question you, don't answer. Don't talk to them, because this story is only for you. If you tell it to them, you'll die. I am afraid you will die. You'll be dead; your people will be dead, if you tell this story. You keep this story in your house; to yourself, I hope, forever. Forever. ...\nIn 1978 a Canadian geologist visiting the Asmat met a missionary named", "-24.32617862385814" ], [ "Sonnet 77 Paraphrase When you look in your mirror, you will see how you are aging. Your timepiece will show you how your minutes are being wasted. This book will allow you to record the impressions of your mind, and these impressions will themselves teach you. The lines in your face that your mirror shows you will remind you of the open mouths of fresh graves. The hands of the dial will truly teach you how time thievishly keeps leading towards eternity. What your memory cannot keep, you should write down, and when you return to them you will find", "-24.30511692876462" ], [ "Reflections on Having Left a Place of Retirement Reflections on Having Left a Place of Retirement is a poem written by English poet Samuel Taylor Coleridge in 1796. Like his earlier poem The Eolian Harp, the poem discusses Coleridge's understanding of nature and his married life, which was suffering from problems that developed after the previous poem. Overall, the poem focuses on humanity's relationship with nature in its various aspects ranging from experiencing an Edenic state to having to abandon a unity with nature in order to fulfill a moral obligation to humanity. The discussion of man's obligation to each", "-24.266449496382847" ], [ "Nihil admirari Nihil admirari (or \"Nil admirari\") is a Latin phrase. It means \"to be surprised by nothing,\" or in the imperative, \"Let nothing astonish you.\" Origin Marcus Tullius Cicero argues that real sapience consists of preparing oneself for all possible incidents and not being surprised by anything, using as an example Anaxagoras, who, when informed about the death of his son, said, \"Sciebam me genuisse mortalem.\" (I knew that I begot a mortal). Horace and Seneca refer to similar occurrences and admired such moral fortitude.\n'Marvel at nothing'--that is perhaps the one and only thing that can make a", "-24.250760405731853" ], [ "never forget history, lest we surely repeat it.\"\nAuthor Philip Spires on Ashes to the Vistula: \"This is one of the strengths of Bill Copeland's book. It has an immediacy, a present that it is uncomplicated by received hindsight. On many issues, Bill Copeland leaves the jury out, enabling the reader to empathise with the dilemmas that confronted wartime and immediate post-war experience. This is the book's subtlety. Though it is primarily plot-led, the plot is genuinely surprising, ultimately engaging and, in a few late chapters, both confronts and rounds off several themes that the reader has registered throughout the narrative.\"", "-24.128967051859945" ], [ "found phrases and objects in Coley's work is explained by Tim Hunt, he states that Coley's isolation of these words: \"relieves them of specific historical reality and relieves them of a specific historical reality and returns them as representations pitched between aphorism and haiku.\" \nNathan is currently exhibiting in Parafin Gallery, Mayfair with his exhibition ‘The Future is Inside Us, Not Somewhere Else’ ending on the 16th November, 2019. The works on display here were also shown at Edinburgh Parliament Hall. Alongside this exhibition, Nathan’s illuminated text ‘THE SAME FOR EVERYONE’ is currently placed on Cunnard Place in London,", "-24.128589279134758" ], [ "exerts on individuals. For example, his most recent poetry collection, Naega salagal aram (내가 살아갈 사람 The Person I Will Live As), is full of works that ask the question ‘what is the truth’ to the world. As he soberly perceives our history as a reality full of contradictions blotted by ‘the history of false tears’, he also resolves to “never forget what shouldn’t be forgotten”, and sincerely expresses his desire to send “the only book that people who have already passed can borrow through the mind”, to “people who have lived before me”, and “the person that I will", "-24.101956467377022" ], [ "were not forgotten by me in my good fortune. The worthy uncle, who had kindly housed and fed me when I was quite too small to make him any repayment for that service, received in his old age the means to render his life more easy and happy. My cousins too, had no reason to be sorry for the good-will which they had ever shown toward me. I was never the person to forget a friend, or leave unrequited a favor, when I had the payment of it in my power.\" (Whitman 109). Months and even", "-23.90535461908439" ], [ "Perhaps the first written expression of the concept is the advice given by Siduri to Gilgamesh, telling him to forgo his mourning and embrace life although some scholars see it as simply urging Gilgamesh to abandon his mourning, \"reversing the liminal rituals of mourning and returning to the normal and normative behaviors of Mesopotamian society.\" Meaning In Horace, the phrase is part of the longer carpe diem, quam minimum credula postero, which is often translated as \"Seize the day, put very little trust in tomorrow (the future)\". The ode says that the future is unforeseen and that one should not", "-23.88529088019277" ], [ "yourself; if you don't want it yourself, then stop immediately. One wants to repay kindness and forget grudges. Repaying grudges is short; repaying kindness is long. In dealing with maids and servants, one is of high station. Though of high station, one must be kind and forgiving. Using force to make people submit doesn't make their hearts submit. Only using reason to make people submit will cause there to be no mutterings. Chapter 6 - Be Close to and Learn from People of Virtue and Compassion （親仁） 同是人，類不齊。流俗眾，仁者希。果仁者，人多畏。言不諱，色不媚。能親仁，無限好。德日進，過日少。不親仁，無限害。小人進，百事壞。\nAll are human, but their types differ. Most belong to the unrefined; the", "-23.870524132275023" ], [ "Questions: Philosophy for Young People History The editor-in-chief of the first 5 issues of Questions (2001–2005) was Jana Mohr Lone. Rory Kraft and Allison Reiheld co-edited the following 3 issues; Kraft continued to edit the journal from 2008-forward. The 2006 issue was funded in part by Michigan State University, at the time the home of both Kraft and Reiheld. Abstracting and indexing The journal is abstracted and indexed by Academic Outline, Google Scholar, InfoTrac, Philosophy Research Index, and PhilPapers.", "-23.764011346851476" ], [ "the past and blames time for giving an early death to her dreams. She best expressed her pain in her poetry, which includes “Aspiración” (Aspiration), “Desencanto” (Disenchantment), “Anhelo” (Yearning), “Sufrimiento” (Suffering), “La noche y mi dolor” (The Night and My Pain), “Quejas” (Complaints), “A mis enemigos” (To My Enemies), “A un Reloj” (To a Clock) and “A mi madre” (To My Mother). Her literary style is characterized by rhythmic and musical verse, and she hardly made use of metaphors or imagery in her poetry.", "-23.753599769610446" ], [ "of enmity and conflict, especially truth-telling about the past. Volf's The End Of Memory (2006) explores this theme in much greater depth. He argues that it isn’t enough that we remember the past (as Elie Wiesel, for instance, has done), but that we must remember the past rightly. There is a pragmatic and not just a cognitive dimension to memory. Memories concerned merely with the truth of what happened and oriented exclusively toward justice often become untruthful and unjust memories; the \"shield\" of memory then morphs into a \"sword,\" as can be seen in many parts of the world, including", "-23.72790094674565" ], [ "Robert Butler's life review. This process involves recalling memories throughout one’s entire life and sharing these stories with other people. Often this is done within group therapy. Obsessive reminiscence occurs when somebody needs to be able to let go of any stress of guilt that may be lingering. By working through these issues it allows them to be at peace with themselves. Reminiscence has also been used to help people deal with the death of a loved one. By sharing stories about the loved one's life they can remember fond memories and gain a sense of peace with the", "-23.704951810941566" ], [ "and delivers a message to his \"reader\" about gratitude.\nThe Young Man from Repetition found in Job a reason to argue not only with the whole world but also with God, he said, \"Job’s tormented soul breaks forth in powerful cries. Then I understand; these words I make my own. At the same time, I sense the contradiction and smile at myself as one smiles at a little child who has donned his father’s clothes. Indeed, is it not something to smile at if anyone else but Job would say: Alas, if only a man could take God to court as", "-23.691814301069826" ], [ "hidden or left unspoken…suggest the importance of an increasing body of writing on memory, traumatic memory, and memory politics and of methods aimed at observing or retrieving remainders of violence or traumatic historical events” (2008:15). In engaging with the past it is important that we do not forget the youth in the community that are the future of the community. They are stakeholders as well as the adults, and they too need a voice. Makagon and Neuman suggest that the narrative realm can be enlarged through citizen storytellers who “…can be anyone who", "-23.684369337104727" ], [ "in Australia, with little or no debate in other Commonwealth countries that mark Remembrance Day.\nThey shall grow not old, as we that are left grow old;\n\nAge shall not weary them, nor the years condemn.\n\nAt the going down of the sun and in the morning\n\nWe will remember them. (13–16)\nBinyon speaks of loss and mourns the deaths of soldiers who left behind \"familiar tables\" and \"laughing comrades\".\nThey mingle not with their laughing comrades again;\n\nThey sit no more at familiar tables at home;\n\nThey have no lot in our labour of the day-time;\n\nThey sleep beyond England's foam. (17–20)\nIn the sixth stanza, the soldiers are", "-23.66999306785874" ], [ "cut amen\"). One must also not recite amen too quickly; one should allocate enough time for the amen as necessary to say ’El melekh ne’eman. Saying an amen ketzara (אמן קצרה, \"short amen\") recited too quickly shows a lack of patience. When responding amen will constitute a prohibited interruption When responding amen will constitute a hefseik (הפסק, \"[prohibited] interruption\"), one should not respond amen. An example of this type of situation would be within the evening kiddush on Jewish holidays, when the blessing of sheheheyanu is added within the kiddush prayer.\nBy listening intently and responding amen to each blessing", "-23.65585435612593" ], [ "praeparet bellum (\"Therefore he who desires peace, let him prepare war.\"). The idea which it conveys also appears in earlier works such as Plato's Nomoi (Laws) and the Chinese Shi Ji. The phrase presents the counter-intuitive insight that the conditions of peace are often preserved by a readiness to make war when necessitated. Notable uses Whatever the source, the adage has become a living vocabulary item itself, used in the production of different ideas in a number of languages. The parabellum The main clause of the adage was used as a motto by German arms maker Deutsche Waffen und Munitionsfabriken", "-23.654709273570916" ], [ "and purpose are replaced by chaos and bewilderment. People lose the will to live, become listless, become violent, become suicidal, and take to drink, drugs, and crime... laws, customs and institutions fall into disuse and disrespect, especially among the young, who see that even their elders can no longer make sense of them.\" The Great Remembering During his lectures, B introduces the Great Remembering as this generation’s most needed response to the Great Forgetting. He comments that, because we have already experienced a collapse of culture, our society is ready to abandon our totalitarian agriculture and industrial trends. B", "-23.64763197809225" ], [ "that reads: \"This is our cry. This is our prayer. Peace on Earth.\" Every year on Obon Day, which is a holiday in Japan to remember the departed spirits of one's ancestors, thousands of people leave paper cranes near the statue. A paper crane database has been established online for contributors to leave a message of peace and to keep a record of those who have donated cranes. Related works In addition to Eleanor Coerr's story first published in 1977, Sadako's story has become familiar to many school children around the world through the novels The Day of the", "-23.519984823884442" ], [ "concept that also calls us to express gratitude, to respect and to avoid wastage.\"", "-23.51624279707903" ], [ "live without someone. Its mood is preoccupied with feelings of dependence and an overwhelming sense of desperately reaching out to be with that person.\n27. Raag Todi (ਟੋਡੀ) – Todi consists of both wisdom and humbleness. It is through these sentiments that the Raag takes a simple approach to explain things that we may be aware of, but fail to ponder upon. The Raag draws the attention of the listener to contemplate these things and gives an explanation with such conviction, that we are compelled to agree.\n28. Raag Bairari (ਬੈਰਾੜੀ) – Bairari stimulates the feeling of improving and continuing with a", "-23.5096226343303" ], [ "recall addressing a history meeting in Cardiff...when, for the only time in my life, I was subjected to an incoherent series of attacks of a highly personal kind, playing the man not the ball, focusing on my accent, my being at Oxford and the supposedly reactionary tendencies of my empiricist colleagues.", "-23.498703803488752" ], [ "sanity and sobriety; it is the indispensable condition of continuity; its health determines the health of society as a whole.\nMenzies himself described The Forgotten People collection as 'a summarised political philosophy'. Representing the blueprint of his liberal philosophy, The Forgotten People encompassed a wide range of topics including Roosevelt's Four Freedoms, the control of the war, the role of women in war and peace, the future of capitalism, the nature of democracy and especially the role of the middle class, 'the forgotten people' of the title and their importance to Australia's future as a democracy. The addresses frequently emphasised the", "-23.49667346739443" ], [ "is a ‘disappearing dream, the resonance of a memory. Perhaps it will soon be no more than a barren word, an abstract concept without reference.’\nAlready in his first published book, Scheyer writes ‘... I have sought, again and again, to take refuge from the desolate reality of the last years in the only truth that still makes existence tolerable, opening wounds but at the same time healing them: memory.’ Nostalgia is the explicit theme of Scheyer's 1927 volume, Escape to Yesterday. Both quotations belong to specific historical contexts, the former looking back over the War years, the latter", "-23.46121251306613" ], [ "from either a mishnah or a baraita. Many of the homilies close with words of hope and encouragement regarding the future of the Jews; but several of them are abbreviated and not entirely completed, this curtailment being apologized for in the words \"Much more might be said on this subject, but we shall not tire you\", or \"This passage has been elucidated by several other interpretations and expositions, but in order not to tire you we quote only that which is necessary for today's theme\". Tanḥuma B, or Yelammedenu This second midrash with which the name of Tanḥuma, largely known", "-23.431025143687293" ], [ "si canta;\n\nLa giustizia non cede,\n\nCh'ogni virtù, riverendo,\n\nSiede in trono suo cor.\nNow that duty compels me,\n\nin select and brief verses,\n\nto show my gratitude for that eminent honour\n\nwith which you have overwhelmed us, august prince,\n\nI delve deep into my thoughts\n\nfor an inspiration.\n\nI rack my brains,\n\nconsider, reflect, but find nothing\n\nI involve Phoebus and the muses to my aid;\n\nthey all appear before me\n\nshamefaced and with broken lyres.\n\nI ask the reason\n\nfor such confusion, and see them mute;\n\nand after a thousand or so bruning sighs\n\none thus replies:\n\nRevered shepard, be appeased, and on such a day\n\ndo not force us to confess our shame.\n\nOn the banks of the", "-23.4095141185976" ], [ "forgotten her. Hosseini stated, \"The question is raised a number of times about whether memory is a blessing — something that safeguards in all the things that are dear to you — or is memory a curse — something that makes you relive the most painful parts of your life, the toil, the struggle, the sorrows.\" Thus, the combination of these events make And the Mountains Echoed \"kind of like a fairytale turned on its head\".\nI think at the core, all three of my books have been love stories — and they haven't been traditional love stories in the sense", "-23.40892743464792" ], [ "be forgotten by power, and how present it always was to the memory of the people, the real meaning of this 25th chapter appears to have been misunderstood. It has been supposed to have prescribed the uniformity of identity, and not the uniformity of proportion; that, by enjoining one measure of wine, and one measure of ale, and one measure of corn, its intention was, that all these measures should be the same; that there should be only one unit measure of capacity for liquid and dry substance, and one unit of weights.\nBut this neither was, nor could be, the", "-23.35752695443807" ], [ "Thoughts and prayers The phrase \"thoughts and prayers\" is often used by public officials offering condolences after any publicly notable event, such as a deadly natural disaster. The phrase has received criticism for its repeated usage in the context of gun violence or terrorism, with critics claiming \"thoughts and prayers\" are offered as substitutes for action, like gun control or counter-terrorism. Usage history The phrase thoughts and prayers is frequently used as an expression of condolences for victims of natural disasters (e.g., Hurricane Katrina (2005), the 2010 Canterbury earthquake 2011 Christchurch earthquake, the 2017 Central Mexico earthquake, and Hurricane Maria", "-23.31743421504507" ], [ "Horkheimer; i.e. it is freed from being a pathological or unsound reaction. Améry makes public his resentment with no false modesty: “the fundamental insight of Améry consists precisely in having understood the complex ambivalence of resentment, which is the refusal of the present and, at the same time, an emotional and existential bond with the past”, a \"multiform revolt of the soul, which makes it possible to save and revive the memory of the offence without obscuring the use of critical reason\".\nThe necessity of not forgetting is taken up again in the introductory essay by Guia Risari for the Italian", "-23.306443721681717" ], [ "to such a dark subject? The men and women who built this museum will tell you: Because evil is not just a chapter in history; it is a reality in the human heart. So this museum serves as a living reminder of what happens when good and decent people avert their eyes from hatred and murder. It honors those who died by serving as the conscience for those who live. And it reminds us that the words \"never again\" do not refer to the past; they refer to the future.\nYou who are survivors know why the Holocaust must be taught", "-23.288943710300373" ], [ "myself confess it, surely one might humor me. When the word “mediation” is merely mentioned everything becomes so magnificent and grandiose that I do not feel well but am oppressed and chafed. Have compassion on me in only this one respect; exempt me from mediation and, what is a necessary consequence, from becoming the innocent occasion that would cause one or another philosophical prattler to repeat, like a child at the chancel step, something I indeed know well enough: the history of modern philosophy’s beginning with Descartes, and the philosophical fairy tale about how being and nothing combine their deficiencies", "-23.28012344945455" ], [ "Pramada (Indian philosophy) Meaning Pramada in Sanskrit variously means - negligence, inertia, inadvertence, indolence, idleness, sluggishness, inattentiveness. Pramada produces forgetfulness. It is the root cause of all pains and problems afflicting human-beings. Implication The Bhagavad Gita XIV 13,17, lists Pramada (negligence) with Apravrtti (inactivity), Aprakasha (non-illumination) and Moha (delusion) as the products of Tamasi vivrddhe (preponderant state of dullness), which is opposite to knowledge produced by Sattva. The yogasutra ( chapter 1 verse 30 ) includes it in a list of nine causes of mental disturbances.\nIn Buddhism, Aceshta (sloth), Apravrtti (inactivity) and Pramada (negligence) are collectively known as Thinamiddha.\nIn Jainism,", "-23.2760797275987" ], [ "Their memory is one of wondrous beauty, watered by tears, and coaxed and caressed by the smiles of yesterday. I listen vainly, but with thirsty ears, for the witching melody of faint bugles blowing reveille, of far drums beating the long roll. In my dreams I hear again the crash of guns, the rattle of musketry, the strange, mournful mutter of the battlefield. But in the evening of my memory, always I come back to West Point. Always there echoes and re-echoes: Duty, Honor, Country. Today marks my final roll call with you, but I want you to know that", "-23.271194995206315" ], [ "four remembrances: \"Birth is suffering, aging is suffering, sickness is suffering, death is suffering, association with the unpleasant is suffering, dissociation from the pleasant is suffering, not to receive what one desires is suffering....\" This formula is reiterated throughout the Pali Canon. Sukumāla Sutta (AN 3.38) The first three remembrances are antidotes to the \"threefold pride\" of youthfulness (yobbana-mada), health (ārogya-mada) and life (jīvita-mada). Nyanaponika & Bodhi (1999) note:\nThe first three contemplations commended serve to replicate, in the thoughtful disciple, the same awakening to the inescapable realities of the human condition that was thrust upon the future Buddha while", "-23.262606695992872" ], [ "life ordered according to a particular pattern, and who are intolerant of every existence the utility of which is not palpable to them, may pooh-pooh Mr. Thoreau and this episode in his history, as unpractical and dreamy.\nThoreau himself also responded to the criticism in a paragraph of his work Walden by illustrating the irrelevance of their inquiries:\nI should not obtrude my affairs so much on the notice of my readers if very particular inquiries had not been made by my townsmen concerning my mode of life, which some would call impertinent, though they do not appear to me at all", "-23.259432458722586" ], [ "urgency and, as a call for action, noted that history favors the courageous. Longfellow, who often used poetry to remind readers of cultural and moral values, warns at the end of the poem of a coming \"hour of darkness and peril and need\", implying the breakup of the Union, and suggests that the \"people will waken and listen to hear\" the midnight message again. By emphasizing common history, he was attempting to dissolve social tensions.\nThe phrase \"Hardly a man is now alive\" was true as one of the last men alive at the time had only recently died. Jonathan Harrington,", "-23.247763384861173" ], [ "where we come to. The thing about the museum is it really gives you a sense of hope. I mean if you look back sometimes when we’re in the middle of something it really feels daunting, it feels really difficult. It feels like there is no progress but if you step back, you see the arc of history bending towards justice. Courage was throughout, the sense of resilience was throughout, the sense of hope was throughout, the sense of resistance was throughout and I think that’s why it’s very fitting for us to have this ball there, it is the", "-23.240928462240845" ], [ "tongue remember You without ceasing\nAnd my heart enthralled by Your love!\nAnd be gracious to me by answering me favorably,\nAnd nullify my slips\nAnd forgive my lapses!\n...\n...\nO He, whose satisfaction is quickly achieved!\nForgive him who owns nothing but supplication\nFor You do what You will\nO He whose Name is a remedy,\nAnd whose remembrance is a cure,\nAnd whose obedience is wealth!\nHave mercy upon him whose main wealth is hopefulness\nAnd whose weapon is weeping!\nYou can see the complete English text of Du'a Kumayl here and also here via video with English subtitle.", "-23.24025776446797" ], [ "who will appreciate it more than I do.\nIt speaks to me of faithful service, of duty well done, of friendships cemented by dangers and hardships and sufferings shared in common in camp and in the field. But, sir, it also speaks to me of bloodshed - possibly some of it unavoidably innocent - in defense of loved ones, of homes; homes in many cases but huts of grass, yet cherished none the less. \nIt speaks of raids and burnings, of many prisoners taken, and like vile beasts, thrown in the foulest of prisons. And for what? For", "-23.222591642232146" ], [ "Poem:\nShould mission memories be forgot and never brought to mind?\n\nShould we forget the days we spent in service to mankind?\n\nOh know we'll strive our very best to ever keep in mind.\n\nThe lessons we to others taught, the way of life to find.\n\nAnd here's a vow, my sisters true we'll make anew this day\n\nThat we shall teach in faith and love the truths that point the way.\nThe Yesharah Society's Constitution ensured that the organization would remain professional and purpose-centered, specifying that the Constitution and by-laws were to be read biannually, and that all meetings would be conducted according to Roberts Rules", "-23.217737075901823" ], [ "We Can Remember It for You Wholesale \"We Can Remember It for You Wholesale\" is a short story by American writer Philip K. Dick, first published in The Magazine of Fantasy & Science Fiction in April 1966. It features a melding of reality, false memory, and real memory. The story was adapted into the 1990 film Total Recall with Arnold Schwarzenegger as the story's protagonist. That film was remade in 2012 with Colin Farrell as the protagonist. It also inspired Buichi Terasawa's manga Space Adventure Cobra. Synopsis Douglas Quail works a menial office job in the \"not too distant future.\"", "-23.20446512766648" ], [ "Meh Meh (/mɛ/) is an interjection used as an expression of indifference or boredom. It is often regarded as a verbal equivalent of a shrug of the shoulders. The use of the term \"meh\" shows that the speaker is apathetic, uninterested, or indifferent to the question or subject at hand. It is occasionally used as an adjective, meaning something is mediocre or unremarkable. Other uses Meh is popularly used as a catch-all answer to any question. It is acceptably interchangeable with most responses.\n\"What time do you want to go out tonight?\" \"Meh.\"\nAlso considered a non-committal response, \"meh\" can be used", "-23.196365782918292" ], [ "Thought-terminating cliché A thought-terminating cliché (also known as a semantic stop-sign, a thought-stopper, bumper sticker logic or cliché thinking) is a form of loaded language, commonly used to quell cognitive dissonance. Depending on context in which a phrase (or cliché) is used, it may actually be valid and not qualify as thought-terminating; it does qualify as such when its application intends to dismiss dissent or justify fallacious logic. Its only function is to stop an argument from proceeding further, in other words \"end the debate with a cliche... not a point.\" The term was popularized by Robert Jay Lifton in", "-23.17847972572781" ], [ "its refreshing lack of any sacred text, institutions, or dogma. He revisits the memory of his “rage of joy” moment, now understating it in animist terms. He concludes with the thought that many needy people (like himself prior to his epiphany) are just those who do not feel needed. He asserts that the reader should feel needed because he or she is needed: needed desperately by the community of life to understand humanity's forgotten interdependence with the rest of that community.", "-23.168346830643713" ], [ "time possible. We shall always remember that no matter how pointless and stupid the things we say are, we shall present them in such a way that they will be lessons that will last a lifetime. We shall strive always to do nothing and to be mean. We shall strive mightily to always be the number one morning show in Salt Lake or, if not that, the number two morning show or, at least somewhere in the top 15 or 20 morning shows. At least once a year we shall go to someone's home and we shall eat really good", "-23.16712783703406" ], [ "Sorei The Japanese word ‘sorei’ (祖霊) refers to the spirits of ancestors.\nSpecifically it refers to the spirits of those ancestors that have been the\ntarget of special memorial services that have been held for them at certain\nfixed times after their death. The dates and the frequencies of these services\nvary widely depending on the region of Japan. Suitable occasions may for example be 33 and 50 years after death.\nA special belief connected with sorei is the notion that the memorial\nservices result in the ancestral spirit successively losing its individuality,\neventually becoming an entirely deindividualized part of the collective of\nsorei. However, depending", "-23.162328773061745" ], [ "\"There doesn't seem to be any consistency in the importance of what is remembered. One recalls a shadow on a wall, a gesture, something of no great importance, remembers it for years--and then forgets some extremely important fact like the address of one of the underground photographic laboratories. I suppose only a student of memory could give you the answer and then I wouldn't be particularly impressed. Memory is like a hot coal-it fades and grows bright again and fades.\"\nIn 1955, he interviewed William Faulkner after his National Book Award best fiction (A Fable).\n\nHe was one of", "-23.156913300219458" ], [ "thinking was to regress into primitive forms, “to stop being human.” Publication History \"The Rememberer\" was first published in the fall 1997 issue of the Missouri Review. The story was later published in 1998 by Doubleday as a part of Bender's collection of short stories The Girl in the Flammable Skirt. In addition, the story was included in the Ann Charter's anthology The Story and Its Writer: An Introduction to Short Stories.", "-23.137278088310268" ], [ "contains \"weird words for familiar situations.\" Many of these words are no longer in use, such as snollygoster, durgeon and frumples. To avoid having his list of words \"form what is technically known as a dictionary,\" Forsyth arranges The Horologicon or Book of Hours according to the hours in a day: from dawn, through breakfast, commuting, office life, shopping, going out drinking and stumbling home. Forsyth believes some of these words should be revived: \"Never mind the puzzled looks,\" he says, \"just use them. Throw them into conversation as often as possible.\"\nA reviewer in The Daily Telegraph wrote: \"From ante-jentacular", "-23.107390633638715" ], [ "her all morning. But after she made the customary three bows and knelt before him she found her mind utterly blank, the question gone. She sat before him in silence for a long time before finally saying: \"Where have all the words gone?\" \"Back where they came from,\" replied Otogawa.\nShortly after September 11, 2001, Otogawa was the honored guest at the weekly meeting of the sangha which would become Everyday Dharma Zen Center. After meditation, Otogawa asked for questions. A visibly distraught young woman asked, \"How can I deal with the enormous fear and anger that I feel about what happened?\"", "-23.10218642570544" ], [ "to remind themselves of that day.", "-23.048158176476136" ], [ "emphasis on history and time. These are evident, according to critics, in works such as “May Day Eve”. “Guardia de Honor”, and “The Order of Melchizedek” and while not as obvious, were present as thematic backgrounds in “Doña Jeronima”, “The Legend of the Dying Wanton”, “The Summer Solstice”, and “The Mass of St. Sylvestre”. This theme comes in the form of fixation with time and patterns of recurrence as described by critics as nostalgia, which is said to show emphasis on the past. Critics make a connection of this theological reality used by Nick Joaquín to reflect Philippine culture and", "-23.025032980716787" ], [ "said, 'I don't understand what you mean, tell me more.' He said 'It is the defacement of the conjecture through the clearing of the known.' I (Kumayl) said 'I don't understand, but continue telling me what is the truth.' He said 'It's the rendering of the veils by the triumph of mystery.' I said 'Tell me more.' He said 'It is the divine attraction, but through the apprehension of the known.' I said 'Tell me more.' He said 'It's that light of the morning eternity that continues to radiate through the unity of the temples and their disunity. That's who", "-23.010035998304375" ], [ "to which he gives us not the slightest hint of an answer.\"\nIn fact Dubhaltach's only remark thought to be connected with this time is what Ó Muraíle calles a \"breathtaking understatement\" that Dubhaltach writes in the Díonbhrollach (preface):\nMa ta aoínní inbéme ann seacha sinn, iarruim are an tí fhéudas a leasughadh, go ttuga Dia duinn airthearrach uaine (as suaimhnighe ina an aimsir-si) / If there is anything in it deserving of censure apart from that, I ask him who can to amend it, until God give us another opportunity (more peaceful than this time) to rewrite it.\nWith most of the", "-23.006035538215656" ], [ "L'esprit de l'escalier L'esprit de l'escalier or l'esprit d'escalier (UK: /lɛˌspriː d(ə l)ɛˈskæljeɪ/, US: /lɛˌspriː d(ə ˌl)ɛskəˈljeɪ/, French: [lɛspʁi d(ə l)ɛskalje]; lit. \"the staircase wit\") is a French term used in English for the predicament of thinking of the perfect reply too late. Origin This name for the phenomenon comes from French encyclopedist and philosopher Denis Diderot's description of such a situation in his Paradoxe sur le comédien (\"Paradox of the Actor\"). During a dinner at the home of statesman Jacques Necker, a remark was made to Diderot which left him speechless at the time, because, he explains, \"l'homme sensible, comme moi,", "-22.987823997915257" ], [ "of what is meant. Roger Kreuz and Glucksberg propose the echoic reminder theory to explain sarcasm because it provides motivation for saying the opposite of what is meant but it also provides an explanation to the marked asymmetry of ironic statements; positive statements can be used ironically. They conducted three experiments that tested to see how sarcastic a final remark would be in a story prompt the participants were given.\nHere is an example of a positive expertise prediction with a negative outcome and a positive remark: Nancy and her friend Jane were planning a trip to the beach. \"The weather", "-22.979246308794245" ], [ "(I’m) not a soldier.”’ The negator kahi Kahi which means ‘not yet’ is a negator used to express the likelihood that an event or state will occur, despite not having taken place yet at the point in time referred to. Kahi like the other negative particles, can be seen to precede the verb phrase. \nFigure 3.1\nKipu   hana       nani pu        kahi      varavara,  mi  varavara  paki   tu       tiqe   nani\nNEG   anyhow bite   COND  not.yet   pray           but pray", "-22.9791764334077" ], [ "being told.\nGreene was so touched by the emotionally moving letters he received, as well as by his readers' responses, that he decided to compile them into a book. He reprinted a total of 234 letters in the book. He added only occasional commentary, with the aim of letting the veterans' letters speak for themselves. Two young aides helped Greene compile the book. One of them, Susan Falcone, noted:\nthe raw honesty of emotion from individuals I might have stereotyped as unemotional macho men ... As I touched each letter, I felt as if I was being allowed to touch the life", "-22.9540768743027" ], [ "phrases like \"I would\" and \"I'd think\" in his hypothetical description of the event, but later moved to using first-person phrasing with sentences like \"I remember I grabbed the knife\", \"I don't remember except I'm standing there\", \"I don't recall\", and \"I must have.\" Due to the change in phrasing, these comments were interpreted by many as being a form of confession, which stirred strong reactions in print media and the internet. Republication On August 14, 2007, it was reported that a literary agent for the Goldman family, Sharlene Martin, had made a deal to publish the book with the", "-22.953851585964003" ], [ "Purposeful omission Purposeful omission is the leaving out of particular nonessential details that can be assumed by the reader, (if used in literature), according to the context and attitudes/gestures made by the characters in the stories. It allows for the reader to make their own abstract representation of the situation at hand.\nIn the book Why We Fought: America's Wars in Film and History, author Peter Rollins mentions that war movies in the US have purposely omitted some facts so as to make it acceptable to the Pentagon. In their book Representing Lives: Women and Auto/biography, Alison Donnell and Pauline Polkey", "-22.906308642821386" ], [ "a part of the lecture, his system was based on dividing the lectured subjects into clearly marked \"Forget-me-not\" and \"Not-forget-me-not\" sections. The former was one-tenth of all the learning volume and was meant to be remembered, while the latter made up the nine-tenths of the given subject and was intended from the start to be forgotten.\nAs a teacher, he was putting his pupils under controlled exposure to stress in order to improve information retention of the germane parts of the curriculum —he either snapped his whip hard against the floor or removed his wig (\"úlek oslněním\" – \"fright by daze\"). This", "-22.85711352142971" ], [ "has been described as “the volitional or non-volitional act or process of recollecting memories of oneself in the past”. In other words, it involves the recalling and re-experiencing of one's life events. This involves having an intact autobiographical memory in order to be able to recall certain life events. However meaningful the reminisce process ends up being, depends on how meaningful the memories being recalled are. Different ways to make these memories more meaningful are to ask questions which suggest the importance of the event as well as using historical materials from ones past.\nReminiscence serves different psychological functions, including the", "-22.856509637989802" ], [ "stanza, starting with \"Wakare no hi wa kita\", can be translated:\nThe day of our parting has come\n\nTo the town of Ra-u-su.\n\nWe are going away\n\nOver the mountain pass.\n\nI would hate to forget you,\n\nI, a frivolous crow.\n\nPray, don't let me cry,\n\nYou, a white seagull.", "-22.84143817354925" ], [ "both \"day before yesterday\" and \"day after tomorrow\", or \"two days from today\". नरसों (\"narsoⁿ\") is used for \"three days from today.\"\nThe other side of the psychological passage of time is in the realm of volition and action. We plan and often execute actions intended to affect the course of events in the future. From the Rubaiyat:\nThe Moving Finger writes; and, having writ,\n\n  Moves on: nor all thy Piety nor Wit\n\nShall lure it back to cancel half a Line,\n\n  Nor all thy Tears wash out a Word of it.\n— Omar Khayyám (translation by Edward Fitzgerald).", "-22.832028801276465" ], [ "Acre Wood. Along the way, Pooh complains that he is hungry. Christopher Robin tells Pooh to think of something else. Pooh has no idea as to what to think about, so Christopher Robin tells him to remember his favourite times. Pooh decides to read the birthday scrapbooks of some of his friends, and finally his own which takes him through flashbacks of his birthday adventures where he looks for Piglet and finds him a broom, searches for Tigger, search for two missing Tigger costumes, looks for a new home for Eeyore, and going on a treasure hunt. After reading them", "-22.82397912419401" ], [ "Honi soit qui mal y pense Honi soit qui mal y pense (UK: [ɒnɪ ˌswɑː kiː mal iː ˈpɒ̃s] or US: [ˌoʊni ˌswɑ ki ˌmɑl i ˈpɑ̃s]) is a French maxim used as the motto of the British chivalric Order of the Garter.\nIt is translated as \"May he be shamed who thinks badly of it\" \nor \"Shame be to him who thinks evil of it\" \nor \"Evil (or shame) be to him that evil thinks\"—although the French phrase is not gendered. In current French usage, it may be used ironically to insinuate the presence of a hidden agenda", "-22.798211736837402" ], [ "you've forgotten your aim\" to describe his cartoons starring Wile E. Coyote and Road Runner. In popular culture Santayanas passing is referenced in the lyrics to singer-songwriter Billy Joel's 1989 music single, \"We Didn't Start the Fire\".\nThe quote, \"Only the dead have seen the end of war,\" is frequently attributed or misattributed to Plato; an early example of this misattribution (if indeed, it is misattributed) is found in General Douglas MacArthur's Farewell Speech given to the Corps of Cadets at West Point in 1962.", "-22.780757829619688" ], [ "and how: a book we read, or a song, the memory of a person or the wish to forget, an instant moment or a long run of years, Fontana, with his brilliant simplicity (apparent simplicity, as matters from the mind and from the heart appear in a complicate way) registers this and meanwhile gives space by suggesting to enable us to fill in with our own memories.from our times, with all our own fantasmagoria as everyone of us makes.\n–(Francesco Guccini)", "-22.77384889801033" ], [ "Calendar of Regrets Plot summary Calendar of Regrets is a collage novel comprising twelve interconnected narratives, one for each month of the year, all pertaining to notions of travel—through time, space, narrative, and death.\nThe narratives involve: 1) the poisoning of the painter Hieronymus Bosch; 2) former CBS anchorman Dan Rather's mysterious mugging on Park Avenue as he strolled home alone one evening; 3) a series of postcard meditations on the idea of travel from a young American journalist visiting Burma; 4) a high school teacher who videos her own auto-erotic asphyxiation and sends them to strangers across the U.S.; ", "-22.770186519948766" ], [ "Aristotle that briefly outlines the principle of association. In it, he mentions the importance of a starting point to initiate a chain of recollection, and the way in which it serves as a stimulating cause.\nFor this reason some use places for the purposes of recollecting. The reason for this is that men pass rapidly from one step to the next; for instance from milk to white, from white to air, from air to damp; after which one recollects autumn, supposing that one is trying to recollect the season. Affect The importance of affect or emotion in the art of memory", "-22.766105403599795" ], [ "(tsurezure) means “having nothing to do.”\n\nFor comparison, Sansom's translation:\nTo while away the idle hours, seated the livelong day before the inkslab, by jotting down without order or purpose whatever trifling thoughts pass through my mind, truly this is a queer and crazy thing to do! Mystery of the Origin Despite the distinguished work of Kenko being continually held in high regard among many and considered a classic since the 17th century, the origin to the publication of Kenko's work is unclear. Many people have speculated different theories to the arrival of his work, however, little is known to the exact", "-22.74382671053536" ], [ "their mind. It can be a request to resolve a problem, or a word of thanks.\nIn Toritsugi, after the visitor says everything they have wanted to say, the minister relays the visitor's words to the spirit of Ikigami Konko Daijin (the spiritual formal name of Bunjirō, who was first taught Toritsugi by Tenchi Kane no Kami) in prayer. Ikigami Konko Daijin then helps the minister to further relay the words to Tenchi Kane No Kami.\nTenchi Kane no Kami then replies their message to the minister, who will then relay it back to the person.\nBy understanding the message of Tenchi", "-22.729446707642637" ], [ "to remember. Even if one does not remember the entire poem, it is commonplace to quote some gem like statements from the Satakam. Each generation of school children learns some of them during elementary and high schools.", "-22.726123146363534" ], [ "remembered always as a piece of inspired teaching by those who heard it.\nWhen part of the account was reprinted in the January 20, 2016, edition of the paper under the heading \"From the Files\", the column compiler added\nAccording to those who attended, Helen Keller spoke of the joy that life gave her. She was thankful for the faculties and abilities that she did possess and stated that the most productive pleasures she had were curiosity and imagination. Keller also spoke of the joy of service and the happiness that came from doing things for others ... Keller imparted that \"helping your", "-22.724733338238366" ], [ "answered and showed an enormous inexhaustible thirst for knowledge. Looking at his private correspondence three mottos of his behaviour and values can be identified: the rejection of money, as it did not satisfy his enormous thirst of knowledge; an acknowledgment and consciousness of the brevity of life and wasting this precious time not with featureless activities; and his desire to die in calmness, as a \"forgotten citizen of the world\". In this light he displayed the values of a European philosopher of the 18th century, who was as well interested in his fellow Japanese scholars. Therefore, he also acknowledged their", "-22.71236373951251" ], [ "in clinical psychology, it describes mental or physical behaviours which are not excessive in terms of quantity but are apparently both functionless and involve a narrow range of behaviours.\nIn etymology, the term derives from \"persevere\", meaning \"to continue determinedly\", from Latin \"perseverare\", meaning \"to persist\": to persist with clear intentions is said \"to persevere\", but when those intentions are lost and only the persistence remains, one is said \"to perseverate\". In general English, \"perseveration\" refers to insistent or redundant repetition, not necessarily in a clinical context.", "-22.710296067409217" ], [ "months later, when a reporter from CNN came to meet him at dollars, he said, \"Moshiach is ready to come now, it is only on our part to do something additional in the realm of goodness and kindness.\" His message: become righteous On Sunday, March 1, 1992, Gabriel Erem, the editor of Lifestyles Magazine told Schneerson that on the occasion of his ninetieth birthday they would be publishing a special issue and wanted to know what his message to the world was. Schneerson replied that \"'Ninety', in Hebrew, is 'tzaddik'; which means 'righteous.' And that is a direct indication for", "-22.702047822705936" ], [ "of gratitude in the morning, choosing not to improve anyone in the family for first three minutes at the end of the day, noticing novelty in the ordinary, and sending silent 'I wish you wells' (kind attention).\nEmotional resilience is experiencing positive emotions and recovering relatively quickly from negative emotions. Sood prescribes five principles to develop emotional resilience - gratitude, compassion, acceptance, meaning, and forgiveness.\nGratitude is recognizing and being thankful for all your blessings, little or large. Sood states that \"I try my best to focus on what went right within what went wrong.There are so many things that I am", "-22.699505581127596" ], [ "so I'm telling you as my superior about what I have found out. I am telling you, and you are wise and you should keep these words for yourself, so that no many people know, and you should take proper guard.\nAnd may God bring you happiness. Amen.\"", "-22.69331227033399" ] ]

[ "It has to do with the way that the electrons are arranged. Electrons can also absorb photons to jump up energy levels - but only if there's the right amount of energy in the photon to do a complete jump. Electrons won't jump up anything but whole energy levels. This means that there has to be the right amount of energy in the light in order for it to be absorbed. With light, energy is proportional to the frequency, which is inversely proportional to the wavelength. This means there's a direct relationship between wavelength and energy. This is why glass, for example, is transparent. The amount of energy necessary to excite electrons in glass doesn't match the amount of energy that photons have when they're in the visible part of the spectrum, so the photons go whizzing on through without being absorbed.", "A material shows transparency if there are no processes that compete with transmission, either by absorbing the light or by scattering it in other directions. In pure silicon, there is a very strong absorptive process at work: the incident visible light is absorbed by electrons that then move from one electron energy state to another (an occurrence technically known as a band-to-band transition). Glass, being silicon dioxide--not pure silicon--does not have this band structure, so it cannot absorb light as pure silicon does. Sand, on the other hand, is also silicon dioxide, but it is so filled with impurities that light simply scatters outward incoherently and does not pass through to a noticeable extent", "Photons carry the electromagnetic force. Electrons interact with the electromagnetic force, however, electrons can only interact with photons of certain energies, depending on a few factors that are too complex for an ELI5. Basically, electrons can only absorb or emit photons of discrete energies (think whole numbers, 1,2,3, etc. You can't have a .5, for example) This means that any photons that aren't at those specific energies don't interact with electrons, so they fly right through the material. Pure metals, for example, are opaque because their electrons can occupy a huge number of possible states, and visible light happens to have the right energy to interact with the electrons in the metal (electrons moving freely through a metal aren't under the same restrictions and can interact with any photons IIRC). Glass, however, has electrons in a tightly bound state that can only interact with photons in certain bands of the electromagnetic spectrum, few of which fall within visible light. Most materials have specific energies at which photons can pass through them, and other energies at which photons can't pass through. Glass is right in the visible spectrum, as is water (which is probably why our visual range is what it is, all the frequencies of light we can detect travel through water easily, I cannot explain the mantis shrimp, sorry). Clear as mud?", "Transparency and opacity are influenced also at a larger scale, by the microstructure. Silica may come in a form with nanoscale holes and will be opaque, or in another form a grain structure without holes will be transparent/translucent." ]

[ [ "of bonding and structure. Crystallography Crystallography is the science that examines the arrangement of atoms in crystalline solids. Crystallography is a useful tool for materials scientists. In single crystals, the effects of the crystalline arrangement of atoms is often easy to see macroscopically, because the natural shapes of crystals reflect the atomic structure. Further, physical properties are often controlled by crystalline defects. The understanding of crystal structures is an important prerequisite for understanding crystallographic defects. Mostly, materials do not occur as a single crystal, but in polycrystalline form, i.e., as an aggregate of small crystals with different orientations. Because of", "-36.94167562904477" ], [ "a layer (a conservative reconstruction) or have a greater or lesser number than in the bulk (a non-conservative reconstruction). Measurement of reconstructions Determination of a material's surface reconstruction requires a measurement of the positions of the surface atoms that can be compared to a measurement of the bulk structure. While the bulk structure of crystalline materials can usually be determined by using a diffraction experiment to determine the Bragg peaks, any signal from a reconstructed surface is obscured due to the relatively tiny number of atoms involved. \nSpecial techniques are thus required to measure the positions of the surface atoms,", "-36.16186456628202" ], [ "by a microscope above 25× magnification. It deals with objects from 100 nm to a few cm. The microstructure of a material (which can be broadly classified into metallic, polymeric, ceramic and composite) can strongly influence physical properties such as strength, toughness, ductility, hardness, corrosion resistance, high/low temperature behavior, wear resistance, and so on. Most of the traditional materials (such as metals and ceramics) are microstructured.\nThe manufacture of a perfect crystal of a material is physically impossible. For example, any crystalline material will contain defects such as precipitates, grain boundaries (Hall–Petch relationship), vacancies, interstitial atoms or substitutional atoms. The microstructure of", "-35.76847565546632" ], [ "different technique then that of atomic force microscopy; Raman spectroscopy or surface enhanced Raman spectroscopy (SERS) gives information about wavelengths and energy in the sample. ultraviolet-visible spectroscopy (UV-Vis) measures the wavelengths where light is absorbed; X-ray diffraction (XRD) generally gives an idea of the chemical composition of the sample. Physical Nanomolecules can be created from virtually any element, but the majority produced in today's industry use carbon as the basis upon which the molecules are built around. Carbon can bond with nearly any element, allowing many possibilities when it comes to creating a specific molecule. Scientists can create thousands upon", "-35.56869378226111" ], [ "of the field of materials science. Materials science examines the structure of materials from the atomic scale, all the way up to the macro scale. Characterization is the way materials scientists examine the structure of a material. This involves methods such as diffraction with X-rays, electrons, or neutrons, and various forms of spectroscopy and chemical analysis such as Raman spectroscopy, energy-dispersive spectroscopy (EDS), chromatography, thermal analysis, electron microscope analysis, etc. Structure is studied at various levels, as detailed below. Atomic structure This deals with the atoms of the materials, and how they are arranged to give molecules, crystals, etc. Much", "-35.5202912078239" ], [ "to quantitative imaging and diffraction methods for determining the atomic structure of surfaces and bulk materials.\"", "-35.26555811561411" ], [ "3d transition metals (from scandium to zinc). For carbon, an experienced spectroscopist can tell at a glance the differences between diamond, graphite, amorphous carbon, and \"mineral\" carbon (such as the carbon appearing in carbonates). The spectra of 3d transition metals can be analyzed to identify the oxidation states of the atoms. Cu(I), for instance, has a different so-called \"white-line\" intensity ratio than does Cu(II). This ability to \"fingerprint\" different forms of the same element is a strong advantage of EELS over EDX. The difference is mainly due to the difference in energy resolution between the two", "-35.200384757699794" ], [ "Crystallographic database A crystallographic database is a database specifically designed to store information about the structure of molecules and crystals. Crystals are solids having, in all three dimensions of space, a regularly repeating arrangement of atoms, ions, or molecules. They are characterized by symmetry, morphology, and directionally dependent physical properties. A crystal structure describes the arrangement of atoms, ions, or molecules in a crystal. (Molecules need to crystallize into solids so that their regularly repeating arrangements can be taken advantage of in X-ray, neutron, and electron diffraction based crystallography.)\nCrystal structures of crystalline material are typically determined from X-ray or neutron", "-35.142931393251274" ], [ "Conductivity of transparency Description The properties of electroconductive and transparent materials can be described by the sheet resistance and the transparency (at 550 nm). The conductivity of transparency was introduced on the basis of graphene to compare different materials without the use of two independent parameters.", "-35.08098593185423" ], [ "double-helical structure of DNA was deduced from an X-ray diffraction pattern that had been generated by a fibrous sample. Materials science Crystallography is used by materials scientists to characterize different materials. In single crystals, the effects of the crystalline arrangement of atoms is often easy to see macroscopically, because the natural shapes of crystals reflect the atomic structure. In addition, physical properties are often controlled by crystalline defects. The understanding of crystal structures is an important prerequisite for understanding crystallographic defects. Mostly, materials do not occur as a single crystal, but in poly-crystalline form (i.e., as an aggregate of small", "-34.91215369605925" ], [ "materials reveals these larger defects, so that they can be studied, with significant advances in simulation resulting in exponentially increasing understanding of how defects can be used to enhance material properties. Macrostructure Macrostructure is the appearance of a material in the scale millimeters to meters—it is the structure of the material as seen with the naked eye. Processing Synthesis and processing involves the creation of a material with the desired micro-nanostructure. From an engineering standpoint, a material cannot be used in industry if no economical production method for it has been developed. Thus, the processing of materials is vital to", "-34.896868153708056" ], [ "brightness and very high refractive index, in which it is surpassed only by a few other materials (see list of indices of refraction). Titanium dioxide crystal size is ideally around 220 nm (measured by electron microscope) to optimize the maximum reflection of visible light. The optical properties of the finished pigment are highly sensitive to purity. As little as a few parts per million (ppm) of certain metals (Cr, V, Cu, Fe, Nb) can disturb the crystal lattice so much that the effect can be detected in quality control. Approximately 4.6 million tons of pigmentary TiO₂ are used annually worldwide, and", "-34.83223886770429" ], [ "the surface of the crystal is the surface coordination number. Molecules, polyatomic ions and coordination complexes In chemistry, coordination number (C.N.), defined originally in 1893 by Alfred Werner, is the total number of neighbors of a central atom in a molecule or ion. Although a carbon atom has four chemical bonds in most stable molecules, the coordination number of each carbon is four in methane (CH₄), three in ethylene (H₂C=CH₂, each C is bonded to 2H + 1C = 3 atoms), and two in acetylene (HC≡CH). In effect we count the first bond (or sigma bond) to each neighboring atom,", "-34.781893989405944" ], [ "the structures observed in materials characterization ranges from angstroms, such as in the imaging of individual atoms and chemical bonds, up to centimeters, such as in the imaging of coarse grain structures in metals.\nWhile many characterization techniques have been practiced for centuries, such as basic optical microscopy, new techniques and methodologies are constantly emerging. In particular the advent of the electron microscope and Secondary ion mass spectrometry in the 20th century has revolutionized the field, allowing the imaging and analysis of structures and compositions on much smaller scales than was previously possible, leading to a huge increase in the level", "-34.66941064072307" ], [ "If the crystal structure is non-cubic (e.g., a metal with a hexagonal-closed packed crystal structure, such as Ti or Zr) the microstructure can be revealed without etching using crossed polarized light (light microscopy). Otherwise, the microstructural constituents of the specimen are revealed by using a suitable chemical or electrolytic etchant. Analysis techniques Many different microscopy techniques are used in metallographic analysis.\nPrepared specimens should be examined with the unaided eye after etching to detect any visible areas that have responded to the etchant differently from the norm as a guide to where microscopical examination should be employed. Light optical microscopy (LOM)", "-34.57902116980404" ], [ "chemistry. The first atomic-resolution structure to be \"solved\" (i.e., determined) in 1914 was that of table salt. The distribution of electrons in the table-salt structure showed that crystals are not necessarily composed of covalently bonded molecules, and proved the existence of ionic compounds. The structure of diamond was solved in the same year, proving the tetrahedral arrangement of its chemical bonds and showing that the length of C–C single bond was 1.52 angstroms. Other early structures included copper, calcium fluoride (CaF₂, also known as fluorite), calcite (CaCO₃) and pyrite (FeS₂) in 1914; spinel (MgAl₂O₄) in 1915; the rutile and anatase", "-34.56637690693606" ], [ "strength of materials.\nAnother common type of crystallographic defect is an impurity, meaning that the \"wrong\" type of atom is present in a crystal. For example, a perfect crystal of diamond would only contain carbon atoms, but a real crystal might perhaps contain a few boron atoms as well. These boron impurities change the diamond's color to slightly blue. Likewise, the only difference between ruby and sapphire is the type of impurities present in a corundum crystal.\nIn semiconductors, a special type of impurity, called a dopant, drastically changes the crystal's electrical properties. Semiconductor devices, such as transistors, are made possible largely", "-34.429068136766546" ], [ "evident and can, depending on the samples, be indistinguishable by optical means.\nThe hexagonal structure and the stacking of the atoms influence the physical properties in many ways including the color, hardness, cleavage, density, and luster. Another important factor in influencing physical properties of minerals is the presence of bonding between atoms. Within dickite there exists dominant O-H bonding, a type of strong ionic bonding. Structure Dickite has a monoclinic crystal system and its crystal class is domatic (m). This crystal system contains two non-equal axes (a and b) that are perpendicular to each other and a third axis (c) that", "-34.40613356925314" ], [ "such as atom probe tomography will make it possible to examine individual grains, but due to the limited number of atoms, the isotopic resolution is limited.\nIf most nanodiamonds did form in the Solar System, that raises the question of how this is possible. On the surface of Earth, graphite is the stable carbon mineral while larger diamonds can only be formed in the kind of temperatures and pressures that are found deep in the mantle. However, nanodiamonds are close to molecular size: one with a diameter of 2.8 nm, the median size, contains about 1800 carbon atoms. In very small minerals,", "-34.326523769734195" ], [ "such a surface. This is typically done as a function of incidence angle or wavelength (or both). Since ellipsometry relies on reflection, it is not required for the sample to be transparent to light or for its back side to be accessible.\nEllipsometry can be used to model the (complex) refractive index of a surface of a bulk material. It is also very useful in determining parameters of one or more thin film layers deposited on a substrate. Due to their reflection properties, not only are the predicted magnitude of the p and s polarization components, but their relative phase shifts", "-34.243604523537215" ], [ "is the ratio of crystalline to amorphous structure. Crystallite size, the size of the crystal unit cell, can be calculated through the Scherrer equation. Generally, crystal structure is determined using powder X-ray diffraction, or selected area electron diffraction using a transmission electron microscope, though others such as Raman spectroscopy exist. X-ray diffraction requires on the order of a gram of material, whereas electron diffraction can be done on single particles. Surface area Surface area is an important metric for engineered nanoparticles because it influences reactivity and surface interactions with ligands. Different methods measure different aspects of surface", "-34.15942107391311" ], [ "containing 3D atomic coordinate models of macromolecular structures in a number of formats, including pdb, mmcif, and Shelx files. The model may then be rotated in 3D and viewed from any viewpoint. The atomic model is represented by default using a stick-model, with vectors representing chemical bonds. The two halves of each bond are coloured according to the element of the atom at that end of the bond, allowing chemical structure and identity to be visualised in a manner familiar to most chemists.\nCoot can also display electron density, which is the result of structure determination experiments such as X-ray crystallography", "-34.12512325643911" ], [ "damage to a surface. History The first discussion of obtaining an image of a surface using atoms was by King and Bigas. King and Bigas\n\n, showed that an image of a surface can be obtained by heating a sample and monitoring the atoms that evaporate from the surface. King and Bigas suggest it could be possible to form an image by scattering atoms from the surface, though it was some time before it was demonstrated\nThe idea of imaging with atoms instead of light was subsequently widely discussed in the literature\n.\nThe initial approach to producing a helium microscope assumed that a", "-34.12243475986179" ], [ "colour is created by allochromatic elements. Streak testing is constrained by the hardness of the mineral, as those harder than 7 powder the streak plate instead. Cleavage, parting, fracture, and tenacity By definition, minerals have a characteristic atomic arrangement. Weakness in this crystalline structure causes planes of weakness, and the breakage of a mineral along such planes is termed cleavage. The quality of cleavage can be described based on how cleanly and easily the mineral breaks; common descriptors, in order of decreasing quality, are \"perfect\", \"good\", \"distinct\", and \"poor\". In particularly transparent minerals, or in thin-section, cleavage can be seen", "-34.07642023157223" ], [ "and optical properties of solids. Depending on the material involved and the conditions in which it was formed, the atoms may be arranged in a regular, geometric pattern (crystalline solids, which include metals and ordinary water ice) or irregularly (an amorphous solid such as common window glass).\nThe bulk of solid-state physics, as a general theory, is focused on crystals. Primarily, this is because the periodicity of atoms in a crystal — its defining characteristic — facilitates mathematical modeling. Likewise, crystalline materials often have electrical, magnetic, optical, or mechanical properties that can be exploited for engineering", "-33.92355463508284" ], [ "metal atom and the anion is a nonmetal atom, but these ions can be of a more complicated nature, e.g. molecular ions like NH₄⁺ or SO₄²⁻. Molecular size Most molecules are far too small to be seen with the naked eye, although molecules of many polymers can reach macroscopic sizes, including biopolymers such as DNA. Molecules commonly used as building blocks for organic synthesis have a dimension of a few angstroms (Å) to several dozen Å, or around one billionth of a meter. Single molecules cannot usually be observed by light (as noted above), but small molecules and even the", "-33.89078470217646" ], [ "a core–shell structure where the outer surface atoms are different than those of the interior core.\nMultiple techniques are available to characterize nanoparticle surface chemistry. X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy and Auger electron spectroscopy are well-suited to characterizing a thicker surface layer of 1–5 nm. Secondary ion mass spectroscopy is more useful to characterize just the top few angstroms, and can be used with sputtering techniques to analyze chemistry as a function of depth. Surface chemistry measurements are particularly sensitive to contamination on particle surfaces, and quantitative analyses are difficult and spatial resolution can be poor. For adsorbed proteins, radiolabelling or mass", "-33.859032585265595" ], [ "some varieties are sufficiently clear to have been used for windows. Translucent minerals allow some light to pass, but less than those that are transparent. Jadeite and nephrite (mineral forms of jade are examples of minerals with this property). Minerals that do not allow light to pass are called opaque.\nThe diaphaneity of a mineral depends on the thickness of the sample. When a mineral is sufficiently thin (e.g., in a thin section for petrography), it may become transparent even if that property is not seen in a hand sample. In contrast, some minerals, such as hematite or pyrite, are opaque", "-33.830154704570305" ], [ "shells. Advantages of a crystal In principle, an atomic structure could be determined from applying X-ray scattering to non-crystalline samples, even to a single molecule. However, crystals offer a much stronger signal due to their periodicity. A crystalline sample is by definition periodic; a crystal is composed of many unit cells repeated indefinitely in three independent directions. Such periodic systems have a Fourier transform that is concentrated at periodically repeating points in reciprocal space known as Bragg peaks; the Bragg peaks correspond to the reflection spots observed in the diffraction image. Since the amplitude at these reflections grows linearly with", "-33.79904933470971" ], [ "to make something more like a sponge or the cobbles may be so small as to be nearly invisible to imaging. A classic \"medium\" morphology for a ta-C film is shown in the figure. Properties As implied by the name, diamond-like carbon (DLC), the value of such coatings accrues from their ability to provide some of the properties of diamond to surfaces of almost any material. The primary desirable qualities are hardness, wear resistance, and slickness (DLC film friction coefficient against polished steel ranges from 0.05 to 0.20 ). DLC properties highly depends on plasma treatment deposition parameters, like", "-33.760274763946654" ], [ "used in solid state physics and chemistry to study the crystal structure of solids. Experiments are usually performed in a transmission electron microscope (TEM), or a scanning electron microscope (SEM) as electron backscatter diffraction. In these instruments, electrons are accelerated by an electrostatic potential in order to gain the desired energy and determine their wavelength before they interact with the sample to be studied.\nThe periodic structure of a crystalline solid acts as a diffraction grating, scattering the electrons in a predictable manner. Working back from the observed diffraction pattern, it may be possible to deduce the structure of the crystal", "-33.73947448231047" ], [ "axes. If the crystal symmetry is monoclinic or triclinic, even the angles between these axes are subject to thermal changes. In such cases it is necessary to treat the coefficient of thermal expansion as a tensor with up to six independent elements. A good way to determine the elements of the tensor is to study the expansion by x-ray powder diffraction. The thermal expansion coefficient tensor for the materials possessing cubic symmetry (for e.g. FCC, BCC) is isotropic. Apparent and absolute expansion of a liquid The expansion of liquids is usually measured in a container. When a liquid expands in", "-33.72042084647546" ], [ "reflections. Two limiting cases of X-ray crystallography—\"small-molecule\" (which includes continuous inorganic solids) and \"macromolecular\" crystallography—are often discerned. Small-molecule crystallography typically involves crystals with fewer than 100 atoms in their asymmetric unit; such crystal structures are usually so well resolved that the atoms can be discerned as isolated \"blobs\" of electron density. By contrast, macromolecular crystallography often involves tens of thousands of atoms in the unit cell. Such crystal structures are generally less well-resolved (more \"smeared out\"); the atoms and chemical bonds appear as tubes of electron density, rather than as isolated atoms. In general, small molecules are also easier to", "-33.7164242559229" ], [ "of understanding as to why different materials show different properties and behaviors. More recently, atomic force microscopy has further increased the maximum possible resolution for analysis of certain samples in the last 30 years. Spectroscopy This group of techniques use a range of principles to reveal the chemical composition, composition variation, crystal structure and photoelectric properties of materials. Some common instruments include:", "-33.64008267712779" ], [ "complete electronic density or other space-filling quantities. It is now relatively common to see images of surfaces that have been colored to show quantities such as electrostatic potential. Common surfaces in molecular visualization include solvent-accessible (\"Lee-Richards\") surfaces, solvent-excluded (\"Connolly\") surfaces, and isosurfaces. The isosurface in Fig. 5 appears to show the electrostatic potential, with blue colors being negative and red/yellow (near the metal) positive (there is no absolute convention of coloring, and red/positive, blue/negative are often reversed). Opaque isosurfaces do not allow the atoms to be seen and identified and it is not easy to deduce them. Because of this,", "-33.58507752561127" ], [ "Transparency meter Total Transmittance An object's transparency is measured by its total transmittance. Total transmittance is the ratio of transmitted light to the incident light. There are two influencing factors; reflection and absorption. For example:\nIncident light = 100% \n- (Absorption = -1%\n+ Reflection = -5%) =\nTotal Transmittance = 94% Industry Standards ASTM International (formerly known as the American Society for Testing and Materials) is", "-33.581180782144656" ], [ "X-ray crystallography X-ray crystallography (XRC) is the experimental science determining the atomic and molecular structure of a crystal, in which the crystalline structure causes a beam of incident X-rays to diffract into many specific directions. By measuring the angles and intensities of these diffracted beams, a crystallographer can produce a three-dimensional picture of the density of electrons within the crystal. From this electron density, the mean positions of the atoms in the crystal can be determined, as well as their chemical bonds, their crystallographic disorder, and various other information.\nSince many materials can form crystals—such as salts, metals, minerals, semiconductors, as", "-33.51592790716677" ], [ "shows that they do see a nuclear charge of approximately Z − 1, while the outermost electron in an atom or ion with only one electron in the outermost shell orbits a core with effective charge Z − k where k is the total number of electrons in the inner shells.\nThe shell model was able to qualitatively explain many of the mysterious properties of atoms which became codified in the late 19th century in the periodic table of the elements. One property was the size of atoms, which could be determined approximately by measuring the viscosity of gases and density of pure crystalline solids.", "-33.51495385891758" ], [ "with any material, the existence of a crystallographic defect affects the material properties. Defects can occur in the form of atomic vacancies. High levels of such defects can lower the tensile strength by up to 85%. An important example is the Stone Wales defect, which creates a pentagon and heptagon pair by rearrangement of the bonds. Because of the very small structure of CNTs, the tensile strength of the tube is dependent on its weakest segment in a similar manner to a chain, where the strength of the weakest link becomes the maximum strength of the chain.", "-33.49014879579772" ], [ "data presents an approximation of the number of electrons in each atomic site, giving 17.3 e- in the M2 site and 64.8 e- in the M1 site.\nThe crystals in Zanazziite are prismatic to bladed, usually rough, barrel-shaped, with indices {100}, {110} and {001}. Cleavages are on {100} good, and {010} distinct. Physical properties Zanazziite is usually pale green and occasionally dark green. It is a 5 on the Mohs hardness scale. Optically biaxial +, ex = 1.606, 13 =1.610, \"y = 1.620, 2V, = 72°(65° calc) X = b, Z:[100] 3° in obtuse 13; and the density = 2.76", "-33.45500616857316" ], [ "the raw material during the synthesis or formation of the object. Thus a reduction of the original particle size well below the wavelength of visible light (~ 0.5 μm or 500 nm) eliminates much of the light scattering, resulting in a translucent or even transparent material.\nFurthermore, results indicate that microscopic pores in sintered ceramic nanomaterials, mainly trapped at the junctions of microcrystalline grains, cause light to scatter and prevented true transparency. It has been observed that the total volume fraction of these nanoscale pores (both intergranular and intragranular porosity) must be less than 1% for high-quality optical transmission, i.e. the density has", "-33.42314732633531" ], [ "a molecularly thin liquid film sandwiched between two smooth surfaces through the SFA was developed. From this starting point, in 1980s researchers would employ other techniques to investigate solid state surfaces at the atomic scale.\nDirect observation of friction and wear at the nanoscale started with the first Scanning Tunneling Microscope (STM), which can obtain three-dimensional images of surfaces with atomic resolution; this instrument was developed by Gerd Binnig and Henrich Rohrer in 1981. STM can study only conductive materials, but in 1985 with the invention of the Atomic Force Microscope (AFM) by Binning and his colleagues, also non conductive surfaces", "-33.39377204218181" ], [ "She has pioneered techniques to study individual atoms in glass as it bends and breaks, making it possible to image defects in ultra-thin materials. In particular, Huang works on aberration-corrected electron microscopy to study two-dimensional materials. To visualise glass as it bends, Huang used the electron beam of a transmission electron microscope to simultaneously excite and image atoms within glasses. Huang created videos that make it possible to understand the liquid state of glass. Defects and dopants can have significant impacts on the electronic properties of two-dimensional materials. The materials investigated by Huang have applications in catalysis, energy generation and", "-33.36162496513134" ], [ "sets of carbon atoms in a chemical structure can be counted by counting singlet peaks, which in ¹³C spectra tend to be very narrow (thin). Other information about the carbon atoms can usually be determined from the chemical shift, such as whether the atom is part of a carbonyl group or an aromatic ring, etc. Such full proton decoupling can also help increase the intensity of ¹³C signals.\nThere can also be off-resonance decoupling of ¹H from ¹³C nuclei in ¹³C NMR spectroscopy, where weaker rf irradiation results in what can be thought of as partial decoupling. In", "-33.35348782577785" ], [ "a general requirement for atomic resolution for different tip terminations such as a single oxygen atom, which exhibits negligible bending. Additionally, the bending of the CO molecule adds its contribution to the images, which may cause bond-like features in locations where no bonds exist. Thus, one should be careful while interpreting the physical meaning of the image obtained with a bending tip molecule such as CO. Notable results nc-AFM was the first form of AFM to achieve true atomic resolution images, rather than averaging over multiple contacts, both on non-reactive and reactive surfaces.\nnc-AFM was the first form of microscopy to", "-33.34898013547354" ], [ "This technique is also used for the study of extraterrestrial rocks (i.e. meteorites), and provides chemical data which is vital to understanding the evolution of the planets, asteroids, and comets.\nThe change in elemental composition from the center (also known as core) to the edge (or rim) of a mineral can yield information about the history of the crystal's formation, including the temperature, pressure, and chemistry of the surrounding medium. Quartz crystals, for example, incorporate a small, but measurable amount of titanium into their structure as a function of temperature, pressure, and the amount of titanium available in their environment. ", "-33.31917505388628" ], [ "same chemical composition and structure, they are not exactly the same. Every now and then an atom is replaced by a completely different atom, sometimes as few as one in a million atoms. These so-called impurities are sufficient to absorb certain colors and leave the other colors unaffected.\nFor example, beryl, which is colorless in its pure mineral form, becomes emerald with chromium impurities. If manganese is added instead of chromium, beryl becomes pink morganite. With iron, it becomes aquamarine.\nSome gemstone treatments make use of the fact that these impurities can be \"manipulated\", thus changing the color of the gem. Treatment", "-33.30903649076936" ], [ "Characterization (materials science) Characterization, when used in materials science, refers to the broad and general process by which a material's structure and properties are probed and measured. It is a fundamental process in the field of materials science, without which no scientific understanding of engineering materials could be ascertained. The scope of the term often differs; some definitions limit the term's use to techniques which study the microscopic structure and properties of materials, while others use the term to refer to any materials analysis process including macroscopic techniques such as mechanical testing, thermal analysis and density calculation. The scale of", "-33.246839618790546" ], [ "elements can be explained on the basis of electronic configuration. Consider the behavior of ionization energies in the periodic table. It is known that the magnitude of ionization potential depends upon the following factors:\n(a) Size of atom\n(b)The nuclear charge\n(c)The screening effect of the inner shells\n(d)The extent to which the outermost electron penetrates into the charge cloud set up by the inner lying electron.", "-33.188172098685754" ], [ "crystals are found in large chunks, they are called \"books\" because they resemble books with pages of many sheets. The color of biotite is usually black and the mineral has a hardness of 2.5–3 on the Mohs scale of mineral hardness.\nBiotite dissolves in both acid and alkaline aqueous solutions, with the highest dissolution rates at low pH. However, biotite dissolution is highly anisotropic with crystal edge surfaces (h k0) reacting 45 to 132 times faster than basal surfaces (001). Optical properties In thin section, biotite exhibits moderate relief and a pale to deep greenish brown or brown color, with moderate", "-33.18635288302221" ], [ "Crystal Crystal structure (microscopic) The scientific definition of a \"crystal\" is based on the microscopic arrangement of atoms inside it, called the crystal structure. A crystal is a solid where the atoms form a periodic arrangement. (Quasicrystals are an exception, see below).\nNot all solids are crystals. For example, when liquid water starts freezing, the phase change begins with small ice crystals that grow until they fuse, forming a polycrystalline structure. In the final block of ice, each of the small crystals (called \"crystallites\" or \"grains\") is a true crystal with a periodic arrangement of atoms, but the whole polycrystal does", "-33.1577016152296" ], [ "Defects, impurities, and twinning An ideal crystal has every atom in a perfect, exactly repeating pattern. However, in reality, most crystalline materials have a variety of crystallographic defects, places where the crystal's pattern is interrupted. The types and structures of these defects may have a profound effect on the properties of the materials.\nA few examples of crystallographic defects include vacancy defects (an empty space where an atom should fit), interstitial defects (an extra atom squeezed in where it does not fit), and dislocations (see figure at right). Dislocations are especially important in materials science, because they help determine the mechanical", "-33.15404395955011" ], [ "present. Crystallography covers the enumeration of the symmetry patterns which can be formed by atoms in a crystal and for this reason is related to group theory and geometry. Biology X-ray crystallography is the primary method for determining the molecular conformations of biological macromolecules, particularly protein and nucleic acids such as DNA and RNA. In fact, the double-helical structure of DNA was deduced from crystallographic data. The first crystal structure of a macromolecule was solved in 1958, a three-dimensional model of the myoglobin molecule obtained by X-ray analysis. The Protein Data Bank (PDB) is a freely accessible repository for the", "-33.143359548645094" ], [ "For example, diamond and graphite are two crystalline forms of carbon, while amorphous carbon is a noncrystalline form. Polymorphs, despite having the same atoms, may have wildly different properties. For example, diamond is among the hardest substances known, while graphite is so soft that it is used as a lubricant.\nPolyamorphism is a similar phenomenon where the same atoms can exist in more than one amorphous solid form. Crystallization Crystallization is the process of forming a crystalline structure from a fluid or from materials dissolved in a fluid. (More rarely, crystals may be deposited directly from gas; see thin-film deposition and", "-33.134219086001394" ], [ "preparing extremely thin sections for transmission electron microscope (TEM) analysis. Tissues are commonly embedded in epoxy or other plastic resin. Very thin sections (less than 0.1 micrometer in thickness) are cut using diamond or glass knives on an ultramicrotome. Artifacts Artifacts are structures or features in tissue that interfere with normal histological examination. Artifacts interfere with histology by changing the tissues appearance and hiding structures. Tissue processing artifacts can include pigments formed by fixatives, shrinkage, washing out of cellular components, color changes in different tissues types and alterations of the structures in the tissue. An example is mercury pigment", "-33.094180229934864" ], [ "broken surface, which is normally associated with manufacture of an artifact, into the obsidian. The thickness of this band can be seen, and measured, using various techniques such as a high-power microscope with 40-80 power magnification, depth profiling with SIMS (secondary ion mass spectrometry), and IR-PAS (infra red photoacoustic spectroscopy).\nThe determination of absolute age from the thickness of an obsidian hydration band is complicated and problematic. First, the rate at which the hydration of glass occurs varies significantly with temperature. The rate at which the obsidian hydration band forms increases with temperature. Second, the rate of hydration and obsidian", "-33.0868185914951" ], [ "outlines of individual atoms may be traced in some circumstances by use of an atomic force microscope. Some of the largest molecules are macromolecules or supermolecules.\nThe smallest molecule is the diatomic hydrogen (H₂), with a bond length of 0.74 Å.\nEffective molecular radius is the size a molecule displays in solution.\nThe table of permselectivity for different substances contains examples. Chemical formula types The chemical formula for a molecule uses one line of chemical element symbols, numbers, and sometimes also other symbols, such as parentheses, dashes, brackets, and plus (+) and minus (−) signs. These are limited to one typographic line of", "-33.06550340700778" ], [ "Law states that the interfacial angles between identical faces of any single crystal of the same material are, by nature, restricted to the same value. This offers the opportunity to fingerprint crystalline materials on the basis of optical goniometry, which is also known as crystallometry. In order to employ this technique successfully, one must consider the observed point group symmetry of the measured faces and creatively apply the rule that \"crystal morphologies are often combinations of simple (i.e. low multiplicity) forms where the individual faces have the lowest possible Miller indices for any given zone axis\". This shall ensure that", "-33.0481907564681" ], [ "mapped in three dimensions. By studying the systematic absence of diffraction spots the Bravais lattice and any screw axes and glide planes present in the crystal structure may be determined. Limitations Electron diffraction in TEM is subject to several important limitations. First, the sample to be studied must be electron transparent, meaning the sample thickness must be of the order of 100 nm or less. Careful and time-consuming sample preparation may therefore be needed. Furthermore, many samples are vulnerable to radiation damage caused by the incident electrons.\nThe study of magnetic materials is complicated by the fact that electrons are deflected in", "-33.00957158143865" ], [ "Core–shell semiconductor nanocrystal Core–shell semiconducting nanocrystals (CSSNCs) are a class of materials which have properties intermediate between those of small, individual molecules and those of bulk, crystalline semiconductors. They are unique because of their easily modular properties, which are a result of their size. These nanocrystals are composed of a quantum dot semiconducting core material and a shell of a distinct semiconducting material. The core and the shell are typically composed of type II–VI, IV–VI, and III–V semiconductors, with configurations such as CdS/ZnS, CdSe/ZnS, CdSe/CdS, and InAs/CdSe (typical notation is: core/shell) Organically passivated quantum dots have low fluorescence quantum", "-33.00534234342922" ], [ "the surface of a material can be determined by\nwhere is the layer thickness, is the refractive index, is the number of analyte molecules, and is the surface concentration. Data collected on a zwitterionic pCBAA film suggested an RI range of 1.50 to 1.56 RIU is needed in order to achieve a nonspecific protein adsorption of <5 ng/cm², however data would vary depending on the identity of the film. This allows for a simple parameter to test the ultra-low fouling capabilities of polymer films.\nAnother parameter for protein resistance is the film thickness. Also measured by ellipsometry, a film", "-33.002494541258784" ], [ "optical, and mechanical properties that glass and polycrystals normally cannot. These properties are related to the anisotropy of the crystal, i.e. the lack of rotational symmetry in its atomic arrangement. One such property is the piezoelectric effect, where a voltage across the crystal can shrink or stretch it. Another is birefringence, where a double image appears when looking through a crystal. Moreover, various properties of a crystal, including electrical conductivity, electrical permittivity, and Young's modulus, may be different in different directions in a crystal. For example, graphite crystals consist of a stack of sheets, and although each individual sheet is", "-32.99610205008503" ], [ "elemental components of a material. For example, one might find that a larger-than-expected number of electrons comes through the material with 285 eV less energy than they had when they entered the material. This is approximately the amount of energy needed to remove an inner-shell electron from a carbon atom, which can be taken as evidence that there is a significant amount of carbon present in the sample. With some care, and looking at a wide range of energy losses, one can determine the types of atoms, and the numbers of atoms of each type, being struck", "-32.975381328491494" ], [ "samples is enhanced, relative to their surrounding, due to the interaction of light with the molecules within the sample itself. One example is in the growth of protein crystals. Protein crystals are formed in salt solutions. As salt and protein crystals are both formed in the growth process, and both are commonly transparent to the human eye, they cannot be differentiated with a standard optical microscope. As the tryptophan of protein absorbs light at 280 nm, imaging with a UV microscope with 280 nm bandpass filters makes it simple to differentiate between the two types of crystals. The protein crystals appear dark", "-32.974012226914056" ], [ "When the depth of the graded layer is roughly equal to the wavelength of light in silicon (about one-quarter the wavelength in vacuum) the reflection is reduced to 5%; deeper grades produce even blacker silicon. For low reflectivity, the nanoscale features producing the index graded layer must be smaller than the wavelength of the incident light to avoid scattering. Reactive-ion etching In semiconductor technology, reactive-ion etching (RIE) is a standard procedure for producing trenches and holes with a depth of up to several hundred micrometres and very high aspect ratios. In Bosch process RIE, this is achieved by", "-32.9605303719145" ], [ "core was discovered in 1936 by Inge Lehmann and is generally believed to be composed primarily of iron and some nickel. Since this layer is able to transmit shear waves (transverse seismic waves), it must be solid. Experimental evidence has at times been critical of crystal models of the core. Other experimental studies show a discrepancy under high pressure: diamond anvil (static) studies at core pressures yield melting temperatures that are approximately 2000 K below those from shock laser (dynamic) studies. The laser studies create plasma, and the results are suggestive that constraining inner core conditions will depend", "-32.928625020897016" ], [ "NIST does certify isotopic reference materials for non-traditional \"heavy\" isotopic systems including rubidium, nickel, strontium, gallium, and thallium, as well as several isotopic systems that would normally be characterized at \"light\" but non-traditional such as magnesium and chlorine. While the isotopic composition of several of these materials were certified in the mid-1960s, other materials were certified as recently as 2011 (for example, Boric Acid Isotopic Standard 951a). Uncertainty in absolute isotope ratios Because many isotopic reference materials are defined relative to one another using the δ notation, there are few constraints on the absolute isotopic ratios of reference materials. For", "-32.92477412856533" ], [ "transmission of visible light, making metals opaque, shiny and lustrous.\nMore advanced models of metal properties consider the effect of the positive ions cores on the delocalised electrons. As most metals have crystalline structure, those ions are usually arranged into a periodic lattice. Mathematically, the potential of the ion cores can be treated by various models, the simplest being the nearly free electron model. Minerals Minerals are naturally occurring solids formed through various geological processes under high pressures. To be classified as a true mineral, a substance must have a crystal structure with uniform physical properties throughout. Minerals range in composition", "-32.91574877896346" ], [ "the correct indexing of the crystal faces is obtained for any single crystal.\nIt is in many cases possible to derive the ratios of the crystal axes for crystals with low symmetry from optical goniometry with high accuracy and precision and to identify a crystalline material on their basis alone employing databases such as 'Crystal Data'. Provided that the crystal faces have been correctly indexed and the interfacial angles were measured to better than a few fractions of a tenth of a degree, a crystalline material can be identified quite unambiguously on the basis of angle comparisons to two rather comprehensive", "-32.914900813106215" ], [ "the density profiles of hydrogen, carbon and oxygen in various materials, as well as the absolute hydrogen, carbon and oxygen content.\nCombination of techniques is required in order to study the composition of thin films. Ion beam techniques – RBS and elastic recoil detection analysis combination has proved to be an attractive way to study the elemental composition of the samples as well as the depth profiles of the thin films. ERDA technique is capable of separating masses and energies of scattered incident ions and the recoiled target atoms. It is especially useful to profile light elements such as H, B,", "-32.90325600822689" ], [ "create a projected image of the work function at the tip apex. The image resolution is limited to (2-2.5 nm), due to quantum mechanical effects and lateral variations in the electron velocity.\nIn field ion microscopy the tip is cooled by a cryogen and its polarity is reversed. When an imaging gas (usually hydrogen or helium) is introduced at low pressures (< 0.1 Pascal) gas ions in the high electric field at the tip apex are field ionized and produce a projected image of protruding atoms at the tip apex. The image resolution is determined primarily by the temperature of the tip", "-32.89989796845475" ], [ "Surface reconstruction Surface reconstruction refers to the process by which atoms at the surface of a crystal assume a different structure than that of the bulk. Surface reconstructions are important in that they help in the understanding of surface chemistry for various materials, especially in the case where another material is adsorbed onto the surface. Basic principles In an ideal infinite crystal, the equilibrium position of each individual atom is determined by the forces exerted by all the other atoms in the crystal, resulting in a periodic structure. If a surface is introduced to the surroundings by terminating the crystal", "-32.87577856265125" ], [ "molecule. For these reasons the sizes and electron shell structure of atoms determine what element combinations are possible and the geometrical form that various minerals take. Because electrons are donated and received, it is the ionic radius of the element that controls the size and determines how atoms fit together in minerals.", "-32.86733169096988" ], [ "direction. Other substances that have been deposited on the crystal surface include indium selenide (InSe), cadmium sulfide (CdS), cadmium telluride (CdTe), tin disulfide (SnS₂), tin diselenide (SnSe₂), and tantalum diselenide (TaSe₂). Some other monolayers are also predicted to be able to form on MoTe₂ surfaces, including silicene. Silicene is claimed to become a zero-gap semiconductor on a bulk crystal, but have a metallic form on or between monolayers of MoTe₂. Organic molecules can be incorporated as a layer on the van der Waals surface, including perylene tetracarboxylic acid anhydride.\nThe sheets in α-MoTe₂ can be separated and dispersed in water with", "-32.85620290209772" ], [ "but can also exist as the cubic ice Ic, the rhombohedral ice II, and many other forms. Polymorphism is the ability of a solid to exist in more than one crystal form. For pure chemical elements, polymorphism is known as allotropy. For example, diamond, graphite, and fullerenes are different allotropes of carbon. Phase transitions When a substance undergoes a phase transition (changes from one state of matter to another) it usually either takes up or releases energy. For example, when water evaporates, the increase in kinetic energy as the evaporating molecules escape the attractive forces of the liquid is reflected", "-32.851749530324014" ], [ "could understand how the material worked.\nPendry discovered that the radiation absorption property did not come from the molecular or chemical structure of the material, i.e. the carbon per se. This property came from the long and thin, physical shape of the carbon fibers. He realized rather than conventionally altering a material through its chemistry, as lead does with glass, the behavior of a material can be altered by changing a material’s internal structure on a very fine scale. The very fine scale was less than the wavelength of the electromagnetic radiation that is applied. The theory applies across the electromagnetic", "-32.80468275912426" ], [ "spectrum is calculated. Next a trial structure is created by displacing some of the atoms. If the displacements are small the trial structure can be considered as a small perturbation of the reference structure and first-order perturbation theory can be used to determine the I-V curves of a large set of trial structures. Spot Profile Analysis Low-Energy Electron Diffraction A real surface is not perfectly periodic but has many imperfections in the form of dislocations, atomic steps, terraces and the presence of unwanted adsorbed atoms. This departure from a perfect surface leads to a broadening of the diffraction spots and", "-32.80022809095681" ], [ "has an upper limit of about RI 1.81), but several companies have devised reflectivity meters to gauge a material's RI indirectly by measuring how well it reflects an infrared beam.\nPerhaps equally as important is optic character. Diamond and other cubic (and also amorphous) materials are isotropic, meaning that light entering a stone behaves the same way regardless of direction. Conversely, most minerals are anisotropic, which produces birefringence, or double refraction of light entering the material in all directions other than an optic axis (a direction of single refraction in a doubly refractive material). Under low magnification, this birefringence is usually", "-32.79774047416868" ], [ "specimen thickness. The geometry of lattice-fringe visibility therefore becomes useful in the electron microscope study of nanomaterials, just as bend contours and Kikuchi lines are useful in the study of single crystal specimens (e.g. metals and semiconductor specimens with thickness in the tenth-micrometre range). Applications to nanostructure for example include: (i) determining the 3D lattice parameters of individual nanoparticles from images taken at different tilts, (ii) fringe fingerprinting of randomly oriented nanoparticle collections, (iii) particle thickness maps based on fringe contrast changes under tilt, (iv) detection of icosahedral twinning from the lattice image of a randomly oriented nanoparticle, and (v)", "-32.782340170117095" ], [ "be collected, with each set covering slightly more than half a full rotation of the crystal and typically containing tens of thousands of reflections.\nIn the third step, these data are combined computationally with complementary chemical information to produce and refine a model of the arrangement of atoms within the crystal. The final, refined model of the atomic arrangement—now called a crystal structure—is usually stored in a public database. Limitations As the crystal's repeating unit, its unit cell, becomes larger and more complex, the atomic-level picture provided by X-ray crystallography becomes less well-resolved (more \"fuzzy\") for a given number of observed", "-32.767832215467934" ], [ "during all ground level nuclear detonations and contain forensic information that can be used to identify the atomic device.\nThis evidence has been supported by F. Belloni et al. in a 2011 study based on nuclear imaging and spectrometric techniques.\nThe glass has been described as \"a layer 1 to 2 centimeters thick, with the upper surface marked by a very thin sprinkling of dust which fell upon it while it was still molten. At the bottom is a thicker film of partially fused material, which grades into the soil from which it was derived. The color of the glass is a", "-32.755194804105486" ], [ "Chemical Chemical structure refers to both molecular geometry and electronic structure. The structure can be represented by a variety of diagrams called structural formulas. Lewis structures use a dot notation to represent the valence electrons for an atom; these are the electrons that determine the role of the atom in chemical reactions. Bonds between atoms can be represented by lines with one line for each pair of electrons that is shared. In a simplified version of such a diagram, called a skeletal formula, only carbon-carbon bonds and functional groups are shown.\nAtoms in a crystal have a structure that involves repetition", "-32.73880488926079" ], [ "(variation of refractive index across the visible spectrum) manifests in the perceptible fire of cut diamonds. This fire—flashes of prismatic colors seen in transparent stones—is perhaps diamond's most important optical property from a jewelry perspective. The prominence or amount of fire seen in a stone is heavily influenced by the choice of diamond cut and its associated proportions (particularly crown height), although the body color of fancy (i.e., unusual) diamonds may hide their fire to some degree.\nMore than 20 other minerals have higher dispersion (that is difference in refractive index for blue and red light) than diamond, such as titanite", "-32.7330837892805" ], [ "index is also clearly shown by the appearance of the section, which are rough, with well-defined borders if they have a much stronger refraction than the medium in which they are mounted. Some minerals decompose readily and become turbid and semi-transparent (e.g. feldspar); others remain always perfectly fresh and clear (e.g. quartz), while others yield characteristic secondary products (such as green chlorite after biotite). The inclusions in the crystals (both solid and fluid) are of great interest; one mineral may enclose another, or may contain spaces occupied by glass, by fluids or by gases. Microstructure The structure of the", "-32.730566826097856" ], [ "Amorphous solid Nano-structured materials Even amorphous materials have some shortrange order at the atomic length scale due to the nature of chemical bonding (see structure of liquids and glasses for more information on non-crystalline material structure). Furthermore, in very small crystals a large fraction of the atoms are the crystal; relaxation of the surface and interfacial effects distort the atomic positions, decreasing the structural order. Even the most advanced structural characterization techniques, such as x-ray diffraction and transmission electron microscopy, have difficulty in distinguishing between amorphous and crystalline structures on these length scales.", "-32.70864053990226" ], [ "Haüy concluded that each type of crystal has a fundamental primitive, nucleus or “integrant molecule” of a particular shape, that could not be broken further without destroying both the physical and chemical nature of the crystal. He further argued that crystal structures are made up of orderly arrangements of these integrant molecules in successive layers, according to geometrical laws of crystallization. \nCrystals that had been classed together previously were identified as being of separate mineral species if their fundamental structure differed. Heavyspar, for example, was differentiated into specimens containing barium and strontium. \nThe value of Haüy's discovery was immediately recognized.\nHaüy", "-32.69973582722014" ], [ "Difference density map Display Conventionally, they are displayed as isosurfaces with positive density—electron density where there's nothing in the model, usually corresponding to some constituent of the crystal that hasn't been modelled, for example a ligand or a crystallisation adjutant -- in green, and negative density—parts of the model not backed up by electron density, indicating either that an atom has been disordered by radiation damage or that it is modelled in the wrong place—in red.", "-32.68516801026999" ], [ "Forensic materials engineering Metals and alloys Metal and alloy surfaces can be analyzed in a number of ways, including by spectroscopy and EDX used during scanning electron microscopy. The nature and composition of the metal can normally be established by sectioning and polishing the bulk, and examining the flat section using optical microscopy after etching solutions have been used to provide contrast in the section between alloy constituents. Such solutions (often an acid) attack the surface preferentially, so isolating features or inclusions of one composition, enabling them to be seen much more clearly than in the polished but untreated surface.", "-32.68026153603569" ], [ "the individual circumstances of each source's formation. Neutron activation analysis (NAA) and X-ray fluorescence (XRF) are two analytical methods used to identify the types and amounts of trace elements. These data are then statistically compared to data already available for the known sources. Visual sourcing Visual sourcing is the process by which the source of obsidian artifacts are determined by the analysis of not only their visual appearance (e.g., color, inclusions, etc.) but also their physical attributes, such as surface texture, light reflection, internal opacity, and so on. While not as reliable as trace element analysis, and", "-32.67533724738678" ], [ "with an oil free pumping system. ERDA and position resolution In the above examples, the main focus was identification of constituent particles found in thin films and depth resolution was of less significance. Depth resolution is of great importance in applications when a profile of a samples' elemental composition, in different sample layers, has to be measured. This is a powerful tool for materials characterization. Being able to quantify elemental concentration in sub-surface layers can provide a great deal of information pertaining to chemical properties. High sensitivity, i.e. large detector solid angle, can be combined with high depth resolution only", "-32.67454435231048" ], [ "as samples of metals, minerals or other macroscopic materials. The regularity of such crystals can sometimes be improved with macromolecular crystal annealing and other methods. However, in many cases, obtaining a diffraction-quality crystal is the chief barrier to solving its atomic-resolution structure.\nSmall-molecule and macromolecular crystallography differ in the range of possible techniques used to produce diffraction-quality crystals. Small molecules generally have few degrees of conformational freedom, and may be crystallized by a wide range of methods, such as chemical vapor deposition and recrystallization. By contrast, macromolecules generally have many degrees of freedom and their crystallization must be carried out so", "-32.65467219767743" ], [ "crystals of silver halides, a field of research that would dominate the rest of his career. \nIn 1956 he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society for \"his work on the borderline between physics and chemistry about the adsorption of gases on surfaces, on catalysis and on the processes occurring in photographic emulsions. With the latter end in view he has investigated in some detail the properties of silver halide crystals; he was the first to demonstrate networks of dislocations in a transparent crystal by making silver precipitate along them so that they become visible under the microscope. He", "-32.62291935418034" ], [ "size, these crystals are transparent to translucent and display vitreous to pearly luster. It exhibits a hardness of 2 on the Moh's Hardness Scale. Displays thick tabular crystals, with a prevalent pinacoid (011). Metarauchite is very brittle and shows perfect cleavage along the {011} plane. Metarauchite does not exhibit fluorescence either in short- and long-wavelength ultraviolet radiation. The density of metarauchite is not easily measured because of the relatively small size of most of its crystals; hence only the calculated density from the unit cell parameters and empirical formula was obtained, giving the value 3.81 g/cm3 . Optical properties Metarachite", "-32.615822953193856" ], [ "refers to a change in the two-dimensional structure of the surface layers, in addition to changes in the position of the entire layer. For example, in a cubic material the surface layer might re-structure itself to assume a smaller two-dimensional spacing between the atoms as lateral forces from adjacent layers are reduced. The general symmetry of a layer might also change, as in the case of the Pt (100) surface, which reconstructs from a cubic to a hexagonal structure. A reconstruction can affect one or more layers at the surface, and can either conserve the total number of atoms in", "-32.60697388171684" ], [ "result in materials that have no long-range crystalline order. Without long range order there are no brittle fracture planes, so such coatings are flexible and conformal to the underlying shape being coated, while still being as hard as diamond. In fact this property has been exploited to study atom-by-atom wear at the nanoscale in DLC. Production There are several methods producing DLC, which rely on the lower density of sp² than sp³ carbon. So the application of pressure, impact, catalysis, or some combination of these at the atomic scale can force sp² bonded carbon atoms closer together into sp³ bonds.", "-32.60640662809601" ], [ "Solid Microscopic description The atoms, molecules or ions that make up solids may be arranged in an orderly repeating pattern, or irregularly. Materials whose constituents are arranged in a regular pattern are known as crystals. In some cases, the regular ordering can continue unbroken over a large scale, for example diamonds, where each diamond is a single crystal. Solid objects that are large enough to see and handle are rarely composed of a single crystal, but instead are made of a large number of single crystals, known as crystallites, whose size can vary from a few nanometers to several meters.", "-32.60068137105554" ], [ "of terms in each sum, q, is equal to the number of peaks in the n and k spectra of the material. Every term in the sum has its own values of the parameters A, B, C, Eg, as well as its own values of B₀ and C₀. Analogous to the amorphous case, the terms all have physical significance. Characterizing thin films The refractive index (n) and extinction coefficient (k) are related to the interaction between a material and incident light, and are associated with refraction and absorption (respectively). They can be considered as the “fingerprint of the material\". Thin", "-32.59949780977331" ], [ "complex matter. Today, solid-state physics is broadly considered to be the subfield of condensed matter physics that focuses on the properties of solids with regular crystal lattices. Crystal structure and properties Many properties of materials are affected by their crystal structure. This structure can be investigated using a range of crystallographic techniques, including X-ray crystallography, neutron diffraction and electron diffraction.\nThe sizes of the individual crystals in a crystalline solid material vary depending on the material involved and the conditions when it was formed. Most crystalline materials encountered in everyday life are polycrystalline, with the individual crystals being microscopic", "-32.592130639764946" ], [ "varies in a characteristic way. Therefore, measurement of the absorption (via X-ray fluorescence or photoelectron yield) can reveal the position of the atoms relative to the reflecting planes. The absorbing atoms can be thought of as \"detecting\" the phase of the XSW; thus, this method overcomes the phase problem of X-ray crystallography.\nFor quantitative analysis, the normalized fluorescence or photoelectron yield is described by \nwhere is the reflectivity and is the relative phase of the interfering beams. The characteristic shape of can be used to derive precise structural information about the surface atoms because the two parameters", "-32.585511470640995" ], [ "edge has structure. He attributed this to absorption of radiation by electrons which are not ejected from matter as photoelectrons, but are “kicked up” to higher, unoccupied, bound electron energy levels. In early years, this was known as “Kossel structure.”\nIn 1921, Kossel took an appointment as ordinarius professor of theoretical physics at the University of Kiel. In 1928, he put forth his kinetic theory of crystal growth, which became known as the Kossel-Stranski model – Iwan N. Stranski independently proposed the same model.\nIn 1932, Kossel took the appointment as ordinarius professor of theoretical physics at the", "-32.57672166021075" ] ]

[ "Because websites and programmes can be used everywhere in the world, where local laws may or may not be the same as those applicable to the location of the programmer / issuing company. You know where a restaurant is located, and it follows local laws and regulations (or should, anyway), and its customers are also supposed to adhere to those laws.", "There are in a sense terms and conditions for everything we do, including eating at a restaurant. Next time you go to a restauraunt look at the menu. Usually at the bottom there is a notation that eating raw or undercooked foods can be harmful.... This is a condition that you accept when you order that burger or steak rare. Behind a bar is usually a sign that says please drink responsibly as well as signage that shows you can't drink if you were born before a certain date.. Those are also conditions of service. The restaurant and bar also has terms and conditions they are expected to meet to provide you with that service. (minimum health and safety standards). They may not be presented the same as what you see on websites, but they still exist.", "There are, just more simplified. What you mean by \"terms and conditions\" are basically contractual terms. Odds are, you will probably enter into a number of contracts everyday. Many people think that a contract is some document full of terms and conditions that people need to sign. Contracts can be oral or verbal (i.e. by action). The terms and conditions can be implied. A contract is simply a legally enforceable agreement. That's it. When you walk into a restaurant or when you walk into a store, and you order food or give something to the cashier, that is the start of the contract, i.e. you offer to enter into a contract. They can accept your offer, i.e. order and agree to provide services or sell you the item, in exchange of something from you, usually cash payment. (i.e. the price) This is implied from every day custom and usage. You can always insert your own terms and conditions as can the other side but the other side may choose not to accept these. Some terms and conditions may be implied by law, such as the food being served must be of a certain standard etc. Contracts can become more complicated when parties want to explicitly spell out the rights and obligations of parties. This is done to create certainty, typically in business settings. There is nothing stopping a restaurant or a store from making its customers read and agree to a 500 page contract, save for pragmatic considerations.", "Walmart has them. They are usually in the back of the store and basically they give you a 'license' to shop there but not do things like write down their prices for competitors. I'm not sure how legally binding it is.", "There are a number of reasons: 1. The law in this area is still very much under development (and when the law is under development there is uncertainty and long contracts to reduce uncertainty). 2. They can get away with having terms of service. It is standard on websites and because it is through a link you hardly even notice. If you went to a restaurant and they gave you a ten page contract to sign you would just walk out. If on the web no one had terms of service except one site that made you scroll through the whole thing then click \"i accept\" you wouldn't use that site either. 3. Generally there is legislation that prevents restaurants and other ordinary establishments from making you enter into meaningful terms of service. A restaurant can't sell you a spoiled hamburger even if you sign a waiver. Even if you can't sue the city health inspectors will swoop in and fine them into the next life. Same with basically any other term they might want you to agree to. So they don't bother trying. It is a good question though. What you might not realize is that even buying a cup of coffee is entering into a contract, but it is a verbal one with simple terms.", "There's also a legal term called \"assumption of risk.\" I am not a lawyer, and I'm sure others could do a better job of explaining, but it basically states that if you do something dangerous and stupid, it's your own damn fault you got hurt. This applies to situations like skydiving, but also to things like running through a mall or trying to do donuts in a parking lot. Quite a lot of the terms and conditions for most websites is about handling the assumption of risk and about ensuring that you aren't using their website for illegal purposes. In a restaurant, it's generally a little easier to tell if someone is using your facility as a meeting ground to distribute drugs or start a prostitution ring. If the staff notices the same person there every day acting suspiciously, they can ask the person not to return. For a website, they often need to have something in writing to refer to. Part of this is, simply put, the fact that there is no \"Internet police\" that can be called to escort you off the website.", "The restaurant industry has been around for a long time and is heavily regulated. There is a well established set of laws governing your transaction with the restaurant, the rights of the parties and what the restaurant can ask. Websites are legally a new concept and laws and regulations have not caught up with online activities. As such, contractual extra terms and conditions are added to state and protect the rights of the parties involved (mostly the website/software owners).", "In real life if you are doing something idiotic, people can tell you to stop. \"Sir, you cannot pack your buffet in a giant ziploc bag\" to the occaisional customer is easier than printing out and making everyone sign a ToS form.", "\"Please, no substitutions\" \"All mixed drinks contain 1.5oz of alcohol unless otherwise ordered\" \"Eating raw or undercooked food can give you the Hershey squirts\" \"Parties of 6 or more are subject to a 15% service charge\" \"No free refills\"", "Have you never seen a \"no shoes, no shirt, no service\" sign at the entrance to a restaurant?" ]

[ [ "credits. All users can also link their websites to social media sites such as Twitter and Facebook.\nWebs offers its own themes and site builder, as well as a selection of its own dynamic \"apps\" such as a blog, photo gallery, or webstore.\nFree websites are limited in features and also have a Webs banner on the bottom of the screen. The company offers premium plans with more tools and features and also allows customers to buy custom domain names.\nWebs now offers the 80% uptime guarantee, after many customers had complained about excessive downtime", "-24.417629739267795" ], [ "the user may be less important, even to the user themselves. Since usability is about getting a task done, aspects of user experience like information architecture and user interface can help or hinder a user's experience. If a website has \"bad\" information architecture and a user has a difficult time finding what they are looking for, then a user will not have an effective, efficient and satisfying search.\nIn addition to the ISO standard, there exist several other definitions for user experience. Some of them have been studied by Law et al. Influences on user experience Many factors can influence a", "-24.012909373966977" ], [ "content. Login or registration was not required. However, the website now requires users to register for free before they can use the features of the website. The signup requires a username, email address, and password. Details such as age, gender, and location can be further added under profile and settings. This tab also allows users to write an 'about me' section about themselves, including languages they speak and their taste in music, movies, and games. Users can also upload an image of themselves to add to their profiles. Inappropriate content Within a year of the site's launch, Chatroulette received criticism,", "-23.931655887368834" ], [ "First-time user experience In computer science, a first-time user experience (FTUE) refers to the initial stages of using a piece of software. Of particular importance are the configuration steps, such as signing up for an email account, or configuring a DVR. Every user of a service has his/her own FTUE, even if he/she has extensive experience with using a similar product. Patience, time investment, and intuitiveness are factors for a user's FTUE. Software services generally have different layouts, styles, graphics, and hotkeys which must be identified to contribute to a user's learning, mastery, and efficiency of the software. The FTUE", "-23.693013158859685" ], [ "create content, whereas web developers must create code that is easy to read, user-friendly, and an overall enjoyable experience for the user to navigate.\nWeb designers use graphics and graphic design software to create visuals for a website. They then use coding to make it available online. Designers are creative and use both intuition and imagination. However, web designers express less concern with the look of a website than how technically sound it is. They build a website from the ground up and know all the specific languages for that website.\nOverall, online representation of a business through websites as a result", "-23.45570579590276" ], [ "within a free trial period, it can take them from being a user to a consumer—willing to invest in order to continue their experience.\nUser onboarding software breaks down the complicated process of implementing user onboarding and makes it more user friendly for the developer while still producing the same result.\nUser onboarding is not just a “product tour” - it is the complete experience whereby a user finds success in an application or helping returning users get up to speed with changes. \nEffective onboarding helps customers how to successfully use the product without any external effort. You can show the proposed", "-23.43312710581813" ], [ "of content the user is interested in, and then a computer program suggests \"more like this\", which is other content that the user may be interested in. Different websites and systems have different algorithms, but one approach, used by Amazon for its online store, is to indicate to a user, once the user searches for or looks at content/product x that \"other users who purchased x also purchased the following items\". This example is oriented around online purchasing behaviour, but an algorithm could also be programmed to provide suggestions based on other factors (e.g., searching, viewing, etc.). \nIn the 2010s,", "-23.246353426249698" ], [ "user profile is a set of data representing real person via user related information, e.g., needs, interests or behaviors. Profiles are created manually or by using machine learning algorithms, that automatically analyze and profile even billions of Internet users. To create a user profile, the machine uses i.e. content-based techniques to analyze what kind of websites users visit and on that basis – set relevant users interests, such as Technology, News, Sports, Arts & Entertainment.\nLook-alike modeling – is a methodology used for finding new clients who behave closely similar to current customers. DMP profile users who bought a specific product", "-23.23611418355722" ], [ "figure or fantasy worlds. The virtual figure to some degree reflects the personal expectation, and users may play a totally different personality in virtual world than in reality. Internet forum An Internet forum, or message board, is an online discussion site where people can hold conversations in the form of posted messages.\nThere are many types of Internet forums based on certain themes or groups. The properties of online identities also differ from different type of forums. For example, the users in a university BBS usually know some of the others in reality since the users can only be the students", "-23.112828921177424" ], [ "users' activities such as history of purchases or product reviews to generate recommendations for other users (e.g. \"Customers Who Bought This Item Also Bought...\"). Online platforms for collaborative software development such as GitHub rely on activity traces (number of repositories, history of activity across projects, commits and personal profiles to determine its users' reputations in the community.\nUser activity traces can be used to model users’ behavioral patterns and trends in order to determine online communities’ health (whether a community would flourish or diminish). Such models can also be used to predict propagation and future popularity of content, or predict", "-22.94587197416695" ], [ "thus creating a literal web of data connections. These applications then add to the user experience specific to the application itself. Examples include TweetDeck and Blogger. From the social web to real life The way in which individuals share intimate details, and perform tasks such as dating, shopping, and applying for jobs is very different from in previous generations. Now, one's preferences, opinions, and activities are routinely shared with a group of friends with whom they may or may not ever meet were it not for the social web.\nMany social websites use online social interaction to create a bridge", "-22.7878282232341" ], [ "a cookie containing the username that was last used to log into a website, so that it may be filled in automatically the next time the user logs in.\nMany websites use cookies for personalization based on the user's preferences. Users select their preferences by entering them in a web form and submitting the form to the server. The server encodes the preferences in a cookie and sends the cookie back to the browser. This way, every time the user accesses a page on the website, the server can personalize the page according to the user's preferences. For example, the Google", "-22.738522731116973" ], [ "devices and wireless internet access, companies are now able to reach a global market with users of all nationalities at any time and almost any place in the world. It is important for websites to be usable regardless of users' language and culture. Most users in developed countries conduct their personal business online: banking, studying, errands, etc., which has enabled people with disabilities to be independent. Websites also need to be accessible for those users.\nThe goal of Web usability is to provide user experience satisfaction by minimizing the time it takes to the user to learn new functionality and page", "-22.636537613812834" ], [ "than custom interfaces. Classes A COM class (\"coclass\") is a concrete implementation of one or more interfaces, and closely resembles classes in object-oriented programming languages. Classes are created based on their class ID (CLSID) or based on their programmatic identifier string (progid). Like many object-oriented languages, COM provides a separation of interface from implementation. This distinction is especially strong in COM, where objects cannot be accessed directly, but only through their interfaces. COM also has support for multiple implementations of the same interface, so that clients at runtime can choose which implementation of an interface to instantiate. Interface Definition Language", "-22.606725049117358" ], [ "to represent new customers, each including their name, address, contact details and so on. Early website designers stayed away from this original concept in two important ways. First, there is no technical reason for a URI to textually describe the web resource subordinate to which POST data will be stored. In fact, unless some effort is made, the last part of a URI will more likely describe the web application's processing page and its technology, such as http://example.com/applicationform.php. Secondly, given most web browsers' natural limitation to use only GET or POST, designers felt the need to re-purpose POST to do", "-22.521283997804858" ], [ "age, their occupations, their job titles, and how often they visit your web site. You can see what they look at and gather statistics on a daily basis that show what kind of audience your web site reaches. In turn, you can take that aggregate data and share it with potential web site advertisers.\nWhile the data collection and analyzing capabilities of the company's software got positive feedback, the UI was deemed to have a poor design. For example, a part of their solution called Social Optimizer, a tool responsible for displaying personalized messages, used pop-ups that were \"too ugly to", "-22.4261238292529" ], [ "user is distinguished from the value-added reseller that installs the software or the organization that purchases and manages the software. In the UK, there exist documents that accompany licenses for products named end user undertaking (EUU). Context End users are one of the three major factors contributing to the complexity of managing information systems. The end user's position has changed from a position in the 1950s (where end users did not interact with the mainframe; computer experts programmed and ran the mainframe) to one in the 2010s where the end user collaborates with and advises the management information system and", "-22.296977524005342" ], [ "and referencing older models I built years ago come into the virtual space. I love that I can hide old letters and photographs in lockets and tuck them away into drawers that are closed. I know they are there and that seems important to me and I love that sometimes I forget they are there. In many ways working in a virtual environment is like being in a dissociative fugue or very deep daydream or in your very own playroom...you can get lost in there very easily. Somehow the piece just evolves into what it wants to be\". Professional credits", "-22.25614970829338" ], [ "to the user will be less likely to have a basis for personal jurisdiction. Websites are thus effectively divided into three categories: websites that conduct business over the Internet, websites where users exchange information with the host computers, and websites that do little more than present information. Websites that do business over the Internet will yield a finding of purposeful availment, while websites that simply present information will not. Purposeful availment for the third type is determined by the level of interactivity and its commercial nature. Criticisms of the Zippo test The Zippo test has been cited by many courts", "-22.11030019330792" ], [ "or their carers must program in any new utterances manually (e.g. names of new friends or personal stories) and there are no existing commercial solutions for automatically adding content. A number of research approaches have attempted to overcome this difficulty, these range from \"inferred input\", such as generating content based on a log of conversation with a user's friends and family, to data mined from the Internet to find language materials, such as the Webcrawler Project. Moreover, by making use of Lifelogging based approaches, a device's content can be changed based on events that occur to a user during their", "-22.04032997575996" ], [ "a browser visits a website, the website checks for the existence of a particular cookie. If the cookie is present, the cookie value is captured. If the cookie is not present, the website will create a cookie. Unique visitor Unique visitors refers to the number of distinct individuals requesting pages from the website during a given period, regardless of how often they visit. Visits refer to the number of times a site is visited, no matter how many visitors make up those visits. When an individual goes to a website on Tuesday, then again on Wednesday, this is recorded as", "-22.002729089959757" ], [ "The website allows the user to enter their name and what condiments they prefer on their Whopper, and once they finish that, they can watch their show that they customized to their liking.", "-21.980770494788885" ], [ "identifies the site.\nWebsites can have many functions and can be used in various fashions; a website can be a personal website, a corporate website for a company, a government website, an organization website, etc. Websites are typically dedicated to a particular topic or purpose, ranging from entertainment and social networking to providing news and education. All publicly accessible websites collectively constitute the World Wide Web, while private websites, such as a company's website for its employees, are typically a part of an intranet.\nWeb pages, which are the building blocks of websites, are documents, typically composed in plain text interspersed with", "-21.965938886336517" ], [ "five people, with messages appearing on all users' screens character-by-character as they were typed. Talkomatic was very popular among PLATO users into the mid-1980s. Virtual worlds A virtual world takes the form of a computer-based simulated environment through which users can interact with one another and use and create objects. The term has become largely synonymous with interactive 3D virtual environments, where the users take the form of avatars visible to others. Weblogs and directories Weblogs exist when the owner, who is referred to as a 'blogger', invites others to comment on what they have written. The emergence and growth", "-21.929610138526186" ], [ "be much harder to achieve for analog wish lists. Online wish lists on retailer websites allow you to save items you prefer from that retailer's site for future reference. Universal online wish lists allow you to add items from multiple retailers and even non-retail ideas. Software users Software user wish lists are a compilation of user suggestions for requested features. Many enterprise websites and software packages offer users the option to add a \"wish\" - a suggestion for improvement or change - and to vote on the importance of suggestions supplied by the publisher or author of the website or", "-21.885607904056087" ], [ "paid hosting.\nSingle page hosting is generally sufficient for personal web pages. Personal web site hosting is typically free, advertisement-sponsored, or inexpensive. Business web site hosting often has a higher expense depending upon the size and type of the site. Larger hosting services Many large companies that are not Internet service providers need to be permanently connected to the web to send email, files, etc. to other sites. The company may use the computer as a website host to provide details of their goods and services and facilities for online orders.\nA complex site calls for a more comprehensive package that provides", "-21.879337788668636" ], [ "being served from a database to a customer using a web browser. However, the user sees the mainly text document arriving as a webpage to be viewed in a web browser. Ecommerce sites are usually organized by the software we identify as a \"shopping cart\". Quality content Quality content is a popular phrase used to describe content which isn't focused on increasing the clickbait culture but rather to help those who get through it. Websites considered as content farms manipulate keywords to attract search engines to their website but are considered to have content of poor quality. Quality content promises", "-21.870229676249437" ], [ "For example, a news website may present headlines and first paragraphs of top stories, with links to full articles, in a dynamic web page that reflects the popularity and recentness of stories. Meanwhile, other websites use the home page to attract users to create an account. Once they are logged in, the home page may be redirected to their profile page. This may in turn be referred to as the \"personal home page\".\nA website may have multiple home pages, although most have one. Wikipedia, for example, has a home page at wikipedia.org, as well as language-specific home pages, such as", "-21.86754653918797" ], [ "and assigned to different groups, users, rooms.\nLists are fully browsable, configurable and allow users to share exactly what they want with whom they want. Users can queue many downloads and can also download complete folders.", "-21.86524739296874" ], [ "for some information and then look up that URI in an entirely different context. For example, I may want to look up a restaurant on my laptop, bookmark it, and then, when I only have my phone, check the bookmark to have a look at the evening menu. Or, my travel agent may send me a pointer to my itinerary for a business trip. I may view the itinerary from my office on a large screen and want to see the map, or I may view it at the airport from my phone when all I want is the gate", "-21.85826735047158" ], [ "Employment website An employment website is a website that deals specifically with employment or careers. Many employment websites are designed to allow employers to post job requirements for a position to be filled and are commonly known as job boards. Other employment sites offer employer reviews, career and job-search advice, and describe different job descriptions or employers. Through a job website a prospective employee can locate and fill out a job application or submit resumes over the Internet for the advertised position. History The Online Career Center was developed as a non-profit organization backed by forty major", "-21.853203264530748" ], [ "of knowledge. Conversational knowledge management software fulfills this purpose because conversations, e.g. questions and answers, become the source of relevant knowledge in the organization. Conversational technologies are also seen as tools to support both individual knowledge workers and work units.\nMany advocates of Social Software assume, and even actively argue, that users create actual communities. They have adopted the term \"online communities\" to describe the resulting social structures. History Christopher Allen supported this definition and traced the core ideas of the concept back through Computer Supported Cooperative or Collaborative Work (CSCW) in the 1990s, Groupware in the 1970s and 1980s, to", "-21.818584826018196" ], [ "things that they interact with, allow sites to collect that data, and other factors, to create a 'profile' that links to that visitor's web browser. As a result, site publishers can use this data to create defined audience segments based upon visitors that have similar profiles.\nWhen visitors return to a specific site or a network of sites using the same web browser, those profiles can be used to allow marketers and advertisers to position their online ads and messaging in front of those visitors who exhibit a greater level of interest and intent for the products and services being offered.", "-21.78060498618288" ], [ "well designed website. Furthermore, it is also crucial that the designer gives suggestions based on the clients ideas, which is supported by evidence/theory/examples of usability and other functions of the website too. Constant and open communication is important because conflicts or misunderstandings can arise between the two parties. Understanding Usability To understand what usability is and what it means it is important to look at it from the customers' perspective.\nAccording to Steve Krug nowadays digital literacy is quite high and increasing year-by-year and ˝how we really use the internet˝ has changed.\nWe have become so used to using the internet and", "-21.769279033091152" ], [ "A 2011 edited volume on Tourism Social Media: Transformations in Identity, Community and Culture by hospitality and business school scholars spotlights some of these issues, as Moreover, there are various programs and applications, such as chat rooms, forums, MUDs, MOOs, MMORPGs, and others in which a user is allowed to establish an identity in that particular space. This online identity could be different from a user's physical identity in race, gender, height, weight or even species. In chat rooms and forums, a user creates their identity through text and the way they interact with others. In MMORPGs,", "-21.753951923688874" ], [ "such as Chicago.jobs to third parties. The International Association of Employment Web Sites and dozens of other employment services organizations have objected.\nIt has been suggested that subdomains of other domains, such as jobs.example.com, can be used without any new registrations on the part of the companies involved. However, there is no general consensus among companies or industry sectors for any such naming scheme, like there is for the www prefix and other prefixes, so the proponents of .jobs argue the domain can gain a market presence by allowing recruiters to communicate a simple, direct URL destination of employment opportunities", "-21.74539426204865" ], [ "education institutions offered some distance education through print-based correspondence courses. These courses were often referred to as a \"course in a box\". These have been developed so that students can obtain almost immediate feedback from professors and online tutors through e-mails or online discussions.\nWhen the term \"virtual\" was first coined in the computational sense, it applied to things that were simulated by the computer, like virtual memory. Over time, the adjective has been applied to things that physically exist and are created or carried on by means of computers.\nThe Open University in the United Kingdom was the world’s", "-21.717810063622892" ], [ "(Interactive Voice Response) a main menu and the use of the keypad as options (e.g., \"Press 1 for English, Press 2 for Spanish\", etc.)\nHowever, in the Internet era, a challenge has been to maintain and/or enhance the personal experience while making use of the efficiencies of online commerce. \"Online customers are literally invisible to you (and you to them), so it's easy to shortchange them emotionally. But this lack of visual and tactile presence makes it even more crucial to create a sense of personal, human-to-human connection in the online arena.\"\nExamples of customer service by artificial means are automated online", "-21.692172409253544" ], [ "Online presence management Theory of online presence management Due to the evolving nature of Internet use, a web site alone is not sufficient to promote most brands. To maintain a web presence and brand recognition, individuals and companies need to use a combination of social tools such as Google Maps, Facebook, Twitter, Flickr, YouTube, and Pinterest, as well as cultivating a brand presence on mobile apps and other online databases.\nThe online presence management process starts by determining goals that will define an online strategy. Once this strategy is put in place, an ongoing and constant process of evaluating and fine-tuning", "-21.686760617798427" ], [ "media expertise, paper products, dating, paper crafting, scrap booking, coaching, writing and many other applications.\nExperts in the membership site field say that \"people come for content and stay for community.\" The challenge of a member site is to retain paying members. Some sites, like the New York Times, offers some content free and then charges a fee for more in-depth access, or access to special kinds of content. Some sites offer downloads of audio or video content, free graphics, free software that is only available to members with a Creative Market. Many sites also offer webinars to members. The webinars", "-21.68608269037213" ], [ "site which allows the site owner to put more information onto it, and personalized email accounts, e.g., yourname@yoursite.com.", "-21.673752415925264" ], [ "reviews of a product, movie or CD. By removing the cultural middlemen, messageboards help speed the flow of information and exchange of ideas.\nOpenDocument is an open document file format for saving and exchanging editable office documents such as text documents (including memos, reports, and books), spreadsheets, charts, and presentations. Organizations and individuals that store their data in an open format such as OpenDocument avoid being locked into a single software vendor, leaving them free to switch software if their current vendor goes out of business, raises their prices, changes their software, or changes their licensing terms to something less favorable.\nOpen-source", "-21.65289610804757" ], [ "persistent environments, where enterprises combine e-commerce, social media as core operating systems, and is evolving into virtual environments for branding, customer acquisition, and service centers. A persistent environment enables users, visitors and administrators to re-visit a part or parts of the event or session. Information gathered by attendees and end users is typically stored in a virtual briefcase typically including contact information and marketing materials. Potential advantages Virtual environment software has the potential to maximize the benefits of both online and on-premises environments. A flexible platform would allow companies to deploy the software in both environments while having the ability", "-21.58677476772573" ], [ "perspective, by either removing the phrases \"Information Technology\" and \"IT-enabled\", or replacing them with the name of your domain of interest (e.g. \"Marketing\"), and then \"season to taste\".", "-21.566047146101482" ], [ "original. For example, one can construct a listicle by adding captions to YouTube clips. For these reasons, the form has come under criticism as a \"kind of cheap content-creation\":\nIt's so easy you wonder why everyone doesn't do it until you realize that now it's all they do: Come up with an idea (\"Top 10 Worst [X]\") on the L train ride to the office that morning, [and] slap together 10 (or 25, or 100) cultural artifacts ripe for the kind of snarky working over that won't actually tax you at all as a writer/thinker.\nThe blogger and technologist Anil Dash has", "-21.52452645228186" ], [ "people's behavior. Virtual Worlds such as Eve Online and Second Life also have people and systems that govern them.\nProviders of online virtual spaces have more than one approach to the governing of their environments. Second Life for instance was designed with the expectation being on the residents to establish their own community rules for appropriate behaviour. On the other hand, some virtual worlds such as Habbo enforce clear rules for behaviour, as seen in their terms and conditions.\nIn some instances virtual worlds don't need established rules of conduct because actions such as ‘killing’ another avatar is impossible. However, if needed", "-21.481721723277587" ], [ "are the place to go when real life becomes overbearing or boring. While in real life individuals hesitate to communicate their true opinions, it is easier to do so online because they don't ever have to meet the people they are talking with (Toronto, 2009). Thus, virtual worlds are basically a psychological escape.\nAnother area of research related to virtual worlds is the field of navigation. Specifically, this research investigates whether or not virtual environments are adequate learning tools in regards to real-world navigation. Psychologists at Saint Michael's College found that video game experience corresponded with ability to navigate virtual environments", "-21.48158064065501" ], [ "that user's behavior across multiple interactions with different websites or web servers. As an example, consider a company that owns a network of websites. This company could store all of its images on one particular server, but store the other contents of its web pages on a variety of other servers. For instance each server could be specific to a given website, and could even be located in a different city. But the company could use web beacons to count and recognize individual users who visit the different websites. Rather than gathering statistics and managing cookies for each server independently,", "-21.47201933596807" ], [ "Lisp, Python, etc.) is often prefixed to the above titles, and those who work in a web environment often prefix their titles with web. The term programmer can be used to refer to a software developer, software engineer, computer scientist, or software analyst. However, members of these professions typically possess other software engineering skills, beyond programming. Computer industry The computer industry is made up of all of the businesses involved in developing computer software, designing computer hardware and computer networking infrastructures, the manufacture of computer components and the provision of information technology services including system administration and maintenance. Software industry", "-21.46750319196144" ], [ "Self-hosting (web services) Self-hosting in the context of website management and online publishing is used to describe the practice of running and maintaining a website using a private web server. The concept of self hosting is mostly relevant in situations where a webmaster has a clear and immediate \"hosted\" alternative, however the term can be applied in other situations. A hosted solution is any service whereby an external provider is relied upon to provide a fully managed service, which might include adequate server space, on-demand support, and regular software updates.\nThere is often confusion as to what constitutes \"self hosted\" or", "-21.456978181262457" ], [ "(in the web space) communication transfers behavior patterns from the real world and virtual worlds to the web. Research has demonstrated effects of online indicators Debates or design choices Social software may be better understood as a set of debates or design choices, rather than any particular list of tools. Broadly conceived, there are many older media such as mailing lists and Usenet fora that qualify as \"social\". However, most users of this term restrict its meaning to more recent software genres such as blogs and wikis. Others suggest that the term social software is best used not to", "-21.446360648900736" ], [ "or Facebook (\"web companies large and small are embracing this stream\" of providing lifestreaming). Other online applications have emerged to facilitate a user's lifestream. Posterous offered a variety of unique features to enhance its basic blogging function. Tumblr is a similar concept, but with slightly different features. Lifestream websites Websites accommodating of lifestreaming gather together all the information someone wants to display and order it in reverse-chronology. \"Each person designs her daily life to some extent-for instance basic time management tools. Putting one’s life online might provide the critical perspective to help redesign it. It is not just an organizational", "-21.42432235297747" ], [ "effects that are not explicitly modeled, in which case parameters may need to take on values that differ from text-book or table values. Uses An online model as defined here has the useful property that it closely resembles the real plant, and for this reason the online model can at any time by used to assess planned changes in operations, either for control, for optimization and for different operational tasks to be performed. It can then be used amongst other things for real-time monitoring, de-bottlenecking or plant redesign, or for \"what-if\" analysis.\nAnalyzing trends of how estimated parameters and states in", "-21.410096839652397" ], [ "Infoware Infoware is a term that was coined by Tim O'Reilly and is defined as a website that use commoditized server software such as LAMP to enable data (e.g. book comments and ratings) to be shared via a website, and create a value as a result (e.g. other people's opinions of a particular book that you want to buy). The term infoware was first used in O'Reilly's talk on the subject at the Linux Kongress in Würzburg in 1997, and later in talks such as one at ISPCON 98. It was written up and published as his chapter Hardware, Software,", "-21.360178825678304" ], [ "from recreational usage is a strategy commonly used to manage personal privacy. The free and ready availability of email accounts from sites such as Yahoo, Google or Hotmail allows the protection of personal identity through the use of different names to identify each email account. These throw-away accounts can be discarded or replaced at will, providing another level of protection. Choice of Username A username is required to set up email accounts and to open accounts for various official, commercial, recreational and social networking sites. In many cases, an email address may also be utilised as a username. Usernames", "-21.349947136593983" ], [ "the particular user, their recent activities, and their relationship with other Windows Live users. It also provides the ability to connect with others through Skype, and via social networks such as Facebook, MySpace and LinkedIn.\nUsers can share some of their personal information such as interests and hobbies, and social information such as their favorites quote, hometown, or places lived previously. Profile also allows users to modify their privacy settings to decide what is shared. Web authentication On August 15, 2007, Microsoft released the Windows Live ID Web Authentication SDK, enabling web developers to integrate Windows Live ID into their websites", "-21.32005930472951" ], [ "but is a drawback when a chatter uses different computers as his avatars and buddy lists are not readily available.\nThe SQL database is also used for managing customer accounts. Users may purchase accounts that can have 2, 5, or 10 chat names associated with them. Any or all of the names can be used at the same time, for example family or friends can share an account. One person is responsible, however, for paying the monthly subscription fee.\nThe database assists community management by keeping track of privileges, penalties and warnings. Selected users can be given server privileges which include the", "-21.305129348533228" ], [ "Experience model Models Experience models are visually represented by abstract diagrams or metaphors drawn from familiar objects, behaviors or systems. User interfaces implement a variety of experience models to enable users to quickly grasp what is happening in the system, where the user is, and what the user can do next.\nA software experience model may represent the relationship of one application to another, an application in relationship to various navigation mechanisms and other system or application components.", "-21.295265711574757" ], [ "with the vast majority of users simply acting as consumers of content.\" Personal web pages were common, consisting mainly of static pages hosted on ISP-run web servers, or on free web hosting services such as GeoCities. With Web 2.0, it became common for average web users to have social-networking profiles (on sites such as Myspace and Facebook) and personal blogs through either a low-cost web hosting service or through a dedicated host (like Blogger or LiveJournal). In general, content was generated dynamically, allowing readers to comment directly on pages in a way that was not common previously.\nSome Web 2.0 capabilities", "-21.226504136357107" ], [ "government website, an organization website, etc. Websites are typically dedicated to a particular topic or purpose, ranging from entertainment and social networking to providing news and education. All publicly accessible websites collectively constitute the World Wide Web, while private websites, such as a company's website for its employees, are typically part of an intranet.\nWeb pages, which are the building blocks of websites, are documents, typically composed in plain text interspersed with formatting instructions of Hypertext Markup Language (HTML, XHTML). They may incorporate elements from other websites with suitable markup anchors. Web pages are accessed and transported with the Hypertext Transfer", "-21.226454039257078" ], [ "website, so the distinction between individual sites, as perceived by the user, can be blurred. Websites are written in, or converted to, HTML (Hyper Text Markup Language) and are accessed using a software interface classified as a user agent. Web pages can be viewed or otherwise accessed from a range of computer-based and Internet-enabled devices of various sizes, including desktop computers, laptops, tablet computers and smartphones. A website is hosted on a computer system known as a web server, also called an HTTP (Hyper Text Transfer Protocol) server. These terms can also refer to the software that runs on these", "-21.225959299248643" ], [ "software, and they attempt to give a quick response to the suggestions. For example, Microsoft Visual Studio has a \"community\" menu, and Facebook has a \"suggestions\" section.\nIn many cases, when a company fails to supply such a framework, users create their own lists, in Internet forums or in blogs. When such a list becomes popular, the company must respond to the common requests.\nHaving software user wish lists has become popular since 2007 when a football gaming community FIFPlay started collecting fans wishlist for Electronic Arts for pre-development of FIFA (video game series) and it has collected over 10,000 ideas", "-21.222868160984945" ], [ "different people, ranging from \"online journal\" to \"easily updated personal website.\" While these definitions are technically correct, they fail to capture the power of blogs as social software. Beyond being a simple homepage or an online diary, some blogs allow comments on the entries, thereby creating a discussion forum. They also have blogrolls (i.e. links to other blogs which the owner reads or admires) and indicate their social relationship to those other bloggers using the XFN social relationship standard. Pingback and trackback allow one blog to notify another blog, creating an inter-blog conversation. Blogs engage readers and can build a", "-21.21647835074691" ], [ "Other common board features are private messages (where users can send messages to one another) as well as chat (a way to have a real time conversation online) and image uploading. Some messageboards use phpBB, which is a free open-source package. Where blogs are more about individual expression and tend to revolve around their authors, messageboards are about creating a conversation amongst its users where information can be shared freely and quickly. Messageboards are a way to remove intermediaries from everyday life—for instance, instead of relying on commercials and other forms of advertising, one can ask other users for frank", "-21.215591916457015" ], [ "refer to a single type of software, but rather to the use of two or more modes of computer-mediated communication that result in \"community formation.\" In this view, people form online communities by combining one-to-one (e.g. email and instant messaging), one-to-many (Web pages and blogs) and many-to-many (wikis) communication modes. Some groups schedule real life meetings and so become \"real\" communities of people that share physical lives.\nMost definers of social software agree that they seem to facilitate \"bottom-up\" community development. The system is classless and promotes those with abilities. Membership is voluntary, reputations are earned by winning the trust", "-21.21112993875431" ], [ "Adaptive website An adaptive website is a website that builds a model of user activity and modifies the information and/or presentation of information to the user in order to better address the user's needs. Overview An adaptive website adjusts the structure, content, or presentation of information in response to measured user interaction with the site, with the objective of optimizing future user interactions. Adaptive websites \"are web sites that automatically improve their organization and presentation by learning from their user access patterns.\" User interaction patterns may be collected directly on the website or may be mined from Web server logs.", "-21.209562524301873" ], [ "and own the domain name of their websites. Using free or inexpensive hosting services and specialized websites such as GoFundMe, Internet begging websites ask the public for help with many needs including breast augmentation surgery, cancer treatments, new cars, preventing personal homelessness, and medical bills to suggest a few. Websites with names reflecting their needs directly or indirectly are panhandling for help with a variety of human needs and conditions, from deeply personal to very humorous.\nMany 'cause websites' accept contributions via clickable hyperlinks. Internet services like PayPal and the Amazon.com Honor system offer free to inexpensive credit card and payment", "-21.20821855175018" ], [ "a server. These protocols offer a simple directory structure which the user navigates and where they choose files to download. Documents were most often presented as plain text files without formatting, or were encoded in word processor formats. Overview Websites have many functions and can be used in various fashions; a website can be a personal website, a commercial website, a government website or a non-profit organization website. Websites can be the work of an individual, a business or other organization, and are typically dedicated to a particular topic or purpose. Any website can contain a hyperlink to any other", "-21.168695841843146" ], [ ".jobs Intended use The intended use of the domain jobs is for companies and organizations to register some version of their corporate names and use it for a site aimed at those seeking employment with that company, or, .jobs can target a specific market. For example, manufacturing.jobs could represent employment for a specific corporation, or market sector.\nIn 2010, Employ Media LLC applied to ICANN to extend the charter under which Employ Media is authorized to sell the .jobs domains. If accepted, Employ Media plans to create hundreds of thousands and perhaps a million new, niche job boards and sell domains", "-21.1669050619239" ], [ "On top of being an issue from sorting and interpreting information from the user in order to predict their needs, this can give rise to security issues. Because the information is stored, users lack privacy when utilizing an AUI. Types An adaptive user interface can be implemented in various ways. These implementations can differ between the amount of information available to certain users, or how users utilize the application. Adaptive presentation The goal behind adaptive presentation is to display certain information based on the current user. This may mean that users with only basic knowledge of a system will only", "-21.155946359896916" ], [ "personal interests like \"History\" or \"Games\".\nUsers rate a site by giving it a thumbs up, thumbs down selection on the StumbleUpon toolbar, and can optionally leave additional commentary on the site's review page, which also appears on the user's blog. This social content discovery approach automates the \"word-of-mouth\" referral of peer-approved Web sites and simplifies Web navigation.\nIn the settings section of Stumbleupon you can further filter the types of webpages you may come across. There are interest filters which allow you to include only content for all ages, R rated content, or X rated content. There are also content filters", "-21.153475350380177" ], [ "using object oriented programming, utilizing combinations of several programming languages, such as Ruby, PHP, Python, ASP.NET and/or Java. Often APIs are utilized to tie non-social websites to social websites, one example being Campusfood.com. Blogs and wikis Both blogs and Wikis are prime examples of collaboration through the Internet, a feature of the group interaction that characterizes the social Web. Blogs are used as BBS for the 21st century on which people can post discussions, whereas Wikis are constructed and edited by anyone who is granted access to them. Members of both are able to see the recent discussions and changes", "-21.134545031178277" ], [ "Programmer A computer programmer, sometimes called more recently a coder (especially in more informal contexts), is a person who creates computer software. The term computer programmer can refer to a specialist in one area of computers, or to a generalist who writes code for many kinds of software. \nA programmer's most oft-used computer language (e.g., Assembly, COBOL, C, C++, C#, Java, Lisp, Python) may be prefixed to the term programmer. Some who work with web programming languages also prefix their titles with web.\nA range of occupations that involve programming also often require a range of other, similar skills, for example:", "-21.12725170192425" ], [ "User guide A user guide, also commonly called a technical communication document or manual, is intended to give assistance to people using a particular system. It is usually written by a technical writer, although user guides are written by programmers, product or project managers, or other technical staff, particularly in smaller companies.\nUser guides are most commonly associated with electronic goods, computer hardware and software, although they can be written for any product.\nMost user guides contain both a written guide and associated images. In the case of computer applications, it is usual to include screenshots of the human-machine interface(s), and", "-21.110498260975874" ], [ "storage While navigating the World Wide Web, a \"user agent\" (web browser) makes requests to another computer, known as a web server, every time the user selects a hyperlink. Most web servers store information about the sequence of links that a user \"clicks through\" while visiting the websites that they host in log files for the site operator’s benefit. The information of interest can vary and may include: information downloaded, webpage visited previously, webpage visited afterwards, duration of time spent on page, etc. The information is most useful when the client/user is identified, which can be done through website registration", "-21.10751858263393" ], [ "In summary, they want a website that is fast and simple to use - quick to load, has big buttons and readable text, and offer a way of engagement (videos, apps, social media, and other ways to contact the company). The three most sough-after things while browsing mobile are locations, opening hours and contact information. Make sure to include them.\nCheck mobile-friendliness of a web site here. Usability for Multilingual Websites Multilingual websites should offer the same experience to the users, regardless of the website being in english, German, or Japanese. Websites should render the same way in all languages and", "-21.10371911904076" ], [ "online help, cross-referencing is often not available and the information provided is limited and rarely combined with procedures or complex tasks. Perhaps most critically, on-line help cannot be customized to the user or the job task; in fact, the same software screen may require different inputs depending on the user and job task. Online help is also not contextual to the user's current situation and requires users to search through for the solution to their problem. EPSS versus e-learning simulations EPSS must also be differentiated from e-learning simulations that replay a series of steps on-demand within a software application. Simulations", "-21.103256406786386" ], [ "may also contain any combination of computer data, including graphics, sounds, text, video, multimedia and interactive content that runs while the user is interacting with the page. Client-side software can include animations, games, office applications and scientific demonstrations. Through keyword-driven Internet research using search engines like Yahoo!, Bing and Google, users worldwide have easy, instant access to a vast and diverse amount of online information. Compared to printed media, books, encyclopedias and traditional libraries, the World Wide Web has enabled the decentralization of information on a large scale.\nThe Web has enabled individuals and organizations to publish ideas and information to", "-21.095004798204172" ], [ "User experience Definitions The international standard on ergonomics of human system interaction, ISO 9241-210, defines user experience as \"a person's perceptions and responses that result from the use or anticipated use of a product, system or service\". According to the ISO definition, user experience includes all the users' emotions, beliefs, preferences, perceptions, physical and psychological responses, behaviors and accomplishments that occur before, during and after use. The ISO also list three factors that influence user experience: system, user and the context of use.\nNote 3 of the standard hints that usability addresses aspects of user experience, e.g. \"usability criteria can be", "-21.094271456066053" ], [ "not easily available to them in real life. However, users may not be able to apply this new information outside of the virtual world. Thus, virtual worlds allow for users to flourish within the world and possibly become addicted to their new virtual life which may create a challenge as far as dealing with others and in emotionally surviving within their real lives. One reason for this freedom of exploration can be attributed to the anonymity that virtual worlds provide. It gives the individual the ability to be free from social norms, family pressures or expectations they may face in", "-21.088850614556577" ], [ "the quality of the obtained preferences might not be ideal as the user could rate items he/she has seen months or years ago or the provided ratings could be almost random if the user provided them without paying attention just to complete the registration quickly.\nThe construction of the user's profile may also be automated by integrating information from other user activities, such as browsing histories or social media platforms. If, for example, a user has been reading information about a particular music artist from a media portal, then the associated recommender system would automatically propose that artist's releases when the", "-21.080401177634485" ], [ "web site from other web sites bound to the same IP Address. Uses Virtual web hosting is often used on large scale in companies whose business model is to provide low cost website hosting for customers. The vast majority of web hosting service customer websites worldwide are hosted on shared servers, using virtual hosting technology.\nMany businesses companies utilize virtual servers for internal purposes, where there is a technological or administrative reason to operate several separate websites, such as a customer extranet website, employee extranet, internal intranet, and intranets for different departments. If there are not security concerns in the website", "-21.078357166668866" ], [ "Posterous. These sites enable users, whether it be a person, company, or organization, to express certain ideas, thoughts, and/or opinions on either a single or variety of subjects. There are also a new technology called webloging which are sites that hosts blogs such as Myspace and Xanga. Both blogs and weblogging are very similar in that they act as a form of social computing where they help form social relations through one another such as gaining followers, trending using hashtags, or commenting on a post providing an opinion on a blog.\nAccording to a study conducted by Rachael Kwai Fun IP", "-21.073414130107267" ], [ "account, even though their profile is not linked to their posts. While they still remain anonymous, some of these sites have the ability to sync up with the user's contact list or location to develop a context within the social community and help personalize the user's experience, such as Yik Yak or Secret. Other sites, such as 4chan and 2channel, allow for a purer form of anonymity as users are not required to make any kind of account, and posts default to the username of 'Anonymous'. While users can still be traced through their IP address, there are", "-21.05851048976183" ], [ "are displayed rendered in the user's web browser as coherent pages of multimedia content.\nMultiple web resources with a common theme, a common domain name, or both, make up a website. Websites are stored in computers that are running a program called a web server that responds to requests made over the Internet from web browsers running on a user's computer. Website content can be largely provided by a publisher, or interactively where users contribute content or the content depends upon the users or their actions. Websites may be provided for myriad informative, entertainment, commercial, governmental, or non-governmental reasons. Function The", "-21.051193089748267" ], [ "have questions about a product will go to the product information or support section of a web site. From there they make a logical step to the frequently asked questions page if they have a specific question. A web site owner also wants to analyze visitor behavior. For example, if a web site offers products for sale, the owner wants to convert as many visitors to a completed purchase. If there is a sign-up form with multiple pages, web site owners want to guide visitors to the final sign-up page.\nPath analysis answers typical questions like: \nWhere do most visitors go", "-21.02223463752307" ], [ "with each other. Example would be multiple people working on one document.\nCommunication Channels — Allows corporations to promote corporate culture and present information in a more interactive way than before.\nAutomation — Things like workflows and templates can automate specific document creation. Alerts can be created to help learn of changes and new additions to the intranet.\nApplications — Links to applications for associates to perform duties.\nUser Friendly — Application must be easy to use and understand due to a wide range of technical abilities.\nRemote Access — Ability for users to access content away from the office.\nDocument Repository — Ability to store", "-21.018566682963865" ], [ "users. Neither is it practical for millions of software users to physically meet with each and every software or every software-library or every piece of code's developer or author or releaser, which they will (use or) need to use in their computers. Even with multiple trusted people/person (by original-author) in trusted-chain from WOT, its still not physically or practically possible for every developer or author to meet with every other users, and it is also not possible for every users to meet with hundreds of developers whose software they will be using or working on. When this decentralized hierarchy", "-21.017121012322605" ], [ "can be handled at the same time, and users can interact with the page while data is retrieved. Web pages may also regularly poll the server to check whether new information is available. Website A website is a collection of related web resources including web pages, multimedia content, typically identified with a common domain name, and published on at least one web server. Notable examples are wikipedia.org, google.com, and amazon.com.\nA website may be accessible via a public Internet Protocol (IP) network, such as the Internet, or a private local area network (LAN), by referencing a uniform resource locator (URL) that", "-21.01081912373047" ], [ "ways in which intelligent software \"agents\" may one day automatically crawl the web and find, filter and correlate previously unrelated, published facts for the benefit of human users. Such agents are not commonplace even now, but some of the ideas of Web 2.0, mashups and price comparison websites may be coming close. The main difference between these web application hybrids and Berners-Lee's semantic agents lies in the fact that the current aggregation and hybridization of information is usually designed in by web developers, who already know the web locations and the API semantics of the specific data they wish to", "-21.00162725278642" ], [ "possible for users to keep other unsuspecting users on their buddy list to see when they were online, read their status and away messages, and read their profiles. There was also a Web API to display one's status and away message as a widget on one's webpage. Though one could block a user from communicating with them and seeing their status, this did not prevent that user from creating a new account that would not automatically be blocked and therefore able to track their status. A more conservative privacy option was to select a menu feature that only allowed communication", "-20.999678990789107" ], [ "the platform easy to access without having to download any applications. The tools are simplified and easy to understand, using a simple drag-and-drop methodology for creating a website. The websites that are created are then hosted on a secured server using cloud technology that can be accessed from around the World. The company offer three different packages which provide different solutions and amount of storage space, depending on the size and functionality necessary to facilitate the customer's needs. The most basic membership is free, with the highest available subscription costing €23,99/Month. Making use of HTML5 and CSS3 the website and", "-20.983084311825223" ], [ "owners also have the ability to remove members from and moderate content on their site.\nID]] username and the user's published information from the site.\nIt will not, however, receive information of friends or invited friends.\nThe third-party site may collect user information that is not related to the Google Friend Connect service – users are responsible for reading privacy policy of third party sites to see what information these sites collect. Languages When active, the website owner set the language of their site, and then allowed the user (via their Google Friend Connect account) to translate selected content into their own specified", "-20.978630985802738" ], [ "educational, and professional information, and upload pictures. Users can send instant messages to members of the opposite gender, and send them virtual gifts. Users can perform searches of the member database based on criteria such as age, religious sect, location, country of origin, piety, citizenship, language(s), marital status, education, and profession. The website also has a real time live chat feature.\nThe website team manually vet each profile data and photographs for authenticity. The website is also self-regulating so users can report other users who are misusing the service, or who may not be genuine users, and there is a zero-tolerance", "-20.975606162508484" ], [ "This can help citizens understand their rights and obligations, and use government services.\nContent designers make information easy to find, simple to understand, and accessible to everyone. \nContent designer is a defined role in the UK government civil service.\nContent designers are responsible for creating, updating and reviewing content around the end-to-end user journey and are comfortable using evidence, data and research. Content design in marketing Content designers are often involved in online marketing, and usually focus on animated graphics, texts, videos, and sound depending on the message and the target audience. Most content designers produce their own content from scratch and", "-20.966063426822075" ], [ "often the first page of a Web site that a user sees, it is sometimes used to offer a menu of language options for large Web sites that use geo targeting. It is also possible to avoid this step, for example by using content negotiation.", "-20.925397964543663" ], [ "different content or products online. Thus, not only is metadata created regarding the content or product (e.g., the author and genre of an e-book), but also data is generated about specific human users' interaction with this content. If an organization such as a social media website has a user profile for a given person, indicating demographic information (e.g., age, gender, location of residence, employment status, education, etc.), then this social media website can collect and analyse information about tendencies of a given user or a given subcategory of users. When social media websites are collecting data about human users' online", "-20.92348351085093" ], [ "and indeed even browser applications, come from released software development kits to developers. The developers create their applications and share them with users via \"app markets\". Users can comment on their experiences with the applications, allowing all users to view the comments of others, and thus have a greater understanding of what is to be expected from the application. Typically there is also a rating a system in addition to comments.\nMobile social Web applications are built using various APIs. These APIs allow for the interaction and interconnection of data on one social database, be it Facebook, Twitter, or Google Account,", "-20.912354373547714" ], [ "as a finance application and a word processor. The user interface was designed to simplify the navigational experience for novice computer users.\nSimilar to early graphical shells like Jane, the main interface is portrayed as the inside of a house, with different rooms corresponding to common real-world room styles such as a kitchen or family room. Each room contains decorations and furniture, as well as icons that represent applications. Bob offers the user the option of fully customizing the entire house. The user has full control over decorating each room, and can add, remove, or reposition all objects. The user can", "-20.901992756364052" ], [ "of the WWW, it is still favourably relevant to this category of organizations. The web permits all co-workers (even the isolated ones) to share their thoughts, opinions and every part of any mutual mission as it was shaped to be a sort of data gathering of individuals’ knowledge. Issues and challenges encountered Despite the advantages provided, it can be quite challenging to those familiar to conventional work group to lead as a virtual organization. Thus, large risks are conveyed with the challenge of working virtually as this new organizational structure implies several issues. Some people wrongly think that the", "-20.895279752090573" ] ]

[ "Why read when you can watch!! URL_1 did a fantastic six part series explaining the entire story. You can watch the first episode here: [LINK]( URL_0 )", "[Check here. One of my favorite reddit comments of all time.]( URL_0 )", "The reason that no one has answered your question yet is because even those who know all of it usually get the impulse to cave their own heads in when they have to repeat it all. It's just... stressful. I don't know how dedicated you are to learning the whole thing, but Chip and Ironicus do great Let's Plays of it: URL_0 . They even have the original Metal Gear synopsis in there. I hesitantly recommend this? I mean, I did it, but I'm not really sure I can positively say I'm the same person anymore. It's also really hard on your eyes because you end up spending half the cutscenes squinting in confusion, and they are like forever long. I would say that if you like goofballs of all sorts, you should definitely watch these.", "Because I drank some beer and I am bored I shall elaborate (In hindsight at least what happened during MGS3 and some facts from the PSP games) There once was a very sad girl named The Boss. She used to fight as a very brave soldier with her own team inside the second World War. After this war ended which was the last great conflict between multiple nations of our time the US, Russia and China split up a giant fortune that had been raised by a shadowy group called the Philosophers, one of which was the Bosses father. After WWII The Boss quite litterally lost her raison d'être, since the purpose of a soldier is to fight for a nations interest and that only. However her maxim of \"Loyality to the end\" enabled her to keep working for the US as a CIA undercover agent on a top secret mission to infiltrate the ranks of a rogue russian GRU major that found the Philospher's fortune and planned on building a mobile launch platform for longrange ICBM Nuclear warfare missiles, planning on pretty much taking the entire world hostage with it and selling his invention to the highest bidder. Through almost sheer coincidense her former prodigy student codenamed Naked Snake (Or John Doe) under the command of his special unit leader Major Zero, got tangled up inside this pastiche of a 60s spy agent flick double cross bonanza. He learns that Big Boss and her super human soldier squadron the Cobras defected to serve Colonel Volgin as Merceneries and later is forced to return to russia and eliminate The Boss and Volgin's super weapon in order to prevent an escalation of the Cold War. During his mission befriends the shady femme fatale EVA and meets the young GRU special units member Revolver Ozelot, who unknowingly to Snake actually is the other CIA secret agent condemaned ADAM. All are trying to get their hands on the microfilms to the secret funds of the Philosophers and it ends with Snake taking it from The Boss and being forced to kill her in order to finish his mission, thus finally adopting The Boss will and inheritance of both her name, becomiong Big Boss, and her maxim of \"Loyalty to the End\". But Big Boss coins this into \"Loyality to the Mission\" and declares that soldiers shouldn't fight for the petty interests of nations but only for their own. Struck with grief he becomes almost mad with fulfilling the Boss' wish of a soldier's paradise. Snake however is betrayed by EVA who seemed to had been working for the chinese afterall but the funds are still lost and I believe are finally found by Major Zero and his team who set up an array of artifial intelligence computers all codenamed after former american presiedents \"JW, AL...\" with the main hub being located inside a satelite codenamed \"JD...John Doe\". They envisioned a similiar world that the Boss was dreaming off but missinterpreted her to wish for a world without conflict and thus the sacrifice of a soldier. After the death of the philosophers the AIs were designed to control every poltiical, social and economic process inside the USA up to having complete control of electing the president and the governing body. They were all linked to Zero but slowly the AIs developed a sense of coniousness and went out of Zeros complete control. In the end they entirely operated autonomously and through their own will. Zero ends up as an old vegetable being held alive by machines strangely though he still manages to synch his vital signals to the Patriot AIs, thus the only way they will finally die is when he bites the dust. Big Boss ends up befriending many important characters in his career as a free mercenary among which are Colonel Campbell and survival expert Master Miller. During his time he also partakes in the infamous \"Les enfants terribles\" project, set to clone Big Boss (as he was teh greatest soldier alive) and preserve his genes for other purposes. 3 children with his exact genes are born to surrogate mother EVA all codenamed Solid, Liquid and Solidus Snake. THis is only the prelude. I could continue but right now I feel its kind of pointless to. Ask me if you have questions.", "Oh sweet Jesus this one would take a while... however, it is my favorite game series and if I wasn't on my phone, I'd gladly explain each one.", "In the ridiculous Wilsonian optimism following WW1, the Allies formed a secret committee named the Philosophers who were to oversee the formation of a new world order. Then the depression and WW2 happened. As the Western Allies and Soviets drifted apart, the Philosophers were disestablished and individuals within the group took control of its assets and used them to promote their own interests. The American Philosophers occupied a lot of government posts, but particularly in the CIA since the OSS was a Philosopher agency. The Boss and Zero from MGS3 were CIA agents who believed in the Philosophers' original vision of one-world governance. Power struggles depicted in Portable Ops and Peace Walker ensued; Zero ultimately was able to exert greater control over the US government with an apparatus he called the Patriots, but disillusioned Big Boss in the process. Ocelot was a CIA/GRU/triple/I don't even agent who respected Big Boss, and both of them wanted to see the Philosophers done away with to plunge the world into a constant cycle of world wars that would make mankind stronger. Or something. As the Cold War went on, the Patriots had to contend with Big Boss trying to overthrow them (MG1, MG2), the Soviet threat, and the deaths of Patriot leaders in the Shadow Moses incident (Paramedic/Dr. Clark, SIGINT/Donald Anderson), they began to focus inward, becoming a technocracy obsessed with total control over the US. This led to the creation of the five AI supercomputers from MGS4 that were meant to mine and edit digital data. With control over US culture sort of established between MGS2 and 4 and the Russians almost wholly pacified since the fall of the Soviet Union, the Patriot AIs started to address global instability by funding PMCs to fight low-intensity conflict where the US couldn't intervene, not realizing that most of them were operated by Ocelot, who proceeded to use his private armies to blow up the Patriot AIs. In MGS4 Snake is protecting to Patriot AIs to prevent societal collapse that would ensue should their economic functions go offline. And somehow Big Boss was brought back to life and kills Zero and the AIs get shut down in a less jarring fashion because an 8 year old girl wrote a computer virus. I dunno. Nanomachines. Metal Gear. Meryl's hot. Tl;dr Kojima never put any thought into this and made one big nonsensical mess. Play the games as individual, self-contained stories and they're much more enjoyable, except for the clusterfuck that is MGS4." ]

[ [ "the original Metal Gear Solid aired in Japan from 1998 to 1999 as part of Konami's syndicated CLUB db program. Directed by Shuyo Murata and written by Motosada Mori, the serial lasted over 12 weekly installments spanning three story arcs. The series was later collected as a two-volume set. The series serves as an alternate continuation to the events of Shadow Moses, with Solid Snake, Meryl Silverburgh, Mei Ling and Roy Campbell going on further missions as FOXHOUND operatives (Mei Ling and Meryl are depicted wearing a battle dress uniform and a sneaking suit respectively), although the stories are not", "-30.299629678393103" ], [ "Metal Gear Plot Metal Gear Solid 3: Snake Eater, which is chronologically the first game in the series, introduces Naked Snake (or Snake for short), an operative working for the fictional Force Operation X (FOX) unit of the CIA during the Cold War. The game focuses on the rise of Snake from an apprentice to a legendary soldier, as well as the downfall of his mentor and matriarchal figure, The Boss. After The Boss defects to the Soviet Union, Snake is sent into Russia to kill her and end the threat posed by Yevgeny Borisovitch Volgin, a GRU colonel with", "-29.158864392138184" ], [ "Metal Gear Solid Mobile Story The story takes place between Metal Gear Solid and Metal Gear Solid 2: Sons of Liberty, after Revolver Ocelot has leaked technical information on Metal Gear REX to the world. As a counter-measure, Solid Snake and Otacon form Philanthropy, an anti-Metal Gear organization whose goal is the complete eradication of all Metal Gears. Otacon quickly receives his first lead on development of a new Metal Gear. AI programmer Dr. Victoria Reed has agreed to reveal new details on the Metal Gear in exchange for assistance in her escape.\nMidway through the mission however, it turns out", "-28.79471944274337" ], [ "the plot deals with the true nature of 'peace', and the concept of conflict in human societies. Metal Gear Solid V: The Phantom Pain deals with the themes \"race\" and \"revenge\" and how the latter can make one lose his humanity. Following the initial Metal Gear, each game has been a deconstruction of action movies and video games, using tropes to invoke the themes and ideas especially those of spy movies - it examines what kind of mind and complete control of a situation would be needed to pull off the absurdly complex and convoluted plans that rely on events", "-28.5479706177357" ], [ "to automatic battle for the player. Metal Gear 2 The Metal Gear 2 from Snake's Revenge is a successor to the original Metal Gear described as \"seven times more powerful\" than the original. It is a bipedal mech similar to the original equipped with a large missile cannon, although its precise specifications are never revealed. Snake is told of its existence by his helicopter pilot after completing his initial objective. In the game's end sequence, Metal Gear 2 becomes active and initiates a countdown sequence, announcing to launch a series of nuclear missiles around the globe, starting with New", "-28.29148607775278" ], [ "Metal Gear (mecha) In video games The Metal Gear weapon has been consistently described as an all-terrain, nuclear-equipped, walking battle tank capable of launching a nuclear warhead from anywhere on the planet. In the original Metal Gear, the Outer Heaven fortified military state attempts to achieve military dominance over the West and East through the use of the TX-55 Metal Gear model built by Eastern scientist Dr. Drago Pettrovich Madnar after being forced against his will. In Metal Gear 2: Solid Snake, another hostile nation Zanzibar Land uses improved model Metal Gear D (also built by Dr. Madnar albeit willingly", "-27.979900868434925" ], [ "confirmed.\nIt is not possible to rebuild Sahelanthropus in later versions of the game, unlike the previous game Metal Gear Solid Peace Walker. Models in other games These models are not part of the mainstream Metal Gear series continuity, either because they appear in a non-canonical game (Snake's Revenge, Metal Gear: Ghost Babel and Metal Gear Acid) or because the game in which they appear is not a Metal Gear game at all (Snatcher). Metal Gear Mk. II (Snatcher) The Metal Gear Mk. II in Snatcher is the robotic sidekick of the game's protagonist, Gillian Seed, a JUNKER agent. He is", "-27.722119766127435" ], [ "Asserting that Metal Gear has always been a primarily metafictional series, Dave Thier of Forbes praised the game's substitution of a player-created avatar for Big Boss: \"It's not ending the actual plot – lord knows how anyone would actually go about doing that – it's ending the game, and the series as well. You’ve made it through every mission, you've backtracked, perfected, gotten your S ratings and employed perfect stealth. That's it, you're Big Boss, you're Snake, You're 'you.' And you're done.\" Chris Carter of Destructoid said that Venom Snake made sense within the context of the series, as the", "-27.550264080135094" ], [ "who is also known as Old Snake in Metal Gear Solid 4. The entirety of Metal Gear Solid 4 has been streamlined into a portable and more accessible form. The main objective of most missions is to kill a set number of enemies. Enemies include hostile PMC soldiers, Haven Troopers and Gekkos, which are unmanned fighting machinations. There are also friendly targets which the player is penalised for shooting at. Some sections contain 'Boss fights', where the player fights a boss from the Metal Gear Solid 4 storyline; e.g. Laughing Octopus. At the end of each mission, the player is", "-27.379280097055016" ], [ "to procure all of his weapons on-site.\nAfter the success of the original Metal Gear Solid, KCEJ produced a trilogy of Metal Gear spin-offs for portable platforms set in a parallel universe outside the main Kojima-directed series. All three of these portable games were directed by Shinta Nojiri. The first of these is Metal Gear: Ghost Babel (released outside Japan as Metal Gear Solid), in which Solid Snake must infiltrate a rebuilt Outer Heaven (now called Galuade) to defeat a FOXHOUND-like team of rogue agents called Black Chamber and destroy a stolen Metal Gear prototype, Gander. Although the actual in-game artwork", "-27.373532813253405" ], [ "cutscenes in the Metal Gear series by Jeremy M. Loss of Joystick Division in 2010 and ranked as the seventh most shocking surprise in video games (\"subverting the power fantasy\") by George Reith of GamingBolt in 2012. In Trigger Happy, Steven Poole noted how the \"brillantly manipulative\" Metal Gear Solid can make the player feel guilty, even as \"it makes no sense to wish that you hadn't killed Sniper Wolf — that is, properly to regret your actions — because it is a task that the game demands be fulfilled before you can progress.\" In 2012, Ryan King of", "-27.282364791462896" ], [ "Gear 3, due to the fact that the MSX2 versions of the previous Metal Gear games were not widely released, notably Metal Gear 2: Solid Snake, which was only released in Japan and was not ported to any other platform at the time (an unrelated sequel to the first Metal Gear, titled Snake's Revenge, was released outside Japan for the NES instead, which was developed without Kojima's involvement). The word \"Solid,\" derived from the codename of series's protagonist Solid Snake, was chosen not only to represent the fact that it was the third entry of the series, but also the", "-27.241794891786412" ], [ "considered part of the mainstream Metal Gear canon. The Japanese voice actors from the game reprised their roles for the series, while new characters are introduced as well.\nSeveral promotional DVDs have been released detailing the Metal Gear series. Metal Gear Saga vol. 1 was released in 2006 as a pre-order disc for MGS3: Subsistence. It is divided into five chapters, each dealing with one game of the then five-part Metal Gear series in chronological order (beginning with MGS3), and each includes discussions by Hideo Kojima. Metal Gear Saga vol. 2 was first shown at the 20th Metal Gear Anniversary Party,", "-27.22585762057861" ], [ "where there are enemies. Impressed with Ashley Wood's work in Metal Gear Solid: Digital Graphic Novel the studio asked his collaboration to illustrate the events accompanied with voice-overs from the story replacing the typical use of real time graphics previously used for cutscenes. Placement in the series' canon MPO is notably the first Metal Gear game for a portable platform that was written to be part of the series' main continuity. However, the game was not directed nor written by Hideo Kojima (who at the time was leading the development of Metal Gear Solid 4: Guns of the Patriots on", "-27.19288033821249" ], [ "destroys the latest model of Metal Gear, Metal Gear KODOQUE. Metal Gear Acid 2 features a main character who is not the real version, but a clone created from tissue samples of the man from the original Metal Gear Acid, following the events of the Lobito Island mission; the Solid Snake from the original Acid is implied to be dead in the sequel.\nThe character appears in his Old Snake form as a playable character in Metal Gear Solid: Portable Ops Plus, a stand-alone expansion to the Portable Ops focusing on online play. In Metal Gear Rising: Revengeance, the VR Missions", "-27.124352325030486" ], [ "create a sequel to the game, Snake's Revenge, without the involvement of Kojima. During a ride home on the train, Kojima met one of the staff members who worked on the game who asked him if he would create a \"true\" Metal Gear sequel. As a result, Kojima began plans for his own sequel titled: Metal Gear 2: Solid Snake. The game was only released in Japan for the MSX2, as one of the last games Konami produced for the computer system. The game would not be released overseas in North America and Europe until its inclusion in 2006's Metal", "-27.11502333136741" ], [ "the gameplay to focus on a prisoner escaping. It was released in 1987 for the MSX2 home computer in Japan and parts of Europe. The game revolves around a special forces operative codenamed Solid Snake, who is sent to the fortified state of \"Outer Heaven\" to stop a nuclear-equipped walking tank known as \"Metal Gear\". Metal Gear is one of the earliest examples of the stealth action game genre, where avoiding encounters with the enemies is emphasized over direct combat. A port of Metal Gear was released for the Nintendo Entertainment System. Kojima was not directly involved in the production", "-27.09321198367479" ], [ "Metal Gear: Ghost Babel, an alternate sequel to the first game in the Metal Gear Solid series set in a rebuilt Outer Heaven.\nBoth Metal Gear TX-55 and Metal Gear D make cameo appearances during the Metal Gear Solid games: D is visible as Dr. Granin's blueprint shown to Naked Snake in Metal Gear Solid 3: Snake Eater, and TX-55 is seen in a psychic vision along with Big Boss and his three \"Les Enfants Terribles\" sons in Metal Gear Solid: Portable Ops. Metal Gear REX Metal Gear REX is an entirely different Metal Gear model that appears in Metal Gear", "-26.95867886137421" ], [ "the survival horror title Eternal Darkness: Sanity's Requiem, and particularly the first-person shooter BioShock, which featured a similar plot twist to Metal Gear Solid 2. Several game mechanics developed in Metal Gear Solid 2, such as the cover system and laser sight mechanic, have since become staples of stealth games as well as shooters, including Kill Switch (2003), Resident Evil 4 (2005) and Gears of War (2006). The reveal of Metal Gear Solid 2 also led to the development of Splinter Cell, which Ubisoft originally intended to be \"a Metal Gear Solid 2 killer.\" According to Kojima, Metal Gear Solid", "-26.940244579149294" ], [ "order to view Snake from a different perspective. Development The first Metal Gear game was intended to be an action game that featured modern military combat. However, the MSX2's hardware limited the number of on-screen bullets and enemies, which Hideo Kojima felt impeded the combat aspect. Inspired by The Great Escape, he altered the gameplay to focus on a prisoner escaping. In a series of articles written for Official PlayStation 2 Magazine, Hideo Kojima identified several Hollywood films as the primary sources of inspiration for the storylines and gameplay of the Metal Gear series. He further noted that the James", "-26.90364682453219" ], [ "For Film said Winter Soldier's \"opening sequence that will no doubt be familiar to anyone who's ever played Metal Gear Solid 2.\" Retrospective analysis Metal Gear Solid 2 is often considered the first example of a postmodern video game and has often been cited as a primary example of artistic expression in video games. The storyline explored many social, philosophical and cyberpunk themes in great detail, including meme theory, social engineering, sociology, artificial intelligence, information control, conspiracy theories, political and military maneuvering, evolution, existentialism, censorship, the nature of reality, child exploitation, and taboos such as incest and sexual orientation. Since", "-26.89900135834614" ], [ "inhaled.\nThe premise of the Metal Gear video game series involves various iterations of the titular bipedal nuclear missile launcher, presenting a constant struggle to decrease the global quantity of nuclear warheads as well as destroying the featured mech presented in its respective game.\nThe Big Show uses a Knockout punch called WMD. Biological WMDs The 2008 literary thriller The Quick and The Dead by Matthew John Lee describes the aftermath of an attack on the British Isles using an enhanced smallpox virus. ISBN 978-1-906050-78-8.", "-26.88544056804676" ], [ "June 12, 2008. The novel was translated into English by Viz Media and was released on June 19, 2012.\nA comic book adaptation of the original Metal Gear Solid was published by IDW Publishing in 2004. It was written by Kris Oprisko and with illustrations by Ashley Wood. The series lasted 24 issues and has been collected in two trade paperbacks as well as a single hardback collector's edition which is currently out-of-print. The entire run of the comic was collected again in a paperback book, Metal Gear Solid Omnibus, and released in June 2010. A comic book adaptation of Metal", "-26.87673479635123" ], [ "Metal Gear inventor from Outer Heaven, who claims to have been once again kidnapped and forced to work on another Metal Gear project (named Metal Gear D) for Zanzibarland, as well as oversee mass-production of smaller, non-nuclear-equipped Metal Gear units. Snake learns from Dr. Madnar that Big Boss, Snake's former superior, survived the events of the first game and now leads Zanzibarland.\nAs Snake, Heffner, and Dr. Madnar head toward Zanzibarland's main prison, Heffner is killed by a missile fired by Metal Gear D and Dr. Madnar is recaptured by the enemy. The new Metal Gear's pilot is revealed to be", "-26.87389780785452" ], [ "Metal Gear (video game) Characters The player's character is Solid Snake, a rookie member of the special forces group FOXHOUND sent on his first mission. He is assisted via radio by his commanding officer Big Boss, who offers information about mission objectives and items; as well as a local Resistance movement composed of leader Schneider, a former architect who guides Snake through the layout of the fortress and knows the locations of key items; Diane, a former positive punk vocalist who provides information on the enemy forces from her home; and Jennifer, who infiltrated Outer Heaven's medical staff to find", "-26.78886501757006" ], [ "a machine gun; Fire Trooper, a former GSG 9 operative who uses a flamethrower; Coward Duck (Dirty Duck in later releases), a boomerang throwing terrorist who shields himself with hostages; Arnold (Bloody Brad in later releases), two TX-11 class androids designed by Dr. Pettrovich; and the legendary mercenary who founded Outer Heaven, whose true identity is unknown until the end. Development Kojima was asked to take over a project from a senior associate. Metal Gear was intended to be an action game that featured modern military combat. However, the MSX2's hardware limited the number of on-screen bullets and enemies, which", "-26.76112478034338" ], [ "creator Hideo Kojima had previously directed the prequel Metal Gear Solid 3: Snake Eater which was meant to end the series. However, people's demand to have a sequel to Metal Gear Solid 2: Sons of Liberty and clear the mysteries Kojima wanted to leave to the players' interpretations resulted in the making of Metal Gear Solid 4. Kojima announced that he would be retiring as director of the Metal Gear series after Snake Eater, and would leave his position open to another person for Metal Gear Solid 4. As a joke, the new director was announced as \"Alan Smithee\", but", "-26.703013733967964" ], [ "the destruction of MSF's Mother Base is unknown. Metal Gear EXCELSUS Appearing in Metal Gear Rising: Revengeance, Metal Gear EXCELSUS is one of the largest Metal Gears to feature in the series. The unit is modeled on an arachnid, with its front legs doubling as extendable bladed tendrils of sort that can alternately be used to crush or cut its way through armor, buildings or the earth itself. It is also armed with two cannons mounted on its \"head\" that fire directed bursts of super-heated plasma and have a division of Gekko units on board. The unit has a spherical", "-26.696768153487938" ], [ "Gear Saga.\" This would carry over with the promotion of the series' 20th Anniversary campaign, in which MPO was packaged alongside the three mainline MGS games at the time as part of a box set released in Japan, and later on with the release of MGS4, in which the Metal Gear Solid 4: Database (a downloadable encyclopedia for the PS3 covering the lore of the Metal Gear series up to that point) include entries for characters, items and events depicted in MPO.\nThis would change when Kojima started the development of Metal Gear Solid: Peace Walker (or MGSPW), a later action-based", "-26.645937085169862" ], [ "he is not on duty, he acts as a musher. Metal Gear main series Metal Gear (released in 1987) introduces Solid Snake (ソリッド・スネーク Soriddo Sunēku), a rookie recruit of the elite special forces unit FOXHOUND. Snake is sent by FOXHOUND leader Big Boss into the rogue nation Outer Heaven to rescue missing teammate Gray Fox and discover who or what the \"Metal Gear\" is, mentioned in Gray Fox's last transmission. As his mission progresses, Snake finds out that he has been set up; Outer Heaven's leader is Big Boss, intending to use the experimental, nuclear-armed TX-55 Metal Gear to establish", "-26.58371470210841" ], [ "Gear Solid 2: Sons of Liberty reveals that Metal Gear REX's battle data were sold on the black market and Metal Gear variants spread worldwide; Metal Gear RAY is designed in response to combat and render the variants useless.\nIn the prequels, Metal Gear REX is seen in Metal Gear Solid 3: Snake Eater as Dr. Aleksandr Granin's original blueprints that are shown to Naked Snake which are later stolen by Ocelot, and seen in Metal Gear Solid: Portable Ops in a psychic vision along with Big Boss's sons.\nMetal Gear Solid 4: Guns of the Patriots sees Old Snake sent back", "-26.470182732708054" ], [ "the medical staff who survived the helicopter crash, who was brainwashed to believe himself to be Big Boss, while the real Big Boss went into hiding to create Outer Heaven, a place where soldiers can live without having to abide by any particular ideology.\nThe first Metal Gear game for the MSX follows Solid Snake, a rookie of the FOXHOUND special operations unit. He is sent by his superior Big Boss to the fortress in South Africa known as Outer Heaven, with the goal of finding the missing squad member Gray Fox and investigating a weapon known as Metal Gear. However,", "-26.45649403813877" ], [ "a young man living in Manhattan in 2009 (the present year of the Plant chapter in Metal Gear Solid 2: Sons of Liberty). The story also acknowledges certain plot elements from Metal Gear Solid V: The Phantom Pain regarding certain characters such as Liquid Snake and Psycho Mantis. Retrospective Metal Gear Solid helped popularize the stealth game genre. The idea of the player being unarmed and having to avoid being seen by enemies rather than fight them has been used in many games since. It is also sometimes acclaimed as being a film as much as a game due to", "-26.341680330893723" ], [ "from the Metal Gear video game series.", "-26.338631621794775" ], [ "and produced by Konami. The game featured similar mechanics to Metal Gear Solid 2: Sons of Liberty due to having been made on the same engine. Kitamura's direction of the cutscenes was viewed as controversial, criticism leveled at its Matrix-like action tone and unrealistic stunts performed by the characters. Regardless, it went on to receive positive reviews from video game review sites.\nIn 2008, Kitamura made his American filmmaking debut with Midnight Meat Train based on Clive Barker's short horror story of the same name. The film (starring Bradley Cooper, Vinnie Jones, and Brooke Shields) was distributed by Lionsgate, and released", "-26.318948155851103" ], [ "to female players after overhearing female debuggers working on the first Metal Gear Solid remark that the game was not appealing to them. Raiden's presence in the game was kept a secret before release, with preview trailers showing Snake in situations and battles that occurred to Raiden in the published game, such as a battle against a Harrier on George Washington Bridge and an encounter with the new Cyborg Ninja inside the tanker. Plot changes According to Kojima in the documentary Metal Gear Saga Vol. 1, the original plot of the game revolved around nuclear weapon inspections in Iraq and", "-26.15524103100688" ], [ "intelligence on a terrorist group who have obtained the plans for Metal Gear and are now mass-producing the mech. The book portrays Solid Snake as an unsuccessful illustrator in his personal life outside his job as a FOXHOUND agent.\nIn 1990, a novelization of Metal Gear was published in the U.S. by Scholastic Books as part of their Worlds of Power series of novelizations based on third-party NES games. The Metal Gear book was written by Alexander Frost under the pen name F.X. Nine, the same pen name used for all the authors in the Worlds of Power series. This", "-26.151045900958707" ], [ "radical ideas were rejected by the Western scientific community. The Metal Gear is piloted by Gray Fox and can only be destroyed by Solid Snake throwing grenades over its feet. This Metal Gear's mecha design was chosen through an internal contest between Konami's artists, with the primary criterion being realism. The final design is credited to Tomohiro Nishio.\nIn the non-canonical sequel Snake's Revenge (that was released in the west for the NES), mass-produced versions of the original (dubbed \"Metal Gear 1\" in the game) are stored inside an enemy cargo ship. The wreckage of the original makes a cameo in", "-26.14203508463106" ], [ "to a Stryker AFV, previously seen in Metal Gear Solid 4.\nThe game was later announced on August 30, 2012, originally under the name of Metal Gear Solid: Ground Zeroes. It was revealed at a private function celebrating the twenty-fifth anniversary of the Metal Gear series, and made its public debut two days later at the 2012 Penny Arcade Expo. Director Hideo Kojima confirmed that Big Boss would return as the game's protagonist, and that the story would serve as a prologue to another game in the series. It was the second game to utilize the Fox Engine, after Pro Evolution", "-26.092127767537022" ], [ "games. It was written by Alexander Frost. The novelization is not based on the game's official storyline, but rather on Konami of America's localization of the plot. The book takes further liberties by giving Solid Snake the name of Justin Halley, and by changing the name of Snake's unit from FOXHOUND to the \"Snake Men\". In Japan, a Metal Gear gamebook was published on March 31, 1988, shortly after the release of the game on the Famicom. It is set two years after the events of the original Metal Gear and is part of the Konami Gamebook Series. A novelization", "-25.998624692090743" ], [ "as switching between items and weapons or zooming into cutscenes. Related media IDW Publishing published a 12-issue comic book adaptation from 2006 to 2007, titled Metal Gear Solid: Sons of Liberty, illustrated by Ashley Wood (who also worked on the comic book adaptation of the previous game) and written by Alex Garner. This version deviates from the game, where many scenes involving Raiden are substituted with Snake.\nA digital version of the comic, titled Metal Gear Solid 2: Bande Dessinée, was released on June 12, 2008, in Japan. Originally announced as a PlayStation Portable game, similar to the Metal Gear Solid:", "-25.992385884092073" ], [ "in Metal Gear Solid 2: Sons of Liberty, Master Li in Jade Empire, Police Chief Bogen in Grim Fandango, Mimir in the video game Too Human, Dean Domino in Fallout: New Vegas expansion \"Dead Money\", The Dark One in The Mark of Kri, the Kangxi Emperor in Age of Empires III: The Asian Dynasties, Benedict Burgess Batteric III in Infinity Blade III, Chaos Knight, Phantom Lancer, and Rubick in Dota 2, and the venerable Odo and meister Glimmerheim in Dungeon Siege III.\nHe wrote the screenplay for an episode of Amazing Stories titled \"The Secret Cinema\" (1985) and cowrote an episode", "-25.96654382178167" ], [ "Modern Warfare 3 is a first-person shooter video game. It is the eighth installment of the Call of Duty series and the third installment of the Modern Warfare arc. Due to a legal dispute between the game's publisher Activision and the former co-executives of Infinity Ward – which caused several lay-offs and departures within the company – Sledgehammer Games assisted in the development of the game, while Raven Software was brought in to make cosmetic changes to the menus of the game. The game was said to have been in development since only two weeks after the release of Call of Duty:", "-25.89895863333186" ], [ "hundred years. Development The creator Hideo Kojima's original design document for the game was completed in January 1999. The Japanese document was published by Konami in 2002, and translated into English in 2006. It mentioned that the game was originally going to be called Metal Gear Solid III to symbolize Manhattan's three tallest skyscrapers.\" The document outlines new game mechanics and features, such as bodies that need to be hidden, enemies being able to detect shadows, lights in an area that can be destroyed to affect enemy vision, realistic enemy AI that relies on squad tactics rather than working individually,", "-25.85986231269817" ], [ "Bond series is what influenced him the most regarding the creation of Metal Gear Solid. The original plot has references to the nuclear war paranoia during the mid-1980s that resulted from the Cold War. Following games would revolve around nuclear weapon inspections in Iraq and Iran, but such idea was left out due to growing concern regarding the political situation in the Middle East. Other changes to the series were made in Metal Gear Solid 2 as a result of the September 11 attacks.\nAfter Metal Gear 2: Solid Snake, Kojima planned to release the third Metal Gear game in 1994", "-25.838049201585818" ], [ "Metal Gear Solid 4: Guns of the Patriots Gameplay In MGS4, players assume the role of an aged Solid Snake (also referred to as Old Snake), using stealth, close quarters combat, and traditional Metal Gear combat. The overhead third-person camera of earlier games has been replaced by a streamlined view and over-the-shoulder camera for aiming a weapon, with an optional first-person view at the toggle of a button.\nA further addition to gameplay mechanics is the Psyche Meter. Psyche is decreased by non-lethal attacks and is influenced by battlefield psychology. Stressors (including temperature extremes, foul smells, and being hunted by the", "-25.7833516826272" ], [ "of Metal Gear Solid was published in 2008. It was written by Raymond Benson, the author of nine James Bond novels. Benson also wrote a Metal Gear Solid 2: Sons of Liberty novelization, which was published in 2009. Critical reaction to Benson's novelizations has been generally positive, with Bookgasm.com writing that \"Benson does a fine job translating the game to the page\" with Metal Gear Solid, and MishMashMagazine.com calling Metal Gear Solid 2: Sons of Liberty \"a great companion to the game\". A Japanese-language novelization of Metal Gear Solid 4: Guns of the Patriots by Project Itoh was published on", "-25.75547827455739" ], [ "from the main game as either, Snake or Raiden; and Casting Theater, in which the player can view certain cutscenes from the main game and replace the character models.\nThe Japanese version was released on November 29, two weeks after the American version. As with the original Metal Gear Solid, Sons of Liberty was sold in a limited \"Premium Package\" edition in addition to the standard release, which was packaged in a black box containing the game itself with a reversible cover art on the DVD case (with Snake on one side and Raiden on the other), a video DVD known", "-25.75522950742743" ], [ "of Final Fantasy VII. Chrono Trigger Chrono Trigger is a role-playing video game developed and published by Square (now Square Enix) for the Super Nintendo Entertainment System in 1995. Director credits were attributed to Akihiko Matsui, Yoshinori Kitase and Takashi Tokita. Tetsuya Takahashi had the role of graphic director. Additionally, Takashi Tokita, along with \nYoshinori Kitase wrote the various subplots to the game. Parasite Eve He is well known for having directed Parasite Eve and written the game's story. He considers the later games in the series as having been \"handed off\" to others. Final Fantasy: The 4 Heroes", "-25.711314072075766" ], [ "in R, a 400-page book bundled with Metal Gear Solid 3's Japanese \"Premium Package\", the director was revealed to be Shuyo Murata, co-writer of MGS3 and director of Zone of the Enders: The 2nd Runner. He also contributed easter eggs to Metal Gear Solid 2: Sons of Liberty and Metal Gear: Ghost Babel. However, it was announced that Kojima would be co-directing the game with Murata after substantial negative fan reaction, including death threats.\nHideo Kojima wished to implement a new style of gameplay which was set in a full-scale war zone. Kojima wanted to also retain the stealth elements from", "-25.709621923946543" ], [ "during the height of the Cold War in 1964, and features wilderness survival, camouflage, and James Bond styled espionage. The North American version was released on November 17, 2004, with the Japanese counterpart following on December 16. The European version was released on March 4, 2005. Critical response to the game was highly favorable. Kojima has said that his mother played it, \"It took her an entire year to complete Metal Gear Solid 3. She would get her friends to help her. When she defeated The End, [a character the player faces off during the game] she called me up", "-25.660503697639797" ], [ "Solid Snake also serves as the protagonist in Snake's Revenge, a sequel to the original Metal Gear for the NES released for the western market in 1990 and developed without Kojima's involvement. Set three years after the events of the Outer Heaven incident, Snake's Revenge has Snake leading a team of FOX HOUND operatives as they infiltrate an undisclosed enemy base where the Metal Gear weapon is being mass-produced. Snake is addressed by the military rank of Lieutenant and starts the game already equipped with a handgun and a combat knife, in contrast to the first game, where Snake had", "-25.653103665335948" ], [ "Gear Solid Packs. In Metal Gear Solid: Peace Walker, in the Isla Del Monstruo as part of a collaboration with Capcom's Monster Hunter series, defeating both the Rathalos and the Tigrex unlocks a monster known as \"Gear REX\", which heavily resembles its mecha counterpart. Metal Gear RAY Metal Gear RAY is an anti-Metal Gear introduced in Metal Gear Solid 2: Sons of Liberty also designed by Yoji Shinkawa. This Metal Gear model comes in two variants: a manned prototype version developed to combat Metal Gear derivatives and an unmanned, computer-controlled version refitted to defend Arsenal Gear.\nMetal Gear RAY differs from", "-25.646270710594763" ], [ "Game\" at 2005's Game Convention in Germany. David Hayter, the voice of Snake, was nominated for the Academy of Interactive Arts and Sciences award for \"Outstanding Achievement in Character Performance.\" Legacy Snake Eater was developed as a prequel to the entire Metal Gear series, and was followed by several direct sequels: Metal Gear Solid: Portable Ops, Metal Gear Solid: Peace Walker, Metal Gear Solid V: Ground Zeroes, and Metal Gear Solid V: The Phantom Pain. In 2011, Kojima revealed that he floated the idea of a Metal Gear Solid 5 set during the World War II invasion of Normandy, showing", "-25.560797050828114" ], [ "the line between a stealth game, a genre the Metal Gear series is normally known for, along with tactical role-playing inspired by the likes of Fire Emblem and Final Fantasy Tactics, infused with card gameplay found in games like Konami's own Yu-Gi-Oh! series.\nIn addition to a turn-based tactical combat layer, the X-COM series also possesses a real-time 3D strategic layer, complete with global defensive map as well as a technology tree that the player must research in order to unlock new weapons and armor. Jagged Alliance 2 features a country sector map with fortified towns and roving bands of enemies", "-25.550258375886187" ], [ "Boss for good.\nMetal Gear Solid elaborates on the storyline of the earlier games and reveals that Solid Snake is a genetic clone of Big Boss, created as part of a secret government project. An antagonist is introduced in the form of Liquid Snake, Snake's twin brother who takes control of FOXHOUND after Snake's retirement. Liquid and FOXHOUND take control of a nuclear weapons disposal facility in Alaska and commandeer REX, the next-generation Metal Gear weapons platform being tested there. They threaten to detonate REX's warhead unless the government turns over the remains of Big Boss. Solid Snake destroys Metal Gear", "-25.529514040390495" ], [ "the veteran developer and the latter the younger staff who are to decide whether a sequel to the series would be made without Kojima. In Metal Gear Solid 4, Snake tries to protect the next generation by stopping Ocelot which represented Kojima working with the staff to avoid bugs from occurring within the game. Kojima introduced the cloning origins of Snake to Metal Gear Solid in order to provide Snake with an adversary who would be his equal, since the story, being a continuation of the original MSX2 games, established Snake as an experienced soldier. Kojima explained that his decision", "-25.49367951390741" ], [ "story tells of a true time of peace between Autobots and Decepticons, known as the Cybertron Alliance, until human soldiers accidentally kill one of Megatron's most loyal followers, causing for him to upgrade to his \"Combat Hero\" form and causing the war to start yet again. The story also featured a fairly bleak storyline and an art style somewhat similar to the Marvel comics, but was different by focusing more on the \"new mold\" characters (i.e.: The Laser Rods, Laser Cycles, and Cyberjets) and introducing things such as a Reconfiguration Matrix, which allowed Prime to change from his Hero form", "-25.477881166982115" ], [ "York, Tokyo and Moscow. The path to Metal Gear 2 is blocked by a fence and the player can only destroy the mech by firing guided missiles into the air duct. Metal Gear GANDER The Metal Gear model in Metal Gear: Ghost Babel. Metal Gear GANDER is the result of the U.S. Army's \"Project Babel\" after the U.S. Government procured the data from the original prototype in Outer Heaven. It is stolen by the Gindra Liberation Front and taken to their fortress of Galuade (the former Outer Heaven). Its armament consists of two nuclear warhead-launching rail guns (similar to Metal", "-25.469799009693816" ], [ "story is told through text-only interludes.\nExclusive to the PlayStation 2 version is a skateboarding minigame in which the player control Snake or Raiden in a pair of Big Shell-themed levels. The player has to complete a set of objectives before time runs out, which range from collecting dog tags scattered throughout the level to blowing up parts of Big Shell. The minigame uses the same engine from Evolution Skateboarding, which was developed by Konami Computer Entertainment Osaka.\nOn release, Famitsu magazine scored the PlayStation 2 version of the game a 35 out of 40. HD Edition Metal Gear Solid 2: Sons", "-25.466092658920388" ], [ "drastically change it despite difficulties. Since Metal Gear Solid 2: Sons of Liberty had several plot points unresolved, it was originally meant to leave it to players to discuss them to come to their own conclusions. This has led to consistency issues in the English versions of Metal Gear Solid and Metal Gear Solid 2 as they mentioned plot elements that were further explored in Metal Gear Solid 4. Printed adaptations A novel adaptation of the original Metal Gear was published in 1988 as a part of Scholastic's Worlds of Power line of novelizations, which were based on third-party NES", "-25.462494800740387" ], [ "Twisted Metal 4 Gameplay In concept, Twisted Metal 4 is a demolition derby which permits the usage of ballistic projectiles. Players choose a vehicle and an arena—or a series of arenas in the story mode—to engage in battle with opposing drivers. A variety of weapons are obtainable by pick-ups scattered throughout the stage. The objective of the game is to be the last one standing.\nThe game's plot takes a different turn of events compared to its predecessors. Its intro video details the tournament's story, starting around the 1900s as a circus-type caravan that traveled across the country spreading destruction everywhere.", "-25.45550819330674" ], [ "to the Metal Gear Solid website. That day, Kojima posted a photo on his personal Twitter account captioned \"heading off\", and a Konami filing stated that as of April 1, 2015, he would no longer be among Konami's executive officers. Speculation arose that Kojima was planning to leave Konami after the release of The Phantom Pain, which he had described as the conclusion to the Metal Gear series.\nOn March 19, an anonymous employee reported to GameSpot that these changes were a result of conflicts between Kojima and Konami. The employee stated that Kojima and his staff were now being treated", "-25.443280968069303" ], [ "Granin's colleagues in direct sequels; Metal Gear Solid: Portable Ops features the quadrupedal design Intercontinental Ballistic Metal Gear by Dr. Nikolai Stepanovich Sokolov and Metal Gear Solid: Peace Walker features the first bipedal design Metal Gear ZEKE by Dr. Huey Emmerich. Metal Gear TX-55 Metal Gear is the Metal Gear model's designation in the original Metal Gear game, although it is simply referred as \"Metal Gear\" and no particular meaning is given behind this codename. Within Outer Heaven, Solid Snake learns Metal Gear's weakness after rescuing creator Dr. Drago Pettrovich Madnar and his daughter Ellen Madnar. The player must place", "-25.423856461169635" ], [ "as a journalist; Natasha Marcova (Gustava Heffner in later versions), an StB agent and Dr. Marv's bodyguard; and Dr. Petrovich Madnar (\"Drago Pettrovich Madnar\" in newer versions), the Metal Gear designer from the first game, who was captured along with Dr. Marv. Also appearing in the game are Big Boss, the renegade former commander of FOXHOUND, and Grey Fox (\"Gray Fox\" in later versions), who disappeared following the events of the Outer Heaven incident.\nThe bosses of this installment consist of Black Color (Black Ninja in later versions), an experimental drug-enhanced ninja from a disbanded NASA project (who is revealed to", "-25.4021705310588" ], [ "Metal Gear Acid 2 Gameplay Gameplay remains of Metal Gear Acid 2 essentially similar to that of its predecessor: using a series of collectible trading cards based on the other Metal Gear games. There are new features, such as the SELL option for cards, allowing overstocked cards that the player cannot use to be sold for more points (in-game currency used to buy cards) and cover fire (when a player's ally is behind an enemy and has an equipped weapon in range of the target, when the player attacks, his/her ally takes a shot onto the target as well). Also", "-25.393523755818023" ], [ "agent and hero of the original Metal Gear returns as the playable character. His new mission is to rescue the kidnapped Czechoslovak biologist Dr. Kio Marv from the forces of Zanzibarland. He is assisted by a radio support crew consisting of Roy Kyanbel (\"Roy Campbell\" in later versions), his new commanding officer; McDonnell Miller, a survival coach and drill instructor; George Kesler (\"George Kasler\" in later versions), a military strategist; and Yozev Norden (renamed Johan Jacobsen in the later revised versions), a wildlife expert. Also assisting him on-site are Horry White (\"Holly White\" in later versions), a CIA agent posing", "-25.393007651116932" ], [ "Metal Saga: Season of Steel Gameplay Like most role-playing video games, players travel around the world, buy powerful equipment, battle with monsters and save the world. Unlike all predecessors, the world map uses a 45-degree angle view, and using a point instead town or dungeon' pigeon hole, with the only way from a point to a point; once the player completes the task, the next location will appear on the map.\nCombat is individually turn-based, players can choose to combat enemies by foot or with a tank. All party members can equip multiple weapons, and can choose the one to attack", "-25.376588688537595" ], [ "Venom Snake Before Metal Gear Solid V Big Boss' character debuted in the original Metal Gear game, initially serving as Solid Snake's commanding officer of FOXHOUND and Snake's main radio contact, while also serving as the leader of Outer Heaven's forces. Despite an apparent defeat, the game ends with a message from Big Boss vowing revenge following the credits. Metal Gear 2: Solid Snake had an in-game rumor about Big Boss rebuilt with cybernetic parts after being mortally wounded during the previous game's final encounter; this explanation was used for Big Boss' survival in the Metal Gear Solid 4 Database.", "-25.368268335529137" ], [ "game series, consisting of Transformers: War for Cybertron and Transformers: Fall of Cybertron. The Dark Spark is a powerful artifact that is capable of ripping holes in dimensions, which brings two Transformers universes together. The story takes place before the Ark is launched in Fall of Cybertron, while in an alternate universe it takes place before the events of Age of Extinction. Plot The game begins in continuity with the film, wherein a mysterious purple meteor crashes into Earth. The Autobots reach the crash site and Optimus sees an ancient Cybertronian relic called the Dark Spark, the antithesis to the", "-25.36628880322678" ], [ "means of achieving victory in an ongoing civil war. Solid Snake, the FOXHOUND operative responsible for the destruction of the original Metal Gear seven years before, is brought back from his retirement in Alaska. His mission is to infiltrate the group's headquarters Galuade, the fortress that was formerly Outer Heaven. \nDuring the course of his mission, Snake teams up with Sgt. Christine Jenner, a surviving member of the Delta Force that was sent before him to retrieve Gander. The GLF are assisted by four surviving members of Black Chamber, a defunct special forces unit whose members are given animal-themed codenames", "-25.357672662281402" ], [ "Gear system was simply titled Shinobi, though in Japan it was known as The GG Shinobi (The Game Gear Shinobi) and the game still carries this name internally in all regions. Its gameplay is largely reminiscent of The Revenge of Shinobi. In a take on the popular Japanese Super Sentai series, Shinobi revolves around the quest of five coloured ninjas (red, pink, blue, yellow and green) to bring down a powerful crime organization. The game starts with the player just controlling the red ninja and then freeing more and more of his compatriots as he progresses through each level. The", "-25.327791414893" ], [ "demo of Metal Gear Solid for the PlayStation was first revealed to the public at the 1996 Tokyo Game Show, and was later shown at E3 1997 as a short video. With the release of Metal Gear Solid in 1998, Kojima became an international celebrity among the video game media. Metal Gear Solid was the first in the Metal Gear series to use 3D graphics and voice acting, which gave a more cinematic experience to the game. Metal Gear Solid was highly regarded for its well-designed gameplay and for its characters and storyline, which featured themes of nuclear proliferation and", "-25.32591389879235" ], [ "Metal Saga Gameplay The game mechanics are similar to that of most role-playing video games. Players travel between points of interest on an overworld map, during which point in time they can be attacked by randomly encountered foes. Within towns, players can rest, repair vehicles, sell items, and other typical activities. The \"dungeons\" in the title are usually caves or abandoned buildings. Such hostile locations are relatively small, with much of their complexity being due to their maze-like nature (and the lack of an auto-mapping feature).\nCombat is individually turn-based, utilizing a staggered initiative system (e.g., characters", "-25.321259060990997" ], [ "director Guillermo del Toro. In April 2015, the playable teaser was removed and the game was cancelled.\nAt the 2013 Game Developers Conference, Kojima unveiled Metal Gear Solid V: The Phantom Pain, which was set to be his final Metal Gear work, noting that this time unlike previous announcements that he had stopped working on the series, was very serious about leaving. In March 2015, reports began to surface that Kojima would part ways with longtime publisher Konami after the release of The Phantom Pain. Konami later stated that they were auditioning for new staff for future Metal Gear titles and", "-25.28620372104342" ], [ "market. Hideo Kojima, the designer of the original MSX2 version of Metal Gear, was not involved in the production of Snake's Revenge. According to Kojima, one of the developers working on Snake's Revenge informed him of the game. He then asked Kojima to develop a true sequel to Metal Gear. This inspired Kojima to direct his own sequel, Metal Gear 2: Solid Snake for the MSX2, which served as the sequel to Metal Gear in Japan. Snake's Revenge was released in North America and Europe with no corresponding Famicom version. The game has been referred in publications by the alternate", "-25.26479916106473" ], [ "be Kyle Schneider from the original Metal Gear); Running Man, a former Olympic runner turned terrorist; Red Blaster, an explosive expert from Spetsnaz; Ultra Box (the Four Horsemen in later version), an assassination squad specializing in confined spaces; Predator (Jungle Evil in later versions), a jungle warfare expert from the South African Reconnaissance Command; and Night Sight (Night Fright in later versions), an assassin from Vietnam who uses a state of the art stealth suit that renders him invisible to both radar and the human eye. Story A major oil crisis seriously affects the global economy in the late 1990s,", "-25.213211615235195" ], [ "the stealth game Metal Gear, his first graphic adventure was released by Konami the following year: Snatcher (1988), an ambitious cyberpunk detective novel graphic adventure that was highly regarded at the time for pushing the boundaries of video game storytelling, cinematic cut scenes, and mature content. It also featured a post-apocalyptic science fiction setting, an amnesiac protagonist, and some light gun shooter segments. It was praised for its graphics, soundtrack, high quality writing comparable to a novel, voice acting comparable to a film or radio drama, and in-game computer database with optional documents that flesh out the game world. Early", "-25.17082472292168" ], [ "from the original Metal Gear Solid game and answer a series of trivia questions after fulfilling the mission. If all the questions are answered correctly on the Normal difficulty setting, the mission can be replayed with his low-polygon model from Metal Gear Solid in place of his father's standard character model. The Phantom Pain also shows that his low-polygon model from Metal Gear Solid can be an alternate outfit for Venom Snake after transferring the save data from Ground Zeroes. David also alludes in association with Eli during a conversation between Big Boss and Revolver Ocelot. Other Metal Gear media", "-25.16381173141417" ], [ "Army Special Forces, and Capt. Sergei Ivanovich (v.b. Kazuhiro Nakata), a former war buddy of Revolver Ocelot from his SVR days.\nIn September 2004, IDW Publications began publishing a series of Metal Gear Solid comics, written by Kris Oprisko and illustrated by Ashley Wood. As of 2006, 12 issues have been published, fully covering the Metal Gear Solid storyline. The comic was adapted into a PlayStation Portable game, Metal Gear Solid: Digital Graphic Novel (Metal Gear Solid: Bande Dessinée in Japan). It features visual enhancements and two interactive modes designed to give further insight into the publication. Upon viewing the pages,", "-25.162965096445987" ], [ "expanded on this with themes regarding political intrigue, battlefield ethics, military history, and the negative effects of warfare.\nThe overarching theme of the Metal Gear Solid series is that of the \"gene, meme, scene, sense, peace, revenge and race,\" and how people are affected by these factors according to the game's producer Kojima — Metal Gear Solid deals with genetics and the moral implications of genetic engineering, Metal Gear Solid 2: Sons of Liberty deals with how identity can be affected by the philosophies of one's society (a \"meme\") and the effects of censorship on society, Metal Gear Solid 3: Snake", "-25.151104140160896" ], [ "Metal Gear Solid (Game Boy game) Gameplay Ghost Babel follows the overhead 2D format used in the 1990 MSX2 game Metal Gear 2: Solid Snake while adding a few new elements introduced in Metal Gear Solid. As with previous games in the series, the objective is to infiltrate the enemy's stronghold while avoiding detection from guards or surveillance systems. The player can acquire numerous items and weapons to help them fulfill their mission. One difference from the MSX2 games is that the screen now scrolls when Snake moves throughout a single area instead of using flip-screens. Moreover, all the characters", "-25.09348009619862" ], [ "cartridge, forcing them to play in sunlight. Another team inside Konami, in a collaboration with Silicon Knights, began work on Metal Gear Solid: The Twin Snakes, a GameCube enhanced remake of the first Metal Gear Solid with all the gameplay features of Metal Gear Solid 2 and with cutscenes redirected by director Ryuhei Kitamura. It was released in 2004.\nAfterwards, Kojima designed and released Metal Gear Solid 3: Snake Eater for the PlayStation 2. Unlike the previous games in the series, which took place in the near future and focused on indoor locations, the game is set in a Soviet jungle", "-25.072455127243302" ], [ "all of the game's promotional trailers and a GameSpot feature on the game's final days of development, it features a titular documentary produced by French television production house FunTV, which was filmed at KCE Japan West's Japanese studio. The DVD was included as an apology to European consumers for the several month delay that had occurred since the original November release in North America and Japan, which saw numerous European gaming magazines detail the various twists in the game. The Document of Metal Gear Solid 2 Released on September 12, 2002, in Japan and September 24 in North America, The", "-25.04339135979535" ], [ "Big Boss (Metal Gear) In the MSX2 games Big Boss (ビッグ・ボス Biggu Bosu) is introduced in the original Metal Gear game as the Special Forces Unit FOXHOUND's leader and Solid Snake's commanding officer. He initially acts as a radio contact who provides Snake with information about mission objectives, as well as weapons and equipment. But after Snake destroys the titular TX-55 Metal Gear weapon despite Big Boss's discouragement, Outer Heaven's militia leader confronts Snake near the base's escape route in a final battle only to be defeated.\nMetal Gear 2: Solid Snake reveals that Big Boss has since taken control of", "-24.995621176276472" ], [ "included with its sequel (Metal Gear Solid 2: Bande Dessinée), which was released in Japan on June 12, 2008. The DVD version features full voice acting.\nA novelization based on the original Metal Gear Solid was written by Raymond Benson and published by Del Rey. The American paperback edition was published on May 27, 2008, and the British Edition on June 5, 2008.\nA second novelization by Kenji Yano (written under the pen name Hitori Nojima), Metal Gear Solid Substance I, was published by Kadokawa Shoten in Japan on August 25, 2015. This novelization is narrated through a text file written by", "-24.976681613799883" ], [ "Gear (Image Comics) Plot Gear tells the story of a podunk town of squat, hominid-like cats who are bordered on all sides by bigger and more war-like animals. The town's only protection comes from an aged Guardian, a gigantic battle robot in disrepair. The town elder sends four brave cats out to capture an enemy guardian to further defend the town. The cats are named Waffle, Mr. Black, Simon, and Gordon. They were named after TenNapel's actual pet cats. After tragedy strikes the cats in a battle with the neighboring dog faction's guardian, causing the death of Simon, Waffle begins", "-24.968365846463712" ], [ "thing. And if I get more 'boos' about it - if they say, \"No! We don't know what you're talking about!\" then this is actually the fun part.\nThe company's first release was Metal Gear Solid: HD Collection in 2011, a compilation of Metal Gear Solid games. They released Metal Gear Solid: Snake Eater 3D for the Nintendo 3DS as a port of the original game Metal Gear Solid 3: Snake Eater. In 2014, they released Metal Gear Solid V: Ground Zeroes as a prologue to Metal Gear Solid V: The Phantom Pain, which was released in 2015. Closure On March", "-24.934027758587035" ], [ "Metal Gear 2: Solid Snake Gameplay Metal Gear 2 builds upon the stealth-based gameplay system of its predecessor. As in the original Metal Gear, the player's objective is to infiltrate the enemy's stronghold, while avoiding detection from soldiers, cameras, infrared sensors and other surveillance devices. The biggest change in the game was done to the enemy's abilities. Instead of remaining stationed in one screen like in the first game, enemy soldiers can now patrol different screens across a single map. Moreover, guards now have an expanded field of vision of 45 degrees, along with the ability to turn their heads", "-24.913220864720643" ], [ "Orcs and Goblins (Warhammer) Stories Orcs & Goblins contains a number of short stories that provide an illustrative fictional history of the Orcs in the Warhammer Fantasy universe. These stories center around the formation of WAAAGH!s and the resulting campaigns. Gorbad Ironclaw Gorbad Ironclaw, atop his vicious boar Gnarla, was the mightiest Warlord that ever lived (in the warhammer fantasy universe). Gorbad Ironclaw and his tribe, the Ironclaw Orcs, absorbed the Broken Tooth tribe along with the local Goblin and Night Goblin tribes, to create a massive force of Greenskin warriors. The tribe marched through Black Fire Pass to attack", "-24.91162242044811" ], [ "former comrade Gray Fox has defected to Zanzibar Land, and that Zanzibar Land is led by Big Boss. Snake destroys Metal Gear D, and defeats both Fox and Big Boss.\nMetal Gear Solid sees Solid Snake pulled out of retirement by Colonel Roy Campbell in a mission to deal with the \"Sons of Big Boss\" who, under Liquid Snake's leadership, seized an isolated American nuclear weapons disposal facility on Shadow Moses Island. Snake's mission is to retrieve two hostages (Donald Anderson and Kenneth Baker). Despite both Anderson's and Baker's deaths, Snake infiltrates and learns about Metal Gear REX after meeting up", "-24.909541352535598" ], [ "enjoys. He was led to believe that it was a mobile defense system, but in reality it was a nuclear doomsday weapon.\nIn 2005, during the Shadow Moses incident (the events of Metal Gear Solid), Otacon encountered Solid Snake who had informed him of the true nature of Metal Gear REX. Devastated, Otacon realized that he had written yet another chapter in his family's dark history—his grandfather had worked on the Manhattan Project, and his father was born on the day of the Hiroshima bombing. Otacon had developed a strong attraction to FOXHOUND member Sniper Wolf. Distraught that Snake would have", "-24.902445048795926" ], [ "Gear 2: Solid Snake improved on the first game in many ways, including improved graphics, more player abilities (such as crouching, crawling into hiding spots, disguising in enemy uniforms and cardboard boxes, and distracting guards by knocking on surfaces), improved enemy AI (such as a greater field of vision, the ability to detect various noises, and a three-level security alert), and additions such as a radar, as well as a complex storyline. The game was only released for the MSX2 in Japan, however, which limited its accessibility to consumers in the US. An alternative Metal Gear sequel named Snake's Revenge", "-24.900623185756558" ], [ "Metal Gear Solid 2: Sons of Liberty Gameplay Metal Gear Solid 2 carries the subtitle of \"Tactical Espionage Action,\" and most of the game involves the protagonist sneaking around avoiding being seen by the enemies. Most fundamental is the broader range of skills offered to the player. The first-person aiming mode allows players to target specific points in the game, greatly expanding tactical options; guards can be blinded by steam, distracted by a flying piece of fruit or hit in weak spots. Players can walk slowly, allowing them to sneak over noisy flooring without making a sound, or hang off", "-24.872437574274954" ], [ "Jackhammer (comics) Publication history Jackhammer was first mentioned as a HYDRA leader in Daredevil #121; he first appeared in Daredevil #123 (July 1975) and was created by Tony Isabella and Bob Brown.\nThe character subsequently appears in Captain America #371 (June 1990), #373-378 (July–October 1990), Guardians of the Galaxy #28-29 (September–October 1992), Captain America #412-414 (February–April 1993), Thunderbolts #24-25 (March–April 1999), and Union Jack #1-2 (November–December 2006). Fictional character biography Jackhammer is a costumed agent/division leader of HYDRA when it was under the leadership of the crime lord Silvermane. When they arranged a kidnapping of Foggy Nelson, Daredevil, Black Widow, and", "-24.87207736936398" ], [ "affect\" to \"highlight the typically unexamined codes, conventions, and hidden pleasures of the military game genre.\"\nJeremy Parish of 1UP.com notes that \"Metal Gear Solid 2 is a game built on misinformation\" and that it \"was simply too avant-garde—too clever—for its own good.\" Steven Poole commented in a 2012 Edge column, \"the story of MGS2, with its mythic wit and sweep, is still in a different league from the vast majority of videogame yarns. ... [H]owever, the fact that MGS2 still seems so avant-garde today might well prompt a worry: does it represent the pinnacle of a now-vanished era, the age", "-24.843625077075558" ], [ "Plot The game's story takes place during World War II in an alternate history. Thor's Hammer Organization (THO), is a shadowy organization with connections all over Europe and the goal of world domination. THO knows that this goal cannot be attained while there are powers capable of challenging them, and aims to use its connections and advanced technology to make sure the two sides of World War II devastate each other, while THO makes a grab for power when both are exhausted. The obvious influence of Norse mythology on the organization's name is further shown by the fact that all", "-24.803323565982282" ], [ "on Metal Gear Solid 4: Guns of the Patriots. Although several of the staff members had already worked on Metal Gear Solid: Portable Ops, Peace Walker was created with a different mindset. Kojima considered Peace Walker to be the biggest game he has ever worked on. During the planning stages, the game was known as Metal Gear Solid 5: Peace Walker.\nAs seen in previous Metal Gear games, Peace Walker features antiwar and antinuclear themes, this time focused on the countries' states and relationships. The game's theme is \"Peace\". Character-wise, it was made to show Snake's experiences throughout the story that", "-24.794079665596655" ], [ "Retro Gamer regarded Metal Gear 2 to be \"as close as anyone can get to playing Metal Gear Solid in 2D\", putting it above the Game Boy Color game released a decade later in 2000. Retro Gamer also included it among top ten MSX games. Jeremy Parish of 1UP.com referred to Metal Gear Solid as \"basically a high-spec remake of Metal Gear 2.\" Nickolai Adkins of 1UP also noted how much of the scenario and plot elements in Metal Gear 2 were recycled in Metal Gear Solid, ranging from \"Snake emerging from retirement to rescue a kidnapped non-soldier personnel\" in", "-24.780655964235848" ], [ "Kojima and his studio Kojima Productions were working on a new Metal Gear game focused on one of its main characters Raiden, a ninja equipped with swords. Unable to continue working on the game, Kojima contacted Minami to ask PlatinumGames to work on it. According to Kojima, PlatinumGames was the only studio capable of working on an action game with sword-based combat. The team added stealth elements to the game finding its system too boring and straightforward. Directed by Kenji Saito, the game, titled Metal Gear Rising: Revengeance, was released in 2013 and received generally positive reviews from critics, and", "-24.780138233930984" ] ]

[ "I work in food regulatory. There are many ways possible. The most common, and likely way, is that individual parts of the flavor are made by different people who don't have access to the complete flavor. For example, in a butter flavor which I have been a part of, the primary butter is melted and added to oil and esters, then it sits until afternoon shift and some other ingredients added. Then the next day it might get spray drier into a carrier. If you wanted to make it secret, simply only give each shift what they need to know. And it can be spread over multiple facilities , even. And that is for a very simple flavor. For complex ones, it is so easy. Just have a bunch of intermediates, and combine. Each group only knows A portion of the whole thing. I also have heard that coke obfuscated ingredients by purposely buying useless ingredients, so that no one would know for sure which ingredients are actually used. This is how they are kosher, each ingredient, the real and false are certified, and coke can use any subset thereof, and it will remain kosher.", "[There's no such thing in the first place as \"secret\" formula:]( URL_0 ) > In his book \"Big Secrets,\" William Poundstone revealed a laboratory analysis of Kentucky Fried Chicken: \"The sample of coating mix was found to contain four and only four ingredients: flour, salt, monosodium glutamate, and black pepper. There were no eleven herbs and spices — no herbs at all in fact... Nothing was found in the sample that couldn't be identified.\" So much for the \"secret.\" In fact, the chicken's ingredient statement is available on KFC's Web site. > As for Coke Classic, well, the formula can be found on page 43 of Poundstone's book, but it includes vanilla extract, citrus oils, and lime juice flavoring. > There's no cocaine in Coke, and technically there never was, though it uses coca leaves and kola nuts as flavorings and stimulants. Cocaine is not the same as the coca leaf it is derived from; for centuries, natives in South American countries regularly chewed on the coca leaf for its anesthetic and mild stimulant properties. But just as chewing on a coca leaf is not \"taking cocaine,\" neither is drinking a Coke. The exact formula of these food are constantly changing depending on availability and price, so any mention of \"secret\" formula is little more than marketing talk.", "Honestly I don't think they are secrets. I have heard there has been chemical analysis done on KFC chicken to find out the spices and it concluded it was mostly just salt and pepper with no actual herbs at all. I am sure pepsi knows exactly how coke is made and popeyes knows exactly how kfc is made but it makes no difference. The only important thing is that the public thinks it's a secret for marketing purposes.", "The best way to keep secret formulas a secret is to tell as few people as possible. Both these \"secret formulas\" are flavorings, a small fraction of the total product. The flavorings are mixed in a company lab, and then packaged for distribution. Bottlers or restaurants buy the flavoring mix from the corporation, and provide the chicken or carbonated water to produce the final product.", "I know for Popeyes the average employee does not season the chicken it comes pre seasoned. I would assume different ingriedents are added at differnt areas where they do package it so the general employee has no idea, nothing to tell" ]

[ [ "then, The Coca-Cola Company has been using \"minimum inventories of raw material\" to make their signature drinks at two production plants in Venezuela. Information On July 6, 2006, a Coca-Cola employee and two other people were arrested and charged with trying to sell trade secret information to the soft drink maker's competitor PepsiCo for $1.5 million. The recipe for Coca-Cola, perhaps the company's most closely guarded secret, was never in jeopardy; instead, the information was related to a new beverage in development. Coca-Cola executives verified that the trade secret documents in question were genuine and proprietary to the company. At least", "-31.912082877242938" ], [ "with each executive having only half the formula. However, several sources state that while Coca-Cola does have a rule restricting access to only two executives, each knows the entire formula and others, in addition to the prescribed duo, have known the formulation process.\nOn February 11, 2011, Ira Glass said on his PRI radio show, This American Life, that TAL staffers had found a recipe in \"Everett Beal's Recipe Book\", reproduced in the February 28, 1979, issue of The Atlanta Journal-Constitution, that they believed was either Pemberton's original formula for Coca-Cola, or a version that he made either before or after", "-30.719254955358338" ], [ "Coca-Cola formula The Coca-Cola Company's formula for Coca-Cola syrup, which bottlers combine with carbonated water to create the company's flagship cola soft drink, is a closely guarded trade secret. Company founder Asa Candler initiated the veil of secrecy that surrounds the formula in 1891 as a publicity, marketing, and intellectual property protection strategy. While several recipes, each purporting to be the authentic formula, have been published, the company maintains that the actual formula remains a secret, known only to a very few select (and anonymous) employees. History Coca-Cola inventor John Pemberton is known to have shared his original formula with", "-30.245399692328647" ], [ "stimulant ingredient, and all medicinal claims were dropped. Coca leaf extract, with the cocaine chemically removed, remains part of the formula as a flavoring. By one account, the FDA still screens random samples of Coca-Cola syrup for the presence of cocaine. The company will neither confirm nor deny that the current version of Coca-Cola contains coca leaf extract, deferring to the secret nature of the formula.\nIn 1911, the United States Government sued The Coca-Cola Company for violations of the Pure Food and Drugs Act, claiming that the high concentration of caffeine in Coca-Cola syrup was harmful to health. The case", "-29.406550371320918" ], [ "had done so with numerous other products, including one called Supercharge, without notifying consumers. He admitted that the product's labeling failed to disclose the use of the chemicals on the list of ingredients, and that he and his employees had misled FDA investigators and purposely hindered inspections of the company’s premises. Chemins actively conspired to hide from the FDA the fact that it possessed the undisclosed ingredients by, among other things, making a late night transfer of the ingredients to an employee's home during an FDA inspection and creating false manufacturing and inventory records that were shown to FDA inspectors.", "-29.213843326026108" ], [ "to replace aspartame with Splenda brand sucralose and Sunett brand Acesulfame potassium. It became the first major diet soda in the United States to use neither aspartame nor saccharin as a sweetener. In 2005, \"Pure Zero\" was added to the name, and a cherry cola flavor was introduced in 2006.\nToday it is owned by and distributed by Keurig Dr Pepper.", "-29.152895780513063" ], [ "and professional associations of medical specialists. They found evidence that PepsiCo had funded 14% of the organizations, and Coca-Cola had funded 99%. However, the authors suspect this difference is overestimated; Coca-Cola had recently released some funding data (see previous paragraph), while, they say, PepsiCo is “known for making its sponsorship data extremely difficult to track”. Labelling Sugar is added to ingredients lists under dozens of different names, which, where ingredients lists are in order from largest to smallest quantity, can let sugars appear spuriously lower on the ingredients list. 2016 US nutritional labelling changes In 2016, the FDA enacted new", "-28.83454819401959" ], [ "outdated. As of 2018, the USDA, FDA and US Centers for Disease Control list HFCS as a safe food ingredient, and do not mention mercury as a safety concern in HFCS products. Taste difference Most countries, including Mexico, use sucrose, or table sugar, in soft drinks. In the U.S., soft drinks, including Coca-Cola, are typically made with HFCS. Some Americans seek out drinks such as Mexican Coca-Cola in ethnic groceries because they prefer the taste over that of HFCS-sweetened Coca-Cola. Kosher Coca-Cola, sold in the U.S. around the Jewish holiday of Passover, also uses sucrose rather than HFCS and", "-28.814709283877164" ], [ "the side of the bottle or can) is a trade secret. The original copy of the formula was held in SunTrust Bank's main vault in Atlanta for 86 years. Its predecessor, the Trust Company, was the underwriter for the Coca-Cola Company's initial public offering in 1919. On December 8, 2011, the original secret formula was moved from the vault at SunTrust Banks to a new vault containing the formula which will be on display for visitors to its World of Coca-Cola museum in downtown Atlanta.\nAccording to Snopes, a popular myth states that only two executives have access to the formula,", "-28.788730380343623" ], [ "Procter and Gamble Chemicals P&G Chemicals (PGC) is a division within Procter and Gamble that specializes in the production and distribution of oleochemicals throughout the world.\nWith a line of products including glycerine, methyl esters, alcohols, fatty alcohols, and sucrose polyesters such as Sefose and Olean, PGC produces raw materials essential for many commonly used consumer products, and is a global supplier for some of the world’s largest chemical companies. History of PGC Over the years, P&G's business has been built on the use, production, and sale of oleochemicals. P&G has a long history of investments in the oleochemicals business and", "-28.783022342278855" ], [ "ingredients in Yunnan Baiyao products.\nUnder the \"Law on Guarding State Secrets\", the formula as well as the production processes regarding Yunnan Baiyao are considered secret and possess the longest period of product proprietary secrecy protection of four levels of secrecy under Chinese trade law.\nAs a result, Yunnan Baiyao's exact ingredients are not printed on its packaging in China, and its production process was not disclosed to workers in the factory.\nSome of the Yunnan Baiyao's products are sold in the US as diet supplements.\nAccording to FDA regulations, all diet supplements sold in the US market must list their ingredients on the", "-28.604419256793335" ], [ "POM Wonderful LLC v. Coca-Cola Co. Regulation of food and drug labeling In 1938, the United States Congress passed the Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act, in order to regulate the safety of food, drugs, and cosmetics. Under the Act, the Food and Drug Administration has issued regulations governing food and beverage labeling, including the labeling of mixes of different types of juice into one juice blend. In particular, if a juice blend does not name all the juices it contains and mentions only juices that are not predominant in the blend, then it must either declare the percentage content of", "-28.514066681062104" ], [ "2014, Reckitt Benckiser and the EPA came to an agreement to end legal action. RB agreed to stop manufacturing twelve products with loose pellets or powder by the end of 2014, with distribution to retailers ending no later than March 31, 2015. Retailers could continue to sell existing stock indefinitely. Eight of the twelve products contained second-generation anticoagulants (brodifacoum or difethialone), which the company agreed not to use in its replacement products. Products As of 2014, d-CON is the best selling rat poison in the United States. The d-CON product line consists of traps, bait packets,", "-28.50888828949246" ], [ "most valuable assets. The recipe is not patented, because patents are published in detail and come with an expiration date, whereas trade secrets can remain the intellectual property of their holders in perpetuity.\nKFC uses its Original Recipe as a means to differentiate its product from its competitors. Early franchisee Pete Harman credited the chain's popularity to the recipe and the product, and John Y. Brown cites the \"incredibly tasty, almost addictive\" product as the basis of KFC's staying power. On the other hand, Allen Adamson, managing director of brand consultancy Landor, remains unconvinced about the contribution of the secret formula", "-28.265092658577487" ], [ "other things, analyzing a number of food products listing HFCS as either the first or second ingredient on the label. An EPA colleague inspired Dufault to follow up on this science because the caustic soda (lye) produced by the mercury cell chlorine industry likely contained mercury as a residue. During the course of her investigation, she found out that the biggest user of mercury cell chlorine products was the corn refining industry. In a confidential interview with a corn refiner, Dufault learned mercury cell caustic soda was used primarily by the corn refiners in their manufacturing process to lengthen the", "-28.248071983543923" ], [ "after signing legal agreements to meet the lead limits, some companies continued to sell lead-containing purses. Their report says that CEH testing found 43 of the 300 purses tested with lead. In 2013, the New York Times reported that the group found a steady reduction in lead contamination from accessories over all, but continued to find lead contamination in some fashion accessories sold to budget-conscious teenagers and young women at some retailers.\nCola companies, including Pepsico and Coca-Cola, were reportedly using caramel coloring for their colas that contain a carcinogenic chemical called 4-MEI. The companies pledged to switch to a reformulated", "-28.1689166408687" ], [ "of products protected by trade secrets are Chartreuse liqueur and Coca-Cola.\nBecause protection of trade secrets can, in principle, extend indefinitely, it therefore may provide an advantage over patent protection and other registered intellectual property rights, which last only for a specific duration. The Coca-Cola company, for example, has no patent for the formula of Coca-Cola and has been effective in protecting it for many more years than the 20 years of protection that a patent would have provided. In fact, Coca-Cola refused to reveal its trade secret under at least two judges' orders. Misappropriation Companies often try to discover one", "-27.898643634398468" ], [ "water, where the FDA regulates bottled water.\nRegulation of food also includes food additives such as preservatives and artificial sweeteners. Controversies over preservatives were very important in the early days of the FDA, where volunteers participated in experimental meals with high doses of the chemicals to determine their toxicity. Levels of undesirable food additives, such as methyl mercury in canned tuna, are the responsibility of the FDA.\nFDA maintains a list of additives that are used in food in the United States as well as a list of additives Generally Recognized as Safe (GRAS, pronounced grass). Products that contain", "-27.82820218137931" ], [ "2018, the US FDA issued 12 warning letters to online retailers that were selling misleadingly labeled and/or advertised e-liquids resembling kid-friendly food products such as candy and cookies.\nOn October 12, 2018, the US FDA sent letters to 21 e-cigarette companies, including the manufacturers and importers of Vuse Alto, myblu, Myle, Rubi and STIG, seeking information about whether more than 40 products – including some flavored e-cigarette products – are being illegally marketed and outside the agency's current compliance policy. These new actions build on those taken by the FDA in recent weeks as part of its Youth Tobacco Prevention Plan", "-27.821973518119194" ], [ "Act, labeling products derived from plant extracts with the help of chemical symbols of organic substances found in these plants or creating names for these substances which referred to prohibited AAS became a popular marketing practice employed by American manufacturers. No analogical act targeting athlete supplementation is in force in the European Union; however each country has its own regulations concerning substances with medicinal properties. Due to the above, one can come in contact with the sale of supplements with names identical to or resembling those questioned by the RDA in the United States (S-DROL, HALODROL, etc.). Laboratory controls indicate", "-27.774602243909612" ], [ "ingredient among the \"natural and artificial flavors\" is apple juice. The version sold in the United States is colored pink and comes in a clear bottle, while the international version is colorless and currently comes in a pink bottle. It was renamed and reformulated as Cherry 7 Up Antioxidant in January 2009. It contains 10% of U.S. daily recommended vitamin E dosage per 8 fl oz serving (4.2% per 100 ml). On November 8, 2012, Keurig Dr Pepper said they will pull 7 Up with antioxidants off the shelves to reformulate them by 2013. They also said that its", "-27.731194406369468" ], [ "FDA sent letters to Juul Labs and the manufacturers of the four other largest e-cigarette brands in the US—R.J. Reynolds' Vuse, Altria's MarkTen, Imperial Brands' blu eCigs, and Japan Tobacco International's Logic—giving them 60 days to lay out their plans to address widespread youth use of their products. If they fail to comply, FDA may \"remove some or all of their flavored products that may be contributing to the rise in youth use from the market.\" FDA also sent over 1,300 warning letters to stores that undercover investigators had found to be selling Juul and other e-cigarettes to minors, and", "-27.715940706431866" ], [ "formula were not convinced that the first batches really were the same formula that had supposedly been retired that spring. This was true for a few regions, because Coca-Cola Classic differed from the original formula in that all bottlers who hadn't already done so were using high fructose corn syrup instead of cane sugar to sweeten the drink, though most had by this time.\n\"There is a twist to this story which will please every humanist and will probably keep Harvard professors puzzled for years,\" said Keough at a press conference. \"The simple fact is that all the time and money", "-27.64756070903968" ], [ "\"natural\", stating: \"The use of synthetic fixing agents in the enzyme preparation, which is then used to produce HFCS, would not be consistent with our (…) policy regarding the use of the term 'natural'\".\nOther opponents of the commercials have complained that stating HFCS is natural is misleading, as radon gas, lead and tobacco are also natural. Therefore, even if HFCS is natural it should not be automatically assumed that it is safe to eat.\nStating HFCS contains no artificial ingredients has also been criticized, as it has been argued that such a statement implies HFCS is natural, when it actually contains", "-27.62444081925787" ], [ "in order to revoke the plan.\nThe plan can be issued by the board of directors as an \"option\" or a \"warrant\" attached to existing shares, and only be revoked at the discretion of the board. History The poison pill was invented by mergers and acquisitions lawyer Martin Lipton of Wachtell, Lipton, Rosen & Katz in 1982, as a response to tender-based hostile takeovers. Poison pills became popular during the early 1980s in response to the wave of takeovers by corporate raiders such as Carl Icahn. The term \"poison pill\" derives its original meaning from a poison pill physically carried by", "-27.62099837566325" ], [ "the soft drink companies like Coca-Cola and Pepsi have issued ads in the media regarding the safety of consumption of the drinks.\nThe UK-based Central Science Laboratory, commissioned by Coke, found its products met EU standards in 2006. Coke and the University of Michigan commissioned an independent study of its bottling plants by The Energy and Resources Institute (TERI), which reported in 2008 no unsafe chemicals in the water supply used. Kidney stones A study published in the Clinical Journal of the American Society of Nephrology in 2013 concluded that consumption of soft drinks was associated with a 23% higher risk", "-27.591620714010787" ], [ "is the only Junior Juice variant to be sold in bottles. Other beverages Smoothies, Rumba Energy Juice, Energade, and Energy Formula, are minor products. Monster owns Blue Sky Beverage Company, which manufactures several soft drinks. Monster produces the Monster, Lost, and Rumba energy drinks, which were previously distributed in the United States by Anheuser Busch. On November 10, 2008, distribution of the Monster Energy and Monster Java products was turned over to Coca-Cola Enterprises.\nIn August 2009, Hansen's introduced the SELF Beauty Elixir line, a low-calorie beverage containing vitamins, minerals, natural fruit & botanical extracts, antioxidants and 30% fruit juice. The", "-27.58698843891034" ], [ "Pfizer in 2009, which was reported to have paid $68 billion. Formulations Several formulations have been produced. For example, some are in a water-based gel, while some are petroleum jelly-based, and the suppositories use a base of cocoa butter. It can come as a suppository, or as a medicated wipe. The active ingredients range from simple moisturizers with witch-hazel astringent to preparations containing drugs such as phenylephrine, pramoxine, and hydrocortisone. Formulations available vary from one country to another.\nSome Preparation H products have phenylephrine, a drug that constricts blood vessels, as an active ingredient, in a 0.25% concentration, as well as", "-27.572458666254533" ], [ "percent aspartame. Diet Coke from fountain dispensers still contains some saccharin to extend shelf life.\nAccording to the Coca-Cola Company, \"[t]he sweetener blend used for Diet Coke/Coca-Cola Light is formulated for each country based on consumer preference.\" In countries in which cyclamates are not banned (as they were in the US in 1970), Diet Coke or Coca-Cola Light may be sweetened with a blend containing aspartame, cyclamates, and acesulfame potassium. Debate over health issues The most commonly distributed version of Diet Coke (and the majority of beverages that contain artificial sweeteners) relies on aspartame, which has been suggested to pose health", "-27.36358164739795" ], [ "that coupons simply incentivize patients to initiate expensive brand-name drugs, ultimately leading to more expensive premiums that cancel out any previous cost-saving effects of the coupons. Generics versus brand-name products A generic drug is a chemically equivalent, cheaper version of a brand-name drug. A generic drug form is required to have the same dose, strength and active ingredient(s) as the brand name drug; thus, they carry the same risks and benefits. To ensure compliance, the FDA Generic Drugs Program conducts stringent reviews (3,500 inspections of manufacturing plants per year). Although generic drugs sound like a great money-saver, generic medicines can", "-27.214610506169265" ], [ "November 29, 2016, the DEA issued its final rule, making furanylfentanyl Schedule I. Chinese manufacture According to the DEA, fentanyl and its analog are being mass-produced in clandestine labs in China and are then smuggled into the United States. These new variants of fentanyl are manufactured by Chinese chemists in order to circumvent restrictions on the sale of fentanyl in the United States.", "-27.157432400155813" ], [ "of high-fructose corn syrup. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has no general definition of \"natural\"; however, FDA regulations define \"natural flavoring\" to include products of vegetables. Current FDA policy is that it does not object to labeling HFCS as \"natural.\" The CSPI also state that HFCS is not a \"natural\" ingredient due to the high level of processing and the use of at least one genetically modified (GMO) enzyme required to produce it. On January 12, 2007, Cadbury Schweppes agreed to stop calling 7 Up \"all natural\". They now label it \"100% Natural Flavors\".", "-27.152320997207426" ], [ "Pibb Xtra History First introduced as \"Peppo\" to compete against Dr Pepper, the name was changed to \"Mr. Pibb\" after Dr Pepper sued The Coca-Cola Company for trademark infringement. The original test markets for Mr. Pibb in 1972 were located in Waco, Texas, the birthplace of Dr Pepper, before the company moved to Dallas, Texas. In 1980, Mr. Pibb was reformulated and marketed with the words \"New Taste\" printed prominently on the products.\nIn 2001, a new formula called Pibb Xtra added cinnamon flavor, replacing the original formula in many parts of the United States. Today, Pibb Xtra is marketed as", "-27.149228696653154" ], [ "a say on poison pills. As of June 15, 2009, 21 companies that had adopted or extended a poison pill had publicly disclosed they plan to put the poison pill to a shareholder vote within a year. That was up from 2008's full year total of 18, and was the largest number ever reported since the early 1980s, when the pill was invented.", "-27.147772546799388" ], [ "at least four people before his death in 1888. In 1891, Asa Candler purchased the rights to the formula from Pemberton's estate, founded The Coca-Cola Company, and instituted the shroud of secrecy that has since enveloped the formula. He also made changes to the ingredients list, which by most accounts improved the flavor, and also entitled him to claim that anyone in possession of Pemberton's original formula no longer knew the \"real\" formula.\nIn 1919, Ernest Woodruff led a group of investors in purchasing the company from Candler and his family. As collateral for the acquisition loan, Woodruff placed the only", "-27.13005874902592" ], [ "proof safety bags, and in-store storage products, from a plethora of new manufacturing companies in mainly China via importers based in the U.S.\nThe growing need of dispensaries to comply with various legislative laws has given birth to thousands of new products ranging from vials with child locks on them to, to pop top bottles that are childproof and even childproof joint tubes.\nFor example, according to Title 16 C.F.R. 1700 of the Poison Prevention Packaging Act in Washington, any marijuana products, whether they are edibles, concentrates, or waxes that can be consumed either by inhaling or swallowing must be sold in", "-27.125091373105533" ], [ "the information concerning them. When a company decides to use a non-REACH listed substance or an ingredient in which the information is insufficient, the company must demonstrate that these substances are safe. Tests must then be performed by the company itself a it is responsible for ensuring the safety of the substances they use. These may be alternative tests for animal testing or animal testing where there is no alternative under the law.\nChemical ingredients used at more than one ton per year in Europe are compulsorily tested. Indeed, the European Commission can estimate that it is necessary to evaluate the", "-27.111543701190385" ], [ "they get the powder on their hands or mouth. Ultimately, several manufacturers agreed to significant reductions in the lead in the products, up to 80% less for the products that had tested highest for lead. In a similar suit, CEH and the California Attorney General sued makers of Kaopectate for high lead content in its products; the company agreed to reduce the levels of lead in its children’s Kaopectate by 95%, and by 80% in its adult variety.\nIn 2004, CEH and other groups filed lawsuits against manufacturers and distributors of Mexican candies. In 2006, the California Attorney General, along with", "-27.04533970647026" ], [ "Company and PepsiCo announced they had their caramel color suppliers modify their manufacturing processes to meet the new California standard; as of the announcement, the changes had already been made for beverages sold in California. The recipe is not changing in Europe, so the 4-MeI level will remain the same. Similarly, Pepsi and some Coke lots sold in the states other than California in the United States contain 4-MeI levels considered safe by the FDA and EFSA, but exceeding California standards. In 2016 PepsiCo lost The Pepsi Carcinogen Class Action Lawsuit Stacy Sciortino, et al. v. Pepsico Inc., Case No.", "-26.943028207693715" ], [ "to Chemical Trading and Consulting (a German broker), which bought 72 barrels of the syrup from Vos B.V., a Dutch company. Vos records revealed the syrup had been bought from Sinochem International Chemicals Company through a German trader, Metall-Chemie. In July 1996, the American Embassy in China contacted Sinochem and requested a list of Chinese glycerin makers, but the company refused to reveal the names. It was not until September 1996 that Sinochem provided a name of the manufacturer of the tainted syrup. They identified Tianhong Fine Chemicals Factory as the manufacturer. While the FDA tried to find out Tianhong’s", "-26.881583697453607" ], [ "application of the precautionary principle led to the conclusion that only additives that are known to be safe should be used in foods. In the United States, this led to the adoption of the Delaney clause, an amendment to the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act of 1938, stating that no carcinogenic substances may be used as food additives. However, after the banning of cyclamates in the United States and Britain in 1969, saccharin, the only remaining legal artificial sweetener at the time, was found to cause cancer in rats. Widespread public outcry in the United States,", "-26.872906655538827" ], [ "a modified form of the Coca-Cola recipe, but instead an entirely different formula based on the Tab formula. The controversial New Coke, introduced in 1985, used a version of the Diet Coke recipe that contained high fructose corn syrup and had a slightly different balance of ingredients. In 2005, the company introduced Coca-Cola Zero (renamed Coca-Cola Zero Sugar in 2017), a sugar-free more closely based on original Coca-Cola.\nIn 2005, under pressure from retailer Walmart (which was impressed with the popularity of Splenda sweetener), the company released a new formulation called \"Diet Coke sweetened with Splenda\". Sucralose and acesulfame potassium replace", "-26.855570406769402" ], [ "choose a base product, which they can supplement with additional flavoring. Diet and Zero products remain low or no calories even with flavorings added. The machines include flavors not previously available to the markets served by the machines, including Orange Coke, which was previously sold only in Russia and the Baltics (and briefly in the United Kingdom and Gibraltar). Customers may also download an app and create their own custom mixes with up to three different base products and three different flavor shots, which the fountain pours by scanning a QR code. Crew Mode Coca-Cola Freestyle machines have a", "-26.842788666428532" ], [ "and pharmaceuticals, in competition with insect shellac. It is now used as a coating for candy, nuts, fruit, pills, and other encapsulated foods and drugs. In the United States, it may be labeled as \"confectioner's glaze\" (which may also refer to shellac-based glazes) and used as a coating on bakery products or as \"vegetable protein.\" It is classified as Generally Recognized as Safe (GRAS) by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration. For pharmaceutical coating, zein is preferred over food shellac, since it is all natural and requires less testing per the USP monographs.\nZein can be further processed into resins and", "-26.817483909369912" ], [ "the Mobil brand is used exclusively. In Colombia, both the Esso and Mobil brands are used.\nIn Japan, ExxonMobil has a 22% stake in TonenGeneral Sekiyu K.K., a refining company. Chemicals ExxonMobil Chemical is a petrochemical company which was created by merging Exxon's and Mobil's chemical industries. Its principal products includes basic olefins and aromatics, ethylene glycol, polyethylene, and polypropylene along with speciality lines such as elastomers, plasticizers, solvents, process fluids, oxo alcohols and adhesive resins. The company also produces synthetic lubricant base stocks as well as lubricant additives, propylene packaging films and catalysts. The company was an industry leader", "-26.787271305453032" ], [ "capsules.\nExamination of the contaminated bottles by the FBI Crime Lab found that, in addition to containing cyanide powder, the poisoned capsules also contained flecks of an unknown green substance. Further tests showed that the substance was an algaecide used in home aquariums, sold under the brand name Algae Destroyer. Focusing the investigation With contamination of the Excedrin at the source having been ruled out, investigators began to focus their investigation on the end-users of the product. The FBI began an investigation into possible product tampering having been the source of the poison. At the time, Excedrin was packaged in plastic", "-26.69836781313643" ], [ "because the agency did not receive necessary safety data. The substance is still allowed in dietary supplements [21 U.S.C. 321 (ff)(1)] and is allowed for use in foods (primarily alcoholic beverages).", "-26.67254077421967" ], [ "and packaged, which is then smuggled into the U.S. by drug cartels. A large amount is also purchased online and shipped through the U.S. Postal Service. It can also be purchased directly from China, which has become a major manufacturer of various synthetic drugs illegal in the U.S. AP reporters found multiple sellers in China willing to ship carfentanyl, an elephant tranquilizer that is so potent it has been considered a chemical weapon. The sellers also offered advice on how to evade screening by US authorities. According to Assistant U.S. Attorney, Matt Cronin:\nIt is a fact that the People's Republic", "-26.653172061254736" ], [ "through December 2018.\nLabdoor buys dietary supplements directly from retailers, sends the products to an FDA-registered laboratory for analysis, and publishes the findings. Its mission is to share information to help consumers make the right decisions for themselves about dietary supplements. Labdoor's rankings have sometimes been published by the press and online media. Government and legal interactions Their findings resulted in the FDA taking a closer look at the safety of energy drinks. Labdoor evaluated Alex Jones's supplements, stating \"the science behind many of their claimed ingredients are questionable.\" Some 2015 tests of supplement products conducted by a third-party laboratory, which", "-26.61866607517004" ], [ "the Federal Government in the twentieth century and led to the creation of the Food and Drug Administration. Its main purpose was to ban foreign and interstate traffic in adulterated or mislabeled food and drug products, and it directed the U.S. Bureau of Chemistry to inspect products and refer offenders to prosecutors. It required that active ingredients be placed on the label of a drug’s packaging and that drugs could not fall below purity levels established by The United States Pharmacopeia or The National Formulary. The Jungle by Upton Sinclair was an inspirational piece that kept the public's attention on", "-26.614607862080447" ], [ "the finished product is usually produced in bulk, but is rarely delivered in bulk form to the customer. For example, the beverage manufacturer makes soda in batches of thousands of gallons. However, a consumer purchases soda in 12-ounce aluminum cans, or in 16-ounce plastic bottles, or in 1-liter bottles. And a restaurateur may have the option of getting a 5- or 50-gallon metal container with the beverage in syrup form, so that carbonated water can be added later.\nWhy is this concept important? Compare how often Coca-Cola changes the formula for Coke with how often the packaging is changed. If the", "-26.556710567092523" ], [ "2018, but in 2019 only about US$10 billion in revenue was set to open for competition, and less the next year. Companies in the industry have responded with consolidation or turning to try to generate new drugs. Regulation Most nations require generic drug manufacturers to prove that their formulations are bioequivalent to their brand-name counterparts.\nBioequivalence does not mean generic drugs must be exactly the same as the brand-name product (\"pharmaceutical equivalent\"). Chemical differences may exist; a different salt or ester may be used, for instance. Different inactive ingredients means that the generic may look different from the originator brand. However, the", "-26.50570192055602" ], [ "formula market and is positioned as a \"super premium\" brand within that market. The company also exports certified organic food to Hong Kong, Taiwan, Singapore, Malaysia, Vietnam, and New Zealand; with plans to expand into the US and the UK in 2016.\nThe increasing demand for organic baby food and infant formula in the Chinese market has been \"spurred by a series of food scares, the worst being the death of six children who had consumed baby formula laced with melamine\". Bellamy's began exporting organic baby formula to China in 2008, prior to the 2008 Chinese milk scandal; with", "-26.503179389284924" ], [ "the lead product's dry matter; meet the same levels of crude protein, calcium, phosphorus, zinc, lysine, thiamine (and for cat foods, potassium and taurine) as the lead food; and meet or exceed the nutrient levels and ratios of the lead family product or the AAFCO nutrient profiles, whichever is lower. The label statement on the similar food can be the same as the lead product if the ME is substantiated by the 10-day ME feeding study.\nCritics of the AAFCO standards argue that such requirements are too lax. Generational studies conducted by researchers at University of California, Davis have shown some", "-26.50150534650311" ], [ "palm and soybean oil. In Japan, the oil used is mainly the more expensive cottonseed and corn oil, as KFC Japan believes that this offers superior taste quality. Reception Sanders' Original Recipe of \"11 herbs and spices\" is one of the most famous trade secrets in the catering industry. Franchisee Dave Thomas, better known as the founder of Wendy's, argued that the secret recipe concept was successful because \"everybody wants in on a secret\" and former KFC owner John Y. Brown, Jr. called it \"a brilliant marketing ploy.\" The New York Times described the recipe as one of the company's", "-26.451964356703684" ], [ "ideas being discovered and used by a larger agency representing another cherry-flavored soft drink. Development The problem as presented by M/L/R is simple: to find the spy within the agency: the source of the industrial esponiage. Therefore, Goodwin has to look into possible links between members of the firm and its rival. While this remains elusive, it becomes clear that the executive of the rival drink's campaign is the recipient of the information, but it isn't long before he is found dead in his apartment (by Archie, who else?).\nThis prompts the owner of Cherr-o-kee, a reclusive part-Cherokee billionaire", "-26.445051555521786" ], [ "awareness of their product and a foothold in the market – a large sunk cost that will prevent some firms entering.\nMonsanto engaged in preemptive deterrence when it signed contracts with Coke and Pepsi. Because Monsanto locked in the consumers of Coke and Pepsi through its contracts, it made entry into the soda market less desirable because potential entrants would have less consumers and, in turn, less profit. Furthermore, if another firm decided to enter the market and obtain contracts with other soda brands, it would be less likely to attract as many customers as Monsanto because customers are loyal to", "-26.42927616153611" ], [ "within the company and impart the secret to that person. The identity of the two employees in possession of the secret is itself a secret.\nDuring the late 19th century, Coca-Cola was one of many popular coca-based drinks with purported medicinal properties and benefits to health; early marketing materials claimed that Coca-Cola alleviated headaches and acted as a \"brain and nerve tonic\". Coca leaves were used in Coca-Cola's preparation; the small amount of cocaine they contained – along with caffeine originally sourced from kola nuts – provided the drink's \"tonic\" quality. In 1903, cocaine was removed, leaving caffeine as the sole", "-26.419653210177785" ], [ "customer. This is important in process industries which make “brite” stock or private labels. For example, large grocery chains sell products, such as soups, soda, and meats, under their own brand names, hence \"private labels\". But these chains do not have their own manufacturing plants; they contract for these products. In the case of soups, process manufacturers create and warehouse nondescript, unlabeled (hence “brite”) aluminum cans of soup. (Since the cans are filled, sealed, and then cooked under pressure, their shelf life is long.)\nBy separating the product formula from a packaging recipe, a production order can be issued to make", "-26.389908292563632" ], [ "were in violation of the United States Food, Drug and Cosmetic Act [21 USC/321 (g)(1)] because they \"establish[ed] the product as a drug intended for use in the cure, mitigation, treatment, or prevention of disease\" when wolfberries or juice have had no such scientific evaluation. Additionally stated by the FDA, the goji juice was \"not generally recognized as safe and effective for the referenced conditions\" and therefore must be treated as a \"new drug\" under Section 21(p) of the Act. New drugs may not be legally marketed in the United States without prior approval of the FDA.\nIn January 2007, marketing", "-26.34384788153693" ], [ "R.W. Knudsen Family R.W. Knudsen Family is a brand of natural bottled juices. They manufacture over 125 different products, many using organic ingredients. \nTheir most well-known line is a family of natural, non-carbonated juices sold in 32 fl. oz. glass jars, available in the United States at natural food stores and supermarkets. Other products include Recharge, a sports energy drink marketed as a natural competitor to drinks such as Gatorade, and Spritzers, a line of carbonated juice-flavored drinks sold in 12 fl. oz. aluminum cans. All of Knudsen's products are shelf-stable without refrigeration; as such, they", "-26.339354865718633" ], [ "Secret (deodorant brand) History Procter & Gamble began research on the product that would be Secret’s first in 1945. In 1956, Secret was introduced as a cream that was applied with fingers to the underarm area for underarm odor control. It was the first antiperspirant/deodorant product made for, and marketed to, women. In 1958, Secret introduced a roll-on product, with a spray following in 1964. The solid round stick version was launched in 1978.\nEarly product innovations were driven by the principle that men and women may have different needs when it comes to odor protection, but women", "-26.32833909283363" ], [ "The flavors available under this brand include Green Apple, Fruit Punch, Melon Berry, Grape, Orange Mango, and Strawberry Lime. Although the juice drinks are fortified with vitamins and minerals, a 16-ounce bottle contains more sugar (41 grams) than a 12-ounce can of Coca-Cola (39 grams).\nDr. Michael F. Jacobson, the executive director of the Center for Science in the Public Interest, called the drinks \"little better than vitamin-fortified sugar water.\" In addition, the concentrates used in the drinks, apple, grape and pear, are the least expensive and nutritious. Dr. Toni Liquori, associate professor at the Columbia Teachers College, questioned the sale of bottled", "-26.32201411522692" ], [ "controlled substances in cooperation with the Chhabra-Smoley Organization and Superior Drugs. According to the U.S. Department of Justice, \"FedEx is alleged to have knowingly and intentionally conspired to distribute controlled substances and prescription drugs, including Phendimetrazine (Schedule III); Ambien, Phentermine, Diazepam, and Alprazolam (Schedule IV), to customers who had no legitimate medical need for them based on invalid prescriptions issued by doctors who were acting outside the usual course of professional practice.\" A representative for the company contested these claims, stating that it would violate personal rights of customers to deny service and that \"We are a transportation company —", "-26.305372919421643" ], [ "although labeling laws differ between countries. In the United States, according to the National Honey Board (NHB; supervised by the United States Department of Agriculture), \"honey stipulates a pure product that does not allow for the addition of any other substance... this includes, but is not limited to, water or other sweeteners\".\nIsotope ratio mass spectrometry can be used to detect addition of corn syrup and cane sugar by the carbon isotopic signature. Addition of sugars originating from corn or sugar cane (C4 plants, unlike the plants used by bees, and also sugar beet, which are predominantly C3 plants) skews the", "-26.282308329362422" ], [ "the antiquated bottling plant and its old-fashioned soda.\nThe Soft Drink Interbrand Competition Act of 1980 (15 U.S.C. ch. 61) permits soft drink companies to grant exclusive territorial rights to bottlers. The rise of internet commerce has led to trans-shipments, in which one bottler's soda is sold in another's territory. These sales cause tension between various bottlers. Lawsuit In June 2011, after unsuccessfully trying to capitalize on Dublin Dr Pepper's popularity by marketing a \"Heritage\" Dr Pepper made with \"real sugar\" (i.e., beet sugar instead of pure Imperial cane sugar), Dr Pepper Snapple Group, which owns the brand and licenses", "-26.277967267204076" ], [ "to bans In March 2009 the six largest U.S. producers of baby bottles decided to stop using bisphenol A in their products. The same month Sunoco, a producer of gasoline and chemicals, refused to sell BPA to companies for use in food and water containers for children younger than 3, saying it could not be certain of the compound's safety.\nIn May 2009, Lyndsey Layton from the Washington Post accused manufacturers of food and beverage containers and some of their biggest customers of the public relations and lobbying strategy to block government BPA bans. She noted that, \"Despite more than 100 published", "-26.27443086002313" ], [ "is a calorie-free sweetener. In the United States, saccharin is often found in restaurants in pink packets; the most popular brand is \"Sweet'n Low\".\nBecause of the difficulty of importing sugar from the West Indies, the British Saccharin Company was founded in 1917 to produce saccharin at its Paragon Works near Accrington, Lancashire. Production was licensed and controlled by the Board of Trade in London. Production continued on the site until 1926. Government regulation Starting in 1907, the United States Food and Drug Administration began investigating saccharin as a result of the Pure Food and Drug Act. Harvey Wiley, then the", "-26.25195656654978" ], [ "company in some markets.\nIn 2015, along with a revamp of their U.S. advertising, KFC returned to using \"Finger Lickin' Good\". As of April 2016, KFC began using the slogan \"Colonel Quality, Guaranteed.\"\nThe secret recipe is regularly identified with the phrase \"eleven herbs and spices,\" the amount and identification of which remain a trade secret. The catchphrase was used for an Easter egg pun on KFC's Twitter account, which follows eleven other accounts: six persons named Herb, and the five members of the Spice Girls. Logos The first KFC logo was introduced in 1952 and featured a \"Kentucky Fried Chicken\" typeface", "-26.22865232510958" ], [ "Factory. At the request of the United States, the State Food and Drug Administration of China investigated Taixing Glycerine Factory and CNSC Fortune Way, but the agency concluded it is not under their jurisdiction because the factory is not certified to make medicine.\nTaixing sold the syrup as “TD glycerin”, wording that neither Chinese inspectors nor Spanish medical authorities comprehended. Unfortunately, Taixing used “TD” for the Chinese word tidai, meaning “substitute”. A New York Times reporter tried to obtain a comment from CNSC Fortune Way at the CPhI worldwide (the world’s largest annual pharmaceutical convention) held in Milan, Italy, during 2007,", "-26.22434012091253" ], [ "Code of Federal Regulations currently imposes restrictions on the use of BVO as a food additive in the United States, limiting the concentration to 15 ppm, limiting the amount of free fatty acids to 2.5 percent, and limiting the iodine value to 16. BVO is used in Mountain Dew, manufactured by PepsiCo and Sun Drop, made by the Dr Pepper Snapple Group. Numerous generic citrus sodas also use it, including \"Clover Valley\"/Dollar General sodas and Stars & Stripes. On May 5, 2014, Coca-Cola and PepsiCo said they would remove BVO from their products.\nBVO is one of four substances that the", "-26.19384186901152" ], [ "has adopted numerous changes within the company and leveraged those changes for the markets they serve. P&G Chemicals (PGC) emerged as a division within greater P&G to carry on the original business functions of the company. From its early days in the 1800s to the present day, PGC has taken a comprehensive approach to the oleochemicals business, thus ensuring supply dependability, reliable expertise, and global chemical capabilities. Starting in 1837, Procter and Gamble began producing chemicals, utilizing stearic acid, and re-selling the co-product red oil (olein) in Cincinnati, OH.\nIn 1858, P&G began producing branded products, starting with Star Glycerin, P&G’s", "-26.144071195856668" ], [ "America (until 2013) Kim Jeffery responded to several of the questions brought up by the film, stating that the bottles used for the products were safe and that one of the chemicals discovered in the tests, Bisphenol-A was \"in the liners of all canned foods to prevent botulism, and in the DVDs of the documentary that people were able to purchase\".", "-26.11671503330581" ], [ "PepsiCo unveiled the world's first plant-based PET bottle. The bottle is made from plant-based materials, such as switch grass, corn husks, and pine bark, and is 100% recyclable. PepsiCo plans to reuse more by-products of its manufacturing processes such as orange peels and oat hulls in the bottles. PepsiCo has identified methods to create a molecular structure that is the same as normal petroleum-based PET—which will make the new bottle technology, dubbed \"Green Bottle\", feel the same as normal PET. PepsiCo will pilot production in 2012, and upon successful completion of the pilot, intends moving to full-scale commercialization. Energy usage", "-26.08876843264443" ], [ "promoting \"BPA-free\" products. For example, in 2010, General Mills announced it had found a \"BPA-free alternative\" can liner that works with tomatoes. It said it would begin using the BPA-free alternative in tomato products sold by its organic foods subsidiary Muir Glen with that year's tomato harvest. As of 2014, General Mills has refused to state which alternative chemical it uses, and whether it uses it on any of its other canned products. BPA free, epoxyfree A minority of companies have stated what alternative compound(s) they use. Following an inquiry by Representative Edward Markey (D-Mass) seventeen companies replied saying they", "-26.084971561911516" ], [ "The common stock of over 400 speciality chemical companies from around the world are identified by Bloomberg the providers of global business and financial information. There are many more privately owned speciality chemical companies that are not quoted on the global stock markets.\nThe 10 largest European speciality chemical companies are BASF, AkzoNobel, Clariant, Evonik, Cognis, Kemira, Lanxess, Rhodia, Wacker and Croda. By definition, speciality chemicals are produced in relatively small quantities but they represent 28 per cent of EU chemical sales.\nThe 10 largest USA Speciality Chemical Companies are The Lubrizol Corporation, Huntsman, Ashland, Chemtura, Rockwood, Albemarle, Cabot, W. R. Grace,", "-26.079750235856864" ], [ "free claims In September 2015, The Food and Drug Administration warned ITG Brands, the makers of Winston cigarettes, that labeling the product as \"additive-free\" violated federal law because the claim implied that the cigarettes were safer than other brands\nThe August warning letter to ITG marked the first time the FDA had used its authority under a 2009 tobacco-control law to take action against a company for making \"additive-free\" claims on product packaging. It was one of three warning letters that the agency shipped out in August 2015 to cigarette companies whose products were labeled \"additive-free\", \"natural\" or both. Markets Winston", "-26.070803016773425" ], [ "to sign a \"safe product\" agreement releasing P&G from liability in order to return those they had bought. By the end of that week, P&G had suspended sales of the brand altogether in China and closed its sales counters there, instituting a hotline for refund applications. SK-II sales were also suspended for approximately two weeks in South Korea, resuming after authorities announced the products were safe. P&G announced it would resume selling the products in China in late 2006 after regulators declared that the trace elements of these substances in cosmetics were not likely to be injurious to human health.", "-26.036937110620784" ], [ "Certificate of Formula Compliance A Certificate of Formula Compliance (often abbreviated to COFC) is a document used primarily for Health and Beauty Products in international trade. \nUnlike a Certificate of Origin (which traditionally states from what country the shipped goods originate, but \"originate\" in a CO does not mean the country the goods are shipped from, but the country where their goods are actually made.)a COFC is a document that states to the Import Authority that the Products are certified accurate to the Formula that is on record in the Country of Importation. \nUnlike a Certificate of Analysis(a Document used", "-26.034886808600277" ], [ "is sold in bar form or in miniature squares.\nGhirardelli also sells food service items, like chocolate beverages and flavored sauces, to other retailers. Issues found An independent laboratory has tested over 120 chocolate products for lead and cadmium, and found that 96 of the 127 of them contained lead and/or cadmium above the safe harbor threshold of California’s Safe Drinking Water and Toxic Enforcement Act of 1986 (Proposition 65).\nBased on these results, As You Sow have filed notices with over 20 companies, including Ghirardelli and Trader Joe’s for failing to provide the legally required warning to consumers that their chocolate", "-25.952318977564573" ], [ "(FDA) warned consumers in the West Chester, Pennsylvania area not to drink any Jermuk brand mineral water due to the risk of exposure to arsenic, a toxic substance and a known cause of cancer in humans. Jermuk Classic Medicinal Table Natural Sparkling Mineral Water in 0.5 liter green translucent glass bottles under the Jermuk Group brand label was recalled on 5/1/07 by AA Impex Group, Philadelphia, PA. FDA found that the product contained 536-539 micrograms of arsenic per liter of water. FDA's standard of quality for bottled water allowed no more than 10 micrograms per liter. Product can be returned", "-25.916429595439695" ], [ "to a food, it must be identified as \"monosodium glutamate\" in the label's ingredient list. Because glutamate is commonly found in food, primarily from protein sources, the FDA does not require foods and ingredients that contain glutamate as an inherent component to list it on the label. Examples include tomatoes, cheeses, meats, hydrolyzed protein products such as soy sauce, and autolyzed yeast extracts. These ingredients are to be declared on the label by their common or usual names. The term 'natural flavor' is now used by the food industry when using glutamic acid. Because of lack of regulation,", "-25.88116071827244" ], [ "include Dr Pepper to its beverage line up in North American restaurants.\nBurger King's supply contracts for non-carbonated beverages are separate from the ones for its sodas. When the company first chose to introduce a bottled water product, it chose Nestlé's Poland Spring brand over Coke's Dasani. When the contract expired in 2003, BK moved to Pepsi's Aquafina, the top-selling brand at the time. In 2008 Burger King renewed its relationship with Nestlé by entering into an agreement to sell Pure Life bottled water products. BK moved away from Pepsi's Tropicana brand juices in 2001 when it went with Coca-Cola's Minute", "-25.877627167392347" ], [ "\"artificially flavored spicy cherry soda\". Coca-Cola Freestyle flavors Pibb is now available in some Freestyle machines at restaurant chains that do not serve Dr Pepper or regions where Dr Pepper is not bottled by a local Coca-Cola distributor. In 2011, Pibb Xtra expanded to two new flavors: Pibb Xtra Cherry and Pibb Xtra Cherry-Vanilla. Released for Coca-Cola Freestyle machines, both new flavors were also released for Pibb Zero. Pibb Xtra Strawberry was released in 2018, along with Dr Pepper Strawberry. Nutrition A 12-ounce serving of Pibb Xtra contains 140 calories, all of which are from sugar. There are 40", "-25.873800383415073" ], [ "to Wiley's USDA Bureau of Chemistry. Wiley used these new regulatory powers to pursue an aggressive campaign against the manufacturers of foods with chemical additives, but the Chemistry Bureau's authority was soon checked by judicial decisions, which narrowly defined the bureau's powers and set high standards for proof of fraudulent intent. In 1927, the Bureau of Chemistry's regulatory powers were reorganized under a new USDA body, the Food, Drug, and Insecticide organization. This name was shortened to the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) three years later.\nBy the 1930s, muckraking journalists, consumer protection organizations, and federal regulators began mounting a campaign", "-25.85277852450963" ], [ "passing the 1938 Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act, which required companies to perform animal safety tests on their proposed new drugs and submit the data to the FDA before being allowed to market their products. The Massengill Company paid a minimum fine under provisions of the 1906 Pure Food and Drugs Act, which prohibited labeling the preparation an \"elixir\" if it contained no alcohol.", "-25.8427456546342" ], [ "prepared at a Stepan Company plant in Maywood, New Jersey.\nIn the United States, the Stepan Company is the only manufacturing plant authorized by the Federal Government to import and process the coca plant, which it obtains mainly from Peru and, to a lesser extent, Bolivia. Besides producing the coca flavoring agent for Coca-Cola, the Stepan Company extracts cocaine from the coca leaves, which it sells to Mallinckrodt, a St. Louis, Missouri, pharmaceutical manufacturer that is the only company in the United States licensed to purify cocaine for medicinal use.\nLong after the syrup had ceased to contain any significant amount of", "-25.828282441652846" ], [ "poison pill strategy as illegal, or place restraints on their use. Canada In Canada, almost all shareholders rights plans are \"chewable,\" meaning they contain a permitted bid concept such that a bidder who is willing to conform to the requirements of a permitted bid can acquire the company by take-over bid without triggering a flip-in event. Shareholder rights plans in Canada are also weakened by the ability of a hostile acquirer to petition the provincial securities regulators to have the company's pill overturned. Generally, the courts will overturn the pill to allow shareholders to decide whether they want", "-25.814721822403953" ], [ "poisoned. An investigation revealed that Anderton lied to journalists and the public. He had used a kiwi that had been caught in a possum trap.\nIn 2015, the New Zealand Police revealed that anonymous blackmail threats were sent to Fonterra and Federated Farmers saying that infant formula in supermarkets would be poisoned unless the use of 1080 was halted by the end of the month. Fonterra responded by working with the Ministry for Primary Industries to develop two high-throughput, validated test methods and then testing every tanker of milk and every batch of infant formula for 1080. The ensuing police response", "-25.786595013021724" ], [ "production, eliminating the need to differentiate between the two. The formula remained unchanged. In January 2009, Coca-Cola stopped printing the word \"Classic\" on the labels of 16-US-fluid-ounce (470 ml) bottles sold in parts of the southeastern United States. The change is part of a larger strategy to rejuvenate the product's image. The word \"Classic\" was removed from all Coca-Cola products by 2011.\nIn November 2009, due to a dispute over wholesale prices of Coca-Cola products, Costco stopped restocking its shelves with Coke and Diet Coke for two months; a separate pouring rights deal in 2013 saw Coke products removed from Costco food", "-25.782957132556476" ], [ "Coca-Cola Raspberry Vending machine availability Raspberry was the third flavor added to original Coke in New Zealand. The others are vanilla coke and cherry coke. Raspberry Coke was initially posted on US auction sites, with bottles selling in the $10 US dollar range. It is now generally no longer available and would be considered extremely rare and collectable. As of May 2008, remaining supplies have been exhausted and are not available for sale via online auctions or retail outlets. The only remaining place that Coca-Cola Raspberry can be found is in Coca-Cola Freestyle touch-screen soda fountains. It is also", "-25.774157138192095" ], [ "POM's claim that the labeling of Minute Maid's pomegranate-blueberry juice blend (which did comply with FDA labeling requirements) was either misleading or unfair competition and found that the labeling did not mislead a substantial portion of consumers, in favor of Coca-Cola, ending eight years of litigation.", "-25.774092510109767" ], [ "poisons could be rendered harmless by properly choosing and combining adjuvant and complimentary ingredients; for example gold should always be used together with mercury, while silver can only be used when combined with gold, copper carbonate, and realgar for the preparation of the jindan Golden Elixir (tr. Needham and Ho 1970: 331). Many Tang alchemical writers returned to the fashion of using obscure synonyms for ingredients, perhaps because of the alarming number of elixir poisonings, and the desire to dissuade amateur alchemists from experimenting on themselves (Needham et al. 1976: 138). By the end of the Yuan dynasty (1271–1368), the", "-25.767446682744776" ], [ "the month, Coca-Cola's chemists also quietly reduced the acidity level of the new formula, hoping to assuage complaints about the flavor and allow its sweetness to be better perceived (advertisements pointing to this change were prepared, but never used).\nIn addition to the noisier public protests, boycotts, and bottles being emptied into the streets of several cities, the company had more serious reasons to be concerned. Its bottlers, and not just the ones still suing the company over syrup pricing policies, were expressing concern. While they had given Goizueta a standing ovation when he announced the change at an April 22", "-25.76307632139651" ], [ "concerns. Aspartame is one of the most intensively scrutinized food additives.\nCoca-Cola has now released Diet Coke sweetened with sucralose (under the brand name Splenda), although it is not as common.\nThe sodium benzoate was found to break down mitochondrial DNA in living yeast cells. Research published in 2007 for the British government's Food Standards Agency suggests that sodium benzoate (E211) is linked to hyperactive behavior and decreased intelligence in children. In January 2008 sodium benzoate was removed from production lines for Diet Coke sold in the UK, however it remains in other Coke products and other production locations.", "-25.75358978274744" ], [ "drugs are usually subject to government regulations in the countries in which they are dispensed. They are labeled with the name of the manufacturer and a generic non-proprietary name such as the United States Adopted Name (USAN) or International Non-proprietary Name (INN) of the drug. A generic drug must contain the same active ingredients as the original brand-name formulation. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) requires generics to be identical to or within an acceptable bioequivalent range of their brand-name counterparts, with respect to pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic properties. (The FDA's use of the word \"identical\" is a legal interpretation,", "-25.728668113835738" ], [ "Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act\" and was \"an unapproved new drug\" owing to claims made about the effectiveness of some of its ingredients. The company was given 15 days to respond to the warning letter. A product recall was not anticipated. By 2014, Tec Labs' trademarked StaphAseptic name had been discontinued from the company's product roster and a product called Tecnu First Aid Gel introduced. Company culture The firm's mission statement is \"Tec Labs is a pharmaceutical institution that fosters a culture of innovation, trust, joie de vivre and esprit de corps.\" Its supervisors are called \"coaches\", a change made", "-25.716141387587413" ], [ "requested, a pharmacist is allowed put drugs in a bottle with easy open features.\nOver-the-counter drugs are sold in drug stores, grocery stores, and diverse retail outlets. Usually the package needs to have all the usage information available. Packages often need to have tamper resistant features and child-resistant packaging.\nUsually the packaging and labeling of dietary supplements, homeopathic drugs, and folk medicines are not regulated. Some producers voluntarily follow the regulations for over-the-counter drugs or regional Pharmacopoeias. Package forms The wide variety of pharmaceutical solids, liquids, and gasses are packaged in a wide variety of packages. Some of", "-25.687086739199003" ], [ "on all drug labels, advertising, and other information about the substance. Relatedly, they help maintain clear differentiation between proprietary and nonproprietary aspects of reality, which people trying to sell proprietary things have an incentive to obfuscate; they help people compare apples to apples. They are used in New Drug Applications for the US Food and Drug Administration, in scientific descriptions of the chemical, in discussions of the chemical in the scientific literature and descriptions of clinical trials.\nBiopharmaceuticals have posed a challenge in nonproprietary naming because unlike smaller molecules made with total synthesis or semisynthesis, there is less assurance of complete", "-25.65250375668984" ], [ "was decided in favor of Coca-Cola, but a portion of the decision was set aside in 1916 by the Supreme Court. As part of a settlement, the company agreed to reduce the amount of caffeine in its syrup. Current ingredients The company protects the secrecy of its syrup recipe by shipping ingredients to its syrup factories in the form of anonymous \"merchandises\", numbered 1 through 9. Factory managers are told the relative proportions of each numbered merchandise, and the mixing procedure, but not the ingredients in the merchandises, some of which are themselves mixtures of more basic ingredients. Merchandise no.", "-25.65023963432759" ] ]

[ "Firstly, materials. They don't have that kind of munition stockpiles. Secondly, retaliation. Congrats, you're shelling a FOB 24-7. You've now pissed off the entire military force behind it even more royally than before. Air support is a given. Possibly artillery. You getting flanked is also likely. They will light up your world like the motherfucking sun if you shell an FOB. You're stationary when you're attacking, so you're a sitting duck, and you're in the crosshairs of a real military power, not other guys with AKs. Missiles, gun runs, artillery, surprise attacks, all likely to happen to you. When you're stationary in an attack, you can be traced. It can be calculated where that mortar is being launched from. It can be found where that gunfire is coming from. And then you're at the wrong end of a Hellfire Missile. Have fun with that.", "The key is that the insurgents pop out, make their attack, and then melt away into the background noise of daily life in Iraq. If they stay anywhere or do the same thing for too long, the US forces can find them, kill or capture them, and destroy their stockpiles. Insurgents do no have the infrastructure of the WWI German army, where they can just churn out thousands of rounds, either. In my experience, the enemy would set up shop somewhere, maybe the back of a truck, maybe in their front yard, sometimes in the middle of a busy intersection, and walk in 5-10 rounds on our compound. Then, they disappear. Mortar system breaks down, truck drives off, gets moved to another location. I wasn't in the S-2 but from what they said, they had radar coverage over Mosul that almost immediately generated a point of origin (called a POO - no joke). They could have gotten counter battery fire back there incredibly fast, but usually didn't, as the collateral damage wasn't seen as worth it. Get in, hit as well as you can, disappear. Distribute your supplies so you don't lose them all in one sweep. Don't let anyone pin you down, because in a set-piece battle, you lose to the US 100% of the time.", "We have mortars too. And a lot of other military equipment. If insurgents set up shop and start lobbing shells we're going to find them pretty quickly and shoot back. And we're a lot more accurate than they are.", "The short answer is not a lot, just efficiency. The main problem is the resources to do this. During our times in Iraq/Afgan mortar attacks on bases where not uncommon. However, it is not viable for them to set up a huge mortar camp, and it would quickly be seized and the operators captured and killed and the resources lost. Because of this, it tends to be small groups with limited resource hit and run when they can do it safely. Guerilla warfare like this is based on the efficiency of picking off the odd person and being very difficult to retaliate agasint.", "It seems to me that if someone fires mortars, they're saying \"hey everybody, I'm right over here\". That would make them an easy target for airstrikes or whatever if they stay in one place for too long." ]

[ [ "Creeping Shadows Plot Three victims plan to murder a retired informant.", "-26.68449267555843" ], [ "Camp Salerno, have frequently been targeted by insurgents. In most cases, however, suicide attackers do not succeed in getting past the main entrance of a base. According to U.S. officials, Forward Operating Base Chapman appears to have implemented less stringent security measures than other U.S. military bases, aiming at establishing trust with informants. Subjecting informants to mistrust and excessive suspicion would reduce the amount of information received from them.", "-26.112353060976602" ], [ "booby-traps also delayed enemy forces. If there was enough advance warning, VC/NVA forces would prepare kill zones near or in likely landing spots. Trees could also make effective defensive positions. Booby traps were laid on trails and rice paddy dikes, and in jungle growth in a random pattern, and often caused multiple casualties to American troops.\nThe primary tactic after being surrounded was to delay until nightfall, after which breakouts would begin. Large formations were broken down into smaller units to facilitate escape and a rendezvous was pre-planned in advance. Special units were deployed to probe the encirclement, looking for weak", "-26.091496619803365" ], [ "try to rescue them. But they are cornered behind a building that has already been claimed by a group of looters. When the National Guard arrives with orders to shoot anything that moves, these unlikely allies have to band together to survive the rest of the night.\n\"Zombies, Terrorists, & Looters: Part II\" (original airdate: 1 Aug. 2013)\n\"Zombies, Terrorists, & Looters: Part II B\" (original airdate: 3 Mar. 2014)", "-25.7950509882794" ], [ "there is a discussion over whether ambushing the Taliban will work and subsequently volunteers are recruited for a night patrol.\nAt dawn, civilians are seen fleeing the area. The patrol comes under fire and a soldier is hit. In the ensuing chaos the Taliban position is discovered to be directly in front of the patrol in a ditch only three metres away. A hand grenade is tossed into the ditch followed by the order to 'neutralize them' and subsequent sporadic gunfire is heard. Five Taliban are killed and there are graphic scenes of their bodies being pulled from the ditch and", "-25.421296896936838" ], [ "insurgents), scattered into a large draw (a natural depression into which water drains), before hiding in caves and rock outcroppings. Despite being pummeled by two A10 Warthogs, the insurgents fired from a cave and mortally wounded team leader Nicholas Kirven and Corporal Richard Schoener. Team leader Jason Valencia then cleared out the cave in which Kirven and Schoener's killer was hiding. Another message was decoded by the interpreter, which said that 30 more ambushers were coming. With the use of AC130 gunships, fourteen more charging militants were wiped out. By now, it was nighttime on May 8 and another 15", "-25.13958719173388" ], [ "temporary local superiority, fight from cover, and have preplanned withdrawal routes to avoid being encircled.\nMining and sniping support both raids and ambushes. In a raid, mines may be laid near the enemy reaction force barracks. Snipers can take out critical equipment (e.g., floodlights, radars, artillery) or commanders as the raid begins. Both methods can discourage pursuit while the raid or ambush force withdraws Sabotage and Subversion Both sabotage and subversion are means to reduce the military, political, economic, or morale strengths of an opponent. They differ in that sabotage involves physical damage or damage to information systems, while subversion relies", "-24.498664491518866" ], [ "Loitering munition A loitering munition (also known as a suicide drone or kamikaze drone) is a weapon system category in which the munition loiters around the target area for some time, searches for targets, and attacks once a target is located. Loitering munitions enable faster reaction times against concealed or hidden targets that emerge for short periods without placing high-value platforms close to the target area, and also allow more selective targeting as the actual attack mission can be aborted. \nLoitering munitions fit in the niche between cruise missiles and unmanned combat aerial vehicles (UCAVs) sharing characteristics with both. They", "-24.468244665884413" ], [ "\"turned\" insurgents would move into a captured area, formerly occupied by the guerrillas, and give the appearance of being cadres themselves. In doing so they would win the trust of both the local people and any insurgents operating nearby, which would allow them to discover the enemy camps and gathering points. These would then be given to the conventional troops, who would move in to attack with the Selous Scouts escorting them. The Scouts and their unorthodox tactics resolved the problem encountered a year before when intelligence had suddenly become scarce. The security forces now once again knew where their", "-24.416414180217544" ], [ "practice was to creep slowly up on the sentries guarding a small sector of an enemy front line trench (looking for the glow of cigarettes in the dark or listening for conversations) then kill them as quietly as possible. Having secured the trench the raiders would complete their mission objectives as quickly as possible, ideally within several minutes. Raiders were aware that the longer they stayed in the trench, the greater the likelihood of enemy reinforcements arriving. Grenades would be thrown into dugouts where enemy troops were sleeping before the raiders left the enemy lines to return to their own.\nThere", "-24.37073956031236" ], [ "close range, for hours or days at a time. One former U.S. official who worked with micro-UAVs said that they can be almost impossible to detect at night. \"It can be outside your window and you won't hear a whisper,\" the official said. The drone operators also have changed to trying to target insurgents in vehicles rather than residences to reduce the chances of civilian casualties.\nAn oft-quoted 2010 study by Peter Bergen and Katherine Tiedemann at the New America Foundation went as follows: \"Our study shows that the 265 reported drone strikes in Northwest Pakistan, including 52 in 2011, from", "-24.09274317092786" ], [ "is compromised and ambushed, decoy convoys can also act as a reinforcement force that can counter-attack a force that is attacking the primary convoy. Some clients rotate between residences in different cities when attending public events or meetings to prevent being tailed home or to a private location. Weapons and weapon tactics Depending on the laws in a bodyguard's jurisdiction and on which type of agency or security service they are in, bodyguards may be unarmed, armed with a less-lethal weapon such as a pepper spray, an expandable baton, or a Taser (or a similar type stun gun), or with", "-23.90177992847748" ], [ "out in Casspir mine-protected vehicles and sometimes lasted for weeks on end. Koevoet operators spent most of their time following suspicious tracks in search of insurgents, sometimes for over a hundred kilometres. PLAN was forced to alter its tactics accordingly. Following raids and attacks, PLAN cadres would scatter. Many ceased wearing military boots with readily identifiable sole patterns and walked barefoot or in civilian shoes. They camouflaged their tracks, retraced their steps, and changed footwear to throw off Koevoet trackers. More commonly, the insurgents would withdraw until they had reached appropriate terrain, then ambush the Koevoet response team.\nIn April 1980,", "-23.818539934029104" ], [ "camouflage, and other techniques related to war tricks.\"\nParanoia over being targeted by drone strikes has led to wide-scale executions of suspected spies by Taliban agents in the FATA area, including the creation of a special task force Lashkar al Khorasan for this purpose in North Waziristan. This has extended to the Pakistani Taliban publicly executing dozens of local car mechanics whom they accused of bugging their trucks and cars. Vehicles are particularly preferred as targets by the CIA because the drones could see who entered the vehicles and target them when they were driving in isolated areas. Civilian casualties According", "-23.779238932773296" ], [ "The Creeping Terror Plot While driving along a highway in fictional Angel County in California, a sheriff's deputy, Martin Gordon (Vic Savage) and his wife Brett (Shannon O'Neil) meet Martin's uncle, sheriff Ben (Byrd Holland), and together they investigate a reported plane crash site. At the site, the group encounters the abandoned truck of a forest ranger, the ranger's hat, and an alien spacecraft that resembles a camping trailer; a large, slow-moving, slug-like creature had earlier emerged from the craft, and departed prior to the group's arrival. Believing the absent ranger might be inside, Ben enters the craft by crawling", "-23.44869205233408" ], [ "transportation incapacitated, they make a dangerous trek through the brutal outdoors at night.\nThe next day, the survivors continue to seek any kind of sanctuary. While walking in the woods, they discover booby-traps and the macabre remains of dispatched zombies. Figuring it to be human bandits, they carefully avoid numerous traps, until they come across the enemy hideout. It is here they discover the true enemies of the living, a bastion of psychopathic renegades led by the notorious Goke (Russell Jones). Hardened by the elements, Goke is once again aided by his sidekick Manny and several other humans, that he leads", "-23.36620621162001" ], [ "maneuver away from a kill zone is a hallmark of good troops and training in any ambush situation. (See Ranger reference below).\nAmbushes were widely utilized by the Lusitanians, in particular by their chieftain Viriathus. Their usual tactic, called concursare, involved repeatedly charging and retreating, forcing the enemy to eventually give them chase, in order to set up ambushes in difficult terrain where allied forces would be awaiting. In his first victory, he eluded the siege of Roman praetor Gaius Vetilius and attracted him to a narrow pass next to the Barbesuda river, where he destroyed his army and killed the", "-23.34455063733185" ], [ "Night of the Ghouls Plot The basic plot involves the police investigating a supposed haunted house. The house is discovered to serve as headquarters for a confidence trickster who pretends to be able to contact the dead, and charges naive customers large amounts of money to allow them to speak to their deceased loved ones.\nThe film features a prologue and a brief acting role by Criswell, who also narrated Wood's Plan 9 from Outer Space. The prologue has Criswell rising from a coffin, leaving unclear if the \"metaphysical\" narrator is awaking from a normal sleep, or whether he is actually", "-23.206983747310005" ], [ "knives, garroting, booby traps: setting traps on dead bodies, doors, etc.", "-23.196710021875333" ], [ "Terror Trap Plot When married couple Don and his wife, Nancy, who face relationship problems and constantly argue, go on a \"vacation\" to a casino, a car accident takes place. Looking for help, they call the town's sheriff, who suggests they go to a certain motel and he will have the car towed the next day. At the motel, they find blood in their apartment, and a girl being savagely killed next door. The two must fight for their lives against the motel's workers and men dressed in unusual masks, but can they survive a night alone against dangerous men", "-23.178790233228938" ], [ "insurgents make a show of strength—generally at least every few months—they have eschewed large-scale attacks, preferring well-coordinated pinprick assaults at many locations while avoiding direct clashes with security forces.\nIn a recent development two consecutive bombs were detonated at the Big C shopping mall in Mueang Pattani District on 9 May 2017 at peak hour. 56 people were wounded, including small children. Official reactions The government at first blamed the attacks on \"bandits\", and many outside observers believe that local clan, commercial or criminal rivalries played a role in the violence.\nIn 2002, Thaksin stated, \"There's no separatism, no ideological terrorists, just", "-23.094539153040387" ], [ "for Walsh as he picked up the rest. Flares were dropped during the night to help the ground troops search for guerrilla movement but none was seen.\nThe RLI, meanwhile, was redeployed by Southey, and positioned to seal off likely escape routes from the gully. Ambushes were set up on each ridge and at both ends of the gully. At dawn four guerrillas attempted to break through a 3 Commando stop position at the eastern end; unfortunately for the insurgents, this ambush was headed by Commando Sergeant Major Al Tourle, a particularly aggressive soldier nicknamed \"Bangstick\", whose men shot and killed", "-22.95050224964507" ], [ "areas, and in the rural areas, palm groves and other crops, offer cover and concealment for insurgents launching ambushes.\nThese attacks are usually broken off before support can be called in, in traditional guerrilla fashion. Direct ambushes of U.S. forces have declined, however, to avoid insurgent casualties as U.S. defenses improve (armored Humvees and tanks are normally unaffected by rifle fire). The percentage of multinational forces casualties from mines or improvised explosives has risen to 70%.\nAmbushes against the poorly protected Iraqi police and security forces, however, have proven very lethal. There have been isolated cases of larger ambushes, such as an", "-22.949069481051993" ], [ "the scouring of the area for loose weapons, the cleaning-up of evidence, and the disguising as peaceful civilians. In the case of suicide operations, withdrawal considerations by successful attackers are moot, but such activity as eliminating traces of evidence and hiding materials and supplies must still be done. Logistics Guerrillas typically operate with a smaller logistical footprint than to conventional formations, but their logistical activities can be elaborately organized. A primary consideration is to avoid depending on fixed bases and depots, which are comparatively easy for conventional units to locate and destroy. Mobility and speed are the keys; wherever possible,", "-22.91580115486431" ], [ "arms dealer Destro, the Night Creepers are involved in a Joe/Cobra fight against Ninja Force and the \"Sky Commandos\". Their headquarters is then raided, when Destro allies himself with Chuckles, Wild Bill, Billy and Zartan. Destro uses the Night Creepers' resources to gain back the Baroness, by wiping out Cobra bank accounts. To save his fortunes, Cobra Commander agrees to return the Baroness to him, and remove the Cobra bounty from Destro's head.\nThey later appear in issue #135, when attacking the scientific facility of Doctor Biggles-Jones. All inside, with the exception of the Doctor, are killed. She and her rail", "-22.870297530200332" ], [ "others by scoring many rapid head shots, later explaining that he has come to the resort because killing zombies is the only thing he was ever good at. Nevins leads them to a safe spot, and they camp for the night. When they can not sleep, Melanie and Sadie discuss the ethics of killing zombies for sport, and Sadie says she believes it leads to a decreased inhibition to harm the living.\nAfter several system failures, the resort's security system goes offline. Zombies are released from their fenced-in pens, killing the guests and staff in the resort. ", "-22.790086540044285" ], [ "Hunter-killer team Operations Hunter killer operations are prolonged operations conducted in irregular warfare by a unique and specifically organized force, in conjunction with an indigenous force, against irregular warfare adversaries by operating behind the lines or in hostile, safe haven, or semi permissive environments, employing unorthodox tactics, for the sole purpose of achieving attrition and punitive actions predominantly against the personnel, leadership, and resources of the enemy.", "-22.765332345326897" ], [ "used principles of swarming without really examining them explicitly, but now active research consciously examines military doctrines that draw ideas from swarming.\nMerely because multiple units converge on a target, they are not necessarily swarming. Siege operations do not involve swarming, because there is no manoeuvre; there is convergence but on the besieged fortification. Nor do guerrilla ambushes constitute swarms, because they are \"hit-and-run\". Even though the ambush may have several points of attack on the enemy, the guerillas withdraw when they either have inflicted adequate damage, or when they are endangered.\nIn 2014 the U. S. Office of Naval Research released", "-22.739845008647535" ], [ "Dead Men Don't Make Shadows Story A bounty hunter finds himself caught between an outlaw and an evil mine owner. Releases Wild East released a limited edition R0 NTSC DVD double feature with One Damned Day at Dawn...Django Meets Sartana!.", "-22.717102335896925" ], [ "almost daily occurrence and halting work was said to be \"the insurgents' main effort in [the] area\". Operation Oqab Jarawel (in English: Eagle's Build) was launched in October 2010 to provide security for the extension of the route over the Loy Mandeh river. The operation involved elements of 2nd Battalion Royal Regiment of Scotland and the 2nd Royal Tank Regiment working alongside Afghan forces to clear three villages of insurgents and set up new checkpoints to secure the area. The operation was highly successful, resulting in a 90% reduction in attacks in the area and allowing", "-22.712792125006672" ], [ "Booby trap A booby trap is a device or setup that is intended to kill, harm, or surprise a person or animal. It is triggered by the presence or actions of the victim and sometimes has some form of bait designed to lure the victim towards it. The trap may be set to act upon trespassers that enter restricted areas, and it can be triggered when the victim performs an action (e.g., opening a door, picking something up, or switching something on). It can also be triggered by vehicles driving along a road, as in the case of improvised explosive", "-22.642239486725884" ], [ "saboteurs, get blasted from the air, dragged to their doom, become victims of the storm, entombed in a tunnel and even periled by a panther before they don the uniforms of some captured Sea Raiders and board a yacht that serves as headquarters for the Raiders.", "-22.624402674206067" ], [ "served for nearly two decades are actually paste from ground up cockroaches. In the next car, the group is ambushed by an enormous group of masked guards with hatchets, spears and other melee weapons directed by Mason and Franco. The train then heads into a long tunnel, plunging the car into darkness. The masked men are equipped with night vision goggles, leaving the insurgents at a disadvantage. They are quickly able to fashion some torches, which levels the playing field, and launch a counterattack. In the ensuing bloody combat, Curtis reluctantly allows Edgar to be killed so he can capture", "-22.621358492862782" ], [ "Deadly Invasion: The Killer Bee Nightmare Plot The film opens in rural Texas. A police officer sees a car parked outside an abandoned farmhouse and stops to investigate. A hole has been ripped into one side of the house. He climbs inside and sees some bodies lying on the floor. He tries to wake them up before realizing they are dead. He is then attacked and killed by a swarm of bees.\nThe film then cuts to Blossom Meadow, California. The Ingram family has just moved there from Boston. Through a series of events, a huge swarm of killer bees invades", "-22.556334118620725" ], [ "the fact they are being ordered to pursue him instead of the guerrillas. They abandon the manhunt and return to their homes. Due to the apparent unwillingness of the police to apprehend Terrick, a crack army unit is called in to assist with the manhunt.\n\"Whispering Death\" and his guerrillas decide to flee across the border to their sanctuaries in a neighbouring country. However, Terrick and Katchemu, who is an expert tracker, are hot on their trail. The duo become increasingly desperate, with Katchemu torturing a captured guerrilla for information. During a series of bloody skirmishes, Katchemu and nearly all the", "-22.519378621538635" ], [ "such as packs of roving zombies, backwood cannibals seeking extra food and undead wildlife. Among one of their exploits, they run into a father and son in hiding, who help them along the way until tragedy strikes in a double suicide for the two. At the same time, Frankie, a heroin user and prostitute who is trying to hide from a vengeful pimp, narrowly escapes disaster in the Baltimore Zoo begins a trek out of the cities and into the country. Somewhere within Pennsylvania, the National Guard has seized control of the area. Led by the sociopath Colonel Schow, the", "-22.514293911393906" ], [ "his head. These \"snitches\" risk their lives day after day in a dark and difficult, mission driven by diverse personal reasons such as fear, greed, revenge, and even love.", "-22.48107265649014" ], [ "corruption and trustworthiness) and situations in which a majority of the population is on the side of the insurgents.", "-22.467185107023397" ], [ "ambushes. They can also use methods less risky to their security, such as mining or long-range sniping. Raids and ambushes Raids are short-duration attacks on objectives, with the specific understanding that the attacking force will withdraw quickly after achieving the mission objective, or finding they are confronting forces too strong to handle. UW raids can be simply to disrupt an enemy force, to capture usable equipment, for taking prisoners for intelligence exploitation, and destroying installations. Both for attacking strong points at a distance, and for destroying reinforced structures, SF may use missiles, typically derived from antitank weapons. When the raiding", "-22.451749254760216" ], [ "enough troops to stage a complete five-element ambush they would set up one of the preferred ambush types and avoided close assaulting the enemy.\nThe preferred time for ambushes was just before dark. Enemy units were often deliberately delayed by the deployment of small patrols or snipers which harassed it. Roads and bridges to the rear of the enemy unit would also be sabotaged or mined to prevent withdrawal. This limited the enemy's use of air support and the deployment of reinforcements. It often also resulted in the ambushed unit being pinned in place for the night and having to set", "-22.391922398164752" ], [ "GURPS Mysteries Contents GURPS Mysteries covers the mystery genre by describing a crime and the motivation behind it to its detection via explaining its clues and witnesses. Several crimes are described, including arson, blackmail, burglary, and kidnapping, but homicide or murder is the book's focus. GURPS Mysteries covers eras from Ancient Rome and the Middle Ages to modern times and the far future with some coverage of the paranormal as well. The book includes a complete chapter devoted to the low-tech mystery and the low-tech investigator. It addresses some of the issues of roleplaying the historical mystery scenario, from the", "-22.31677714088073" ], [ "National Guardsmen who have been doing training missions in the desert for the last few weeks, and can therefore be assumed to be uninfested. Unfortunately, an infested company arrives first with the intention of kidnapping and almost certainly infesting the governor. Marco deceives them by morphing the governor, letting himself be captured by the Yeerks, and being rescued by Tobias and Ax (meanwhile, the real governor escapes, along with Collins).\nMarco, Tobias, and Ax return to the Hork-Bajir valley in time to see the governor issue a televised warning about the Yeerk invasion.", "-22.298079112690175" ], [ "Feigned retreat A feigned retreat is a military tactic whereby a military force pretends to withdraw or to have been routed, in order to lure an enemy into a position of vulnerability.\nA feigned retreat is one of the more difficult tactics for a military force to undertake, and requires well-disciplined soldiers. This is because, if the enemy presses into the retreating body, undisciplined troops are likely to lose coherence and the rout will become genuine. History Sun Tzu (544?–496? BCE) wrote, in the Chinese military treatise The Art of War: \"Do not pursue an enemy who simulates flight.\" This", "-22.29288897601873" ], [ "who suggested that the idea was not to deter thieves, but to catch them in the act using night vision. Rainville ordered that food and water be placed in a trailer at the south end of the compound, visible to Somalis walking past on the nearby road. Some soldiers alleged this constituted \"bait\", but Rainville later defended himself saying it had been to distinguish between thieves and saboteurs to prevent shooting thieves.\nRainville enlisted Cpl. Ben Klick of the PPCLI to lie in a truckbed at night, awaiting potential \"saboteurs\" with a C3A1 rifle. From his position, he watched two Somalis,", "-22.291282437749032" ], [ "Warfare.\" Types of tactical operations Guerrilla operations typically include a variety of strong surprise attacks on transportation routes, individual groups of police or military, installations and structures, economic enterprises, and targeted civilians. Attacking in small groups, using camouflage and often captured weapons of that enemy, the guerrilla force can constantly keep pressure on its foes and diminish its numbers, while still allowing escape with relatively few casualties. The intention of such attacks is not only military but political, aiming to demoralize target populations or governments, or goading an overreaction that forces the population to take sides for or against the", "-22.27987268625293" ], [ "and poisoned relations between soldiers and the surrounding civilian population. Booby traps Booby traps ranged from the simple to the complex. Non-explosive traps included the well-known sharpened punji stake coated in excrement, and mounted on sapling triggers and placed in shallow, covered pits. Stakes were deployed where infantry would walk or fling themselves to avoid attack such as roadside trenches, or behind logs. One of these devices was to injure a future Chairman of the US Joint Chiefs of Staff – Colin Powell. Another type of trap was a spiked mud ball that swung down on its victim after a", "-22.277768413721788" ], [ "Alien Raiders Plot Just as the local grocery store is about to close, a group of six armed, masked people enter the building. They take the staff and remaining customers hostage and immediately shoot down one of the employees. One of the masked men named Spooky is then told to check whether \"he\" is among the hostages. When he identifies a woman as one of \"them\", she tries to escape but is shot down. Meanwhile, a police officer, who was also inside the store, manages to kill one of the masked men. He then calls for back-up and shoots", "-22.274107592587825" ], [ "outsiders. They leave to meet the rest of the crew at a river where houseboats have been hired for transport and accommodation.\nFurther deaths come as a surprise to viewers as sneaking creep at the petrol station gives the impression he may be the killer. The band members go looking for mushrooms but find only toadstools, one leaves to rejoin the rest of the crew. The crew member who continues the search for mushrooms is stabbed by the killer, and the staff member returning to camp is alarmed by a bright flashlight shined into his eyes. Assuming it his fellow crew", "-22.272163627203554" ], [ "the camp and destroys most of the surveillance equipment. The attackers are eventually scared off and when daylight comes the team gets a good look at the devastation. There are many footprints around the camp but no signs of a dead or wounded Sasquatch. By now summer is almost over and winter storms are looming so the team packs up and begins their long trek back to civilization. In the final scene the camera pans out to a wide shot of the team departing, showcasing a picturesque view of the valley and its surrounding mountains. During the closing credits we", "-22.270928727957653" ], [ " Afghan commandos are credited with surrounding the other suicide bombers before they had a chance to attack. Another group of Taliban was observed preparing for an attack 1000 meters from the base before coalition forces opened up small arms fire. Helicopter gunships later pounded the Taliban staging area, resulting in 3 deaths. After the attack the insurgents were found in possession of anti-personnel Type 69 RPGs. As anti-personnel RPGs are rare in Afghanistan it is unclear how the weapons were obtained. 2009 Regional Volatility FOB Salerno continued to receive a large amount or mortar and", "-22.224863578157965" ], [ "Provisional IRA Honey Trap killings Background This was not the first time the IRA used such a so-called \"honey trap\" tactic to kill British soldiers. In March 1971 three young Scottish soldiers were shot dead at the side of a road after they had been lured out of a Belfast bar by a female Republican who said she would take them to a party. The three soldiers, members of the Royal Highland Fusiliers, were brought in a van to the White Brae, Squire's Hill, off the Ligoniel Road in North Belfast; when they went to urinate at the side of", "-22.215904512158886" ], [ "ambush them, without risk to themselves. After relieving their victims of their valuables, they would turn their bullocks loose, to give themselves time to get away.\nEmboldened by the success of their ventures in the forests, they started striking in the smaller towns and villages in the area, especially in the early hours of the morning, expanding their haunts to include parts of modern-day Tuticorin district, making a regular menace of themselves, and constituting an excellent bogeyman for the children of the area.\nTheir fast-growing notoriety brought upon them the unwelcome attention of the law, by the mid-1920s, with the Madras and", "-22.20038626913447" ], [ "before as part of two cut-off groups to overwatch the patrol. The plan worked, a small group of insurgents approached the vehicles, intent on ambushing the convoy, they were engaged by the SASR snipers. Minutes later a Toyota Hilux appeared carrying a number of armed insurgents, they were engaged and killed and a second vehicle, a van, arrived carrying 3 insurgents were engaged by the sniper teams until they spotted a female non-combatant who was used as a human shield by the surviving insurgent, the insurgent was eventually killed with no harm to the woman, a total of 13 insurgents", "-22.187741477100644" ], [ "Sneakiepeeks Situation The series concerns \"Beagle Team\", an undercover surveillance unit comprising Bill Cooper (Richard Lumsden), who harbours unrequited passion for team leader Sharla Jasumani (Nina Conti), and the ex-criminal Mark Walker (Daniel Kaluuya). Lumsden and Conti also appear in Venning's somewhat more well-known comedy \"Clare in the Community\".\nThe typical mission involves the team attempting to listen in on conversations in places such as hotels, houses, and yachts. The mission is usually interrupted by such distractions as police trying to get their parked vehicle to move on, fallout from Mark's attempts to make money on the side, unexpected numbers of", "-22.180900176303112" ], [ "the Wet Bandits once they arrive. No further setting of traps is possible after this period. Each trap can only be triggered once and they all inflict the same amount of damage.\nMarv and Harry arrive separately at the two entrances to the house. If the player touches either of Bandits, he is caught and the game immediately ends in defeat. Hurting a Bandit ten times will permanently incapacitate him. The ultimate objective is to incapacitate both burglars.\nThe player can trigger his own traps, resulting in no harmful effects, but the trap will instantly disappear. If the player has too few", "-22.17746636623633" ], [ "military decided to continue the operation, dispelling an impression that the harsh weather may force military authorities to halt Operation Zarb-e-Azb, which has been ongoing since mid-June 2014. \"Conducting operation in winters is certainly a challenge for the security forces but it is also a challenge for militants,\" a military official told the media.\n12 October 2014\nAt least 11 militants were killed in military airstrikes targeting two militant hideouts in North Waziristan. In separate airstrikes in the Khyber Agency's Kuki Khel area, at least 10 militants were killed. Three militant hideouts were also destroyed, said an ISPR statement.\n15 October 2014\nFive people", "-22.174056180134357" ], [ "ambushers were a unit of the No 2 Cork Brigade, under command of Liam Lynch, who wounded four of the other soldiers and disarmed the rest before fleeing in their cars. The local coroner's inquest refused to return a murder verdict over the soldier and local businessmen who had sat on the jury were targeted in the reprisal.\nArthur Griffith estimated that in the first 18 months of the conflict, British forces carried out 38,720 raids on private homes, arrested 4,982 suspects, committed 1,604 armed assaults, carried out 102 indiscriminate shootings and burnings in towns and villages, and killed 77 people", "-22.087408001185395" ], [ "on a den of rattlesnakes and finds her way back to her car, setting off again toward Vegas. Some time later Eric kills and eats the driver of a car then rapes, kills, and devours the female passenger before he too sets off to Vegas. Ben Shadway is also being chased by federal agent Anson Sharp, who harbours a 20-year-old grudge against Shadway after the two served in Vietnam together and Shadway exposed Sharp's corruption and illegal smuggling activities, culminating in Sharp being dishonourably discharged from the US army. Partners in Eric Leben's bio-research company are also on the tail", "-22.081205771653913" ], [ "It is far easier to infiltrate to the target while the population is unaware, but a roused and angry population would make escape and evasion a nearly futile effort.", "-22.070832582074217" ], [ "lays some booby traps of their own. They evade detection by an NVA patrol, and press deep behind enemy lines. One night, over the radio, they hear a whole army company being overrun by an NVA unit. They catch an NVA regiment in the open, and order an artillery strike, taking out much of the enemy. However, aware that the NVA knows there are Americans nearby, they avoid any gunfire and make their escape in the thick brush as silently as possible. OD catches a 6 man NVA patrol on their tail, only 50 meters away. The squad takes them", "-22.06695443227727" ], [ "late at night with friends Lady Dolly, Peter Dinmont, Ethel, Darrow Morton and Lord Stockbridge after a scavenger hunt. The final item for the scavenger hunt is a maid's cap, which they fetch from the Servants' Quarters, waking Hudson in the process. Lady Dolly soon goes upstairs to take cocaine. To finish the scavenger hunt the party need to drive down to the country, but when Lady Dolly's car has a puncture, they go to the garage and insist on taking Lord Bellamy's car. Edward tries to insist he drives, but they ignore him and go alone.\nGeorgina is driving on", "-22.05686406843597" ], [ "the introduction of explosively formed penetrator (EFP) warheads.\nThese explosive devices are often concealed or camouflaged hidden behind roadside rails, on telephone poles, buried underground or in piles of garbage, disguised as rocks or bricks, and even placed inside dead animals. The number of these attacks have steadily increased, emerging as the insurgents' most lethal and favored method to attack coalition forces, with continually improving tactics. Ambushes Iraqi insurgents have frequently launched ambushes of military convoys and patrols, using AK-47 assault rifles and rocket-propelled grenades. Soft-skinned humvees have been the most commonly targeted. The congested and constricted terrain of the urban", "-21.99784133808862" ], [ "manage to scare civilians around the world and destroy some property. Not succeeding in finding prostitutes, they eventually get bored of the \"game\" and leave the Drone Control Room, after which a drone crashes into and destroys the Highland High school bus and two other drones crash into a foreign field. The lazy drone trainee, whose return to his job was delayed when he decided to get some ice cream to go with his cake, is arrested as a saboteur. While he's being beaten up and taken away in handcuffs, Beavis and Butt-Head finish their day by enjoying what's left", "-21.992453003724222" ], [ "Night of the Creeps Plot In 1959, on board a spacecraft, two aliens race to keep an experiment from being released by a third member of the crew. The seemingly possessed third alien shoots the canister into space where it crashes to Earth. Nearby, a college man takes his date to a parking spot when they see a falling star and investigate. It lands in the path of an escaped criminally insane mental patient. As his date is attacked by the axe-wielding maniac, the boy finds the canister, from which a small slug-like thing jumps out and into his mouth.\nTwenty-seven", "-21.96037429990247" ], [ "stealthy are not used to formally describe types of missions.\nCovert operations are employed in situations where openly operating against a target would be disadvantageous. These operations are generally illegal in the target state and are frequently in violation of the laws of the sponsoring country. Operations may be directed at or conducted with allies and friends to secure their support for controversial components of foreign policy throughout the world. Covert operations may include sabotage, assassinations, support for coups d'état, or support for subversion. Tactics include the use of a false flag or front group.\nThe activity of organizations engaged in covert", "-21.917733818874694" ], [ "perhaps it is true of some more than others. Drone use Kilcullen argues that targeted killings with drone strikes in Afghanistan and Pakistan is a mistake. in 2009 he said: \"These strikes are totally counter-productive. It is a strategic error to personalize the conflict in this way, it’ll strengthen the enemy and weaken our friends. How can one expect the civilian population to support us if we kill their families and destroy their homes.\"", "-21.91738386452198" ], [ "invasion, emerging to attack and destroy supply dumps, disabling tanks and trucks, assassinating collaborators, and killing sentries and senior German officers with sniper rifles. They would operate from pre-prepared secret underground bases, excavated at night with no official records, in woods, in caves, or otherwise concealed in all sorts of interesting ways.\nThey concealed bases, upwards of 600 in number, were able to support units ranging in size from squads to companies. In the event of an invasion, all Auxiliary Units would disappear into their operational bases and would not maintain contact with local Home Guard commanders, who should indeed be", "-21.90022174004116" ], [ "steal officers' uniforms and pistols with the help of the prostitute. They make an escape by decoupling the engine of the train they are travelling on. The film ends with them speeding away. In the voice-over, Arita says that every man on the train was killed in battle. Release and availability A subtitled version of The Hoodlum Soldier was released in the United States by Altura Films International. It is not currently available on video in the US. Reception Film critic Tom Mes opines: \"In Hoodlum Soldier army life becomes a miniature of version [sic] Japan itself. Men's lives are", "-21.899696066342585" ], [ "attend to or attain what is valuable, even when we are hard-working or content. In crime Con artists and shoplifters sometimes create a distraction to facilitate their crimes. Armed robbers may create a distraction after their robbery, such as pulling a fire alarm, to create confusion and aid in their getaway. In a more serious case of crime, Norwegian Anders Behring Breivik exploded a car bomb in Oslo city. It was a reportedly distraction that directed police resources to Oslo city, allowing him to carry out his shooting spree unopposed on Utøya island. In \"magic\" Magicians use distraction techniques to", "-21.887477582116844" ], [ "regularly confronting and escaping various dangers from snakes to a group of rednecks. They briefly find refuge in an escaped slaves' camp, but Striker and his men follow the trail straight to the camp and run out the population. Striker is noticeably disturbed at the bartender for killing a woman and an old man, and briefly pulls his own gun on the man.\nThe brothers continue on further and briefly find refuge in the stilt house of a kind woman (Phyllis Robinson), before a storm the following night knocks over a lantern and starts a fire that burns the house down.", "-21.879891962744296" ], [ "dogging the trappers as they arrived, bumped into a trapping brigade as it left the valley, sparking a full-fledged battle. The Gros Ventres built quick fortifications out of downed logs as trapper reinforcements arrived, commencing a day-long siege. Between three and twelve trappers were killed, and nine to fifty Gros Ventres. The Natives were able to retreat during the night. Robert, who was interrupted in the middle of writing a letter to his brother, joined the fighting. Sublette and Robert agreed to dispose of each other's property, in the event of one's death. Both men led a charge on the", "-21.836171382063185" ], [ "They Drive by Night (novel) Plot The protagonist of the novel is Shorty Mathews, a petty criminal just released from Pentonville Prison. Now free he goes to visit his girlfriend in Camden only to discover her dead having been strangled. Realising he will be the prime suspect he flees the scene and attempts to evade the law by travelling with lorry drivers across the UK. The title, They Drive By Night, is a reference to the long distance logistical community who work, predominately, at night. \nThe antagonist Hoover is the real killer. He goes by the alter-ego of Lone-Wolf", "-21.83202887972584" ], [ "tunnels conceal missile launchers, facilitate attacks on strategic targets like Ben-Gurion Airport, and allow cross-border access to Israeli territory.\nThe Israeli government has called the tunnels \"terror tunnels,\" stating that they have a potential to target civilians and soldiers in Israel. Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu has said that the aim was to abduct and kill civilians. An IDF spokesman said the goal is \"to abduct or kill civilians but will make do with a soldier, too.\" The Israeli newspaper Ma'ariv reported that, according to unnamed Israeli security sources, the tunnels were to be utilized in a mass casualty terror attack planned", "-21.803029476461234" ], [ "capture Jaiselmer by morning, Jodhpur by afternoon, and reach Delhi by night.\nAs dawn nears, the Pakistanis launch a last-ditch attempt to overrun Longewala post with their massed assault of tanks and infantry, ignoring the danger of the anti-tank mines. Kuldip, arming himself with an Anti-Tank Rocket Launcher and a bagful of grenades gathers his remaining depleted force and prepares for a suicide counter-attack on the advancing enemy. The Indians engage in vicious hand-to-hand fighting with Kuldip jumping from tank to tank lobbing grenades down the turret hatches and killing tank commanders with pistols. Dawn has broken as the fight heats", "-21.786495776847005" ], [ "If a band of insurgents was detected by the French, it could choose either to disperse or to strengthen a village's fortifications and wear the French down by fighting a regular defensive battle. In the mountainous regions of Upper Tonkin, the insurgents could exploit the scarcity of paths and the difficulties the French faced in supplying their columns to build strong lairs in nearly inaccessible spots. From these hideouts they would fan out into the surrounding regions, laying ambushes for French detachments. As the French troops they met were often sick and exhausted, these ambushes were sometimes", "-21.7834609853453" ], [ "hard when they are not on duty. The four soldiers visits a brothel in a nearby town in the battalion, in the above mentioned place the soldiers initiate a muss because of Perlaza's obsession towards an attractive prostitute known as Dayana (Verónica Orozco). The next day the soldiers firing anti-guerrilla combat against a FARC front which managed to escape the siege. After cleaning up after an ambush by guerillas, a few meters from the site of the battle, the soldiers find a guerilla camp whose occupants before fleeing had few provisions, having to feed on sugar water and apes, and", "-21.781836384849157" ], [ "a few minutes before. Many travellers have been caught by surprise as they entered the underpasses. Others believe that they can shelter from the fury of the bombardment in the same underpasses. Instead they go to a certain death...\nFor a short period Foggia became a ghost town in which looters sought valuables worn by the casualties and burgled abandoned buildings. \n... There are some who decide to exploit the tragedy. In the night the flying fortresses do not return. Instead the thieves arrive. They are \"jackals\" who pounce upon the dead, rummaging in their pockets and taking money, rings and", "-21.766919651363423" ], [ "rehearsals and \"dry runs\" are usually conducted to work out problems and details. Many guerrilla strikes are not undertaken unless clear numerical superiority can be achieved in the target area, a pattern typical of VC/NVA and other \"Peoples War\" operations. Individual suicide bomb attacks offer another pattern, typically involving only the individual bomber and his support team, but these too are spread or metered out based on prevailing capabilities and political winds.\nWhatever approach is used, the guerrilla holds the initiative and can prolong his survival though varying the intensity of combat. This means that attacks are spread out over quite", "-21.72786822695707" ], [ "shooting photos or video. Again here, prudence is key to minimizing the risk. Chasers ideally work to prevent the driver from multitasking either by chase partners covering the other aspects or by the driver pulling over to do these other things if he or she is chasing alone. Falling asleep while driving is a chase hazard, especially on long trips back. This also is exacerbated by nocturnal darkness and by the defatigating demands of driving through precipitation and on slick roads. Incidents For nearly 60 years, the only known chaser deaths were driving-related. The first was Christopher Phillips, a University", "-21.712697890674463" ], [ "lapses at the camp. According to the standard security procedures, any tall grass and bushes around vital security installations should be trimmed. However, this procedure was not followed by the Uri camp which might have allowed terrorists to sneak into the camp undetected using the tall grass and bushes around the perimeter. In addition, the probe also indicated that two manned guard posts failed to detect the intrusion because the coordination between them might have been poor. It also indicated that the terrorists had infiltrated the Indian territory through Haji Pir Pass on the intervening night of 16–17 September and", "-21.709137650759658" ], [ "structures, economic enterprises, and targeted civilians. Attacking in small groups and using camouflage and often captured weapons of that enemy, the guerrilla force can constantly keep pressure on its foes and diminish its numbers and still allow escape with relatively few casualties. The intention of such attacks is only military but also political in aiming to demoralize target populations or governments or by goading an overreaction that forces the population to take sides for or against the guerrillas. Examples range from chopping off limbs in various internal African rebellions to the suicide bombings of Palestine and Sri Lanka to", "-21.70300292634056" ], [ "Covertway In military architecture, a covertway or covered way (French: chemin couvert Italian: strada coperta) is a path on top of the counterscarp of a fortification. It is protected by an embankment which is made up by the crest of the glacis. It is able to give the fort's garrison a position beyond the ditch, as well as a continuous line of communication around the outworks.\nAn enlarged area within a covertway designed to allow troops to assemble on it is known as a place-of-arms.", "-21.69878064317163" ], [ "or if an unconscious person wakes and alerts them, the \"Suspicion Meter\" will raise much faster than it would otherwise.\nDisguises can be either found in the environment or taken from the bodies of male NPCs. Depending on the disguise, the player can then access areas restricted to most individuals in a level. These disguises can be seen through by guards, as stated above; e.g. if guards in a level are all wielding shotguns, a player dressed as a guard but not similarly equipped will draw more suspicion. Also, certain behaviors (like picking locks) will cause guards to see through a", "-21.691047582309693" ], [ "cannot be specifically seen or heard but can only be sensed by the Stalker, and the safest path is never the straight path. The Stalker tests for various \"traps\" by throwing metal nuts tied to strips of cloth ahead of them. He refers to a previous Stalker named \"Porcupine\", who had led his brother to his death in the Zone, visited the Room, came into possession of a large sum of money, and shortly afterwards committed suicide. The Writer is skeptical of any real danger, but the Professor generally follows the Stalker's advice.\nAs they travel, the three men discuss their", "-21.686901013890747" ], [ "Manhunt (military) Manhunting is a term sometimes used for military operations by special operations forces and intelligence organizations to search for, and capture or kill important enemy combatants, known as high-value targets. It has been used particularly in the United States during the War on Terror. \nThe most visible such operations conducted involve counterterrorist activities. Some involve government-sanctioned targeted killing or extrajudicial execution, and such operations have drawn political and legal controversy. Other military operations, such as hostage rescue or personnel recovery, employ similar tactics and techniques. \nThe term has been used for some US operations such as Operation Red", "-21.670006990024376" ], [ "flares to illuminate the area west of Isa Khel. The Talibans used to avoid night combat because of the German army night vision capabilities. 1 November Taliban militias attacked coalition troops from Quatliam at dawn, initially with small arms and antitank weapons. West and south of the village several firefights took place in which insurgents also used mortars. No German soldiers were wounded, and the German positions were held. The Panzerhaubitze 2000 was used to shell mortar rebel positions. In addition, close air support (CAS) was used during the light hours.\nAt the same time, a meeting of the tactical leader", "-21.66471771610668" ], [ "Coons! Night of the Bandits of the Night Plot \"Everyone knows someone who's had a run-in with an angry racoon. Some people even believe that racoons are smarter than people.\"\nOutside the small rural town of Independence, college buddies Ty Smallwood (Lehr Beidelschies) and Zach (Colin Scianamblo) join a small group of college students visiting the Raccoon Creek Campground to have what they hope will be the best summer break of their lives. Their hopes are dashed when they have run-ins with frat guys, rednecks, hippies, bible students, and an inept set of camp counselors. Things go from bad", "-21.663783568772487" ], [ "Rattlers (film) Plot When two young boys are savagely attacked and killed by a legion of rattlesnakes in a small California desert town, the local sheriff (Tony Ballen) calls upon herpetologist Dr. Tom Parkinson (Sam Chew), a Los Angeles college professor, to discover why the snakes are displaying abnormal aggression and swarming behavior. The sheriff teams Parkinson with war photographer Ann Bradley (Elisabeth Chauvet).\nAs more people in the desert town are killed by the vicious rattlesnakes, Parkinson's and Bradley's investigation leads them to a nearby army base, where the commanding officer, Colonel Stroud (Dan Priest), seems strangely reluctant to help", "-21.64321925060358" ], [ "the day; night-ambush positions were then set up as darkness fell. The RLI moved up again at dawn the next day and met the insurgents at 07:30, when a stick of five 1 Commando men led by Lieutenant Bruce Snelgar was sighted in an area of thick bush by three guerrillas from Gang 2. The cadres caught Snelgar's stick by surprise, opening fire with a heavy burst of RPD bullets. Snelgar and Trooper McMaster were wounded and Trooper Anthony Brading was shot dead. In the battle which ensued all three ZIPRA fighters were killed with no further loss to the", "-21.642042893676262" ], [ "counter-fire, and in the countryside, palm groves and orchards are used for concealment. Insurgents commonly mount mortar tubes in the rear cargo area of civilian trucks allowing them to drive away from the launch position before counter-fire or coalition troops can reach them.\nThis method is very inaccurate and rarely hits the intended target, since the guerrillas do not have time to aim properly, but casualties are still periodically inflicted by incoming mortar rounds and rockets. Improvised multiple-rocket launchers have also been used to target specific buildings in urban areas.\nMortars were used in an attack during October 2006 on Camp Falcon,", "-21.617838899837807" ], [ "point, Storm and the other hunters are seeking more prey and Storm herself discovers that Whisper is developing strong feelings for her; during this hunt, they attempt but fail to steal a tusknose (peccary) carcass guarded by a giantfur family - the hunters instead return with only a few brush rabbits and a long-tailed weasel. Sometime later, after Storm, Lucky and Snap come back after nearly catching a Golden Deer but failing to do so, they and the rest of the Pack discover that Whisper has been murdered. Dead of Night Dead of Night is the eighth book in the", "-21.602977890404873" ], [ "hours later, a small FAPLA patrol could be seen following the tracks they had left the night before. The team watched as the patrol withdrew, and then came back with a larger patrol which passed the hide. At 17.00 a three-men patrol followed the team's trail directly to the thicket where the Recces were hidden. They stopped short of entering the brush, and returned to their base. Meanwhile, a second patrol approached the hide from the other direction, and opened up heavy fire on the hidden position. As rocket propelled grenades (RPGs) struck their position, Captain Du Toit ordered the", "-21.60186194378184" ], [ "Smuts' raiders were cut off from their homeland. They were harried by Briton and Basuto alike, and were weakened by disease and starvation. Those that were worst wounded or sick were left to be captured by the British. The men turned against Smuts, but he urged them onwards, always optimistic that the tide would turn. It did, when they encountered a cavalry squadron at camp, and ambushed them, taking their horses, food, uniforms, guns, ammunition, and luxuries. With this success came their own self-belief again. For the next few months, the raid was highly", "-21.59291565399326" ], [ "area to contain the guerrillas during the day; night-ambush positions were then set up as darkness fell. The RLI moved up again at dawn the next day and met the insurgents at 07:30, when a stick of five 1 Commando men led by Lieutenant Bruce Snelgar was sighted in an area of thick bush by three guerrillas from Gang 2. The cadres caught Snelgar's stick by surprise, opening fire with a heavy burst of RPD bullets. Snelgar and Trooper McMaster were wounded and Trooper Anthony Brading was shot dead. In the battle which ensued all three ZIPRA fighters were killed", "-21.575399656794616" ], [ "an ambush as well as each implement in place to deter the ambush from taken place. They have certain spacing between squads to prevent ambushes from the ability to reach a squad without intervention from a squad further behind. This method was also used to help prevent retreats from any member of the military because there is always someone watching them.\nBook V - On Baggage Trains\nBaggage trains should be regarded with utmost care as they contain the ingredients to make a forward operating base function, including servants and children. Baggage trains should be kept away from areas of battle to", "-21.56431490072282" ], [ "the settlers. One tribe in particular, the Ute, have experience in combating the hunter-species. The \"Burrowers\" first lace their victims by cutting them and drugging them with a toxin. The victim is then buried alive and eaten only after decomposition has begun. By the time the film's protagonists meet up with the Ute their numbers are severely depleted, but the Ute method of drugging someone already infected with \"Burrower\" toxin proves effective. When the \"Burrowers\" go to eat the twice drugged victim they themselves fall asleep and are vulnerable, especially to the rays of the sun, which are the only", "-21.53976761875674" ], [ "explaining how the public should be prepared \"if zombies started appearing outside your doorstep\", it continues: \"You can also implement this plan if there is a flood, earthquake, or other emergency.\"\nPlan your evacuation route. When zombies are hungry they won't stop until they get food (i.e., brains), which means you need to get out of town fast! Plan where you would go and multiple routes you would take ahead of time so that the flesh eaters don't have a chance! This is also helpful when natural disasters strike and you have to take shelter fast.\nSome commentators noted that May", "-21.526094888395164" ], [ "making them go on violent rampages. Hunters roam through the woods, endangering innocent people. A well-known neighbor discovers a mystical sword in his house.", "-21.51898846009135" ], [ "Intelligence Agency for Predator drone attacks on militants in Pakistan's Federally Administered Tribal Areas. Arrest May 4, 2009, Colonel Bashir and his close friends Sq.Ldr. Nadeem Ahmad Shah and Awais Ali Khan left their houses to have a dinner to a nearby restaurant but they could not reach their destination and mysteriously disappeared. It was later discovered that the three men were arrested by the Pakistani military police, and are investigated by the Military Intelligence.\nOn Wednesday, May 13, 2009, Federal Minister for Law, Justice, and Parliamentary Affairs Dr.Babar Awan informed Parliament that the army has detained a serving colonel along", "-21.518299912131624" ], [ "was to sow panic among the insurgents, who would leave more obvious tracks and discard equipment as they attempted to outdistance their pursuers. If the spoor was lost, the trackers would be joined by others who dismounted from the vehicles and walked in a staggered line while they attempted to recover the spoor. The trackers frequently shouted clues and instructions to each other as they advanced. When they became exhausted, they were permitted to ride in the vehicles, and a fresh detachment of trackers dismounted to take their place. It was not uncommon for spoor to be followed for days", "-21.464407730381936" ] ]

[ "I've heard about this from somewhere, not sure where now, and it went like this: It's a silent signal that we are in pain and need help, so when the... flock? tribe?... see this they can help you. If we instead only shouted we would also attract predators who seek easy targets, so we were more likely to die. Then I would guess it evolved so that it just got triggered by strong feelings. No idea if this is true though, but it seems believable ^^ EDIT: I read this in [this humor article]( URL_1 ) at the end, but the link to one of their sources is dead, [the other one]( URL_0 ) says that crying strengthens relationships.", "People can cry for 3 different reasons: - One kind of tear keeps our eye constantly lubricated - The second kind happens when you cut onions or something gets into your eye, the eye is irritated and is producing tears to try and get whatever is bad out - The third, the kind you are talking about, is when an outside or inside (of you) source triggers your nervous system to tell your brain to cry, some believe that when someone is very upset, releasing these emotional tears can help our bodies remove chemicals that could otherwise make us sad, and then afterwards we feel better because these extra bad feeling chemicals have been pumped out. So in a way, when we cry because we are sad, our body sends a signal to our eyes to produce these tears that can get rid of excess unhappy chemicals in our bodies. Animals other than us do not cry for emotional reasons - possibly because they are not developed enough to understand feelings, but they do have other ways of showing they are upset, such as moaning, whimpering, etc. I don't have a medical background but this topic interested me so I hope my little bit of research has helped.", "Well I'm no expert, but you don't have any answers so I'll share what I know. The emotional crying you describe is rare if not unique to humans. (There is evidence that certain other large apes like gorillas do this as well). The tears that your body makes when you are sad (or happy as the case may be) are different from the tears that it makes for lubrication (like when dust gets in your eye). Emotional tears carry more of the chemicals that are associated with emotion. Some studies suggest that tears are ridding the body of these chemicals when there is too much in your system. They also can produce a reaction in other people. As for it's relation to sobbing, I can't really say. I've never been taught that myself. That's what I know about tears specifically though.", "FYI: there is also an [r/askscience]( URL_0 ) But I imagine there might be some overlap between here and there.", "i find that when i cry really hard, it's because i'm very tense before, and then i'm relaxed afterwards. i think a lot of really strong crying is to help settle our bodies after stress. laughter also does this, but it tends to be much lighter. if you think about it, the shaking body is very similar in laughter and crying. and if you laugh really hard, it squeezes tears out. also, if you have a bunch of people around in a stressful situation (like a car wreck), some people will laugh, and some people will cry.", "It's been speculated that as a social animal that lives (typically) in large groups, we need a way to communicate non-verbally how we are feeling. Humans have a huge part of the brain that is devoted to being able to guess what another human is feeling by physical clues, then imagining what that would be like if it were happening to ourselves. That's the basis for empathy and, ultimately, altruism. Humans are unique in a lot of behaviors that seem to do nothing but indicate our emotional state, like blushing when embarrassed, crying, etc. Seeing this stuff activates empathy in the human brain. Weirdly, sociopaths are able to do terrible things because that brain connection is stunted or not there. They can look at human suffering and it doesn't trigger an emotional response.", "I've always felt that crying was proof of our reliance on each other. We are social creatures to the extent that we physically NEED empathy from others when we're sad and we NEED to share our joy with the one's we love. Crying helps us to show our social group those emotions. There is a similar theory about yawning relating to the collective attentiveness of a social group that I've always liked.", "I would say: When person A feel very very strongly about something, but they cannot find the words to tell their friend how they feel, sometimes person A will begin to cry. Tears signify that whatever they are talking about is important, and strongly tied to their emotions. The part of your body that makes tears is very together with what you feel is important. Usually, when you feel something is important but may not have the words to say why, you begin to cry. Crying is a deeper form of communication. When words do not show your friend how upset or how happy you are as good as you want, sometimes crying does.", "Any profound emotion can overwhelm our ability to function. We cry to help ourselves on the inside, and to let everyone else know we need help on the outside. Sobbing is part of what helps us on the inside (taking big gulps of air calms you down when you're upset), but it also is a stronger outward signal that we need a different and deeper kind of help. It's a physiological phenomena with psychological components. Mostly just humans / really intelligent animals cry emotionally, though many mammals cry in pain.", "[All you ever need to know about crying]( URL_0 )" ]

[ [ "who may have just died. In contrast, joyful crying is acknowledging being \"here.\" It emphasized the intense awareness of one's location, such as at a relative's wedding.\nTemporal perspective explains crying slightly differently. In temporal perspective, sorrowful crying is due to looking to the past with regret or to the future with dread. This illustrated crying as a result of losing someone and regretting not spending more time with them or being nervous about an upcoming event. Crying as a result of happiness would then be a response to a moment as if it is eternal; the person is frozen in", "-34.513131218845956" ], [ "Cry Me Out Background Lott explained the song to BBC News: \"I always prefer to write songs about emotional situations and heartbreak [...] because I like getting into the character. When we were writing 'Cry Me Out', I said, 'I feel like singing about something sad but, obviously, still being strong'. So the guy has to cry to get over me, instead of the other way around.\" She also told Digital Spy that the song's opening lyric \"I got your e-mails, you just don't get females\" was her favourite line on the Turn It Up album. Lott explained that she", "-33.775571394508006" ], [ "After Crying After Crying is a Hungarian musical ensemble, established in 1986, which composes and performs contemporary classical music or symphonic rock. They use instruments ranging from classical acoustical instruments like cello, trumpet, piano, flute to the instruments of a modern rock band. They sometimes perform with traditional chamber or symphony orchestras. Their studio albums contain numerous variations in instruments and composition.", "-33.755661070521455" ], [ "I Cried for You (Katie Melua song) Video The \"I Cried For You\" music video takes place in a room similar to a salon/dressing room, except it is surrounded by darkness and is desolate apart from a man in a chair and a woman. When the music begins, the man lip synchs to Melua's voice, and the woman begins to perform incisions in his skin and take, piece by piece, parts of his face away, revealing Melua. The man continues to sing, unperturbed until his mouth and neck are removed (at which point his hands grip the chair handles tightly),", "-33.64786122064106" ], [ "six minutes. Crying turns into sobbing for women in 65% of cases, compared to just 6% for men. Until adolescence, however, no difference between the sexes was found.\nWomen cry more than men in wealthier, more democratic, and feminine countries. Types of crying in infants Although crying is an infant's mode of communication, it is not limited to a monotonous sound. There are three different types of cries apparent in infants. The first of these three is a basic cry, which is a systematic cry with a pattern of crying and silence. The basic cry starts with a cry coupled with", "-33.640439106326085" ], [ "She Never Cried in Front of Me Content The song is a mid-tempo ballad in which the narrator watches his former lover getting married. Upon doing so, he sees her crying, which makes him think of \"all the hell\" he put her through when they were together, thinking that nothing was wrong with her, because she \"never cried in front of [him]\".\nBobby Pinson wrote the song with Keith at Keith's house in mid-2007. According to Pinson, he sat down at Keith's piano and the two started working on the song there. According to Keith, it was the first time that", "-33.617916245013475" ], [ "John 20:15 Analysis According to John, \"Woman, why are you crying? Who is it you are looking for?\" is the first thing Jesus says upon his resurrection. The first part \"Why are you crying?\" repeats the statement made by the angels in John 20:13. Jesus adds \"Who is it you are looking for?\" This question, which Jesus has asked others previously in the Gospel, is often read as a wider question of what people are seeking in their lives. That Jesus quickly understands why Mary is weeping is also said to show his greater understanding of", "-33.55665463510377" ], [ "both.\nExcuse me, but I won't cry. I cry for everything. Because of that I always cry for the family. Palmeiras, loves, pains, colours, songs.\nBut I won't cry for everything more than anything in the world, my parents. My parents (which could be also called my mothers ) were always ready. A gift from God. My father never missed me even when absent by his work. I never missed him because he had that wonderful woman, Mrs. Lucila. According to Mr. Joelmir, the second biggest thing in his life. Because the first one always was his love he felt for her", "-33.53491257267888" ], [ "there should be a limit. As long as the tears represent a genuine release of emotion, they should be permitted to fall. But crying quickly changes from inner sobbing to an expression of protest ... Real crying usually lasts two minutes or less but may continue for five. After that point, the child is merely complaining, and the change can be recognized in the tone and intensity of his voice. I would require him to stop the protest crying, usually by offering him a little more of whatever caused the original tears. In younger children, crying can easily be stopped", "-33.395318673341535" ], [ "traced back to family records in Shikoku where the term was used to describe an old man who sounded like a child when he cried. The term was eventually used in a national encyclopedia of yokai and became a nationally known phenomenon.", "-33.30385645257775" ], [ "and \"Crying\": Minnelli's rendition features only the first verse of \"Don't Cry Out Loud\" and amends the lyrics of the chorus to invert their original import (\"Cry out loud, don't keep it inside. Don't learn how to hide your feelings.\")\nThe song has also been recorded by the Airmen of Note (instrumental), Rachelle Ann Go, John Barrowman, Shirley Bassey, Anita Dobson, Engelbert Humperdinck, Jal Joshua, Joe Longthorne (\"We Don't Cry Out Loud\"), Sandra Reemer, and Shirley Zwerus (nl).\nIn the Peter Allen stage bio-jukebox musical The Boy from Oz, the character of Allen's mother Marion Woolnough sings \"Don't Cry Out Loud\" to", "-33.219629562750924" ], [ "Tantei Dan, but on relationships between individuals as well.\nThe title, \"Namidairo\" (ナミダイロ), in Japanese literally means \"tear-colored\", but was officially translated as \"the color of tears\". Yui used this phrase to mean the crying of the heart, but she also said listeners will likely decide on their own meaning for the word. Music video The music video was directed by Takahiro Miki. It begins with Yui playing guitar in a room. From thereon, the video cuts to Yui walking down a street or riding a bus alone, sitting in a telephone booth, or back to the room. The video ends", "-33.10406310475082" ], [ "Cry-Baby Plot In 1954 Baltimore, Wade \"Cry-Baby\" Walker is the leader of a gang of \"drapes\", which includes his sister Pepper, a teenage mother; Mona \"Hatchet Face\" Malnorowski, who is facially disfigured; Wanda Woodward, who is constantly embarrassed by her post World War II normal parents; and Milton Hackett, Hatchet Face's devoted boyfriend. Walker's ability to shed a single tear drives all the girls wild. One day after school, he is approached by Allison Vernon-Williams, a pretty girl tired of being a \"square\", and the two fall in love. That same day, Cry-Baby approaches the \"square\" part of", "-33.051270608237246" ], [ "\"ejaculatory prayer.\" To cry out is to give forth a louder and more excited utterance than in exclaiming or calling; one often exclaims with sudden joy as well as sorrow; if he cries out, it is oftener in grief or agony. In the most common colloquial usage, to cry is to express grief or pain by weeping or sobbing. One may exclaim, cry out, or ejaculate with no thought of others' presence; when he calls, it is to attract another's attention.\nAnother source proposes different implications for some of these terms, stating that \"the call is normally addressed to a specific", "-33.047855380689725" ], [ "Cry No More (Shareefa song) Song information \"Cry No More\" is about a woman in an unhealthy relationship. Her man cheats on her and she always cries. In the song, she sings that she can't cry anymore because she is over and through with her ex-boyfriend. Because she has a lot on her mind, she has no time to cry over him.", "-33.04705804675177" ], [ "Cry Baby A boy burns his buttocks after trying to photocopy them, causing him to feel pain whenever he sits down. He then helps his grandfather find a water-holding frog, but they get trapped in the desert without water. Knowing that neither of them can go on any further, the boy sits down on his burnt bottom and tears rush from his eyes as he feels the unbearable pain. His tears fall onto the ground, causing a ton of frogs to appear on the ground and the grandfather's wish is granted. Ex Poser A boy invents a lie detector that", "-33.04016891308129" ], [ "Crying Ladies Plot The story revolves around 3 mature women, Stella (Sharon Cuneta), Rhoda (Hilda Koronel) and Choleng (Angel Aquino) who are in badly need of cash for their family. They would do everything, from crying to funerals to dirty work just to make both ends meet. They were hired by a rich Chinese business family to cry for the patriarch, who died recently.", "-32.982992192555685" ], [ "Don't Cry Anymore Writing The song is an upbeat pop rock song. The lyrics describe somebody instructing themself to stop crying and to be strong, no matter what. References are made to an end of a relationship, such as the song's protagonist \"thinking that the happiness of feeling warmth while (she) slept would go on forever\" (ぬくもり感じ眠ると幸せだった　それが永遠に続くと思ってた なのに nukumori kanjinemuru to shiawase datta, sora ga eien ni tsuzuku to omotteita nano ni). She feels that she wants to hear that person's voice again and to see them again, but knows that she must walk forward instead.\nmiwa felt that \"Don't Cry", "-32.92882235033903" ], [ "Cry Pretty (song) Writing and composition \"Cry Pretty\" was written by Underwood, Hillary Lindsey, Liz Rose, and Lori McKenna. About the song, Underwood said:\n\"The title refers to when emotions take over and you just can't hold them back. It really speaks to a lot of things that have happened in the past year and I hope when you hear it, you can relate those feelings to those times in your life. It's emotional. It's real. And it rocks!\" Commercial performance The song debuted at number 20 on the Billboard Country Airplay chart for the week ending April 21, 2018. It", "-32.89120501533034" ], [ "Tears Left to Cry.\"\nThe film inspired the suffix -ception, which can be appended to a noun to indicate a layering, nesting, or recursion of the thing in question.", "-32.841864893212914" ], [ "Crying Out for Me Critical reception Mark Edward Nero from About.com stated that the song \"is the Usher sound-alike jam\"\nAaron Fields from KSTW.com said \"I really like this track produced by Polow da Don. It's a smooth track about the classic subject...woman is being done wrong in her current relationship in which Mario sings to her, \"I can hear your heart, crying out for me\". Great vocals, great beat and definitely a great choice for the second single\". Music video The video was directed by R. Malcom Jones, Costume Designed by June Ambrose and premiered on BET's Access Granted on", "-32.823981560301036" ], [ "Laugh to Keep from Crying Plot The story revolves around a small group of people living in an inner-city building in a predominantly African-American neighborhood. Carol (Cheryl Pepsii Riley) is a single mother raising two teenagers: Tony (Donny Sykes), who is studious and participates in gospel choir; and Lisa (Tamar Davis), who is rebellious and refuses to attend church. She works long hours during the day, and is good friends with Belinda (Chandra Currelley-Young), their neighbor across the hall. Carol and Belinda disapprove of Niecey (D'Atra Hicks), their upstairs neighbor who is a prostitute. Peter (Wess Morgan) and Anna (Stephanie", "-32.805336309706036" ], [ "Don't Cry Out Loud (song) Background/ first recordings Ann-Margret, who was a friend of Peter Allen, has stated that the song's lyrics—though written by Carole Bayer Sager—reflect Allen's own frame of mind: \"He just kept everything inside...his personal philosophy was 'Don't show anyone you're crying'.\" Bernadette Peters, who toured with Allen in 1989, has stated that Allen told her that \"his mother taught him to always put your best face on\" in response to Allen's father dying by suicide when Allen was 14 years old. The references to \"baby\" in the song refer to Allen's younger sister.\nThe first evident recording", "-32.78000287761097" ], [ "of tears because it is said to emanate eerie cries and have a heavy energy surrounding it.", "-32.30488908838015" ], [ "Cry Baby (Melanie Martinez album) Concept The album is about a character, named Cry Baby, a fantasy version of Martinez when she was a child, and a representation of her vulnerable and messed up side. Martinez described Cry Baby as \"a child who experiences adult things\". She claims that many of the things that have happened to Cry Baby are similar to the things that have happened in her own life, except the part where Cry Baby gets kidnapped and kills her kidnapper. Each song on the tracklist has a childhood-related title and contains childhood-related metaphors while the deeper messages", "-32.25821813120274" ], [ "She Can't Say I Didn't Cry Content \"She Can't Say I Didn't Cry\" is a mid-tempo ballad performed primarily with acoustic guitar and piano, being accompanied by steel guitar and drums when the chorus builds up. \nThe narrator of the song responds to things his former lover said of their relationship by admitting that he can't deny that he broke her heart and did nothing to make her stay. He then says in the chorus that she can't say he didn't cry about it afterward. Critical reception Deborah Evans Price, of Billboard magazine reviewed the song negatively saying that while", "-32.25421301042661" ], [ "cry, a man walks by his room and peaks in asking if he is all right for he heard him crying. Thomas tells the man that he is all right. But just when the man turns around to leave, Thomas tells the man to come on in and keep him some company. The man enters the room and without saying another word, disrobes and walks towards Thomas to have sexual relations with him. Production William M. Hoffman, well known NYC Playwright and friend of Andy Milligan, has said that all of the interior shots of Vapors took place in a", "-32.12591715800227" ], [ "that can make you cry) on 18 February 2009. The message for this campaign is \"Itsudatte tonari de utau yo. Ongaku ga areba hitotsu ni nareru ne\" (いつだって となりで 歌うよ。 音楽が あれば 一つに 慣れる ね。) which mean in English \"I will always sing next to you. If there is music, we can all become one.\"", "-32.1025271784747" ], [ "Cry Baby stands up and tells the girl that her family isn't as perfect as they let on, and she turns the girl into a doll. The rest of the family begins to corner the girl, and as they approach her the girl is turned back into a human. She runs away, and the dollhouse wall closes.", "-32.05416641640477" ], [ "is weeping one day when Miss Brent, the society woman, enters the room. Miss Brent, who has never seen the child before, asks the cause of her sorrow, and tries to comfort her. The child tells her, and Julia's heart is touched. Though she has contempt[u]ously ignored the wife, she feels that she cannot ruin the life of the helpless child, even to win the artist's love. On the spur of the moment, she writes a farewell note to Jack, and gives it to the child, saying that it will cure all her sorrow. Then she goes out of their", "-32.02547406434314" ], [ "began to cry at his loss, the cameras focused on her, inspiring Leslie Satcher to write the song. It was also inspired by her Pastor, who stated \"For these times in which we live, you are going to need this book.\" referring to the Bible. The song received a 2009 Grammy nomination.\n\"Cry Cry ('Til the Sun Shines)\" was covered by former Trick Pony lead vocalist Heidi Newfield on her debut solo album, What Am I Waiting For, from which it was released as a single in November 2008.", "-32.017630367248785" ], [ "The Cry (2018 TV series) Synopsis Joanna and Alistair are young parents who travel from Scotland to a town in Australia to visit family and fight for custody of Alistair's daughter, Chloe, against his Australian ex-wife, Alexandra. On the drive from Melbourne to the coastal town of Wilde Bay, their baby son Noah goes missing. In the aftermath of the tragedy, under public scrutiny, their relationship collapses and her psychological state disintegrates. Production The Cry is an adaptation of the novel of the same name by Helen FitzGerald. The series is produced by Synchronicity Films, directed by Glendyn Ivin and", "-31.9656253461726" ], [ "more on individualism. With the storyline beginning in the early 21st century, Taniguchi said the cast would already have adapted to the new times allowing s-CRY-ed to take more themes from Infinite Ryvius. The title s-CRY-ed is basically a combination of one English word and Japanese. The first lower-case \"s\" is a representation of the Japanese word su which means something in its natural form and not artificial. \"Cry\" comes from the English, and the last \"ed\" represents a person. Combined as \"s-CRY-ed\" the Sunrise studio staff wanted it to express the idea of how people react or interact when", "-31.957079381216317" ], [ "Cry Out Loud\" was recorded by American Idol Season 3 runner-up Diana DeGarmo for inclusion on her 2004 single release helmed by the track \"Dreams\"; Clive Davis selected \"Don't Cry Out Loud\" for DeGarmo to sing and Melissa Manchester attended DeGarmo's recording session giving DeGarmo pointers on how to sing the song.\nLiza Minnelli—Peter Allen's ex-wife—sings \"Don't Cry Out Loud\" on her 2002 album Liza's Back, which was recorded from a seven-night engagement at the Beacon Theatre in New York City that June. Minnelli sets the song in a sequence of \"crying\" songs with \"Don't Cry Out Loud\" performed between \"Cry\"", "-31.94842970962054" ], [ "of the Temple. In history Jesus's tears have figured among the relics attributed to Jesus. Use as an expletive In some places in the English-speaking world, including Great Britain, Ireland (particularly Dublin and Belfast) and Australia, the phrase \"Jesus wept\" is a common mild expletive spoken when something goes wrong or to express incredulity. It is also used sarcastically when expressing unsympathetic indifference to someone else's perceived unfortunate situation or self-pity.\nIn 1965 broadcaster Richard Dimbleby accidentally used the expletive live on air during the state visit of Elizabeth II to West Germany.\nIt is commonly used as an expletive in novels", "-31.862301547982497" ], [ "episode. Reviews \"Crying Out Loud\" received highly positive reviews from critics, with some labeling it the best episode of the season and praising the episode's emotional script and the physical comedy between Phil and Luke behind the screen.\nGwen Ihnat of The A.V. Club praised the episode, awarding it an A- grade. She praised the emotional scene between Haley and Alex as well as the Phil/Luke sequence, stating \"This effective bit even achieved a larger purpose: bringing the girls together, and fulfilling Phil’s desire to hang out with the kids again, even for a single ditch day. Phil realizes that it", "-31.812681998009793" ], [ "Cry-Baby's father, challenges him to a chicken race. Cry-Baby wins, as Baldwin chickens out, and is reunited with Allison.\nThe film ends with all watching the chicken race crying a single tear, except for Allison and Cry-Baby, who has finally let go of the past, enabling him to cry from both eyes. Release Cry-Baby premiered in Baltimore on March 14, 1990, and was released on April 6. It was screened out of competition at the 1990 Cannes Film Festival. Critical reception The film received positive reviews from critics. On Rotten Tomatoes, it currently holds a 73% score, based on 55", "-31.710089043917833" ], [ "crying because he had been beaten up by a bully, she would be waiting to give him another beating. Silverstein states, \"That's how my mom was. She stood her mud. If someone came at you with a bat, you got your bat and you both went at it.\" At age fourteen, Silverstein was sentenced to a California Youth Authority reformatory where, he said, his attitudes about violence were reinforced. \"Anyone not willing to fight was abused.\"\nIn 1971, at age nineteen, Silverstein was sent to San Quentin Prison in California for armed robbery. Four years later, he was", "-31.623488895245828" ], [ "Boys Don't Cry (The Cure song) History Written by Michael Dempsey, Robert Smith, and Lol Tolhurst, the lyrics tell the story of a man who has given up trying to regain the love that he has lost, and tries to disguise his true emotional state by \"laughing, hiding the tears in [his] eyes, 'cause boys don't cry\".\nIn April 1986, it was re-released under the title \"New Voice · New Mix\", in which the original track was remixed and the vocals re-recorded. The new version has not appeared on any subsequent release by the Cure, but can be heard in the", "-31.604223974834895" ], [ "Crying for No Reason Music video The music video for the song was released onto Katy B's YouTube channel on 26 December 2013, lasting a total length of four minutes and three seconds. As of April 2019, the video has over 12 million views. Critical reception Robert Copsey of Digital Spy gave the song a positive review, stating:\nNow in the January/February Q1 period where exciting releases are few and far between, her latest effort 'Crying For No Reason' shines brightly in an otherwise desolate pop landscape. That's not to say the song itself - a stunning breakstep ballad about having", "-31.5999842871679" ], [ "Love That Makes You Cry Synopsis Love That Makes You Cry follows the story of love, friendship and growth of six young men and women who move from countryside to the big city of Tokyo, each with their own dreams and aspirations. Among them is Sugihara Oto and Soda Ren. After her mother died, Oto was raised by adoptive parents in Hokkaido. Although she has given up on having any high hopes or big dreams for her future, she still remains positive and faces life with optimistic attitude. One day, she finds out the fact that her adoptive parents are", "-31.583122094278224" ], [ "nature, reflecting life experiences of his. The song \"Recent Bedroom\" conveys an experience Cox had when his aunt died: \"She was in her bedroom, and everybody knew she was about to pass away, and she went out, she faded out, and everybody just started crying.\" Although he was \"overwhelmed\" by her death, it did not bring him to tears like the rest of his family. This event is expressed in the song by the lines \"I walked outside, I could not cry / I don’t know, I don’t know why\". Cox’s inability to cry stemmed from his having been", "-31.47723457691609" ], [ "The Independent listed \"Cry Baby Cry\" at number 19 in his ranking of the White Album's 30 tracks. He wrote of the song: \"Lennon translated elements of the nursery rhyme \"Sing a Song of Sixpence\" for this effort, which comes with an added eerie McCartney segment titled \"Can You Take Me Back?\" He ultimately called the song, \"unremarkable, but remains easy listening.\"", "-31.460574169177562" ], [ "down crying at the end of the song. It won \"Performance of the Year\" in the 2008 CMT Music Awards. Music video The music video for the song was shot on March 15, 2007 at the Ryman Auditorium in Nashville, Tennessee, and was released on March 31, 2007, on AOL. It starts off with Pickler getting off her tour bus and talking with fans as she enters at the famed showplace. After this, we see Pickler singing on a simple stage and, after, shows her walking to her dressing room, where she sees a little girl standing against the wall.", "-31.37828390140203" ], [ "He'd said 'Be quiet, big boys don't cry' — heaven knows why, but I soloed it and we all agreed that the idea sounded very interesting if we could just find the right voice to speak the words. Just at that point the door to the control room opened and our secretary Cathy [Redfern] looked in and whispered 'Eric, sorry to bother you. There's a telephone call for you.' Lol jumped up and said 'That's the voice, her voice is perfect!'.\" The group agreed that Redfern was the ideal person, but Redfern was unconvinced and had to be coaxed into", "-31.37309467929299" ], [ "song's title on the demo tape she received was \"Nada Sōsō,\" an Okinawan language phrase meaning \"large tears are falling\" (to compare, the Japanese phrase would be namida ga poroporo kobore ochiru (涙がぽろぽろこぼれ落ちる)). When Moriyama found out the meaning of the phrase, it reminded her of the death of her older brother. She kept the title, and based the lyrics she wrote around these feelings.\nThe lyrics speak of looking through an old photo-book at pictures of somebody who has died. The protagonist of the song is thankful to them for always encouraging them, and for being happy no matter what.", "-31.371477775275707" ], [ "music video for \"Boys Don't Cry\". It was released to promote Standing on a Beach; however, the original version of the song appears on the album. Music video The video, released in 1986 to promote the \"New Voice New Mix\" re-recording, features three children miming the song. Behind a curtain, Smith, Tolhurst, and Dempsey (in his only appearance with the band since his 1979 departure), appear as the children's shadows, with red eyes. This effect was attained by painting their eyelids with fluorescent paint. Legacy The 1999 film Boys Don't Cry took its title from the song; a cover version,", "-31.293444891110994" ], [ "didn't write the lyrics. I've had a lot of experiences like that so that's what gives me the nerve to sing it.\nThe song has been compared to Bronski Beat's song \"Smalltown Boy\" and its sampled counterpart, Tell Me Why by Supermode, although possible similarities have been declared unintended. Critical reception \"Cry for You\" received positive reviews from music critics. Nick Levine from Digital Spy awarded the song with four stars out of five, giving it a positive review. He stated \"[...] it's a surprisingly affecting Eurodance number, a record that's both relentlessly danceable and desperately sad\" and said its \"actually", "-31.205780113479705" ], [ "Grown Men Don't Cry Background and writing Co-writer Tom Douglas told The Boot about the story behind the song. \"I had gone to the grocery store one day, had parked my car and was walking into the store when I saw this woman talking on a pay phone,\" he said. \"She had mascara tears running down her face, and her little boy was weaving in and out of her legs while she was talking on the phone and she looked like an ice cream cone, melting. I went in the store, got my groceries, came back out, and wondered what", "-31.2055241309572" ], [ "started crying due to an overwhelming day. In an interview with Standard.co.uk, she said;\n\"It was a dream come true because I've wanted to work with him for a long time. I had two days with him and did two songs, one of which is on my album and it's called I Was Gonna Cancel – because I was having the worst day. Everything was too much. So my second day going in I was literally talking to myself saying, 'Keep it together, this is a very important day, it's Pharrell.' And I burst into tears as soon as I got", "-31.200450329342857" ], [ "Tom Scott, basically I just heard something incredible that touched me and made me cry. It had such a beautiful bassline, and I started with that first. I found some other sounds and then heard some sax in there and used that. Next thing you know, I have a beautiful beat made. When I mixed the song down, I had Charlie Brown from Leaders of the New School in the session with me, and we all just started crying.\"", "-31.18629676802084" ], [ "Cry! Cry! Cry! Appearance in Walk the Line The fact that it was Cash's first successful tune was mentioned several times in the dialogue of the 2005 film, Walk the Line. While it appeared on the film's soundtrack album, it was not performed in the film (two deleted scenes show the Johnny Cash character, as played by Joaquin Phoenix, composing the song in the basement of his house and later listening to it on the radio). Covers Marty Stuart released a cover of the song in 1989; his version peaked at #32.\nThird Eye Blind covered the song with Merle Haggard.\nElvis", "-31.148047137103276" ], [ "cry for the suffering in the world, for his own suffering. And then, hope. Surf's up! … Come about hard and join the once and often spring you gave. Go back to the kids, to the beach, to childhood. I heard the word of God; Wonderful thing; the joy of enlightenment, of seeing God. And what is it? A children's song!\nAnd then there's the song itself; the song of children; the song of the universe rising and falling in wave after wave, the song of God, hiding the love from us, but always letting us find it again, like a", "-31.13039882737212" ], [ "cry\" section is largely taken from the film The Man Who Came To Dinner, which also inspired one of Morrissey’s aliases, Sheridan Whitehead. The words the song's narrator has heard \"said a hundred times (maybe less, maybe more)\" come from Shakespeare's Richard III. The song evokes Morrissey's memories of visiting Southern Cemetery in Manchester with photographer Linder Sterling. Recording The album was produced by Morrissey and Marr, working predominantly with engineer Stephen Street, who had engineered the band's 1985 album Meat Is Murder. Street recalled: \"Morrissey, Johnny and I had a really good working relationship – we were all roughly", "-31.10753561608726" ], [ "All the Times I Cried Music video The music video entails Spiteri having a conversation with a lover over the telephone, potentially breaking up with her. She is heard saying, \"I just can't do it anymore\". Following this, viewers see two other girls auditioning for a singing role in French Theatre, while Spiteri snoops around looking sad, and then performs - impressing the judges.", "-31.101682407417684" ], [ "de Saint-Cloud in Paris. Toward the end of the video, two tears roll down her face, one on each cheek. O'Connor has said that her tears were real. She did not intend to cry but then thought, \"I should let this happen.\" She explained that the tears were triggered by thoughts of her mother, who died in a car accident in 1985. She said she learned to channel her emotions with the \"bel canto\" singing style, which she compared to extreme acting methods. In the middle and at the very end of the video there is a shot from", "-31.1004520655988" ], [ "Everytime I Cry Content The song chronicles a woman's continuing disappointment in her ex-lover who keeps putting her heart into misery over and over again. Critical reception Deborah Evans Price, of Billboard magazine reviewed the song favorably, saying that Clark gives a strong performance. She calls Stegall's production \"always right on the mark.\" Music video The music video was directed by Morgan Lawley and premiered in early 1999. The video shows Clark on an escalator and in a room with the walls around her moving closer. The video storyline interprets various forms of domestic abuse. A young boy is shown", "-31.056689159799134" ], [ "\"I Cried for You\" was inspired by a meeting with the writer of Holy Blood, Holy Grail.\nA third single, \"Spider's Web\" was released on 17 April 2006 and peaked at number 52 in the UK. Melua embarked on a concert tour in support of Piece by Piece, the UK leg of which started in Aberdeen, Scotland on 20 January 2006. Towards the end of 2006, Melua released the single, \"It's Only Pain\", which was written by Mike Batt. This was followed by the release of \"Shy Boy\", also written by Batt. Pictures (2007) Melua's third album, Pictures, was released in", "-31.030345407081768" ], [ "Neeson, Keira Knightley, and Colin Firth, she played a middle-class wife who suspects her husband (played by Alan Rickman) of infidelity. The scene in which her stalwart character breaks down was described by one critic as \"the best crying on screen ever\", and in 2013, Thompson mentioned that she gets commended for this role more than any other. She explained, \"I've had so much bloody practice at crying in a bedroom then having to go out and be cheerful, gathering up the pieces of my heart and putting them in a drawer.\" Her performance received a BAFTA nomination for Best", "-31.006428026244976" ], [ "Crying Out Loud Plot It is Alex's (Ariel Winter) Senior Ditch Day, but she has no desire to make plans for the special day. Phil (Ty Burrell) asks her along with Haley (Sarah Hyland), to join him in the car because Luke (Nolan Gould) was injured and he was at the hospital. In the car, they realize that Phil tricked them so they - and especially Alex - can celebrate the day. On their way out, Phil drives past an old theater that he helped build many years ago and now it is about to be demolished. Upon entering, Phil", "-30.97756149689667" ], [ "really explains the song.\" Critical reception Teen Vogue's De Elizabeth dubbed it a \"gut-wrenching power-ballad that will resonate with anyone who has suffered a broken heart\" and went on to say that \"the song seems to reinforce the idea that sometimes you can be lonely even when you're in a relationship, and that being with someone can sometimes create more pain than being alone.\" Deepa Lakshmin of MTV claimed Noah's vocals \"sound awfully similar to Miley's circa 2008. [Make Me (Cry)] is a song about love that's anything but easy,\" as well as calling it an \"emotional duet\" and \"the", "-30.976173048606142" ], [ "their grief. People believe this performance proves the importance and value of the deceased. However, men are not allowed to cry at the funeral and are required to control their emotions. In traditional Korean culture, the image of a male should be rational and calm, and female is emotional and sensitive. Therefore, the male must restrain his sadness.\nThird, the relatives and friends will write a funeral oration to mourn the deceased and express their grief. This not only details the life of the deceased, but also praises his merits and achievements. It reflects the culture and history of the whole", "-30.974876076797955" ], [ "She's Not Cryin' Anymore Content \"She's Not Cryin' Anymore\" is a mid-tempo, backed by piano and steel-string acoustic guitar. In it, the male narrator explains that his lover is \"not cryin' anymore\", now that she has left him for another man. He also expresses his regret for having ignored her when she needed to be loved. Music video The music video was directed by Marc Ball and premiered in early 1993. Actress Deena Dill portrayed Billy Ray's love interest.", "-30.95487406342727" ], [ "were always in competition: I wanted to cry better than June, and June wanted to cry better than me. The way my mother got me to cry was if I was having trouble with a scene, she'd say, 'why don't we have the make-up man come over and give you false tears?' Then I'd think to myself, 'they'll say I'm not as good as June,' and I'd start to cry.\" \nHer other successes included The Canterville Ghost (1944), Our Vines Have Tender Grapes (1945), Bad Bascomb (1946) with Wallace Beery, and the first sound version of The Secret Garden (1949).", "-30.941231243079528" ], [ "Laughing Down Crying Singles The lead single, Talking To You (Is Like Talking To Myself), reached number 16 on the Adult Contemporary chart on the November 12, 2011 issue, it stayed there for two weeks and remained on the chart for twenty weeks and it was the most successful song of the album.\nThe album's single of the same name peaked at number five on the Billboard's Smooth Jazz Songs chart on November 26, 2011 staying there for a week and remaining on the chart for 20 weeks.\nEyes For You went to number 23 on the Adult Contemporary chart on July", "-30.89299961546203" ], [ "Cry (Faith Hill album) Content Cry is led off by its title track, written by Angie Aparo. This song reached number 12 on the country singles charts, the lowest country peak she has achieved with a lead-off single. \"When the Lights Go Down\" and \"You're Still Here\" were also released to country radio, peaking at number 26 and number 28 respectively. \"One\" did not chart on the country singles charts, although it was a number 7 adult contemporary hit. \"Baby You Belong\" was only released as a single in Japan, but was used as the theme song for the 2002", "-30.873347112094052" ], [ "sometimes crying or laughing. This child also likes to appear at the foot of the bed in various rooms, just staring at the bed's occupant. Frequently, the sounds of giggling and running occur on the top floor, as though children are at play. The sounds of a newborn baby's cry is common on the 3rd and 4th floors, as well as the faint smell of baby powder and zinc oxide. The baby's crying has alerted enough guests that they've phoned the front desk out of concern; the location being a vacant room.\nStaff as well as guests frequently report", "-30.85353650804609" ], [ "herself and Mud to ward off grief as the story progresses. She is the mother of the partially crippled infant, Bent, and is fiercely protective of him. She likes the sound of her name so much that she refers to herself in the third person.\nShe-Screams\nA female elephant. She-Screams is a repulsive elephant, both in looks and in personality, and the main cause of tension in her family. She is banished from the family by She-Snorts for suggesting that Date Bed is dead and strongly hates Mud, but tries to gain acceptance after claiming to have inherited the wisdom from a", "-30.846647780330386" ], [ "Crying on a Suitcase Content \"Crying on a Suitcase\" is a midtempo song about a male who is trying to convince himself to catch up to a former lover at the airport and give the relationship a second chance before her airplane leaves.\nJames said that he enjoyed the song the first time that he heard it, but also said that he was reluctant to record it because \"the guy who sang the demo really sang it\". Critical reception Billy Dukes of Taste of Country gave the song 3 stars out of 5, saying that James' singing was \"approrpiately urgent\" but", "-30.811888189287856" ], [ "crying in praise to simulate the noise of the full room the day before. \"His image management extended to asking one of the reporters, who had taken a digital snapshot, to take another picture because his neck was 'too full'\".", "-30.79470447349013" ], [ "The Crying Boy The Crying Boy is a mass-produced print of a painting by Italian painter Giovanni Bragolin. It was widely distributed from the 1950s onwards.\nThere are numerous alternative versions, all portraits of tearful young boys or girls. In addition to being widely known, certain urban legends attribute a 'curse' to the painting. Curse On 5 September 1985, the British tabloid newspaper The Sun reported that an Essex firefighter claimed that undamaged copies of the painting were frequently found amidst the ruins of burned houses. By the end of November, belief in the painting's curse was widespread enough that The", "-30.773628166731214" ], [ "Cry for You (Jodeci song) Cover and sample versions The song was later sampled by hip hop artist Bun B for his 2008 single \"You're Everything.\"\nThe song was covered by J Valentine, Tank, Bobby Cash, & T. Nelson under the title \"Cry 4 U\". The song is available on the J Valentine mixtape \"Love & Other Drugs\".\nThe Isley Brothers sampled the song on the track \"Warm Summer Night\" from the 2001 album, Eternal.\nDrake mentions the song in the chorus of his 2016 single, \"Controlla\".", "-30.750753811909817" ], [ "Cameron gets emotional that a movie about being trapped in a loveless marriage is the only thing that makes Mitchell cry. Cameron starts crying while Mitchell stops right just in time that Lily gets home from school. Mitchell realizes that Lily was desensitized because Cameron cries too frequently. They decide to talk to Lily and during their discussion it is proven that Lily has feelings and gets upset with the thought that her daddies might get sick but not getting well. Ratings In its original American broadcast, \"Crying Out Loud\" was watched by 8.13; down by 0.44 from the previous", "-30.747372197918594" ], [ "A Cry in the Night (novel) Synopsis Jenny MacPartland, a divorced single mother, falls in love with artist Erich Kreuger while working for a New York gallery. They marry within a month and set up home on Erich's vast Minnesota ranch. For several months they are happily married, but Jenny begins to feel uneasy around her increasingly unstable husband. Within a year, their marriage is ripped apart by scandal and Jenny plans to return to New York City until she realizes that she is pregnant and completely dependent financially on Erich. Unsure of what to do, Jenny lives in fear", "-30.678784570656717" ], [ "was a manager at the time, who breaks down crying\".", "-30.6734332498163" ], [ "Laughing on the Outside (Crying on the Inside) \"Laughing on the Outside (Crying on the Inside)\" is a popular song.\nThe music was written by Bernie Wayne, the lyrics by Ben Raleigh. The song was published in 1946.\n'The crowd sees me out dancing\n\nCarefree and romancing\n\nHappy with my someone new\n\nI'm laughing on the outside\n\nCrying on the inside\n\n'cause I'm still in love with you\n\nThey see me night and daytime\n\nHaving such a gay time\n\nThey don't know what I go through\n\nI'm laughing on the outside\n\nCrying on the inside\n\n'cause I'm still in love with you\n\nNo one knows it's just a pose\n\nPretending I'm glad we're apart\n\nAnd when", "-30.664521905884612" ], [ "It Only Hurts When I Cry Music video The music video was directed by Piers Plowden, and is entirely in black and white.", "-30.662626935634762" ], [ "chose to release \"Cry Me Out\" as a single because she \"wanted to do something really classy and mature for the next single, where I could get a bit more emotional.\" Critical reception \"Cry Me Out\" received positive reviews from music critics. BBC Music's Paul Lester called the song \"a superb ballad, as affecting as it is accomplished\" and described its opening line as \"witty and wise, a master class in how to put contemporary language to the service of a sublime melody.\" Digital Spy reviewer David Balls viewed the song as \"a sultry, soulful affair that warms the cockles", "-30.66165407183871" ], [ "and Joy begins to cry on her own, which means, to the relief of everyone, that her lungs were developed enough for her to breathe on her own.\nAfter a conversation with Wilson, House consults his patients, and Jerry reveals that he is of Middle-Eastern descent, and changed his Muslim name after the first Iraq invasion to avoid confrontation from others. House figures out that he and Samantha have familial Mediterranean fever, a genetic condition which caused all their symptoms: anhedonia, vasculitis, lactose intolerance, hematidrosis, and kidney failure. (Medical commentators complain that this presentation does not match the real-life disease.)", "-30.657162642135518" ], [ "tried to make this person proud. In the second verse, a boy celebrates his birthday, receiving gifts and phone calls, but does not receive anything from an unknown person, which has been a regular occurrence for several years. Next, a girl get a paper-cut and is upset when she sees her blood, but no one is there to make her feel better. The fourth verse describes a boy crying from a broken heart, and the narrator asks how loud he has to cry for an absent individual to hear him. Finally, the last verse mentions what these people did cannot", "-30.62241944251582" ], [ "For Crying Out Loud (album) Background The single \"Comeback Kid\" was originally released for the FIFA 17 soundtrack, though it was leaked online to YouTube six days before the North American release of the game. The leak was promptly taken down. Packaging The album's cover, designed by Aitor Throup, consists of a monochrome photograph of the band's longtime roadie, Rick Graham's naked bust with digitally animated tears emanating from his eyes. A white background surrounds the photograph with the band's name above it and the album's title in quotation marks below with the year in parenthesis after the title. Throup", "-30.59092490421608" ], [ "independently. \"Cry\" charted at #64 on the iTunes rock charts in August 2011, and its official music video also features \"Dance Moms\" star, Maddie Ziegler, who danced to the song in several episodes of the show.\nCalise is also an actress, and has appeared in several national TV commercials and shows including the Discovery Channel documentary, \"The Science of Sex Appeal\", Disney's \"Science of Imagineering\" DVD series, and most recently, a series of national Guitar Center commercials.\nCalise and her band recently performed her song \"Cry\" on season 7 of Dance Moms with Nia Sioux and Kendall Vertes. Calise is also working", "-30.577292645786656" ], [ "cry.", "-30.57049974880647" ], [ "She Cried No Plot She Cried No tells the story of Melissa, a college freshman anxious to fit in with the popular crowd. After arriving, she is invited to a party by a guy, Scott, with her roommates Jordan and Kellie, and attracts the attention of Scott, the member of the college's most popular fraternity (to which her brother, Michael, also belongs) who has a history of date-raping fellow female students. She and Jordan attend a party at Scott's frat; there, she becomes the latest victim of Scott, who drugs her. Before he takes her upstairs to a room to", "-30.482452516676858" ], [ "have sex; her husband is often out-of-town for his job and her daughter is in kindergarten. She has an idiosyncratic habit of crying for a set amount of time every so often and he has a peculiar practice of reciting \"poetry\" under his breath and not remembering any of it.\nOne day she decides to write down what he says and they learn it is about airplanes. They try to make meaning of it but they conclude that he must mention airplanes for some ineffable reason. That day, she also cries twice, the only time this happens in all the time", "-30.446012599626556" ], [ "Crying Out Love, In the Center of the World. When the movie was filmed, this town was chosen as the location where heroes etc. lived in high school days.", "-30.43687876511831" ], [ "Crying Song Composition The song is composed similarly to many standard folk ballads, with the only exception being the second chord. It is a D major with a diminished fifth. In this context the D major flat fifth chord has a more dissonant character and lasts for a whole measure. It creates a very dreamy, surreal atmosphere. The song has four verses connected with a unison instrumental interplay of guitar and bass. Instrumentation The song is introduced by a vibraphone played by Richard Wright. David Gilmour plays acoustic guitar and the outro slide guitar solo which is, in the beginning,", "-30.42711913655512" ], [ "Laughed Until We Cried Content \"Laughed Until We Cried\" is a ballad in which the narrator reflects on various events in his life, each involving family and/or friends, such as having fun on a senior class trip, listening to his grandfather telling family stories at a Christmas gathering, and rocking a newborn baby daughter to sleep. In each case, the narrator describes the events as being a time when he and those around him \"laughed until [they] cried\". Critical reception Brody Vercher, reviewing the album for Engine 145, said that \"the [song’s] lyrics are decent, but the tired formula fails", "-30.38197016203776" ], [ "sings that her baby should stop crying because she will protect him and keep him safe and warm. She says everything will be fine and she tells him that \"you will be in my heart always\". The song is about \"how love is a bond that cannot be broken\".\nIn the movie, the song ends on the first verse, the full version of the song on the soundtrack album notes that others don't understand why a mother and child who are so different can love each other. When destiny calls, the child is told he must be strong even if the", "-30.36824719521246" ], [ "start to cry, exclaiming \"Well, I couldn't help it...\" and begin to whimper while speaking gibberish.\nAnother regular catchphrase, cried out by Ollie in moments of distress or frustration, as Stan stands helplessly by, is \"Why don't you do something to help me?\"\n\"D'oh!\" is a catchphrase used by the mustachioed Scottish actor James Finlayson who appeared in 33 Laurel and Hardy films. The phrase, expressing surprise, impatience, or incredulity, was the inspiration for \"D'oh!\" as spoken by the actor Dan Castellaneta portraying the character Homer Simpson in the long-running animated comedy The Simpsons. Homer's first intentional use of \"d'oh!\" occurred in", "-30.357330018887296" ], [ "Cry 5.", "-30.355547303857747" ], [ "Why Angels Cry Style and lyrical content The song is a ballad, with Artani asking why difficulties occur in the world. In an interview, Artani explained that angels cry for many reasons and that her song was about finding peace around the world and ending sadness and pain. She pointed to the September 11, 2001 attack on the World Trade Center in New York City as the inspiration for the song and revealed that she was supposed to sing at the Windows on the World restaurant on the top floor later that day. Overall, she emphasized that the song symbolized", "-30.310133209335618" ], [ "woman who was crying arrived,\" where the subject wa'ippɨ \"woman\" is the same for both clauses and yakai- \"cry\" in the relative clause takes the suffix -tɨn.\nHowever, when the subject of the relative clause is not the head noun of the main clause, the subject of the relative clause takes the possessive case and a different set of verbal suffixes are used; the head noun may be deleted from the relative clause altogether. These different-subject subordinate suffixes also mark verb tense and aspect: in the nominative case, they are -na if present, -h/kkan if stative, -h/kkwan if momentaneous, -ppɨh if", "-30.28554800589336" ], [ "Crying in the Rain Music video The video was directed by Steve Barron. The theme of the video is a robbery gone wrong. It is actually the second version of this video. The first version did not feature any of the scenes of Morten Harket singing alone. The video was filmed entirely with a specific technique of mobile cameras, and it was filmed in Big Timber, Montana. Chart performance \"Crying in the Rain\" was a-ha's last single to go top 40 on a Billboard chart in the U.S. to date, peaking at #26 on the Billboard Adult Contemporary chart during", "-30.276433915511006" ], [ "The Sound of Crying Composition Paddy McAloon originally wrote the song in April 1990 for a proposed biographical album about Michael Jackson, who he was fascinated by. The verses originally listed unhappy things that had happened to Jackson, while the original lyrics of the chorus were \"Only the boogie music / Will never, ever let you down\". The song's final form has been described by McAloon as \"a “Why does God allow this?” song\". The lyrics concern the plights of people around the world, and ask why they cannot be helped. This was prompted by George H. W. Bush's references", "-30.258978921105154" ], [ "Cry for Happy Plot During the Korean War, Andy Cyphers (Glenn Ford), a Navy photographer and his three-man team occupy a Tokyo geisha house, though it is off-limits and four girls are living there.\nAt first, the men misunderstand the geishas' occupation. Later, romance develops. Complications ensue when a tongue-in-cheek remark made to the press by Cyphers saying he was fighting in the Korean War to help Japanese orphans gets publicity in the United States, and the Navy starts to look into the situation. The sailors and the geishas decide to quickly convert the geisha house into a temporary orphanage with", "-30.22948847396765" ], [ "and it is followed by majestic AOR rock style with 'A Cry in the Infinity'. A strange soundwave of a clock chiming, soldiers marching and aeroplanes soaring above, followed by guns and grenades exploding leads to the opening acoustics on To Kiss the Tears You Cry. After such a powerful intro it settles into a melancholy approach, almost sounding like 80s AOR like Survivor or Journey. Ruy's wailing lead break further augments the emotive lyrics; \"I'm here, close enough to kiss the tears you cry.\" A child's voice speaks and it leads to an extended coda with a crescendo of", "-30.224317107291427" ], [ "Come Cryin' to Me Content The song is about a man who likes a woman that is in a bad relationship. The narrator exclaims that he will always be there for her as a crying shoulder when she needs someone to turn to. Parodies Award-winning parodist and comedian Cody Marshall released a parody of the song titled \"Stop Farting on Me\", about a guy who wouldn't stop farting. Chart performance This song debuted at number 51 on the Hot Country Singles & Tracks chart dated May 10, 1997. It charted for 20 weeks on that chart, and reached number 1", "-30.224021533562336" ], [ "Cry for You (September song) Composition and release Before the worldwide release in 2007, September had originally recorded the song for her studio album In Orbit (2005). However, in many compilations September has released, the song has appeared on her compilations including September, Dancing in Orbit, Gold and Cry for You - The Album. \nAccording to September, she stated the reason why she wanted to release it worldwide, by saying \"The song was so strong by itself. And I've been there and it feels like the fans are starved of dance music. But now dance music is coming back again,", "-30.212020380888134" ], [ "bed weeping in vain. Although the father is losing strength by the minute, he and his daughter embrace for the last time, and the father uses the last of his strength to show his outlived dedication to the woman.\nIn the last scenario, the father is going away to Iraq. His daughter embraces him a final time, then gives a military salute as she sees him off.\nScenes cut from the final video include Frankie J playing the piano and singing in front of a wall entangled with vines.", "-30.18480163704953" ] ]

[ "Edited to include source at the end. [edited again because I Elendil-ed when I should have Earendil-ed] Yes. At the end of the Silmarillion Morgoth (the scariest dude ever and Sauron's boss) is trapped in a void where he's guarded by Earendil (a guy who took one of the Silmarils and pilots his ship around in space). At some point in the future Morgoth will escape the void and bring about the end of the world. It is very much like Ragnarok, with the free peoples (elves, good men, dwarves etc.) on one side and the forces of darkness on the other. This war would destroy Middle-earth, bringing about a new world that incorporates some of the better features of the Middle-earth while staying true to Eru Illuvatar's (that's the person who created Middle-earth) ideal vision for it. For example, snow was never part of Illuvatar's vision, it was created accidentally when Morgoth created cold. Something like that would stay, while orcs would not. Hope that helped! Source: \"Unfinished Tales\" (1980)", " URL_0 Melkor finds his way back to the world, all the Elves re-awake, Hurin finally gets his revenge for Man, the dwarves learn the substance that made the Silmarils, Hobbits continue to eat and smoke pipeweed, and a new song is sung", "No, the ending of LOTR is the end of the 3rd age and the beginning of the 4th age. We're currently in the 4th age. Some would argue the 5th ... but Tolkien himself never commented on a 5th age.", "He did do some writing that was never sort of integrated into the main history, where he described a final battle, the Dagor Dagorath, when Morgoth comes back from the Void and the world gets KO'd and is replaced by something different.", "Tolkien never a managed to write an ending to the whole universe. \"The New Shadow\" was supposed to be the sequel to TLOTR, but it was never completed. URL_0 ", "There is no end since Middle Earth becomes Earth as we know it. According to David Day's Tolkien Encyclopedia, after the War of the Ring humans start ruling Middle Earth, while the rest of the creatures leave to the Undying Lands. This place slowly fades away from the humans' comprehension and becomes something like Heaven, and all that's magic ends up disappearing as well. And so, Middle Earth turns into the real Earth and starts spinning around the Sun.", "Magic and the non-human races eventually disappear. Human society advances to something like our modern one. Archaeologists discover evidence that Mordor was a peaceful and technologically advance society going through an industrial revolution. That the events in the Lord of the Rings were propaganda created by Gandalf to justify his war against Mordor in the name of keeping the balance of power favoring magic over technology. URL_0 " ]

[ [ "In his letters, Tolkien comments upon the intertextual relationships of his works:\n\"I am doubtful myself about the undertaking [of finishing The Silmarillion]. Part of the attraction of the L.R. [The Lord of the Rings] is, I think, due to the glimpses of a large history in the background: an attraction like that of viewing far off an unvisited island, or seeing the towers of a distant city gleaming in a sunlit mist. To go there is to destroy the magic, unless new unattainable vistas are again revealed.\"\nThe quest by some readers for a consistent fictional canon within some subset of", "-28.971834584808676" ], [ "both standing outside of his work and indwelling in it.\nThe abode of Eru and the Ainur outside of time or the physical universe is also called the \"Timeless Halls\" (Heaven).\nTolkien made a point of keeping the ultimate fate of the souls of Men and the nature of their mortality open, and unknown to the Elves (who are tied to the physical world for the time of its duration, and Christian eschatology is not applicable to them).\nIn the tale of Adanel it is suggested that Men return to Eru after death.\nThe account of the \"events\" predating creation is not presented from", "-28.83628806809429" ], [ "material, he made substantial changes, up to and including the abandonment of major themes and entire tales, and wholesale rewrites and revisions of otherwise seemingly complete narratives.\nTowards the end of his life, the focus of Tolkien's writing shifted from story telling inspired by his philological pursuits to more philosophical concerns, and Tolkien never finished a unified, systematic, and internally consistent narrative. The Silmarillion compilation The Silmarillion was compiled by Christopher Tolkien (who was long involved in J. R. R. Tolkien's creative process) and published in 1977, four years after Tolkien’s death. It presents an abridged cycle of Tolkien's drafts", "-28.48792770045111" ], [ "the Elves live; and the Elves tell him their history. However, Tolkien never completed The Book of Lost Tales; he left it to compose the poems \"The Lay of Leithian\" and \"The Lay of the Children of Húrin\".\nThe first complete version of The Silmarillion was the \"Sketch of the Mythology\" written in 1926 (later published in Volume IV of The History of Middle-earth). The \"Sketch\" was a 28-page synopsis written to explain the background of the story of Túrin to R. W. Reynolds, a friend to whom Tolkien had sent several of the stories. From the \"Sketch\" Tolkien developed a", "-28.37629527495301" ], [ "Unfinished Tales Overview Unlike The Silmarillion, for which the narrative fragments were modified to connect into a consistent and coherent work, the Unfinished Tales are presented as Tolkien left them, with little more than names changed (the author having had a confusing habit of trying out different names for a character while writing a draft). Thus some of these are incomplete stories, while others are collections of information about Middle-earth. Each tale is followed by a long series of notes explaining inconsistencies and obscure points.\nAs with The Silmarillion, Christopher Tolkien edited and published Unfinished Tales before he had finished his", "-27.860381076751764" ], [ "dwelleth none can say.\n\nFor into darkness fell his star;\n\nIn Mordor, where the shadows are.\"\nGil-galad was the last of the High Kings of the Noldor-in-Exile in Middle-earth. An Elf of the House of Finwë, he was named High King of the Noldor-in-Exile in Beleriand after the fall of Gondolin and the death of the previous High King, Turgon.\nThe early history of Gil-galad is somewhat obscure, as Tolkien himself repeatedly changed his mind about who exactly Gil-galad was, and how to fit him into the already existing history of the First Age (see concept and creation, below). Gil-galad was certainly born in", "-27.603497818636242" ], [ "looked for, and could only be achieved, if at all, at heavy and needless cost.\"\nHe went on to say:\n \"My father came to conceive The Silmarillion as a compilation... and it is to some extent a compendium in fact and not only in theory.\" \nThroughout his commentaries in Unfinished Tales and the twelve volumes of The History of Middle-earth, Christopher Tolkien points out differences between various versions of the original texts and the final editorial selections and occasional alterations in The Silmarillion. In the Introduction of Unfinished Tales he observes that such selection was necessary to publishing a unified narrative;", "-27.597370581235737" ], [ "Silmarillion called Quenta Silmarillion, but they rejected the work as being obscure and \"too Celtic\". The publisher instead asked Tolkien to write a sequel to The Hobbit. Tolkien began to revise The Silmarillion, but soon turned to the sequel, which became The Lord of the Rings. \nWriting The Lord of the Rings during the 1940s, Tolkien was attempting to address the dilemma of creating a narrative consistent with a \"sequel\" of the published The Hobbit and a desire to present a more comprehensive view of its background. \nHe renewed work on The Silmarillion after completing The Lord of the Rings,", "-27.549062548117945" ], [ "Quenta Silmarillion Summary Tolkien envisaged the Silmarillion as deriving from a manuscript written by an Eriol or Ælfwine of England, an imaginary dark age source for the material, which itself contains little or no reference to the people or events of the Second or Third Ages of his legendarium. Originated from Elvish legends, in some parts it presents Elves as long gone, which hints that its final form was edited during the Fourth Age by Hobbits or Men.\nIt tells about the history of Arda (the Earth), after its creation by Eru Ilúvatar. The Valar, angelic beings, enter into the world", "-27.215312615328003" ], [ "They contain unfinished, abandoned, alternative, and outright contradictory accounts, since they were always a work in progress for Tolkien and he only rarely settled on a definitive version for any of the stories. There is not complete consistency between The Lord of the Rings and The Hobbit, the two most closely related works, because Tolkien never fully integrated all their traditions into each other. He commented in 1965, while editing The Hobbit for a third edition, that he would have preferred to rewrite the book completely because of the style of its prose. Mr. Bliss One of Tolkien's least-known short", "-27.19070065463893" ], [ "fuller narrative version of The Silmarillion called Quenta Noldorinwa (also included in Volume IV). The Quenta Noldorinwa was the last version of The Silmarillion that Tolkien completed.\nWhen Tolkien did publish The Hobbit in 1937 (which was itself not originally intended for publication but as a story told privately to his children), the narrative of the published text was loosely influenced by the context of the legendarium, but not designed to be part of it.\nIn 1937, encouraged by the success of The Hobbit, Tolkien submitted to his publisher George Allen & Unwin an incomplete but more fully developed version of The", "-27.18109672945866" ], [ "rift was one of the causes of the rebellion of the Elves against the Valar. Had Finwë chosen differently, the whole history of Middle-earth would have changed for the better, thus making his choice a pivotal event in the mythology and showing the importance Tolkien attached to unbreakable relationships.\nWhile rewriting this tale, Tolkien wrote various notes on marriage among the Elves that also discuss their naming and immortality, showing his typical mixture of background philosophy and story telling. House of Finwë The sons of Fëanor were Maedhros, Maglor, Celegorm, Curufin, Caranthir, Amras, and Amrod. Curufin was the father of Celebrimbor.", "-27.082140193047962" ], [ "traditional Christian narrative also influenced The Silmarillion. Tolkien was a devout Roman Catholic. The conflict between Melkor and Eru Ilúvatar parallels that between Satan and God. Further, The Silmarillion tells of the creation and fall of the Elves, as Genesis tells of the creation and fall of Man. As with all of Tolkien's works, The Silmarillion allows room for later Christian history, and one version of Tolkien's drafts even has Finrod, a character in The Silmarillion, speculating on the necessity of Eru's (God's) eventual Incarnation to save Mankind.\nA specifically Christian influence is the notion of the Fall of man, which", "-27.054652419057675" ], [ "as spiritual ones. Tolkien was compulsive in his writing, his revision, his desire for perfection in form and in the \"reality\" of his invented world, its languages, its chronologies, its existence. Like Niggle, Tolkien came to abandon other projects or graft them onto his \"Tree\", Middle-earth. Like Niggle, Tolkien faced many chores and duties that kept him from the work he loved; and like Niggle, Tolkien was a horrible procrastinator.\nTolkien himself might have disagreed with an allegorical interpretation. He wrote, in Letter 131 of The Letters of J. R. R. Tolkien, \"I dislike Allegory\". In specific reference to Niggle, he", "-26.917422437865753" ], [ "of Anduin.\nThus began the Dark Years. Sauron overran Eregion, killed Celebrimbor, leader of the Elven-smiths, and seized the Seven and the Nine Rings of Power that had been previously forged with his assistance. The Three Rings, however, had been forged by Celebrimbor himself without Sauron's help, and those were saved and remained in the hands of the Elves, specifically Gil-galad, Círdan, and Galadriel. Sauron very much desired these uniquely powerful Rings as well, and he besieged Imladris, battled Moria and Lothlórien, and pushed further into Gil-galad's realm. The Elves were hard pressed to defend Lindon and the Havens, but", "-26.729850248084404" ], [ "and wiser, with greater spiritual powers, keener senses, and a closer empathy with nature. They are great smiths and fierce warriors on the side of good.\nTolkien's Elves of Middle-earth are biologically immortal in the sense that they are not vulnerable to disease or the effects of old age (closer to the concept of indefinite lifespan than true immortality). Although they can be killed in battle like humans and may alternately wither away from grief, their spirits only pass to the blessed land in the west called Valinor, whereas humans' souls leave the world entirely.\nTolkien is also responsible for reviving the", "-26.704072323278524" ], [ "not a sad joke\", and emphasized that the text is not a \"thumb-fingered one-to-one mapping of a fantasy onto a science fiction setting\". Legal issues The literary estate of J.R.R. Tolkien has declared that There and Back Again is an infringement upon their rights to The Hobbit; Murphy has stated that, although she disagrees, and considers it to be a transformative work of feminist commentary, the book's publication has been discontinued so as to obviate further dispute.", "-26.699269051361625" ], [ "The Fellowship of the Ring Title and publication Tolkien envisioned The Lord of the Rings as a single volume work divided into six sections he called \"books\" along with extensive appendices. The original publisher decided to split the work into three parts. It was also the publisher's decision to place the fifth and sixth books and the appendices into one volume under the title The Return of the King, about Aragorn's assumption of the throne of Gondor. Tolkien indicated he would have preferred The War of the Ring as a title, as it gave away less of the story.\nBefore the", "-26.524864194798283" ], [ "is Christopher Tolkien's task editing his father's abandoned projects. In his appendix, he explains his editorial process this way: \"While I have had to introduce bridging passages here and there in the piecing together of different drafts, there is no element of extraneous 'invention' of any kind, however slight.\" He was criticized for having monkeyed with his father's text when putting \"The Silmarillion\" together. This pre-emptive strike must be meant to allay the fears of Tolkien's most persnickety readers.\" Beren and Lúthien Tolkien’s manuscripts are presented as a fully continuous and standalone story, with a single narrative. The Fall of", "-26.50735875335522" ], [ "The Tale of Aragorn and Arwen The Tale of Aragorn and Arwen is a story written by the English author J. R. R. Tolkien. It can be found in Appendix A of Tolkien's most famous book, The Lord of the Rings. It takes place in the Third Age of the author's fictional universe, Middle-earth. The tale tells the story of the love of the mortal Man Aragorn and the immortal Elf-maiden Arwen.\nIn Tolkien's fictional universe, the tale was written by Faramir and Éowyn's grandson Barahir after Aragorn's death. An abbreviated version of the tale was included in the copy of", "-26.49231050084927" ], [ "Cataclysm of the West into the deliberations of certain scholars of Oxford and the Fall of Sauron named Zigûr in the Drowning of Anadûne. Tolkien’s creativity The History of The Lord of the Rings reveals much of the slow, aggregative nature of Tolkien’s creativity. As Christopher Tolkien noted of the first two volumes, Tolkien had eventually brought the story up to Rivendell, but still “without any clear conception of what lay before him”. He also noted how, on the way, his father could get caught up in a “spider’s web of argumentation” - what Tom Shippey described as getting “bogged", "-26.43838787835557" ], [ "find a comparable mythological story of creation by its beauty and imaginative power.\"\nAccording to Fantasy Literature: A Core Collection and Reference Guide, \"Every part of [The Silmarillion] benefits from the power and audacity of imaginative genius Tolkien and his brilliant style\" and \"Ainulindalë\" has \"organ tones\". Although Ralph C. Wood called it \"one of the finest and most original of [Tolkien's] writings\", the stylistic differences between this story and the rest of The Silmarillion have been the subject of debate; Daniel Grotta believes that Christopher Tolkien wrote most of the story. Analysis \"Ainulindalë\", written early in Tolkien's career, demonstrates the", "-26.385073576297145" ], [ "to advise Aragorn to take the Paths of the Dead. Elrond is present at Aragorn's coronation and Arwen's wedding in Minas Tirith and departs Middle-Earth with other Ring-bearers at the end of the film.\nWeaving reprised his role as both Elrond and the narrator in video games The Lord of the Rings: The Battle for Middle-earth II (2006) and The Lord of the Rings: Conquest (2009). In the storyline campaign of The Battle for Middle-earth II Elrond, after planning the war in the North and sending the Fellowship to destroy the One Ring, forms an alliance with the Dwarves to repel", "-26.301048663561232" ], [ "the source of Excalibur, which is strongly implied to be the original universe. Clarifications Initially, the Earth X storyline was purported as being the future of Earth-616. However, the series often substantially retconned the origins and workings of characters to better suit the story, to the point where they were no longer reconcilable with their counterparts in the mainstream Marvel Universe. One example is the revelation in Paradise X that Wolverine is not a mutant, but instead one of the few remaining \"pure strain humans\", free from the genetic manipulations of the Celestials (as well as a descendant of Moon-Boy).", "-26.28084287159436" ], [ "on several occasions. Nevertheless, seeing that the reintroduction of the name had been made, and that it would require some explanation, Tolkien devised a solution. He would, at the end of his life, devote his last writings to the issue of Glorfindel and some related topics, as detailed in The Peoples of Middle-earth. \nTolkien wrote that Glorfindel is sent back to Middle-earth by the Valar during the Second Age circa 1600, when Barad-dûr was completed and Sauron forged the One Ring, and while Númenor was still friendly with the Elves under Tar-Minastir. He is sent as a kind of predecessor", "-26.222305199480616" ], [ "his master, Morgoth, and performing human sacrifice.\nAlthough Sauron's body was destroyed in the Fall of Númenor, his spirit was able to travel back to Middle-earth and wield the One Ring in his renewed war against the Last Alliance of Elves and Men between S.A. 3429 and 3441. Tolkien emphasized that Sauron used his ring in Númenor to gain complete control over its people; and while Sauron's body perished in the Fall, the Ring somehow made it back to Middle-earth. Tolkien wrote, \"I do not think one need boggle at this spirit carrying off the One Ring, upon which his", "-26.18226353470527" ], [ "study of the materials in his father's archive. Unfinished Tales provides more detailed information about characters, events and places mentioned only briefly in The Lord of the Rings. Versions of such tales, including the origins of Gandalf and the other Istari (Wizards), the death of Isildur and the loss of the One Ring in the Gladden Fields, and the founding of the kingdom of Rohan, help expand knowledge about Middle-earth.\nThe commercial success of Unfinished Tales demonstrated that the demand for Tolkien's stories several years after his death was not only still present, it was growing. Encouraged by the result, Christopher", "-26.16321263075224" ], [ "Banewreaker Influences Carey has acknowledged that the book is based around Tolkien's The Lord of the Rings, as well as the classical tragedy form, reversing the good versus evil scheme of Tolkien by telling the story as an \"epic tragedy\" from the perspective of the characters who are perceived by most of Urulat as \"evil\". Carey stated that \"it departs from convention in one significant way, which is that it's sympathetic to the losing side, and over the course of the two volumes, the story emerges as one long, colossal tragedy.\" The novel begins with a quote from John Milton's", "-26.142433281580452" ], [ "The Lord of the Rings, his father \"gave a great deal of thought to the matter of Glorfindel\" in the book, and decided that it was a \"somewhat random use\" of a name from The Silmarillion that would probably have been changed, had it been noticed sooner.\nThe problem lay in Tolkien's conception of the spirits of dead Elves being re-embodied in their old bodies after a Purgatory-like period in the Halls of Mandos in Valinor, the home of Tolkien's \"gods\", the Valar and Maiar, where Elves previously lived before (re)migrating to Middle-earth. After being re-embodied, previously dead Elves stayed in", "-26.09012755868025" ], [ "themselves. \nBy this time, he had doubts about fundamental aspects of the work that went back to the earliest versions of the stories, and it seems that he felt the need to resolve these problems before he could produce the \"final\" version of The Silmarillion. \nDuring this time he wrote extensively on such topics as the nature of evil in Arda, the origin of Orcs, the customs of the Elves, the nature and means of Elvish rebirth, and the \"flat\" world and the story of the Sun and Moon. In any event, with one or two exceptions, he wrought little", "-26.07116082367429" ], [ "through notes and letters of Tolkien, a great deal of it published posthumously by his son Christopher Tolkien, as well as in passages from the Annals of the Kings and Rulers (An appendix of The Return of the King) and other portions of The Lord of the Rings and The Silmarillion, some events can be defined. \nUnder the long rule of Aragorn, Gondor prospered. The North Kingdom was reinstated, and united once again with South Kingdom to form a Restored Kingdom of Men. Though peace and freedom had returned to the Westlands, evils still survived the Fall of Sauron in", "-26.02344521973282" ], [ "of a 19th-century Finnish poem. It was written in 1915 while Tolkien was studying at Oxford. Beren and Lúthien The Tale of Beren and Lúthien is one of the oldest and most often revised in Tolkien's legendarium. The story is one of three contained within The Silmarillion which Tolkien believed to warrant their own long-form narratives. It was published as a standalone book, edited by Christopher Tolkien, under the title Beren and Lúthien in 2017. The Fall of Gondolin The Fall of Gondolin is a tale of a beautiful, mysterious city destroyed by dark forces, which Tolkien called \"the first", "-26.017749633989297" ], [ "early history of The Silmarillion and related texts. Books six to nine discuss the development of The Lord of the Rings; book nine also discusses the Númenor story in the form of The Notion Club Papers. Books ten and eleven focus on material from the Silmarillion that Tolkien worked on after The Lord of the Rings was published, including the Annals of Beleriand and the Annals of Aman. Book twelve discusses the development of the Appendices to The Lord of the Rings and examines assorted writings from the last years of Tolkien's life.\nChristopher Tolkien made the decision not to", "-25.840994506230345" ], [ "The Children of Húrin Overview The history and descent of the main characters are given as the leading paragraphs of the book, and the back story is elaborated upon in The Silmarillion. It begins five hundred years before the action of the book, when Morgoth, a Vala and the prime evil power, escapes from the Blessed Realm of Valinor to the north-west of Middle-earth. From his fortress of Angband he endeavours to gain control of the whole of Middle-earth, unleashing a war with the Elves that dwell in the land of Beleriand to the south.\nHowever, the Elves manage to stay", "-25.728251468623057" ], [ "setting, and to challenge Tolkien's philosophy of \"Good against Evil\" in it. Koltso Tmy, however, was one of a number of such projects, as several other 1990's Russian writers, including Natalia \"Niennah\" Vasilyeva and Kirill Yeskov, would publish unauthorized Middle-Earth books that challenged Tolkien far more sharply.\nAfter the success of his debut, Perumov decided to start a career as a professional writer. He wrote the novel Гибель Богов (Godsdoom), heavily inspired by Norse mythology. It was the first book to be set in Упорядоченное (The Consistent), a multiverse of many connected worlds. The Consistent became the main setting of his", "-25.622760557103902" ], [ "Ilúvatar that were to dwell in it—the Men and the Elves.\nThen Ilúvatar created Eä, which means \"to be,\" the universe itself, and formed within it Arda, the Earth, \"globed within the void\": the world together with the three airs is set apart from Avakúma, the \"void\" without. The first 15 of the Ainur that descended to Arda, and the most powerful ones, were called Valar, and the Ainur of lesser might that came with them were called Maiar. Valian Years In the fictional works of J. R. R. Tolkien, the Valian Years are used to measure the passage of time", "-25.621120915166102" ], [ "R. R. Tolkien.", "-25.6196351837134" ], [ "the death of Gil-galad, as the Elves dwindled in numbers by the year, Mithlond remained a focal point of the history of the northern part of Middle-earth.\nDuring the War of the Elves and Sauron, the Dark Lord Sauron attempted to invade and conquer the Havens in order to gain the Three Elven Rings but was halted and defeated at the Lhûn by Gil-galad with the timely arrival of the great Númenórean armament of Tar-Minastir (S.A. 1700).\nThe Second Age ended with the Last Alliance of Elves and Men. The Last Alliance was the final great military effort of the Elves and they", "-25.569862664386164" ], [ "he finds her alone and in distress in the woods. Only much later does he learn her real name and origin. The section ends with the Elves calling them by the names of Túrin Turambar Dagnir Glaurunga (as the slayer of the Dragon Glaurung) and Nienor Níniel.\nThe story has some inconsistencies when compared with The Silmarillion, and at points there are gaps and multiple versions: this is because Tolkien never really finished the story during his lifetime, and his son Christopher Tolkien had to choose from all the work to create a consistent narrative for The Silmarillion.\nThe story of the", "-25.56172719662618" ], [ "Elrond begs her to accompany her kin to the Undying Lands because he does not wish to see another of his family die. Elrond shows her a vision of her sorrow-filled life after Aragorn's death, and tells her that only death awaits her in Middle-earth. Arwen reluctantly departs for Valinor. However, on the road to the Grey Havens she has a vision of her future son, Eldarion, which belies her father's one-sided prophecy. She returns to Rivendell, where Elrond admits that her mortal life will have happiness as well as grief, though he stresses that Sauron's rising power means", "-25.53422538410814" ], [ "only love that can overcome all obstacles to wrest a Silmaril from his crown.\nAnother interpretation is that Lúthien is released from the bonds of the Eldar to the physical world (the world that is, Arda). In The Silmarillion it is said that Lúthien alone among the elves has died indeed, and left the world. By contrast, it is basic to Tolkien's Christian and Catholic conception of Arda that Men, the younger children of Ilúvatar (God), by means of the Gift of Men (death) are able to escape the confines of the world. Note the comfort offered by the mortal King", "-25.522678360139253" ], [ "in fact, the only way that Galadriel's Lothlórien could have been conquered by Mordor is if Sauron himself, the master of all the Rings of Power, had gone there.\nFollowing the departure of Galadriel for Valinor at the beginning of the Fourth Age, the Elves of Lothlórien were ruled by Celeborn alone, who led them across the Anduin to found a new, larger realm, East Lórien, centred on Amon Lanc. By the time of the death of Queen Arwen, Celeborn and Galadriel's granddaughter, Lothlórien itself was deserted. Geography Lothlórien was located in the west of the large region of Wilderland. On", "-25.51772376440931" ], [ "Valaquenta Overview Valaquenta provides a middle-ground and link between Ainulindalë, which stands as Middle-earth's cosmogony or 'creation myth', and Quenta Silmarillion, a collection of mythical histories in which major events of Middle-earth find their first elaboration (see The Silmarillion).\nNot an actual story in itself (there is no plot or action), Valaquenta is more a listing, a kind of expanded footnote giving details about the major divine characters of Tolkien's Middle-earth legendarium. These divine beings are the Valar, the Maiar and the Enemies (the last being equivalent to fallen Ainur of the same kind and order as the Valar/Maiar. For", "-25.494959092779027" ], [ "a surprise party, A lost Lord of the Rings manuscript gets finished by Tolkien's 6-year-old grandson and Sex and the City 3 tries to be more guy-oriented.\nThe fifth-season finale celebrates the show's 100 episode, featuring an alternate storyline, in which the Robot Chicken from the show's opening sequence is accidentally freed from the chair by the castle maid and escapes the Mad Scientist's lair. When RC returns home, he comes to find that his house has been broken into and discovers that his wife has been kidnapped by the Mad Scientist and is being forced to take his place in", "-25.448972599799163" ], [ "Out of the Silent Planet Origins The trilogy was inspired and influenced by David Lindsay's A Voyage to Arcturus (1920).\nAccording to biographer A. N. Wilson, Lewis wrote the novel after a conversation with J. R. R. Tolkien in which both men lamented the state of contemporary fiction. They agreed that Lewis would write a space-travel story, and Tolkien would write a time-travel one. Tolkien's story only exists as a fragment, published in The Lost Road and other writings (1987) edited by his son Christopher.\nA \"NOTE\" precedes the text of the story: \"Certain slighting references to earlier stories of this type", "-25.44691485009389" ], [ "of Middle-earth).\nThese ordered descriptions eventually became Chapter 1 (entitled Of the Valar) for the Quenta Silmarillion (or \"The Silmarillion proper\".) In revisions to the Quenta Silmarillion done in 1958, the list of the Valar was split off into a separately titled work. When Christopher Tolkien finally edited and published The Silmarillion in 1977, he left the chapter as a distinct section. Apparently, there is nothing to indicate why the senior Tolkien felt that the piece should stand alone. While Valaquenta is not a narrative, neither is the Quenta chapter Of Beleriand and its Realms, and Tolkien never seems to", "-25.418630744447" ], [ "a war against Mordor, with the Witch-king challenging him \"to fight for the palantír of Ithil\" when this element first entered.\nThe appendices to The Lord of the Rings were brought to a finished state in 1953–54, but a decade later, during preparations for the release of the Second Edition, Tolkien elaborated the events that had led to the Kin-strife and introduced the regency of Rómendacil II. The final development of the history and geographical nature of Gondor took place around 1970, in the last years of Tolkien's life, when he invented justifications for the place-names and wrote full narratives for", "-25.378923647105694" ], [ "in The Lord of the Rings, for the Mill at Hobbiton. In an interview with Guardian journalist, John Ezard in 1966, before the mill's restoration, Tolkien said:\nIt was a kind of lost paradise... There was an old mill that really did grind corn with two millers, a great big pond with swans on it, a sandpit, a wonderful dell with flowers, a few old-fashioned village houses and, further away, a stream with another mill. I always knew it would go – and it did.\nThe grounds nearby host the annual Tolkien Weekend event that celebrates the life and works of Tolkien.", "-25.35605504695559" ], [ "realms. After the loss of the One Ring, the Elves had no choice left, and therefore in the Fourth Age, the last Eldar either left for Valinor or faded to shadows of their former selves. Arda Healed After the Dagor Dagorath, a new world will then be created, which will be Arda Healed (Quenya, Arda Envinyanta). This world will resemble Arda Unmarred, except superior, since it will also incorporate all the good aspects of Arda Marred.\nGaladriel's words while parting with Treebeard at Isengard in The Return of the King are \"Not in Middle-earth, nor until the lands that lie under", "-25.3100264017703" ], [ "Beren and Lúthien, and The Fall of Gondolin make up the three \"Great Tales\" of the Elder Days which J.R.R. Tolkien considered to be the biggest stories of the First Age.\nHarperCollins published other J. R. R. Tolkien work edited by Christopher Tolkien which is not connected to the Middle-earth legendarium. The Legend of Sigurd and Gudrún appeared in May 2009, a verse retelling of the Norse Völsung cycle, followed by The Fall of Arthur in May 2013, and by Beowulf: A Translation and Commentary in May 2014.\nChristopher Tolkien also served as chairman of the Tolkien Estate, Ltd, the entity formed", "-25.286812658596318" ], [ "told in prose form in one chapter of The Silmarillion and is recounted by Aragorn in The Fellowship of the Ring.\nThe Tale of Aragorn and Arwen, which is told in the appendices of The Lord of the Rings, served as a sequel to this story. Indeed, both Aragorn and Arwen were descendants of Beren and Lúthien. Synopsis As told in The Silmarillion, the later version of the tale:\nBeren was the last survivor of a group of Men in Dorthonion led by his father Barahir that had still resisted Morgoth, the Dark Enemy, after the Battle of Sudden Flame, in", "-25.284463114920072" ], [ "idea. In a 1972 letter concerning this draft, Tolkien mentioned that Eldarion's reign would have lasted for about 100 years after the death of Aragorn. Portrayal in adaptations In The Return of the King, the final entry in Peter Jackson's film trilogy, Arwen is exhorted by her father to sail into the West, leaving Middle-earth and Aragorn forever. While reluctantly on her way to the Grey Havens, she has a prescient vision of Eldarion as a little boy (although Eldarion's name is only mentioned in the closing credits), which persuades her to stay. This is a departure from the", "-25.281924599345075" ], [ "\"Akallabêth\", Tolkien wrote that Sauron \"took up\" the Ring after his spirit returned to Middle-earth. According to \"Of the Rings of Power and the Third Age\", Sauron then realized that Gil-galad's power had grown great during his absence and now spread across the Misty Mountains and Greenwood the Great, drawing nigh to places that Sauron initially thought secure before leaving for Númenór. War against the Last Alliance Led by Elendil, nine ships carrying the faithful Númenóreans were saved from the Downfall and escaped the cataclysm. These Númenórean exiles founded the kingdoms of Gondor and Arnor in Middle-earth. At first they", "-25.27815962571185" ], [ "is often claimed, (but cannot be true since Tolkien left South Africa when he was three years old) as J. R. R. Tolkien's inspiration for The Lord of the Rings, in particular for his fictional forest of Mirkwood. The link between Tolkien and Hogsback would seem to be a back formation from the establishment in 1947 of Hobbiton on Hogsback, a holiday and educational camp for underprivileged children. This was ten years after the publication of The Hobbit which was a huge success and which would have inspired the camp's founders as they set up in such an evocatively forested", "-25.27408557126182" ], [ "which are an abridged version of Tolkien's original lore (i.e., Sauron comes to Celebrimbor to give him a powerful hammer to forge the rings, is eventually betrayed by Sauron, is forced to inscribe the incantation in the One Ring but steals it, and is eventually tortured and beaten to death by Sauron after an attempted coup). After the defeat of Sauron's captains, Celebrimbor describes defeating Sauron himself as futile and wishes to finally depart for Valinor, but is convinced to stay by Talion, and then mentions his desire to forge a new Ring of Power immune to Sauron's influence. \nThis", "-25.268660187623027" ], [ "The Sibyl's Visions (Valhalla) Plot The prologue states that all stories have an end, which is characterised by being connected to a beginning; an effect of the causes. The narrator states that the Old Norse people had a name for this and it was rǫk. The gods also had their own rǫk: Ragnarök. The narrator concludes that most people think this is the name of the end of the world and chaos, but that it's in fact almost the other way around: It's simply the end of the story the gods started when they created the world.\nFollowing the events of", "-25.266005353652872" ], [ "called Everworld.\nDavid, Christopher, Jalil and April wake up in the captivity of Norse god Loki, who claims to have opened the portal into the \"Old World\" so that his son, Fenrir, could bring Senna, who he calls a witch, to him. He reveals that he intended to use her as a gateway to the Old World. After Loki realizes the four cannot help him, he orders their death, but their escape due to David's heroic actions with a sword, and the laws of the universe (such as the rate of acceleration) not working as they would in the Old World", "-25.260290935333614" ], [ "the player can collect and which feature original narration by Gandalf. These clips give context to much of the plot and serve to offer advice to Berethor of events in the wider world. Background The game is presented against the background of the history of the One Ring. At the dawn of the Second Age, after the defeat of the Dark Lord, Morgoth, the elves of Eregion forged the nineteen Rings of Power to help themselves, the dwarves and men rule Middle-earth. However, the elves were unaware that Sauron, Morgoth's closest ally, had survived his master's defeat, and in the", "-25.252046551322564" ], [ "losing it once more. This depiction preserves continuity with Jackson's film adaptations, at least – if not with Tolkien canon.\nThough the 1978 animated film and the 2001 live-action film both contain a prologue featuring the forging of the Rings of Power, the War of the Elves and Sauron goes unmentioned and the films jump straight to the much later War of the Last Alliance. In both, Sauron does not have the form he wore as \"Annatar\" when he forges the One Ring, but rather the one reflecting his identity as Dark Lord, and he is defeated by Isildur alone.\nIn Jackson's", "-25.249915481144853" ], [ "However, Tolkien ultimately became uncomfortable with this Elvish origin, and devised different theories about the origin of Orcs. Sundering The Valar decided to summon the Elves to Valinor rather than leaving them dwelling in the place where they were first awakened, near the Cuiviénen lake in the eastern extremity of Middle-earth. They sent Oromë, who took Ingwë, Finwë and Elwë as ambassadors to Valinor.\nReturning to Middle-earth, Ingwë, Finwë and Elwë convinced a large host to take the Great Journey to Valinor. Not all Elves accepted the summons though, and those who did not became known as the Avari, The Unwilling.\nThe", "-25.2170190498" ], [ "to a character that does not appear in Tolkien's written works, but stated that creating the character for the adaptation was justified: \"I believe she is authentic, because Tolkien refers to The Woodland Elves, he just doesn't talk about who they are specifically… [Peter and Fran] know that world so well. They’re not going to create a character that is not true to Tolkien's world.\" Nonetheless, following the June 12, 2013 release of the first trailer for the film, some fans expressed dissatisfaction with the creation of a character that did not originate in the source material.\nAs head of the", "-25.201576043997193" ], [ "felt it was time for Valhalla to end they had to deal with the myth of Ragnarök. Originally they had the idea that the events would be told by a völva to the Gods, with the ending suggesting that Ragnarök was imminent. However, they both figured that Ragnarök had to happen for real within the story. The later stories had also been reflecting Henning Kure's increasing interest in Norse Mythology, that had gone far enough for Kure to learn Old Norse, read the Poetic Edda in the original language and started writing serious articles about the subject. Kure's research influenced", "-25.19995133273187" ], [ "warned them that he wrote quite slowly, and responded with several stories he had already developed. Having rejected his contemporary drafts for The Silmarillion, putting on hold Roverandom, and accepting Farmer Giles of Ham, Allen & Unwin thought more stories about hobbits would be popular. So at the age of 45, Tolkien began writing the story that would become The Lord of the Rings. The story would not be finished until 12 years later, in 1949, and would not be fully published until 1955, when Tolkien was 63 years old. Writing Persuaded by his publishers, he started \"a new Hobbit\"", "-25.195197710811044" ], [ "The War of the Last Alliance in the Second Age This war that ends the Second Age exemplifies the effect that Tolkien employs to create a grand panoramic distance from the event. However, he continues to use the same hierarchical organization and terms. This can be seen in the various descriptions of the Great Host of the Last Alliance.\nSauron attacked Gondor in S.A. 3429. In response Elendil formed an alliance with Gil-galad. Over 2 years they gathered their armies. Their great host then marched to Rivendell. Then they went over the Misty Mountains and were joined by the army", "-25.191169420140795" ], [ "two Tolkien pastiches and one crossover story with Aragorn entering her own created world of Darkover. She published what would be a single issue of her own Tolkien fanzine, Andúril.\nDuring this time, science fiction fandom produced many fanzines with little or no Tolkien content but Tolkien-inspired names: Ancalagon, Glamdring, Lefnui, Mathom, Perian, Ringwraith, Shadowfax, Silmé, and undoubtedly others. Others had more meaningful Tolkien content. Ed Meskys’ apazine Niekas turned into a full-fledged fanzine during this era, with heavy Tolkien content as well as discussion of Gilbert & Sullivan, science fiction conventions and other topics. Pete Mansfield’s Sword & Sorcery fanzine,", "-25.180718717398122" ], [ "Two Trees of Valinor Creation and destruction The first sources of light for all of Tolkien's imaginary world, Arda, were two enormous Lamps on the central continent, Middle-earth: Illuin, the silver one to the north and Ormal, the golden one to the south. They had been created by the Valar, powerful spirit beings, but were cast down and destroyed by the Dark Lord Melkor.\nThe Valar retreated to Valinor to make their home on the western continent, and there one of them, Yavanna the Vala of living things, sang into existence the Two Trees to provide a new pair of light-sources.", "-25.172167961485684" ], [ "11–16; other mostly self-contained fragments, notes, and poems appear in various issues of Vinyar Tengwar. All of this material together constitutes a collection which, much like real-world histories and mythologies, contains numerous points of obscurity, omission, or apparent contradiction. The Hobbit Although Tolkien said that The Hobbit was conceived separately from his mythological stories, early drafts show that it was set in that world, referring explicitly to characters and places which appeared in his Book of Lost Tales which would later become The Silmarillion. The Necromancer was originally Thû, the precursor of Sauron; Thorin's grandfather was imprisoned in the", "-25.13378148790798" ], [ "decision to publish The Lord of the Rings in three volumes was made, Tolkien had hoped to publish the novel in one volume, possibly also combined with The Silmarillion. However, he had proposed titles for the individual six sections. Of the two books that comprise what became The Fellowship of the Ring the first was to be called The First Journey or The Ring Sets Out. The name of the second was The Journey of the Nine Companions or The Ring Goes South. The titles The Ring Sets Out and The Ring Goes South were used in the Millennium edition.\nThe", "-25.09877657110337" ], [ "more in the style and tone of The Lord of the Rings, adjusting the journey and landmarks to fit the later story, but ultimately abandoned the effort. Writings after The Lord of the Rings According to Christopher Tolkien, despite J.R.R. Tolkien's desire to bring the older Silmarillion stories to a publishable state, much time was spent instead trying to bring consistency to the works already published. The unpublished manuscripts were left in various states of completion. These older stories had existed and changed over many decades, partly in response to The Lord of the Rings; as he reworked the", "-25.079891224886524" ], [ "Rings of Power and the Third Age\" and The Fellowship of the Ring, Tolkien wrote that Elendil and his sons forged the Last Alliance of Elves and Men with Gil-galad, as they realized that unless they united, Sauron would destroy them each individually.\nA great battle ensued between the Alliance and the Host of Sauron on the battle plain of Dagorlad. The Alliance emerged victorious and invaded Mordor, laying siege to Barad-dûr for seven years. Finally, Sauron was forced to emerge from his tower and fight against the Last Alliance himself. During the final challenge on the slopes of Mount Doom,", "-25.07056711637415" ], [ "skills. After a time, they became jealous of the Elves for their immortality. Meanwhile, in Middle-earth it became apparent that Sauron, Morgoth's chief servant, was still active. He worked with Elven smiths, especially Celebrimbor, the grandson of Fëanor in Eregion on the craft of rings, and secretly forged the One Ring in the fires of Mount Doom to dominate them all. But as soon as Sauron put on the One Ring, The Elves were aware of him and removed theirs. Sauron then made war on the elves, and nearly destroyed them utterly; but when it seemed defeat was imminent, the", "-25.054065803065896" ], [ "four stars and stating that while it is not \"a true visualization of Tolkien's Middle-earth\", it is \"a work for, and of, our times. It will be embraced, I suspect, by many Tolkien fans and take on aspects of a cult. It is a candidate for many Oscars. It is an awesome production in its daring and breadth, and there are small touches that are just right\". USA Today also gave the film three out of four stars and wrote, \"this movie version of a beloved book should please devotees as well as the uninitiated\". In his review for The", "-25.046793731919024" ], [ "Elves, contrasting with the fate of Men, who remain subject to mortality. Creation account Eru Ilúvatar is the Elvish (Quenya) name of the monotheistic God of creation.\nEru means \"The One\", or \"He that is Alone\" and Ilúvatar signifies \"Father of All\". The names appear in Tolkien's work both in isolation and paired (Eru Ilúvatar).\nHe first created a group of angelic beings, called in Elvish the Ainur, and these holy spirits were co-actors in the creation of the universe through a holy music and chanting called the \"Music of the Ainur\", or Ainulindalë in Elvish.\nEru alone can create independent life or", "-25.011733100400306" ], [ "When Elrond sought to fill the last two spots in the Fellowship with folk of his own house, Gandalf supported Merry Brandybuck and Pippin Took by saying:\n\"I think, Elrond, that in this matter it would be well to trust rather to their friendship than to great wisdom. Even if you chose for us an elf-lord, such as Glorfindel, he could not storm the Dark Tower, nor open the road to the Fire by the power that is in him.\" The special \"matter of Glorfindel\" In The Return of the Shadow, Christopher Tolkien states that some time after the publication of", "-25.002572754223365" ], [ "heraldic device. The story of Finwë and Míriel and its significance Tolkien rewrote the story of Finwë and Míriel several times, as it assumed \"an extraordinary importance in [his] later work on The Silmarillion\". In Tolkien's works, Elves are immortal, their shades going to the \"Halls of Mandos\" after death, and marriage is forever.\nFinwë's wife Míriel died shortly after giving birth to her son, Fëanor, the most brilliant of all the Noldor. She was so exhausted that she willfully gave up her spirit: becoming the first sentient being in Aman to ever experience death. This left Finwë in the", "-24.95898727378517" ], [ "published, and received independently of the later work, and to avoid dashing readers' expectations of tone and style. The Lord of the Rings While The Hobbit has been adapted and elaborated upon in many ways, its sequel The Lord of the Rings is often claimed to be its greatest legacy. The plots share the same basic structure progressing in the same sequence: the stories begin at Bag End, the home of Bilbo Baggins; Bilbo hosts a party that sets the novel's main plot into motion; Gandalf sends the protagonist into a quest eastward; Elrond offers a haven and advice; the", "-24.940019322384614" ], [ "Middle-earth where most Elves have already left. The majority of those who remained lived in Mirkwood, while a much smaller population was in Lindon. Aragorn speaks of the empty garden of Elrond in Rivendell. Most strikingly, after Elessar's voluntary death, Arwen flees to a Lórien that is depicted as wholly abandoned, and gives up her own spirit in its sad and silent confines. Life cycle As told in The History of Middle-earth and in Tolkien's Letters, Elves had a different life cycle from Men. Most of the following information strictly refers only to the Eldar, as found in his essay", "-24.931372080231085" ], [ "in the first.\" He also noted the story must be drawn from only what is mentioned in The Hobbit and The Lord of the Rings, as they do not have the rights to The Silmarillion and Unfinished Tales. Del Toro also added (before writing began) that if they could not find a coherent story for the second film, they would just film The Hobbit, stating \"The Hobbit is better contained in a single film and kept brisk and fluid with no artificial 'break point'.\" By November 2008, he acknowledged that the book was more detailed and eventful than people may remember.", "-24.922295439577283" ], [ "Sauron's defeat, however, Aragorn reunites with Arwen at his coronation. The movies portray her as becoming human through her love for Aragorn; as in the novel, Arwen follows the choice of her ancestor Lúthien to become a mortal woman for the love of a mortal man.\nThe movies introduce a jeweled pendant called the Evenstar which Arwen gives to Aragorn as a token of their love. A similar pendant appears in the short story The Jewel of Arwen by Marion Zimmer Bradley, although in that story Arwen gives it to \"the Ring-Bearer\" rather than to Aragorn. In Tolkien's novel, Arwen", "-24.91556398398825" ], [ "There and Back Again (novel) There and Back Again, by Max Merriwell is a 1999 science fiction novel by Pat Murphy, retelling J.R.R. Tolkien's The Hobbit as a space opera, combined with Lewis Carroll's The Hunting of the Snark. It was published by Tor Books.\nMurphy has described it as \"both an enormous joke and a serious meta-fictional experiment\", with \"Max Merriwell\" being a science-fiction author who exists in an alternate reality, and whose writing is different from Murphy's own; the book is the first in a series of three novels which are all purportedly written by \"Merriwell\" under various pseudonyms.", "-24.890712639047706" ], [ "on the elves, conquering much of Middle-earth and killing Celebrimbor. Thus began the Dark Years, when Sauron took possession of the remaining sixteen Rings, giving seven to the dwarves and nine to men in an effort to corrupt them. The dwarves proved relatively immune to the powers of the Rings, acquiring only a greed for gold, and becoming unconcerned with events in the wider world. Men proved less resilient, and the nine kings given the Rings become the nine Ring-wraiths, or Nazgûl, led by the Witch-king of Angmar.\nIn his ongoing efforts to conquer Middle-earth, Sauron regained the allegiance of many", "-24.86856413562782" ], [ "\"Tolkien estate would be best advised to avoid any specific association with the films\", Simon Tolkien broke ranks, offering to cooperate with the filmmakers, stating \"It was my view that we take a much more positive line on the film and that was overruled by my father.\" Following up a 2001 interview with the Independent, Simon in 2003 gave interviews to the Daily Telegraph and other media in which he discussed his strained relationship with his father, describing it as a permanent breach. However, they have since reconciled.\nTolkien currently lives in southern California with his wife Tracy. Simon's son", "-24.84639190969756" ], [ "son of the \"King of Ond\", whose realm is \"besieged by wild men out of the East\". Contemporary outlines propose that the main characters would participate in the final battle for the kingdom, already seen as a major climax of story. Another connection between the narrative and the background was achieved with the final solution of the identity of \"Trotter\": he became Aragorn, \"a real ranger\" and a descendant of Elendil.\nBy the time Tolkien began rewriting \"The Council of Elrond\" a year later, he had developed a story that Aragorn's ancestors were in past Kings in Boromir's hometown. The citizens", "-24.837440165953012" ], [ "There and Back Again intentionally mirrors that of The Hobbit, but is transposed into a science-fiction setting involving space travel. J. K. Rowling's Harry Potter has been seen as having been influenced by Tolkien's work, particularly the wizard Dumbledore being partially inspired by Tolkien's Gandalf. The Inheritance Cycle by Christopher Paolini largely rehashed the setting and languages of The Lord of the Rings, as well as creatures such as elves and dwarves having nearly identical qualities to the Elves and Dwarves of Middle-earth (though the plot is much more similar to that of Star Wars). Some people have gone so", "-24.827599975236808" ], [ "west of the Shire. Unfinished Tales Unfinished Tales, a book of Tolkien's essays and stories about Middle-earth published posthumously in 1980, elaborates on Thorin's reasons for accepting Bilbo into his company. As depicted in the story \"The Quest of Erebor\", Thorin met with Gandalf in Bree shortly before the quest began. Gandalf persuaded him that stealth, rather than force, was needed to infiltrate Erebor; they would therefore need a burglar. Gandalf feared that Sauron could use Smaug as a weapon, and was concerned that Thorin's pride and quick temper would ruin the mission to destroy the dragon. He thought", "-24.818682360521052" ], [ "Glorfindel of Gondolin and Rivendell, and Círdan the Shipwright. Part Three: The Teachings of Pengoloð A brief narrative going back to the Book of Lost Tales period, presenting information provided by Pengoloð of Gondolin to Ælfwine of England in regard to the sundering of the Elven tongues. Part Four: Incomplete Tales Two stories written in the 1950s. The New Shadow \"The New Shadow\" is a sequel to The Lord of the Rings, set a little over a century later in the time of King Eldarion, Aragorn's son. Tolkien wrote three versions of the beginning of this story, but all were", "-24.815642149114865" ], [ "Long after completing The Lord of the Rings, Tolkien would write, \"As far as any character is 'like me', it is Faramir\". Faramir's relationship to war in Tolkien's story reflected that of the author himself, who served as an officer in the British Army during the First World War and fought in the Battle of the Somme in the latter half of 1916.\nTolkien bestowed his dream of \"darkness unescapable\" upon Faramir's character, who relates it to Éowyn in the chapter \"The Steward and the King\" in The Return of the King. Of this, Tolkien wrote, \"For when Faramir speaks of", "-24.765465502801817" ], [ "had a part.\"\nIn chapter three of The Silmarillion, Tolkien writes that by the time the Elves awoke in the world, Sauron had become Melkor's lieutenant and was given command over the newly built stronghold of Angband. To protect the Elves, the Valar made war on Melkor and captured him, but could not find Sauron.\nThus, \"when Melkor was made captive, Sauron escaped and lay hid in Middle-earth; and it can in this way be understood how the breeding of the Orcs (no doubt already begun) went on with increasing speed\". In the Blessed Realm, Melkor feigned reform, but eventually escaped back", "-24.75705726724118" ], [ "was published on March 15, 2016. The fourth and final book, The End of Oz, was released on March 14, 2017. Adaptation In 2013 The CW was reportedly in negotiations to produce a television series based upon the series. However, no further details have been announced. Reception Nerdist gave Dorothy Must Die a positive review, commenting that \"In less skilled hands, all this could make for a trite take on well-worn territory. But Paige gives Amy a strong voice and an even stronger point of view.\" Kirkus Reviews gave a mostly positive review, stating \"In the end, it’s just another", "-24.727762713620905" ], [ "made real, just as Niggle's Tree was made real.\nNiggle's yearnings after truth and beauty (God's creations) are echoed in his great painting; after death, Niggle is rewarded with the realisation (the making-real) of his yearning. Or, if you prefer, Niggle's Tree always existed; he simply echoed it in his art. From a metanarrative viewpoint, Tolkien's Arda is itself a subcreation designed to honour the true stories of the real world. Thus, the Middle-earth legendarium, despite its lack of overt religious elements, can be interpreted as a profoundly religious work.\nAn autobiographical interpretation places Tolkien himself as Niggle—in mundane matters as well", "-24.72568429398234" ], [ "Tolkien's text, depending on the redaction) has a valuable but specific skill. Unlike in folktales of that type, however, the skills of Tolkien's characters do not supplement each other in the resolution of the narrative problem. Tolkien's recasting of the material also incorporates the sluggish youth motif and the abandonment of the hero at the waterfall, both elements found in the analogous Old Icelandic Grettis saga. The suggestion that a waterfall like that of Grettis saga was part of the original setting of the pool of monsters in Beowulf was made by W.W. Lawrence in 1912. Dating and Composition The", "-24.70881740967161" ], [ "High Elves (Warhammer) Fictional history This section is split into information about each High Elf king in Chronological order. Before Chaos entered the world, the Everqueen ruled. This is known as the Golden age of Ulthuan. Not much is said about the Golden age of Ulthuan, except that the elves lived contentedly with their Old One creators looking after the world. Aenarion the Defender After the powers of Chaos entered the world with the disappearance of the Old Ones and the destruction of their interstellar gates at the roof of the world, all seemed lost. As hordes of daemons", "-24.690722329891287" ], [ "principal photography to begin in February 2011. Jackson stated that \"Exploring Tolkien's Middle-earth goes way beyond a normal film-making experience. It's an all-immersive journey into a very special place of imagination, beauty and drama.\" Industrial dispute in New Zealand In May 2010, New Zealand Actors Equity (NZAE) received from the film's producers a sample of the contracts it was offering to actors' agents. NZAE rejected the contracts as not conforming to its voluntary standard, in particular as regarded residuals. NZAE's parent, the Australia-based Media, Entertainment and Arts Alliance, contacted the International Federation of Actors, which on 24 September 2010, issued", "-24.64128532577888" ], [ "When questioned by Frodo, he simply explains that it relates to an Elven woman who gave up her immortality for the love of a Man. Inspiration The tale of Beren and Lúthien was regarded as the central part of his legendarium by Tolkien. The story and the characters reflect the love of Tolkien and his wife Edith. Particularly, the event when Edith danced for him in a glade with flowering hemlocks seems to have inspired his vision of the meeting of Beren and Lúthien. Also some sources indicate that Edith's family disapproved of Tolkien originally, because he was a Catholic.", "-24.64002418133896" ], [ "powerful enough to control the other Rings, Sauron had to transfer most of his power into it. As soon as he put it on, the elves became aware of his ruse, removing and hiding their Three Rings, which Celebrimbor had forged without Sauron's aid. Sauron waged war on the elves, conquering much of Middle-earth and killing Celebrimbor. Thus began the Dark Years, when Sauron took possession of the remaining sixteen Rings, giving seven to the dwarves and nine to men in an effort to corrupt them. The dwarves proved relatively immune to the powers of the Rings, acquiring only a", "-24.634203663103108" ], [ "Nikakis notes several sacrifices that Aragorn makes for the benefit of those around him and for his future people such as waiting to claim his throne (this also including waiting to marry Arwen) until the One Ring is destroyed. Aragorn's portrayal of kingship reveals Tolkien's belief that tyranny (that of Sauron in The Lord of the Rings and Morgoth in The Silmarillion) can only be overthrown with force. Names and titles Aragorn, son of Arathorn was called the Dúnadan (\"Man of the West/Númenórean\", given by Arwen in Lothlórien and much used by Bilbo), Longshanks (given by Bill Ferny in Bree),", "-24.60694769746624" ], [ "and the Blessed Realm was removed from the physical world. Sauron had not foreseen this, and his body was destroyed in the cataclysm. Having expended much effort in the corruption of Númenor, he was diminished, particularly as he forever lost the ability to take a fair form. Yet his spirit rose out of the abyss, and he was able to carry with him the one thing that mattered most. Wrote Tolkien, \"I do not think one need boggle at this spirit carrying off the One Ring, upon which his power of dominating minds now largely depended.\"\nIn ", "-24.59016409085598" ], [ "Gamgee recorded their adventures. Within the context of Tolkien's work, the Thain's Book was the original source for what we know as The Lord of the Rings and The Hobbit. The copy made by Findegil was brought to the Shire and kept by the head of the Took family, the Thain of the Shire, at Great Smials.\nFor a time, Tolkien considered writing a sequel to The Lord of the Rings, called The New Shadow, which would have taken place in Eldarion's reign, and in which Eldarion deals with his people turning to evil practices; however, Tolkien later dropped the", "-24.588982081215363" ], [ "the beings that created it, and returned months earlier than when they left, bringing the trilogy to a conclusion.", "-24.548654494225048" ], [ "for a final war against Men and Elves, he bred armies of monstrous orcs, known as Uruks. The War of the Ring The three volumes of The Lord of the Rings tell the story of Sauron's last attempt at achieving world dominion, as the Third Age reached its climax in the years 3018 and 3019.\nIn The Fellowship of the Ring, Gandalf deduced that the ring that Bilbo had found in Gollum's cave was indeed Sauron's lost Master-ring. He informed Frodo about the true nature of the heirloom Bilbo had left for him, and its terrible potential if Sauron should ever", "-24.543146140524186" ] ]

[ "first of all, they do. Ducks try a lot. There are species of flowers that release pheromones of female wasps/bees to attract males and trick the males into pollinating. Dolphins do all kinds of things. Secondly, most animals have behaviors specific to their species, mating behaviors, chemical scents, physical signals, etc specifically so the animals avoid such confusions because wasted mating is wasted food/energy/risk", "Typically they are aroused by cues from their own species. Mating displays, certain smells, etc. However, there can be confusion. For example, otters have been known to rape baby seals to death. For the most part though, an animal that tries to reproduce with other species won't have offspring and won't pass on it's mating desires.", "There's a youtube video out there of a monkey using a frog as a fleshlight waiting for you.", "From an evolutionary perspective: Individuals that expend energy on reproductive activities that have a chance to succeed will tend to pass on their genes more often than individuals that do not. Therefore there is selective pressure in favor of individuals that can distinguish other species, and prefer members of their own.", "Horse & donkey = mule. Then take my dog, (Please!), ... any thing on 4-legs or 2-twos and it wants to start a new species with. Hm, pillows included." ]

[ [ "are considered different species, often because they can no longer successfully reproduce with one another. This process is intuitive for conspicuous examples such as ring species, wherein a population splits due to a geographical barrier such as a mountain range, leading to allopatric populations. However why species diverge when their geographic ranges overlap (sympatric speciation) is less understood.\nThe sister species Drosophila subquinaria and Drosophila recens overlap in geographic range and are capable of hybridization, meaning they can successfully reproduce with each other; however the offspring are very sickly. Thus, these two species are almost fully reproductively isolated, despite overlapping in", "-33.83301856950857" ], [ "more limited. Some individuals (typically small juveniles) eventually do not acquire enough resources and die or do not reproduce. This reduces population size and slows population growth.\nSpecies also interact with other species that require the same resources. Consequently, interspecific competition can alter the sizes of many species' populations at the same time. Experiments demonstrate that when species compete for a limited resource, one species eventually drives the populations of other species extinct. These experiments suggest that competing species cannot coexist (they cannot live together in the same area) because the best competitor will exclude all other competing species. Intraspecific Intraspecific", "-33.58565903548151" ], [ "is partly caused by irrational speciesism and anthropocentrism. Because interspecies sex occurs in nature, and because humans are animals, supporters argue that zoosexual activity is not \"unnatural\" and is not intrinsically wrong.\nResearch has proven that non-human animals can and do have sex for non-reproductive purposes (and for pleasure). In 2006, a Danish Animal Ethics Council report concluded that ethically performed zoosexual activity is capable of providing a positive experience for all participants, and that some non-human animals are sexually attracted to humans (for example, dolphins).\nSome zoophiles claim that they are not abusive towards animals:\n\"In other recent surveys, the majority of", "-33.06751192724914" ], [ "make it easier for its members to find sexual partners. The members of the neighboring species, whose population sizes have decreased, experience greater difficulty in finding mates, and therefore form pairs less frequently than the larger species. This has a snowball effect, with large species growing at the expense of the smaller, rarer species, eventually driving them to extinction. Eventually, only a few species remain, each distinctly different from the other. The cost of rarity not only involves the costs of failure to find a mate, but also indirect costs such as the cost of communication in seeking out a", "-32.59493153945368" ], [ "sabotage males, and mating gives them an opportunity to do so. By choosing to mate exclusively with males who are unlikely to survive because of their burdens, the females ensure that as the males die, more food and other resources will remain for females and their young. Because females are the limiting resource in most species, as their numbers increase, population fitness will also increase.\nJust as a given amount of land can only produce a finite amount of grazing, and a limited amount of grazing can only support a limited number of grazing animals, so a given number of grazing", "-32.39761574096974" ], [ "reached approximately the body length of the animal itself, possibly because it could no longer run or evade predators—thus ecological selection seems to have ultimately trumped sexual.\nIt is also important to distinguish ecological selection in cases of extreme ecological abundance, e.g. the human built environment, cities or zoos, where sexual selection must generally predominate, as there is no threat of the species or individuals losing their ecological niche. Even in these situations, however, where survival is not in question, the variety and the quality of food, e.g. as presented by male to female monkeys in exchange for sex in", "-32.18450558948098" ], [ "and the particular survival strategies that they employ. Sexual selection In order to sexually reproduce, both males and females need to find a mate. Generally in animals mate choice is made by females while males compete to be chosen. This can lead organisms to extreme efforts in order to reproduce, such as combat and display, or produce extreme features caused by a positive feedback known as a Fisherian runaway. Thus sexual reproduction, as a form of natural selection, has an effect on evolution. Sexual dimorphism is where the basic phenotypic traits vary between males and females of the same species.", "-32.03576097032055" ], [ "Competition can cause species to evolve differences in traits. This occurs because the individuals of a species with traits similar to competing species always experience strong interspecific competition. These individuals have less reproduction and survival than individuals with traits that differ from their competitors. Consequently, they will not contribute many offspring to future generations. For example, Darwin's finches can be found alone or together on the Galapagos Islands. Both species' populations actually have more individuals with intermediate-sized beaks when they live on islands without the other species present. However, when both species are present on the same island, competition is", "-31.831054017296992" ], [ "reproduction Organisms that reproduce through asexual reproduction tend to grow in number exponentially. However, because they rely on mutation for variations in their DNA, all members of the species have similar vulnerabilities. Organisms that reproduce sexually yield a smaller number of offspring, but the large amount of variation in their genes makes them less susceptible to disease.\nMany organisms can reproduce sexually as well as asexually. Aphids, slime molds, sea anemones, some species of starfish (by fragmentation), and many plants are examples. When environmental factors are favorable, asexual reproduction is employed to exploit suitable conditions for survival such as an abundant", "-31.819972604280338" ], [ "for reproduction. Competition among members of the same species is known as intraspecific competition, while competition between individuals of different species is known as interspecific competition. According to the competitive exclusion principle, species less suited to compete for resources should either adapt or die out. According to evolutionary theory, this competition within and between species for resources plays a critical role in natural selection.", "-31.69148040667642" ], [ "cannibalized males can mate longer, thus having longer sperm transfers. Monogamy Males in these mating systems are generally monogamous, if not bigynous, and have sexually evolved accordingly. Since males of these cannibalistic species have adapted to the extreme mating system, and usually mate only once with a polyandrous female, they are considered monogynous. Sexual dimorphism Sexual dimorphism in size has been proposed as an explanation for the widespread nature of sexual cannibalism across distantly related arthropods. Typically, male birds and mammals are larger as they participate in male-male competition. However, in arthropods this size dimorphism ratio is reversed, with females", "-31.67113750547287" ], [ "has been seen in addition to two males upon one female. Very rarely do females accept a mate from a different species or genus, and if they do, it is usually because they are too immature to realize the correct sexual cues of males from their own species. However, these \"incorrect\" matings do occur so that there is diversity in the species, as seen through the different larval patterns that have evolved in the species, depending on the type of plant the eggs are laid upon.", "-31.58936038025422" ], [ "large males, and a few large males mate with multiple females, whereas small males lose their chance to mate. Small males either choose to become sneakers (kleptogamy) or choose to transform into females because all females technically have high mating opportunities. By turning into females, males can ensure that they produce many descendants.\nSome gobies have extraordinarily developed sex change ability. Gobiodon histrio from the Great Barrier Reef exhibits bidirectional sex changes. G. histrio is one of the very few species that can change sex in both ways. When two G. historio females, which used to be males, are on the", "-31.558131301542744" ], [ "could ever hope to adapt to a new predator, competitor, etc. This should not seem surprising, as one species may have been in evolutionary struggles for millions of years while the other might never have faced such pressures. This is a common problem in isolated ecosystems such as Australia or the Hawaiian Islands. In Australia, many invasive species, such as cane toads and rabbits, have spread rapidly due to a lack of competition and a lack of adaptations to cane toad bufotenine on the part of potential predators. Introduced species are a major reason why some indigenous species", "-31.493392020231113" ], [ "females than males increases the chances of species survival because one male can fertilize multiple females, so fewer males are needed. However, having too many female deer may lead to more intense polygynous mating behaviors. Because males in a polygynous mating system are each responsible for fertilizing multiple females, the loss of a single reproducing male would reduce the reproductive output of several females in a given breeding season; in a comparable monogamous system, loss of a single male only affects the reproductive capacity of one female. For this reason, the population growth rate of a polygynous system is subject", "-31.472430107183754" ], [ "even influence the evolution of species as they adapt to avoid competition. This evolution may result in the exclusion of a species in the habitat, niche separation, and local extinction. The changes of these species over time can also change communities as other species must adapt. Competitive exclusion The competitive exclusion principle, also called \"Gause's law\" which arose from mathematical analysis and simple competition models states that two species that use the same limiting resource in the same way in the same space and time cannot coexist and must diverge from each other over time in order for the two", "-31.16442394071055" ], [ "impossible for mating partners to act as both male and female at the same time.\nThey have unusual mating habits: they can mate in pairs with one acting as a male, the other as a female, but they commonly occur in quite crowded numbers during the mating season, and this often leads to chains of three or more sea hares mating together. The one at the front acts as a female and the one at the back as a male. The animal(s) in between are acting as both males and females, in other words, the animal receiving sperm passes its own", "-31.12210885656532" ], [ "demanding chain of behavior. In fact, the smallest difference in the courting patterns of two species is enough to prevent mating (for example, a specific song pattern acts as an isolation mechanism in distinct species of grasshopper of the genus Chorthippus).\nEven where there are minimal morphological differences between species, differences in behavior can be enough to prevent mating. For example, Drosophila melanogaster and D. simulans which are considered twin species due to their morphological similarity, do not mate even if they are kept together in a laboratory. Drosophila ananassae and D. pallidosa are twin species from Melanesia. In", "-30.99866394996934" ], [ "species to coexist. One species will often exhibit an advantage in resource use. This superior competitor will out-compete the other with more efficient use of the limiting resource. As a result, the inferior competitor will suffer a decline in population over time. It will be excluded from the area and replaced by the superior competitor.\nA well-documented example of competitive exclusion was observed to occur between Dolly Varden charr (Trout)(Salvelinus malma) and white spotted char (Trout)(S. leucomaenis) in Japan. Both of these species were morphologically similar but the former species was found primarily at higher elevations than the latter. Although there", "-30.697667990112677" ], [ "to its origin. In fact, since even earlier than Darwin, it had been realised that most organisms tend to avoid closely inbred matings. The reasons must have to do with the function of sexuality and this is not quite yet resolved (see e.g. Bell, 1982; Shields, 1982; Hamilton, 1982); but whatever the function is, here must be another set of reasons for discriminating. Some animals clearly do use discrimination for purposes of mate selection. Japanese quail for example evidently use an early imprinting of their chick companions towards obtaining, much later, preferred degrees of consanguinity in their mates (Bateson 1983).", "-30.693507333286107" ], [ "breeding season. Some species show a higher level of mate fidelity than others. However, many species readily switch mates when the opportunity arises. H. abdominalis and H. breviceps have been shown to breed in groups, showing no continuous mate preference. Many more species' mating habits have not been studied, so it is unknown how many species are actually monogamous, or how long those bonds actually last.\nAlthough monogamy within fish is not common, it does appear to exist for some. In this case, the mate-guarding hypothesis may be an explanation. This hypothesis states, “males remain with a single female because", "-30.646324898698367" ], [ "in raising offspring. These pairs may last for a lifetime, such as in pigeons, or it may occasionally change from one mating season to another, such as in emperor penguins. In contrast with tournament species, these pair-bonding species have lower levels of male aggression, competition and little sexual dimorphism. Zoologists and biologists now have evidence that monogamous pairs of animals are not always sexually exclusive. Many animals that form pairs to mate and raise offspring regularly engage in sexual activities with extra-pair partners. This includes previous examples, such as swans. Sometimes, these extra-pair sexual activities lead to offspring. Genetic tests", "-30.628564218524843" ], [ "via the previous elimination of species without realized niches. This asserts that at some point in the past, several species inhabited an area, and all of these species had overlapping fundamental niches. However, through competitive exclusion, the less competitive species were eliminated, leaving only the species that were able to coexist (i.e. the most competitive species whose realized niches did not overlap). Again, this process does not include any evolutionary change of individual species, but it is merely the product of the competitive exclusion principle. Also, because no species is out-competing any other species in the", "-30.576866917777807" ], [ "animal's chance of obtaining a mate. As a result, certain animals successfully use a conventional mating strategy while others employing this strategy fail to obtain mates. Over time, phenotypic variance arises both between and within the sexes, with males exhibiting greater diversity in phenotype. The resulting variance in male fitness creates a niche in which alternative strategies may develop, such as sneaking to obtain a mate. The alternative behaviours persist as part of this polymorphism, or variety of phenotypes, because the average fitness of unconventional males equals the average reproductive success of conventional males.\nAlternative behaviours are maintained through frequency-dependent selection", "-30.504858618369326" ], [ "sexual selection separate populations to little or no interbreeding so that new species are formed, but also homogenize each population/species by unforgiving sexual selection against differences from a \"species norm\" which makes the species more adapted to its specific environment but decreases the chance of some individuals of the species surviving environmental change. The predicted result is that while taxa with high sexual selection speciate fast, the resulting species are picked off one by one when the environment changes between different states until the taxon dies out, while species-poorer taxa with high intraspecies diversity and low sexual selection have species", "-30.455639234161936" ], [ "pull the non-territorial male off the female and continue to copulate with the free female. It seems that in general, non-territorial males mate fewer times than territorial males. Mating behavior Because A. maculosum is a solitary bee, males do not go and look for emerging females. In addition, because females are dispersed widely, this makes it more difficult for males to find emerging females. He arrives at the resource first and lets the females come to him. The male takes part in polygyny to maximize fertilization because males have little genetic gain when mating with females. Therefore, males will mate", "-30.44165916228667" ], [ "of a female, in order to make that female more sexually receptive or to re-mate. By doing this, a male might be able to prolong its lifetime mating opportunities.\nFemale fish may compete for mating opportunities with males by raiding the male’s nest and eating the eggs inside.\nFemales may also use cannibalism – particularly birds and bees that live in a joint-nesting social structure – as a way to establish reproductive dominance by eating the eggs of a co-breeder.\nIn some animal cultures, competition may lead to instances of egg thievery, nest takeovers, and cuckoldry. However, the consumption of an animal's brood", "-30.378380195586942" ], [ "animals of the same species are present, it could potentially decrease genetic variance in a population, for example if the females remain in a single male's territory. Insect castes The caste system of insects enables eusociality, the division of labor between non-breeding and breeding individuals. A series of polyphenisms determines whether larvae develop into queens, workers, and, in some cases soldiers. In the case of the ant, P. morrisi, an embryo must develop under certain temperature and photoperiod conditions in order to become a reproductively-active queen. This allows for control of the mating season but, like sex determination, limits the", "-30.27003954948657" ], [ "This mechanism is powerful enough to create features that are strongly disadvantageous to the males in other ways. For example, some male birds of paradise have wing or tail streamers that are so long that they impede flight, while their brilliant colors may make the males more vulnerable to predators. In the extreme, sexual selection may drive species to extinction, as has been argued for the enormous horns of the male Irish elk, which may have made it difficult for mature males to move and feed.\nDifferent forms of sexual selection are possible, including rivalry among males, and selection of females", "-30.086437023597682" ], [ "produce such defenses are often poor competitors when predators are absent. Species can coexist through a competition-predation trade-off if predators are more abundant when the less defended species is common, and less abundant if the well-defended species is common. This effect has been criticized as being weak, because theoretical models suggest that only two species within a community can coexist because of this mechanism. Coexistence without niche differentiation: exceptions to the rule Some competing species have been shown to coexist on the same resource with no observable evidence of niche differentiation and in “violation” of the competitive exclusion", "-30.01667798566632" ], [ "evolution depends on a variety of circumstances. Animals with few offspring can devote more resources to the nurturing and protection of each individual offspring, thus reducing the need for many offspring. On the other hand, animals with many offspring may devote fewer resources to each individual offspring; for these types of animals it is common for many offspring to die soon after birth, but enough individuals typically survive to maintain the population. Some organisms such as honey bees and fruit flies retain sperm in a process called sperm storage thereby increasing the duration of their fertility. Asexual vs. sexual", "-29.841420103562996" ], [ "Unintentional or accidental introductions are most often a byproduct of human movements, and are thus unbound to human motivations. Subsequent range expansion of introduced species may or may not involve human activity. Intentional introductions Species that humans intentionally transport to new regions can subsequently become successfully established in two ways. In the first case, organisms are purposely released for establishment in the wild. It is sometimes difficult to predict whether a species will become established upon release, and if not initially successful, humans have made repeated introductions to improve the probability that the species will survive and eventually reproduce in", "-29.836202733917162" ], [ "plants rely on for fertilization. This is unusual, however, considering that many plant species have evolved to become incompatible with their own gametes. While these species would not be well served by having autogamous self-fertilization as a reproductive mechanism, other species, which do not have self-incompatibility, would benefit from autogamy. Protists have the advantage of diversifying their modes of reproduction. This is useful for a multitude of reasons. First, if there is an unfavorable change in the environment that puts the ability to deliver offspring at risk, then it is advantageous for an organism to have autogamy at", "-29.798330421646824" ], [ "through tactics such as mate guarding. In these species, the males will prevent other males from copulating with their chosen female or vice versa. Males will help to fend off other aggressive males, and keep their mate for themselves. This is not seen in all species, such as some primates, in which the female may be more dominant than the male and may not need help to avoid unwanted mating; the pair may still benefit from some form of mate assistance, however, and therefore monogamy may be enforced to ensure the assistance of males. Bi-parental care is not seen in", "-29.781338251021225" ], [ "kinds of fruit flies and foods. Research in 2005 has shown that this rapid evolution of reproductive isolation may in fact be a relic of infection by Wolbachia bacteria.\nAlternatively, these observations are consistent with the notion that sexual creatures are inherently reluctant to mate with individuals whose appearance or behavior is different from the norm. The risk that such deviations are due to heritable maladaptations is very high. Thus, if a sexual creature, unable to predict natural selection's future direction, is conditioned to produce the fittest offspring possible, it will avoid mates with unusual habits or features. Sexual creatures will", "-29.762740957841743" ], [ "some species, still influences reproduction, however it becomes a sexual selection factor. Similar phenomena can be said to exist in humans e.g. the \"mail order bride\" who primarily mates for economic advantage.\nDifferentiating ecological selection from sexual is useful especially in such extreme cases; Above examples demonstrate exceptions rather than a typical selection in the wild. In general, ecological selection is assumed to be the dominant process in natural selection, except in highly cognitive species that do not, or do not always, pair bond, e.g. walrus, gorilla, human. But even in these species, one would distinguish cases where", "-29.716761189105455" ], [ "native mutualism may become less important than conserving the new one. Alien species involved in mutualisms may actually be desirable for conservationists to protect in a more general way. Alien species are particularly likely to generate highly generalised and asymmetric mutualisms, which help stabilise communities, making them less vulnerable to decline and extinctions (Aizen et al. 2008).\nIn other situations, conservation will be facilitated by disrupting mutualisms involving alien species. For example alien bumblebees (Bombus terrestris) have displaced many native pollinators, and pollinated some unwanted weed species, across the globe (Hingston et al. 2002). These mutualisms could lead to a decline", "-29.67149383260403" ], [ "the male would spend far more time searching for another mate. The monogamous behavior allows the male to have a mate consistently, without having to waste energy searching for other females. Furthermore, there is an apparent connection between the time a male invests in their offspring and their monogamous behavior. A male which is required to care for the offspring to ensure their survival is much more likely to exhibit monogamous behavior over one that does not. \nThe selection factors in favor of different mating strategies for a species of animal, however, may potentially operate on a large number of", "-29.637021305185044" ], [ "in reproduction primarily by access to mates, so they claim a territory and wait for a female to pass through. Big males are, therefore, more successful in mating because they claim territories near the female nesting sites that are more sought after. Smaller males, on the other hand, monopolize less competitive sites in foraging areas so that they may mate with reduced conflict.\nExtreme manifestations of this conflict are seen throughout nature. For example, the male Panorpa scorpionflies attempt to force copulation. Male scorpionflies usually acquire mates by presenting them with edible nuptial gifts in the forms", "-29.625809727382148" ], [ "animals can only sustain a limited number of predators. Similar limitations apply to all living things, and are known as the carrying capacity of a physical area. If males' burdens are more likely to draw the interest of local predators, then such males effectively shift predation away from females and their young. In this case, the females and young will gain an added benefit from decreased predation, and enjoy even higher rates of survivability.\nAbraham's explanation reunites the major split in sexual selection—intrasexual selection (male combat) and intersexual selection (female choice)--together under one rubric. Under female sabotage, the increase in resources", "-29.616401439532638" ], [ "of individuals (mates or potential sexual partners), and that it assists in social communication, reducing or redirecting potential aggressive tendencies. These functions are not mutually exclusive. Evidence suggests that different species may participate for different reasons, and that those reasons may change depending on the season and the individuals involved. In most cases, allopreening involves members of the same species, although some cases of interspecific allopreening are known; the vast majority of these involve icterids, though at least one instance of mutual grooming between a black vulture and a crested caracara has been documented. Birds seeking allopreening adopt specific, ritualised", "-29.60203034291044" ], [ "displaced by the interaction and experience lower fitness. Before one is displaced, the two species can go through intense competition. Two different ways animals can experience competition could be resource competition and reproductive competition. Resource competition could consist of fighting for food or territorial locations strategically safe from harm whether that be from predators or weather. Reproductive competition is the result of similar species exhibiting similar mating and courting systems. T. ceperoi shares some common territory with T. subulata because of common habitat requirements, however they do not \"co-occur locally\". Experiments were conducted by based on the mechanisms of coexistence", "-29.601848443649942" ], [ "cycles between low and high competitiveness. Third parties within a species often favour highly competitive strategies leading to species extinction when environmental conditions are harsh (evolutionary suicide).\nCompetition is also present between species (\"interspecific\"). When resources are limited, several species may depend on these resources. Thus, each of the species competes with the others to gain access to the resources. As a result, species less suited to compete for the resources may die out unless they adapt by character dislocation, for instance. According to evolutionary theory, this competition within and between species for resources plays a significant role in natural selection.", "-29.57333140358969" ], [ "because a male reproduced more often due to increased ability to attract females, does not necessarily mean the offspring have inherited the traits that result in increased fitness. Variation in mating behavior between different populations Females of different geographic regions—and subsequently, different genetic backgrounds—often show great variation in mating behavior. Certain strains of females avoid multiple mating events while other strains of female engage in higher degrees of polyandry. This variation suggests that polyandry can be advantageous in some populations but not in others. Mate choice in female beetles Female beetles vary in which males they choose to copulate with.", "-29.570435759611428" ], [ "alternative mating techniques. \nThe number of mates available to the female will also change the frequency of males adopting alternative mating techniques. If the female does not have many options of males to mate with then males of a lower quality are more likely to be chosen by the females as they have less options. This means that males that would normally have to adopt an alternative mating strategy in a larger population can now mate using the primary mating strategy. Evolutionarily stable strategy The diversity of mating strategies within animal populations may be understood through evolutionary game theory ", "-29.55060449562734" ], [ "competition occurs when members of the same species compete for the same resources in an ecosystem. Interspecific Interspecific competition may occur when individuals of two separate species share a limiting resource in the same area. If the resource cannot support both populations, then lowered fecundity, growth, or survival may result in at least one species. Interspecific competition has the potential to alter populations, communities and the evolution of interacting species. An example among animals could be the case of cheetahs and lions; since both species feed on similar prey, they are negatively impacted by the presence of the other because", "-29.54114144347841" ], [ "thereby delaying the time for mating. Number of mates Multiple mating can be beneficial to certain species because it allows for increased reproduction and a variety of genes in offspring. In some cases, females prefer multiple matings because it increases their lifespan as they receive nutrients from males during copulation. It is possible for diamondback moths to mate multiple times, but monogamy seems to be more common. When males have more than one mate, they do not receive any benefit. In fact, their fitness and lifespan decreases along with the success rate of reproduction. Additionally, females who mate with multiple", "-29.500987552804872" ], [ "are better equipped to resist male courtship attempts, and only the largest males are able to mate with them.\nAssortative mating can, at times, arise as a consequence of social competition. Traits in certain individuals may indicate competitive ability which allows them to occupy the best territories. Individuals with similar traits that occupy similar territories are more likely to mate with one another. In this scenario, assortative mating does not necessarily arise from choice, but rather by proximity. This was noted in western bluebirds although there is no definite evidence that this is the major factor resulting in color dependent assortative", "-29.417039547261083" ], [ "female's reproductive cycle), which increases the chances of successful impregnation. Some animal sexual behaviour involves competition, sometimes fighting, between multiple males. Females often select males for mating only if they appear strong and able to protect themselves. The male that wins a fight may also have the chance to mate with a larger number of females and will therefore pass on his genes to their offspring.\nHistorically, it was believed that only humans and a small number of other species performed sexual acts other than for reproduction, and that animals' sexuality was instinctive and a simple \"stimulus-response\" behaviour. However,", "-29.377654910553247" ], [ "mating for behavioral traits allows for more efficient communication between the individuals and they can cooperate better to raise their offspring.\nOn the other hand, mating between individuals of genotypes which are too similar allows for the accumulation of harmful recessive alleles, which can decrease fitness. Such mating between genetically similar individuals is termed inbreeding which can result in the emergence of autosomal recessive disorders. Moreover, assortative mating for aggression in birds can lead to inadequate parental care. An alternate strategy can be disassortative mating, in which one individual is aggressive and guards the nest site while the other individual is", "-29.274581338686403" ], [ "possible sedimentation and run-off of toxic chemicals that may injure or kill tadpoles and adult frogs.\nThis species of frog is quickly declining because of many reasons. One reason that might not be thought of as a main reason is genetic isolation. If these frogs are not all together in one general area they will not be able to reproduce. Since there is a lot of isolation of the Mississippi gopher frog they cannot reproduce with other frogs, which makes the population smaller. If they do reproduce, it would be inbreeding which will lower the genetic variability of the frog. This", "-29.24733111425303" ], [ "mating season. Due to this, they might end up leaving their group when they are pregnant or with their immature offspring.\nMales are typically dominant to females, but females still have a high status in the group. and are capable of forming coalitions against dominant males. Rarely do males form coalitions even if a group of males keeps their distance from the main group or are solitary. Several theories suggest that one of the reasons that male squirrel monkeys do not form coalitions is because of the lack of kinship due to emigration. Coalitions may also increase mortality risks within the", "-29.224530498380773" ], [ "the health of a species population. As Dr Rob Knell states 'Because these high-quality males with large secondary sexual traits tend to father a high proportion of the offspring, their 'good genes' can spread rapidly, so populations of strongly sexually selected animals can adapt quickly to new environments. Removing these males reverses this effect and could have serious and unintended consequences. If the population is having to adapt to a new environment and you remove even a small proportion of these high quality males, you could drive it to extinction.'\nCited from The League Against Cruel Sports \"A November 2004 study", "-29.222888775417232" ], [ "result of the different reproductive strategies used by males and females—specifically, the greater competition among males for mates. In mammals, males and females have distinct reproductive strategies based on the physiology of reproduction. Because females gestate, birth, feed, and invest more overall resources in each of their offspring, they are more selective with their mates but have greater certainty of being able to reproduce.\nMales, in contrast, can mate at a very low energetic cost once they have found a partner, but are only able to attract a female if they have physical or social characteristics that can be converted into", "-29.221405259449966" ], [ "interspecific competition, since both species feed on the same prey, and can be negatively impacted by the presence of the other because they will have less food.\nCompetition is only one of many interacting biotic and abiotic factors that affect community structure. Moreover, competition is not always a straightforward, direct, interaction. Interspecific competition may occur when individuals of two separate species share a limiting resource in the same area. If the resource cannot support both populations, then lowered fecundity, growth, or survival may result in at least one species. Interspecific competition has the potential to alter populations, communities and the evolution", "-29.172607669082936" ], [ "L. sinapis and L. reali. These two species can mate with each other (heterospecific mating), but it is in their best interest, for the viability and fecundity of their offspring, that they mate only within their species (conspecific mating). Male members of the two species try and court or mate with females of both species with equal frequency, but the females only mate with members of their own species. This female choice has caused the two species to diverge and become reproductively isolated. There is a time and energy cost that the females bear when males of the opposite species", "-29.097082832828164" ], [ "form pairs to mate and raise offspring, but still will partake in extra pair copulation with various males or females in order to increase their biological fitness. This is a relatively new concept in salamanders, and has not been seen frequently – it is also concerning that the act of monogamy may inhibit the salamanders reproductive rates and biological success. However, the study which was conducted in cooperation by the University of Louisiana, Lafayette, and the University of Virginia showed that the salamanders are not inhibited by this monogamy if they show alternative strategies with other mates.\nAzara's night monkeys are", "-29.069472817587666" ], [ "the wild they rarely produce hybrids, although in the laboratory it is possible to produce fertile offspring. Studies of their sexual behavior show that the males court the females of both species but the females show a marked preference for mating with males of their own species. A different regulator region has been found on Chromosome II of both species that affects the selection behavior of the females.\nPheromones play an important role in the sexual isolation of insect species. These compounds serve to identify individuals of the same species and of the same or different sex. Evaporated molecules of volatile", "-29.067712167743593" ], [ "specific genes, epigenetics and other factors are known to determine whether individuals will permanently be unable to breed or able to reach reproductive maturity under particular social conditions, and cooperatively breeding fish, birds and mammals in which a breeding pair depends on helpers whose reproduction is suppressed for the survival of their own offspring. In eusocial and cooperatively breeding animals most non-reproducing helpers engage in kin selection, enhancing their own inclusive fitness by ensuring the survival of offspring they are closely related to. Wolf packs suppress subordinate breeding. Food shortages (resource availability) Female mammals experience delays in the onset of", "-29.054831282963278" ], [ "all monogamous species, however, so this may not be the only cause of female enforcement. Mate assistance and territory defense In species where mate guarding is not needed, there may still be a need for the pair to protect each other. An example of this would be sentinel behavior in avian species. The main advantage of sentinel behavior is that many survival tactics are improved. As stated, the male or female will act as a sentinel and signal to their mate if a predator is present. This can lead to an increase in survivorship, foraging, and incubation of eggs.\nMale care", "-29.052800778794335" ], [ "that are uncommon in their home range become out-of-control invasions in distant but similar climates. The reasons for this have not always been clear and Charles Darwin felt it was unlikely that exotic species would ever be able to grow abundantly in a place in which they had not evolved. The reality is that the vast majority of species exposed to a new habitat do not reproduce successfully. Occasionally, however, some populations do take hold and after a period of acclimation can increase in numbers significantly, having destructive effects on many elements of the native environment of which they have", "-29.030831239419058" ], [ "to the theory of natural selection, which rests on the assumption that individuals compete to survive and maximize their reproductive successes. Additionally, some species have been found to perform cooperative behaviors that may at first sight seem detrimental to their own evolutionary fitness. For example, when a ground squirrel sounds an alarm call to warn other group members of a nearby coyote, it draws attention to itself and increases its own odds of being eaten. There have been multiple hypotheses for the evolution of cooperation, all of which are rooted in Hamilton's models based on inclusive fitness. These models hypothesize", "-28.9343967922905" ], [ "within populations. Examples of this behaviour include re-mating, offspring produced by multiple fathers and high rates of male infanticide. Nonrandom mating can occur in this species within sibling groups because juveniles do not travel very far from the vicinity of where they were born. The species also allows random mating due to single females colonizing new nesting sites and male migration from other nests. Female dispersal to new locations has shown to have a larger impact on enhancing genetic differences amongst offspring than can be overcome by males moving between the populations. The environment of spiders should be taken", "-28.933466232498176" ], [ "achievable, each species will occupy an edge of the niche and will become more specialized to that area thus minimizing competition. This phenomenon often results in the separation of species over time as they become more specialized to their edge of the niche, called niche differentiation. The species do not have to be in separate habitats however to avoid niche overlap. Some species adapt regionally to utilizing different resources than they ordinarily would in order to avoid competition.\nThere have been several well-documented cases in birds where species that are very similar change their habitat use where they overlap. For example,", "-28.849936363636516" ], [ "sex-linked and lie on the W chromosome of the female. Male cuckoos, which like all male birds have no W chromosome, are able to mate with females of any gens, and thereby maintain the cuckoo as one species. This is not the case in other brood parasites, such as cowbirds, in which both the male and female imprint on their preferred host. This leads to speciation, such as the indigo bird, which is suggested by the fact they have a more recent evolutionary origin than their hosts.", "-28.810754795442335" ], [ "Interspecific competition occurs when different species compete for resources. In both cases, the individual nematodes compete with each other indirectly by consuming the same resource, which reduces their fitness and may result in the local extinction of one species inside the host (Koppenhofer and Kaya 1996). Interference competition, in which species compete directly, can also occur. For example, a steinernematid species that infects a host first usually excludes a heterorhabditid species. The mechanism for this superiority may be antibiotics produced by Xenorhabdus, the symbiotic bacterium of the steinernematid. These antibiotics prevent the symbiotic bacterium of the heterorhabditid from multiplying (Kaya", "-28.807404285063967" ], [ "actions. But all subjects did better when they were paired with a bolder partner. The researchers suggested that in evolution, cooperation can emerge because bolder individuals encourage a risk-averse one to engage. Ravens Massen, Ritter, and Bugnyar investigated the cooperative capabilities of captive common ravens (Corvus corax), a species that frequently cooperates in the wild. They found that without training ravens cooperated in the loose-string task. The animals did not seem to pay attention to the behavior of their partners while cooperating, and, like rooks, did not seem to understand the need for a partner to be successful. Tolerance of", "-28.80479685550381" ], [ "potential mates. These phenotypes are species specific, resulting in varying strategies for successful sexual reproduction. For example, large males are sexually selected for in elephant seals for their large size helps the male fight off other males, but small males are sexually selected for in spiders for they can mate with the female more quickly while avoiding sexual cannibalism. However, despite the large range of sexually selected phenotypes, most anisogamous species follow a set of predictable desirable traits and selective behaviors based on general reproductive success models. Female phenotypes For internal fertilizers, female investment is high in reproduction since", "-28.79676519977511" ], [ "relationship evolves at a significantly faster rate than the other, the slower species will be at a competitive disadvantage and risk the loss of nutrients. Because the two species in the system are so closely linked, they respond to external environment factors together and each species affects the evolutionary outcome of the other. In other words, each species exerts selective pressure on the other. Population size is also a major factor in the outcome because differences in gene flow and genetic drift could cause evolutionary changes that do not match the direction of selection expected by forces due to the", "-28.768293431028724" ], [ "reasons as mentioned above. This also promotes tameness between the bird and the owner; the bird is unable to react to flee and must become dependent on its owner for lengthy travel.\nLovebirds of different species can mate and produce both sterile and fertile hybrid offspring, for example Agapornis personatus mate with Agapornis fischeri will produce fertile hybrid offspring. These offspring have behaviors of both parents. It is recommended to only place birds of the same species together, or of the same sex for this reason.\nThere are two lovebird societies in the United States:\nthe Agapornis Breeders & Exhibitors and \nthe African", "-28.712264222325757" ], [ "has been a surprise to biologists and zoologists, as social monogamy can no longer be assumed to determine how genes are distributed in a species.\nElacatinus, also widely known as neon gobies, also exhibit social monogamy. Hetereosexual pairs of fish belonging to the genus Elacatinus remain closely associated during both reproductive and non-reproductive periods, and often reside in same cleaning station to serve client fish. Fish of this genus frequently mate with a new partner after they are widowed. Evolution in animals Socially monogamous species are scattered throughout the animal kingdom: A few insects, a few fish, about nine-tenths of birds,", "-28.688236424932256" ], [ "reproduction in the animal world is facilitated through opposite-sex sexual activity, although there are also animals that reproduce asexually, including protozoa and lower invertebrates.\nReproductive sex does not necessarily require a heterosexual orientation, since orientation refers to a long-term enduring pattern of sexual and emotional attraction leading often to long-term social bonding, while reproductive sex requires only the basic act of intercourse only to fertile the ovum by sperm, often done one time only. Behavioral studies According to Sexual Behavior in the Human Male by Alfred Kinsey and several other modern studies, significant minorities of humans have had both heterosexual and", "-28.58886155928485" ], [ "large population, \"intermarriages\" (crossing) would even out these variations and explain why species appeared constant, but reproductive isolation of a small sub-group could lead to divergence and geographic speciation: \"animals on separate islands ought to become different if kept long enough apart with slightly differing circumstances\", as in the various species he had seen of Galápagos tortoises and mockingbirds, the Falkland Fox and the Chiloe fox, the \"Inglish and Irish Hare\". What Darwin called \"inosculation\" would abruptly introduce a clear distinction between even the most closely related species, explaining the rheas which remained distinct species with overlapping territories.\nUniquely for his", "-28.584639770444483" ], [ "testes, with the ability for a change to the preference of one sex also occasionally observed. The species has also been known to hybridise with the closely related species Acanthopagrus australis forming viable offspring, themselves able to backcross with the parent species. This is only known from one coastal lake where the two species are landlocked together for extended periods, promoting interbreeding and the production of offspring with morphological traits intermediate between the two species. The setting required to cause hybridisation, however is too rare to consider the two species subspecies, or even a single species. Predators Apart from humans,", "-28.581770454300568" ], [ "very widespread species of this genus. However, there are many clear differences between recognized species in colouration, breeding times and even scale morphology. Many neighbouring species have slightly different mating seasons and behaviour, which is thought to explain why the species maintain their differences despite \"strong reproductive compatibility\". These differences are the basis for the present consensus in the scientific community that Nautilnus is constituted of nine species instead of nine races of a single species.\nGenetically speaking, the jewelled gecko (N. gemmeus) of the southern South Island is the most genetically distinct of the recognized species. In fact, it is", "-28.56117506144801" ], [ "resulting in what has been described as an evolutionary arms race between males and females. Conflict over mating Males’ reproductive successes are often limited by access to mates, whereas females’ reproductive successes are more often limited by access to resources. Thus, for a given sexual encounter, it benefits the male to mate, but benefits the female to be choosy and resist. For example, male small tortoiseshell butterfly compete to gain the best territory to mate. Another example of this conflict can be found in the Eastern carpenter bee, Xylocopa virginica. Males of this species are limited", "-28.556316199305" ], [ "several species, including wedge-capped capuchin monkeys.\nCooperative behavior may also be enforced, where their failure to cooperate results in negative consequences. One of the best examples of this is worker policing, which occurs in social insect colonies.\nThe cooperative pulling paradigm is a popular experimental design used to assess if and under which conditions animals cooperate. It involves two or more animals pulling rewards towards themselves via an apparatus they can not successfully operate alone. Between species Cooperation can occur between members of different species. For interspecific cooperation to be evolutionarily stable, it must benefit individuals in both species. ", "-28.553439498180524" ], [ "of individuals or genes within a species: for this reason, there exist complex mating rituals, which can be very complex even if they are often regarded as fixed action patterns. The stickleback's complex mating ritual, studied by Tinbergen, is regarded as a notable example.\nOften in social life, animals fight for the right to reproduce, as well as social supremacy. A common example of fighting for social and sexual supremacy is the so-called pecking order among poultry. Every time a group of poultry cohabitate for a certain time length, they establish a pecking order. In these groups, one chicken dominates the", "-28.55194537821808" ], [ "are the parts that are involved in the production and exchange of gametes in sexual reproduction. Many species, both plants and animals, have sexual specialization, and their populations are divided into male and female individuals. Conversely, there are also species in which there is no sexual specialization, and the same individuals both contain masculine and feminine reproductive organs, and they are called hermaphrodites. This is very frequent in plants. Evolution Sexual reproduction first probably evolved about a billion years ago within ancestral single-celled eukaryotes. The reason for the evolution of sex, and the reason(s) it has survived to the present,", "-28.542845223331824" ], [ "patch).\nFor competing species within the same community to coexist, they have to meet one fundamental requirement: the impact of competition from a species on itself must exceed its competitive impact on other species. In other words, intraspecific competition must exceed interspecific competition. For example, jackrabbits living in the same area compete for food and nesting grounds. Such competition within the same species is called intraspecific competition, which limits the growth of the species itself. Members from different species can also compete. For instance, jackrabbits and cottontail rabbits also compete for food and nesting grounds. Competition between different species is called", "-28.52510672865901" ], [ "that a single female (e.g., the queen bee) or caste produces offspring while the other organisms (e.g., worker bees) cooperate in caring for the young. Examples of mammalian eusociality include Damaraland mole-rats and naked mole-rats, among whom polyandry is the norm and polygyny has never been observed. Polyandry and infanticide avoidance Infanticide avoidance is one of the major reason animals, like mammals, are inclined to choose polyandry. Infanticide is observed to be the major cause of mortality in various mammals. Polyandry is thought to evolve from their offspring's vulnerability to infanticide. There is evidence that polyandry is an effective strategy", "-28.5101785294828" ], [ "as a result of cross-breeding is known as \"adventitious presence (AP)\". Variables Certain familiar animals go feral easily and successfully, while others are much less inclined to wander and usually fail promptly outside domestication. Some species will detach readily from humans and pursue their own devices, but do not stray far or spread readily. Others depart and are gone, seeking out new territory or range to exploit and displaying active invasiveness. Whether they leave readily and venture far, the ultimate criterion for success is longevity. Persistence depends on their ability to establish themselves and reproduce reliably in the new environment.", "-28.498623032472096" ], [ "partner, leading to the eventual collapse of the mating cycle. Mating disruption, due to the specificity of the sex pheromone of the insect species, has the benefit of only affecting the males of that species, while leaving other non target species unaffected. This allows for very targeted pest management, promoting the suppression of a single pest species, leaving the populations of beneficial insects (pollinators and natural enemies) intact. Mating disruption, like most pest management strategies, is a useful technique, but should not be considered a stand-alone treatment program for it targets only a single species in plant production systems that", "-28.47174001892563" ], [ "theory is that there are enough differences between animals from different islands that pairing of lizards from different locales will be unproductive, further frustrating many captive breeding attempts.", "-28.46945043897722" ], [ "from their population (i.e. not catch and release) drive direct fisheries-induced evolution by removing the genetic materials of those animals from the population. Individuals that are untargeted, through the selection bias of fishing gears and/or legislation, are allowed to reproduce and proliferate their genetic materials. As fishing pressures persist, traits belonging to non-selected organisms are preserved through survival and become more dominant in frequency within the gene pool. Additionally, fishing on a targeted species incur knock-on effects to those around it by its disturbance of their natural interactions. In these situations, specific traits of the untargeted species may be favourable", "-28.45590239565354" ], [ "predators.\nAn avian example published in Nature is acorn woodpeckers. Females nest together, possibly because those nesting alone have their eggs constantly destroyed by rivals. Even so, eggs are consistently removed at first by nest partners themselves, until the entire group lays on the same day. They then cooperate and incubate the eggs as a group, but by this time a significant proportion of their eggs have been lost because of this ovicidal behavior. Counter-strategies Because this form of infanticide reduces the fitness of killed individuals' parents, animals have evolved a range of counter-strategies against this behavior. These may be divided", "-28.439324799750466" ], [ "alien species are often dependent on mutualisms to establish themselves in new habitats (particularly on islands), and especially those alien species requiring animal mediated pollination (Richardson et al. 2000). These alien species will, by definition, be beneficial to the short-term inclusive fitness of the species they form a mutualism with. However, the alien species will negatively impact other species in the ecosystem. For example, through competition for resources (including competition for mutualist partners) (Kaiser-Bunbury et al. 2009). In fact, these negative impacts could theoretically cascade through the ecosystem, and lead to the alien species having an indirect long-term negative impact", "-28.432144416263327" ], [ "if the traits that define gender are independent across a species. Sexual dimorphism can be viewed as something that can accelerate the rate of speciation.\nIn non-predatory birds, males are typically larger than females. However, in birds of prey, the opposite is the case. For instance, the kestrel is a type of falcon in which males are the primary providers, and the females are responsible for nurturing the young. In this species, the smaller the kestrels are, the less food is needed and thus, they can survive in environments that are harsher. This is particularly true in the male kestrels. It", "-28.427443156535446" ], [ "strategy to fight rivals within the species harder instead of searching for other options due to the lack of available food. More aggressive salamanders are more likely obtain the resources they require to reproduce whereas timid salamanders may starve before reproducing, so aggression can spread through the population.\nIn addition, a study on Chilean flamingos (Phoenicopterus chilensis) found that birds in a bond were much more aggressive than single birds. The paired birds were significantly more likely to start an agonistic encounter in defense of their mate or young whereas single birds were typically non-breeding and less likely to fight. Not", "-28.38974001132999" ], [ "only uses it to reduce the cost of mating. As for house mice, multiple male mating was observed even when females had the opportunity to select their mate without sexual coercion, showing that it was due to female choice.\nAs a result of multiple male mating, multiple paternities were observed in species as a result of convenience polyandry. Convenience Polyandry Hypothesis is the assumption that there is a greater cost for females when, refusing male mating attempts than in choice mating. It is the situation in which females adjust their mating rate to balance the costs of male harassment. It has", "-28.38784631560702" ], [ "isolated populations had no real choice of mates, or where the vast majority of individuals died before sexual maturity, leaving only the ecologically selected survivor to mate—regardless of its sexual fitness under normal sexual selection processes for that species.\nFor example, if only a few closely related males survive a natural disaster, and all are able to mate very widely due to lack of males, sexual selection has been suppressed by an ecological selection (the disaster). Such situations are usually temporary, characteristic of populations under extreme stress, for relatively short terms. However, they can drastically affect populations in that", "-28.379159732721746" ], [ "engage in multiple copulation with multiple partners throughout their lifespan. However, due to the sexual dimorphism present in most turtle species, males must develop different courting strategies or use alternate methods to gain access to a potential mate. Most terrestrial species have males that are larger than females, and fighting between males often determines a hierarchical order in which the higher up the order an individual is, the better the chance is of the individual getting access to a potential mate. For most semi-aquatic species and bottom-walking aquatic species, combat occurs less often. Males belonging to semi-aquatic and bottom-walking species", "-28.36782631947426" ], [ "two different species from successfully producing offspring. Dobzhansky invented the term, and in the eighth chapter he discusses their role in speciation. His views were sufficiently original for him to publish them in a journal article as well. Although previous authors had recognized the importance of isolation, their reasons were entirely different from his. George Romanes thought that isolation was a cause of change, whereas Dobzhansky sees two competing effects. Isolation reduces the rate of formation of harmful gene combinations, but it also restricts the scope of genetic variation. Thus, a species remains near a given peak in the fitness", "-28.36688040145964" ], [ "example, in the cichlid species Variabilichromis moorii, a monogamous pair will care for eggs and young together, but the eggs may not all be fertilized by the male giving the care. Monogamy in mammals is rather rare, only occurring in 3-9% of these species. A larger percentage of avian species are known to have monogamous relationships (about 90%), but most avian species practice social but not genetic monogamy in contrast to what was previously assumed by researchers. Monogamy is quite rare in fish and amphibians, but not unheard of, appearing in a select few species. Social monogamy Social monogamy refers", "-28.354763927927706" ], [ "animal excluded from the territory suffers a fitness loss due to a reduced foraging area and is unable to enter the area as it risks confrontation from a more dominant member of the population. As organisms are encountering each other during interference competition, they are able to evolve behavioural strategies and morphologies to out-compete rivals in their population.\nFor example, different populations of the northern slimy salamander (Plethodon glutinosus) have evolved varying levels of aggression depending on the intensity of intraspecific competition. In populations where the resources are scarcer, more aggressive behaviours are likely to evolve. It is a more effective", "-28.34561506920727" ], [ "another species that proved to be monogamous. In an 18-year study conducted by the University of Pennsylvania, these monkeys proved to be entirely monogamous, exhibiting no genetic information or visual information that could lead to the assumption that extra pair copulation was occurring. This explained the question as to why the male owl monkey invested so much time in protecting and raising their own offspring. Because monogamy is often referred to as \"placing all your eggs in one basket\" the male wants to ensure his young survive, and thus pass on his genes.\nOther monogamous species include wolves, otters, a few", "-28.32790432710408" ], [ "species can either have properties intermediate between their parent species, or possess a totally new phenotype. The importance of hybridization in creating new species of animals is unclear, although cases have been seen in many types of animals, with the gray tree frog being a particularly well-studied example.\nHybridization is, however, an important means of speciation in plants, since polyploidy (having more than two copies of each chromosome) is tolerated in plants more readily than in animals. Polyploidy is important in hybrids as it allows reproduction, with the two different sets of chromosomes each being able to pair with an identical", "-28.32051237822452" ], [ "as five), but it is not necessarily advantageous, because unnecessary matings waste time and energy. Polyandry may contribute to outbreeding if females preferentially mate with unrelated males. Polyandry can occur if the benefits of mating more than once are greater than the costs. It can also occur if males force female spiders to mate again through infanticide because females can lay multiple clutches, even though mating multiple times is against the female's interests because it generally reduces the female's fitness. Fitness consequences of polyandrous behavior While females may gain some benefits from multiple matings, polyandry is costly, and mated females", "-28.270810261419683" ], [ "to homogenization or replacement of local genotypes as a result of either a numerical and/or fitness advantage of introduced plant or animal. Nonnative species can threaten native plants and animals with extinction by hybridization and introgression either through purposeful introduction by humans or through habitat modification, bringing previously isolated species into contact. These phenomena can be especially detrimental for rare species coming into contact with more abundant ones which can occur between island and mainland species. Interbreeding between the species can cause a 'swamping' of the rarer species' gene pool, creating hybrids that supplant the native stock. This is a", "-28.268721505999565" ], [ "close male relatives being involved in any mating combinations. Dominance in fish Dominance hierarchies can also be observed in many fish. For example, in the dragonet, males form hierarchies that are often exhibited during mating. They can act extremely aggressively towards another male if it intrudes upon courtship and pairing with a female, and fights can be very intense. In eusocial insects In insect societies, only one to few individuals members of a colony can reproduce, whereas the other colony members have their reproductive capabilities suppressed. This conflict over reproduction in some cases results in a dominance hierarchy. Dominant individuals", "-28.26561202784069" ] ]

[ "Because lead-acid batteries have horrible energy densities. Nickel Cadmium too, anyone who has used RC planes before Lipos knows how blessed we are today. Li-ion only commercialized in the 90s and even now li-ion has a rather low energy density compared to fuel. Batteries (and supercapacitors) are very tricky, a lot that works in the lab doesn't work outside. It also took us a very long time before we knew what to do with semi-conductors, sometimes it takes just takes a long time to improve something enough to make it viable. People are too quick to blame it all on \"corporate greed\". Edit: There's also the problem that batteries lose capacity from discharging, which has improved a lot over 100 years.(cycle durability has increased) Charge/discharge efficiency has also improved a lot over the last 100 years.", "Back then there may have been electric cars but they were too expensive to mass produce and sell. And the electric cars were probably no more better than the fuel driven counterpart as far as efficiency. Also the technology of today has finally reached a point where it's do-able to mass produce and sell. Since we have electric cars that are mass produced... now it is only a race to see who can make them more efficient. The research and funding are geared to newer solutions to harnessing the electricity that powers them as well as finding alternate fuels such as water.", "There are a couple key technologies that are important for electric cars, which just weren't good enough back then. One is of course the battery. Batteries have improved more than fivefold since then - so any electric car would have had considerably less range than today. Then there is power regulation. In a car, you need to be able to precisely adjust the amount of power coming from the motor, which can be done quite easily with a throttle of a conventional combustion engine - but in an electric car, you need to change the voltage. And that is very difficult with a DC power source like a battery. Today, this is done with very efficient and fast switches made from semi-conductors, but 100 years ago, semi-conductors weren't even discovered yet. To get the same result with technology from 100 years ago, you would have to use a very bulky and inefficient circuit to control the engine. Lastly, there's the problem of charging. A large battery needs a lot of DC electricity to charge quickly, making the charging infrastructure very expensive. That's still a problem today, even though electrification and technology in general is much better.", "Guess battery power has improved alot. That is still the problem with an electric car. They don't have good range.", "Because batteries used to suck, and fossil fuels are really cheap and hold a lot of energy. In 1910, battery-powered vehicles we competitive, mostly because internal combustion engines were still pretty terrible. Steam-powered vehicles were even still in the mix, the Stanley Steamer set the land speed record for a while in 1906, going over 120 mph. After that, it turned out it was a whole lot easier to improve gas-powered cars, and they wound up being far more versatile and energy efficient than other types. And because of that, they were the focus of research and development investment, and got even better. Modern electric cars reentering the market is largely due to recent improvements in battery technology. That, in turn, was made possible by the demand for efficient portable power caused by computers, phones, and tablets.", "A lot of improvements have been made in battery technology in the past 2 1/2 decades due to laptops and cell phones. So instead of developing this battery technology from scratch, they just have to scale it up and apply it to a car, which saves billions in R & D." ]

[ [ "put 1 million electric cars on the road by 2014 as part of the government's plan to save energy and boost energy efficiency. The Minister of Industry Miguel Sebastián said that \"the electric vehicle is the future and the engine of an industrial revolution\".", "-36.99416372028645" ], [ "a new technology, have the information and support they need to gain the full benefits of adopting this new technology. A 2016 study indicated that 60% of Americans were not aware of electric cars.\nThere are several reasons for the reluctance of some dealers to sell plug-in electric vehicles. PEVs do not offer car dealers the same profits as gasoline-powered car. Plug-in electric vehicles take more time to sell because of the explaining required, which hurts overall sales and sales people commissions. Electric vehicles also may require less maintenance, resulting in loss of service revenue, and thus undermining the biggest source", "-34.07402046327479" ], [ "Tesla Roadster, Tesla Model S and Th!nk City.\nConsidering that actual PEV sales were lower than initially expected, as of early 2013, several industry observers have concluded that this goal was unattainable. Obama's goal was achieved only in September 2018.\nIn 2008, San Francisco Mayor Gavin Newsom, San Jose Mayor Chuck Reed and Oakland Mayor Ron Dellums announced a nine-step policy plan for transforming the Bay Area into the \"Electric Vehicle (EV) Capital of the U.S.\". Other local and state governments have also expressed interest in electric cars.\nThe Governor of California, Jerry Brown, issued an executive order in March 2012 that established", "-33.22042153147049" ], [ "to the environment caused by their emissions, and the sustainability of the current hydrocarbon-based transportation infrastructure as well as improvements in electric vehicle technology. Since 2010, combined sales of all-electric cars and utility vans achieved 1 million units delivered globally in September 2016, and combined global sales of light-duty all-electrics and plug-in hybrids passed 5 million in December 2018. Electric model cars The invention of the first model electric vehicle is attributed to various people. In 1828, Ányos Jedlik invented an early type of electric motor, and created a small model car powered by his new motor. In 1834, Vermont blacksmith Thomas", "-33.21630264975829" ], [ "aims to achieve a 36% improvement in fuel economy for its entire fleet by the 2015 model year. The company has applied to DOE's Advanced Technology Vehicles Manufacturing Loan Program for $5 billion to support these efforts, but the company also sought up to $9 billion in bridge loans. However, Ford expected to remain viable through 2009 and hopes to avoid drawing on the loan.\nGM unveiled the production version of the Chevy Volt in September. The vehicle will be able to travel up to 40 miles in all-electric mode. General Motors Corporation (GM) is involved in a well-publicized effort to", "-33.2097071667813" ], [ "2011 State of the Union address, President Barack Obama set the goal for the U.S. to become the first country to have one million electric vehicles on the road by 2015. This goal was established based on forecasts made by the U.S. Department of Energy (DoE), using production capacity of PEV models announced to enter the U.S. market through 2015. The DoE estimated a cumulative production of 1,222,200 PEVS by 2015, and was based on manufacturer announcements and media reports accounting production goals for the Fisker Karma, Fisker Nina, Ford Transit Connect, Ford Focus Electric, Chevrolet Volt, Nissan Leaf, Smith Newton,", "-33.08530445746146" ], [ "increase even with electric cars.\nA study made in the UK in 2008, concluded that electric vehicles had the potential to reduce carbon dioxide and greenhouse gas emissions by at least 40%, even taking into account the emissions due to current electricity generation in the UK and emissions relating to the production and disposal of electric vehicles. The savings are questionable relative to hybrid or diesel cars. (According to official British government testing, the most efficient European market cars are well below 115 grams of CO\n2 per kilometer driven, although a study in Scotland gave 149.5 gCO\n2/km as the average for new cars", "-32.971657412046625" ], [ "the earlier November Senate hearing in private jets) to present their long-term viability plans to the United States Congress, and those plans included significant commitments to fuel-saving and electric vehicle technologies.\nFord Motor Company unveiled an aggressive plan to electrify its fleet of vehicles, including plans to offer an all-electric van-type vehicle in 2010 for use in commercial fleets, complemented by a battery-powered sedan in 2011. By 2012, the company will bring a family of regular hybrids, plug-in hybrids, and battery electric vehicles to market. Ford intends to invest about $14 billion on fuel-efficient technologies over the next seven years and", "-32.84616197630385" ], [ "and training for technicians to build and repair electric vehicles (greencollar jobs).\nIn March 2009, as part of the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act, the U.S. Department of Energy announced the release of two competitive solicitations for up to $2 billion in federal funding for competitively awarded cost-shared agreements for manufacturing of advanced batteries and related drive components as well as up to $400 million for transportation electrification demonstration and deployment projects. This initiative aimed to help meet President Barack Obama's goal of putting one million plug-in electric vehicles on the road by 2015. Federal incentives First the Energy Improvement and Extension", "-32.74652818532195" ], [ "in his congressional Global Warming Testimony on March 21, 2007.\nElectranet advocates predict that just like data on the internet, energy itself, including what is necessary for electric cars, will continue to be more economical as more people get onto the smart grid and supply power, and as more and more efficient technologies are developed for gathering the abundant energy around us. It is reasonable to imagine a day when there is no actual cost for driving, per mile, for energy, because of the abundance of energy coming from the Electranet.", "-32.685976205568295" ], [ "announced its support to the green car incentive and its commitment to double the government's E-premium incentive when buying a Nissan electric car, with a reduction of the purchase price of the same amount of the subsidy. Nissan Center Europe CEO said \"we remain convinced that the goal of one million electric cars by 2020 is still achievable.\" According to Nissan if from now on electric car sales double every year until 2020, it is still possible to achieve the government goal.\nAn incentive scheme to promote plug-in electric vehicle adoption was approved in April 2016 with a budget of €1", "-32.52184983572806" ], [ "buy a battery powered car, bring it home and enjoy the benefits, which are substantial. \nBut experiments with the many trade offs in automotive design continue. Exploration of alternative approaches develops into products which become commercially viable. The loose-knit nature of the organization promotes such interaction.\nThe past two decades have show the technological advances which allow for the products seen on the streets worldwide today. EAA members have experimented and demonstrated EV feasibility since the earliest days. Automakers are now progressively being required to reduce the emission footprint per distance traveled and will continue to need", "-32.39437440774054" ], [ "the goal of getting 1.5 million zero-emission vehicles (ZEVs) on California roads by 2025. American Recovery and Reinvestment Act President Barack Obama pledged US$2.4 billion in federal grants to support the development of next-generation electric vehicles and batteries. $1.5 billion in grants to U.S. based manufacturers to produce highly efficient batteries and their components; up to $500 million in grants to U.S. based manufacturers to produce other components needed for electric vehicles, such as electric motors and other components; and up to $400 million to demonstrate and evaluate plug-in hybrids and other electric infrastructure concepts—like truck stop charging station, electric rail,", "-32.19901318149641" ], [ "the 3.6% surge of employees. With the recent emphasis on green economy and smart city in the 2015-16 Financial Budget, the Government believes that the high cost- effectiveness of EVs allows further creation of business and employment opportunities like the complementary accessories of EVs and R&D for further scientific innovations in the ever-expanding market. Current Figures of Electric Vehicles Compared to 28 local EVs in 2009, 5,042 registered EVs with 4,899 as private vehicles are recorded for road use as at April 30, 2016. As at end of October 2017, there are 11,039 EVs for road use, up from less", "-32.08894559100736" ], [ "(CARS) was a $3,000,000,000 US federal program that helps US citizens to purchase a new, more fuel efficient vehicle when trading in an older, more polluting vehicle. The program officially started on 1 July 2009 and claims began to be processed until 24 July, and ended on 24 August 2009; as the appropriated resources were exhausted.\nThe initial $1,000,000,000 for the system was exhausted by July 30, 2009, well before the anticipated end date of November 1, 2009, due to very high demand. In response, Congress approved an additional $2 billion for the program.\nOn August 26 the DoT reported that the", "-31.965938419802114" ], [ "by the end of December 2018.\nElectric cars are seen as economical long-term investments, as one doesn't need to purchase gas, but needs only to recharge the battery, using renewable energy sources. According to the United States Department of Energy, electric cars produce half as much CO2 emissions as compared to a gas-powered car. According to The Economic Times, 60% of Indian customers expect fuel prices to go up in the next 12 months and 58% expect to buy a new car in the same time frame. Most consumers are looking to buy a car which gives good mileage. According to", "-31.93139640588197" ], [ "explaining required, which hurts overall sales and sales people commissions. Electric vehicles also may require less maintenance, resulting in loss of service revenue, and thus undermining the biggest source of dealer profits, their service departments. According to the National Automobile Dealers Association (NADS), dealers on average make three times as much profit from service as they do from new car sales. However, a NADS spokesman said there was not sufficient data to prove that electric cars would require less maintenance. According to the New York Times, BMW and Nissan are among the companies whose dealers tend to be more enthusiastic", "-31.876186602865346" ], [ "of Energy teamed up with other sponsors to challenge more than 200 of the best and brightest students from 15 universities in the United States and Canada to re-engineer full-size SUVs to meet the needs of the future, producing green, efficient transportation that has the performance, utility, and affordability that customers expect.\nWorking with General Motors during first two years of the competition, teams modified Chevrolet Suburbans by using cutting-edge technologies, such as fuel cells and other advanced propulsion systems, space-age materials, and alternative fuels including biodiesel and ethanol (E-85). Teams were also encouraged to develop technologies that reduce total cycle", "-31.87560509162722" ], [ "of the world leaders in producing EVs. The plan has four goals: create a world-leading industry; energy security; reduce urban air pollution; and to reduce carbon emissions. In June 2012 the State Council published a plan to develop the domestic industry. The plan set a sales target of 500,000 new EVs by 2015 and 5 million by 2020. Initial sales were much lower than expected, while most output was purchased for public fleets. New incentives were issued in 2014, with a sales target of 160,000 units for 2014. This goal was also not achieved.\nThe Chinese government uses the term new", "-31.852604857413098" ], [ "compromise version of the Corporate Average Fuel Economy (CAFE) standard increase from 27 to 35 mpg‑US (8.7 to 6.7 L/100 km; 32 to 42 mpg‑imp), the first such increase in over 20 years. GM hinted that they will not introduce more Volt-based plug-in hybrids.\nThe company has publicly announced that it is committed to invest heavily in electric cars. In October 2017, GM's executive vice president of global development, Mark Reuss, announced that GM's vehicle lineup would feature 20 electric car models by 2023. Hybrid electric vehicles In May 2004, GM delivered the world's first full-sized hybrid pickups, the 1/2-ton Silverado/Sierra. These mild hybrids did", "-31.799818297760794" ], [ "Congressional Budget Office suggested that, \"the federal government could more effectively increase the efficiency of the nation's automotive fleet by raising gasoline taxes, imposing user fees on the purchase of low-mileage-per-gallon vehicles, or both.\" This would give automakers more incentive to research alternative fuel technology and increased efficiency (through lighter vehicles, better aerodynamics, and less wasted energy).\nHans-Holger Rogner, a section head at the IAEA, warned in 1997 that the level of incentive required for market driven research and development will actually rise. Because production costs are not expected to decrease and because of the continued emphasis companies give", "-31.598566501634195" ], [ "car company that gets taxpayer money must demonstrate a plan for transforming every vehicle in its fleet to a hybrid-electric engine with flex-fuel capability, so its entire fleet can also run on next generation cellulosic ethanol\".\nIn a Fresh Dialogues interview, Friedman described his motivations for writing the book: \"My concern is about America.... Demand for clean energy, clean fuel and energy efficiency is clearly going to explode; it's going to be the next great global industry. I know that as sure as I know that I'm sitting here at De Anza College talking to you. By being big in the", "-31.472953547956422" ], [ "success of electric car adoption was unexpected, as the authorities planned to keep the incentives in place until the end of 2017, or until they reach 50,000 units. At the pace of sales reached during 2014, the target of 50,000 EVs registered could be met by April or May 2015.\nAccording to local authorities from the city of Oslo, the negative effects on the bus lanes occur only at certain places and in certain times of the day, particularly at the Norwegian National Road E18, west of Oslo. The problems are concentrated at the exit and entry ramps that in the", "-31.448480264283717" ], [ "car would result in a 30 percent reduction in carbon dioxide emissions. Given the current energy mixes in other countries (that are transiting to more renewables), it has been predicted that such emissions would decrease by 40 percent in the UK, 19 percent in China, and as little as 1 percent in Germany.\nElectric cars are having a major impact in the auto industry given advantages in city pollution, less dependence on oil and combustion, and scarcity and expected rise in gasoline prices. World governments are pledging billions to fund development of electric vehicles and their components. The US has pledged", "-31.417250459024217" ], [ "over 150 plug-in cars and vans. The Government Car Service, which presently has 85 vehicles used by ministers, will be the initial target with electric cars expected to be in operation by the third quarter of 2014. A second phase is scheduled next to provide funds for the public sector in general to purchase more electric vehicles. Beneficiary agencies includes the National Health Service, councils and police forces. When it comes to global warming, on October 2019 the Labour party would ban any car which is not electric by 2030 if they run the country. Purchase incentives In January 2009,", "-31.407138492853846" ], [ "vehicles, but also for the reduction of the existing incentives, and proposes to invest more in public transport, walking and cycling. Criticism of the incentives Since 2013 several complaints and criticism have arisen due to the rapid increase in the number of electric vehicles on the roads as a result of the existing incentives to promote EV adoption, and particularly about the non-fiscal incentives. These include high public subsidies as compared to the value of the reduced carbon footprint of electric vehicles; the travel mode shift by people who buy an electric vehicle as a second car instead of taking", "-31.268742099462543" ], [ "that investment in a U.S. smart grid will cost up to $476 billion over 20 years but will provide up to $2 trillion in customer benefits over that time. In 2015, the World Economic Forum reported a transformational investment of more than $7.6 trillion by members of the OECD is needed over the next 25 years (or $300 billion per year) to modernize, expand, and decentralize the electricity infrastructure with technical innovation as key to the transformation. A 2019 study from International Energy Agency estimates that the current (depriciated) value of the US electric grid is more than USD", "-31.234259868913796" ], [ "environmental impact, from its creation to its ultimate destruction.\" The newspaper also reported that the CNW research put the Jeep Wrangler above the Toyota Prius and other hybrid cars as the greenest car that could be bought in the US. However, it was noted that Toyota disputed the proportion of energy used to make a car compared with how much the vehicle uses during its life; CNW said 80% of the energy a car uses is accounted for by manufacture and 20% in use. Toyota claimed the reverse.\nThe report has raised controversy. When Oregon radio station KATU asked for comment", "-31.176711617736146" ], [ "of 2005 The Energy Policy Act of 2005 created incentives to encourage the purchase of low emission vehicles. The Energy Independence and Security Act of 2007 expanded these incentives to include emerging electric vehicle, and plug in hybrid, technology. The Energy Improvement and Extension Act of 2008 only acted to push back tax credit-claiming deadlines and include more electric vehicles in existing incentive programs. Although many speculated that more recent stimulus legislation would greatly expand existing incentive programs, but the legislation disappointed many. When passed, the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009 focused more on green infrastructure than personal", "-31.145363317860756" ], [ "answered questions about the technological, financial, cultural and political realities facing Ford after being bailed out by the US Congress alongside others of the \"Big Three\". The Ecohawks planned to recycle older cars to run on greener technologies thereby eliminating the energy needed for production; the recycle of the vehicle itself prevented the release of a few tons of carbon to the atmosphere. The team researched advanced technologies in the small scale including NiMH, LiCoO₂, LiFePO₄ batteries. The group used scaled down RC Cars for testing and validation. Research also conceptualised a parallel hybrid design that used a small internal", "-31.05384850059636" ], [ "vehicles or in combination with renewable solar energy systems and renewable energy farms.\nThe company also has several projects funded by the DOE and supported by Mercedes-Benz. One particular project is focused around increasing the energy content of the negative electrode within electric vehicles and a secondary project is centered around increase the energy content of the positive electrode. A third program is focused around enabling electric vehicles to charge faster. Together, they will be able to increase the range of current electric vehicles and make EVs a much more feasible and enticing option/competitor to traditional gasoline vehicles. Vision Takeuchi visions", "-31.006780198367778" ], [ "later, the same institution issued a second report, finding \"electric vehicles destined for much more growth than is widely perceived\". The same report stated that \"[i]mprovements in battery technology will allow for increased power, increased electrical propulsion, and bigger gains in fuel economy.\"\nOn June 26, 2008, Shai Agassi testified before the United States House of Representatives Select Committee on Energy Independence and Global Warming. The hearing, titled \"$4 Gasoline and Fuel Economy: Auto Industry at a Crossroads,\" dealt with the future role of the auto industry and the federal government in fighting gas prices and the fuel economy standards proposed", "-30.885911297693383" ], [ "alternative energy industry to find wider sources of renewable energy. The company acknowledges that its founders want \"to solve really big problems using technology\".\nIn October 2010, for example, they invested in a major offshore wind power development to assist the East coast power grid, which will eventually become one of about a dozen offshore wind farms that are proposed for the region. A week earlier they introduced a car that, with \"artificial intelligence\", can drive itself using video cameras and radar sensors. In the future, drivers of cars with similar sensors would have fewer accidents. These safer vehicles could therefore", "-30.81505089206621" ], [ "Cars, doubted Aurica’s business plan, saying: “The idea that NUMMI’s 500k unit capacity could be used to build EVs 'within two years' as Aurica’s reps suggest, is laughable …especially considering that the $40k+ EV market already has a healthy number of contenders.” Despite this criticism, regardless of the unit volume capacity of the NUMMI facility, the May 20, 2010 purchase of the plant by Tesla Motors indicates that electric cars will be built there, albeit by Toyota and Tesla rather than Aurica Motors.\nIn an interview with the Oakland Tribune, NUMMI spokesman Lance Tomasu indicated that through the limited negations conducted", "-30.761240578780416" ], [ "of PHEV and BEV models, beginning with 3.5% in 2018 and rising to 15.5% in 2020, using a tradable credit system. China China is by far the largest electric car market in the world. Domestically built new energy vehicle (NEV) sales totaled almost 3 million units between January 2011 and December 2018. These figures include heavy-duty commercial vehicles such as buses and sanitation trucks. \nSales of domestically built new energy passenger cars totaled over 1.2 million units between 2011 and 2017, of which, a total of 579,000 were sold in 2017, representing about half of global plug-in car sales in 2017.\nDomestically-produced vehicles", "-30.74456988289603" ], [ "study conducted to assess the life-cycle of over 1,300 automobiles across nine categories sold in North America. The study found that among advanced automotive technologies, the Nissan Leaf holds the smallest life-cycle environmental footprint of any model year 2014 automobile available in the North American market with minimum four-person occupancy. The study concluded that the increased environmental impacts of manufacturing the battery electric technology is more than offset with increased environmental performance during operational life. For the assessment, the study used the average electricity mix of the U.S. grid in 2014.\nIn December 2014, Nissan announced that Leaf owners have accumulated", "-30.709707105066627" ], [ "the distribution of cumulative sales since 2010 between these two technologies is 52.8% all-electrics and 47.2% plug-in hybrids. Sales growth Sales of series production plug-in cars during its first two years in the U.S. market were lower than the initial expectations. Cumulative plug-in electric car sales since 2008 reached the 250,000 units in August 2014, 500,000 in August 2016, and the one million goal was achieved in September 2018.\nAccording to the U.S. Department of Energy, combined sales of plug-in hybrids and battery electric cars are climbing more rapidly and outselling by more than double sales of hybrid-electric vehicles over their", "-30.675473445095122" ], [ "industries, utilities, electric car manufacturers, municipalities, universities and technology and research institutions founded the \"Green eMotion\" initiative funded with €41.8 million under the Seventh Research and Development Framework Programme. The defined goal is to provide an interoperable electromobility framework to align the ongoing regional and national electromobility initiatives. At the same time the partners unveiled the \"Transport 2050\" plan which includes the aim to half the number of conventionally fuelled cars in cities by 2030 and phase them out by 2050.\nIn the second position paper (March 2011) of the European Automobile Manufacturers Association it is recommended to equip public charging", "-30.62928263656795" ], [ "than 25 countries around the world.\nIn Australia, Better Place announced agreements with AGL Energy and financial advisor Macquarie Capital Group to raise A$1,000,000,000 and begin deploying an electric vehicle (EV) network powered by renewable energy. According to Better Place, its model for sustainable mobility would help Australia move toward oil independence. With the world’s seventh highest per capita rate of car ownership, the country had nearly 15 million cars on the road after adding over a million new cars in 2007.\nIn January 2010, as Israel Corporation completed its investment of US$100 million in the company, a consortium of investors signed a", "-30.58488023467362" ], [ "revenue from technologies that financially benefit customers and also improve environmental impact, such as plastics produced by SABIC used to improve fuel efficiency of GM’s Chevy Volt, the second best-selling car in the fast growing market for electric and hybrid-electric vehicles.\nIn 2011, GreenOrder Partner Truman Semans, UN Secretary General Ban Ki-Moon, and Lord Nicholas Stern delivered the keynote addresses at the World Future Energy Summit in Abu Dhabi. The event was the largest renewable energy conference ever convened, with 26,000 attendees from 137 Countries. Semans’ discussed the emerging age of radical transparency that increasingly reveals to investors the environmental risks", "-30.542506514349952" ], [ "lighting, and water purification technology\". The announcement prompted an op-ed piece in The New York Times to observe that, \"while General Electric's increased emphasis on clean technology will probably result in improved products and benefit its bottom line, Mr. Immelt's credibility as a spokesman on national environmental policy is fatally flawed because of his company's intransigence in cleaning up its own toxic legacy.\"\nGE has said that it will invest $1.4 billion in clean technology research and development in 2008 as part of its Ecomagination initiative. As of October 2008, the scheme had resulted in 70 green products being brought to market,", "-30.52109973062761" ], [ "to make motorway journeys by electric car feasible. According to Nicholas Clegg, Deputy Prime Minister, “Our clear objective is to move the car fleet in this country to ultra low-emission vehicles by 2040 and to put money and policy money behind it.\"\nIn July 2014 Baroness Kramer, Minister of State for Transport, announced that all of the government’s fleets will be supplied with funding to introduce electric vehicles. The \"Ultra Low Emission Vehicle Readiness Project\", funded with £5 million, is the first step towards making all government vehicles electrically powered. Central government fleets will benefit first, with plans to bring in", "-30.50937782524852" ], [ "- with relatively small amounts coming from heating and cooling. In 2019, there were less than 10,000 electric vehicles on New Zealand roads leading the New Zealand Productivity Commission to recommend a rapid and comprehensive switch from petrol cars to EVs. Professor David Frame, director of Victoria University's New Zealand Climate Change Research Institute says \"the growth (in use) of electric cars has been nowhere fast enough to get to where we've said we want to be by 2030\". \nIn the last ten years, New Zealand and Australia were among a handful of developed nations where household emissions are increasing.", "-30.471644698875025" ], [ "in demand among the seven states it serves, which is \"the first persistent decline in the federally owned agency's 85-year history.\" To combat this, companies in the utility sector launched programs to get more involved in the electric car market. For example, utility companies began to invest in electric vehicle charging infrastructure and to team up with automobile manufacturers to offer rebates to people who purchase electric vehicles.\nIn the UK the Office for Low Emission Vehicles offers grants for the installation of up to two charge points both in private residences and up to 20 for commercial organisations. Future Over", "-30.4606519973604" ], [ "US$70 billion by 2010.\nThe market for domestically produced cars, under a local name, is likely to continue to grow both inside China and outside. Companies such as Geely, Qiantu and Chery are constantly evaluating new international locations, both in developing and developed countries. Electric Car Industry China is also the world's #1 manufacturer of electric cars, producing about 1.3 million new energy vehicles in 2018. China has been #1 in the world in production of electric vehicles since 2015. China also buys half of all the electric cars in the world, since Chinese brands account for about 96% of electric cars", "-30.388682056800462" ], [ "economy in all-electric mode expressed in traditional energy consumption units, rating the Volt at 36 kWh per 100 miles (160 km). Production cost and sales price In 2009, the Presidential Task Force on the Auto Industry said that \"GM is at least one generation behind Toyota on advanced, “green” powertrain development. In an attempt to leapfrog Toyota, GM has devoted significant resources to the Chevy Volt\" and that \"while the Chevy Volt holds promise, it is currently projected to be much more expensive than its gasoline-fueled peers and will likely need substantial reductions in manufacturing cost in order to become commercially", "-30.32642930059228" ], [ "without thinking about the actual efficiency of the product. This \"Green Myopia\" as Ottman calls it, fails because marketers focus on the greenness of the product and not on the actual effectiveness. Researchers and analysts say people are drawn to the new technology, as well as the convenience of fewer fill ups. Secondly, people find it rewarding to own the better, newer, flashier, and so called greener car. In the beginning of the Hybrid movement car companies reached out to the young people, by using top celebrities, astronauts, and popular TV shows to market Hybrids. This made the new technology", "-30.3107379344292" ], [ "2040. Austria, China, Denmark, Germany, Ireland, Japan, the Netherlands, Portugal, Korea and Spain have also set official targets for electric car sales.\nMany governments offer incentives to promote the use of electric vehicles, with the goals of reducing air pollution and oil consumption. Some incentives intend to increase purchases of electric vehicles by offsetting the purchase price with a grant. Other incentives include lower tax rates or exemption from certain taxes, and investment in charging infrastructure.\nIn some states, car companies have partnered with local private utilities in order to provide large incentives on select electric vehicles. For example, in the state", "-30.3005688021658" ], [ "by the end of 2018, the plug-in market continues to shift towards fully electric battery vehicles. The global ratio between annual sales of battery BEVs and PHEVs went from 56:44 in 2012, to 60:40 in 2015, and rose to 69:31 in 2018. Government subsidy Several countries have established grants and tax credits for the purchase of new electric cars, often depending on battery size. The U.S. offers a federal income tax credit up to US$7,500, and several states have additional incentives. The UK offers a Plug-in Car Grant up to a maximum of GB£4,500 (US$5,929). The U.S. government also pledged", "-30.285053809027886" ], [ "US$2.4 billion in federal grants for the development of advanced technologies for electric cars and batteries, despite the fact that overall sales are not increasing at the expected rate.\nAs of April 2011, 15 European Union member states provide economic incentives for the purchase of new electrically chargeable vehicles, which consist of tax reductions and exemptions, as well as of bonus payments for buyers of all-electric and plug-in hybrid vehicles, hybrid electric vehicles, and some alternative fuel vehicles. EV plans from major manufacturers Toyota has developed a global EV platform named e-TNGA that can accommodate a three-row SUV, sporty sedan, small", "-30.282509614218725" ], [ "the basis for a long-term viable business, and they often want to exaggerate the speed with which they are going to be able to become independent.\" Shellenberger continues, \"we would all be better off if these entrepreneurs were a bit more grateful, a bit more humble.\" While journalist and author Jim Motavalli, who interviewed Musk for High Voltage, his 2011 book about the electric vehicle industry, speculated that \"Elon is now looking at it from the point of view of a winner, and he doesn't want to see other people win because they get government money – I do think", "-30.273792995678377" ], [ "individual changes, and changing business practices. Many fossil fuel driven vehicles can be converted to use electricity, the US has the potential to supply electricity for 73% of light duty vehicles (LDV), using overnight charging. The US average CO\n2 emissions for a battery-electric car is 180 grams per mile vs 430 grams per mile for a gasoline car. The emissions would be displaced away from street level, where they have \"high human-health implications. Increased use of electricity \"generation for meeting the future transportation load is primarily fossil-fuel based\", mostly natural gas, followed by coal, but could also be met through", "-30.26991870382335" ], [ "recharge the batteries must be generated from renewable or clean sources such as wind, solar, hydroelectric, or nuclear power for PEVs to have almost none or zero well-to-wheel emissions. 2014 update In September 2014 the UCS published an updated analysis of its 2012 report. The 2014 analysis found that 60% of Americans, up from 45% in 2009, live in regions where an all-electric car produce fewer CO\n2 equivalent emissions per mile than the most efficient hybrid. The UCS study found several reasons for the improvement. First, electric utilities have adopted cleaner sources of electricity to their mix between the two", "-30.250217157834413" ], [ "years and thus creating a world record for completing the longest electric car ride. It was revealed that he used 17 megawatt-hours of electricity on the entire journey. His Plug Me In project inspired several people after revealing about his real cause for attempting such a journey and pledged them for food, shelter and electricity.", "-30.231312562602398" ], [ "ecohawks also proposed a plan to take the vehicles completely off grid. They installed six monocrystalline solar cells on their workspace and charged the cars from it, with no energy taken from the grid.\nTheir efficiency over performance initiatives, coincided with the Automotive crisis where in 2009, in an exhibition opening, he told the University Daily Kansan that the point of the initiative is trying to get people to think about how 'inefficient' the auto industry is. Later, Ford Motor Company President and CEO Alan Mulally visited the School of Engineering and talked with the students regarding the auto industry and", "-30.0874881206837" ], [ "and wind farms if necessary, thus invalidating the \"long-smokestack\" accusation leveled against electric vehicles which rely on the nonrenewable sources of the electricity. However, achieving the 100% renewable energy goal would have depended on the local electric grid's energy sources.\nIn Israel, where the first Better Place deployment took place, the electric grid is based mostly on fossil fuels, rendering the renewable energy vision practically impossible in the short term. Cars and batteries The first prototype car was the Renault Laguna with a battery instead of a fuel tank and an electric motor instead of an internal combustion engine. The battery", "-30.08132066356484" ], [ "controlled through a wireless communications framework. These test bed arrangements will provide vital research on the demand-response systems.\" Electric vehicle integration into the grid The automotive market in California is unlike any other. With an immense population and energy consumption, the state calls for creative ways to conserve energy in the most energy-conscious and cost efficient ways. It comes to no surprise then that California would be the base for most significant electric vehicle (EV) innovators such as Tesla. As these changes and innovations to the EV culture continue to grow, the next step is to supply this innovation", "-30.064430514612468" ], [ "electric vehicles. This led to the announcement of the Low Carbon Vehicle Procurement Programme in the government's May 2007 Energy White Paper.\nDuring the summer of 2007, Smith produced its first vehicles for export (delivered to TNT N.V. in the Netherlands). In December, the company exhibited its Newton truck in North America and announced plans to establish a US production facility. 2008 In 2008, Smith appointed its first full-service distributor (Electric Vehicles Ireland). In April, Smith and Ford of Europe announced an \"official collaboration\" on the future development of commercial electric vehicles beginning with the Smith Ampere (an electric version of", "-30.06074759841431" ], [ "2008, British Prime Minister Gordon Brown announced plans for Britain to be at the forefront of a \"green car revolution\". Mr Brown suggested that by 2020 all new cars sold in Britain could be electric or hybrid vehicles producing less than 100 grams of CO₂ per kilometre (5.7 oz(CO₂)/mi). In preparation for the introduction of mass-produced electric vehicles to Britain's roads, trials of electric cars took place from 2009, with further trials in cities across the UK from 2010. Local councils were invited to submit bids to become Britain's first \"green cities\". One example is Glasgow, where a Scottish consortium has", "-30.02916189143434" ], [ "Plug-in electric vehicles in the United States The adoption of plug-in electric vehicles in the United States is supported by the American federal government, and several states and local governments. As of September 2018, cumulative sales in the U.S. totaled one million highway legal plug-in electric vehicles since the market launch of the Tesla Roadster in 2008. The American stock represented about 25% of the global plug-in car stock in 2017, and the U.S. had the world's third largest stock of plug-in passenger cars after China and Europe. \nThe U.S. market share of plug-in electric passenger cars increased from 0.14% in 2011", "-30.003671504557133" ], [ "efficiency standard that auto industry officials group had long desired. In 2012, Obama set even higher standards, mandating an average fuel efficiency of 54.5 miles per US gallon (4.32 l/100 km). Obama also signed the \"cash-for-clunkers\" bill, which provided incentives to consumers to trade in older, less fuel-efficient cars for more efficient cars. The American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009 provided $54 billion in funds to encourage domestic renewable energy production, make federal buildings more energy-efficient, improve the electricity grid, repair public housing, and weatherize modest-income homes. Obama also promoted the use of plug-in electric vehicles, and 400,000 electric cars had", "-29.973264903761446" ], [ "have been reduced significantly if mass production began, due to economies of scale. There is also discussion about electric cars threatening dealer profits since they have so few service requirements—no tuneups, no oil changes, and less frequent brake jobs because of regenerative braking. U.S. government While not overtly political, the film documents that the federal government of the United States under the Presidency of George W. Bush joined the auto-industry suit against California in 2002. This pushed California to abandon its ZEV mandate regulation. The film notes that Bush's chief of staff Andrew Card had recently been head of the", "-29.948815685114823" ], [ "venture was also in the process of building an electric-car plant in Anting, near Shanghai by late 2018; it was expected to make 300,000 e-vehicles per year, starting in 2020.", "-29.881763557204977" ], [ "Oremus in 2013–a piece that's more about the difficulty of parsing all this information than it is about how electric cars might be dirty. What's more, Oremus spends a large chunk of his article explaining that how 'clean' your electric car is will vary depending on where you live, because different parts of the country use different percentages of these fuel sources to generate electricity.\nAdam Conover and researcher Peter Miller released a response to O'Kane's op-ed. Among a general defense of the claims of the episode, they stated:\nUnfortunately, while the rise of EVs is an encouraging trend, the evidence shows", "-29.848309705528663" ], [ "Dana TM4 Technology development On August 19, 1994, the Premier of Quebec, Daniel Johnson, had announced a C$100 million project to develop an electric car for the year 2000. On August 30, 1994, Hydro-Québec had presented their first prototype based on a Dodge Intrepid. The economy in fuel consumption was evaluated between 80 and 85%. The project was cancelled in 1995 and many have seen the abandonment of this project as a repetition of the history of the CF-105. In 1998, Hydro-Québec worked on a prototype with a joint venture between Dassault Group and Société de Véhicules Electriques,", "-29.833770849741995" ], [ "Corporation. This scale of i-MiEV provision, 507 units has been the largest inquiry MMC has ever received since its sales started. It also marks the first case of provision of electric vehicles under the Green Investment Scheme (GIS).", "-29.80229944149687" ], [ "Consumers announced that they formed a partnership to develop \"smart charging\" technology for owners of electric vehicles. Consumers Energy plans to buy or lease over 100 electric vehicles from GM. The two companies will test new electric vehicle charging technology. The technology will let vehicle owners plug in their car to be charged, but it will delay the actual charging until nighttime during off-peak energy hours. Additionally, Consumers will invest $7.5 million \"to encourage the development of EV charging stations across Michigan.\" Philanthropy Annually, Consumers Energy awards about $10 million to Michigan nonprofit organizations through grants, employee and retiree contributions", "-29.763594556832686" ], [ "analysis. The 2014 study used electric-utility emissions based on EPA's 2010 estimates, but since coal use nationwide is down by about 5% from 2010 to 2014, actual efficiency in 2014 is expected to be better than estimated in the UCS study. Second, electric vehicles have become more efficient, as the average model year 2013 all-electric vehicle used 0.325 kWh/mile, representing a 5% improvement over 2011 models. The Nissan Leaf, used as the reference model for the baseline of the 2012 study, was upgraded in model year 2013 to achieve a rating of 0.30 kWh/mile, a 12% improvement over the 2011", "-29.72801331372466" ], [ "plan to take the vehicles completely off grid. They installed six monocrystalline solar cells on their workspace and charged the cars from it, with no energy taken from the grid. Their workspace does not have an HVAC system, but uses biodiesel space heater. In addition, all small appliances are powered by solar energy. Later the group formulated a plan to make money from selling excess energy generated from the integrated renewable energy systems and optimizing the uses through a smart grid technology, i.e. the car would be a power plant by itself. Considering a finite range for an electric vehicle,", "-29.688363338354975" ], [ "April 1, 2020. In order of cumulative sales, as of November 2018, Nissan has delivered 126,875 units, Ford 111,715, Toyota 93,011 and the BMW Group 79,679 plug-in electric cars. New proposals Several separate initiatives have been pursued unsuccessfully at the federal level since 2011 to transform the tax credit into an instant cash rebate. The objective of these initiatives is to make new qualifying plug-in electric cars more accessible to buyers by making the incentive more effective. The rebate would be available at the point of sale allowing consumers to avoid a wait of up to a year to apply the", "-29.681483433116227" ], [ "seeking by having the company commit to substantial investments in most of its factories.\nThe automaker reported the largest annual loss in company history in 2006 of $12.7 billion, and estimated that it would not return to profitability until 2009. However, Ford surprised Wall Street in the second quarter of 2007 by posting a $750 million profit. Despite the gains, the company finished the year with a $2.7 billion loss, largely attributed to finance restructuring at Volvo.\nOn June 2, 2008, Ford sold its Jaguar and Land Rover operations to Tata Motors for $2.3 billion.\nDuring congressional hearings held in November 2008 at Washington D.C., and in", "-29.665980848294566" ], [ "on the purchase of new vehicles, often as the current vehicles already on the road reach their end-of-life. Only a few nations set a retirement age for old vehicles, such as Japan or Singapore, forcing periodic upgrading of all vehicles already on the road.\nEVs will take advantage of whatever environmental gains happen when a renewable energy generation station comes online, a fossil-fuel power station is decommissioned or upgraded. Conversely, if government policy or economic conditions shifts generators back to use more polluting fossil fuels and internal combustion engine vehicles (ICEVs), or more inefficient sources, the reverse can happen. Even in", "-29.65952224592911" ], [ "around 2023 and then decline. The reasons being that expensive projects committed at the beginning of the EEG in 2000 will begin to expire after their 20 years of support, that new projects are now much cheaper, and that the trend of reducing generation cost will continue. Energy sector transformation In November 2016, Agora Energiewende reported on the new EEG (2017) and several other related new laws. It concludes that this new legislation will bring \"fundamental changes\" for large sections of the energy industry, but have limited impact on the economy and on consumers.", "-29.621510716271587" ], [ "to reach 360,000 vehicles by 2017. The study projected that the highest sales between 2011 and 2017 would take place in California, New York and Florida. In 2012, and as sales have fallen short of projections, Pike Research projected that annual sales of plug-in electric vehicles in the U.S. will reach 400,073 units in 2020, with California as the state with the highest PEV sales over the remainder of this decade, with nearly 25% of all PEVs sold in the United States between 2012 and 2020. In terms of market share, California will be followed by New York, Florida, Texas,", "-29.58711756404955" ], [ "to 0.62% in 2013; reached 0.75% in 2014 and fell to 0.66% in 2015. Then climbed to 0.90% in 2016, to 1.13% in 2017, and achieved a record market share of 2.1% in 2018. California is the largest plug-in car regional market in the country, with over 500,000 plug-in electric vehicles sold by the end of November 2018. \nAs of March 2019, the Tesla Model 3 all-electric car is the all-time best selling plug-in electric car with about 164,000 units delivered, followed by the Chevrolet Volt plug-in hybrid with 154,664 units (both generations), and the Tesla Model S with about 147,500", "-29.555296078295214" ], [ "2010.\nIn September 2017 the Alliance announced plans to produce 12 new electric vehicles by 2022 that are made for China in China\n. History In August 2013, Nissan confirmed the company has plans for 5 plug-in vehicles in the future. These 5 include the Nissan LEAF, the Infiniti LE, the Nissan e-NV200, and 2 not yet announced models.\nNissan has a long history of developing and selling in limited numbers, electric vehicles. In 1974, they introduced the Nissan Laurel C130-EV, which was originally developed by a company Nissan acquired in 1966, called the Prince Motor Company. In 1946, Prince introduced an electric", "-29.553648946457542" ], [ "industry desires: clarity, predictability and certainty concerning the rules while giving them flexibility on how to meet the expected outcomes and the lead time they need to innovate. The policy was expected to result in yearly 5% increases in efficiency from 2012 through 2016, 1.8 billion barrels (290,000,000 m³) of oil saved cumulatively over the lifetime of the program and significant reductions in greenhouse gas emissions equivalent to taking 177 million of today's cars off the road.\nBy model year 2014, many of the program's goals were being met. The average new vehicle fuel economy was 30.7 mpg (35.6 mpg for cars", "-29.54425520694349" ], [ "case of the U.S., its power grid simply will not be able to keep up with the growth and demand for additional power using conventional means. In the U.S., it's estimated that reduction in peak demand by a mere 5% would yield savings of about $66 billion over 20 years --- to say nothing of the resulting reduction in green house gas emissions that would accompany a 5% peak demand reduction.\nMany U.S. utility companies have developed energy rebate programs to provide IT companies incentives to use energy efficient equipment and help lower the power demand for data centers. The energy", "-29.540012704906985" ], [ "the hybrid-electric batteries and drivetrain system components. Instead, Ford has committed to accelerating development of next-generation hybrid-electric power plants in Britain, in collaboration with Volvo. This engineering study is expected to yield more than 100 new hybrid-electric vehicle models and derivatives.\nIn September 2007, Ford announced a partnership with Southern California Edison (SCE) to examine how plug-in hybrids will work with the electrical grid. Under the multimillion-dollar, multi-year project, Ford will convert a demonstration fleet of Ford Escape Hybrids into plug-in hybrids, and SCE will evaluate how the vehicles might interact with the home and the utility's electrical grid. Some of", "-29.517527529442305" ], [ "an open, competitive process to provide about $25 billion in loans to companies that produce cars or vehicle components in the United States. To qualify, companies must propose projects that increase fuel economy to at least 25% above 2005 fuel economy levels. By 2014, Ford and Nissan were making payments, while Tesla paid back the loan in 2013. Ford Ford Motor Company will receive its loans through 2011, using the funds to upgrade its engine plants in Dearborn, Michigan; Cleveland, Ohio; and Lima, Ohio, and to upgrade its transmission plants in Livonia, Michigan; Sterling Heights, Michigan; and Sharonville, Ohio. Ford", "-29.51493193116039" ], [ "provide grid stability with the increased use of intermittent generation such as wind and solar. The technologies to utilize electric vehicles to provide ancillary services are not yet widely implemented, but there is much anticipation of their potential.", "-29.50207240995951" ], [ "United States Council for Automotive Research United States Council for Automotive Research LLC (USCAR) is an umbrella organization for collaborative research that comprises Chrysler Group LLC, Ford Motor Company and General Motors. Its goal is to further strengthen the technology base of the U.S. auto industry through cooperative research and development.\nThe United States Advanced Battery Consortium (USABC) pursues research and development of advanced energy systems for electric and hybrid electric vehicles to achieve significantly increased range and performance.\nThe Electrical Wiring Component Applications Partnership and United States Automotive Materials Partnership LLC also are among USCAR's consortia.\nUSCAR participates in the U.S. DRIVE", "-29.49585029768059" ], [ "been awarded more than £1.8 million to run a pilot electric car scheme from 2009 to 2011.\nLondon mayor Boris Johnson also announced plans in April 2009 to deliver 25,000 electric car-charging places across the capital by 2015, in order to make London the \"electric car capital of Europe\". His target is to get 100,000 electric vehicles on to London's streets. Mr Johnson has also pledged to convert at least 1,000 Greater London Authority fleet vehicles to electric by 2015. Transport for London also announced that all new taxis must be zero emissions capable by 2018. As of June 2014, there were", "-29.485345577908447" ], [ "supply more electric vehicles, eventually reaching an equilibrium with about 1/3 of power coming from distributed energy and 2/3 from utilities. Battery storage is one of the ways to mitigate the increasing duck curve, particularly in California. Return on investment calculations A May 2015 article in Forbes magazine calculated that using a Tesla Powerwall 1 model combined with solar panels in a home would cost 30 cents/kWh for electricity if a home remains connected to the grid (the article acknowledges that the Tesla battery could make economic sense in applications that are entirely off-grid). US consumers got electricity from the", "-29.483039440237917" ], [ "1980s, plans for several nuclear plants were cancelled, and the future of nuclear power remains in a state of uncertainty in the United States.\nMeanwhile, American scientists have been experimenting with other renewable energy, including solar power. Although solar power generation is still not economical in much of the United States, recent developments might make it more affordable. Telecom and technology For the past 80 years, the United States has been integral in fundamental advances in telecommunications and technology. For example, AT&T's Bell Laboratories spearheaded the American technological revolution with a series of inventions including the first practical light emitted diode", "-29.481256542552728" ], [ "hailed as \"the world's single-largest EV procurement initiative.\" Along with fulfilling the urgent need to keep air pollution in check, the Indian government aims at reducing the petroleum import bill and running cost of vehicles. With nearly a third of all cars sold in 2017 of all new cars either fully electric or a hybrid, Norway is the world leader in the adoption of electric cars and pushes to sell only electric or hybrid cars by 2030. The other nations followed the lead, with France and UK announcing the plan to ban the sale of gas and diesel cars by", "-29.471277634380385" ], [ "total of $25 million was appropriated to promote the use and production of vehicles capable of running on alternative fuels. Such alternative energy sources include compressed natural gas and electricity via all-electric vehicles and Plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEV).\nVehicles using alternative fuels include Global Electric Motorcars, Vectrix, and ZAP vehicles. The 2008 Tesla Roadster and 2008 ZENN neighborhood electric vehicle are also on the list of vehicles eligible for rebates under the Fueling Alternatives. PHEV Research Center The PHEV Research Center was launched with fundings from the California Air Resources Board. Fueling Alternatives includes, among others, Global Electric Motorcars,", "-29.460896413074806" ], [ "have made a clear impact. Without them, the manufacturing capacity for solar cells in the United States would likely not have increased significantly, from 1.8 gigawatts in 2017 to at least 3.4 gigawatts in 2018, they argue. However, because of the increasing reliance on automation, not that many new jobs will be created, while profits will flow to other countries, as many firms are foreign. By 2019, the solar power industry has recovered from the initial setbacks due to Trump's tariffs, thanks to initiatives from various states, such as California. Moreover, it is receiving considerable support from the Department of", "-29.418686779681593" ], [ "2009 energy efficiency and renewable energy research investment Background During his 2008 presidential campaign President Barack Obama stated to help and invest federal money into the green energy industry in the United States. President Obama stated that the plan would put 460,000 Americans to work on renewable energy projects and double the amount of renewable energy produced over the next three years. The plan provided funds to 2 million homes by improving things such as insulation problems. The government pledged to use federal funds to improve the efficiency of 75 percent of federal buildings. New green job market President Obama made", "-29.413105157320388" ], [ "improve availability.” “British Columbians are excited about electric cars and the chance to cut both their fuel costs and pollution. It’s a win-win for commuters, but British Columbians have had a tough time finding electric cars on dealership lots and often had to go on long waiting lists,” said Dan Woynillowicz, policy director, Clean Energy Canada. “This legislation will help ensure supply keeps up with demand, making it easier for people to go electric, while helping B.C. cut carbon pollution and combat climate change. If you want an electric car, you should be able to drive one home from the", "-29.40478034026455" ], [ "connected vehicles. Global trends Oge also predicts that several global trends, including the growth of mega-cities, internationally converging fuel economy regulations and demand-side peak oil will ultimately result in reduced greenhouse gas emissions from passenger vehicles. Oge also examines the impact of social trends, such as a reduced rate of vehicle ownership and driver's licenses as well as increasing use of ride-sharing and on-demand cars among Millennials in OECD nations. She believes that electric cars are essential to hitting greenhouse gas targets and predicts that in the decades to come we will see widespread conversion to pure electric vehicles. Critical", "-29.403108720893215" ], [ "need for environmentally friendly energy options. When his innovative attempt to install \"alternative fueling stations for electric cars\" didn't work, he nevertheless stood by his belief that those with influence could and should seek ways to balance environmental stewardship with the need to create profit. He expressed this in the 1979 edition of U.S. News & World Report's \"How to Get America Moving Again: 20 Leaders Tell What's Needed\" when he said:\n\"We need to develop areas of mutual understanding. Environmentalists need to realize they will not get everything they want, and businessmen need to commit themselves to preserving the environment...we", "-29.3916126138065" ], [ "included money to build high-speed rail networks such as the proposed Florida High Speed Corridor, but political resistance and funding problems stymied those efforts. In January 2016, Obama announced a plan to invest $4 billion in the development of self-driving cars, as well as an initiative by the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration to develop regulations for self-driving cars. That same month, Obama called for a national effort led by Vice President Biden to develop a cure for cancer. Foreign affairs The Obama administration inherited a war in Afghanistan, a war in Iraq, and a global \"War on Terror,\" all", "-29.380204708431847" ], [ "Grid. Funding The major starting point for investment into modernizing the current grid was the U.S. Department of Energy’s (DOE) stimulus package (American Recovery and Reinvestment Act, i.e. ARRA). The ARRA invested approximately $4.4 billion for Smart Grid research. LADWP received $60 million from the DOE's stimulus package. \"The money will be used for “smart grid\" demonstration projects. The projects will allow the city’s Department of Water and Power, the largest municipal utility in the nation, to use advanced meters and other technology at the universities to chart how power is being consumed, forecast demand and potential outages, and seek", "-29.356655943760416" ], [ "on the world's roads by December 2018.\nGlobal cumulative sales of highway-legal light-duty plug-in vehicles reached 2 million units at the end of 2016, 3 million in November 2017, and the 5 million milestone in December 2018. Sales of plug-in passenger cars achieved a 2.1% market share of new car sales in 2018, up from 1.3% in 2017, and 0.86% in 2016. \nThe PEV market is shifting towards fully electric battery vehicles. The global ratio between BEVs and PHEVs went from 56:44 in 2012, to 60:40 in 2015, and rose to 69:31 in 2018. \nAs of December 2018, China had the largest stock of highway", "-29.33312217117782" ], [ "the effects of the program on the average fuel economy considering a baseline without the existence of the program, since there was already a trend for buying vehicles with higher fuel economy due to the high gasoline prices of 2007 and 2008, and the economic crisis of 2008. The study found that the program improved the average fuel economy of all vehicles purchased by 0.6 mpg in July 2009 and by 0.7 mpg in August 2009.\nA 2010 study published in the journal Environmental Research Letters reported on the findings of a life-cycle assessment study of the CARS program. The researchers", "-29.320042254927102" ], [ "of new car sales is the highest in the world. The segment's market share rose from 1.6% in 2011, to 3.1% in 2012, and reached 5.6% in 2013. Only the Netherlands, with 5.34% in 2013, achieved a similar market share. In 2014 the overall plug-in car take rate climbed to 13.8%, and reached 22.4% in 2015. With a plug-in market share of 9.7% in 2015, the Netherlands had the world's second largest market share after Norway.\nA record plug-in market share of 29.1% of new car sales was achieved in 2016. The all-electric segment register a market share of 15.7%, down", "-29.318463237257674" ], [ "recovered, the green market may have emerged or simply a green bubble may have exploded. The article argued high promises from the green tech sector that may not be accomplished. For example, CleanEdge predicted that global markets for bio fuels, wind and solar energy will reach $325 billion by 2018. However, only 3.4% of total electricity expended in the U.S. came from renewal energy in 2010, while other related industries, including electric cars and solar energy, are still not competitive in their markets.\nJuliet Eilperin's article \"Why the Clean Tech Boom Went Bust\", provided some evidence regarding the fact that green technology", "-29.298775272007333" ], [ "owners use the electric car mostly for commuting to work (89.6%), shopping (88.4%) and driving to after work activities (77.0%). Other uses include delivery of children to school or kindergarten (40.9%) and for business purposes (40.2%). On the other hand, use of the electric car for holiday travel is very limited (11.7%).\nAs for the charging patterns, the 2013 survey found that 85% of the respondents could charge in their own garage or parking lot, and 10% had access to charging in the shared apartment building where they live. This means that 95% of the respondents were able to charge their", "-29.28788069996517" ], [ "Energy to help accelerate scientific breakthroughs needed to build a new 21st-century economy. In 2018, NECCES was given another $3 million by the Department of Energy to continue its important research for two more years. The NECCES team is using the funding to make energy-storage materials work better and to develop new materials that are \"cheaper, environmentally friendly, and able to store more energy than current materials can\". Research Whittingham is a key figure in the history of the development of lithium batteries, discovering the concept of intercalation electrodes. Exxon manufactured Whittingham's lithium battery in 1970s, the first functional rechargeable", "-29.277880137122338" ] ]

[ "You just graduated high school? There's a job at the auto plant, or the mill, or the shipyard for you. In a few years you can buy a car, a house. You can start a family in your house with your stable job with good benefits and a guaranteed retirement fund in your mid 20s, heck, maybe even by 21. Your union is powerful. Your union gives you the kind of leverage to make sure you don't get screwed over the way CEOs have leverage to get golden parachutes. This is before there starts being backlash not against the exorbitant golden parachutes for the insulated, coddled executives, but against the leeches trying to put food on their tables asking for a raise to compensate for inflation and asking that their pensions not be ransacked or taken away. People with high school or bachelor degrees easily rise up through the ranks. If they need extra training the company provides that training for them.", "My perspective is that of a mortgage lender in the bay area. Old folks speak of graduating high school and spending 3-4 years to save up 20% for a down payment on a 3 bedroom house while renting a 2 bedroom apartment like it's no big deal. In my market, the bay area, that doesn't happen without significant family help or a lucky IPO. This basically means that I had to become an expert in the various low down payment options and tax write-off programs and so on and so forth just to be able to serve more than some small percent of my own generation. In the past, according to my older loan officer peers, learning that stuff meant your 'target market' was poor uneducated people. Nope, my target market (and the reason I learn all that stuff) is college graduates in STEM.", "I had a chat with my grandfather and father recently. My grandparents' first house cost three times his annual wage (and mortgage payments were 1/8th his monthly pay). My parents house cost five times my dad's wage and was about a quarter of his monthly wage. My rent is 60% of my monthly paycheck and if I wanted to buy a one bedroom flat relatively near London, it would be about 10x my annual wage. Anyone looking to get on the property ladder now is absolutely fucked.", "I think it was the stability of their lives. Unless you royally screwed up (arrested, drugs, didn't try at all) or were pants on head stupid, you could reasonably expect life to turn out ok. Maybe not great, probably not exciting, but you'd be fine. Now, it's the reverse. Unless you own the company, you're not in a stable position. You can't really plan long term because you really don't know what will happen. You could save for that house or car, just put down the payment, and lose your job that day, no warning. And even getting those jobs requires a lot of excellent work history. An average person isn't good enough most of the time. They're only willing to take the straight A captain of the team, built robots in his bedroom guy, if that's not you, then you get a job in retail or restaurants because there's no place for you. And if you're not constantly upgrading your skills, not a perfect worker, or even only working 60 hours a week, you're on the block for termination.", "For much of the postwar 20th century, if you were a young white man with at least a high-school education, you had to try *not* to get a job that would fund at least a lower-middle-class lifestyle. If you had a college degree in *anything*, even English or Art History, you were pretty much guaranteed a lifetime of desk jobs, each higher-paying and more powerful than the last, with The Firm, which would then take care of you through retirement with a pension. If you came into The Firm with a Bachelors, it might actually pay your time *and your tuition* for a Masters. When you went home at the end of the night, work was generally over - there was no email. Calling someone at home was a big deal and used mostly for emergencies. (This era is largely where the perception that the unemployed are just lazy comes from. There really was a time when you had to be lazy to be unemployed.) Nowadays, you need to get into a good elementary school that will prepare you to work hard in middle school so you can take the right classes in high school to get into a good college in a handful of the \"right\" majors, and then maybe go to graduate school, to stand a *chance* of getting a good job if you're also a friendly/interesting person who interviews well. Outside a handful of labor markets, your health insurance and retirement plans will be token benefits (if they exist at all). You'll need to hit the streets, blast your resume around, write a ton of cover letters, and practice your interview game so you can change jobs every few years to increase your salary with your experience. Employers certainly aren't handing out meaningful raises just for showing up. Your bosses may expect you to answer your cell phone or respond to texts/emails promptly late into the night. For blue-collar workers, much of this can be attributed to globalization and automation. For white-collar workers... as just one example, many corporations needed what was basically database functionality long before databases existed. A whole lot of middle-class lives were funded to replicate what I can now do for 15 minutes of setup and $5/month: Postgres on a virtual machine. It also turns out that people in low-cost-of-living countries are just as good at a lot of menial computer-operating tasks. Firms are also getting more and more efficient. It turns out that a lot of the time, you can lay off an entire layer of people who do nothing but have meetings with each other all day and the firm makes just as much money. You can have a \"corporate culture\" of \"passionate\" people who work 10 more hours a week for the same salary and hire 20% fewer of them. On the other hand, if you're *not* a white man, life now is probably a great deal more manageable than it was back then.", "Perspective on how the job market has changed: I have an older relative in his 70s that got a job straight out of high school working as a surveyor *and he didn't even apply to the job*. They literally found him, and offered him the job because they needed someone. He says that he cant imagine trying to survive in the job market the way it is these days. But its worth remembering that the way things are now isnt unique to the present day. If you look back at history before the 1940s, most people were just as financially insecure, and had as much trouble finding stable well-paying work as they are today. Its just that the Baby Boomers had the luck to live in times where demand for labour was reasonably high, and the economy had whole new sectors that had never existed before become major sources of employment and wealth. tldr; The baby boomers had it reaaaally good.", "In the US young people have the problem of a changing nature of labor and the contract between worker and corporation. In past few decades wages have not increased with respect to ~interest rates~ inflation, in many ways they have decreased. This means we get a larger number in terms of dollars from the companies we work for, but we receive far less value for our work. So we have to work more. We work for smaller firms generally, shops and retail, tinier operations that make unionizing and collective bargaining less viable strategies for supporting our labor's value. A major reason for the existence of unions was to combat the spreading de-humanization of work, which simply put took satisfaction out of labor and alienated people. Additionally, they helped support labor in national politics. By and large people born in the past 20 years will never join or support a union, and won't be able to offer each other support for their livelihoods. This means goods are slightly cheaper, but labor is cheaper still, so we have to work more to stay solvent. Gains in women's rights and expanded diversity have slightly offset the effects of wage stagnation, but the crisis of 2008 shows us that we won't get back to the state of the mid-90s labor. The minimum wages your parents worked for briefly as youths are the wages you will work for until you are middle-aged, when you briefly make more and then get fired and have to work for minimum wages again (on average). In the past century our labor has become a substantial portion of our identities. If you write a story about someone, the thing they spend time doing to make money is probably the first thing you use to describe them. This is Jim, an accountant, or Mary, an engineer, or Sanjeet, a flight attendant, etc. Well, now your profession will last 15 months, on average. You will change jobs many times in your lifetime as a replaceable cog in a variety of machines that don't care about you. Oh, and you won't be able to retire on the average person's wages. You'll get no pension, and once you are fired for being less productive than a computer the company you worked for will forget you ever existed. All your work will have your name scrubbed from it and your impact on the world will be indistinguishable from the person in the cubical next to yours (on average). edit: Thank you DrunkHacker.", "There were fewer choices and fewer connotations associated with those choices. You'd grow up in an area and work at the same factory your dad did. Or you'd go into a public profession(cop, garbage man, street cleaner) because you wanted to make your city better, and there wasn't necessarily the stigma attached, because not everyone went to college, so everyone was on a more level field. I think the choices people have now, coupled with stigmas associated with occupations, and growing inequality(rich people used to have the same things as poor people, just better, now rich people have options poor people have no idea even exist).", "This is an interesting question because it can be answered both subjectively and objectively. Objectively, in almost every aspect, we have it better. I mean aside from the sucky things that are happening now, such as great recession, and HIV/AIDS, which were not really problems for older generations, for the most part we do have it better. Our life spans are longer, infectious disease transmission is down, malnutrition is going down, etc. Obviously there are and will be exceptions to these things in certain places, but for the most part, life is comparably good. Subjectively, we often see things as being better in the past, the so called \"rose-tinted glasses.\" Don't entirely believe me and think it is a recent development that kids and teens are assholes, check out [this quote and it's author]( URL_0 ). If you really want to know some things that could be considered objectively worse today in America, politics have definitely become much much more polarized though. Partisanship is incredibly high right now.", "I think this is a misconception about our generation. We are spoiled and arrogant in a lot of ways and we talk like we're the most important generation ever, but I don't often hear anyone saying the old generations had it easier. We're very aware that having to deal with the depression, WWII, Korea, Nam, and many other things must have sucked way worse than anything we've been through. If you go back further, it sucked even worse. I can't even imagine getting drafted and forced to go kill people and probably die in WWII, or even worse Viet Nam. Iraq has been pretty messed up, but there was no draft and far less American deaths than previous wars. One thought I often have about these generation discussions is how we are all quite the same. Human beings do not inately change from one generation to the next, we just respond to our environment. Whatever our strengths or flaws, the previous generation has made us what we are, so we should try to get along. When your grandson has stretched our ear lobes, wears all blacks, spraypaints the city, and won't get a job, it's a little bit your fault, so don't hate him too much. My favorite quote about our generation, \"This youngest generation is the smartest and most capable generation to ever live... as long as the power is on.\"", "100% paid pensions and healthcare. Affordable housing and cheaper college tuition. I feel like they've pilfered all the good stuff and I'm stuck paying out all my disposable income to these things. My pay used to be considered a good income (53k). Now it's just enough to get by.", "Competition with other countries is higher now, and also its much easier for companies to copy the models of other companies that have mastered paying as little as possible to employees.", "22 year old here. My mother, now an attorney, totaled her camaro while driving drunk the night after HS graduation. Cops didn't even ask if she was drinking. I got arrested, strip searched, and dressed like Andy Dufrane over a couple grams of weed..", "The idea of it being better back then comes from having a 1 income home and still doing well as well as the job market being better and not needing a college degree.", "A high school diploma got you further with jobs back then than it does today. College wasn't as expected from kids back then as it is today. Global competition is tough, especially since American kids aren't keeping up with math or science as well as countries such as China or Singapore. Back in the day, you didn't have to worry about kids pulling ahead you who live 5000 miles away. Today, they compete with you. Why choose you, when employers can hire someone in India to do the same thing for much less? Less manual intensive jobs are available today. Companies don't need so much manual labor today, as they did 30 years ago. If they do need a labor intensive job to get done, it is sent east to East Asia for cheap labor. This is true for things like manufacturing and assembly. More jobs are automated in general. You don't always need people to get the job done. You can get a computer to do the same thing. Why call up a travel agent when you can go to Priceline or Expedia? Self checkout lines? Basically what I'm saying is that there were more (good) employment opportunities back in the day. Being lazy today is worse than being lazy back then. You need to put in a lot more effort to live well today than our parents and grandparents had to. The work-life balance was also better, given that today you can still get work done with an internet connection from home.", "When we talk about that we're talking about the post war generations. A few things happened in America that was completely unprecedented. One, most the the industrialized world was in ruin except for the United States, this led to a large number of high paying private manufacturing jobs. Two the United States vs. the Soviet Union made it necessary for large government expenditure and expansion, this also created jobs. Three, women retreated from the work force after the war creating more demand for labor. These three things made it extremely easy to find good paying work. Now, lets look at housing. Housing cost from post war until about 1975 rose, roughly, with inflation. In the mid 70s the price of housing started to outpace inflation, this has accelerated so that a house in 1970 that would have cost 100k(adjusted for inflation) would have cost 200k in 1990, and today that exact same house would run half a million. These are national numbers, there are certainly places in America where this isn't the case, but it's true in most places. Next is education. I'll keep this one easy. In 1960 it cost roughly $9500 in inflation adjusted dollars to attend an ivy league school. It now costs over $40,000. That's quadrupling of tuition, the price of books and the aforementioned housing has also gone up significantly more. Well, there's three factors. There's more, but you get the jist of it.", "There were plenty of jobs that didn't require more than a medium amount of physical strength and some determination, and you could earn enough to purchase a house and a car, plus support a wife and children. In high school I had a friend/manager whose dad had a job like that, and he only had a 4th grade education. These days you'll be lucky to find a fast food job that would hire you without a high school diploma, and the jobs that would let you afford a home require at least an associates degree (and a spouse/partner with their own income).", "One of the benefits that baby boomers enjoyed was a massive increase in the number of people with college degrees and increases in public education.That coupled plenty of jobs and new manufacturing meant there were plenty of jobs. Now college education is considered a minimum even for jobs that don't require it. And the number of jobs is decreasing due to automation and other efficiencies.", "there is this, which i think explains a lot URL_0 ", "A high-school graduate could get a job and support a family on it. Medical care was cheaper. If you were smart, you could far more easily apply to an Ivy league college and get in without have to compete with all the homeschooled kids of Nigerian princes, Saudi oil barons, etc. from around the world.", "Not really an answer to your question, but I think many countries (such as Thailand or Indonesia for example) offer the experience that the baby-boomers had. Less safety, lower standards of living, but more freedom, more opportunity and less pressure to perform.", "We live in the information age. Lots of us are completely overwhelmed by it. And the many reasons already stated." ]

[ [ "in their household, which may have been due to the idea that the young people in these times typically waited to establish themselves and start a household before they married and filled a home. As life expectancy becomes older and programs such as Social Security benefit the elderly, the old are now beginning to live longer than prior generations, which then may lead to generations mixing together. According to results of a study by Pew Research Center in 2010, approximately 50 million (nearly one in six) Americans, including rising numbers of seniors, live in households with at least two adult generations,", "-33.40614130557515" ], [ "events is proposed to be generally younger people due to generational influences, where they tend to show a stronger sense of idealism and social justice for a more progressive society than the older generation.", "-31.930773998319637" ], [ "to be the most formally educated. As of 2008, 39.6% of millennials between the ages of 18 and 24 were enrolled in college, which was an American record. Along with being educated, millennials also tend be upbeat, with about 9 out of 10 millennials feeling as though they have enough money or that they will reach their long-term financial goals, even during the tough economic times, and they are more optimistic about the future of the U.S. Additionally, millennials are also more open to change than older generations. According to the Pew Research Center that did a survey in 2008,", "-31.925087786410586" ], [ "oldest among them have already begun buying cars in great numbers. In 2016, Millennials purchased more cars and trucks than any living generation except the Baby Boomers; in fact, Millennials overtook Baby Boomers in car ownership in California that year.\nAccording to the Pew Research Center, young people are more likely to ride public transit. In 2016, 21% of adults aged 18 to 21 took public transit on a daily, almost daily, or weekly basis. By contrast, this number of all U.S. adults was 11%. Nationwide, about three quarters of American commuters drive their own cars. Also according to Pew, 51%", "-31.352384273042844" ], [ "the young and the old to be relatively disadvantaged. However, more recently, in the United States the tendency is for the young to be most disadvantaged. For example, poverty levels in the U.S. have been decreasing among people aged 65 and older since the early 1970s whereas the number of children under 18 in poverty has steadily risen. Sometimes, the elderly have had the opportunity to build their wealth throughout their lives, while younger people have the disadvantage of recently entering into or having not yet entered into the economic sphere. The larger contributor to this, however, is the increase", "-31.2127148861764" ], [ "for rural Americans age 10 to 24 was almost double the rate among their urban counterparts. This was attributed to social isolation, greater availability of guns, and difficulty accessing healthcare.\nNo withstanding the economic and health challenges, a 2018 survey of rural adults found a majority felt they were better off financially than their parents at the same age. They thought their children would also experience such improvement. Forty percent said their lives came out better than they expected.", "-31.03920221424778" ], [ "age structure of the family with substantial implications for the financial relationships between and among family members. When we say that \"people are living longer\" we are also saying that parents are living longer. The 1980s concept of the sandwich generation focused on forty-year-olds (usually women) simultaneously taking care of their sixty-five-year old parents and their babies and toddlers. Greater longevity is accompanied by the emergence, however, of the senior sandwich generation in which sixty-year-olds are now the family generation in the middle taking care of (socially and financially) their ninety-year old parents alongside caring for their teenage and young-adult", "-30.755551179492613" ], [ "most uneven in recent history.\" In 2015, millennials in New York City were reported as earning 20% less than the generation before them, as a result of entering the workforce during the great recession. Despite higher college attendance rates than Generation X, many were stuck in low-paid jobs, with the percentage of degree-educated young adults working in low-wage industries rising from 23% to 33% between 2000 and 2014. \nAccording to a 2019 TD Ameritrade survey of 1,015 U.S. adults aged 23 and older with at least US$10,000 in investable assets, two thirds of people aged 23 to 38 (Millennials) felt", "-30.7544212982757" ], [ "experienced, typically older employee or leader providing guidance to a younger employee, the opposite approach can also be used. In the 2000s, with the rise of digital innovations, Internet applications and social media, in some cases, new, young employees are more familiar with these technologies than senior employees in the organizations. The younger generations can help the older generations to expand and grow towards current trends. Everyone has something to bring to the table, this creates a \"two way street\" within companies where younger employees can see the larger picture, and senior employees can learn from young employees.\nKnowledge transfer mentoring:", "-30.63518703682348" ], [ "power abroad to defend their interests. A more cautious climate could also herald slower economic growth, less entrepreneurship and reduced productivity in mature democracies. \nIt is also possible that ageing leads to lower inflation as elderly people are both inflation averse and politically powerful. However, some argue that older people in the developed world have much higher productivity, human capital and better health than their counterparts in developing countries, so the economic effects of population aging will be largely mitigated. Other branches of political demography Other areas in political demography address the political impact of skewed sex ratios (typically caused", "-30.448720087704714" ], [ "and better school districts for their children. Places in the South and Southwestern United States are especially popular. In some communities, millennials and their children are moving in so quickly that schools and roads are becoming overcrowded. This rising demand pushes prices upwards, making affordable housing options less plentiful. Historically, between the 1950s and 1980s, Americans left the cities for the suburbs because of crime. Suburban growth slowed because of the Great Recession but picked up pace afterwards. According to the Brookings Institution, overall, American cities with the largest net losses in their millennial populations were New York City, Los", "-30.442211800953373" ], [ "and proportion of older people in society. Population ageing has three possible causes: migration, longer life expectancy (decreased death rate) and decreased birth rate. Ageing has a significant impact on society. Young people tend to have fewer legal privileges (if they are below the age of majority), they are more likely to push for political and social change, to develop and adopt new technologies, and to need education. Older people have different requirements from society and government, and frequently have differing values as well, such as for property and pension rights.\nIn the 21st century, one of the most significant population", "-30.29061556130182" ], [ "population ages so do individual members of the family. As with other elements of gerontology, this implies that it is not just the parents (and grandparents) who are older than was the case in prior decades. In the context of Family Aging the care-providing children are also older than was the case decades ago. These family aging dynamics have produced an extension of the concept of the \"sandwich\" generation into the more contemporary reality of the \"senior sandwich\" generation in which the \"60-year-old kids\" are the generation in the middle, taking care of (financially and personally) their 90-year-old parents", "-30.22948744893074" ], [ "millennials are the most likely of any generation to self-identify as liberals and are also more supportive of progressive domestic social agenda than older generations. Finally, millennials are less overtly religious than the older generations. About one in four millennials are unaffiliated with any religion, a considerably higher ratio than that of older generations when they were the ages of millennials. Demographics in the United States Millennial population size varies, depending on the definition used. In 2014, using dates ranging from 1982 to 2004, Neil Howe revised the number to over 95 million people in the U.S. In a 2012", "-30.157017408055253" ], [ "This trend will likely continue as more and more millennials purchase a home. 2019 was the fourth year in a row where the number of millennials living in the major American cities declined measurably. Previously, millennials were responsible for the so-called \"back-to-the-city\" trend. But by the late 2010s, while 14% of the U.S. population relocate at least once each year, Americans in their 20s and 30s are more likely to move than retirees, according to Frey. Besides the cost of living, including housing costs, people are leaving the big cities in search of warmer climates, lower taxes, better economic opportunities,", "-30.123237766703824" ], [ "becoming smaller because of family planning and housing shortage. Other causes of decrease in practice are individualism, the loss of status of elderly, emigration of young people to cities and the independence of young people and women. To amplify this trend, the number of elderly people has increased fast.\nThe relationship between husband and wife came to be more emphasized, and the extended family less and less. Kinship ties between the husband and wife's families have become more bi-lateral and equal. The way respect to elders is expressed is also changing. Communication with elders tends to be become more reciprocal and", "-29.974871234386228" ], [ "households in 1990, but reached 24% in 2010. It will reach 30% by 2020. This is because the traditional family relationship is rapidly breaking apart as the aging population grows and the birth rate shrinks. The proportion of one-person households is increasing as the population ages. In 2015, the proportion of one-person households whose head of the family was younger than 39 years old was the highest with 36.9%; the second highest was from 40–59 years old with 33.2%; and last was those who over 60 years old, which was more than 30%. However, for 2045, over 60% of one-person", "-29.82649513380602" ], [ "take care of the previous working-age population that just retired since there will be more young and elderly people than working-age adults during that time period. The population structure of a country is an important factor for determining the economic status of their country. Japan is a great example of an aging population. They have a 1:4 ratio of people 65 years and older. This causes trouble for them because there is not enough people in the working-age population to support all of the elders. Rwanda is another example of a population that struggles with a younger population (also known", "-29.771094569994602" ], [ "Missing Middle Housing Background The American Association for Retired Persons recently released a new report, which showed that more and more, Americans want to “age in place,” and need easy access to services and amenities available in walkable, urban, transit-oriented communities.\nMillennials have also been shown to drive less, and seek housing choices in walkable neighborhoods close to transit. The numbers of automobile miles traveled increased each year between 1946 and 2004; today Americans drive less than 2004, and no more per person than in 1996. The decline in driving is most striking among young people aged 16 to 34, who", "-29.74969746451825" ], [ "indicate that this growing trend among the older population is due to the increase in use of social networking sites to stay in touch with family members or close friends that live far away. Studies point to Skype, Facebook, email, and instant messaging are all highlighted as commonly used, mainly because the means for communicating have become more available and free.\nWhile the rise in internet use among the younger population has led to fears of isolation, it is argued that the increase in use for the older population has done the exact opposite. A study was conducted that surveyed over", "-29.67163990577683" ], [ "divides along generational lines. Members of the older generation may dislike the influence that American culture has on the younger generation, particularly shifts from communal values to a more individualistic mindset. On the other hand, members of the younger generation may view their elders as too set in their ways and out of touch with American society. Such sentiments can lead to conflict between family members. Points of contention include clothing, speech, displaying respect for elders, and dating practices.\nFamily members who identify more with the culture of their home country may experience frustration when they attempt to instill their cultural", "-29.312501064967364" ], [ "this complexity, senior sandwich generation responsibilities extend the personal financial impact of older-age longevity to the middle-age children of elderly parents. For example, In 1900 only 39 percent of persons age 50 had one surviving parent, rising to 80 percent by 2000. Further, in 1900 only 7 percent of 60-year olds had even one parent alive, rising to 49 percent by 2000. Endowed chairs in financial gerontology Joseph E. Boettner, the successful high school educated insurance executive, directed a substantial portion of his wealth to higher education. His earlier gifts reflected his close involvement with the administration and finance of", "-29.11360767541919" ], [ "ways of speaking exercised by older and younger people exist, and may be partially explained by social historical reference points, culturally determined experiences, and individual interpretations\".\nKarl Mannheim, in his 1952 book Essays on the Sociology of Knowledge asserted the belief that people are shaped through lived experiences as a result of social change. Howe and Strauss also have written on the similarities of people within a generation being attributed to social change. Based on the way these lived experiences shape a generation in regard to values, the result is that the new generation will challenge the older generation's values, resulting", "-29.109438652798417" ], [ "which Twenge attributes to younger millennials coming of age following the financial crisis of 2007–2008.\nThere is also a contention that the major differences are found solely between millennials and Generation X. Researchers from the University of Missouri and The University of Tennessee conducted a study based on measurement equivalence to determine if such a difference does in fact exist. The study looked at 1,860 participants who had completed the Multidimensional Work Ethic Profile (MWEP), a survey aimed at measuring identification with work-ethic characteristics, across a 12-year period spanning from 1996 to 2008. The results of the findings suggest the main", "-29.106724719749764" ], [ "because of the power it affords them within the family. In America's more egalitarian culture, power hierarchies based on age are less likely to be accepted. Younger siblings may therefore reject the authority of their older siblings, fostering tensions within the family. The migration process can therefore destabilize traditional power hierarchies within the family based on age and in some cases may lead to a reversal of such hierarchies. Regardless of whether tension exists among members of different generations or members of the same generation, degree of assimilation may pave the way for divisions within the family. Language proficiency In", "-29.090099632856436" ], [ "achieve a level of consumption of $30,000 per year (2009-10 Australian dollars). At one extreme, people born in 1935 achieved this level of consumption when they were roughly 50 years of age, on average. At the other extreme, Millennials born in 1995 had achieved this level of consumption by the time they were around 10 years of age.\nConsiderations such as this have led some scholars to argue that standards of living have tended to increase generation over generation in most countries, as development and technology have progressed. When taking this into account, younger generations may have inherent privileges over older", "-29.047505005903076" ], [ "residents 60 and older live cooperatively. Some offer recreational activities, preventative health and social services for the community. This model can be supported by local, state, and federal dollars as well as community businesses, neighborhood associations and private foundations. Technological changes In some cases, the caregivers of people who are aging in place seek to persuade them to adopt new technology, which may include learning new skills and changing their daily routine to incorporate the technology. As of 2014, there is research about how people aging in place try to use new technology when persuaded, but not much", "-29.046731303518754" ], [ "restricting offensive speech was lower among older generations, with 27% of Gen Xers, 24% of Baby Boomers, and only 12% of the Silent Generation supporting such restrictions. Pew Research noted similar age related trends in the United Kingdom, but not in Germany and Spain, where millennials were less supportive of restricting offensive speech than older generations. In France, Italy and Poland no significant age differences were observed. In the U.S. and UK, millennials have brought changes to higher education via drawing attention to microaggressions and advocating for implementation of safe spaces and trigger warnings in the university setting. Critics of", "-29.013056795258308" ], [ "and often three. It has become an ongoing trend for elderly generations to move in and live with their children, as they can give them support and help with everyday living. The main reasons cited for this shift are an increase in unemployment and slumped housing prices and arrival of new immigrants from Asian and South American countries. According to the U.S. Census Bureau, there were 2.7 million grandparents raising their grandchildren in 2009. The dramatic increase in grandparent-headed households has been attributed to many factors including parental substance abuse, In 2003, the number of U.S. \"family groups\" where one", "-28.972868019307498" ], [ "modern humans began living longer, often reaching middle age, by today’s standards. Rachel Caspari argues in “Human Origins: the Evolution of Grandparents,” that life expectancy increased during the Upper Paleolithic in Europe (Caspari 2011). She also describes why elderly people were highly influential in society. Grandparents assisted in childcare, perpetuated cultural transmission, and contributed to the increased complexity of stone tools (Caspari 2011). The woman found at Dolni Vestonice was old enough to have been a grandparent. Although human lifespans were increasing, elderly individuals in Upper Paleolithic societies were still relatively rare. Because of this, it is possible that the", "-28.9319209528403" ], [ "of older employees opting for early retirement. Family Availability of kin support largely depends in general on geographic accessibility and social contact. The SHARE data confirm, on the one hand, the existence of longstanding regional patterns of ‘weak’ and ‘strong’ family ties, while, on the other hand, they reveal many similarities across Europe. In all countries – and across all age groups – 85 percent of all parents have at least one child living at a distance of at most 25 km. Moreover, the share of parents with less than weekly contacts to a child is equally low (7%) in Sweden", "-28.79699761234224" ], [ "they're referred to as the mileurista (for €1,000 per month), in France \"The Precarious Generation,\" and as in Spain, Italy also has the \"milleurista\"; generation of 1,000 euros (per month).\nIn 2016, research from the Resolution Foundation found millennials in the UK earned £8,000 less in their 20s than Generation X, describing millennials as \"on course to become the first generation to earn less than the one before\".\nMillennials are the most highly educated and culturally diverse group of all generations, and have been regarded as hard to please when it comes to employers. To address these new challenges, many large firms", "-28.683558350196108" ], [ "a history of military service.\nIn 2017, fewer than 56% Millennial were non-Hispanic whites, compared with more than 84% of Americans in their 70s and 80s, 57% had never been married, and 67% lived in a metropolitan area. According to the Brookings Institute, millennials are the “demographic bridge between the largely white older generations (pre-millennials) and much more racially diverse younger generations (post-millennials).” In Europe Economic prospects for some millennials have declined largely due to the Great Recession in the late 2000s. Several governments have instituted major youth employment schemes out of fear of social unrest due to the dramatically increased", "-28.663143859477714" ], [ "longer life expectancy and smaller family sizes. The first wave of Generation will reach adulthood by the 2030s. By that time, the human population will be about nine billion, and the world will have the highest proportion of people over 60 years of age in history, meaning this demographic cohort will bear the burden of an aging population.\nAs of 2016, there were some 11 million Millennial parents in the U.S., who gave birth to some 9,000 children each day. Globally, there are some two and a half million people belonging to Generation Alpha born every week and their number", "-28.556870740139857" ], [ "American English). History and distribution In pre-industrial societies, most people lived in multi-family dwellings for most of their lives. A child lived with their parents from birth until marriage, and then generally moved in with the parents of the man (patrilocal) or the woman (matrilocal), so that the grandparents could help raise the young children and so the middle generation could care for their aging parents. This type of arrangement also saved some of the effort and materials used for construction and, in colder climates, heating. If people had to move to a new place or were wealthy enough, they", "-28.475298237244715" ], [ "Frey at the Brookings Institution found that, following the Great Recession, American suburbs grew faster than dense urban cores. For example, for every one person who moved to New York City, five moved out to one of its suburbs. Data released by the U.S. Census Bureau in 2017 revealed that Americans aged 25-29 were 25% more likely to move from a city to a suburb than the other way around; for older millennials, that number was 50%. Economic recovery and easily obtained mortgages help explain this phenomenon. Millennial homeowners are more likely to be in the suburbs than the cities.", "-28.470502582287736" ], [ "Inferior has remained relatively static in recent years despite the ageing British population. In 2001, the most common age ranges were 30–44 and 45–49 and this did not change in the 2011 census. It could be suggested that the parish population is actually becoming younger because in 2001 there were 33 children aged 0–14 and in 2011 there were 44 aged 0–14, however this can be contested because the overall population has grown since 2001. Housing Peover Inferior has expanded vastly in the past century; the number of houses has almost quadrupled since 1881 however it still remains a very", "-28.463282754499232" ], [ "sociocultural norms and legal systems. Reasons for age disparity Explanations for age disparity usually focus on either the rational choice model or the analysis of demographic trends in a society. The rational choice model suggests that people look for partners who can provide for them in their life (bread-winners); as men traditionally earn more as they get older, women will therefore prefer older men. This factor is diminishing as more women enter the labor force. The demographic trends are concerned with the sex ratio in the society, the marriage squeeze, and migration patterns. Another explanation concerns cultural values: the higher", "-28.422121805720963" ], [ "late twenties, thus confirming that emerging adulthood is distinct subjectively. Why emerging adulthood is distinct demographically Emerging adulthood is the sole age period where there is nothing that is demographically consistent. At this time, adolescents in the United States up to age 20, over 95% live at home with at least one parent, 98% are not married, under 10% have become parents, and more than 95% attend school. Similarly, people in their thirties are also demographically normative: 75% are married, 75% are parents, and under 10% attend school. Residential status and school attendance are two reasons that the period of", "-28.373178458365146" ], [ "compares the standards of living of successive generations at the same age. D'Albis, Badji, El Mekkaoui and Navaux's third indicator is a combination of the two previous criteria and is both an inter-age indicator and an intergenerational indicator.\nIn Australia, notable equality has been achieved in living standards, as measured by consumption, among people between the ages of 20 and 75 years. Substantial inequalities exist, however, between different generations, with older generations experiencing lower living standards in real terms at particular ages than younger generations. One way to illustrate these inequalities is to look at how long different generations took to", "-28.294343206856865" ], [ "organization, or individual that provides room and board, personal care and habilitation services in a family environment for at least two and no more than six persons. United States According to the United States Department of Health and Human Services, the older population—persons 65 years or older—numbered 39.6 million in 2009. They represented 12.9% of the U.S. population, about one in every eight Americans. By 2030, there will be about 72.1 million older persons, more than twice their number in 2000. People aged over 65 years represented 12.4% of the population in the year 2000, but that is expected to", "-28.20413660327904" ], [ "ten years before. A 2019 survey by TD Ameritrade found that over 18% of Millennials (and 30% of Generation Z) said they have considered taking a gap year between high school and college.\nAccording to the U.S. Department of Education, people with technical or vocational trainings are slightly more likely to be employed than those with a bachelor's degree and significantly more likely to be employed in their fields of specialty. The United States currently suffers from a shortage of skilled tradespeople. Historical knowledge A February 2018 survey of 1,350 individuals found that 66% of the American millennials (and 41% of", "-28.175945554568898" ], [ "in the United States is expected to reach 97.8 million people, comprising 28.7% percent of the entire U.S. population, a rise from the 24.7% in 2010. This increase in proportion of older adults can be attributed to the entire Baby Boomer cohort joining the older adult population (ages 55+) by 2020.\nIt is projected that by 2020, the proportion of the U.S. labor force that is composed of older adults will be 25.2%. This continues a trend in increasing rates of older adults remaining in the workforce, as the rates were 13.1% in 2000 and 19.5% in 2010. A complementary trend", "-28.164111790800234" ], [ "countries, and researchers have only recently begun exploring such cross-national differences. For instance, researchers have determined that Europe is the area where emerging adulthood lasts the longest, with high levels of government assistance and median marriage ages nearing 30, compared to the U.S. where the median marriage age is 27.\nEmerging adult communities in East Asia may be most dissimilar from their European and American counterparts, for while they share the benefits of affluent societies with strong education and welfare systems, they do not share as strong a sense of individualization. Historically and currently, East Asian cultures have emphasized collectivism more", "-28.11272697360255" ], [ "smaller in older adults than younger adults. This too indicates that older people display lesser benefits for distinctive information compared to younger people.", "-28.102689948951593" ], [ "rather high proportion of older people (in the 45-64 age bracket).", "-28.096376197063364" ], [ "values into younger family members. Popular media, schools, and peers act as powerful socializing agents and members of the older generation may feel that they cannot compete with these pervasive cultural and social forces. Parents may blame television and magazines for the unwanted change they see in their children and if they decide to act by cracking down on their children's access to popular media, this may lead to further generational schisms.\nThese divides can also occur between members of the same generation, particularly between older siblings who may identify more strongly with their home country and younger siblings who may", "-28.080671441042796" ], [ "Gerodiversity Demographics and characteristics to consider in geriatric populations Increased awareness and attention to gerodiversity parallels the aging demography of the United States. Older adults comprise 14.5% of the U.S. population, with those aged 65 and older numbering 46.2 million (Administration on Aging [AoA], 2016). Dubbed \"the Silver Tsunami\", this segment of the population is rapidly growing, and the Administration on Aging expects it to double to 98 million older persons by 2060. Aging confers a unique risk of marginalization due to the intersection of advanced age and other disadvantaged factors. The domains of diversity discussed herein may intersect with", "-27.91075511975214" ], [ "to whom a child is born—are larger today than in the past. US wealth is increasingly concentrated in the top 10% of American families, so children of the remaining 90% are more likely to be born at lower starting incomes today than the same children in the past. Even if they are equally mobile and climb the same distance up the US socioeconomic ladder as children born 25 years earlier, the bottom 90% of the ladder is worth less now, so they gain less income value from their climb ... especially when compared to the top 10%. Current state", "-27.891886811237782" ], [ "older.", "-27.883532678941265" ], [ "on middle-aged (mean 37.3 years) and older adults (mean 60.8 years). The adults were grouped according to the I.Q., years of schooling, and occupation. Ross administered five Einstellung tests including the arithmetical (water jar) test, the maze test, the hidden-word test, and two other tests. For every test, the middle-aged group performed better than the older group. For example, 65% of the older adults failed the extinction task of the arithmetical test, whereas only 29% of the middle-aged adults failed the extinction problem. \nLuchins devised another experiment to determine the difference between Einstellung effects in", "-27.85320407577092" ], [ "years. A majority of the research found that males were primarily the most \"left behind\" in education because of higher graduation dropout rates, lower test scores, and failing grades. They found that as males get older, primarily from ages 9 to 17, they are less likely to be labeled \"proficient\" in reading and mathematics than girls were.\nIn general, males arrive in kindergarten much less ready and prepared for schooling than females. This creates a gap that continually increases over time into middle and high school. Nationally, there are 113 boys in 9th grade for every 100 girls, and among", "-27.845849837874994" ], [ "50–64, 80% of ages 30–49, and 84% of ages 18–29 reported Internet access. As a whole, usage rates are increasing rapidly, but older Americans still have the lowest levels of Internet connectivity: by 2009, 39.9% of households 65 years and older, 68.2% of households 45–64, and 71.2% of households 16–44 reported connecting to the Internet. Per the oldest generations of Americans, 4% of the Greatest Generation (85+), 7% of the Silent Generation (66–84), and 35% of the Baby Boomers (47–65) had connected to the Internet by February 2008. Although older generations still hold the lowest amount of Internet usage age-wise,", "-27.833802216337062" ], [ "paying into the system. For example, \"between 2010 and 2030, the number of people aged 65 and older is projected to increase by 76%, while the number of workers supporting the system is projected to increase by 8%\". The elder population also is living longer, expected to have a marked increase in the people living over the age of 80, involving an increase in \"disabilities\" such as dementia (e.g., Public Broadcasting, 2011), effecting social security disability benefits, and also the discovery of older adults with lifelong disabilities in \"community-dwelling\" two generation families. Youth, children and adults in mental health Instead", "-27.833612218440976" ], [ "have remained in the United States and have formed cohesive communities. As a result, they are much less Americanized, if at all, than groups with longer histories American. Guided by family and friends, these new Americans find comfort in neighborhoods established by others people from their home country. Continued use of their native language and dialect sustains ties with their homeland and delays acculturation. Language is a key factor in the acculturation process. Those who are fluent in English have greater communication and interaction with the majority population. Other factors that can accelerate acculturation include higher education and employment", "-27.826493885513628" ], [ "By that time many, if not most, farming and fishing villages consisted of older persons; relatively few able-bodied men and women remained to work in the fields or to fish. This trend was apparent in government statistics for the 1986–87 period: the proportion of people fifty years old or older living in farming communities grew from 28.7% in 1986 to 30.6% in 1987, while the number of people in their twenties living in farming communities declined from 11.3% to 10.8%. The nationwide percentages for people fifty years old or older and in their twenties were, in 1986, 14.9% and 20.2%,", "-27.80065777832351" ], [ "According to the authors, Millennials could emerge as the next \"Great Generation\". The book was described as an optimistic, feel-good book for the parents of the Millennial Generation, predominantly the Baby Boomers. Defining a generation Strauss and Howe define a social generation as the aggregate of all people born over a span of roughly twenty years or about the length of one phase of life: childhood, young adulthood, midlife, and old age. Generations are identified (from first birthyear to last) by looking for cohort groups of this length that share three criteria. First, members of a generation share", "-27.7889573876746" ], [ "to be younger people.", "-27.697477646521293" ], [ "Year of Older Persons (IYOP). The theme of this year is Towards a society for all ages.\nAt the launching ceremony, the World Health Organization (WHO) called upon policy-makers to recognise the importance of population ageing and put this recognition into action. In 1999, there were some 580 million people aged 60 years and over in the world. By 2020, this number is estimated to pass over the 1 billion mark. By that time, over 700 million older people will live in developing countries alone. It was therefore indispensable to bring ageing into the development agenda, she emphasized. United Nations Principles", "-27.69690043744049" ], [ "second generation of immigrants although there was wide variation among ethnic groups. Other research suggests that length of time resided in the U.S. narrows the occupational gap between Hispanic immigrants and non-Hispanic whites and U.S.-born Hispanic counterparts. Overcoming language barriers and adjusting to the new environment and culture to American society creates barriers for new immigrants, and \"there is significant economic 'catching up' between the first and second generations\" (second generation being defined as child with at least one parent not born in the United States). This intergenerational mobility includes poor as well as middle income groups, although among the", "-27.65140768024139" ], [ "only 35% identified as millennials. Among younger millennials (born 1989–1997), generational identity was not much stronger, with only 45% personally identifying as millennials. It was also found that millennials chose most often to define themselves with more negative terms such as self-absorbed, wasteful or greedy. In this 2015 report, Pew defined millennials with birth years ranging from 1981 onwards.\nMillennials came of age in a time where the entertainment industry began to be affected by the Internet. In addition to millennials being the most ethnically and racially diverse compared to the generations older than they are, they are also on pace", "-27.648484481847845" ], [ "the \"special\" trait, in particular, is unrecognizable. Other socio-economic groups often do not display the same attributes commonly attributed to millennials. \"It's not that many diverse parents don't want to treat their kids as special,\" he says, \"but they often don't have the social and cultural capital, the time and resources, to do that.\"\nIn 2015, the Pew Research Center also conducted research regarding generational identity that said a majority did not like the \"Millennial\" label.\nIn his book Fast Future, author David Burstein describes millennials' approach to social change as \"pragmatic idealism\" with a deep desire to make the world a", "-27.515043937135488" ], [ "local governments is likely to increase inequalities. In Canada, the most fortunate and healthier elders tend to live in more prosperous cities offering a wide range of services, whereas the less fortunate don’t have access to the same level of resources. Private residences for the elderly also provide many services related to health and social participation (e.g. pharmacy, group activities and events) on site; however they are not accessible to the less fortunate. \nAlso, the Environmental gerontology indicates the importance of the environment in active aging . In fact, promoting good environments (natural, built, social) in aging can improve health", "-27.496215534512885" ], [ "a significant increase in the percentage of young adults living with parents compared to the previous demographic cohort, Generation X, with 23% of young adults aged 18–34 living with parents in 2000, rising to 32% in 2014. Additionally, in 2000, 43% of those aged 18–34 were married or living with a partner, with this figure dropping to 32% in 2014. High student debt is described as one reason for continuing to live with parents, but may not be the dominant factor for this shift as the data shows the trend is stronger for those without a college education. Richard Fry,", "-27.495112099055405" ], [ "those of college students that were new in the working world. In comparison to younger workers, elderly workers were found to be safer, have less counterproductive work behaviors, less work place aggression, less likely to abuse substances on the job, and less likely to be tardy to work. Elderly workers also tend to be more loyal to a company and are able to use their previous work experience to help develop products, processes, and different approaches that help with organizational competitiveness. Reasons for age discrimination Most large companies choose to offer health care and insurance to all of their", "-27.47804841658217" ], [ "religious activities than younger adults (Idler, 2006). Bengston, Putney, Silverstein, and Harris (2015) studied aging patterns and generation trends regarding religiosity (namely, Christianity and Judaism) in the United States. Ultimately, the results indicated an overall aging effect with an upward drift in religious intensity and strength of beliefs. Additionally, there was a generational effect indicating different conceptualizations of a monotheistic God based on one's generational cohort and a greater separation between religiosity and spirituality in later-born cohorts.\nIn a longitudinal study Wink and Dillon (2002) found that adults increased significantly in spirituality between late middle (mid-50s to early 60s) and older", "-27.420874913790612" ], [ "immigrant populations at young ages, the differences become negligible at older ages. At every income level, native-born populations have an advantage, though that advantage fades at the highest income levels as well.\nThe only significant connection to nativity status is educational attainment. Immigrants are likely to have less educational attainment than native-born citizens, though this is not related to wages, age, or gender in a significant way.", "-27.407657471951097" ], [ "one gets older.\"", "-27.39616205182392" ], [ "appear to be the individuals shaping the future of business travel, nearly twice likely to travel for business than Baby Boomers. Millennials may work from home often or during the evening hours, and dedicate traditional working hours to leisure activities. In comparison to other age groups, Millennials are more likely to take bleisure trips. However, it is not clear whether this reflects unique preferences or transitory life events.\nFrequent travellers taking 20 trips or more per year seem to be less than 5% likely to take a bleisure trip during the year, they would account for 8% of all bleisure trips.", "-27.395351517479867" ], [ "9.3 for third-generation families. Child mortality also decreased over this time, with 7.2 children born to first-generation families living until their 21st birthday. That number increased to 7.9 children by the third generation. Life expectancy was higher for men than for women. Of the men who survived until age 21, the average life expectancy was 69.2 years. Over 55 percent of these men lived past 70; less than 15 percent died before the age of 50. The numbers were much lower for women owing to the difficulties of childbearing. The average life expectancy of women at the age of 21", "-27.385232885601" ], [ "with the desirability of youth and give them the ability to discuss their fears of death and the frequent deaths of others. Some retirement villages are heavily secured, which can give the elders a sense of safety and protection. An older person is more likely to be noticed in an age segregated community if he or she is in need of help. The elderly people living in such a community also receive lower rates because of the quantity of similar goods and services needed by their communities. Some of the disadvantages of age-segregated housing are isolation from mainstream society, preventing", "-27.382451547659002" ], [ "allowed people to select more than one racial group, millennials in abundance have asserted the ideal that all their heritages should be respected, counted, and acknowledged. \nIn 2015, the Pew Research Center conducted research regarding generational identity. It was discovered that millennials are less likely to strongly identify with the generational term when compared to Generation X or the Baby Boomers, with only 40% of those born between 1981 and 1997 identifying as part of the Millennial Generation. Among older millennials, those born 1981–1988, Pew Research found 43% personally identified as members of the older demographic cohort, Generation X, while", "-27.379765627672896" ], [ "the average in other high-income countries. Similarly, ownership rates of gadgets and amenities are relatively high compared to other countries.\nIt was reported by Pew Research Center in 2016 that, for the first time in 130 years, Americans aged 18 to 34 are more likely to live with their parents than in any other housing situation.\nIn one study by ATTOM Data Solutions, in 70% of the counties surveyed, homes are increasingly unaffordable for the average U.S. worker.\nAs of 2018, the number of U.S. citizens residing in their vehicles because they can't find affordable housing has \"exploded\", particularly in cities with steep", "-27.375530755613" ], [ "and females 36.0%).\nThe SDAC data on older people (those aged 65 years and over) from Australia's ageing population shows that there were around 3.5 million older Australians in 2015, representing one in every seven people or 15.1% of the population in which this proportion has increased from 14.3% in 2012. Older Australians living in households were more active, with the proportion that participated in physical activities for exercise or recreation increasing from 44.5% in 2012 to 49.2% in 2015. The majority of older Australians were living in households (94.8%), while 5.2% or one in twenty lived in cared accommodation such", "-27.348903182006325" ], [ "other systems of belief or values.\nThe vast majority of families in the United States today are not the \"middle-class family with a bread-winning father and a stay-at-home mother, married to each other and raising their biological children\" that has been viewed as the norm. Since the end of the 1980s, it has been well established that children and adolescents can adjust just as well in nontraditional settings as in traditional settings.", "-27.336730752693256" ], [ "different beliefs, and we've moved on and we've grown older...\"", "-27.336327934041037" ], [ "in the United States don't see themselves as adults and are still in the process of obtaining an education, are unmarried, and are childless, most people in their thirties in the United States see themselves as adults, have settled on a career, are married, and have at least one child.\nCurrently, it is appropriate to define adolescence as the period spanning ages 10 to 18. This is because people in this age group in the United States typically live at home with their parents, are undergoing pubertal changes, attend middle schools or junior high schools, and are involved in a \"school-based", "-27.325185653404333" ], [ "the Urban Institute conducted in 2014, projected that if current trends continue, millennials will have a lower marriage rate compared to previous generations, predicting that by age 40, 31% of millennial women will remain single, approximately twice the share of their single Gen X counterparts. The data showed similar trends for males. A 2016 study from Pew Research showed millennials delay some activities considered rites of passage of adulthood with data showing young adults aged 18–34 were more likely to live with parents than with a relationship partner, an unprecedented occurrence since data collection began in 1880. Data also showed", "-27.311387249390464" ], [ "older adults opting to remain in the U.S. workforce, many studies have been done to investigate whether the older workers are at greater risk of occupational injury than their younger counterparts. Due to the physical declines associated with aging, older adults tend to exhibit losses in eyesight, hearing and physical strength. Data shows that older adults have low overall injury rates compared to all age groups, but are more likely to suffer from fatal and more severe occupational injuries. Of all fatal occupational injuries in 2005, older workers accounted for 26.4%, despite only comprising 16.4% of the workforce at the", "-27.297818262479268" ], [ "emerging adults in the United States feel they have completed adolescence but not yet entered adulthood.\nA number of studies have shown that regarding people in their late teens and early twenties in the United States, demographic qualities such as completing their education, finding a career, marrying, and becoming parents are not the criteria used in determining whether they have reached adulthood. Rather, the criteria that determine whether adulthood has been reached are character qualities, such as being able to make independent decisions and taking responsibility for one's self. In America, these character qualities are usually experienced in the mid to", "-27.289794472890208" ], [ "States, expansion of the 65-and-over age group from 7% to 14% took 75 years; in the United Kingdom and Germany, this expansion took 45 years. The same expansion in Japan only took 24.5 years, passing 7% in late 1970 and 14% in early 1995. Age stratification and the elderly Old age ideally represents a time of relaxation of social obligations, assisting with the family farm or business without carrying the main responsibility, socializing, and receiving respectful care from family and esteem from the community. In the late 1980s, high (although declining) rates of suicide among older people and the continued", "-27.287083507952048" ], [ "for young adults. The situation is made worse by the decrease in services such as schools, business, and cultural opportunities that accompany the decline in population, and the increasing age of the remaining population further stresses the social service system of rural areas. Abandonment of small towns The rise of corporate agricultural structures directly affects small rural communities, resulting in decreased populations, decreased incomes for some segments, increased income inequality, decreased community participation, fewer retail outlets and less retail trade, and increased environmental pollution. Human dehabitation of rural settlements is a megatrend in aging societies across the globe, perhaps", "-27.266826562874485" ], [ "the younger generation and our primary role is vested in the family unit.”", "-27.221504454268143" ], [ "the latter always capable to use digital media; a far more accurate description is that of a digital spectrum. The reason for the myth of declining capabilities of older people could be that many cultural representations have long histories reproducing images of the life cycle as a mountain, where we peak in middle age then decline Older adults’ experiences are often excluded from research agendas on digital media, and ageism is ensconced within disciplines such as mass communication studies. For example, in a media diffusionist perspective, the practices of seniors are depicted as either negligible or as lagging, and the", "-27.211240565171465" ], [ "median ages, a decline in the proportion of the population composed of children, and a rise in the proportion of the population composed of elderly. Population aging is widespread across the world. It is most advanced in the most highly developed countries, but it is growing faster in less developed regions, which means that older persons will be increasingly concentrated in the less developed regions of the world. The Oxford Institute of Population Ageing, however, concluded that population ageing has slowed considerably in Europe and will have the greatest future impact in Asia, especially as Asia is in stage five", "-27.18112606345676" ], [ "of immigration. This is likely due to the fact children who were born in the United States, or immigrated at a very early age, are more likely to be assimilated into American culture and to possess greater levels of English language ability than children who were born before the family immigrated. Other research confirms the fact that second generation groups tend to have higher levels of academic achievement than first generation groups. Employment opportunities First generation immigrants may be more likely to hold \"ethnic 'niche' occupations\" as well as occupations in low-wage sectors. This occupational concentration provides few opportunities for", "-27.16922464268282" ], [ "make regular use of it. Public transportation trips by older Americans (65 years and older) make up 6.7% of all trips, a total of over 600 million trips in 2007.\nIn the United States, the number of older people is projected to rapidly grow, due to the aging of the Baby Boomer generation. The 65-74 age group is expected to grow 51% by 2020. As such, the number of passengers eligible for reduced fares will increase, as will the cost of providing reduced fares.\nHowever, reduced fares for riders with disabilities can reduce use of paratransit which is a more expensive service", "-27.12262102297973" ], [ "legislative and policy frameworks include: the National Youth Commission Act, 1996; White Paper for Social Welfare, 1997; National Youth Development Policy Framework, 2000-2007; and the Draft National Youth Policy, 2008-2013. Education Youth in the twenty-first century are more highly educated than in previous decades due to the expansion of youth educational opportunities since the end of apartheid. Older generations have lower levels of average education achievement than younger ones, which is attributable to the apartheid government policies regarding education. According to the South African National Census of 2011, 40.6% of those aged 20–24 years completed grade 12; only 9.9%", "-27.095986057116534" ], [ "of 30,5 years which increased to 39,6 years due to the migration of the younger people.", "-27.066331888199784" ], [ "of millennials felt \"overwhelmed\" by their non-mortgage debt. For comparison, this number was 26% for Generation X and 13% for the Baby Boomers. Canada's average non-mortgage debt was CAN$20,000 in 2018. About one in five millennials were delaying having children because of financial worries. Despite expensive housing costs, Canada's largest cities, Vancouver, Toronto, and Montreal, continue to attract millennials thanks to their economic opportunities and cultural amenities. Research by the Royal Bank of Canada (RBC) revealed that for every person in the 20-34 age group who leaves the nation's top cities, Toronto gains seven while Vancouver and Montreal gain up", "-27.060158600332215" ], [ "people are able to change. For example, after a few generations, the fact that they are nouveau riche does not matter as much. This is also the case with Soames and Irene's marital problems. Once they grow old and their children can overcome their parents' past, Soames can finally let go of the past. Another change with generations is the diminished number of Forsyte offspring. Many of the second generation have fewer children. Awards The Forsyte Saga earned John Galsworthy the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1932.", "-27.056124349386664" ], [ "elderly population as the working-age population is shrinking and thus less able to support the elderly directly. Demographic transition and population ageing The process of population ageing is primarily determined by fertility and mortality rate. The proportions of elderly people are different across countries. For example, developing countries with limited access to healthcare and contraceptives, where populations have a high fertility rate, tend to have a lower proportion of older people. Medical advancements, industrial developments, and better knowledge of sanitation, which started in the 18th century in many developed countries, have caused a decline in mortality rates and an increase", "-27.045792479853844" ], [ "intake - often considerably ‘after’ - were accepted by some primary schools in August, while similar children living in the catchment areas of other primary schools were obliged to wait until February. Thus, by the time ‘younger’ pupils came together for first year at the local secondary school, they frequently found themselves amongst children who were up to ten months older which, by dint of puberty and all factors attendant, was often socially awkward for the younger children affected. It was equally awkward when more mature children finished up amongst a majority of those less mature.\nSo, due to convenience, and/or", "-27.03844942257274" ], [ "Clinical geropsychology Background and definition The population of the world is aging at a rapid rate. The Administration on Aging reports that people age 65 and older constituted about 13% of the US population in 2009, and these numbers are expected to grow exponentially. For the first time in human history, the world has more individuals age 65 and older than those age 5 years old and under. By 2030, there will be an estimated 72.1 million older adults in the US, constituting approximately 19% of the population. Given the expected growth of the older adult population, psychologists", "-27.02527227246901" ], [ "that follows this is the increasing median age of the U.S. workforce. By 2020, the workforce is expected to have a median age of 42.8, which will be an increase from 39.3 in 2000 and 41.7 in 2010.\nA further factor contributing to an aging workforce is the fact that employment rates among older workers are increasing. The rate of people who continue working after they are 65 is relatively high in the US, when compared to other developed countries. For example, in 2011, 16.7% among people aged 65 and over and 29.9% among 65–69 were employed in the US. Impacts", "-26.95708719313552" ], [ "because their minds loved to dwell on them. Other ages have not had a Model so universally accepted as theirs, so imaginable and so satisfying to the imagination.\"", "-26.94797975140682" ], [ "of future generations to meet their own needs.", "-26.926477744738804" ], [ "inductively and who is part of the generation must be determined through historical, quantitative, and qualitative analysis.\nWhile all generations have similarities, there are differences among them as well. A 2007 Pew Research Center report called \"Millennials: Confident. Connected. Open to Change\" noted the challenge of studying generations: \"Generational analysis has a long and distinguished place in social science, and we cast our lot with those scholars who believe it is not only possible, but often highly illuminating, to search for the unique and distinctive characteristics of any given age group of Americans. But we also know this is not an", "-26.883049132607994" ], [ "Empire, and feudal Europe. \nToday, most people marry their approximate social equals, and in some parts of the world hypergamy has decreased. It is becoming less common for women to marry older men. (Hypergamy does not require the man to be older, only of higher status, and social equals usually refers to social circles rather than economic equality).", "-26.868179618089925" ], [ "how we can improve policies in population ageing, however these ideas are yet to be concretely implemented perhaps due to many arguments for example that older people are only a small proportion of the population\nDue to the global ageing population phenomenon, many countries seem to be increasing the age for old age security from 60 to 65, to decrease the cost of the scheme of the GDP. Age Discrimination can be defined as \"the systematic and institutionalized denial of the rights of older people on the basis of their age by individuals, groups, organisations, and institutions\". Some of this abuse", "-26.86760534835048" ] ]

[ "The impact of the temperature rising by a few degrees F isn't that it feels hotter when you go outside on Saturday afternoon, that it's now 93F instead of 90F. That's not it. It's that a bunch of the earth's cycles now operate significantly differently. This leads to dramatically different weather patterns and sea levels, which pose risks for civilization. It's not inherently *bad*, it's just risky for humans and what we have built. If you need an analogy to reason through this, think of human body temperature. It's normally around 98.6F. Crank it up to 102F, and you're very sick. Keep it at 102F for an extended period, and you are suffering, sick, and probably(?) eventually die. And if your body temperature stays at 95F for an extended period of time, you suffer and probably(?) die. That's an example of a system that runs into serious problems if its temperature changes by a few degrees. As for filtering carbon out of the air, there are three main problems. The first is that this process would require tons of energy. The second is that it would have to be deployed at a positively ENORMOUS scale. We emit 36 billion *tons* of carbon per year. The third problem is what to do with all of that carbon, do we turn it back into oil and bury it, or what? And the last problem is, of course, the astronomical cost. Science can make carbon filtration systems, they already operate on some power plants. It is possible. But to deploy them at large scale is not feasible.", " > Is this planet that's been around for billions of years honestly that delicate The planet has been through ice ages, volcanic periods, hit by giant meteors, even had the moon torn off of it at one point early on and yet it survived. The planet will be fine. Whether the planet will still be fit for human habitation is the question.", "Kudos to anyone who can successfully ELI5 global warming :D ! Here's an example of why 2 degrees isn't piddly. According to paleoclimate records Earth's warming cycles average 5 to 7 degrees F over 5000 years. Currently we are preduicting a 2 to 4 degree F warming within a 200 year period. It is unprecedented and we do not know that anything alive will be able to adapt in such a short time - **worst case scenario** is doomsday for most things on Earth.", "To answer the second part of your question first, there are in fact ways to filter carbon out of the air. A quick Google search would likely show a few of such methods. The main problem is simply money. The only way to encourage people to spend the amount required to filter the air and then store it somewhere suitable would be to make it profitable. As of right now, it's not. One of the reasons going up two degrees is problematic is the ocean. The last time earth was two degrees hotter was the Pliocene of the tertiary period 3 million years ago. The ocean was 5 or 6 feet higher, meaning that rising oceans will create many environmental refugees along just about every coastline in the world. Europe is already struggling with Syrian refugees, imagine if the entire Mediterranean tried to storm northern Europe too. Additionally, the ocean traditionally acts as a \"sink\" for carbon dioxide stored as carbonic acid. As the ocean gets warmer, the ocean will not be able to absorb as much carbon dioxide. If you've ever taken a basic science course, you should have learned that solids, liquids and gasses all have particles the move against each other. Every system on earth is constantly changing state, but it's at a dynamic equilibrium where the same number of particles evaporating are condensing. As heat puts more energy into the ocean, the carbonic acid molecules gain more energy and shift the equilibrium towards the gaseous phase of CO2. This accelerates the heating process further. Less oxygen can also dissolve if the water is warmer, potentially wiping out or damaging marine species. We already see this with coral bleaching, but worse could happen. The warmer waters mean tropical storms increase in both number and severity. The US struggled with Katrina, and even Ike, what if storms like that happened on a yearly, or even biannual basis? People would flee, increasing the refugee crisis. The heat also affects land as well. If we get to two degrees, bacteria in the soil that digests plant life will increase their metabolism, releasing more CO2 into the atmosphere from the soil, again, accelerating the heating process further. This especially hurts the Amazon, as there is a great amount of decomposing organic matter. Additionally, even two degrees means increased heat waves especially in the summer. Rivers would dry up, the lower parts of year round ice on mountains would unfreeze causing avalanches (it already is). The West US would be desert (talking Kansas and Nebraska) as well as the rainforest. The Amazon dried up in certain parts in 2005 due to a heat wave. As temperatures rise those droughts will only become more common. Fire would be a huge problem, especially as rivers dried up. I'm on mobile currently, so I can't include links. The equilibrium stuff is just Le Chatliers principle Most of the sea ice and soil predictions are based on fossil records of when the Earth was that temperature. Tl;dr As earth heats up, more carbon is released, speeding up the heating process. Environmental refugees due to desertification and rising sea levels will be a thing.", "At the last glacial maximum, when there was permanent ice cover over much of europe that was so heavy that the crust sank, the temperature was just 4 degrees less than today. The Earth is a finely balanced system, and the main thing is that the current warming represents an untested experiment in the history of the Earth. Though the Earth has actually warmed in response to an injection of carbon in the atmosphere before (e.g. PETM), the current \"experiment\" has no precedent because it is far, far more rapid than anything that has happened in the past. The Earth is actually colder now than at most points in its history, and the past million years the most stable in the Earth's history, but usually there is a gradual transition from an icehouse world to a greenhouse world, allowing the earth system and ecosystem to gradually adjust. This is the main reason why current climate change is the gravest danger to the Earth; undoubtedly the system will eventually reach equilibrium, but the transition period is going to be tumultuous and much of the ecosystem may not cope with the rapid change. The main impetus for keeping the change in temperature to 2 degrees is to slow down the rate of change.", "That's the mistake a lot of people make - confusing global climate with the weather outside their house. Yes the temperature local to you fluctuates by more than a few degrees but only temporarily. With global warming the entire average temperature is rising permanently, which can have the knock-on effect of making those local changes more severe.", "This [XKCD]( URL_0 ) shows what a 2 degree temperature rise looks like in terms of historical perspective. Notice that the \"ice age\" was only 4 degrees colder on average than it is now and that when it was only 2 degrees colder polar ice sheets covered Chicago, and that the 0.5 degree little ice age was cold enough that the river Thames froze thick enough to have shops on top of it. So yeah, a world with an average temperature 2 degrees higher is a very different world with way more extreme temperatures, although the average difference will be only 2 degrees", "One thing not yet mentioned is that literally *no one* is saying \"OMG the temperature will go up and kill EVERYTHING\" yet I see this straw man quoted very often in \"skeptical\" writings. Yes it would be silly to say so. Humanity will be having a really bad day though.", "It's not going to break the planet. Part of the reason I can sympathize with climate change deniers is because of how people dramatize the whole situation. We can absolutely adapt to the new environment. It won't be ideal but we won't all die out like some people will lead you to believe." ]

[ [ "Earth's areas that experience a decline in temperature (ultimately to −273 °C) is not scientifically accurate. Below −196 °C (−320 °F), the two dominant gases of Earth's atmosphere (oxygen and nitrogen) would liquefy and fall to the surface. Once the temperature drops below −220 °C (−365 °F), the liquefied gases would solidify, causing the atmospheric pressure in the affected zone to drop to zero. The remaining atmosphere would move to this zone and soon Earth would have no gaseous atmosphere, with a surface pressure of zero. None of these events occur in the film, although there is a drastic drop of pressure happening at the", "-33.24205188045744" ], [ "has stated that due to the non-linear effects of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, CO₂ levels are now around 30% higher than pre-industrial levels but temperatures have responded by about 75% 0.6 °C (1.08 °F) of the expected value for a doubling of CO₂. The IPCC (2007) estimates that the expected rise in temperature due to a doubling of CO₂ to be about 3 °C (5.4 °F), ± 1.5°. Lindzen has given estimates of the Earth's climate sensitivity to be 0.5 °C based on ERBE data. These estimates were criticized by Kevin E. Trenberth and others, and Lindzen accepted that his paper included \"some stupid", "-32.72647187364055" ], [ "5.3 °C (41.5 °F). However, because Earth reflects about 30% of the incoming sunlight, this idealized planet's effective temperature (the temperature of a blackbody that would emit the same amount of radiation) would be about −18 °C (0 °F). The surface temperature of this hypothetical planet is 33 °C (59 °F) below Earth's actual surface temperature of approximately 14 °C (57 °F). The greenhouse effect is the contribution of greenhouse gases to this difference. Mechanism The basic mechanism can be qualified in a number of ways, none of which affect the fundamental process. The atmosphere near the surface is largely opaque to thermal radiation (with important exceptions", "-32.64974457529752" ], [ "the Earth, it maintains a relatively constant temperature because, as a whole, there is little net gain or loss: Earth emits via atmospheric and terrestrial radiation (shifted to longer electromagnetic wavelengths) to space about the same amount of energy as it receives via insolation (all forms of electromagnetic radiation).\nTo quantify Earth's heat budget or heat balance, let the insolation received at the top of the atmosphere be 100 units (100 units = about 1,360 watts per square meter facing the sun), as shown in the accompanying illustration. Called the albedo of Earth, around 35 units are reflected back to space:", "-32.032601882950985" ], [ "to exceed 1.5 °C and may well exceed 2 °C. Even if emissions were drastically reduced overnight, the warming process is irreversible because CO2 takes hundreds of years to break down, and global temperatures will remain close to their highest level for at least the next 1,000 years (see the later section on irreversibilities). Projected warming in historical context Scientists have used various \"proxy\" data to assess past changes in Earth's climate (paleoclimate). Sources of proxy data include historical records such as tree rings, ice cores, corals, and ocean and lake sediments. The data suggest that recent warming has surpassed anything in", "-31.968451781736803" ], [ "temperature which was expanded from a pressure of about 22 bar. Air, under these conditions, is almost an ideal gas, but not quite. As a result the real temperature change will not be exactly zero. With our present knowledge of the thermodynamic properties of air we can calculate that the temperature of the air should drop by about 3 degrees Celsius when the volume is doubled under adiabatic conditions. However, due to the low heat capacity of the air and the high heat capacity of the strong copper containers and the water of the calorimeter, the observed temperature drop", "-31.69780487549724" ], [ "been estimated to be of equivalent magnitude, but of opposite sign, to the typically predicted greenhouse effect of a doubling of the air’s CO2 content, which suggests to me that little net temperature change will ultimately result from the ongoing buildup of CO2 in Earth's atmosphere.\"", "-31.556180747051258" ], [ "and temperatures.\" Bastardi also states that carbon dioxide cannot cause global warming because this would violate the first law of thermodynamics. He has further explained: \nCO₂ cannot cause global warming. I'll tell you why. It doesn't mix well with the atmosphere, for one. For two, its specific gravity is 1 1/2 times that of the rest of the atmosphere. It heats and cools much quicker. Its radiative processes are much different. So it cannot -- it literally cannot cause global warming. --- Joe Bastardi, Fox Business, March 9, 2012.\nPhysicist Richard A. Muller states that Bastardi's explanation of CO₂ is \"completely wrong\"", "-31.176452672487358" ], [ "was 1998, and the temp has been flat-lining now for five years. If it's greenhouse gas causing the warming the rate of warming should be higher in the troposphere than on the surface. The opposite is the case. The ice core data shows that temperature change causes the level of atmospheric CO\n2 to change — not the other way round. Why have we not heard this in the hours and hours of shit programming on global warming shoved down our throats by the BBC?\", and concluded with, \"Never mind a bit of irresponsible film-making. Go and fuck yourself\". Durkin later apologised", "-31.148369312635623" ], [ "is certainly not what you'd expect if carbon is driving temperature because carbon dioxide levels have been increasing but temperatures have actually been coming down over the last ten years. ...very unexpected not something that is being discussed. It should though be being discussed because it is very significant\".", "-30.99509127017518" ], [ "the stratosphere. The temperature gradient is estimated to be 2.2, 3–15 or 5.5 degrees per km. It is a result of greenhouse effect, caused by methane. Mean temperature of the surface is 42±4 K (measured in 2005), and the mean value for all the atmosphere is 90⁺²⁵\n−18 K (2008).\nAt height 20–40 km the temperature reaches its maximum (100–110 K; stratopause) and then slowly decreases (about 0.2 K/km; mesosphere). Causes of this decrease are unclear; it can be related to cooling action of carbon monoxide, hydrogen cyanide or other reasons. Above 200 km temperature reaches approximately 80 K and then remains constant.\nTemperature", "-30.97544312226819" ], [ "thins with altitude, and at roughly 5–6 kilometres, the concentration of greenhouse gases in the overlying atmosphere is so thin that heat can escape to space.\nBecause greenhouse gas molecules radiate infrared energy in all directions, some of it spreads downward and ultimately returns to the Earth's surface, where it is absorbed. The Earth's surface temperature is thus higher than it would be if it were heated only by direct solar heating. This supplemental heating is the natural greenhouse effect. It is as if the Earth is covered by a blanket that allows high frequency radiation (sunlight) to enter, but slows the", "-30.92424451309489" ], [ "from 32 to 96 °F is by a factor of 1.13 (308.71/273.15), not 3. If an air cylinder is pressurized to 4,500 psi at 96 °F and later the temperature drops to 32 °F, the pressure gauge will indicate 4,000 psi (4,500/1.13). Stated differently, a drop in temperature of 10 degrees Fahrenheit causes a pressure decrease of about 82 psi.", "-30.695508287113626" ], [ "warming.\" According to Auer:\nWater vapour was responsible for 95 per cent of the greenhouse effect, an effect which was vital to keep the world warm. …If we didn't have the greenhouse effect the planet would be at minus 18 °C but because we do have the greenhouse effect it is plus 15 °C, all the time. The other greenhouse gases: carbon dioxide, methane, nitrogen dioxide, and various others including CFCs, contributed only five per cent of the effect, carbon dioxide being by far the greatest contributor at 3.6 per cent. It would be like trying to increase the temperature of bath tub", "-30.636723185700248" ], [ "be compared. The scientifically valid change in temperature from 32 to 96 °F (0 to 36 °C) is by a factor of 1.13 (308.71° K/273.15° K), not 3. If an air cylinder is pressurized to 4,500 psi at 96° F and later the temperature drops to 32° F, the pressure gauge will indicate 4,000 psi (4,500/1.13). Stated differently, a drop in temperature of 10° F (5.5° C) causes a pressure decrease of about 82 psi (565 kPa). Failure to accurately account for the effect of temperature on pressure readings can result in underfilled air bottles, which in turn could lead to a firefighter running out of air prematurely.", "-30.622555395180825" ], [ "profile of the atmosphere is a result of an interaction between radiation and convection. Sunlight in the visible spectrum hits the ground and heats it. The ground then heats the air at the surface. If radiation were the only way to transfer heat from the ground to space, the greenhouse effect of gases in the atmosphere would keep the ground at roughly 333 K (60 °C; 140 °F), and the temperature would decay exponentially with height.\nHowever, when air is hot, it tends to expand, which lowers its density. Thus, hot air tends to rise and transfer heat upward. This is the process of", "-30.51586507121101" ], [ "space. A lack of heat-retaining clouds, caused by water vapor freezing out of the atmosphere, amplified this effect. Breaking out of global glaciation The carbon dioxide levels necessary to thaw Earth have been estimated as being 350 times what they are today, about 13% of the atmosphere. Since the Earth was almost completely covered with ice, carbon dioxide could not be withdrawn from the atmosphere by release of alkaline metal ions weathering out of siliceous rocks. Over 4 to 30 million years, enough CO\n2 and methane, mainly emitted by volcanoes but also produced by microbes converting organic carbon trapped under", "-30.433037970564328" ], [ "non-stop to even out solar heating imbalances through evaporation of surface water, convection, rainfall, winds, and ocean circulation.\" Earth is very close to being in radiative equilibrium, the situation where the incoming solar energy is balanced by an equal flow of heat to space; under that condition, global temperatures will be relatively stable. Globally, over the course of the year, the Earth system—land surfaces, oceans, and atmosphere—absorbs and then radiates back to space an average of about 340 watts of solar power per square meter. Anything that increases or decreases the amount of incoming or outgoing energy will change global", "-30.346480870852247" ], [ "approximately 0.3 to 0.5 degrees per year faster relative to the rotation of the surface.\nThe current scientific explanation for Earth's temperature gradient is a combination of heat left over from the planet's initial formation, decay of radioactive elements, and freezing of the inner core.", "-30.291722067049704" ], [ "pump carbon dioxide into the atmosphere in the short term, it will not be enough to keep the carbon dioxide level stable in the long term. Once the carbon dioxide level falls below 50 parts per million, C₃ photosynthesis will no longer be possible. This is expected to occur about 600 million years from now.\nOnce the oceans on the Earth evaporate in about 1.1 billion years from now, plate tectonics will very likely stop due to the lack of water to lubricate them. The lack of volcanoes pumping out carbon dioxide will cause the carbon cycle to end between 1", "-30.289985358307604" ], [ "forcing via carbon dioxide (CO\n2) largely balanced each other out, and that the 0.74±0.18 °C net rise in average global temperatures could mostly be explained by greenhouse gases other than carbon dioxide, such as methane and chlorofluorocarbons. However, even then he wrote \"the future balance of forcings is likely to shift toward dominance of CO₂ over aerosols\".\nIn 2003, Hansen wrote a paper called \"Can We Defuse the Global Warming Time Bomb?\" in which he argued that human-caused forces on the climate are now greater than natural ones, and that this, over a long time period, can cause large climate changes. He", "-30.216663473576773" ], [ "to leave. Rather than get hotter and hotter, Kirchhoff's law of thermal radiation says that the gases of the atmosphere also have to re-emit the infrared energy that they absorb, and they do so, also at long infrared wavelengths, both upwards into space as well as downwards back towards the Earth's surface. In the long-term, thermal equilibrium is reached when all the heat energy arriving on the planet is leaving again at the same rate. In this idealized model, the greenhouse gases cause the surface of the planet to be warmer than it would be without them, in order for", "-30.201904440880753" ], [ "K on the scale of a few km. They can be caused by atmospheric gravity waves or turbulence, which can be related to convection or wind.\nInteraction with the atmosphere significantly influences temperature of the surface. Calculations show that the atmosphere, despite very low pressure, can significantly diminish diurnal variations of this temperature. But there still remain temperature variations of about 20 K – partly because of cooling of the surface due to sublimation of ices. Pressure Pressure of the atmosphere of Pluto is very low and strongly time-dependent. Observations of stellar occultations by Pluto show that it increased about 3 times", "-30.09687928389758" ], [ "Earth is virtually impossible, there are indications that Earth could enter a moist greenhouse state that renders large parts of Earth uninhabitable if the climate forcing is large enough to make water vapour (H₂O) a major atmospheric constituent. Conceivable levels of human-made climate forcing would increase water vapour to about 1% of the atmosphere's mass, thus increasing the rate of hydrogen escape to space. If such a forcing were entirely due to CO₂, the weathering process would remove the excess atmospheric CO₂ well before the ocean was significantly depleted. Large scale tipping elements A smooth or abrupt change in temperature", "-30.03076456632698" ], [ "diminishing some atmosphere harms.\nThe quick increment in the centralization of air CO2 proceeded with anthropogenic emanations of this gas is the fundamental factor driving worldwide environmental change. Due to many different causes global temperatures are to increase by 3-5 degrees celsius or 5.4 - 9 degrees fahrenheit within this century. Bio-geoengineering solutions to climate change Carbon Capture and storage.\nThe CO2 is ordinarily caught before the emissions leave the smokestack, for the most part with a sorbent concoction. The liquified CO2 is then siphoned into underground aquifers for long haul storage.\nRemoval of atmospheric C02 - Synthetic trees \nSorbents catch CO2", "-29.897015774127794" ], [ "legislation. It doesn’t care whether you turn off your air conditioner, refrigerator, and television set..The earth plans to dissolve the bulk of this carbon dioxide into its oceans in about a millennium, leaving the concentration in the atmosphere slightly higher than today’s. Over tens of millennia after that, or perhaps hundreds, it will then slowly transfer the excess carbon dioxide into its rocks, eventually returning levels in the sea and air to what they were before humans arrived on the scene. The process will take an eternity from the human perspective, but it will be only a brief instant of", "-29.882412296254188" ], [ "significantly raise planetary temperatures. For example, Earth's own mean temperature would be about −18 °C without any greenhouse gases, ranging from around 100 °C on the day side to −150 °C at night, much like that found on the Moon. If the atmosphere of Gliese 581d produces a sufficiently large greenhouse effect, and the planet's geophysics stabilize the CO₂ levels (as Earth's does via plate tectonics), then the surface temperature might permit a liquid water cycle, conceivably allowing the planet to support life. Calculations by Barnes et al. suggest, however, that tidal heating is too low to keep plate tectonics active on the", "-29.781984564615414" ], [ "CO₂ and other greenhouse gases from burning, followed by more released from decay of dead organic matter. The detonations would also insert nitrogen oxides into the stratosphere that would then deplete the ozone layer around the Earth. This layer screens out UV-C radiation from the Sun, which causes genetic damage to life forms on the surface. As the temperature rises, the amount of water in the atmosphere would increase, causing further greenhouse warming of the surface, and if it rose enough, it could cause the sublimation of methane clathrate deposits on the sea floor, releasing huge amounts of methane, a", "-29.78016123501584" ], [ "I will start by telling you why I believe that the energy resources of the past must be supplemented. [...] And this, strangely, is the question of contaminating the atmosphere. [...] Whenever you burn conventional fuel, you create carbon dioxide. [...] Carbon dioxide has a strange property. It transmits visible light but it absorbs the infrared radiation which is emitted from the earth. Its presence in the atmosphere causes a greenhouse effect [....] It has been calculated that a temperature rise corresponding to a 10 per cent increase in carbon dioxide will be sufficient to melt the icecap and submerge", "-29.75355699902866" ], [ "The ground then heats the air at the surface. If radiation were the only way to transfer heat from the ground to space, the greenhouse effect of gases in the atmosphere would keep the ground at roughly 333 K (60 °C; 140 °F), and the temperature would decay exponentially with height.\nHowever, when air is hot, it tends to expand, which lowers its density. Thus, hot air tends to rise and transfer heat upward. This is the process of convection. Convection comes to equilibrium when a parcel of air at a given altitude has the same density as its surroundings. Air is a poor", "-29.619315889081918" ], [ "local emission, Bλ(T), can differ from the absorption of incoming Iλ. Depending on what altitude the transition to semi-transparency occurs and the temperature gradient, dI for a layer of atmosphere can be negative (ordinary greenhouse effect) or positive (negative greenhouse effect). Since the vast majority of absorption and emission occurs in the troposphere, where a negative temperature gradient exists, the Earth's greenhouse effect makes the planet warmer than it would be otherwise. However, temperature rises with altitude in the lower stratosphere, and increasing CO2 there increases radiative cooling to space and is predicted to cause cooling above 14–20 km. Application", "-29.5617739969166" ], [ "of this century and become significant before the middle of the next century.\"\nIn July 1979 the United States National Research Council published a report,\nconcluding (in part):\nWhen it is assumed that the CO\n2 content of the atmosphere is doubled and statistical thermal equilibrium is achieved, the more realistic of the modeling efforts predict a global surface warming of between 2°C and 3.5°C, with greater increases at high latitudes.\n… we have tried but have been unable to find any overlooked or underestimated physical effects that could reduce the currently estimated global warmings due to a doubling of atmospheric CO\n2 to negligible proportions", "-29.53284468234051" ], [ "to the planet, but are still working out the details on the myriad ways in which our actions are disrupting our ecosystems. Above the 60 degree latitude line, temperatures are expected to be raised by 2.5 °C by the middle of the 21st century (Kattsov et al. 2005). It is also projected that the annual mean air temperature will increase by 1 °C by 2020, 2 to 3 °C by 2050, and 4 to 5 °C by 2080 (Huntington & Weller 2005). Our current scientific understand still has a long way to go to truly understand the implications for these projections.\nTop predators must coordinate", "-29.486941803246737" ], [ "is radiated back into space. The balance between absorbed and radiated energy determines the average global temperature. Because the atmosphere absorbs some of the re-radiated long-wave energy, the planet is warmer than it would be in the absence of the atmosphere: see greenhouse effect.\nThe radiation balance is altered by such factors as the intensity of solar energy, reflectivity of clouds or gases, absorption by various greenhouse gases or surfaces and heat emission by various materials. Any such alteration is a radiative forcing, and changes the balance. This happens continuously as sunlight hits the surface, clouds and aerosols form, the concentrations", "-29.418645936064422" ], [ "upper atmosphere of the Sun is 1,000,000 K (1,000,000 °C; 1,800,000 °F) hot whereas the lower atmosphere is just 6,000 K (5,730 °C; 10,340 °F). In addition, it is not understood how exactly the Sun's radiation affects the dynamics of the Earth's atmosphere on shorter as well as on longer time scale. The mission will obtain near simultaneous images of the different layers of the Sun's atmosphere, which reveal the ways in which the energy may be channeled and transferred from one layer to another. Thus the Aditya-L1 mission will enable a comprehensive understanding of the dynamical processes of the Sun and address some of", "-29.408270676765824" ], [ "published in Geophysical Research Letters raised concerns that the growing commercial spaceflight industry could accelerate global warming. The study, funded by NASA and The Aerospace Corporation, simulated the impact of 1,000 suborbital launches of hybrid rockets from a single location, calculating that this would release a total of 600 tonnes of black carbon into the stratosphere. They found that the resultant layer of soot particles remained relatively localized, with only 20% of the carbon straying into the southern hemisphere, thus creating a strong hemispherical asymmetry. This unbalance would cause the temperature to decrease by about 0.4 °C (0.72 °F) in the tropics", "-29.388023379957303" ], [ "higher albedo or reflectivity, and therefore reflects more of the Sun's radiation back into space before it can be absorbed by the climate system as a whole; this in turn causes the Earth to cool down further.", "-29.37660403177142" ], [ "on a variety of scenarios of future greenhouse gas emissions. Hansen concluded that global warming would be evident within the next few decades, and that it would result in temperatures at least as high as during the Eemian. He argued that if the temperature rose 0.4 °C above the 1950–1980 mean for a few years, it would be the \"smoking gun\" pointing to human-caused global warming.\nIn 2006, Hansen and colleagues compared the observations with the projections made by Hansen in his 1988 testimony before the United States Congress. They described the intermediate scenario as the most likely, and that", "-29.300072117242962" ], [ "and lofting as much as five million metric tons of soot about 50 miles (80 km) into the stratosphere. The soot would absorb enough solar radiation to heat surrounding gases, increasing the break down of the stratospheric ozone layer protecting Earth from harmful ultraviolet radiation, with up to 70% ozone loss at northern high latitudes. Nuclear summer A \"nuclear summer\" is a hypothesized scenario in which, after a nuclear winter caused by aerosols inserted into the atmosphere that would prevent sunlight from reaching lower levels or the surface, has abated, a greenhouse effect then occurs due to carbon dioxide released by", "-29.299733140622266" ], [ "been found that man-made ozone layer depletion and the release of Greenhouse Gases through industry, and traffic, causes the earth to heat up to unnatural temperatures. This is causing externalities on the environment, such as melting icecaps, shifting biomes and extinction of many aquatic species, through ocean acidification and changing temperatures. Automobiles Automobiles with internal combustion engines have revolutionised civilisation and technology. However, whilst the technology was new and innovative, helping to connect places through the ability of transport, it was not recognised at the time that burning fossil fuels, such as coal and oil, inside the engines would release", "-29.289197555081046" ], [ "and subtropics, whereas the temperature at the poles would increase by between 0.2 and 1 °C (0.36 and 1.80 °F). The ozone layer would also be affected, with the tropics losing up to 1.7% of ozone cover, and the polar regions gaining 5–6%. The researchers stressed that these results should not be taken as \"a precise forecast of the climate response to a specific launch rate of a specific rocket type\", but as a demonstration of the sensitivity of the atmosphere to the large-scale disruption that commercial space tourism could bring. Education and advocacy Several organizations have been formed to promote the", "-29.286801910609938" ], [ "activities have caused CO\n2 to increase above levels not seen in hundreds of thousands of years. Currently, about half of the carbon dioxide released from the burning of fossil fuels remains in the atmosphere and is not absorbed by vegetation and the oceans.\nWhile transparent to visible light, carbon dioxide is a greenhouse gas, absorbing and emitting infrared radiation at its two infrared-active vibrational frequencies (see the section \"Structure and bonding\" above). Light emission from the earth's surface is most intense in the infrared region between 200 and 2500 cm⁻¹, as opposed to light emission from the much hotter sun which is", "-29.285752330324613" ], [ "vapor in the atmosphere, which in turn leads to further warming. The main negative feedback comes from the Stefan–Boltzmann law, the amount of heat radiated from the Earth into space changes with the fourth power of the temperature of Earth's surface and atmosphere. Observations and modelling studies indicate that there is a net positive feedback to warming. Large positive feedbacks can lead to effects that are abrupt or irreversible, depending upon the rate and magnitude of the climate change. Carbon cycle feedbacks There have been predictions, and some evidence, that global warming might cause loss of carbon from terrestrial ecosystems,", "-29.284330460861383" ], [ "higher than atmospheric pressure, then upon opening the box our gas will do work on the surrounding atmosphere to expand. As this expansion is adiabatic and the gas has done work\nNow as the internal energy has decreased, so has the temperature. Modern experiments As of November 2000, nuclear spin temperatures below 100 pK were reported for an experiment at the Helsinki University of Technology Low Temperature Lab. However, this was the temperature of one particular type of motion—a quantum property called nuclear spin—not the overall average thermodynamic temperature for all possible degrees of freedom. At such low temperatures, the concept", "-29.27753663319163" ], [ "the Earth's atmosphere is driven by the difference in absorbed solar radiation per square meter, as the sun heats the Earth more in the Tropics, mostly because of geometrical factors. The atmospheric and oceanic circulation redistributes some of this energy as sensible heat and latent heat partly via the mean flow and partly via eddies, known as cyclones in the atmosphere. Thus the tropics radiate less to space than they would if there were no circulation, and the poles radiate more; however in absolute terms the tropics radiate more energy to space. Nocturnal surface cooling Radiative cooling is commonly experienced", "-29.234994875034317" ], [ "Earth and the Sun. While this is quite close, the star LHS 1140 is so dim that the planet only get 0.41 times the incident flux of Earth at this distance. With an albedo of 0, LHS 1140 b has an equilibrium temperature of 230 K (−43 °C; −46 °F), compared to Earth's at 255 K (−18 °C; −1 °F). If LHS 1140 b has an albedo similar to that of Earth, the equilibrium temperature would be even lower, at 201 K (−72 °C; −98 °F). However, with a greenhouse effect at least as strong as Earth's LHS 1140 b would have a surface temperature greater than 266 K (−7 °C;", "-29.20424413838191" ], [ "a global warming of 1.5 °C and more will eventually be reached.\nThe value of the total net anthropogenic CO2 budget since the pre-industrial era is not assessed in the report. Estimates of 400–800 GtCO₂ (gigatonnes of CO₂) for the remaining budget are given (580 GtCO2 and 420 GtCO2 for a 66% and 50% probability of limiting warming to 1.5 °C, using global mean surface air temperature (GSAT);\nor 770 and 570 GtCO₂, for 50% and 66% probabilities, using global mean surface temperature (GMST)).\nThis is about 300 GtCO₂ more compared to a previous IPCC report, due to updated understanding and further advances in methods.\nEmissions", "-29.126288912142627" ], [ "merely below its boiling point in all regions of the Earth, but below its freezing point at many altitudes. As a condensible greenhouse gas, it precipitates, with a much lower scale height and shorter atmospheric lifetime- weeks instead of decades. Without other greenhouse gases, Earth's blackbody temperature, below the freezing point of water, would cause water vapor to be removed from the atmosphere. Water vapor is thus a \"slave\" to the non-condensible greenhouse gases. Air density and volume Humidity depends on water vaporization and condensation, which, in turn, mainly depends on temperature. Therefore, when applying more pressure", "-29.11824398074532" ], [ "at the surface. If radiation were the only way to transfer heat from the ground to space, the greenhouse effect of gases in the atmosphere would keep the ground at roughly 333 K (60 °C; 140 °F), and the temperature would decay exponentially with height.\nHowever, when air is hot, it tends to expand, which lowers its density. Thus, hot air tends to rise and transfer heat upward. This is the process of convection. Convection comes to equilibrium when a parcel of air at a given altitude has the same density as the other air at the same elevation.\nWhen a parcel of air expands,", "-29.06783589310362" ], [ "and, \"There is no need to dramatize the anthropogenic impact, because the climate has always been subject to change under Nature's influence, even when humanity did not even exist.\" Additionally, he did not believe the 0.6 °C (1.08 °F) rise in temperature observed in the last 100 years is a threat, stating, \"there is no scientifically sound evidence of the negative processes that allegedly begin to take place at such temperatures.\"\nInstead of decreasing carbon dioxide, he argued, aerosol injections in to the stratosphere would be a more effective way to mitigate global warming. He appeared to favor adaption over mitigation, arguing, \"The", "-29.02724255126668" ], [ "lies at the lower boundary of the exosphere, it is also referred to as the exobase. The lower part of the thermosphere, from 80 to 550 kilometres (50 to 342 mi) above Earth's surface, contains the ionosphere.\nThe temperature of the thermosphere gradually increases with height. Unlike the stratosphere beneath it, wherein a temperature inversion is due to the absorption of radiation by ozone, the inversion in the thermosphere occurs due to the extremely low density of its molecules. The temperature of this layer can rise as high as 1500 °C (2700 °F), though the gas molecules are so far apart that its temperature", "-28.977037173812278" ], [ "depletion potential (ozone layer), significant global warming potential (100-yr GWP = 1430) and negligible acidification potential (acid rain). Because of its high GWP, 1,1,1,2-tetrafluoroethane has been banned from use in the European Union, starting with cars in 2011 and phasing out completely by 2017. Safety Mixtures with air of the gas 1,1,1,2-tetrafluoroethane are not flammable at atmospheric pressure and temperatures up to 100 °C (212 °F). However, mixtures with high concentrations of air at elevated pressure and/or temperature can be ignited. Contact of 1,1,1,2-tetrafluoroethane with flames or hot surfaces in excess of 250 °C (482 °F) may cause vapor decomposition and the emission of", "-28.95454889163375" ], [ "from free-streaming air and discharge those atoms as an unadulterated stream of carbon dioxide for sequestration.\n100 m2 can extract about 1000 tons of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere\n11 million devices would be required to remove 11 billion tons of carbon dioxide\nStratospheric Aerosols. Amid major volcanic ejections, the Earth regularly experiences huge cooling because of sulfur shot out into the stratosphere.Paul Crutzen a Dutch chemist proposed creating a 'blanket' of sulphur that would block the Sun's rays from reaching Earth.\nSeeding the atmosphere to increase reflection of sunlight is also a solution however such approaches are still not being adopted since they", "-28.953697380493395" ], [ "until it becomes a greenhouse planet similar to Venus today.\nAccording to astrobiologists Peter Ward and Donald Brownlee in their book The Life and Death of Planet Earth, the current loss rate is approximately one millimeter of ocean per million years, but this rate is gradually accelerating as the sun gets warmer, to perhaps as fast as one millimeter every 1000 years. Ward and Brownlee predict that there will be two variations of this future warming feedback: the \"moist greenhouse\" where water vapor dominates the troposphere and starts to accumulate in the stratosphere, and the \"runaway greenhouse\" where water vapor becomes", "-28.945743675983977" ], [ "dioxide levels...whether or not we can reduce carbon dioxide levels, there will be climate change\".\nOn the Australian Broadcasting Corporation Radio National program, Ockham's Razor, Marohasy said in 2005... \"I agree with Professor Flannery that we need to reduce atmospheric carbon dioxide levels\".\nIn an interview on the Australian Broadcasting Corporation Radio National program, Counterpoint, she claimed recent cooling by starting with the extreme temperature peak of the 1998 El Niño event. She said that... \"there has been cooling if you take 1998 as your point of reference. If you take 2002 as your point of reference then temperatures have plateaued. This", "-28.91716144929933" ], [ "than 5.1 atmospheres.\nThe boiling point of liquid air is -194.35 °C, intermediate between the boiling points of liquid nitrogen and liquid oxygen. However, it can be difficult to keep at a stable temperature as the liquid boils, since the nitrogen will boil off first, leaving the mixture oxygen-rich and changing the boiling point. This may also occur in some circumstances due to the liquid air condensing oxygen out of the atmosphere.\nLiquid air freezes at approximately 58 K (-215 °C or -355 F), also at standard atmospheric pressure. Principle of production The constituents of air were once known as \"permanent gases\", as they", "-28.8893322290387" ], [ "in the infrared and thereby increase the average temperature near the earth's surface.\" There had been little sign to date of this greenhouse effect causing the anticipated warming, but the Suess-Revelle paper suggested that increasing human gas emissions might change this. They said that \"human beings are now carrying out a large scale geophysical experiment of a kind that could not have happened in the past nor be reproduced in the future.\" Revelle told journalists about the issues, and testified to Congress that \"The Earth itself is a space ship\", endangered by rising seas and desertification. A November 1957 report", "-28.796576320193708" ], [ "the temperature was far below what would be required. In July 1986, TFTR achieved a plasma temperature of 200 million kelvin (200 MK), at that time the highest ever reached in a laboratory. The temperature is 10 times greater than the center of the sun, and more than enough for breakeven. However, to reach these temperatures the triple product had been greatly reduced to 10¹³, two or three times too small for break-even.\nMajor efforts to reach the conditions needed for break-even continued. Donald Grove, TFTR project manager, said they expected to achieve that goal in 1987. This would be followed", "-28.794166166335344" ], [ "been burnt since the mid-19th century was increasing the concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, which would \"act in the same way as a greenhouse and will raise the temperature at the surface\", and that he had calculated that if the concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere increased by 10% \"an appreciable part of the polar ice might melt.\"\nIn 1959, at a symposium organised by the American Petroleum Institute and the Columbia Graduate School of Business for the centennial of the American oil industry, Edward Teller warned that:\nI am to talk to you about energy in the future.", "-28.775502148841042" ], [ "are other by-products such as carbon monoxide and nitrates. These by-products react with the atmosphere to produce ozone and other greenhouse gases. The increased pollution has consequences on global temperature. The atmosphere reflects 30% of the incoming longwave radiation back and keeps 70% of it for warmth. However, an increased carbon dioxide concentration in the atmosphere acts as a \"blanket\" to increased heat. Therefore, more longwave radiation is trapped in the atmosphere when there is a higher concentration of carbon dioxide and this trapping results in increased surface temperatures. IPCC (2007) states that the climate system will heat up by", "-28.769144247518852" ], [ "depletion of the ozone layer is due to chlorofluorocarbons and other greenhouse gases. The other main reason is due to man-made gases that are released into the atmosphere. There are many environmental effects due to this because of the gases that are being released five times faster than they are destroyed.\nGlobal warming is also having an effect on the Arctic and Antarctic regions. Global warming is causing the temperature on the earth to increase. In Plan B 2.0 Lester R. Brown talks about how the Arctic is warming twice as fast as the rest of the world. He goes on", "-28.767011952237226" ], [ "realistic target is 1.5 °C. There is enough confidence that past emissions alone (pre-industrial time) will not be enough to go beyond the 1.5 °C target. In other words, if all anthropogenic emissions were stopped today (reduced to zero), any increase beyond the 1 °C change for more than half of a degree before 2100 is unlikely. If anthropogenic emission are considered, the probability for the planet increasing for more than 1.5 °C before 2100 are high.Then, scenarios where the degree change is maintain below 1.5 °C are very challenging to achieve but not impossible.\nFor a below 2.0 °C target, Shared socioeconomic pathways (SSPs) had been", "-28.755682001035893" ], [ "years the mesopause has also been the focus of studies on global climate change associated with increases in CO₂. Unlike the troposphere, where greenhouse gases result in the atmosphere heating up, increased CO₂ in the mesosphere acts to cool the atmosphere due to increased radiative emission. This results in a measurable effect - the mesopause should become cooler with increased CO₂. Observations do show a decrease of temperature of the mesopause, though the magnitude of this decrease varies and is subject to further study. Modeling studies of this phenomenon have also been carried out.", "-28.728082259542134" ], [ "to their dismay that in the absence of solar radiation, the temperature on the ship keeps dropping. The Deflection Field remains on until they leave the Sun's vicinity; by then, the temperature has fallen to minus forty degrees Fahrenheit. \nWhen Turner and Snead finally reach Venus, they are furious and threaten to assault their supervisor. The latter explains that if they had read the written instructions he gave them, they would have known that they could adjust the intensity of the Deflection Field, thus allowing some solar radiation through and keeping the ship's internal temperature at near-normal.", "-28.679781582322903" ], [ "as a sink for carbon dioxide, taking up much that would otherwise remain in the atmosphere, but increased levels of CO\n₂ have led to ocean acidification. Furthermore, as the temperature of the oceans increases, they become less able to absorb excess CO\n₂. The ocean have also acted as a sink in absorbing extra heat from the atmosphere. The increase in ocean heat content is much larger than any other store of energy in the Earth's heat balance over the two periods 1961 to 2003 and 1993 to 2003, and accounts for more than 90% of the possible increase in heat", "-28.64573401317466" ], [ "Kelvin and Rankine temperature scales set their zero points at absolute zero by definition.\nIt is commonly thought of as the lowest temperature possible, but it is not the lowest enthalpy state possible, because all real substances begin to depart from the ideal gas when cooled as they approach the change of state to liquid, and then to solid; and the sum of the enthalpy of vaporization (gas to liquid) and enthalpy of fusion (liquid to solid) exceeds the ideal gas's change in enthalpy to absolute zero. In the quantum-mechanical description, matter (solid) at absolute zero is in its ground state,", "-28.411357812699862" ], [ "human-generated carbon dioxide entered the atmosphere.\nScafetta and West correlated solar proxy data and lower tropospheric temperature for the preindustrial era, before significant anthropogenic greenhouse forcing, suggesting that TSI variations may have contributed 50% of the warming observed between 1900 and 2000 (although they conclude \"our estimates about the solar effect on climate might be overestimated and should be considered as an upper limit.\") If interpreted as a detection rather than an upper limit, this would contrast with global climate models predicting that solar forcing of climate through direct radiative forcing makes an insignificant contribution.\nIn 2000, Stott and others reported", "-28.40148028882686" ], [ "the center of the planet, the temperature may be up to 7,000 K and the pressure could reach 360 GPa (3.6 million atm). Because much of the heat is provided by radioactive decay, scientists believe that early in Earth history, before isotopes with short half-lives had been depleted, Earth's heat production would have been much higher. Heat production was twice that of present-day at approximately 3 billion years ago, resulting in larger temperature gradients within the Earth, larger rates of mantle convection and plate tectonics, allowing the production of igneous rocks such as komatiites that are no longer formed. Heat flow Heat flows constantly", "-28.336820407479536" ], [ "atmosphere exerts a cooling effect on climate. This beneficially masks some of the warming caused by increased greenhouse gases. However, the sulfur is precipitated out of the atmosphere as acid rain in a matter of weeks, whereas carbon dioxide remains in the atmosphere for hundreds of years. Release of SO₂ also contributes to the widespread acidification of ecosystems.\nDisused coal mines can also cause issues. Subsidence can occur above tunnels, causing damage to infrastructure or cropland. Coal mining can also cause long lasting fires, and it has been estimated that thousands of coal seam fires are burning at any given time.", "-28.319983251293706" ], [ "the effects are limited (Bodenmann et al. 2011). SO₂, other aerosols, and particulates cause global cooling, thereby reducing or nullifying the global warming effects of a volcano's greenhouse gas emissions. SO₂ can be found higher in the atmosphere and bonds efficiently there with water vapor to form sulfuric acid, which blocks solar radiation exceptionally well. It usually takes months to years for it to acquire enough water vapor to fall back to Earth. It has been suggested that a volcanic eruption in 1809 may also have contributed to a reduction in global temperatures. Impact of the eruption By most calculations,", "-28.31669600630994" ], [ "official temperature on Earth was 57.8 °C (136.0 °F), registered on September 13, 1922 in ‘Aziziya, Libya. In January 2012, the WMO decertified the 1922 record, citing persuasive evidence that it was a faulty reading recorded in error by an inexperienced observer. The WMO has come out in support of the current record stating that \"We accept that Death Valley temperature extreme record. Obviously if any new materials on it surface, we will be prepared to open an investigation, but at this time all available evidence points to its legitimacy.\"\nTemperatures measured directly on the ground may exceed air temperatures by 30 to", "-28.31267627258785" ], [ "the temperature may fall down reaching −10 °C (14 °F) or less.", "-28.308146007664618" ], [ "within least-cost 2 °C scenarios but rather lead to a projected level of 55 gigatonnes in 2030\", and recognizing furthermore \"that much greater emission reduction efforts will be required in order to hold the increase in the global average temperature to below 2 °C by reducing emissions to 40 gigatonnes or to 1.5 °C.\"\nThough not the sustained temperatures over the long term that the Agreement addresses, in the first half of 2016 average temperatures were about 1.3 °C (2.3 degrees Fahrenheit) above the average in 1880, when global record-keeping began.\nWhen the agreement achieved enough signatures to cross the threshold on 5 October 2016, US", "-28.268891647807322" ], [ "ability to extract carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and by emitting it directly, e.g., by burning fossil fuels and manufacturing concrete.\nIn the extremely far future (i.e, 2-3 billion years), the rate at which carbon dioxide is absorbed into the soil via the carbonate–silicate cycle will likely increase due to expected changes in the sun as it ages. The expected increased luminosity of the Sun will likely speed up the rate of surface weathering. This will eventually cause most of the carbon dioxide in the atmosphere to be squelched into the Earth's crust as carbonate. Though volcanoes will continue to", "-28.24720818631613" ], [ "large amounts of ultraviolet radiation, heating the upper parts of atmosphere's that contain them, creating a temperature inversion and a stratosphere. However, these molecules are destroyed at the temperatures of hot exoplanets, creating doubt if the hot exoplanets could have a stratosphere. A temperature inversion, and stratosphere was identified on WASP-33b caused by titanium oxide, which is a strong absorber of visible and ultraviolet radiation, and can only exist as a gas in a hot atmosphere. WASP-33b is the hottest exoplanet known, with a temperature of 3,200 °C (5,790 °F) and is approximately four and a half times the mass of", "-28.205076495185494" ], [ "dimensions with an initial core-mantle boundary 2000 K hotter will likely eventually evolve plate tectonics. This effect is diminished on planets smaller than Earth, because their smaller planetary interiors efficiently redistribute heat, reducing core-mantle heat gradients that drive mantle convection. Insolation External sources of planetary heat (namely, radiation from a planet's host star) can have drastic effects on geodynamic regime. With all other variables held constant, an Earth-sized exoplanet with a surface temperature of 273 K will evolve over its geological lifetime from a plate tectonic regime, to episodic periods of plate tectonics interspersed with stagnant lid geodynamics, to a", "-28.204804435255937" ], [ "laws and, in particular, Gay-Lussac's law. His work led him to speculate that a sufficient reduction in temperature would lead to the disappearance of pressure. Though he came close to finding absolute zero - the theoretical temperature by which the volume of air in his air-thermometer will by reduced to nothing (estimated by him as −240 on the Celsius scale), the discovery would not be complete until at least a century later.\nGuillaume Amontons is also the inventor of the hot air engine. In 1699 he built his first engine, more than a century earlier than the well-known Stirling engine. This", "-28.19940714072436" ], [ "(−7 °C; 19 °F), but since the planet is so massive, the greenhouse effect may be even higher. At twice the GE of Earth, LHS 1140 b would have a comfortable surface temperature of 296 K (23 °C; 73 °F). In addition, the host star is so inactive that atmospheric erosion will not be very high, which would allow the planet to warm up.", "-28.197191615399788" ], [ "between the incoming radiation energy and the outgoing radiation energy acting across the boundary of the earth. Positive radiative forcing results in warming. From the start of the industrial revolution in 1750 to 2005, the increase in atmospheric carbon dioxide has led to a positive radiative forcing, averaging about 1.66 W/m².\nThe climate scientist Myles Allen thinks setting \"a limit on long-term atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations merely distracts from the much more immediate challenge of limiting warming to 2 °C.\" He says the concentration of carbon dioxide is not a control variable we can \"meaningfully claim to control\", and he questions whether", "-28.169109257287346" ], [ "discussed climate change and the proposed Green New Deal. During the episode he stated;\nHere, I've got an experiment for you - safety glasses on. By the end of this century, if emissions keep rising, the average temperature on Earth could go up another 4 to 8 degrees. What I'm saying is the planet's on fucking fire. There are a lot of things we could do to put it out. Are any of them free? No, of course not, -- nothing's free, you idiots. Grow the fuck up. You're not children anymore. I didn't mind explaining photosynthesis to you when you", "-28.091708653591922" ], [ "result in the Solar System being ejected from the newly combined galaxy, it is considered unlikely to have any adverse effect on the Sun or its planets. Climate impact The rate of weathering of silicate minerals will increase as rising temperatures speed up chemical processes. This in turn will decrease the level of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, as these weathering processes convert carbon dioxide gas into solid carbonates. Within the next 600 million years from the present, the concentration of carbon dioxide will fall below the critical threshold needed to sustain C₃ photosynthesis: about 50 parts per million. At", "-28.083931733330246" ], [ "(about 15 kiloton each) on major population centers, the researchers estimated as much as five million tons of soot would be released, which would produce a cooling of several degrees over large areas of North America and Eurasia, including most of the grain-growing regions. The cooling would last for years, and, according to the research, could be \"catastrophic\". Ozone depletion Nuclear detonations produce large amounts of Nitrogen oxides by breaking down the air around them. These are then lifted upwards by thermal convection. As they reach the stratosphere, these nitrogen oxides are capable of catalytically breaking down the Ozone present", "-28.05531564890407" ], [ "as effective at blocking outgoing longwave radiation as water is. Within current models of the runaway greenhouse effect, carbon dioxide (especially anthropogenic carbon dioxide) does not seem capable of providing the necessary insulation for the Earth to reach the Simpson-Nakajima limit.\nThere remains debate, however, on whether carbon dioxide can push surface temperatures towards the moist greenhouse limit. Climate scientist John Houghton has written that \"[there] is no possibility of [Venus's] runaway greenhouse conditions occurring on the Earth\". The IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change) has also stated that \"a 'runaway greenhouse effect'—analogous to [that of] Venus—appears to have virtually no", "-28.055255760118598" ], [ "underway.\" He concludes that \"present knowledge does not permit accurate specification of the dangerous level of human-made [greehouse gases]. However, it is much lower than has commonly been assumed. If we have not already passed the dangerous level, the energy infrastructure in place ensures that we will pass it within several decades.\"\nIn 2013, Hansen authored a paper called \"Climate sensitivity, sea level and atmospheric carbon dioxide,\" in which he estimated climate sensitivity to be (3±1) °C based on Pleistocene paleoclimate data. The paper also concluded that burning all fossil fuels \"would make most of the planet uninhabitable by humans.\"\nIn 2016, a", "-28.023138667922467" ], [ "sun and lifted/lofted higher and higher into the air, thereby injecting the soot into the stratosphere, a position where they argued it would take years for the sun blocking effect of this aerosol of soot to fall out of the air, and with that, catastrophic ground level cooling and agricultural effects in Asia and possibly the Northern Hemisphere as a whole. In a 1992 follow-up, Peter Hobbs and others had observed no appreciable evidence for the nuclear winter team's predicted massive \"self-lofting\" effect and the oil-fire smoke clouds contained less soot than the nuclear winter modelling team had assumed.\nThe atmospheric", "-27.995166642591357" ], [ "energy received from the sun, reflects some of it as light and reflects or radiates the rest back to space as heat. Earth's surface temperature depends on this balance between incoming and outgoing energy. If this energy balance is shifted, Earth's surface becomes warmer or cooler, leading to a variety of changes in global climate.\nA number of natural and man-made mechanisms can affect the global energy balance and force changes in Earth's climate. Greenhouse gases are one such mechanism. Greenhouse gases absorb and emit some of the outgoing energy radiated from Earth's surface, causing that heat to be retained in", "-27.959400830295635" ], [ "came up with the idea that Mercury boils around 300 degrees on this temperature scale. Work by others showed that water boils about 180 degrees above its freezing point. The Fahrenheit scale later was redefined to make the freezing-to-boiling interval exactly 180 degrees, a convenient value as 180 is a highly composite number, meaning that it is evenly divisible into many fractions. It is because of the scale's redefinition that normal body temperature today is taken as 98.6 degrees, whereas it was 96 degrees on Fahrenheit's original scale.\nThe Fahrenheit scale was the primary temperature standard for climatic, industrial and", "-27.954887299449183" ], [ "particulate matter from large fires, nitrogen oxide, ozone depletion and the effect of nuclear twilight on agriculture. Crutzen and Birks' calculations suggested that smoke particulates injected into the atmosphere by fires in cities, forests and petroleum reserves could prevent up to 99% of sunlight from reaching the Earth's surface. This darkness, they said, could exist \"for as long as the fires burned\", which was assumed to be many weeks, with effects such as: \"The normal dynamic and temperature structure of the atmosphere would ... change considerably over a large fraction of the Northern Hemisphere, which will probably lead to important", "-27.877723673533183" ], [ "the relative humidity increases, first haze and ultimately a thicker cloud cover develops, reducing the amount of direct sunlight reaching the surface. Thus, there is an inverse relationship between maximum potential temperature and maximum potential relative humidity. Because of this factor, it was once believed that the highest heat index reading actually attainable anywhere on Earth was approximately 71 °C (160 °F). However, in Dhahran, Saudi Arabia on July 8, 2003, the dew point was 35 °C (95 °F) while the temperature was 42 °C (108 °F), resulting in a heat index of 78 °C (172 °F).\nThe human body requires evaporative cooling to prevent overheating. ", "-27.871614903910086" ], [ "in a temporary disequilibrium (more energy in than out) and result in warming. However, because the Stefan-Boltzmann response mandates that this hotter planet emits more energy, eventually a new radiation balance can be reached and the temperature will be maintained at its new, higher value. Positive climate change feedbacks amplify changes in the climate system, and can lead to destabilizing effects for the climate. An increase in temperature from greenhouse gases leading to increased water vapor (which is itself a greenhouse gas) causing further warming is a positive feedback, but not a runaway effect, on Earth. Positive feedback effects are", "-27.86293516983278" ], [ "at the top of the atmosphere (often accounting for rapid adjustments in temperature) in units of watts per square meter of the Earth's surface. Positive forcing (incoming energy exceeding outgoing energy) warms the system, while negative forcing (outgoing energy exceeding incoming energy) cools it. Causes of radiative forcing include changes in insolation and the concentrations of radiatively active gases, commonly known as greenhouse gases, and aerosols. Radiation balance Almost all of the energy that affects Earth's climate is received as radiant energy from the Sun. The planet and its atmosphere absorb and reflect some of the energy, while long-wave energy", "-27.85770275327377" ], [ "to assess a climate mitigation scenario that would limit average global temperature increase to only 1.5ᵒC above pre-industrial levels. This is mainly due to the fact that few reliable multi-model studies have been conducted to thoroughly explore this scenario. Nevertheless, what few studies that have been done agree that mitigation technologies must be implemented immediately and scaled up quickly and reflect energy demand decrease. A change below 1 °C with respect to pre-industrial era is now inconceivable because by 2017 there was already an increase of 1 °C.\nBecause of the immediate inability to control the temperature at the 1 °C target, the next", "-27.81568902989966" ], [ "then the estimates on the impact on the earth's cooling rate would need to be reevaluated.\nA more technical description of the earth’s core energy would be to state that it is vast and enormous in quantity, but calling it unlimited and renewable in nature is a misnomer which might well fit today's current levels of use; but perhaps, just like humanity's impact on weather through global warming, there was a long held belief that human activity such as car emissions were minor, and could not impact weather conditions, but when an expanding number of cars reach a critical point, a", "-27.804907859448576" ], [ "again. On 12 February, the temperature rose to 78.3 °C (172.94 °F). TEPCO denied the possibility of the core going critical again, because that would produce xenon, which was still below detectable levels. To prevent any possible nuclear criticality, TEPCO planned to dump boric acid into the reactor and to increase the volume of cooling water by 3 tons per hour.\nSince only one of the temperature-sensors showed fluctuating readings between 70 °C and 90 °C, TEPCO and NISA thought this sensor was malfunctioning. The sensor works on the principle of changing resistance between the surface of two different metals as the temperature changes. TEPCO", "-27.78437670355197" ], [ "of the sky within 45° of the Sun, and Mercury's greatest angular distance from the Sun is only about 28°. IUE observations of Venus showed that the amount of sulfur monoxide and sulfur dioxide in its atmosphere declined by a large amount during the 1980s. The reason for this decline is not yet fully understood, but one hypothesis is that a large volcanic eruption had injected sulfur compounds into the atmosphere, and that they were declining following the end of the eruption.\nHalley's Comet reached perihelion in 1986, and was observed intensively with the IUE, as well as with a large", "-27.775658792583272" ], [ "order of 100 km) because the thermal conduction from the superior hotter atmosphere must balance the high radiative losses, as indicated to the numerous emission lines, which are formed from ionized atoms (oxygen, carbon, iron and so on).\nThe solar convection can supply the required heating, but in a way not yet known in detail. Actually, it is still unclear how this energy is transmitted from the chromosphere(where it could be absorbed or reflected), and then dissipated into the corona instead of dispersing into the solar wind.\nFurthermore, where does it occur exactly ? : in the low corona or mainly in the higher corona,", "-27.76970952071133" ], [ "came together for the UN Climate Change Conference in Paris 30 November - 12 December and adopted by consensus the Paris Agreement, aimed at limiting global warming to less than two degrees Celsius, and pursue efforts to limit the rise to 1.5 degrees Celsius. The Paris Agreement entered into force on 4 November 2016. Precautionary principle In decision making, the precautionary principle is considered when possibly dangerous, irreversible, or catastrophic events are identified, but scientific evaluation of the potential damage is not sufficiently certain (Toth et al., 2001, pp. 655–656). The precautionary principle implies an emphasis on the need to prevent", "-27.751221680649905" ], [ "colder and more when it is hotter. If it were possible to cool a system to absolute zero, all motion of the particles in a sample of matter would cease and they would be at complete rest in this classical sense. The object would be described as having zero thermal energy. Microscopically in the description of quantum mechanics, however, matter still has zero-point energy even at absolute zero, because of the uncertainty principle. Cooling Cooling refers to the process of becoming cold, or lowering in temperature. This could be accomplished by removing heat from a system, or exposing the system", "-27.744771944591776" ], [ "data and algorithms that they will not share with the science community.\" He argued that the incident exposed a flawed process, and that the temperature trends were heading downwards even as greenhouse gases like CO₂ were increasing in the atmosphere. He wrote: \"This negative correlation contradicts the results of the models that IPCC relies on and indicates that anthropogenic global warming (AGW) is quite small,\" concluding \"and now it turns out that global warming might have been 'man made' after all.\" A British House of Commons Science and Technology Select Committee later issued a report that exonerated the scientists, \nand", "-27.73625128052663" ], [ "that any large structure filled with air would float on the carbon dioxide, with the air's natural buoyancy counteracting the weight of the structure itself.\nAt an altitude of 50 km above the Venerean surface, the environment is the \"most Earthlike in the solar system\", with a pressure of approximately 1 bar and temperatures in the 0°C-50°C range. Because there is not a significant pressure difference between the inside and the outside of the breathable-air balloon, any rips or tears would cause gases to diffuse at normal atmospheric mixing rates, giving time to repair any such damage. In addition, humans would not", "-27.734505916349008" ] ]

[ "Good: A company is for sale for $100. I decide to buy it. I'll put up $10 of my own money and borrow $90 at 10 & #37; interest. I sell it 1 year later for 20 & #37; more, or $120. I pay off the $90 loan and $9 of interest and keep $21. On my $10 investment, I made $11. That's a big return. Bad: A company is for sale for $100. I decide to buy it. I'll put up $10 of my own money and borrow $90 at 10 & #37; interest. The company starts tanking and I can only sell it for $80. I can't pay off the loan and interest. I lose all my money and company declares bankruptcy.", "Let's break it down into two parts: a buyout is the acquisition of a company, generally by management or some of its own shareholders. By purchasing the other owners' shares, they are said to have 'bought out' the those owners. They may then continue the company as a private enterprise, or subsequently hold a stock offering. A buyout might happen for a variety of reasons: perhaps some owners believe the company is undervalued, or want to run it a different way, or want to continue to operate without being publicly traded. The 'leveraged' part indicates that these buyers took on debt to make the purchase, rather than using their own capital. Typically this involves the company's assets becoming collateral for a loan from a bank or other financial sponsor. The company is then responsible for paying back this debt. In the case of Toys'R'Us, the firms that bought it out were unable to make its business profitable enough to overcome the interest on those debts while continuing to operate, and thus filed for bankruptcy. The criticism of the buyers (Bain Capital et al) is that in the course of this process, they also extracted hundreds of millions in management fees from the company. They will wind up writing off the loss, while a company that might have managed to survive on its own will instead be shuttered.", "An LBO in principle is the same thing as a mortgage for buying a house. You put down some of your own money when you buy a house, but the lion’s share of the purchase price of the house comes from the bank in the form of debt. Private equity funds that transact in LBO’s do the same thing. Funds raise capital from limited partners, who are large endowments, corporations, and wealthy individuals. The fund’s general partners use that pooled capital to invest in companies. That capital is used the same way your cash down payment on a house is. Assume a company is valued at $100. A PE fund will put down $30 of fund equity and $70 of third party debt. They do this after an extensive due diligence period where they go through the target company’s financials and business model. They build their own financial model and project out the financials to understand how the company can handle the debt load. Leverage, and the purchase price, is usually expressed as a multiple of earnings before interest, taxes, depreciation, and amortization, also called EBITDA. If we assume this company’s EBITDA is $20, it was just purchased for a 5.0x purchase multiple and 3.5x leverage (this is lower than you’d usually see in real life). Once the company is purchased, private equity funds will usually hold the company for five years, over which period they’ll seek to grow their equity investment and realize a return for limited partners, whose fund equity (the $30) is allocated as a percentage of their total percent of the latest fund pool. Funds grow equity by paying down debt, increasing earnings, or selling the company for a higher multiple than they paid. Let’s explore. Assume five years have passed. Company maintains $20 EBITDA (not super great, you want growth). However, they company paid down $30 of the $70 in debt it took on at the advent of the deal. The PE fund sells the company for the same multiple they bought it for (5.0x). The enterprise value of the company is still $100, so to get to the equity, you subtract the debt, which now is $40. Ending equity is $60. Funds think about how well an investment does in terms of two main metrics: internal rate of return (IRR) and multiple of money (MoM). The latter is just ending equity over entry equity, which in this case is 2.0x. IRR is a similar metric that takes into account time as a factor, but less relevant here. A 2.0x MoM is okay. Most funds target 3.0x as their hurdle for “success”. So, in order to juice their return, they will also want to expand EBITDA (grows ending enterprise value and maybe accelerates the rate at which they pay down debt) and potentially increase the exit multiple. The latter can be achieved if he market is more favorable five years down the road or if they’ve scaled the company to a point where it’s more valuable. PE funds usually will work closely with management to improve earnings and optimize the business model of their companies to achieve these goals. If things don’t go well, sometimes they will install some of their own executives or replace the CEO. At the end of the day, though, the success of this whole process relies on how good the fund’s due diligence was and how accurate their mode was. If they didn’t make he model accurate enough, they could load the company up with too much debt. If the company can’t reasonably service their debt load, it’s a huge constraint on their ability to function. They bust covenants (a covenant is basically what the lender says a company can and cannot do) and if things get really bad, they can go bankrupt. Basically, this happened with TRU. Bad due diligence. Bad model. Too much debt, and they couldn’t service it with interest payments. Amazon ate their lunch and eventually they had to declare bankruptcy.", "A company is worth 100, you have 50$, but you don't want spend all that so you borrow 80$ against the company. You now have 30$ left, yet a company as well. Overtime the company earns back all the money you borrowed. You decide you want to sell it. If you did nothing as an owner but kept the course than you could sell it for 100$ leaving you with 130$, a 80$ profit." ]

[ [ "Leveraged buyout A leveraged buyout (LBO) is a financial transaction in which a company is purchased with a combination of equity and debt, such that the company's cash flow is the collateral used to secure and repay the borrowed money. The use of debt, which normally has a lower cost of capital than equity, serves to reduce the overall cost of financing the acquisition. The cost of debt is lower because interest payments often reduce corporate income tax liability, whereas dividend payments normally do not. This reduced cost of financing allows greater gains to accrue to the equity, and, as", "-31.090903565956978" ], [ "(Onex Corporation). These investment vehicles would utilize a number of the same tactics and target the same type of companies as more traditional leveraged buyouts and in many ways could be considered a forerunner of the later private equity firms. In fact it is Posner who is often credited with coining the term \"leveraged buyout\" or \"LBO\"\nThe leveraged buyout boom of the 1980s was conceived by a number of corporate financiers, most notably Jerome Kohlberg Jr. and later his protégé Henry Kravis. Working for Bear Stearns at the time, Kohlberg and Kravis along with Kravis' cousin George Roberts began a", "-30.12214347552799" ], [ "Pickens, Harold Clark Simmons, Kirk Kerkorian, Sir James Goldsmith, Saul Steinberg and Asher Edelman. These investors used a number of the same tactics and targeted the same type of companies as more traditional leveraged buyouts and in many ways could be considered a forerunner of the later private equity firms. In fact it is Posner, one of the first \"corporate raiders\" who is often credited with coining the term \"leveraged buyout\" or \"LBO\".\nVictor Posner, who had made a fortune in real estate investments in the 1930s and 1940s, acquired a major stake in DWG Corporation in 1966. Having gained control", "-29.597915631631622" ], [ "their returns by employing a very high leverage (i.e., a high ratio of debt to equity), they have an incentive to employ as much debt as possible to finance an acquisition. This has, in many cases, led to situations in which companies were \"over-leveraged\", meaning that they did not generate sufficient cash flows to service their debt, which in turn led to insolvency or to debt-to-equity swaps in which the equity owners lose control over the business to the lenders. Origins The first leveraged buyout may have been the purchase by McLean Industries, Inc. of Pan-Atlantic Steamship Company in January", "-29.23322578065563" ], [ "later adopted by Nelson Peltz (Triarc), Saul Steinberg (Reliance Insurance) and Gerry Schwartz (Onex Corporation). These investment vehicles would utilize a number of the same tactics and target the same type of companies as more traditional leveraged buyouts and in many ways could be considered a forerunner of the later private equity firms. In fact, it is Posner who is often credited with coining the term \"leveraged buyout\" or \"LBO.\"\nThe leveraged buyout boom of the 1980s was conceived in the 1960s by a number of corporate financiers, most notably Jerome Kohlberg, Jr. and later his protégé Henry Kravis. Working for", "-28.96189069194952" ], [ "as add-on / tuck-in / bolt-on acquisitions, which would include companies with insufficient scale or other deficits.\nLeveraged buyouts involve a financial sponsor agreeing to an acquisition without itself committing all the capital required for the acquisition. To do this, the financial sponsor will raise acquisition debt which ultimately looks to the cash flows of the acquisition target to make interest and principal payments. Acquisition debt in an LBO is often non-recourse to the financial sponsor and has no claim on other investments managed by the financial sponsor. Therefore, an LBO transaction's financial structure is particularly attractive to a fund's limited", "-28.05464491181192" ], [ "primary purpose, however, is to fund M&A activity, specifically leveraged buyouts, where the buyer uses the debt markets to acquire the acquisition target’s equity.\nIn the U.S., the core of leveraged lending comes from buyouts resulting from corporate activity, while, in Europe, private equity funds drive buyouts. In the U.S., all private equity related activities, including refinancings and recapitalizations, are called sponsored transactions; in Europe, they are referred to as LBOs.\nA buyout transaction originates well before lenders see the transaction’s terms. In a buyout, the company is first put up for auction. With sponsored transactions, a company that is for the", "-27.716947072622133" ], [ "leveraged buyouts (LBOs), where the management/owners of a failing corporation will cause the corporation to borrow on its assets and use the loan proceeds to purchase the management/owner's stock at highly inflated prices. The creditors of the corporation will then often have little or no unencumbered assets left upon which to collect their debts. LBOs can be either intentional or constructive fraudulent transfers, or both, depending on how obviously the corporation is financially impaired when the transaction is completed.\nAlthough not all LBOs are fraudulent transfers, a red flag is raised when, after an LBO, the company then cannot pay its", "-27.464666033629328" ], [ "(DWG Corporation) and later adopted by Nelson Peltz (Triarc), Saul Steinberg (Reliance Insurance) and Gerry Schwartz (Onex Corporation). These investment vehicles would utilize a number of the same tactics and target the same type of companies as more traditional leveraged buyouts and in many ways could be considered a forerunner of the later private equity firms. In fact, it is Posner who is often credited with coining the term \"leveraged buyout\" or \"LBO\"\nPosner, who had made a fortune in real estate investments in the 1930s and 1940s acquired a major stake in DWG Corporation in 1966. Having gained control of", "-27.157242949702777" ], [ "Group. This represented the largest leveraged buyout completed since the takeover of RJR Nabisco at the end of the 1980s leveraged buyout boom. Also, at the time of its announcement, SunGard would be the largest buyout of a technology company in history, a distinction it would cede to the buyout of Freescale Semiconductor. The SunGard transaction is also notable in the number of firms involved in the transaction, the largest club deal completed to that point. The involvement of seven firms in the consortium was criticized by investors in private equity who considered cross-holdings among firms", "-26.665736492257565" ], [ "were Silver Lake Partners, Bain Capital, Goldman Sachs Capital Partners, Kohlberg Kravis Roberts, Providence Equity Partners, and Blackstone Group. This represented the largest leveraged buyout completed since the takeover of RJR Nabisco at the end of the 1980s leveraged buyout boom. Also, at the time of its announcement, SunGard would be the largest buyout of a technology company in history, a distinction it would cede to the buyout of Freescale Semiconductor. The involvement of seven firms in the consortium was criticized by investors in private equity who considered cross-holdings among firms to be generally unattractive.\nOn 15 May 2006,", "-26.596237091784133" ], [ "leveraged buyout in history.\nIn 2006 and 2007, a number of leveraged buyout transactions were completed which surpassed the RJR Nabisco leveraged buyout in terms of nominal purchase price. The deal was first surpassed in July 2006 by the $33 billion buyout of U.S. hospital operator Hospital Corporation of America, in which KKR participated. However, adjusted for inflation, none of the leveraged buyouts of the 2006–07 period would surpass RJR Nabisco. Early 1990s: The aftermath of RJR Nabisco The buyout of RJR Nabisco was completed in April 1989 and KKR would spend the early 1990s repaying the RJR's enormous debt load", "-26.548909240867943" ], [ "partners, allowing them the benefits of leverage but greatly limiting the degree of recourse of that leverage. This kind of financing structure leverage benefits an LBO's financial sponsor in two ways: (1) the investor itself only needs to provide a fraction of the capital for the acquisition, and (2) the returns to the investor will be enhanced (as long as the return on assets exceeds the cost of the debt).\nAs a percentage of the purchase price for a leverage buyout target, the amount of debt used to finance a transaction varies according to the financial condition and history of the", "-26.438433774921577" ], [ "speculative grade from the start. Speculative grade bonds thus became ubiquitous in the 1980s as a financing mechanism in mergers and acquisitions. In a leveraged buyout (LBO), an acquirer would issue speculative grade bonds to help pay for an acquisition and then use the target's cash flow to help pay the debt over time.\nIn 2005, over 80% of the principal amount of high-yield debt issued by U.S. companies went toward corporate purposes rather than acquisitions or buyouts.\nIn emerging markets, such as China and Vietnam, bonds have become increasingly important as term financing options, since access to traditional bank credits has", "-26.34487277350854" ], [ "management buy-outs. In 1992, Weston structured the first leveraged acquisition financing in the form of a securitization of bank shares denominated in Mexican Pesos. The firm is an active player in the structuring and arrangement of margin loans against emerging stock market local shares.\nLocal Currency Securitizations. The Weston Group arranges asset-backed financing in the form of securitizations of U.S. dollar and local currency receivables and financial assets. Since 1991, The Weston Group has introduced a number of market innovations including the first Latin American mortgaged-backed bond, the first asset-backed Eurobond guaranteed by a Latin American government agency, and the first", "-26.225229794625193" ], [ "leveraged buyouts in favor of industry consolidations through what were described as leveraged buildups or rollups. One of KKR's largest investments in the 1990s was the leveraged buildup of Primedia in partnership with former executives of Macmillan Publishing, which KKR had failed to acquire in 1988. KKR created Primedia's predecessor, K-III Communications, a platform to buy media properties, initially completing the $310 million divisional buyout of the book club division of Macmillan along with the assets of Intertec Publishing Corporation in May 1989.\nDuring the early 1990s, K-III continued acquiring publishing assets, including a $650 million acquisition from News Corporation in", "-26.18587848485913" ], [ "leveraged buyouts\", the so-called club discount. However, the lower premiums disappeared with increasing percentage of institutional ownership in the target company, maybe because of institutional owners greater bargaining power for a higher price. On average, club deals were larger in transaction size than sole-sponsor buyouts, but fewer than 20 percent were larger than the largest sole-sponsor buyouts in the last four years. Premiums were lower in club deals announced prior to 2006 than since then. Club deals were no less risky as measured by return volatility and beta, than a sole-sponsor buyout. Even when controlling for size, risk and leverage", "-26.033046534401365" ], [ "used in leveraged buyouts to fill small gaps between the financing needs of the borrower and maximum thresholds (measured by various leverage metrics) of senior secured lenders. The arrangement fee and interest (finance) of a second lien loan are higher than those of the first lien secured loan of the same borrower because of increased risk for the lender that comes from a subordinated security interest. However, second lien debt can often reduce the overall cost of capital in a leveraged buyout transaction, replacing other more expensive forms of financing (e.g., senior unsecured debt).", "-25.909561912732897" ], [ "a takeover target, more profitable as a group of separate companies to be sold than as a single unit. In 1988, Steven M. Rales and his brother Mitchell led a group that offered $2.47 billion, but that bid ran into trouble when the SEC charged Drexel Burnham Lambert with insider trading, making financing of the bid more difficult. Interco took on debt to discourage other offers, and the Rales group eventually backed off. But Interco could not make enough money by selling its unprofitable operations; For example, selling Ethan Allen brought in $388 million rather than the expected $550", "-25.586846844336833" ], [ "payment of capital gains tax, whereas if the shares are converted into other securities, such as loan notes, the tax is rolled over. All share deals A takeover, particularly a reverse takeover, may be financed by an all share deal. The bidder does not pay money, but instead issues new shares in itself to the shareholders of the company being acquired. In a reverse takeover the shareholders of the company being acquired end up with a majority of the shares in, and so control of, the company making the bid. The company has managerial rights. All-cash deals If a takeover", "-25.337077507632785" ], [ "capital gains taxes indefinitely.\nCompany insiders face additional conflicts of interest in connection with an ESOP's purchase of company stock, which most often features company insiders as sellers and in connection with decisions about how to vote the shares of stock held by the ESOP but not yet allocated to participants' accounts. In a leveraged ESOP, such unallocated shares often far outnumber allocated shares for many years after the leveraged transaction.", "-25.299193074344657" ], [ "the interests of the syndicate of CLOs as well as servicing the loan payments to the syndicate (though the lead bank can designate another bank to assume the agent bank role upon syndication closing). The loans are usually termed \"high risk\", \"high yield\", or \"leveraged\", that is, loans to companies which owe an above average amount of money for their size and kind of business, usually because a new business owner has borrowed funds against the business to purchase it (known as a \"leveraged buyout\"), because the business has borrowed funds to buy another business, or because the enterprise borrowed", "-25.11567543214187" ], [ "saying \"limiting leverage may make some high-tech investment strategies difficult or impossible. It might also cut into the derivatives business of banks and Wall Street firms. If that's the case--well, so be it.\"\nWeiss's \"Mob on Wall Street\" and other Business Week stories were praised by then-FBI Director Louis Freeh, in a letter published by Business Week in December 2000. Freeh wrote: \"Gary Weiss has done our nation an invaluable service by reporting the manipulation of the stock market by elements of organized crime. By outlining specific stocks and stock brokerage firms that were controlled by organized crime, he opened the", "-25.015465264732484" ], [ "Accelerated share repurchase Accelerated share repurchase (ASR) refers to a method that publicly traded companies may use to buy back shares of its stock from the market.\nThe ASR method involves the company buying its shares from an investment bank (who in turn borrowed them from their clients), and paying cash to the investment bank while entering into a forward contract. The investment bank will then seek to purchase shares of the company from the market to return to its clients. At the end of the transaction, the company may receive even more shares than it initially received, which are then", "-24.95659389368666" ], [ "Leverage cycle Leverage is defined as the ratio of the asset value to the cash needed to purchase it. The leverage cycle can be defined as the procyclical expansion and contraction of leverage over the course of the business cycle. The existence of procyclical leverage amplifies the effect on asset prices over the business cycle. Why is leverage significant? Conventional economic theory suggests that interest rates determine the demand and supply of loans. This convention does not take into account the concept of default and hence ignores the need for collateral. When an investor buys an asset, they may", "-24.878287152270786" ], [ "to facilitate institutional ownership of KMP equity. Leveraged buyout On August 28, 2006, Kinder Morgan announced that it would be taken private in a management-led leveraged buyout totaling approximately $22 billion. Outside participants in the transaction include Fayez Sarofim, Goldman Sachs Capital Partners and Highstar Capital (then owned by American International Group). KMI began trading again on the NYSE on February 11, 2011, following the largest private-equity backed U.S. IPO offering in history. Subsequent events In October 2011, Kinder Morgan Inc. agreed to buy El Paso Corp. (EP) for $21.1 billion and gave the combined company 67,000 miles (107,000", "-24.852161758433795" ], [ "Leverage (finance) In finance, leverage (sometimes referred to as gearing in the United Kingdom and Australia) is any technique involving the use of debt (borrowed funds) rather than fresh equity in the purchase of an asset, with the expectation that the after-tax profit to equity holders from the transaction will exceed the borrowing cost, frequently by several multiples⁠ ⁠— hence the provenance of the word from the effect of a lever in physics, a simple machine which amplifies the application of a comparatively small input force into a correspondingly greater output force. Normally, the lender (finance provider) will set a limit on", "-24.82756966429588" ], [ "amounts of cash in the corporation. Companies with strong cash generation and limited needs for capital spending will accumulate cash on the balance sheet, which makes the company a more attractive target for takeover, since the cash can be used to pay down the debt incurred to carry out the acquisition. Anti-takeover strategies, therefore, often include maintaining a lean cash position and share repurchases bolster the stock price, making a takeover more expensive. Open market The most common share repurchase method in the United States is the open-market stock repurchase, representing almost 95% of all repurchases. A firm will announce", "-24.820263488101773" ], [ "Club deal A club deal, in finance, refers to a leveraged buyout or other private equity investment that involves two or more private equity firms. It can also be referred as consortium or syndicated investment. Definition In a club deal, the investor group of private equity firms pools its assets together and makes the acquisition collectively. The practice has allowed private equity to purchase larger and more expensive companies than each firm could acquire through its own private equity funds. By syndicating the equity ownership across a group of investment firms, each firm reduces its concentration and is able to", "-24.78996079263743" ], [ "proved to be its most ambitious and marked both a high-water mark and a sign of the beginning of the end of the boom that had begun nearly a decade earlier. In 1989, KKR (Kohlberg Kravis Roberts) closed in on a $31.1 billion takeover of RJR Nabisco. It was, at that time and for over 17 years, the largest leveraged buyout in history. The event was chronicled in the book (and later the movie), Barbarians at the Gate: The Fall of RJR Nabisco. KKR would eventually prevail in acquiring RJR Nabisco at $109 per share, marking a dramatic increase from the", "-24.657210511621088" ], [ "any response by Kravis's team. KKR's final bid of $109, while a lower dollar figure, was ultimately accepted by the board of directors of RJR Nabisco. At $31.1 billion of transaction value, RJR Nabisco was the largest leveraged buyout in history until the 2007 buyout of TXU Energy by KKR and Texas Pacific Group. In 2006 and 2007, a number of leveraged buyout transactions were completed that for the first time surpassed the RJR Nabisco leveraged buyout in terms of nominal purchase price. However, adjusted for inflation, none of the leveraged buyouts of the 2006–2007 period surpassed RJR Nabisco.\nBy the", "-24.60477138258284" ], [ "at a discount to their value. Hedge fund managers pursuing the distressed debt investment strategy aim to capitalize on depressed bond prices. Hedge funds purchasing distressed debt may prevent those companies from going bankrupt, as such an acquisition deters foreclosure by banks. While event-driven investing in general tends to thrive during a bull market, distressed investing works best during a bear market.\nRisk arbitrage or merger arbitrage includes such events as mergers, acquisitions, liquidations, and hostile takeovers. Risk arbitrage typically involves buying and selling the stocks of two or more merging companies to take advantage of market discrepancies between acquisition price", "-24.53558782651089" ], [ "capital required to finance a leveraged buyout or major expansion. Mezzanine capital, which is often used by smaller companies that are unable to access the high yield market, allows such companies to borrow additional capital beyond the levels that traditional lenders are willing to provide through bank loans. In compensation for the increased risk, mezzanine debt holders require a higher return for their investment than secured or other more senior lenders. Mezzanine securities are often structured with a current income coupon. Venture capital Venture capital or VC is a broad subcategory of private equity that refers to equity investments made,", "-24.521729621454142" ], [ "managing partner at Kohlberg Kravis Roberts & Co. The leveraged buyout was in the amount of $25 billion, and the battle for control took place between October and November 1988.\nAlthough KKR eventually took control of RJR Nabisco, RJR management and Shearson Lehman Hutton had originally announced that they would take RJR Nabisco private at $75 per share. A fierce series of negotiations and proposals ensued which involved nearly all of the major private equity players of the day, including Morgan Stanley, Goldman Sachs, Salomon Brothers, First Boston, Wasserstein Perella & Co., Forstmann Little, Shearson Lehman Hutton, and Merrill Lynch. Once", "-24.446177601872478" ], [ "financing is only repaid after all senior obligations have been satisfied). Additionally, mezzanine financings, which are usually private placements, are often used by smaller companies and may involve greater overall levels of leverage than issues in the high-yield market; they thus involve additional risk. In compensation for the increased risk, mezzanine debt holders require a higher return for their investment than secured or more senior lenders. Leveraged buyouts In leveraged buyouts, mezzanine capital is used in conjunction with other securities to fund the purchase price of the company being acquired. Typically, mezzanine capital will be used to fill a", "-24.3678337627789" ], [ "leverage. Proponents have countered by saying that their approach calls for reduced exposure to bonds as volatility increases and provides less skew than conventional portfolios.\nProponents of the use of leverage argue that using leverage can be risk-reducing rather than risk-increasing provided four conditions are met: (i) enough unencumbered cash is kept to meet any margin calls (ii) leverage is applied to a well-diversified portfolio (iii) assets can be rebalanced frequently and (iv) counterparty risk is minimized. Risk parity and the bull market in bonds A 2012 article in the Financial Times indicated possible challenges for risk parity funds \"at the", "-24.36658349877689" ], [ "ratios, club deals required more lenders than sole-sponsor buyouts.\nAccording to authors of the 2010 study, the prevalence of syndication suggested a diseconomy associated with venture capital firm scale. Criticism In 2006 the US Department of Justice, concerned with bid rigging, opened an investigation of private equity firms regarding their participation in consortiums in past sales.\nThe 2009 study of US buyouts from 1984 to 2007 with 59 club deals concluded that \"[...] private equity clubs constrain the supply of debt financing for competing bids by aggressively locking up debt financiers”.\nInstitutional investors investing as limited partners in private equity funds criticize the", "-24.26185206795344" ], [ "vogue in that decade.\nWhitney's most public foray into the leveraged buyout space came in 1989, when it completed the acquisition of Prime Computer. In 1988, \"corporate raider\" Bennett S. LeBow, who controlled a smaller computer maker, MAI Basic Four, began an attempted $970 million hostile takeover of Prime Computer. Management resisted LeBow's advances and eventually agreed to a $1.3 billion leveraged buyout with Whitney, acting as a white knight. For Whitney, owning Prime proved to be nearly a total loss with the bulk of the proceeds from the company's liquidation paid to the company's creditors.\nWhitney would complete", "-24.249146077607293" ], [ "and ending just over a decade later was characterized by a dramatic surge in leveraged buyout (LBO) activity financed by junk bonds. The period culminated in the massive buyout of RJR Nabisco before the near collapse of the leveraged buyout industry in the late 1980s and early 1990s marked by the collapse of Drexel Burnham Lambert and the high-yield debt market. Venture capital in the 1980s The public successes of the venture capital industry in the 1970s and early 1980s (e.g., DEC, Apple, Genentech) gave rise to a major proliferation of venture capital investment firms. From just a few", "-24.248530749428028" ], [ "Salomon Brothers, submitted a bid of $112, a figure they felt certain would enable them to outflank any response by Kravis's team. KKR's final bid of $109, while a lower dollar\nfigure, was ultimately accepted by the board of directors of RJR Nabisco. At $31.1 billion of transaction value, RJR Nabisco was by far the largest leveraged buyouts in history. In 2006 and 2007, a number of leveraged buyout transactions were completed that for the first time surpassed the RJR Nabisco leveraged buyout in terms of nominal purchase price. However, adjusted for inflation, none of the leveraged buyouts of the 2006–2007 period", "-24.17855886014877" ], [ "\"hostile takeovers\" entered the public consciousness. The decade would see one of the largest booms in private equity culminating in the 1989 leveraged buyout of RJR Nabisco, which would reign as the largest leveraged buyout transaction for nearly 17 years. In 1980, the private equity industry would raise approximately $2.4 billion of annual investor commitments and by the end of the decade in 1989 that figure stood at $21.9 billion marking the tremendous growth experienced.", "-24.16550740263483" ], [ "equity firms involved in the buyout of SunGard in a transaction valued at $11.3 billion. KKR's partners in the acquisition were Silver Lake Partners, Bain Capital, Goldman Sachs Capital Partners, Blackstone Group, Providence Equity Partners, and TPG Capital. This represented the largest leveraged buyout completed since the takeover of RJR Nabisco in 1988. SunGard was the largest buyout of a technology company until the Blackstone-led buyout of Freescale Semiconductor. The SunGard transaction was notable given the number of firms involved in the transaction, the largest club deal completed to that point. The involvement of seven firms in the consortium was", "-24.001634061161894" ], [ "Barbarians at the Gate: The Fall of RJR Nabisco Summary Those opposed to Johnson's bid for the company, Henry Kravis and his cousin George R. Roberts, were among the pioneers of the leveraged buyout (LBO). Kravis was the first person Johnson talked to about doing the LBO and feels betrayed after learning that Johnson wants to do the deal with another firm, American Express's former Shearson Lehman Hutton division. Ted Forstmann and his Forstmann Little buyout firm also played a prominent role.\nAfter Kravis and Johnson are unable to reconcile their differences, a bidding war takes place which Johnson will eventually", "-23.950291301705875" ], [ "found that in certain situations, LBO debt constitutes a fraudulent transfer under U.S. insolvency law if it is determined to be the cause of the acquired firm's failure.\nThe outcome of litigation attacking a leveraged buyout as a fraudulent transfer will generally turn on the financial condition of the target at the time of the transaction – that is, whether the risk of failure was substantial and known at the time of the LBO, or whether subsequent unforeseeable events led to the failure. The analysis historically depended on \"dueling\" expert witnesses and was notoriously subjective, expensive, and unpredictable. However, courts", "-23.921449399433186" ], [ "\"slim down\" Gulf's market share. Pickens had acquired the reputation of being a corporate raider whose skill lay in making profits out of bidding for companies but without actually acquiring them. During the early 1980s alone, he made failed bids for Cities Service, General American Oil, Gulf, Phillips Petroleum and Unocal. The process of making such bids would promote a frenzy of asset divestiture and debt reduction in the target companies. This is a standard defensive tactic calculated to boost the current share price, although possibly at the expense of long-term strategic advantage. The target shares would rise sharply in", "-23.894749343584408" ], [ "events were to occur. Leverage also increases after CEOs are subjected to greater performance incentives in the form of increased inventories of stock options.\nMoreover, during takeover threats, managers tend to increase debt in order to increase the firm's value, making it more difficult for the takeover to occur. However, this does not necessarily mean that the manager's job is secure. In a sample of target firms that levered up the most, 37 percent of the managers lost their jobs within a year of the failed takeover attempt. Corporate governance and firm value Corporate governance essentially involves balancing the interests of", "-23.789372092331178" ], [ "many markets around the world, constantly watch for arbitrage opportunities.\nOne of the more-notable areas of arbitrage, called risk arbitrage or merger arbitrage, evolved in the 1980s. When a company plans to buy another company, often the share price of the buyer falls (because the buyer will have to pay money to buy the other company) and the share price of the purchased company rises (because the buyer usually buys those shares at a price higher than the current price). When an investment bank believes a buyout is imminent, it often sells short the shares of the buyer (betting that the", "-23.73299639884499" ], [ "was in the early 1980s thought immune to takeover risk.\nIts undoing as an independent company began in 1982 when T. Boone Pickens, an Amarillo, Texas oilman and corporate raider (or greenmailer), and owner of Mesa Petroleum, made an offer for the comparatively larger (but still considered \"non-major\" oil company) Cities Service Company (more generally known by the name Citgo) from Tulsa, Oklahoma, which was then trading in the low 20s. Pickens first privately offered $45 a share for a friendly takeover and then later made a $50 a share public offer when Cities' CEO rejected the friendly offer. Gulf forestalled", "-23.65745811801753" ], [ "leveraged credit strategies, including leveraged loans, high-yield bonds, opportunistic credit and revolving credit strategies, and alternative credit strategies, including special situations and private credit strategies such as direct lending and private opportunistic credit (or mezzanine) investment strategies.\nHedge Funds\nKKR's hedge fund business consists of strategic manager partnerships with third-party hedge fund managers in which KKR owns a minority stake. As of December 31, 2017, the strategic manager partnerships with third-party hedge fund managers accounted for $26.2 billion of AUM.\nBDCs\nIn December 2017, FS Investments and KKR announced they are pooling together more than $18 billion in private capital to invest in mid-sized", "-23.609009580075508" ], [ "of the Loom, Nebraska Furniture Mart and See's Candies. Buffett's value investing approach and focus on earnings and cash flows are characteristic of later private equity investors. Buffett would distinguish himself relative to more traditional leveraged buyout practitioners through his reluctance to use leverage and hostile techniques in his investments. The first private equity boom (1982 to 1993) The decade of the 1980s is perhaps more closely associated with the leveraged buyout than any decade before or since. For the first time, the public became aware of the ability of private equity to affect mainstream companies and \"corporate raiders\" and", "-23.584843138232827" ], [ "Leverage (TV series) Plot Nathan \"Nate\" Ford is a former insurance investigator and the leader of a team staging elaborate cons for clients victimized by those holding wealth and influence to avoid legal reprisal.\nThe team comes together when Victor Dubenich, a wealthy aerospace executive, persuades Ford, disgraced and an alcoholic after the death of his son, to lead a team of talented criminals to steal aeronautical plans allegedly stolen from him by a competitor. After a successful heist, Dubenich withholds their payment and attempts to have them killed, whereupon they implicate him in a bribery attempt, which leads to his", "-23.548565846984275" ], [ "These two differ based on the level of risk management, cost effectiveness or the need for managerial control. In the Philippines Captive Markets seem to be gaining some growth although the economic landscape still has third party holding the majority industry presence. This is due to the fact that in recent cases of crises there have been observations on positive growth for third party outsourcing firms as opposed to captive markets. This event lead to the perception of captive markets as being less efficient than that of third party outsourcing. Project based outsourcing This is primarily used for business activities", "-23.53427896631183" ], [ "Coupon leverage Coupon leverage, or leverage factor, is the amount by which a reference rate is multiplied to determine the floating interest rate payable by an inverse floater. Some debt instruments leverage the particular effects of interest rate changes, most commonly in inverse floaters.\nAs an example, an inverse floater with a multiple may pay interest at the rate, or coupon, of 22 percent minus the product of 2 times the 1-month London Interbank Offered Rate (LIBOR). The coupon leverage is 2, in this example, and the reference rate is the 1-month LIBOR.", "-23.494387989776442" ], [ "buyout boom of the 1980s. Lion Advisors was set up to provide investment services to Credit Lyonnais, which was seeking to profit from depressed prices in the high yield market. 1990s At the time of Apollo's founding, financing for new leveraged buyouts was minimal and Apollo turned instead to a strategy of distressed-to-control takeovers. Apollo would purchase distressed securities which could be converted into a controlling interest in the equity of the company through a bankruptcy reorganization or other restructuring. Apollo used distressed debt as an entry point, enabling the firm to invest in such firms as Vail", "-23.478003881056793" ], [ "on leveraged buyouts. Cogan would go on to acquire a series of businesses included General Felt Industries, Knoll, the 21 Club and Sheller-Globe Corporation but would be unsuccessful in his bids to acquire the Boston Red Sox, Sotheby's and L.F. Rothschild. Consolidation in the 1970s – Shearson Hammill Following the acquisition of Hayden, Stone & Co., the newly minted Hayden Stone, Inc. continued its strategy of growth by acquisition. In 1973, during the 1973-1974 stock market crash, the firm acquired H. Hentz & Co., a venerable Wall Street investment banking, brokerage and commodities firm founded in 1850, and Saul Lerner", "-23.469482173240976" ], [ "significant amount of debt derived from the 2007 leveraged buyout by Eurazeo from 2012 onwards. In a first step management tried to find equity investors as well as refinancing partners in order to decrease the debt pressure on the companies performance. This process was stopped a year later as the necessary partners could not be found. Already then APCOA's debt was traded actively with Centerbridge becoming the major creditor with more than 50% of debt value. Due to the failure of the first process, management decided to restructure itself using a court supervised UK-Scheme of arrangement. With this procedure APCOA", "-23.45456439285772" ], [ "RJR Nabisco at the end of the 1980s leveraged buyout boom. Also, at the time of its announcement, SunGard would be the largest buyout of a technology company in history, a distinction it would cede to the buyout of Freescale Semiconductor. The SunGard transaction is also notable in the number of firms involved in the transaction, the largest club deal completed to that point. The involvement of seven firms in the consortium was criticized by investors in private equity who considered cross-holdings among firms to be generally unattractive.\nIn 2006, Blackstone launched its long / short equity hedge fund business, Kailix", "-23.397807914443547" ], [ "Convertible arbitrage Risks As with most successful arbitrage strategies, convertible arbitrage has attracted a large number of market participants, creating intense competition and reducing the effectiveness of the strategy. For example, many convertible arbitrageurs suffered losses in early 2005 when the credit of General Motors was downgraded at the same time Kirk Kerkorian was making an offer for GM's stock. Since most arbitrageurs were long GM debt and short the equity, they were hurt on both sides. Going back a lot further, many such \"arbs\" sustained big losses in the so-called \"crash of '87\". In theory, when a stock declines,", "-23.380130858859047" ], [ "Minority discount Minority discount is an economic concept reflecting the notion that a partial ownership interest may be worth less than its proportional share of the total business. The concept applies to equities with voting power because the size of voting position provides additional benefits or drawbacks. For example, ownership of a 51% share in the business is usually worth more than 51% of its equity value—this phenomenon is called the premium for control. Conversely, ownership of a 30% share in the business may be worth less than 30% of its equity value. This is so because this minority ownership", "-23.300584854347107" ], [ "to a shareholder's meeting. This entails buying a GML share on Wall Street, which has become a hybrid stock-market and public casino. Mundin braves the touts and thugs of the market to trick his way to buying a share, normally impossible because of the activities of certain brokers. Hiding out in Belly Rave, he meets Bligh, who has become adept in negotiating with the gangs there. Bligh arranges Mundin's safe passage to the company meeting, in a deliberately obscure building on Long Island.\nAt the meeting Mundin, learning to play off the power brokers against each", "-23.287524270592257" ], [ "GAIN Capital History GAIN Capital was founded in 1999 in Bedminster, New Jersey, and was one of the early developers of on-line forex trading.\nThe company went public in 2010 when it floated part of its shareholdings on the NYSE; however, the initial IPO was scaled back at the last minute as the target price was not reached.\nIn October 2014 the company acquired UK-based rival City Index for $118 million, boosting its CFD business and expanding its Forex business in the UK.\nOn February 7, 2017, GAIN Capital agreed to acquire FXCM's US client base a day after the latter had been", "-23.261181994050276" ], [ "that they would eventually be run by syndication and make their money back. Gap/supergap financing In motion pictures, gap/supergap financing is a form of mezzanine debt financing where the producer wishes to complete their film finance package by procuring a loan that is secured against the film's unsold territories and rights. Most gap financiers will only lend against the value of unsold foreign (non-North American) rights, as domestic (North American: USA & Canadian) rights are seen as a \"performance\" risk, as opposed to more quantifiable risk that is the foreign market. In short, this means that the foreign", "-23.254882297682343" ], [ "the boom that had begun nearly a decade earlier. In 1989, KKR closed in on a $31.1 billion takeover of RJR Nabisco. It was, at that time and for over 17 years following, the largest leverage buyout in history. The event was chronicled in the book (and later the movie), Barbarians at the Gate: The Fall of RJR Nabisco. KKR would eventually prevail in acquiring RJR Nabisco at $109 per share marking a dramatic increase from the original announcement that Shearson Lehman Hutton would take RJR Nabisco private at $75 per share. A fierce series of negotiations and horse-trading ensued", "-23.194910459656967" ], [ "of the expected return resulting from leverage. There is a short-form calculation and a long-form that is more intuitive. Given:\n\nThe following example is for an investor who seeks to purchase shares of a well performing asset (+5% expected growth). The investor seeks to increase the total amount purchased by leveraging the purchase with borrowed money. A lender and the investor establish the following terms: the lender will permit the investor to leverage the purchase by agreeing to a loan that is equal to eight times the equity investment; for every 1 dollar invested (equity), the lender will lend", "-23.151846049440792" ], [ "Insider trading Insider trading is the trading of a public company's stock or other securities (such as bonds or stock options) based on material nonpublic information about the company. In various countries, some kinds of trading based on insider information is illegal. This is because it is seen as unfair to other investors who do not have access to the information, as the investor with insider information could potentially make larger profits than a typical investor could make. The rules governing insider trading are complex and vary significantly from country to country. The extent of enforcement also varies from one", "-23.07918427151162" ], [ "the case the management buyout is supported by a private equity fund (see below), the private equity will, given that there is a dedicated management team in place, likely pay an attractive price for the asset. Debt financing The management of a company will not usually have the money available to buy the company outright themselves. They would first seek to borrow from a bank, provided the bank was willing to accept the risk. Management buyouts are frequently seen as too risky for a bank to finance the purchase through a loan. Management teams are typically asked to invest", "-23.06531233387068" ], [ "his employer paid him as compensation during his period of faithlessness. The court called the insider trading the \"ultimate abuse of a portfolio manager's position.\" The judge also wrote: \"\"In addition to exposing Morgan Stanley to government investigations and direct financial losses, Skowron's behavior damaged the firm's reputation, a valuable corporate asset.\" Clawback provision A clawback provision is a contractual clause typically included in employment contracts by financial firms, by which money already paid to an employee must be paid back to the employer under certain conditions. The term also is in use in bankruptcy matters where insiders may have", "-23.063522552663926" ], [ "of margin trading, becoming one of the few bitcoin exchanges to offer trading on margin. Initially the maximum allowed leverage for trading long or short was 3x (later raised to 5x).\nIn May 2015, it was announced that Howard Bernstein had joined Kraken as Chief Compliance Officer. Bernstein has 20 years of experience in US financial regulation, including Merriman Capital Inc, where he helped to ensure that the publicly traded investment bank was compliant with SEC and FINRA requirements.\nIn June 2015, Kraken opened a bitcoin pool of Dark liquidity (or “dark pool”). 2016 After its public refusal, Kraken expressed an intention", "-23.021732159890234" ], [ "Reverse takeover Process In a reverse takeover, shareholders of the private company purchase control of the public shell company and then merge it with the private company. The publicly traded corporation is called a \"shell\" since all that exists of the original company is its organizational structure. The private company shareholders receive a substantial majority of the shares of the public company and control of its board of directors. The transaction can be accomplished within weeks.\nThe transaction involves the private and shell company exchanging information on each other, negotiating the merger terms, and signing a share exchange agreement. At", "-23.018984821277627" ], [ "debt in place of equity, created a market for a higher risk loan product; leveraged debt. This carried a higher risk profile than the investment grade corporate debt which had hitherto dominated corporate America.\nThe 1980s innovations in debt capital markets led by Michael Milken's pioneering of high yield bonds (then called 'junk bonds') served to give the industry further mass, as did certain key takeover events such as the $25bn 1988 takeover battle for RJR Nabisco. Given the higher-risk profile of leveraged loans vis investment grade debt, original bank lenders would typically syndicate the debt, selling down some or", "-23.01428091712296" ], [ "the true insider.\nThe next expansion of insider trading liability came in SEC vs. Materia 745 F.2d 197 (2d Cir. 1984), the case that first introduced the misappropriation theory of liability for insider trading. Materia, a financial printing firm proofreader, and clearly not an insider by any definition, was found to have determined the identity of takeover targets based on proofreading tender offer documents during his employment. After a two-week trial, the district court found him liable for insider trading, and the Second Circuit Court of Appeals affirmed holding that the theft of information from an employer, and the use of", "-23.008590815275966" ], [ "Taxation Office, its ambitions would have been more difficult to realize without the regulatory clarity that it provided.\nBitcoin Group announced that it would pursue an initial public offering (IPO) on the Australian Securities Exchange (ASX) in October 2014. The attempt was delayed by two stop orders from the Australian Securities and Investments Commission (ASIC). Following ASIC's request for an Independent Expert Report, the company undertook a third attempt to list on the ASX through an IPO, planning to issue 100 million new shares by January 2016 and thereby raise $20 million at 20¢ a share and achieve a market capitalisation of $32.9 million", "-22.973623727233644" ], [ "reports by both the World Bank and the Swiss Federal Council examined the concerns and came to the conclusion that bitcoin is not a Ponzi scheme. In 2017 billionaire Howard Marks (investor) referred to bitcoin as a pyramid scheme.\nOn 12 September 2017, Jamie Dimon, CEO of JP Morgan Chase, called bitcoin a \"fraud\" and said he would fire anyone in his firm caught trading it. Zero Hedge claimed that the same day Dimon made his statement, JP Morgan also purchased a large amount of bitcoins for its clients. Value forecasts Financial journalists and analysts, economists, and investors have attempted to", "-22.937665317207575" ], [ "as Ken Lay's Enron. El Paso had heavily leveraged itself to fuel sales into new markets for electricity, and concealed mounting debt from its balance sheet by writing off the debt to offshore subsidiary companies. In June 2003 Oscar Wyatt, along with El Paso investor Selim Zilkha, initiated a proxy fight to gain control of the El Paso Corporation and to wrestle control of the remaining assets, which included natural gas pipelines, exploration, and production assets. Since the merging and disclosing of corporate malfeasance by El Paso management, Its stock had fallen 87% from its February 2001 high of $75", "-22.909436470392393" ], [ "from another source. Buy-in management buyout (BIMBO) A buy-in management buyout is a combination of a management buy-in and a management buyout. In the case of a buy-in management buy-out, the team that buy out the company are a combination of existing managers, who retain a stake in the company, and individuals from outside the company who will join the management team following the buy-out. The term BIMBO was first used in respect of the purchase of Chaucer Foods, a Hull based crouton manufacturer, from Hazlewood Foods plc in 1990.", "-22.882494229474105" ], [ "leverage, especially leverage at investment banks, as an important feature of the financial crisis, it did not identify the 2004 net capital rule change as creating or permitting that leverage. The FCIC Report also noted the 18-month delay before all the CSE Holding Companies qualified for the CSE Program. While the FCIC Report did not draw any conclusion from this delay beyond including it in a general critique of the SEC's execution of the CSE Program, as described in Section 5.2 above the delay eliminates the 2004 rule change from playing a role in any increase in CSE Holding Company", "-22.859892917447723" ], [ "El Paso needed the cash to repay the mounting debt it had acquired from following the same business model as Ken Lay's Enron. El Paso had heavily leveraged itself to fuel sales into new markets for electricity, and concealed mounting debt from its balance sheet by writing off the debt to offshore subsidiary companies. In June 2003 Oscar Wyatt, along with El Paso investor Selim Zilkha, initiated a proxy fight to gain control of the El Paso Corporation and to wrestle control of the remaining assets, which included natural gas pipelines, exploration, and production assets. Since the merging and disclosing", "-22.812232432945166" ], [ "series of what they described as \"bootstrap\" investments. Many of these companies lacked a viable or attractive exit for their founders as they were too small to be taken public and the founders were reluctant to sell out to competitors and so a sale to a financial buyer could prove attractive. Their acquisition of Orkin Exterminating Company in 1964 is among the first significant leveraged buyout transactions. In the following years the three Bear Stearns bankers would complete a series of buyouts including Stern Metals (1965), Incom (a division of Rockwood International, 1971), Cobblers Industries (1971), and Boren Clay (1973)", "-22.811626661219634" ], [ "Baupost Group Risk It was reported that the Baupost Group does not use leverage in its investments with the exception of real estate where for every one dollar invested the Baupost Group used one dollar of leverage.\nIt was reported that Baupost CEO Seth Klarman explained in a speech to MIT students that investment research driven by emotion is risky and can lead to a bad investment. Performance From its founding the firm's three private partnerships have generated an average annual return of 19%. Investment history With the rise of distressed debt sales in Europe caused by the sovereign debt crisis", "-22.798213523899904" ], [ "of the beneficial owner of the share. There are no equivalent restrictions on the power of companies to issue bearer debt securities or bearer share warrants. Debt finance In addition to raising capital from their members by way of equity, Anguillan companies may raise capital by way of debt, either in the form of loans or by issuing debt securities. Companies are not required to file financing statements in Anguilla when borrowing money.\nWhere a creditor takes security from an IBC for the indebtedness of the company, the company may elect to opt into the public security registration regime.", "-22.792543861985905" ], [ "Bid rigging Economic Costs Many of the issues presented by bid rigging are the result of cartel involvement. Inefficient firms are not pushed out as they would in a competitive market, and firms experience more profit despite an inefficient allocation of resources. Cartels behave more like monopolies and as such their behaviors, such as bid rigging, create market inefficiencies as contracts are fulfilled at elevated values. Furthermore, bid prices increase with more repeated collusion. Ultimately this cost is typically borne by the taxpayer as government sponsored contracts are artificially above market value. Additionally, this can be thought of as raising", "-22.782182480790652" ], [ "\"racked up big profits\" trading the shares.\nMorgan's reputation in technology IPOs was \"in trouble\" after the Facebook offering. Underwriting equity offerings became an important part of Morgan's business after the financial crisis, generating $1.2 billion in fees since 2010. But by signing off on an offering price that was too high, or attempting to sell too many shares to the market, Morgan compounded problems, senior editor for CNN Money Stephen Gandel writes. According to Brad Hintz, an analyst at Sanford Bernstein, \"this is something that other banks will be able to use against them when competing for deals.\"", "-22.774713091086596" ], [ "USD, and gives the shares back to his prime broker. He thus ends up earning a return of . If his prime broker asked a 2% interest rate for borrowing the shares then the net gain of the manager is . Leverage Sometimes a strategy gives a positive return albeit a very small one. Therefore, a manager can use leverage to magnify his return. For example, a long-short manager can deposit 100M with his prime broker in order to buy 200M of shares and simultaneously sell another 200M of shares, which gives a leverage ratio of . As another example,", "-22.772418359993026" ], [ "refinancing deal was nearing completion as of 5 June 2013. However, on 4 June 2013, Billabong stated that it was unable to reach an agreement with US private equity funds Altamont Capital Partners and Sycamore Partners, 16 months after the first takeover move emerged.\nA media report published on 18 July 2013 conveyed that the takeover process had \"exploded into acrimony\", as two US hedge funds contested the offer from Altamont Partners that was accepted by the company on 16 July 2013. Acting together, the hedge funds claimed that they had made a superior offer to the one that was accepted,", "-22.762543016229756" ], [ "as well.\nLeveraged recapitalizations are used by privately held companies as a means of refinancing, generally to provide cash to the shareholders while not requiring a total sale of the company. Debt (in the form of bonds) has some advantages over equity as a way of raising money, since it can have tax benefits and can enforce a cash discipline. The reduction in equity also makes the firm less vulnerable to a hostile takeover.\nLeveraged recapitalizations can be used by public companies to increase earnings per share. The Capital structure substitution theory shows this only works for public companies that have an", "-22.696520496625453" ], [ "company. Illegal insider trading is believed to raise the cost of capital for securities issuers, thus decreasing overall economic growth.\nIn the United States and several other jurisdictions, trading conducted by corporate officers, key employees, directors, or significant shareholders (in the United States, defined as beneficial owners of ten percent or more of the firm's equity securities) must be reported to the regulator or publicly disclosed, usually within a few business days of the trade. Many investors follow the summaries of these insider trades in the hope that mimicking these trades will be profitable. While \"legal\" insider trading cannot be based", "-22.63343615694248" ], [ "the stock of a company that is the target of a takeover while shorting the stock of the acquiring company.\nUsually the market price of the target company is less than the price offered by the acquiring company.\nThe spread between these two prices depends mainly on the probability and the timing of the takeover being completed as well as the prevailing level of interest rates.\nThe bet in a merger arbitrage is that such a spread will eventually be zero, if and when the takeover is completed. The risk is that the deal \"breaks\" and the spread massively widens. Municipal bond", "-22.622344074523426" ], [ "capital stake was acquired by a consortium made up of Clayton, Dubilier & Rice, Eurazeo, and Merril Lynch Global Private Equity. Rexel delisted from Paris stock exchange on April 25, 2005.\nIn 2006, in addition to the 29 small and medium acquisitions made during this period, the group bought General Electric’s American distribution subsidiary, GE Supply, which it renamed Gexpro, becoming the sector's largest company in North America and Asia Pacific. Gexpro reinforced the group’s service business among industrial key accounts. In 2007, Rexel launched a joint takeover bid with the Sonepar Group for the Hagemeyer Group, which was the global", "-22.606975201517344" ], [ "to eliminate costs by building a larger combined company. Two years later, in 2000, Regal encountered significant financial issues and was forced to file for bankruptcy protection; the company passed to billionaire investor Philip Anschutz. 2000–2005 At the start of the 21st century, the landscape of large leveraged buyout firms was changing. Several large and storied firms, including Hicks Muse Tate & Furst and Forstmann Little & Company were dragged down by heavy losses in the bursting of the telecom bubble. Although, KKR's track record since RJR Nabisco was mixed, losses on such investments as Regal Entertainment Group, Spalding, Flagstar", "-22.593813251529355" ], [ "High leverage industries Some sectors, such as the financial sector, rely on high leverage to generate acceptable ROE. Other industries would see high levels of leverage as unacceptably risky. DuPont analysis enables third parties that rely primarily on their financial statements to compare leverage among similar companies.", "-22.5619723580312" ], [ "Direct public offering A Direct Public Offering (DPO) is a method by which a business can offer an investment opportunity directly to the public. Description A DPO is similar to an initial public offering (IPO) in that securities, such as stock or debt, are sold to investors, but unlike an IPO, a company uses a DPO to raise capital directly and without a \"firm underwriting\" from an investment banking firm or broker-dealer. A DPO may have a sponsoring FINRA broker, but the broker does not guarantee full subscription of the offering. In a DPO, the broker merely assures compliance with", "-22.556862664117943" ], [ "to the SEC, the practice of front-running may constitute insider trading.\nBy early November, investigations led to the resignation of the chairmen of Strong Mutual Funds and Putnam Investments, both major mutual fund companies. In the case of Strong, the chairman Richard Strong was charged with market-timing trading involving his own company's funds. In December, Invesco (market-timing) and Prudential Securities (widespread late trading) were added to the list of implicated fund companies. Settlements and trials Nearly all of the fund firms charged by Spitzer with allowing market timing or late trading had settled with his office and the SEC between", "-22.544092894517235" ], [ "how much risk it is prepared to take and will set a limit on how much leverage it will permit, and would require the acquired asset to be provided as collateral security for the loan. For example, for a residential property the finance provider may lend up to, say, 80% of the property's market value, for a commercial property it may be 70%, while on shares it may lend up to, say, 60% or none at all on certain volatile shares.\nLeveraging enables gains to be multiplied. On the other hand, losses are also multiplied, and there is a risk that", "-22.5360577768879" ], [ "loss with the bulk of the proceeds from the company's liquidation paid to the company's creditors.\nAlthough lower profile than their buyout counterparts, new leading venture capital firms were also formed including Institutional Venture Partners (IVP) in 1980, Draper Fisher Jurvetson (originally Draper Associates) in 1985 and Canaan Partners in 1987 among others. Corporate raiders, hostile takeovers and greenmail Although the \"corporate raider\" moniker is rarely applied to contemporary private equity investors, there is no formal distinction between a \"corporate raid\" and other private equity investments acquisitions of existing businesses. The label was typically ascribed by constituencies within the acquired company", "-22.51692359035951" ], [ "are no regulatory constraints on their use of leverage, and some hedge funds seek large amounts of leverage as part of their market strategy. The extensive use of leverage can lead to forced liquidations in a crisis, particularly for hedge funds that invest at least in part in illiquid investments. The close interconnectedness of the hedge funds with their prime brokers, typically investment banks, can lead to domino effects in a crisis, and indeed failing counterparty banks can freeze hedge funds. These systemic risk concerns are exacerbated by the prominent role of hedge funds in the financial markets. The global", "-22.48800181504339" ], [ "rates, loosening lending standards and regulatory changes for publicly traded companies (specifically the Sarbanes–Oxley Act) would set the stage for the largest boom private equity had seen. Marked by the buyout of Dex Media in 2002, large multibillion-dollar U.S. buyouts could once again obtain significant high yield debt financing and larger transactions could be completed. By 2004 and 2005, major buyouts were once again becoming common, including the acquisitions of Toys \"R\" Us, The Hertz Corporation, Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer and SunGard in 2005.\nAs 2005 ended and 2006 began, new \"largest buyout\" records were set and surpassed several times with nine of the", "-22.46570186765166" ], [ "as those combining a callable payoff, or a knockout clause, have also increased substantially with the ever changing market conditions. How do reverse convertibles work? They are short-term investments, typically with a one-year maturity. At maturity, the owner receives either 100% of their original investment or a predetermined number of shares of the underlying stock, in addition to the stated coupon payment. The owner's earning potential is limited to the security’s stated coupon, because he receives coupon payments regardless of the performance of the underlying reference shares. Risk potential is the same as for the underlying security, less the", "-22.464972422050778" ], [ "or debt financing), Crown Jewel maneuvers (selling off attractive assets at a discount to anyone except the acquirer) and similar. The main difference is that they are done to such an extreme that they threaten the company's livelihood. Companies attempting such maneuvers may thus find themselves insolvent, and in a position where they cannot resist continued takeover bids. The flip side is that the tactics reduce the company's value to potential buyers such that, unless the firm still possesses intangible assets (like a brand name or other intellectual property) that are valuable to the acquirer, the acquisition of this now-troubled", "-22.46299529691896" ], [ "strong signal to the market that they believe that the firm's equity is undervalued, which is proven by their willingness to pay above market price to repurchase the shares.\nCompany executive compensation is often affected by share buybacks. Part of their rewards may be tied to their ability to meet earnings per share targets. Moreover, all share buybacks enhance the value of promised shares in their share incentive schemes. Bhargava reported that stock options exercised by top executives increase future share repurchases by U.S. firms. Higher share repurchases, in turn, significantly lowered the research and development expenditures that are important for", "-22.446559182470082" ], [ "oil company's goal to pay its suppliers. As an investment Some Argentinians have bought bitcoins to protect their savings against high inflation or the possibility that governments could confiscate savings accounts. During the 2012–2013 Cypriot financial crisis, bitcoin purchases in Cyprus rose due to fears that savings accounts would be confiscated or taxed.\nOther methods of investment are bitcoin funds. The first regulated bitcoin fund was established in Jersey in July 2014 and approved by the Jersey Financial Services Commission. Also, c. 2012 an attempt was made by the Winklevoss twins (who in April 2013 claimed they owned nearly 1% of", "-22.428428624356457" ] ]

[ "As others have posted here, not just humans but many animals tend to birth one offspring, while many others have lots of babies at one time. As a species you can adopt one of two strategies: you can have lots of babies so that even if some die, others will hopefully survive to the age where they can reproduce. The disadvantage of this is that you have to spread your love around - you can't spend as much time and attention on each one as you could if you had fewer kids. The other strategy is to have few babies, and pour as much time, love and attention to them as possible to ensure they will survive. These two strategies are known as [r/K selection theory]( URL_0 ). Species like fruit-flies that have tons of kids are r-selected. This is generally a better strategy in an unstable environment. Humans, cows and others that normally have one kid at a time are K-selected. This strategy is better in a more stable environment, where you can expect to live long enough to reproduce again later in life.", "Lots of animals have single offspring at a time. Most larger hoofed mammals as well as many apex predators and larger primates typically have single births.", "Among other things, the way our hips are built. Being bipedal, our hips bear a lot of weight from our body. To compensate for the increased stress as compared to other animals, female birth canals are much smaller. This means that human births are comparatively more painful, traumatic, and dangerous than the births of other animals. Since even one at a time can create massive trauma, multiple births at one time could easily be lethal. This likely created a very strong selective pressure for women who did not have multiple births at once, since they could have more children over time than their rivals, who would be much more likely to die and thus have fewer total offspring.", "In general, it has to do with survivability. Single births mean the parent has more time for that individual. Multiple births mean less time per offspring. Each individual offspring therefore has a lower chance of survival, but as a group, there is a good chance that at least one will survive. Seems like the larger mammals tend to have single births. For example, polar bears and elephants usually have single births. But that doesn't always equate to larger offspring. Polar bear cubs are exceptionally small at birth. I'm not positive, but I'm thinking ounces. They are also denned up at the time of birth though and are a more decent size by the time they emerge. Elephant calves are a couple hundred pounds at birth. Larger size at birth or by the time they emerge from the den and risk encountering predators also helps with survivability.", "It's because of our development. Lots of animals are exactly the opposite for them it's just spray and pray they simply produce hundreds or thousands of offspring and hope a few make it. For example sea turtles you see the hatchlings running down the beach and most of them don't make it, but they have so many hatchlings that it keeps the species going. There's no parental involvement the young are independent from day one. Higher mammals are different it takes us a long time to mature. This is especially true for humans because of our brain development. So we have one or two offspring at a time but invest massive time and resources into raising them.", "It's a matter of resource management. Some species dedicate more resources to few offspring to give better odds of survival. Other species dedicate fewer resources to more spawn and count on the survival of some to carry on the legacy. Evidence of this, species with fewer offspring tend to have longer gestation periods and care for their offspring longer after birth while those that produce more spawn tend to leave their spawn sooner. Also, those that invest more resources tend to have offspring that take longer to mature into independence while those that have more offspring tend to develop more quickly." ]

[ [ "There are a wide range of reproductive strategies employed by different species. Some animals, such as the human and northern gannet, do not reach sexual maturity for many years after birth and even then produce few offspring. Others reproduce quickly; but, under normal circumstances, most offspring do not survive to adulthood. For example, a rabbit (mature after 8 months) can produce 10–30 offspring per year, and a fruit fly (mature after 10–14 days) can produce up to 900 offspring per year. These two main strategies are known as K-selection (few offspring) and r-selection (many offspring). Which strategy is favoured by", "-36.98704585456289" ], [ "in both sexes has occurred many times in plants, invertebrates, and fish. It is rare in mammals because mammals have obligate maternal care due to internal fertilization and incubation of offspring and nursing young after birth, which requires high maternal survival rate after fertilization and offspring weaning. Also, female mammals have relatively low reproductive rate compared to invertebrates or fish because they invest a lot of energy in maternal care. However, male reproductive rate is much less constrained in mammals because only females bear young. Males that die after one mating season can still produce a large number of offspring if he invests", "-36.768067522745696" ], [ "females in a population due to greater life expectancy of the male (about five years more) and in the wild a higher chance of the female being predated. One reason for the difference in life span is that producing eggs is extremely metabolically taxing, and since female birds are nearly constantly producing eggs (even when they are not fertilized, just like domestic chickens do) this can end up totaling to a large metabolic tax on the female's survival. In captivity, males remain fertile to an age of 17–18 years, females to an age of 10–11 years. Feeding in the wild", "-36.0409248590513" ], [ "in raising offspring. These pairs may last for a lifetime, such as in pigeons, or it may occasionally change from one mating season to another, such as in emperor penguins. In contrast with tournament species, these pair-bonding species have lower levels of male aggression, competition and little sexual dimorphism. Zoologists and biologists now have evidence that monogamous pairs of animals are not always sexually exclusive. Many animals that form pairs to mate and raise offspring regularly engage in sexual activities with extra-pair partners. This includes previous examples, such as swans. Sometimes, these extra-pair sexual activities lead to offspring. Genetic tests", "-36.004014106253635" ], [ "for offspring is rather rare in some taxa of species. This is because males may increase their fitness by searching for multiple mates. Females are limited in fitness by their fecundity, so multiple mating does not affect their fitness to the same extent. Males have the opportunity to find a new mate earlier than females when there is internal fertilization or the females exhibit the majority of the care for the offspring. When males are shown to care for offspring as well as females, it is referred to as bi-parental care.\nBi-parental care may occur when there is a lower chance", "-35.76091616685153" ], [ "mammals that give birth. Some reptiles, amphibians, fish and invertebrates carry their developing young inside them. Some of these are ovoviviparous, with the eggs being hatched inside the mother's body, and others are viviparous, with the embryo developing inside her body, as in mammals. Mammals Large mammals, such as primates, cattle, horses, some antelopes, giraffes, hippopotamuses, rhinoceroses, elephants, seals, whales, dolphins, and porpoises, generally are pregnant with one offspring at a time, although they may have twin or multiple births on occasion. In these large animals, the birth process is similar to that of a human, though in most the", "-35.7348576174918" ], [ "make sure they have at least one female to produce their offspring simply because there are not as many females present. If these females are only able to mate one time, they need to develop this larger clutch size to ensure that their genes are passed down from the surviving of her first clutch. Females that consumed a small supplement of dietary essential amino acids produced offspring that survived simulated overwintering conditions significantly longer than offspring of other treatments. Hence, our results suggest that dietary essential amino acids, which may be sequestered by males from their diet, could be valuable", "-35.615192223767735" ], [ "Multiple birth A multiple birth is the culmination of one multiple pregnancy, wherein the mother delivers two or more offspring. A term most applicable to vertebrate species, multiple births occur in most kinds of mammals, with varying frequencies. Such births are often named according to the number of offspring, as in twins and triplets. In non-humans, the whole group may also be referred to as a litter, and multiple births may be more common than single births. Multiple births in humans are the exception and can be exceptionally rare in the largest mammals.\nA multiple pregnancy may be the result of", "-35.57775164535269" ], [ "between the populations will produce hybrids, which may or may not be fertile. If the hybrids are infertile, or fertile but less fit than their ancestors, then there will be further reproductive isolation and speciation has essentially occurred (e.g., as in horses and donkeys).\nThe reasoning behind this is that if the parents of the hybrid offspring each have naturally selected traits for their own certain environments, the hybrid offspring will bear traits from both, therefore would not fit either ecological niche as well as either parent. The low fitness of the hybrids would cause selection to favor assortative mating, which", "-35.461991830969055" ], [ "all year around, however they will most likely not mate if they are already caring for an infant. Parental care A traditional view of multi-male primate groups is held that males provide relatively little direct care to infants, possibly as a result of the low confidence of paternity that is associated with this relatively promiscuous breeding system. In the last five years this view has changed however, as a result of a careful documentation of intimate male-infant affiliations in certain species, especially the savanna-dwelling baboons (Papio spp.). Recent field studies of baboons suggest that male-infant relationships are mediated", "-35.16463284202473" ], [ "together from a young age, determining if the female is willing to breed with the male is difficult. Hybrids Of the five species kept commonly as pets, only Campbell's dwarf hamster and winter white hamsters are able to interbreed and produce live hybrid offspring. Although hybrids make suitable pets, the breeding of hybrids and cloning can cause health and reproduction problems. In addition, the widespread breeding and distribution of hybrids could threaten the existence of both pure species and subspecies of the ecosystem, resulting in only mongrels. Hybridizing causes each litter to become smaller and the young begin to form", "-35.0434647954753" ], [ "currently no proof that it ever happened in the wild.\nDuring observation at the start of the 1990s captive hybrids did not show the same breeding pattern like \"pure\" dingoes and many testicle-parameters did not show the same seasonal variations. Furthermore, they had bigger litters and some were able to reproduce over the whole year. Concerning the duration of the pregnancy there was no evidence for any differences.\nAlthough hybrids may have a weight up to 60 kg (supposedly even up to 70 kg), most hybrids do not weigh more than 20 kg, which is considered to be within the normal range for dingoes. Furthermore,", "-34.99507950586121" ], [ "male may be more likely to copulate when the female is at peak fertility. Nonetheless, there is evidence that dominant males do tend to avoid breeding with their own daughters who are members of the troop. Such avoidance is rare among New World primates.\nCopulation takes about 2 minutes, and the gestation period is 5 to 6 months. Usually a single young is born, but twins occur occasionally. Most births occur during the dry season from December to April. The infant is carried across its mother's back for about 6 weeks. After about 4 to", "-34.99281741862069" ], [ "health problems, due to inherited diseases. Because genetic information can be very similar, genetic health problems or vulnerabilities can easily be inherited by the offspring. The widespread breeding and distribution of hybrids could threaten the existence of both pure species and subspecies of the ecosystem. This could ultimately lead to the extinction of the subspecies. Each litter becomes smaller as more generations are produced and the young commonly begin to inherit many congenital problems.\nThe two species of Phodopus hamsters (P. sungorus and P. campbelli) have the same number of chromosomes, and the chromosomes are similar in terms of size and", "-34.9925517853917" ], [ "portion of food with the juveniles. When group size is large, the breeding male often spends less time attending to his own young because of the universal group effort. When there is sufficient food, or if the dominant female is close to the end of her reproductive cycle, multiple females may be allowed to reproduce in a group.\nA number of mating variations have been observed: monogamy, polygyny, polyandry, or polygynandy. Lifetime reproduction Ovulation in female tamarins typically occurs between 12 and 17 months of age, whereas in male tamarins, sperm production occurs slightly later at about 13 to 18 months.", "-34.9407343224193" ], [ "other than one's mate, occurs occasionally, with females usually soliciting it. Extra-pair parentage is relatively rare in the wild, accounting for about 2% of young. Attempts at forced extra-pair copulations by males occur frequently (about 43.8% of the time in one study); but, females can always successfully resist forced copulations if they so choose.\nThere are multiple hypotheses as to why extra-pair copulation might have evolved. One theory is the good genes theory, which states that a female chooses extra-pair copulation if the extra-pair male grants its offspring direct benefits as a result of the male's alleles. There are results that", "-34.92064197969012" ], [ "example, in the cichlid species Variabilichromis moorii, a monogamous pair will care for eggs and young together, but the eggs may not all be fertilized by the male giving the care. Monogamy in mammals is rather rare, only occurring in 3-9% of these species. A larger percentage of avian species are known to have monogamous relationships (about 90%), but most avian species practice social but not genetic monogamy in contrast to what was previously assumed by researchers. Monogamy is quite rare in fish and amphibians, but not unheard of, appearing in a select few species. Social monogamy Social monogamy refers", "-34.895981386529456" ], [ "teeth and tongues, and, as a result, have been reported to suffer less with infestation by ticks than animals such as wildebeest, that groom less often. Reproduction Breeding occurs throughout the year, although young are more commonly born in the dry season than at other times. Males may form territories within which they attempt to control females, and prevent other males from mating, but this tactic meets with only limited success, so that even non-territorial males have some chance at mating. Single young are born after a gestation period of around nine months, and weigh between 9 and 10 kg (20", "-34.835193895771226" ], [ "are considered different species, often because they can no longer successfully reproduce with one another. This process is intuitive for conspicuous examples such as ring species, wherein a population splits due to a geographical barrier such as a mountain range, leading to allopatric populations. However why species diverge when their geographic ranges overlap (sympatric speciation) is less understood.\nThe sister species Drosophila subquinaria and Drosophila recens overlap in geographic range and are capable of hybridization, meaning they can successfully reproduce with each other; however the offspring are very sickly. Thus, these two species are almost fully reproductively isolated, despite overlapping in", "-34.76393263529462" ], [ "or they may have been hunted and followed a prey pathway, or both. Post-domestication gene flow As agricultural societies migrated away from the domestication centers taking their domestic partners with them, they encountered populations of wild animals of the same or sister species. Because domestics often shared a recent common ancestor with the wild populations, they were capable of producing fertile offspring. Domestic populations were small relative to the surrounding wild populations, and repeated hybridizations between the two eventually led to the domestic population becoming more genetically divergent from its original domestic source population.\nAdvances in DNA sequencing technology allow the", "-34.72394135012655" ], [ "specific genes, epigenetics and other factors are known to determine whether individuals will permanently be unable to breed or able to reach reproductive maturity under particular social conditions, and cooperatively breeding fish, birds and mammals in which a breeding pair depends on helpers whose reproduction is suppressed for the survival of their own offspring. In eusocial and cooperatively breeding animals most non-reproducing helpers engage in kin selection, enhancing their own inclusive fitness by ensuring the survival of offspring they are closely related to. Wolf packs suppress subordinate breeding. Food shortages (resource availability) Female mammals experience delays in the onset of", "-34.71540926389207" ], [ "give birth to litters that consist of one male and five females, and the \"mates\" always die after reproducing because of torrential bleeding from the places where the six fetuses were attached; this gives a population multiplication of 5 per generation if all females live to adolescence and reproduce. Females reach puberty while still hardly out of childhood, and typically experience sex only once in the lifetime – leading to pregnancy and death at birth-giving.\nThus, in Minervan society male dominance seems truly determined by a biological imperative – though it takes different forms in various Minervan societies: in some females", "-34.4295194108563" ], [ "with Haldane's rule: in hybrids of animals whose sex is determined by sex chromosomes, if one sex is absent, rare or sterile, it is the heterogametic sex (the one with two different sex chromosomes e.g. X and Y).\nAccording to Wild Cats of the World (1975) by C. A. W. Guggisberg, ligers and tigons were long thought to be sterile; however, in 1943, a fifteen-year-old hybrid between a lion and an 'Island' tiger was successfully mated with a lion at the Munich Hellabrunn Zoo. The female cub, though of delicate health, was raised to adulthood.\nIn September 2012, the Russian Novosibirsk Zoo", "-34.4123843401685" ], [ "that a single female (e.g., the queen bee) or caste produces offspring while the other organisms (e.g., worker bees) cooperate in caring for the young. Examples of mammalian eusociality include Damaraland mole-rats and naked mole-rats, among whom polyandry is the norm and polygyny has never been observed. Polyandry and infanticide avoidance Infanticide avoidance is one of the major reason animals, like mammals, are inclined to choose polyandry. Infanticide is observed to be the major cause of mortality in various mammals. Polyandry is thought to evolve from their offspring's vulnerability to infanticide. There is evidence that polyandry is an effective strategy", "-34.388239386767964" ], [ "a polygynous breeding system with only one reproductive male tend to have smaller deme sizes. Interbreeding between small demes is rare due to these factors. Furthermore, alleles fixate more rapid in smaller demes. Small demes could, therefore, become genetically distinct from each other.\nPrimates, for example, have the second highest speciation rate among mammals, with one speciation event per lineage every 3 million years. However, not all primate species have a high speciation rate; this is reflected in their deme size and social structure. Geunons (Cercopithecus), for example, live together in small polygynous troops and are a quite diverse genus. On", "-34.38547364158876" ], [ "low heterozygosity – the original wild caught founder birds were few, closely related in the wild and intensively inbred in captivity – resulting in infertility, and high rate of embryo deaths (at AWWP, only one in six eggs laid is fertile; only two-thirds of those hatch).\nFor unknown reasons, originally suspected to be bloodline related, captive specimens seemed to have delayed sexual maturity. The youngest pairs to lay fertile eggs were 10 years of age. Other captive breeding issues are that, possibly because of inbreeding, many more hens than cocks are hatched, at least twice as many.\nAll or nearly all hatched", "-34.376362407529086" ], [ "infanticidal males. Infanticide in one-male groups has been studied in the Virungas population of mountain gorillas. Inbreeding Another cost of living in one-male social groups is that there is a high occurrence of inbreeding. This means that closely related individuals can mate and produce offspring. This results in decreasing genetic diversity with subsequent generations of the species. For example, inbreeding has been studied in one-male groups of sun-tailed monkeys (Cercopithecus solatus). In this study, the time between two births for females increased when an inbred offspring was born. This suggests that there could be increased maternal costs with giving birth", "-34.3761342737489" ], [ "encountered. Within their group, individuals only acquire breeding positions when the opposite-sex breeder is unrelated.\nCooperative breeding in birds typically occurs when offspring, usually males, delay dispersal from their natal group in order to remain with the family to help rear younger kin. Female offspring rarely stay at home, dispersing over distances that allow them to breed independently, or to join unrelated groups. Parthenogenesis Parthenogenesis is a natural form of reproduction in which growth and development of embryos occur without fertilization.\nReproduction in squamate reptiles is ordinarily sexual, with males having a ZZ pair of sex determining chromosomes, and females a ZW", "-34.3013538599007" ], [ "because the benefits of multiple-mating may have been balanced by the costs of increased predation and risk to disease transmission. The benefits of multiple-mating also decline as it becomes more numerous in the population. Another suggested possibility is that some queens are unable to find a second mate and remain singly-mated. Female preference It was observed in F. truncorum that when two males had their ability to sire offspring compared, one of the two would consistently create more progeny. In spite of this, there was no evidence to support the idea that one male would be particularly better at creating", "-34.24291722387352" ], [ "animals have no distinct breeding season, and females generally have about 1 to 3 young. The gestation period is 104 to 120 days. On average, it takes 20 weeks for the young to be weaned. They live in pairs or family groups of the parents and little ones. They need large areas for food, breeding, and territory. It is hard to keep the animal in captivity for that reason. Most animals in the family Dasyproctidae mate once or twice, and this is presumed to be true for this species as well. This species", "-34.16070491832215" ], [ "species may be unable to interbreed to produce viable offspring. As a result, breeding could not occur anywhere except natal island, strengthening philopatry and ultimately leading to even greater genetic divergence. Cooperative breeding Philopatric species that do not migrate may evolve to breed cooperatively. Kin selection, of which cooperative breeding is a form, explains how individual offspring provide care for further offspring produced by their relatives. Animals that are philopatric to birthsites have increased association with family members, and, in situations where inclusive fitness is increased through cooperative breeding, may evolve such behaviour, as it will incur evolutionary benefits to", "-34.109736500166036" ], [ "factors throughout that animal's life cycle. For instance, with many species of bear, the female will often drive a male off soon after mating, and will later guard her cubs from him. It is thought that this may be due to the fact that too many bears close to one another may deplete the food available to the relatively small but growing cubs. Monogamy may be social but rarely genetic. For example, in the cichlid species Variabilichromis moorii, a monogamous pair will care for their eggs and young but the eggs are not all fertilized by the", "-34.07638241088716" ], [ "as mating opportunities. In invertebrates, there is no parental care in most species because it is more favorable for parents to produce a large number of eggs whose fate is left to chance than to protect a few individual young. For example, female L. figueresi die after stocking their larvae's cells with pollen and nectar and before their larvae hatch. In birds, biparental care is the most common, because reproductive success directly depends on the parents' ability to feed their chicks. Two parents can feed twice as many young, so it is more favorable for birds to have both parents", "-34.058552741228596" ], [ "be killed. In 2014, the culling of a young, healthy giraffe Marius raised an international public controversy.\nZoos sometimes consider female animals to be more desirable than males. One reason for this is that while individual males can contribute to the birth of many young in a short period of time, females give birth to only a few young and are pregnant for a relatively long period of time. This makes it possible to keep many females with just one or two males, but not the reverse. Another reason is that the birth of some animal species increases public interest in", "-34.02502965054191" ], [ "if there are predators in the vicinity. Extra-pair mating and fertilisation is fairly common, with 23% of nestlings and 37% of broods having a different father to the one rearing them, and there is some evidence that extra-pair couplings are more likely to produce male birds.\nLike all passerines, the chicks are altricial; they are born blind and covered only by a thin layer of down. By seven days, they are stretching wings and preening, and at two weeks they are able to fly. Parents feed young for at least three weeks after leaving the nest, and have been recorded giving", "-33.85932431081892" ], [ "can mate only after four years of age. On the contrary barbary sheep females may give birth to offspring even before they have gained sexual maturity. The delay in male sexual maturation is more visible in sexually dimorphic species, particularly the reduncines, probably due to competition among males. For instance, the blue wildebeest females become capable of reproduction within a year or two of birth, while the males become mature only when four years old.\nAll bovids mate at least once a year, and smaller species may even mate twice. Mating seasons occur typically during the rainy months for most bovids.", "-33.84724122233456" ], [ "in social behaviour and habitats have historically prevented interspecific hybridisation, but it may occur when both species are confined within the same area, and the offspring are usually fertile. A study of these hybrid animals at Spioenkop Dam Nature Reserve in South Africa revealed that many had congenital abnormalities relating to their teeth, horns, and the Wormian bones of the skull. Another study reported an increase in the size of the hybrid as compared to either of its parents. In some hybrid animals, the auditory bullae are highly deformed, and in others, the radius and ulna are fused. Genetics and", "-33.846442000882234" ], [ "Mammalian reproduction Most mammals are viviparous, giving birth to live young. However, the five species of monotreme, the platypuses and the echidnas, lay eggs. The monotremes have a sex determination system different from that of most other mammals. In particular, the sex chromosomes of a platypus are more like those of a chicken than those of a therian mammal.\nThe mammary glands of mammals are specialized to produce milk, a liquid used by newborns as their primary source of nutrition. The monotremes branched early from other mammals and do not have the teats seen in most mammals, but they do", "-33.828198408384196" ], [ "one breeding season resulting in differential fertilization success among males. In birds, the last male to inseminate the female usually fertilizes the highest proportion of eggs because by the time fertilization occurs, the oldest spermatozoa have been lost. This is known as last male sperm precedence. The best strategy for increasing the likelihood of extra pair fertilization is to time the copulation close to the onset of female oviposition.\nMany male adaptations, both offensive and defensive, have been selected for due to this phenomenon in a variety of avian species. Some offensive adaptations include variable sperm morphology, testes size as", "-33.82724595145919" ], [ "vasectomies just before mating season. The male birds behaved like they do every season, establishing territory, finding a mate, and attempting to make baby birds. Despite apparent social monogamy, the female birds whose partners were surgically altered still became pregnant, indicating that overt social monogamy did not predict for sexual fidelity. These babies were cared for by their sterile adoptive fathers.\nThe highest known frequency of reproductively successful extra-pair copulations are found among fairywrens\nMalurus splendens and Malurus cyaneus where more than 65 percent of chicks are fathered by males outside the supposed breeding pair. This discordantly low level of genetic monogamy", "-33.82125684740822" ], [ "for M. paulensis, with more mating occurring when there is a larger food supply. For this species, death occurred after every mating event was completed. This ensured that there was no more than one mating event for each animal that reproduced. Successful breeding depends on the presence of females, and many may have multiple mating partners in order to produce more offspring if they do not die after one event. The M. paulensis species have higher breeding rates when the length of day is longer and there is more fruit available to eat. Semelparity also was found to occur in", "-33.81858860269722" ], [ "differing mating behaviour at different cycle stages. An analysis of 121 studies with female birds showed that most mate outside their pair bond at a higher rate when fertile, especially when the primary partner possesses indicators of low quality genes. During infertile phases, birds showed reductions in this behaviour, suggesting that the function of extended female sexuality is not to increase the genetic quality of offspring. In humans, females show increased motivation for mating with other males at mid-cycle without an accompanying increase in copulation with their long term partner, especially if the partner was less physically attractive. Hrdy's hypothesis", "-33.810861159250635" ], [ "many as five litters in a year, but six is theoretically possible. Unlike the offspring of most rodents, which are altricial at birth, newborn cavy pups are precocial, and are well-developed with hair, teeth, claws, and partial eyesight. The pups are immediately mobile and begin eating solid food immediately, though they continue to suckle. Females can once again become pregnant 6–48 hours after giving birth, but it is not healthy for a female to be constantly pregnant.\nThe gestation period lasts from 59 days (1.9 months) to 72 days (2.4 months), with an average of 63–68 days. Because of the", "-33.80529517386458" ], [ "renders small populations more susceptible to the challenges mentioned above. \nIn a small population, over successive generations and without gene flow, the probability of mating with close relatives becomes very high, leading to inbreeding depression - a reduction in fitness of the population. The reduced fitness of the offspring of closely-related individuals is fundamentally tied to the concept of heterozygosity, as the offspring of these kinds of pairings are, by necessity, less heterozygous (more homozygous) across their whole genomes than outbred individuals. A diploid individual with the same maternal and paternal grandfather, for example, will have a", "-33.774793257685815" ], [ "even man-made structures such as the Great Wall of China, which has hindered the flow of plant genes.\nDepending on how far two species have diverged since their most recent common ancestor, it may still be possible for them to produce offspring, as with horses and donkeys mating to produce mules. Such hybrids are generally infertile, due to the two different sets of chromosomes being unable to pair up during meiosis. In this case, closely related species may regularly interbreed, but hybrids will be selected against and the species will remain distinct. However, viable hybrids are occasionally formed and these new", "-33.73444712344076" ], [ "mating; these sometimes result in hybrid speciation. Intergeneric hybrids result from matings between different genera, such as between sheep and goats. Interfamilial hybrids, such as between chickens and guineafowl or pheasants, are reliably described but extremely rare. Interordinal hybrids (between different orders) are few, but have been made with the sea urchin Strongylocentrotus purpuratus (female) and the sand dollar Dendraster excentricus (male). Expression of parental traits When two distinct types of organisms breed with each other, the resulting hybrids typically have intermediate traits (e.g., one plant parent has red flowers, the other has white, and the hybrid, pink flowers). Commonly,", "-33.71386361402256" ], [ "and females disperse locally, they move outside the range where genetically related individuals are likely to be encountered. Within their group, individuals only acquire breeding positions when the opposite-sex breeder is unrelated.\nCooperative breeding in birds typically occurs when offspring, usually males, delay dispersal from their natal group in order to remain with the family to help rear younger kin. Female offspring rarely stay at home, dispersing over distances that allow them to breed independently, or to join unrelated groups. In general, inbreeding is avoided because it leads to a reduction in progeny fitness (inbreeding depression) due largely to the", "-33.6923925050105" ], [ "their own eggs due to feeling insecure in the nest box.\nSometimes, budgerigars (mainly males) are not interested in the opposite sex, and will not reproduce with them; a flock setting—several pairs housed where they can see and hear each other—is necessary to stimulate breeding. Chick health Breeding difficulties arise for various reasons. Some chicks may die from diseases and attacks from adults. Other budgerigars (virtually always females) may fight over the nest box, attacking each other or a brood. Another problem may be the birds' beaks being under-lapped, where the lower mandible is above the upper mandible.\nMost health issues and", "-33.66103096102597" ], [ "the Pleistocene.\nGestation in great apes lasts 8–9 months, and results in the birth of a single offspring, or, rarely, twins. The young are born helpless, and require care for long periods of time. Compared with most other mammals, great apes have a remarkably long adolescence, not being weaned for several years, and not becoming fully mature for eight to thirteen years in most species (longer in humans). As a result, females typically give birth only once every few years. There is no distinct breeding season.\nThe gorillas and the common chimpanzee live in family groups of around five to ten individuals,", "-33.65917367552174" ], [ "i.e. copulation outside the pair bond). Although there are ecological and demographic constraints on extra pair matings, 43% of broods produced by incestuously paired females contained extra pair young. In general, inbreeding is avoided because it leads to a reduction in progeny fitness (inbreeding depression) largely due to the homozygous expression of deleterious recessive alleles. Diet and foraging The species is mainly insectivorous. Birds consume a range of small invertebrates such as beetles, ants, bugs, wasps, grasshoppers, moths, larvae, and spiders, and small quantities of seeds. They forage for their prey amongst foliage and in the leaf litter on the", "-33.6472494486552" ], [ "species that engage in extra-pair copulations will closely guard their mates to ensure the parentage of the offspring that they raise.\nOther mating systems, including polygyny, polyandry, polygamy, polygynandry, and promiscuity, also occur. Polygamous breeding systems arise when females are able to raise broods without the help of males. Some species may use more than one system depending on the circumstances.\nBreeding usually involves some form of courtship display, typically performed by the male. Most displays are rather simple and involve some type of song. Some displays, however, are quite elaborate. Depending on the species, these may include wing or tail drumming,", "-33.592282870042254" ], [ "male, and possibly up to nine, resulting in a brood of offspring with multiple paternities. Polyandrous mating is more likely among smaller males, as large males can monopolize and dominate the female during amplexus. This does not appear to be beneficial, as the efficiency of the sperm does not differ significantly in terms of sperm number, size, motility, and longevity between large and small males. Furthermore, when a single male mates with a female, there is a 90–95% chance that fertilization will be successful, while there is only a 64% chance of success when three to five males mate with", "-33.562832578856614" ], [ "are also witnessed in some populations, by females copulating with extra-pair males (EPP- extra pair paternity), or males copulating with extra pair females, who then lay their eggs in the male's nest (QP- quasi-parasitism). A theory as to why such EPC's occur is that this mechanism evolved to avoid the deleterious effects of inbreeding. This is supported by a study by Blomqvist et al., showing that EPC's are more common when a breeding pair are more closely related to each other. Another theory is that females may seek out EPC's with high quality males to get the ‘good genes’ for", "-33.520183599910524" ], [ "provide a greater parental investment to offspring, than males. Human males have a larger quantity of gametes than females, which are replenished at a rate of approximately 12 million per hour. Conversely, female humans are born with a fixed amount of egg cells which are not restocked over the lifespan. This provides males with a greater window of opportunity to mate and reproduce than females, hence females are usually more choosy.\nDespite not being the typically choosy gender, human males can be influenced by certain traits of females when making decisions about a potential mate: Parasite stress on mate choice The", "-33.43176874647179" ], [ "Females in an estrous cycle attract males with a loud whistle. Females reproduce every 12–18 months and have a six-month gestation. Because they are not seasonal breeders, females could become pregnant when their offspring are approximately 6 months old, making possible for females to produce two offspring per year. Females typically give birth to a single offspring, although twins rarely occur. This differs from the sympatric pygmy slow loris, which commonly has twins. The mother carries her young about three months before they become independent, although they may be temporarily left on branches while the mother searches for food. Sexual maturity", "-33.422745558091265" ], [ "preventing infanticide. Thus, if the female can successfully create paternity confusion, males will be less likely to kill her offspring, as the lack of paternity certainty means that they run the risk of killing their own genetic offspring. Additionally, the males, in turn, are likely to protect the same female's offspring from infanticide that may be committed by other adults within the species. Once again, this is because they are uncertain about paternity, and aim to protect infants that are genetically their own. Paternity confusion in primates Researchers have analysed the behaviour of chimpanzees, with particular reference to copulation calling.", "-33.404814697425536" ], [ "there is some circumstantial evidence that mixed-species copulations may pose a danger for both male and female humans.\nAs Newcomers have been known to adapt quickly to new environments, it has been theorized that the ability to interbreed with humans is only a matter of time. When a deformed Newcomer girl was publicized as a hybrid, outrage from both human Purist and Newcomer communities was naturally triggered, with both sides fearing that interbreeding would lead to pollution of their respective species' gene pools.\nIn the 8th and final novel of the series, Cross of Blood, it was confirmed that Humans and", "-33.40383651022421" ], [ "mating for behavioral traits allows for more efficient communication between the individuals and they can cooperate better to raise their offspring.\nOn the other hand, mating between individuals of genotypes which are too similar allows for the accumulation of harmful recessive alleles, which can decrease fitness. Such mating between genetically similar individuals is termed inbreeding which can result in the emergence of autosomal recessive disorders. Moreover, assortative mating for aggression in birds can lead to inadequate parental care. An alternate strategy can be disassortative mating, in which one individual is aggressive and guards the nest site while the other individual is", "-33.39778065242717" ], [ "a few days. There have been cases of human pregnancies that started out with ten, eleven, twelve or fifteen fetuses, but no instances of live births. The pregnancies of the 10, 11 and 15 fetuses have all resulted from fertility medications and assisted reproductive technology (ART). However, there has been one documented case when 12 fetuses were conceived naturally. Premature birth and low birth weight Babies born from multiple-birth pregnancies are much more likely to result in premature birth than those from single pregnancies. 51% of twins and 91% of triplets are born preterm, compared to 9.4% in singletons.", "-33.38961744154585" ], [ "promiscuous mating system, have large testes compared to other primates. Gorillas, which have a polygynous mating system, have smaller testes than other primates. Humans, which have a socially monogamous mating system, have moderately sized testes. The moderate amounts of sexual non-monogamy in humans may result in a low to moderate amount of sperm competition. Monogamy as a best response In species where the young are particularly vulnerable and may benefit from protection by both parents, monogamy may be an optimal strategy. Monogamy tends to also occur when populations are small and dispersed. This is not conductive to polygamous behavior as", "-33.38871409583953" ], [ "correlation found between the two as well. In times where there was more food, there was more milk produced by the females. As far as the males, they seem to generally disappear after the mating event while the females remain in the area until their young are done weaning. This pattern leads to the generations being replaced every breeding season due to mortality of the adults. Overall, there is not much known about the reproductive patterns of the other species due to the little knowledge collected on the genus as a whole. There is a lack of pouch. Species-specific information", "-33.35132824376342" ], [ "monogamous species that is thought to mate for life and lives in groups that usually consist of two to seven members; an adult pair and up to five young. Multi-male groups have also been recorded. Offspring are carried by the male, and are always with them, except when feeding. Between the ages of two to four years, offspring will disperse from the natal group, with females leaving earlier than the males.\nThere is a strong bond between the adult mating pair, they stay close and carry out activities together. Either member of the pair may follow the other and leadership changes", "-33.33921224028745" ], [ "tissue and is lodged along one of two long uteri instead of the single uterus found in a human female.\nDevelopment at birth varies considerably among animals, and even among mammals. Altricial species are relatively helpless at birth and require considerable parental care and protection. In contrast, precocial animals are born with open eyes, have hair or down, have large brains, and are immediately mobile and somewhat able to flee from, or defend themselves against, predators. Primates are precocial at birth, with the exception of humans.\nThe duration of gestation in placental mammals varies from 18 days in jumping mice to 23", "-33.290335039331694" ], [ "over a number of matings, but then stops, suggesting an environmental cause. Incidences of the condition have been reported in many litters that were repeat matings of previously healthy litters; matings repeated after the incidence of FCKS do not produce flat kittens any more frequently than non-repeat matings; recovered FCKS that have been bred from have likewise not necessarily produced offspring that suffered from the condition, but numbers in this category are obviously low. It is possible that some lines in which the queens provide excessive milk may lead to colic-related FCKS in the kittens, leading to the supposition of", "-33.27379503034899" ], [ "of a colony. Each individual has a role that benefits the colony as a whole. The gonozooids that produce the gametes can sexually reproduce. As the whole colony is genetically identical, it is not necessary for each polyp to individually reproduce, allowing more energy and resources to be used for other tasks such as feeding and defense. Sexual/Asexual reproduction frequencies In certain animals, stressful environments have been known to lead to an increase in gonozooid frequencies. Higher gonozooid frequencies lead to more sexual reproduction and thus more offspring being genetically different from their parents. The resulting higher genetic variance increases", "-33.273792449370376" ], [ "not care much for each other and their sole purpose of even associating with the opposite sex is for reproduction. Social behaviors are not very common and they even have separate nests. The one or two young are well developed at birth; they are able to run within a few hours.\nFemale elephant shrews undergo a menstrual cycle similar to that of human females and the species is one of the few nonprimate mammals to do so. The elephant shrew mating period lasts for several days. After mating, the pair will return to their solitary habits. After a gestation period varying", "-33.25448646566656" ], [ "gives rise to genetically identical quadruplets. In other mammals, monozygotic twinning has no apparent genetic basis, though its occurrence is common. There are at least 10 million identical human twins and triplets in the world today.\nBdelloid rotifers reproduce exclusively asexually, and all individuals in the class Bdelloidea are females. Asexuality evolved in these animals millions of years ago and has persisted since. There is evidence to suggest that asexual reproduction has allowed the animals to evolve new proteins through the Meselson effect that have allowed them to survive better in periods of dehydration.\nMolecular evidence strongly suggests that several species of", "-33.231015804296476" ], [ "birth and young are likely to mix with unrelated offspring at an early age due to the flock social structure, so the ability to identify and preferentially interact with one’s own offspring is crucial for the correct allocation of maternal resources, principally milk. This is commonly seen in other ungulates and also in seals and primates, all species where the chance of misdirecting parental care is substantial. Maternal care: Responsiveness and selectivity Maternal care in sheep can be seen as composed of two components – selectivity and responsiveness. Maternal responsiveness can be observed broadly across species, mammalian and otherwise. This", "-33.222089984039485" ], [ "birds, possibly because each male and female has a greater number of offspring if they share in raising a brood. In obligate monogamy, males feed females on the nest, or share in incubation and chick-feeding. In some species, males and females form lifelong pair bonds. Monogamy may also arise from limited opportunities for polygamy, due to strong competition among males for mates, females suffering from loss of male help, and female-female aggression. Polygyny In birds, polygyny occurs when males indirectly monopolize females by controlling resources. In species where males normally do not contribute much to parental care, females suffer relatively", "-33.21275229444291" ], [ "and protect them from predation.\nIn some species, both parents care for nestlings and fledglings; in others, such care is the responsibility of only one sex. In some species, other members of the same species—usually close relatives of the breeding pair, such as offspring from previous broods—will help with the raising of the young. Such alloparenting is particularly common among the Corvida, which includes such birds as the true crows, Australian magpie and fairy-wrens, but has been observed in species as different as the rifleman and red kite. Among most groups of animals, male parental care is rare. In birds, however,", "-33.19164642408214" ], [ "estrus cycle of only a day or two, and matings usually involve a dozen or more attempts. By the autumn of their second year, females can produce one and, very rarely, two offspring, although reproduction is most common when cows weigh at least 200 kilograms (440 lb). The gestation period is 240 to 262 days and the offspring weigh between 15 and 16 kilograms (33 and 35 lb). When the females are near to giving birth, they tend to isolate themselves from the main herd, and will remain isolated until the calf is large enough to escape predators. Calves are born spotted,", "-33.183970419813704" ], [ "testes, with the ability for a change to the preference of one sex also occasionally observed. The species has also been known to hybridise with the closely related species Acanthopagrus australis forming viable offspring, themselves able to backcross with the parent species. This is only known from one coastal lake where the two species are landlocked together for extended periods, promoting interbreeding and the production of offspring with morphological traits intermediate between the two species. The setting required to cause hybridisation, however is too rare to consider the two species subspecies, or even a single species. Predators Apart from humans,", "-33.147682637405524" ], [ "Danaher breeding colony, 44% of pairs attempting to breed were formed by individuals that were born earlier in the season.\nMales and females are very similar in size, but are easily distinguished from one another after reaching maturity, as the males usually have bright orange cheek feathers, red beaks (as opposed to the orange beaks of females), and generally more striking black and white patterns. Inbreeding Inbreeding causes early death (inbreeding depression) in the zebra finch, although it does not seem to affect fertility. Embryos have a much lower survival rate, with a study finding fertile eggs from sibling pairs had", "-33.12660497004981" ], [ "is one individual, with females likely producing no more than one litter per year. It has also been speculated that females may only give birth every other year. Based on limited observation, it is thought that females may not reach sexual maturity until two years of age. On Negros Island, females gave birth in April or May; based on other observations, females likely give birth during this time across its range. On the island of Maripipi, young were born in late May and June. Predators, parasites, and disease The giant golden-crowned flying fox is impacted by ectoparasites (external parasites) including", "-33.120928184333025" ], [ "developed among bird species with low mortality rates as a consequence of “overcrowding” and thus fewer opportunities to claim territory and breed. However, many observers today believe cooperative breeding arose because of the need for helpers to rear young in the extremely infertile and unpredictable environments of Australia and sub-Saharan Africa under the rare favourable conditions. Meerkats Meerkats become reproductively active at one year of age and can have up to four litters per year. However, usually it is the alpha pair that reserves the right to mate and will usually kill any young that is not their own. While", "-33.09573022625045" ], [ "In polyandrous mating systems where one female mates with multiple males, paternal or male-only care tends to evolve. Conversely, animal groups with polygynous mating systems are typically associated with males having little or no contribution to caring for offspring. Males rarely provide care for offspring in promiscuous mating systems, since there is high paternity uncertainty. In this mating system, there is a risk that the male may be providing care to non-descendant offspring, which would consequently compromise the male’s own fitness.\nNumerous hypotheses exist to explain why male care may be most prevalent in species in which fertilisation occurs externally, and", "-33.087304597305774" ], [ "in sharks, some snakes, Komodo dragons and a variety of domesticated birds were widely attributed to facultative parthenogenesis. These cases are, however, examples of accidental parthenogenesis, given the frequency of asexually produced eggs and their hatching rates are extremely low, in contrast to true facultative parthenogenesis where the majority of asexually produced eggs hatch. The occurrence of such asexually produced eggs in sexual animals can be explained by a meiotic error, leading to eggs produced via automixis. Obligate Obligate parthenogenesis is the process in which organisms exclusively reproduce through asexual means. Many species have been shown to transition to", "-33.08122722383786" ], [ "of up to four young in a season, and are able to mate again shortly after the first litter is born. The second litter then enters embryonic diapause, and is not born until the first litter has finished weaning at about 105 days. Multiple paternity is common, even within litters, as the females are sexually promiscuous. The young remain in the pouch for the first 65 days of life, and the maximum lifespan is about five years. In captivity The New Zoo in Poznań, Poland, was the first European zoo to breed feathertail gliders in 1999 (their animals originated from", "-32.99466423276681" ], [ "in male offspring to reduce competition between daughters and herself. By producing more male offspring that disperse and do not compete with her, the mother will have a greater fitness than she would if she had produced the ratio predicted by the equal investment theory.\nFurther research has found that LRC may influence the sex ratio in birds. Passerine birds demonstrate largely daughter-based dispersal, while ducks and geese demonstrate mainly male-based dispersal. Local resource competition has been hypothesized to be the reason that passerine birds are more likely to be female, while ducks and geese are more likely to have male", "-32.98908873095934" ], [ "presence of humans, but domestication is the permanent genetic modification of a bred lineage that leads to an inherited predisposition toward humans. Certain animal species, and certain individuals within those species, make better candidates for domestication than others because they exhibit certain behavioral characteristics: (1) the size and organization of their social structure; (2) the availability and the degree of selectivity in their choice of mates; (3) the ease and speed with which the parents bond with their young, and the maturity and mobility of the young at birth; (4) the degree of flexibility in diet and habitat tolerance; and", "-32.98462875551195" ], [ "will vary. Instead, it is much more common for polygynous mating to happen. Polygynous structures (excluding leks) are estimated to occur in up to 90% of mammals.\nPolygyny in birds occurs infrequently when compared to mammals, as monogamy is most commonly observed. Evolutionarily speaking, polygyny in birds might have evolved because many females do not require male support to care for their offspring. Because females do not need extra help raising their nests, males can afford to invest in multiple females. Nonetheless, male parental care is often found in many polygynous territorial bird species, leading to female competition for male assistance.", "-32.98325459464104" ], [ "Modes of reproduction Animals make use of a variety of modes of reproduction to produce their young. Traditionally this variety was classified into three modes, oviparity (embryos in eggs), viviparity (young born live), and ovoviviparity (intermediate between the first two).\nHowever, each of those so-called traditional modes covered a wide range of diverse reproductive strategies. The biologist Thierry Lodé has accordingly proposed five modes of reproduction based on the relationship between the zygote (the fertilised egg) and the parents. His revised modes are ovuliparity, with external fertilisation; oviparity, with internal fertilisation of large eggs containing a substantial nutritive yolk; ovo-viviparity, that", "-32.96629477872921" ], [ "generations\", but is quite different. In some other animals, such as hymenopterans, males are haploid and females diploid, but this is always the case rather than there being an alternation between distinct generations.", "-32.95135280300747" ], [ "birth. However, sometimes, the offspring develops fully with mixed traits, forming a frail, often infertile adult. This hybrid displays reduced fitness, marked by decreased rates of survival and reproduction relative to the parent species. The offspring fails to compete with purebred individuals, limiting genes flow between species. Evolution of Hybrid Inviability in Tetrapods In the 1970s, Allan C. Wilson and his colleagues first investigated the evolution of hybrid inviability in tetrapods, specifically mammals, birds, and frogs.\nRecognizing that hybrid viability decreases with time, the researchers used molecular clocks to quantify divergence time. They identified how long ago the common ancestor of", "-32.94257613420632" ], [ "likely to have a larger litter size. This is because larger females produce larger embryos that therefore have a higher survival rate. The average litter size is only 2-4 and only 50% of sexually mature females reach recruitment, meaning have offspring that will settle and grow into maturity and become part of the population. This means that a simple measurement of reproduction is not an accurate method at predicting the population of this creature that possesses such a large maturation cycle.", "-32.937161541500245" ], [ "engaged in fights for increasing their mating success and defending females against other males.\nDifferential parental investment between the sexes accounts for female mate choice. The number of offspring produced by female primates is often limited due to the small litter size, long intervals between births, relatively slow-growing offspring, and energetically expensive costs of pregnancy, lactation, and child care. Females thus choose their mates possessing certain preferable traits, which could possibly provide genetic or direct phenotypic benefits. For example, the large mane found in male gelada (Theropithecus) is assumed to be a preferable pelage condition favored by females, who primarily control", "-32.92936569140875" ], [ "likely give birth to an offspring fathered by the male that produced the most or faster sperm. It was found that primates and rodents with longer flagellum fathered more offspring. The length of the baculum is also influenced by sperm competition in some mammal species. Cryptic female choice Cryptic female choice is a postcopulatory mechanism that cannot be observed because it takes place inside a female's body. It enables a female to have some control over who fathers her child even after fertilization.\nIn some species, females may choose to mate with more than one male to prevent infanticide or harassment.", "-32.901997737302736" ], [ "therefore, did not play a significant role in the fitness of the overall population. More over, males receive 50% more success fertilizing eggs in mature females than in virgin females who may have yet have reached maturity. Since males mature on average 16 days earlier than females, they encounter immature virgin females frequently, but these females are not mature enough to allow the egg sac to develop. Genetic variation due to mating and environmental cues Environmental cues, for example when the mating season changes, decrease the rate at which a male encounters virgins. Encountering fewer virgins will lead to encountering", "-32.89706734275023" ], [ "the female they have mated with is genetically his own. This uncertainty has two contrasting outcomes: it may increase the total amount of parental care that their offspring receives, whilst also reducing the possibility that a female's offspring suffers infanticide. For example, it was discovered that male captive ruffled lemurs (Varecia variegata) were less likely to kill infants that they believed themselves to have sired, supporting Hrdy's second proposition.\nTo successfully ensure paternal confusion, Hrdy predicted that ovulation must be randomly distributed across the term where the sexual swelling is of maximum tumescence. This would ensure that males were unable to", "-32.895176278223516" ], [ "Inbreeding Overview Offspring of biologically related persons are subject to the possible effects of inbreeding, such as congenital birth defects. The chances of such disorders are increased when the biological parents are more closely related. This is because such pairings have a 25% probability of producing homozygous zygotes, resulting in offspring with two recessive alleles, which can produce disorders when these alleles are deleterious. Because most recessive alleles are rare in populations, it is unlikely that two unrelated marriage partners will both be carriers of the same deleterious allele; however, because close relatives share a large fraction of their alleles,", "-32.8867594255571" ], [ "several hundred) every four to six weeks. Other times they spawn sequentially, laying a small number of eggs every few days. Sequential spawning results in there being fry of different ages living together in the same nest.\nThey prefer to lay their eggs in caves or other crevices. After spawning, both parents tend the eggs by mouthing them to rid of algae and fanning them to increase oxygen flow. The majority of parental care is done by the smaller fish in a pair, but this has been found to be influenced by the degree of size difference within a pair.\nA pair", "-32.88631599010478" ], [ "isolated populations had no real choice of mates, or where the vast majority of individuals died before sexual maturity, leaving only the ecologically selected survivor to mate—regardless of its sexual fitness under normal sexual selection processes for that species.\nFor example, if only a few closely related males survive a natural disaster, and all are able to mate very widely due to lack of males, sexual selection has been suppressed by an ecological selection (the disaster). Such situations are usually temporary, characteristic of populations under extreme stress, for relatively short terms. However, they can drastically affect populations in that", "-32.87552365960619" ], [ "with many copies of a chromosome; it is more likely that at least one will contain a functional allele. Selection for heterozygosity Inbreeding depression has also been found to occur more gradually than predicted in some wild populations, such as in the highly inbred population of Scandinavian wolves. This appears to be due to a selection pressure for more heterozygous individuals, which generally are in better condition and so are more likely to become one of the few animals to breed and produce offspring.", "-32.86945726306294" ], [ "ungulate species exist only in relatively small populations in which some degree of inbreeding inevitably occurs. A study of 16 species of captive ungulates revealed that juvenile survival of inbred young is generally lower than that of non-inbred young. (Also see Inbreeding depression). These findings have implications for the genetic management of small ungulate populations.", "-32.86459064573137" ], [ "occurrence of \"intersexes\", individuals born with both male and female reproductive parts. Duarte et al. attribute these intersexes to \"a great amount of inbreeding\" within the population (which is another effect of the species' small distribution) and explain that the relatively high occurrence of intersexes being born may be harmful to the species population, since most of the intersexes are sterile. Behavior These snakes may be either terrestrial or arboreal, even though it does not have a true prehensile tail. However, based on their observations, Campbell and Lamar (2004) suggest that this species' use of the vegetation is facultative and", "-32.85632267111214" ], [ "females is likely to be caused by “weak territoriality of females.” Further selection occurs due to the birth interval for a single female averaging 2-2.5 years. Male fitness would benefit from inseminating other females during a birth interval. This hypothesis is supported by the large scrotal size allowing for increased sperm production. Other observations have been made that males will share child carrying to place less of a burden on the female, delaying her interbirth time. The conflicting observations support the hypothesis that black-crested gibbons demonstrate both monogamous and polygamous sexual relationships. Singing All gibbon species", "-32.85395661102666" ], [ "for reproductive potential. Due to their differently sized and shaped gametes, both males and females have developed physiological and behavioral differences that optimize the individual's fecundity. Since most egg laying females typically must bear the offspring and have a more limited reproductive cycle, this typically makes females a limiting factor in the reproductive success rate of males in a species. This process is also true for females selecting males, and assuming that males and females are selecting for different traits in partners, would result in phenotypic differences between the sexes over many generations. This hypothesis, known as the Bateman's", "-32.84714193749096" ], [ "one possible cause for the relatively high infertility rates seen in mammalian species. In some species, polyspermy is allowed to happen resulting in more than one sperm entering the egg creating viable offspring without detrimental effects.", "-32.83811379398321" ], [ "far greater number of eggs during their lifetime than do humans, so that, in fish and amphibians, there may be hundreds, or even millions of fertile eggs present in the ovary at any given time. In these species, fresh eggs may be developing from the germinal epithelium throughout life. Corpora lutea are found only in mammals, and in some elasmobranch fish; in other species, the remnants of the follicle are quickly resorbed by the ovary. In birds, reptiles, and monotremes, the egg is relatively large, filling the follicle, and distorting the shape of the ovary at maturity.\nAmphibians and reptiles have", "-32.83384207645531" ], [ "females than males increases the chances of species survival because one male can fertilize multiple females, so fewer males are needed. However, having too many female deer may lead to more intense polygynous mating behaviors. Because males in a polygynous mating system are each responsible for fertilizing multiple females, the loss of a single reproducing male would reduce the reproductive output of several females in a given breeding season; in a comparable monogamous system, loss of a single male only affects the reproductive capacity of one female. For this reason, the population growth rate of a polygynous system is subject", "-32.806040957933874" ] ]

[ "Depends on what you define as lately. There haven't been many plane crashes with high fatalities the last couple of years so compared with 2013 and 2012, 2014 is looking to be a bad year. The number of plane crashes isn't higher than 2013, 2012 though, it is just that there have been a few crashes with a lot of fatalities. If you go back to 2000 or earlier there were a lot more plane crashes and a lot more fatalities. Statistically speaking the risk of a plane crash have only gone down in recent years. URL_0 ", "Looks like you have some good stats here on crashes, so keep this in mind. Whenever a big event happens (Shooting, Plane Crash, etc) that is bound to happen again the news tends to pickup and report more aggressively on recurrences. The Algerian plane today wouldn't have been such big news if it weren't for the two recent Malaysian flight issues. This happens after every mass shooting in America, you see reports of violent crimes involving guns being reported with the slant of a mass shooting, even if it's regular everyday violence. That's just my 2 cents.", "Plane crashes are random events, and like all random events, they sometimes happen in clusters.", " URL_0 Average number of plane crashes per year is about 18*, although it's been going down since 1960. There have been 6 such incidents this year, including this Algerian plane as the latest one. That's a year-to-date record of about 1 a month, so by now 2014 has been more dangerous than 2013, but even if the year ends with a dozen incidents that's still about average for the 2000s (Using the above website's criteria of any flight with more than 18 passengers)", "The media latches onto topics that garner attention. Mass school shooting? Well, we better report 35 other violent school related conflicts because that gets attention. It's the same with airplanes. One airline crash got a ton of viewers, so constantly airing more feeds the fire. It may not be happening more frequently than normal, but it is certainly reported more. There are tons of accidents involving planes, guns, automobiles, and other things everyday that go unnoticed.", "24 Hour News Cycles mean that anything anywhere at anytime gets reported. Also add in the Internet, Twitter, Facebook and all of the other resources News Orgs. now have... yeah its just media craze. They have lots of airtime to fill and the resources to find things to fill it." ]

[ [ "extreme or abnormal flight attitude.\nA Boeing-compiled list determined that 2,051 lives were lost in 22 accidents in the years 1998–2007 due to LOC accidents. NTSB data for 1994–2003 count 32 accidents and more than 2,100 lives lost worldwide. Overview Loss of control as a factor in aviation accidents came into the spotlight with the 1994 crash of USAir Flight 427, which killed all 127 passengers and 5 crew members on board. In their report on the crash, the U.S. NTSB stated that prior to the crash they \"...had issued a series of safety recommendations over a 24-year period, asking", "-32.16574120828591" ], [ "on 6 December and met emergency service personnel. Police investigated offensive, racist or sectarian comments made about the crash on social media. A weekend of fundraising events for the families of the victims and the emergency services was held on 3–5 January 2014. Investigation The Air Accidents Investigation Branch (AAIB), which is responsible for investigating aircraft crashes in the United Kingdom, launched an investigation into the cause of the accident. Assistance in the investigation was provided by the German Federal Bureau of Aircraft Accident Investigation and the French Bureau d'Enquêtes et d'Analyses pour la Sécurité de l'Aviation Civile aviation incident", "-31.904329427721677" ], [ "were destroyed in the accident.\nThe disaster and investigation received widespread media coverage. The impact on the public was increased by the dramatic effect of an amateur photo taken of the aircraft rolling that was published on the front page of the Chicago Tribune on the Sunday two days after the crash. There were some early reports that a collision with a small aircraft had been the cause of the crash. This apparently was the result of the discovery of small-aircraft parts among the wreckage at the crash site. National Transportation Safety Board vice-chairman Elwood T. Driver, in a press briefing,", "-31.81175426109985" ], [ "However, most major accidents are likely to be reflected due to involvement of outside authorities. The EASA and the NAAs supports and encourages the collection of light aircraft accident data in order to provide more in-depth statistics and analysis.\nIn the UK, there were 27 fatal accidents involving GA aircraft in 2007, resulting in the loss of 48 lives. These compare with 16 accidents claiming a total of 19 lives the previous year, and although the 2007 statistics are higher than average, they are not exceptional.", "-31.770728571889777" ], [ "to provide objective reviews of crashes and public release of the findings, beginning the tradition of public air crash investigation reports, which began to pinpoint and publicize blame for accidents, forcing safety improvements by both government and industry. Airline safety revolution With these superior, safer aircraft matched to greatly increased and more public government inspection and regulation of aviation, crash rates plummeted to a tiny fraction of those of the wooden airliner years.\nToday, the legacy of the crash is simply that the most dangerous way to travel in 1931—airlines—radically transformed into what has now become the safest way to travel.", "-31.675120772924856" ], [ "the aircraft remain at the crash sites. Investigation The investigation of this accident was particularly challenging due to the remoteness and topography of the crash sites, as well as the extent of the destruction of the two airliners and the lack of real time flight data, as might be derived from a modern flight data recorder. Despite the considerable difficulties, CAB experts were able to determine with a remarkable degree of certainty what had transpired and, in their report, issued the following statement as probable cause for the accident:\nThe Board determines that the probable cause of this mid-air collision was", "-31.667923671167955" ], [ "what caused the accident. A short summary of the report was published on the Flight Global website. Investigation The aircraft's flight data recorder was recovered and the initial investigation into the crash stated that the primary cause was due to \"procedural navigation errors by the crew\". The Commonwealth of Independent States' Interstate Aviation Committee report concluded that the main causes of the crash were poor crew management, failing to apply approach procedures, and incorrect use of the aircraft's GPS satellite navigation system, in breach of its operational requirements and their rating for its use on approach; failure to use information", "-31.394826207601" ], [ "that this change reduced the number of air travelers by 6%, and estimated that consequently, 129 more people died in car accidents in the fourth quarter of 2002. Extrapolating this rate of fatalities, New York Times contributor Nate Silver remarked that this is equivalent to \"four fully loaded Boeing 737s crashing each year.\" The 2007 study also noted that strict airport security hurts the airline industry; it was estimated that the 6% reduction in the number of passengers in the fourth quarter of 2002 cost the industry $1.1 billion in lost business. Baggage theft The TSA has been criticized for", "-31.265437442008988" ], [ "make an explicit finding that loading of the aircraft was not a possible factor contributing to the cause of the crash.\nThe inquiry sat for seven days and adjourned on Wednesday 21 December 1949. Report and findings The report and findings of the inquiry were not released until 8 March 1950 when the new Minister for Civil Aviation, Thomas White, tabled them in the House of Representatives. The report confirmed that the crash occurred because the aircraft stalled and the pilots were unable to regain control. However, the evidence was not sufficient to allow determination of what caused the", "-31.101015418797033" ], [ "of transponders in all aircraft to amplify aircraft's presence on radar screens, and the re-evaluation of VFR due to the increased complexity, congestion, and speed of modern air travel.\nThe New York Times reported that the incidence of deaths in commercial aviation accidents had risen sharply in 1971, up from 146 deaths in 1970 and 158 deaths in 1969. Additionally, these deaths had occurred at a time when airlines were cutting back flights due to the economic recession, and airlines had flown about 6% fewer hours in 1971 than 1970. The eight fatal accidents of 1971 included three mid-air collisions and", "-31.0660622548603" ], [ "fatalities. None of the accidents and incidents in the study involved major commercial airlines. Some critics, including William Cohen, a member of the U.S. Senate from Maine, argued that the FAA may have understated the role of unapproved parts of some accidents because the agency did not want to take the responsibility of regulating the aircraft parts industry. James Frisbee, who retired in 1992 as the quality control head of Northwest Airlines, argued that unapproved parts may have been a factor in far more accidents than the numbers stated on U.S. federal accident and incident records.\nThe United States Congress passed", "-31.05362721196434" ], [ "Why Planes Crash Plot In every episode normally three accidents would be discussed. Over the 43 minute program aviation experts such as veteran pilot and founder of Safety Operating Systems John Cox, as well as former NTSB investigators John Goglia and Greg Feith would discuss the events and what caused or led up to the crash. The show also featured state-of-the-art recreations and visuals to graphically illustrate what occurred during the accident.\nIn some episodes a survivor or survivors would explain what they experienced during the accident.", "-31.024450638942653" ], [ "United States civil aviation incidents are investigated by the National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB). NTSB officials piece together evidence from the crash site to determine likely cause, or causes. The NTSB also investigates overseas incidents involving US-registered aircraft, in collaboration with local investigative authorities, especially when there is significant loss of American lives, or when the involved aircraft is American built. Retirement of flight numbers It is common for an airline to cease using the flight number of a fatal crash, although that is not always the case.", "-30.964291387761477" ], [ "gathered at the crash site as word spread over radio and television newscasts, and people drove from resorts and towns in the area to see the wreckage. The crash followed a series of 707 emergencies, none involving fatalities, in recent weeks involving passenger flights, the first occurring on February 3, 1959, when a Pan Am 707 nose dived over the Atlantic and landed safely in Gander. This was followed by four landing gear breakdowns on jets operated by Pan Am and American Airlines. Cause The probable cause suggested was that \"the crew failed to recognize and correct the development of", "-30.812109584425343" ], [ "reason for 78.6% of disastrous general aviation (GA) accidents, and as the major cause of 75.5% of GA accidents in the United States. There are multiple factors that can cause pilot error; mistakes in the decision-making process can be due to habitual tendencies, biases, as well as a breakdown in the processing of the information coming in. For aircraft pilots, in extreme circumstances these errors are highly likely to result in fatalities. Causes of pilot error Pilots work in complex environments and are routinely exposed to high amounts of situational stress in the workplace, inducing pilot error which may result", "-30.726631663535954" ], [ "traffic, and for failing to schedule flights to minimize traffic congestion. The government appealed, and the relatives cross-appealed to have their damage awards increased, but the earlier 1964 judgment was affirmed on September 30, 1965. Nearby crash sites The region where the United Airlines and Air Force aircraft went down has experienced other major airliner crashes. In 1942 movie star Carole Lombard and 21 others died in the mountainside crash of TWA Flight 3, about 16 miles (26 km) WSW of where United Airlines Flight 736 crashed.\nIn 1964, 29 people lost their lives when Bonanza Air Lines Flight 114 flew into", "-30.648935448574775" ], [ "fall from the sky or go through an emergency landing, resulting in deaths and property damage. In addition, poor weather conditions, such as low air density, lightning storms and heavy rain, snow or fog could be challenging and affect the aircraft's aerodynamics.\nA major problem, which increases rapidly with wider adoption, is the risk of mid-air collisions. Another is the unscheduled or emergency landing of a flying car on an unprepared location beneath, including the possibility of accident debris. Regulatory regimes are being developed in anticipation of a large increase in the numbers of roadable aircraft and personal air vehicles in", "-30.509999910515035" ], [ "a chain of events and errors can be identified leading up to the crash. Pilot error, communications problems, fog, and airfield congestion (due to a bomb threat and explosion at another airport) all contributed to this catastrophe.", "-30.50387321219023" ], [ "that while the country \"has generally had a good air safety record\" that this crash happened \"while memories of the catastrophic Air Blue crash – the worst aviation disaster in the country's history – are still fresh\". The Express Tribune also said the crash evoked memories of the previous crash, noting that the coverage was \"reminiscent of that of the Airblue crash\" because \"soon after the crash, images of the site splashed onto TV screens, with bulletin after bulletin giving detailed coverage, implicit with the promise that this tragedy will be investigated and justice will be done\".", "-30.48614162105514" ], [ "documentary on the crash, and an episode from Seconds From Disaster titled \"Chicago Plane Crash\" detailed the crash and included film of the investigation press conferences. The Canadian television series Mayday profiled the crash in the episode \"Catastrophe at O'Hare\", which has subsequently aired in the U.S. on the Smithsonian Channel's television series Air Disasters.\nThe flight was also featured on an episode of Why Planes Crash, which is featured on the Weather Channel.\nChicago folk singer Steve Goodman wrote the song \"Ballad of Flight 191 (They Know Everything About It)\" in response to the crash and the subsequent investigation as the", "-30.447028510272503" ], [ "upheld on appeal to the Fifth Circuit Court of Appeals. Dramatization and media The crash was the subject of the television movie Fire and Rain.\nThe Discovery Channel Canada/National Geographic television series Mayday dramatized the crash of Flight 191 in a Season 5 episode titled Invisible Killer. The crash had previously been discussed in the Mayday Season 1 episode Racing the Storm, which covered the weather-related crash landing of American Airlines Flight 1420.\nThe crash was featured on an episode of When Weather Changed History and Why Planes Crash on The Weather Channel, and the episode \"Deadly Weather\" of Survival in", "-30.353303731957567" ], [ "analysis.\nNumerous factors complicated the subsequent investigation, resulting in difficulty establishing, with certainty, the cause of the crash. The investigation was initially undermined by a severe shortage of evidence: When government investigators first arrived at the crash site, they found that most of the wreckage had been taken by souvenir hunters and scavengers, leaving only engines, wings and propeller.\nAmong the issues speculated is that the craft may have been dealing with turbulence, or icing on the aircraft, or both—which could have resulted in flying conditions that may have led to control difficulty, and an overstressing of the wing. (As evidence,", "-30.34559079639439" ], [ "Tu-114 produced.\nAt the time of the accident it had accumulated 93 hours with 19 take-off/landing cycles, and flown approximately 6,960 kilometres (4,320 mi). Investigation In a report released 12 May 1966 the investigating board indicated the main cause of the crash were errors made by the aircraft crew and poor organization of the airport traffic control service. Contributing factors included limited visibility in poor weather conditions and failure to properly clear the runway of snow.", "-30.333769294200465" ], [ "aviation accidents and incidents, including 61 accidents and hull losses which resulted in 3722 fatalities. The last crash was Turkish Airlines Flight 6491 in January 2017. There were also 24 deaths in 32 aircraft hijackings, such as Pan Am Flight 73 where a Boeing 747-121 was hijacked by four terrorists and resulted in 20 deaths.\nFew crashes have been attributed to design flaws of the 747. The Tenerife airport disaster resulted from pilot error and communications failure, while the Japan Airlines Flight 123 and China Airlines Flight 611 crashes stemmed from improper aircraft repair. United Airlines Flight 811, which", "-30.32191664693528" ], [ "investigated by the NTSC was Garuda Indonesia Flight 152, where 234 people were killed. This occurred less than three months before the SilkAir crash. The report of Flight 152 was issued in 2004 (having been hampered by the SilkAir crash), which stated that agency determined that the cause of the crash of Flight 152 was pilot error and ATC error.", "-30.23472264924567" ], [ "after Flight 191, added to the DC-10's negative reputation. The crash of Flight 901, an Antarctic sightseeing flight which hit a mountain, was caused by several human and environmental factors not related to the airworthiness of the DC-10, and the aircraft was later completely exonerated in that accident.\nIronically, the crash of yet another DC-10, United Airlines Flight 232, ten years later, restored some of the aircraft's reputation. Despite losing an engine, all flight controls, crash-landing in a huge fireball (which was caught on video by a local news crew), and killing 111 people, 185 people survived the accident. Experts praised", "-30.22581123537384" ], [ "that did not include groups of words deemed to have no bearing on flight. Independent analyses Before and after the publication of the final report by the BEA in July 2012, there were many independent analyses and expert opinions published in the media about the cause of the accident. Significance of the accident In May 2011, Wil S. Hylton of The New York Times commented that the crash \"was easy to bend into myth\" because \"no other passenger jet in modern history had disappeared so completely—without a Mayday call or a witness or even a trace on radar.\" Hylton explained", "-30.197521700087236" ], [ "reported rain in the area, and several reported it as heavy. All three occupants of the flight were killed, and the aircraft was destroyed. Cause The National Transportation Safety Board deduced that the cause of the accident was the \"controller's issuance and the flight crew's subsequent acceptance of an incomplete and ambiguous holding clearance\". The flight crew was cited for their failure to adhere to established lack-of-communication guidelines, and lack of adherence to established holding procedures. The aircraft's electrical problems were cited as a contributing factor.\nIn addition, the flight's cockpit voice recorder was found to be inoperative, preventing", "-30.1774391408253" ], [ "off the plane and impacted a house. Investigation The cause of the crash was attributed to faulty sensors along the runway and take-off calculations made from erroneous information, which resulted in an aircraft being overloaded by more than 5,000 pounds for the prevailing conditions. Only two days after the crash, Venezuela's Public Works Minister ascribed runway length as a contributing factor in the disaster. Aftermath Flight 742 was the first loss of a DC-9-30, and it remains the deadliest accident involving that type of aircraft. It was also the deadliest accident in Venezuela until West Caribbean Airways Flight 708 (operated", "-30.159908009009087" ], [ "about the crash: \"It's beyond belief that a professional air crew would act in that manner.\"\nOne month after the Flight 3701 accident, another CRJ-200, China Eastern Airlines Flight 5210, crashed due to unrelated reasons. Media This accident is featured in book 4 of the Darwin Awards.", "-30.106491138511046" ], [ "that the crew's actions in the cockpit are the primary focus of the investigation.\nIn response to media reports in South Korea that air traffic controllers had a shift change 30 seconds before the crash, Hersman said that the plane had been cleared to land over 30 seconds before crashing and, \"the tower actually called for the emergency and the emergency vehicles prior to the flight crew calling the tower for an emergency.\"\nThe NTSB published a three-page preliminary report on August 7, 2013. NTSB use of social media Shortly after the accident, the US National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB) used Twitter", "-30.10625710489694" ], [ "Massachusetts Institute of Technology, told the New York Times in December 2014 that the death rate in Indonesian airline crashes over the previous ten years was one in every million passenger-boardings, compared to one death for every 25 million passengers for airlines in the United States. According to CNN, International Air Transport Association (IATA) CEO Tony Tyler said in March 2015 that Indonesia had seen at least one major crash resulting in the loss of an aircraft every year since 2010; and that Indonesia was rated \"below the global average\" by the Universal Safety Oversight Audit Program (USOAP) of the", "-30.081421700197097" ], [ "stone to the ground\", and that the heatwave in Europe could have been a factor in the crash, as heat reduces an aircraft's climb performance. The police indicated that no distress signal was received from the aircraft prior to the crash. Investigators ruled out a collision with a cable or another aircraft, and said that there was no indication of foul play or the aircraft losing parts before the crash. The aircraft was not fitted with any flight recorders. Investigators are hoping to find some relevant information from passengers' personal photographic and video recordings during the sightseeing flight. The STSB", "-30.08005168387899" ], [ "recorders to be installed on the aircraft, and no cockpit voice recorder or flight data recorder was installed. Due to lack of evidence, the NTSB was unable to determine the probable cause of the accident. \nHowever, the NTSB did identify factors which may have contributed to the crash. Such factors included \"known thunderstorm activities and turbulence, preexisting discrepancies in the pitot-static system of the aircraft and their effect on the reliability of the flight instruments, and lack of operational control exercised by the airline's management.\" The originally scheduled pilot was unable to fly and the replacement", "-30.066710956511088" ], [ "of the town of Kanash. Conclusions The investigation into the crash was led by Minister of Aircraft Production Mikhail Krunichen and Chief Air Marshal Pavel Zhigarev, the head of Aeroflot. The cause of the crash was determined to be a loss of control as a result of the aircraft flying into an area of strong turbulence which caused it to exceed critical angles of attack. This conclusion was reached by comparing the experience of other Tu-104 pilots who reported similar cases after flying at altitudes of 8,000 meters (26,000 ft)) and higher, and examination of the cockpit voice recordings. As a", "-30.02215912990505" ], [ "used to monitor technical problems with its aircraft may have resulted in a failure to raise an alarm over multiple problems with the aircraft. A judge ordered the airline to provide all the computer system's logs from the days before and after the crash. In popular culture \"Deadly Delay\", a 2016 episode of Mayday, covered the investigation into the crash.", "-30.01659292669501" ], [ "of many of the 152 passengers and 11 crew members on board. In the end, 137 died and 28 survived; one other person on the ground was also killed. The prologue to the film indicated that the crash was one of the worst aircraft mishaps in U.S. history. Up to that time, the circumstances behind it regarding microbursts and wind shears of the kind that brought it down, as well as the kind of thunderstorm that caused them, were unknown. Subsequently, the investigation and review of procedures led to modifications in all big-body civil aircraft whereby their radar could detect", "-29.977637247327948" ], [ "two crashes internally on the domestic operation with the total loss of one F28 aircraft and one DHC7, both due to pilot error. No deaths or injuries occurred in either crash.\nInternational services commenced very early on in the history of the airline with a leased Boeing 720 from 6 February 1976 to 2 February 1977. This was later replaced with a Boeing 707 purchased from Qantas. During the late 1970s, internal services were performed by a combination of Fokker F28 jet and Fokker F27 turbo-prop aircraft. By the end of 1975 Air Niugini leased Boeing 727-200 type aircraft from", "-29.936268763209227" ], [ "Donald Nyrop visited the crash scene on January 1, 1952 and reassured the public that the crash had not been caused by a mechanical failure of the airplane. The loss of Flight 44-2 also led to new airline safety rules. The CAB issued a draft regulation on March 10, 1952, requiring that night visual flights on passenger planes in large aircraft be conducted only on designated routes and between airports equipped with radio communications.", "-29.89773440087265" ], [ "determine the cause of the crash due to the near total lack of physical evidence because of the complete destruction; The US National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB), however disagreed, and concluded that the crash was caused, possibly intentionally, by the pilot.\nThe FAA ordered an upgrade of all Boeing 737 rudder control systems by November 12, 2002. The firm argued that the components they supplied were not at fault, citing that the product has one of the safest records in its class, but the FAA directive went through regardless. F-35 fueldraulic line failure On 18 January 2013, the F-35B", "-29.856320603459608" ], [ "worst air crash in the United Kingdom in terms of the number of fatalities. This was the second crash of an aircraft using the white line to take off at Croydon in fog. On 31 May 1934 an Air France aircraft carrying newspapers to Paris crashed after hitting the mast of an aircraft radio navigation beacon that had been erected off the end of the white-line takeoff path, killing the two crew. Investigation The official investigation into the accident was terminated on 16 December without reaching a verdict.", "-29.836258983414154" ], [ "It concluded 'the most probable cause of the crash was a criminal act of sabotage perpetrated in the aircraft'. It also suggested that poisonous gases were released which incapacitated the passengers and crew, which would explain why no Mayday signal was given.[116] There was also speculation into other facts involving the details of the investigation. A flight recorder (black box) was not located after the crash and previous C-130 aircraft did have them installed. To this day, the cause of the plane crash remains a mystery and has given rise to many conspiracy theories.", "-29.830260315149644" ], [ "Aftermath Many internet users responded to the incident; the resulting web traffic set records for internet activity at the time. CNN's traffic quadrupled to 3.9 million hits per day. After the tragedy, the website of The New York Times saw its traffic increase to 1.5 million hits per day, 50% higher than its previous rate. In 1996, few U.S. government websites were updated daily, but the United States Navy's crash website was constantly updated and had detailed information about the salvage of the crash site.\nThe wreckage is permanently stored in an NTSB facility in Ashburn, Loudoun County, Virginia, that was", "-29.743319903325755" ], [ "and Channels of Communication found that \"[t]he most probable cause of the accident was the aircraft's encounter with a severe Microburst like weather phenomenon at a very low altitude during the process of Go Around. The severe vertical gust/downdraft caused a significant and sudden pitch change to the aircraft which resulted in a considerable loss of height. Being at very low altitude, recovery from such a disturbance was not possible.\"", "-29.729080233169952" ], [ "had done so because of \"fatigue, rosters and quality of life.\" It was the opinion of some of those pilots that an accident was inevitable. In response to the allegations, Flydubai told the BBC, \"we are unable to disclose confidential information relating to our employees.\" Aircraft The aircraft involved was a five-year-old Boeing 737-800, registered as A6-FDN, MSN 40241, powered by two CFM International CFM56 engines. Its first flight was on 21 December 2010, and it was delivered to Flydubai on 24 January 2011. The aircraft had passed a C-grade maintenance check on 21 January 2016.\nFlight 981 carried enough fuel", "-29.6885599559173" ], [ "vicinity of the airport. In early 2019, a second video surfaced on social media sites that showed CCTV footage from the airport. The second video showed the aircraft narrowly missing buildings and parked airplanes at the airport, and the last moments of the flight. Investigation After the crash, the Government of Nepal formed an Aircraft Accident Investigation Commission to determine the cause and the circumstances of the accident. The six-member commission was also assisted by Captain Salahuddin Rahmatullah, the head of the Aircraft Accident Investigation Group of the Civil Aviation Authority of Bangladesh, and Nora Vallée,", "-29.683539114601444" ], [ "and negligence, concluding \"the airline was aware of technical problems with a key airspeed monitoring instrument on its planes but failed to train pilots to resolve them\". The case against Airbus was dropped on 22 July the same year. The case against Air France was dropped in September 2019 when magistrates said \"there were not enough grounds to prosecute\". In popular culture A one-hour documentary entitled Lost: The Mystery of Flight 447 detailing an early independent hypothesis about the crash was produced by Darlow Smithson in 2010 for Nova and the BBC. Using the then-sparse publicly available evidence and information,", "-29.632047944818623" ], [ "airliners. This accident led to groundbreaking changes in the regulation of flight operations in the United States.\nA similar event occurred in 1960, this time in New York City, when another TWA L-1049 collided with a United Douglas DC-8. The disaster killed 134 people: 84 on board the UAL DC-8, 44 on board the TWA L-1049, and six people on ground. No one survived from either airliner. TWA Flight 800 TWA's worst accident occurred on July 17, 1996, when Flight 800, a Boeing 747 en route to Paris, exploded over the Atlantic Ocean near Long Island, killing all 230 people on", "-29.625282783439616" ], [ "study of midair collisions. The report indicated that 204 of 396 fatalities in U.S. jetliner crashes since 1967 had occurred in mid-air collisions. Additionally, near-miss situations involving jetliners occurred on average at least once per day, with the Los Angeles and New York areas noted as being especially high-risk. Finally, the report noted that the current trend in air casualties indicated that a further 528 people would die in mid-air collisions during the following ten years. These figures did not include the casualties from Flight 706.\nAn FAA study in 1968 had found that a quarter of the 2,230 near-miss aircraft", "-29.582364582493028" ], [ "low altitude which caused a loss of speed and altitude.\" The investigation found no mechanical malfunctions in the aircraft that led to the accident.\nThe report identified contributing factors to the accident caused by the flight crew. One factor was that the pilot of the plane, who was not a certified instructor, was giving an instruction to a student pilot who was flying the plane at the time. This caused a loss of situational awareness and the pilots did not maintain a \"sterile cockpit\", one that was free from distractions. It found that among other mistakes,", "-29.568941522811656" ], [ "the average flight time, but is responsible for 70.2% of total aviation accidents. Statistics prove a significantly larger number of accident occurrences during the phases where pilots are in stressed and pressured situations. At these phases, pilot decision making can be critical. For example, the pilots of Asiana Airlines flight 214 were in a pressured and fatigued situation when they failed to overshoot after detecting a low approach path and high airspeed on the final approach. Automation Bias The advancement in technology has enabled tasks that are too complex for human and extended human capabilities. Automation such as, GPS, traffic", "-29.554788956564153" ], [ "likely to have in-flight failures than other major US airlines. A 60 Minutes report by CBS News in 2018 continued to investigate the issues first raised by the Tampa Bay Times. Public records cited in the investigation found that the airline had more than 100 serious mechanical incidents between January 1, 2016, and October 31, 2017, including \"mid-air engine failures, smoke and fumes in the cabin, rapid descents, flight control malfunctions, hydraulic leaks and aborted takeoffs.\" Other public records further revealed that Allegiant aircraft, on average, were nearly three and a half times more likely to have mid-air breakdowns than", "-29.496715326109552" ], [ "with clouds and heavy rain, and some reports of turbulence. The aircraft was not equipped with ground proximity warning system, nor was this required. There was no requirement for the aircraft to have a flight data recorder and cockpit voice recorder (CVR), but the airline had chosen to install the latter. Interviews with the surviving passengers showed that none of them perceived that there was any problems with the flight until the sudden impact. One of the passengers was a navigation professional and could see parts of the cockpit from his seat; he was thus able to confirm some of", "-29.47679097985383" ], [ "Australia, Hugo Gramp, Tom Hardy and Sidney Hill Smith; several barristers; and a young couple on their honeymoon. Aftermath By public demand a Royal Commission into the cause of the disaster was established, and the Australian Federal Government appointed an Air Accident Investigation Committee under the Chairmanship of Colonel T. Murdoch DSO, VCE with the public enquiry commencing on 30 October 1938. Because of the crash, regulations were passed which require flight checking officers to monitor the flights of aeroplanes and advise on such things as position, weather, and alternate landing options. Also implementation of a 33 MHz radio range", "-29.4677932925988" ], [ "the recommendations made by the AAIB.\nThe final report of the investigation of the accident was published on 3 March 2017. The cause of the accident was found to be pilot error: the pilot failed to recognise that the aircraft was too low to perform the loop. Sussex Police Sussex Police opened a separate investigation into the accident. Hill was released from hospital in early September 2015 and was interviewed by police in December. In February 2016, it was announced that the police investigation was being extended to cover an incident at an airshow in Southport, Merseyside, in August 2014. That", "-29.465282530582044" ], [ "the United Kingdom, an aviation near miss report is known as an \"airprox\", an air proximity hazard, by the Civil Aviation Authority. Since reporting began, aircraft near misses continue to decline. Fire-rescue services The rate of fire fighter fatalities and injuries in the United States is unchanged for the last 15 years despite improvements in personal protective equipment, apparatus and a decrease in structure fires. In 2005, the National Fire Fighter Near-Miss Reporting System was established, funded by grants from the U.S. Fire Administration and Fireman’s Fund Insurance Company, and endorsed by the International Associations of Fire Chiefs and Fire", "-29.456533533520997" ], [ "lead author of the study, Paul Williams, a researcher at the National Center for Atmospheric Science, at the University of Reading stated, \"air turbulence does more than just interrupt the service of in-flight drinks. It injures hundreds of passengers and aircrew every year – sometimes fatally. It also causes delays and damage to planes.\" Noise Aircraft noise is seen by advocacy groups as being very hard to get attention and action on. The fundamental issues are increased traffic at larger airports and airport expansion at smaller and regional airports.\nAviation authorities and airlines have developed Continuous Descent Approach procedures to", "-29.434466068050824" ], [ "of the windows led to cracks due to metal fatigue. The fatigue was caused by cycles of pressurization and depressurization of the cabin, and eventually led to catastrophic failure of the plane's fuselage. By the time the problems were overcome, other jet airliner designs had already taken to the skies. Statistics The World Bank lists monotonously growing numbers for the number of passengers transported per year worldwide with a preliminary all-time high in 2015 of 3.44 billion passengers. Likewise, the number of registered carrier departures worldwide has reached a peak in 2015 with almost 33 million takeoffs. In the US", "-29.428995084250346" ], [ "Pennewill, Langley Field, Virginia; and Sergeant Mechanic Richard Blumenkranz, Washington.\nArmy Air Service officers said the accident was the worst in the history of aviation in the United States and that it was one of the few in which all of the passengers in a falling plane had been killed almost instantly.", "-29.384322855912615" ], [ "episode entitled \"Engineering Disasters 20\", which featured detailed information on Flight 587. The Discovery Channel Canada / National Geographic series Mayday (also called Air Crash Investigation or Air Emergency) dramatized the accident in a 2014 episode titled \"Queens Catastrophe\". The BBC program Horizon also created an episode about the crash. An episode of Aircrash Confidential on Discovery Channel also featured Flight 587. The episode was entitled \"Pilot Error\". A 2011 episode of Why Planes Crash featured Flight 587. The episode was entitled \"Human Error\". It was aired on MSNBC.", "-29.37514487307635" ], [ "accident was determined to be pilot error for not following standard procedures under adverse weather conditions. The pilot took control of the plane, but the co-pilot did not immediately monitor the instruments; as a result, the crew did not notice the rapid descent in the few crucial seconds they had where they could have avoided danger. According to Aviation Safety Network, the accident ranks among the deadliest ones that took place in 2005. It was also the second major crash involving a TANS Perú airplane in slightly over two years. In the media Flight 204 has been the subject", "-29.328746132203378" ], [ "imagery report produced by Boeing Aircraft Company which indicated strong convective storm activity near the accident site at the time of the accident. Icing might have also been a factor but only above Flight Level 150. There was also an unverified rumor that the plane may have been struck by lightning causing it to crash. Another unverified rumor suggested that the plane may have stalled before nose diving to the ground at high speed. Terrorism Suspicion on mid flight explosion arose when the cargo hold area were recovered from the wreckage. Pieces of burnt fuselage parts of the left side", "-29.305320267449133" ], [ "Board determines that the probable cause of this accident was the flight crew's mismanagement of the airplane's descent during the visual approach, the pilot flying's unintended deactivation of automatic airspeed control, the flight crew's inadequate monitoring of airspeed, and the flight crew's delayed execution of a go-around after they became aware that the airplane was below acceptable glidepath and airspeed tolerances. Contributing to the accident were (1) the complexities of the autothrottle and autopilot flight director systems that were inadequately described in Boeing's documentation and Asiana's pilot training, which increased the likelihood of mode error; (2) the flight crew's", "-29.302092488855124" ], [ "The head of NTSC Tatang Kurniadi stated that the investigation into the cause of the crash would take around a year. However, he added that the length of the investigation wouldn't be as long as the investigation of Adam Air Flight 574.\nAccording to survivors and eyewitnesses, weather condition near or at the airport during the crash was inclement with most claimed that heavy rain was present. Several others claimed that the aircraft suffered a hard landing. Another statement from survivors suggested that the aircraft had suffered a failure on its braking system. Most survivors including the cockpit crew of the", "-29.29878287415704" ], [ "played a role in the crash. They have contributed to previous similar crashes.\nThe Indonesian Meteorology, Climatology, and Geophysical Agency (BMKG) reported that the weather was clear around the time of the crash, with winds at 5 knots (9.3 km/h; 5.8 mph) from the northwest. Visibility was good with no cumulonimbus clouds. Police Hospital Chief Musyafak said that an examination of the body parts indicated that it was unlikely that there had been an explosion or fire on board the aircraft. Flight abnormalities Aviation experts noted that there were some abnormalities in the altitude and the airspeed of Flight 610. Just three minutes", "-29.278988778940402" ], [ "007 was known inside this timeframe.\nThe second set of facts relate to a series of moves taking the investigation out of the hands of the National Transportation Safety Board and in the hands of the International Civil Aviation Organization. Normally, when an airliner crashes, responsibility for the inquiry falls to the NTSB, which has the technical expertise to assess what happened. Although the downing of the Flight 007 cannot be classified as a routine aviation disaster, the NTSB office in Anchorage was notified that the plane was missing just three hours after it had come down in the Sea", "-29.27144923049491" ], [ "United Airlines Flight 521 Investigation The Civil Aeronautics Board concluded the report on the accident by citing pilot error. The report read: \"The Board determines that the probable cause of this accident was either the failure of the pilot to release the gust lock before take-off, or his decision to discontinue the take-off because of apprehension resulting from rapid use of a short runway under a possible calm wind condition.\"\nAlthough the board came to the conclusion that pilot error was likely the cause, the May 31, 1947, edition of The New York Times told a different (albeit preliminary) tale:\n\"The United", "-29.26225056621479" ], [ "Aviation safety Evolution In 1926 and 1927 there were a total of 24 fatal commercial airline crashes, a further 16 in 1928, and 51 in 1929 (killing 61 people), which remains the worst year on record at an accident rate of about 1 for every 1,000,000 miles (1,600,000 km) flown. Based on the current numbers flying, this would equate to 7,000 fatal incidents per year.\nFor the ten-year period 2002 to 2011, 0.6 fatal accidents happened per one million flights globally, 0.4 per million hours flown, 22.0 fatalities per one million flights or 12.7 per million hours flown.\nFrom 310 million passengers in", "-29.227656533228583" ], [ "human factors that led to the aviation incident. Their findings were that Flight 7425's flight crew were very fatigued at the time of the crash due to their having to spend 24 hours at the departure airport prior to takeoff. Another factor in the crash was inadequate regulations for crews encountering abnormal conditions.", "-29.215670345882245" ], [ "airport runway in Bangalore, the ensuing fire contributed to the casualty count of 92 of 146 on board. The press and media later questioned the fly-by-wire flight control system, but subsequent investigations by commission of inquiry found \"no malfunction of the aircraft or its equipment which could have contributed towards a reduction in safety or an increase in the crew's workload during the final flight phase ... the response of the engines was normal and in compliance with certification requirement.\"\nIt has seen 50 incidents where several flight displays were lost. Through 2015, the Airbus A320 family has experienced 0.12 fatal hull-loss", "-29.200340104249335" ], [ "aircraft\". On May 21, CNBC reported that according to a person familiar with the matter, U.S. aviation officials believe a bird strike may have led to the crash of ET302. Boeing's shares rose in response to this information.\nThe subsequent findings in the Ethiopian Airlines crash and the Lion Air crash led to the Boeing 737 MAX groundings across the world. On August 19, 2019, Forbes estimated that the 737 MAX would not resume service before 2020.", "-29.197199028847535" ], [ "pilot blamed the plane's fly-by-wire system for the crash. This claim caused a major controversy about the Airbus A320. Aftermath Less than two years after the crash of Flight 605, the A320 suffered another fatal accident when Air Inter Flight 148 crashed in France killing 87 people. The cause was also a CFIT like 605. The investigation of Flight 148 harshly criticized the Airbus A320's cockpit design. In response, the entire cockpit design of the A320 was changed.", "-29.192730095703155" ], [ "the probable cause of the accident was \"the pilot's [Collins] failure to maintain clearance from the other airplane. Factors relating to the accident were the pilot's poor visual lookout, and the airport control tower local controller's failure to provide effective sequencing.\" The NTSB did not fault Sharon Hock.\nIn a letter to the FAA the NTSB stated “Because [the local controller Fowler] did not see the airplanes, his erroneous estimate of [Hock’s] progress since losing visual contact and the pilots’ imprecise position reports were the only information that he had with which to judge the proper sequence of the airplanes. His", "-29.190756339747168" ], [ "reports of bad weather at the time.\nCommunication with the flight was lost half an hour into the short, routine trip.\n\"The accident occurred due to loss of control after experiencing adverse weather that caused the plane to stall... resulting in a nosedive,\" state media said.\nAfter studying black box data, investigators decided the crash was \"not from any act of sabotage, explosion or engine failure\".\nThe plane was flying from Myeik to Yangon and the debris was found in the sea off the coastal town of Dawei.\nIt remains unclear why the pilot flew into the storm, given that weather radar normally allows such", "-29.18834742094623" ], [ "flight.\nNo damage occurred to the aircraft as a result of the incident. One flight attendant suffered minor injuries. No other passengers or crew aboard Flight 517 were injured. Investigation and aftermath The NTSB investigated the incident, with a particular focus on determining whether the events of Flight 517 were related to previous Boeing 737 crashes.\nDuring the investigation, the NTSB found that prior to the June 9 incident, flight crews had reported a series of rudder-related events on the incident aircraft, including abnormal \"bumps\" on the rudder pedals and uncommanded movement of the rudder.\nInvestigators conducted interviews with the pilots", "-29.177905848445903" ], [ "was carried on the front page of newspapers nationwide in the days following the accident. NTSB investigation The National Transportation Safety Board dispatched a team to investigate the accident. The focus of the investigation was immediately centered on the weather at the time of the accident. Investigators were surprised by the presence of a cockpit voice recorder in the airplane as such recorders were not required for the involved airplane at the time. Following a detailed investigation, the NTSB issued its final report on March 3, 1992; AAR-92/01. The formal probable cause of the accident was \"the decision of", "-29.13444682235786" ], [ "the accident would likely increase unease about the Boeing 737 MAX felt in the aftermath of the Lion Air Flight 610 accident in October 2018, which similarly occurred shortly after take-off and killed everyone aboard. Boeing shares dropped 11% over the weekend, and as of 23 March Boeing has lost more than $40 billion in market value since the crash, dropping some 14%. Investigation The Ethiopian Civil Aviation Authority (ECAA), the agency responsible for investigating civil aviation accidents in Ethiopia, has been investigating. The aircraft manufacturer, Boeing, stated that it is prepared to work with the United States National Transportation", "-29.134265412708373" ], [ "improving conditions generally, while noting smoke aloft from the burning plane.\nThe Canadian Broadcasting Corporation reported that the accident happened two hours after a ground stop was declared at the airport because of severe thunderstorms in the area (\"red alert\" status, which, for safety reasons, halts all ground activity on the apron and gate area. Aircraft can still land, and take off if still in queue). Visibility at the time of the accident was reported to be very poor. There was lightning, strong gusty winds, and hail at the time and the rain just began as the plane was landing. Within", "-29.13281731947791" ], [ "1–2 minutes before impact. Total damage was US$80 million and it took 3 months' work to repair the plane. In the 1990s a further US$100 million of damage was sustained by commercial aircraft (some in the air, others on the ground) as a consequence of the 1991 eruption of Mount Pinatubo in the Philippines.\nIn April 2010 airspace all over Europe was affected, with many flights cancelled-which was unprecedented-due to the presence of volcanic ash in the upper atmosphere from the eruption of the Icelandic volcano Eyjafjallajökull. On 15 April 2010 the Finnish Air Force halted training flights when damage was", "-29.12920352225774" ], [ "(880 lb). The preliminary accident report stated the pilots had discussed their fuel state and possible fuel stops en route. For unknown reasons, the CVR stopped recording an hour and forty minutes before the FDR, when the aircraft was still about 550 nautical miles (1,020 km; 630 mi) away from the crash site at the Rionegro VOR. Other investigations and disciplinary measures Ten days after the crash, on 8 December, an investigative report by Spanish-language American media company Univision, using data from the Flightradar24 website, claimed that the airline had broken the fuel and loading regulations of the International Civil Aviation Organization on", "-29.126183096377645" ], [ "in the U.S. and Air Crash Investigation in the UK and elsewhere around the world), which included interviews with survivors and a dramatization of the accident. The flight was also included in a Mayday Season 6 (2007) Science of Disaster special titled \"Ripped Apart\".", "-29.11155585538654" ], [ "Debris from the aircraft was scattered over the whole of the roughly 355 yards (325 m) of its passage. Investigation An investigation could not determine why the aircraft descended through its assigned flight level. Audio recordings taken from air traffic control and from the recovered cockpit voice recorder revealed nothing unusual. The investigation stated that \"no evidence was found of any pre-crash failure or defect in either the airframe or the engines, or of any faulty workmanship.\"\nThe investigation report gave considerable attention to the possibility that the air crew could have misread their \"three-pointer\" altimeters, which were designed to warn the", "-29.10695717912313" ], [ "Chain of events (accident analysis) In accident analysis, a chain of events (or error chain) consists of the contributing factors leading to an undesired outcome. Aviation In aviation accidents and incidents, these contributing actions typically stem from human factor-related mistakes and pilot error, rather than mechanical failure. A study conducted by Boeing found that 55% of airline accidents between 1959 and 2005 were caused by such human related factors, while only 17% of accidents were caused by mechanical issues with the aircraft.\nThe Tenerife airport disaster, the worst accident in aviation history, is a prime example of an accident in which", "-29.095850942016114" ], [ "22,000 flights were cancelled. By 21 April 95,000 flights had been cancelled.\nBefore this, the severest restrictions to air travel in recent times were following the attacks of 11 September 2001 in the United States when all civil air traffic (not just scheduled) in US airspace, and to and from the United States, was grounded for three days.\nProfessor Bill McGuire of the Aon Benfield UCL Hazard Research Centre said on 15 April that the most notable eruption of the Icelandic volcano Laki which occurred in 1783, would, if it occurred today \"have the potential to severely affect air travel at high", "-29.095088092260994" ], [ "was caused by the pilots failing to realize the gravity of the situation and failing to respond by immediately advancing the throttles, even after the radio altitude callouts of “Four Hundred,” “Three Hundred” and “Two Hundred” feet, despite knowing that the plane was in idle/open descent mode. Controversy India's investigative team concluded that pilot error was the cause of the accident, which was supported by Airbus Industries. However, the India Commercial Pilot Association (ICPA) disputed the report, claiming that a design flaw on the Airbus A320 was the cause of the crash.\nThe ICPA stated that the senior Captain of the", "-29.070778350229375" ], [ "inconsistent with the level of safety intended by the regulations, which is to allow reduced rest periods as a contingency to a schedule disruption, and has the potential of adversely affecting pilot fitness and performance.\" Probable cause On April 28, 1992, the NTSB published its final accident report, including its determination of the cause of the crash:\n[The National Transportation Safety Board determines that] the probable cause of this accident was the loss of control in flight as a result of a malfunction of the left engine propeller control unit which allowed the propeller blade angles to go below the flight", "-29.06468300591223" ], [ "nine crew members and 78 of the 84 passengers. Debris from the accident spread out across a 250-meter distance; a fire broke out in the remains of the aircraft and destroyed much of what remained of the airliner. All six survivors, which included three children, were seriously injured. Causes The official report cited pilot error and poor in-flight planning as the cause of the accident; the crew initiated descent prematurely and apparently did not have sufficient knowledge of approach conditions, and these factors combined ultimately led to the crash. The commands given by the air traffic controller at the", "-29.028545288572786" ], [ "beta range. The absence of flight recorder The investigation was hampered due to the absence of a cockpit voice recorder and a flight data recorder. BEA made a statement:\nIt is regrettable that the absence of flight recorders on the aircraft made it impossible to make a rapid determination of the conditions of the last minutes of the flight. More than ten years after the publication of the regulation of 5 November 1987, the waivers granted for older aircraft no longer appear to be justified.\nAfter the crash, the BEA made mandatory recommendations to the Directorate General for Civil Aviation and the", "-28.99293745585601" ], [ "over a report ordered by the commission which revealed several absent safety procedures in Widerøe. The report was based on a recommendation by the International Civil Aviation Organization to take into consideration the organizational structure the aircraft operate within when investigating aviation accidents. In June, parliamentarian Magnus Stangeland criticized the commission for working too slow, stating that the victims and next of kin needed answers to why the accident happened. The lack of cooperation between the police and the commission was the main source of the delays. Similar delays had occurred after Partnair Flight 394 in 1989, which had resulted", "-28.969600492622703" ], [ "variety of factors including the relatively controlled manner of the crash and the early notification of emergency services. Failed component The investigation, while praising the actions of the flight crew for saving lives, would later identify the cause of the accident as a failure by United Airlines maintenance processes and personnel to detect an existing fatigue crack. The Probable Cause in the report by the NTSB read as follows: \nThe National Transportation Safety Board determines that the probable cause of this accident was the inadequate consideration given to human factors limitations in the inspection and quality control procedures used by", "-28.96070499646885" ], [ "weather conditions, stating that \"many\" other aircraft had taken off during the time period.\nThe final investigation report released by the Lebanese Ministry of Public Works and Transport, presented on 17 January 2012, stated that \"the probable causes of the accident were the flight crew's mismanagement of the aircraft's speed, altitude, headings and attitude through inconsistent flight control inputs resulting in a loss of control and their failure to abide by CRM [Crew Resource Management] principles of mutual support and calling deviations\".\nEthiopian Airlines stated the airline \"strongly refutes\" the report, and that it \"was biased, lacking evidence, incomplete and did not", "-28.955017129715998" ], [ "cause of the accident. Despite a lack of Accident Data Recorder and cockpit voice recorder, Wratten concluded that because the aircraft hit the ground whilst in cloud/fog, pilot error was the cause of the crash and found the pilots guilty of gross negligence. Following a subsequent Scottish Fatal Accident Inquiry and House of Commons Public Accounts Committee report, a House of Lords Select Committee was appointed to consider all the circumstances surrounding the crash and unanimously concluded \"that the reviewing officers were not justified in finding that negligence on the part of the pilots caused the aircraft to crash\".", "-28.927584170005503" ], [ "in a 1991 documentary of Taking Liberties named 'Fatal Error'\nThere was an ITV documentary in 1999 of the Kegworth crash.\nFlight 092 was also featured in an episode of Seconds From Disaster, called \"Motorway Plane Crash\".\nIt was also featured in the 2011 Discovery Channel documentary Aircrash Confidential.\nIn 2014, the incident was featured in the episode \"Choosing Sides\" or \"M1 Plane Crash\" of the documentary television series Mayday.", "-28.924404740915634" ], [ "they aimed to publish the final report within a year of the crash date. Final report The Dutch Safety Board (DSB) issued its final report on the crash on 13 October 2015. The report concluded that the crash was caused by a Buk 9M38-series surface-to-air missile with a 9N314M warhead. The warhead detonated outside and above the left-hand side of the cockpit. The impact killed the three people in the cockpit and caused structural damage to the airplane leading to an in-flight break-up resulting in a wreckage area of 50 square kilometres and loss of the lives of all 298", "-28.911564523629124" ], [ "on the Baltimore–Kansas City–San Francisco route. Historical context Prior to 1990, the closest aviation accident to the events depicted in Crash: The Mystery of Flight 1501,\noccurred on November 28, 1979, when the actions of the pilot's wife were significant in raising a Royal Commission, in which the \"pilot error\" finding of the initial report on the crash of a McDonnell Douglas DC-10, was changed.\nIn 1996, six years after the release of Crash: The Mystery of Flight 1501, ValuJet Flight 592, a DC-9, as depicted in the film, crashed after dangerous goods illegally loaded into the cargo compartment caused an in-flight", "-28.910994141289848" ], [ "The National Transportation Safety Board concluded that the crash was caused by the aircraft encountering a severe downdraft on approach, and the captain's decision to continue the flight into a known severe storm area. The captain's decision was influenced by the lack of a timely warning about the storm by the weather service and the improper assessment of conditions by the dispatcher.", "-28.910625464312034" ], [ "50 people, was the most recent fatal accident of a commercial airliner in the U.S. until the crash of Asiana Airlines Flight 214 on July 6, 2013 in San Francisco. The disaster raised significant issues regarding commuter airline safety and has resulted in the FAA proposing or implementing several rule changes. Complicating the litigation surrounding the 2009 crash is the April 2012 bankruptcy filing by Colgan Air's parent company Pinnacle Airlines Corporation. The presiding judge, Chief U.S. District Judge William M. Skretny set a March 2014 trial date for the approximately 15 suits still pending as a result of the", "-28.899413003324298" ], [ "investigation into the accident. The cause of the collision was found to be Air Traffic Control errors in failing to provide an appropriate conflict resolution between the two aircraft. The Federal Aviation Administration also opened an investigation.", "-28.875907699461095" ], [ "month after the accident, José Armando Constantino Tercero, the lead investigator from the DGAC, announced that the final conclusion had not yet been reached, but that the cause of the accident appeared to be sudden wind shear from a microburst. He said that the pilots had not received any notice of the adverse conditions prior to starting the takeoff, and that neither human nor mechanical failure appeared to be to blame for the crash. He also said that analysis of the cockpit voice recorder revealed that an unauthorized pilot training was taking place during the flight, and", "-28.865838754165452" ], [ "crash as part of the investigation. Managing Director of EAS Airlines, Idris Wada, insisted that the plane was still in good condition. He later added that Lloyds Insurance, insurers of the BAC 1-11-500 aircraft which was involved in the crash, has sent a representative from London to investigate the cause of the crash. According to him, the plane involved in the crash was fitted with the engine of a grounded EAS Airlines BAC 1-11 plane four days before the crash, which raised questions among the senate. He claimed that the practice was not uncommon among the aviation industry.\nBoth recorders", "-28.842648154939525" ] ]

[ "Why do you think there ought to be legal issues? Anyone can use any other brand in their commercial so long as they don't construe that brand as endorsing your own (without their permission) or say anything untrue about it. You usually won't see a company show a competitor's brand in their commercial because they don't want to increase their competitor's brand recognition. Since it's impossible to increase Coke's brand recogition (it is the most recognized brand in the world), there's no incentive for Pepsi to avoid using them on this count.", "I think what op is asking is, isn't that kind of thing defamation? If not, what makes this slandering not defamation?", "I've never seen Pepsi using Coke in their ads here in France. I guess laws are different in the US?", "In a marketing course I took back in my undergrad days, I remember the professor explaining that there is a rule of thumb in advertising. Now I don't know the legality of this, but generally companies who are not the market leader will use the name of the market leader in their commercials. Pepsi using Coke is the most popular example, but I've seen insurance use this (save xxx compared to Allstate or Geico), and I've seen it used in car commercials comparing their luxury car to Mercedes Benz. However you'll never see Mercedes talking bad about Lexus, Infinity, or Acura. Like I said, I don't know the legality of it, but this was the rule of thumb in advertising that I learned as an undergrad. I always wondered the same thing, so when we talked about this, I really found it fascinating.", "Trademark says \"I own this brand name and logo and stuff, and you can't use it to do your business\". This is to keep people from being confused. If I made some iced tea in my bathtub, and called it \"Coke\", people would get confused and think it was Coca-Cola. When it wasn't, people would blame Coca-Cola for selling them shit, not me. Also, I would be taking sales away from Coca-Cola because people who wanted real Coke spent their money on my crap instead. So I'm not allowed to use Coke, Coca-Cola, or their logo or anything in my advertising, because that's like impersonation. The one HUGE exception is that I can use their logos and names as long as I'm using them to clearly and FACTUALLY represent their product. I can't say \"Buy my stuff because Coke\" I can hold up a can of Coke and say \"Buy my stuff, because it is NOT Coke, like this can. It's iced tea and it tastes better. Watch me give some to Fido here\" In that case, I'm not claiming that *I* am Coke, or that I'm selling Coke, or that my special bathtub iced tea is Coke. I'm saying that actual Coke is, actually, Coke... and more to the point, the only way I can actually do that IS by using the Coke name.", "because of name recognition. there's no such thing as bad publicity, says the old adage. If Tide has an add and compares itself to Brand X, the viewer doesn't learn of or be reminded of the other brand. If Tide has an add and compares itself to Alondra Laundry Soap, well, then the viewer suddenly is aware of Alondra Laundry Soap. Free advertising for Alondra Laundry Soap. Even if Tide says Alondra Laundry Soap is bad, Alondra Laundry Soap gets free name recognition. I suppose Pepsi knows that everyone's heard of Coke, so why hide it.", "Previously companies were not allowed to name a competitor's brand in an advertisement. At some point, I forget exactly when, the FTC adjusted that policy allowing competitors' brands to be named. In 1981, a company called Jartran (a Ryder-owned truck rental company) was sued by U-Haul for comparative adverts run earlier that year. Jartran made several claims which patently false about the competition and the judge awarded U-Haul $13 million in damages over the case. The precedent set in that case much more clearly defined how to handle comparative advertising.", "In addition to what others are saying, pepsi and coke kind of have a marketing alliance and their \"competition\" is a calculated show to get people to think and talk about which is their favourite etc. and buy more. Given this, I'm sure they communicate about their ads before showing them, it's not like Coke doesn't find out what Pepsi will air until it's aired. They're not going to seriously go to eachothers throats legally.", "I wish I could have taken a picture but there was this Pepsi machine by a hotel that had a sign near it that read \"Please stop urinating by/on our machine\". Someone wrote below it \"That's not urine, your Pepsi cans are leaking\"." ]

[ [ "someone say at his country club that they liked New Coke, but they would be \"damned if I'll let Coca-Cola know that.\" Response by Pepsi Pepsi-Cola took advantage of the situation, running ads in which a first-time Pepsi drinker exclaimed, \"Now I know why Coke did it!\" Even amidst consumer anger and several Pepsi ads mocking Coca-Cola's debacle, Pepsi actually gained very few long-term converts over Coke's switch, despite a 14% sales increase over the same month the previous year, the largest sales growth in the company's history. Coca-Cola's director of corporate communications, Carlton Curtis, realized over time that consumers", "-27.809969550202368" ], [ "the product, with a series of advertisements informing consumers that \"Coke means Coca-Cola\". In 1971, a song from a Coca-Cola commercial called \"I’d Like to Teach the World to Sing\", produced by Billy Davis, became a hit single.\nCoke's advertising is pervasive, as one of Woodruff's stated goals was to ensure that everyone on Earth drank Coca-Cola as their preferred beverage. This is especially true in southern areas of the United States, such as Atlanta, where Coke was born.\nSome Coca-Cola television commercials between 1960 through 1986 were written and produced by former Atlanta radio veteran Don Naylor (WGST 1936–1950, WAGA 1951–1959)", "-26.96768615784822" ], [ "as \"Coca-Cola Classic\".\nIn 1989, Billy Joel mentioned the rivalry between the two companies in the song \"We Didn't Start the Fire\". The line \"Rock & Roller Cola Wars\" refers to Pepsi and Coke's usage of various musicians in advertising campaigns. Coke used Paula Abdul, while Pepsi used Michael Jackson. Both companies then competed to get other musicians to advertise its beverages.\nAccording to Beverage Digest's 2008 report on carbonated soft drinks, PepsiCo's U.S. market share is 30.8 percent, while The Coca-Cola Company's is 42.7 percent. Coca-Cola outsells Pepsi in most parts of the U.S., notable exceptions being central Appalachia, North Dakota,", "-26.795295314732357" ], [ "Boston contending that the commercial made Coke's product appear impure.\nThe US district court granted the Company's motion because the commercial \"implied that Coke [was] not pure\", misrepresented the nature and quality of Coke, thereby potentially harming the soft drink irreparably. The injunction handed down required Polar Corporation to revise the ad. According to Polar, the judge's ruling affirmed the right of Polar to use a polar bear in its ads, but limited them from discarding the Coke can.", "-26.610742935343296" ], [ "organization that approves TV advertising in the UK, explained that they \"thought it was a denigration of the bottled drinks market\". The same ad, crafted by Alex Bogusky, ran in the United States, Sweden, Australia, and other countries. An appeal by SodaStream to reverse Clearcast's decision to censor the commercial was rejected. A similar advertisement, which featured a pair of Coca-Cola and Pepsi deliverymen reacting to the exploding bottles, was expected to air during Super Bowl XLVII in February 2013, but was rejected by CBS for its direct references to Coke and Pepsi. The previous SodaStream ad was shown in", "-26.376447872222343" ], [ "stations refusing to air it. Nonetheless, the ad received a lot of press coverage, including an appearance on NBC's Today Show by MPP's former director of federal policies, Aaron Houston.\nIn July 2013, MPP aired a new ad at the Brickyard 400 NASCAR Race. In support of making marijuana legal for adults, the spoof beer ad highlighted the relative safety of marijuana compared to alcohol by characterizing marijuana as a \"new 'beer'\" with \"no calories,\" \"no hangovers,\" and \"no violence\" associated with its use. Although it was scheduled to air dozens of times on a jumbotron outside the entrance of the", "-26.34678744804114" ], [ "were distributed throughout the islands on the Pacific Ocean. Asian countries experienced Coca-Cola. According to the company, the drink spread throughout the islands because, \"Coke symbolized the American way of life.\"\nThroughout the war, Coke dispersed ads for their soda all over the world. The majority of the ads displayed an American soldier drinking a soda with the natives of that country. If the ad was in a country outside of the United States, it was written in the native language of that country. Popular ads had positive images of Americans with Coke in New Zealand, Russia, the Philippines, Newfoundland, Italy,", "-25.815092621021904" ], [ "Pepsi Stuff promotion, both Pepsi and Coca-Cola have introduced other promotions in a similar vein to the original campaign. Some promotions involved a variety of merchandise, while others involved specific products, such as Cash or MP3s. Pepsi's 2002–2003 iTunes campaign fizzled when only 500 cap codes were redeemed. Also in 2006, Pepsi introduced Pepsi Access in Canada to compete with iCoke, although that campaign ended in 2007. The competition In 2005, The Coca-Cola Company launched iCoke, a very similar program to Pepsi Stuff in which consumers collect points printed on packages in Canada. On February 28, 2006 — nearly", "-25.721428904449567" ], [ "OK Soda History In 1993, Coca-Cola CEO Roberto Goizueta rehired Sergio Zyman to be the chief of marketing for all Coca-Cola beverage brands, a surprising choice given that Zyman had worked closely with the New Coke campaign, possibly the largest advertising failure in Coke's history. However, after revamping the can design and print advertising campaigns for Diet Coke and Coca-Cola Classic with great success, Zyman was given free rein to design new products with aggressive, offbeat marketing campaigns.\nInternational market research done by The Coca-Cola Company in the late 1980s revealed that \"Coke\" was the second most recognizable word across all", "-25.43684187164763" ], [ "Jill Filipovic noted that the company had been increasingly targeting minorities, such as Latino Americans (who are more likely to be heavy drinkers of soft drinks because of their low cost) and drew comparisons to the marketing of cigarettes to women, but that \"before we applaud Coke's advertising diversity, we should ask: do we really want Coke to diversify?\"\nThe commercial was re-aired prior to kickoff at Super Bowl LI, eliciting similar criticism. Nationwide Insurance: \"Boy\" At Super Bowl XLIX in 2015, after an eight-year hiatus, Nationwide Insurance returned to the game with two new advertisements. The second of these advertisements,", "-25.19368763420789" ], [ "the Pepsi advert: \"It was all over television, and there was no doubt as to what had inspired the sound, but it was before people thought seriously about protecting things like sounds. The legalities of sampling were still being thrashed out. No one was sure if you could copyright a beat or a groove.\" He proposed to his lawyer about tackling the Pepsi advert, who responded that Pepsi would win any court case duel to them having \"a lot of money and a lot of lawyers.\"\nIn a list for The Quietus, Pauline Black of The Selecter named The Raw &", "-25.066195330684423" ], [ "be alienated by the switch. This would not emerge for several years afterward, however, and in the meantime the public simply concluded that the company had, as Keough suggested, failed to consider the public's attachment to the idea of what Coke's old formula represented. While that has become conventional wisdom in the ensuing years, some analyses have suggested otherwise.\nThis populist version of the story served Coke's interests, however, as the episode did more to position and define Coca-Cola as a brand embodying values distinct from Pepsi. Allowing itself to be portrayed as a somewhat clueless large corporation forced to withdraw", "-25.011710324557498" ], [ "Share a Coke Share a Coke is a multi-national marketing campaign in for Coca-Cola. It debrands the traditional Coke logo, replacing \"Coca-Cola\" from one side of a bottle with the phrase \"Share a Coke with\" followed by a person's name. The campaign, which uses a list containing 250 of the country's most popular names (generic nicknames and titles are also used in some cases), aims to have people go out and find a bottle with their name on it, then share it with their friends. The campaign began in Australia in 2011. Campaign effectiveness and outcomes The Share a Coke", "-24.884725219970278" ], [ "Headroom asking a Pepsi can he was \"interviewing\" how it felt about more drinkers preferring Coke to it and then cut to the condensation forming on, and running down, the can. \"S-s-s-s-sweating?\", he asked.\nThe campaign was a huge success, and surveys likewise showed that more than three-quarters of the target market were aware of the ads within two days. Coke's consumer hotline received more calls about Max than any previous spokesperson, some even asking if he had a girlfriend. The ads and campaign continued through 1987, and were chosen as best of 1986 by Video Storyboard of New York. Coke", "-24.878330051760713" ], [ "Coke.\nThe song became so popular that its creators revised it, adding three verses and removing product references to create a full-length song appropriate for commercial release. The full-length song was re-recorded by both The Hillside Singers and The New Seekers and both versions became huge hits. Lyrics \"Buy the World a Coke\" contains the line \"I'd like to buy the world a Coke\" and repeats \"It's the real thing\", which was Coca-Cola's marketing slogan at the time. The Coca-Cola Company introduced that slogan in October 1969. Significance and reception In 2007, Campaign magazine called it \"one of the best-loved and", "-24.82143228588393" ], [ "during his career as a producer for the McCann Erickson advertising agency. Many of these early television commercials for Coca-Cola featured movie stars, sports heroes, and popular singers.\nDuring the 1980s, Pepsi-Cola ran a series of television advertisements showing people participating in taste tests demonstrating that, according to the commercials, \"fifty percent of the participants who said they preferred Coke actually chose the Pepsi.\" Statisticians pointed out the problematic nature of a 50/50 result: most likely, the taste tests showed that in blind tests, most people cannot tell the difference between Pepsi and Coke. Coca-Cola ran ads to combat Pepsi's ads", "-24.808626709651435" ], [ "bottlers' meeting at Atlanta's Woodruff Arts Center, glad the company had finally taken some initiative in the face of Pepsi's advances, they were less enthusiastic about the taste. Most of them saw great difficulty having to promote and sell a drink that had long been marketed as \"The Real Thing\", constant and unchanging, now that it had been changed.\nThe 20 bottlers still suing Coca-Cola made much of the change in their legal arguments. Coca-Cola had argued in its defense when the suit was originally filed that the formula's uniqueness and difference from Diet Coke justified different pricing policies from", "-24.789165231733932" ], [ "organizations, who felt that Cocaine glamorized drug usage to children. That same month, 7-Eleven publicly asked its franchisees to stop selling the energy drink. According to the Las Vegas Sun, Kirby made over $1.5 million in sales three months after Cocaine's debut.\nIn 2007, Cocaine was temporarily pulled from shelves in the United States, after the Food and Drug Administration published a warning letter stating that Cocaine \"was illegally marketing the drink as both a street drug alternative and a dietary supplement\". The FDA cited statements made on Cocaine's packaging and website as evidence for their claims. In response, Redux Beverages", "-24.659166810801253" ], [ "Coke formed a new first-run syndication unit; Coca-Cola Telecommunications due to Coca-Cola merging the distribution unit of Columbia Pictures Television and The Television Program Source (a syndicator that was a joint venture between Alan Bennett, former King World president Robert King, and CPT that was created on October 15, 1984, which Coca-Cola had a small investment in originally, and notably distributed the 1985–1986 nighttime syndicated version of The Price Is Right and was slated to distribute a new version of The Match Game for syndication in 1987). Coca-Cola Telecommunications also took some programs that were or slated to be distributed", "-24.627100729150698" ], [ "was cast in a series of Coca-Cola commercial called \"Girl Band\" directed by cinematographer Lance Acord that aired in 2005. Mike Viola provided lyrics and musical direction for the commercials, but 'Kiev's' music was used for the series of ads. Various articles referenced the Coke ad highlighting the DIY attitude of the band, the documentary style used by Acord for the Coke \"Real\" campaign, and the ironic juxtaposition of a real \"girl band\" in an advertisement being more \"real\" than the reality TV show \"American Idol\" during which it aired.\nVidal started a new project, Your Kid Sister, while an art", "-24.61391734710196" ], [ "up the market. Pepsi conducted blind taste tests in stores, in what was called the \"Pepsi Challenge\". These tests suggested that more consumers preferred the taste of Pepsi to Coca-Cola. The sales of Pepsi started to climb, and Pepsi kicked off the \"Challenge\" across the nation. This became known as the \"Cola Wars\".\nIn 1985, The Coca-Cola Company, amid much publicity, changed its formula. The theory has been advanced that New Coke, as the reformulated drink came to be known, was invented specifically in response to the Pepsi Challenge. However, a consumer backlash led to Coca-Cola quickly reintroducing the original formula", "-24.547149675156106" ], [ "Coca-Cola to either reintroduce the old formula or sell it to someone else. His organization eventually received over 60,000 phone calls. He also filed a class action lawsuit against the company (which was quickly dismissed by a judge who said he preferred the taste of Pepsi), while nevertheless expressing interest in securing The Coca-Cola Company as a client of his new firm should it reintroduce the old formula. In two informal blind taste tests, Mullins either failed to distinguish New Coke from old or expressed a preference for New Coke.\nDespite ongoing resistance in the South, New Coke continued to do", "-24.54649318534939" ], [ "to promote or otherwise distinguish it. In a market already offering several choices of drinks calling themselves \"Coke\" in some fashion or another, the public saw little reason to embrace a product they had firmly rejected seven years earlier, and within about a year, Coke II was largely off the American shelves again. By 1998, it could only be found in a few scattered markets in the northwest, midwest and some overseas territories. In July 2002, Coca-Cola announced that Coke II would be discontinued entirely.\nOn August 16, 2002, The Coca-Cola Company announced a change of the label of Coke Classic", "-24.356894051888958" ], [ "Pepsi Stuff Program inception The premium-based loyalty program of PepsiCo called Pepsi Stuff was launched in the United States on March 28, 1996. Points were distributed on four billion packages and billions of cups and millions of consumers participated. According to some sources, the first Pepsi Stuff campaign significantly outperformed The Coca-Cola Company's much-anticipated Atlanta Olympics Summer with growth three times larger than Coca-Cola's and two points of share gained by Pepsi. Pepsi Stuff continued to run throughout North America due to consumer and bottler demand, and was eventually expanded to include Mountain Dew and other drinks, and into", "-24.35311817965703" ], [ "\"Sorry, Coke and Pepsi\" was overshadowed by growing controversies around the company's use of a factory that was located in an Israeli settlement on the West Bank. Coca-Cola: \"It's Beautiful\" In 2014, Coca-Cola aired a Super Bowl advertisement entitled \"It's Beautiful\"; themed around multiculturalism, the ad featured scenes depicting Americans of various ethnicities, along with a same-sex couple—the first to ever appear in a Super Bowl ad, set to a rendition of the patriotic hymn \"America The Beautiful\" with lyrics sung in multiple languages.\nThe ad was divisive, with users taking to Twitter under the hashtag \"#SpeakAmerican\" to discuss their views", "-24.295765431714244" ], [ "over 1000 unique songs based on names found on bottles of Coke. \nFinancial analysts and advertising experts have used the success of the 'Share-a-Coke' campaign to remind marketers and advertisers of the need to personalise the communications message.", "-24.276549179223366" ], [ "Live for Now (Pepsi) Reaction The advertisement was pulled by the company one day after its distribution due to criticism. The company released a statement, saying: \nPepsi was trying to project a global message of unity, peace and understanding. Clearly we missed the mark, and we apologize. We did not intend to make light of any serious issue. We are removing the content and halting any further rollout. We also apologize for putting Kendall Jenner in this position.\nThe advertisement's creators have been widely criticized on social media and by media outlets for attempting to capitalize on imagery imitating protests in", "-24.23453971031995" ], [ "campaign was subsequently rolled out in over 80 countries. In Australia, the advertising agency, Ogilvy have estimated that the campaign increased Coke's share of the category by 4% and increased consumption by young adults by 7%. The campaign received multiple awards at the Creative Effectiveness Lion Awards at Cannes.\nIn the United States, where the campaign is credited with increasing sales by more than 2% and according to a piece by The Atlantic writer Kalle Oskari Mattila, said to have reversed more than 10 years of decline in Coke consumption, the company and its agency has sought ways to extend", "-24.170545657136245" ], [ "of New Coke to both Coke and Pepsi but Coca-Cola management was unprepared for the public's nostalgia for the old drink, leading to a backlash. The company gave in to protests and returned to the old formula under the name Coca-Cola Classic, on July 10, 1985. 21st century On July 5, 2005, it was revealed that Coca-Cola would resume operations in Iraq for the first time since the Arab League boycotted the company in 1968.\nIn April 2007, in Canada, the name \"Coca-Cola Classic\" was changed back to \"Coca-Cola\". The word \"Classic\" was removed because \"New Coke\" was no longer in", "-24.128592464592657" ], [ "in an incident sometimes referred to as the cola wars; one of Coke's ads compared the so-called Pepsi challenge to two chimpanzees deciding which tennis ball was furrier. Thereafter, Coca-Cola regained its leadership in the market.\nSelena was a spokesperson for Coca-Cola from 1989 until the time of her death. She filmed three commercials for the company. During 1994, to commemorate her five years with the company, Coca-Cola issued special Selena coke bottles.\nThe Coca-Cola Company purchased Columbia Pictures in 1982, and began inserting Coke-product images into many of its films. After a few early successes during Coca-Cola's ownership, Columbia began to", "-24.115548946720082" ], [ "was taking on the Coke ads; nothing came close.\" Robinson recalled that \"cause and effect advertising\" was very popular in British advertising at the time, which he described as advertisements where \"you come into contact with the product and somehow it changes your life for the better, was a big trend.\" The most recent television advertising campaign for Tango at the time was a series of advertisements featuring the slogan \"the whole fruit\" that had aired from 1987–1991. These advertisements featured musical soundtracks throughout and lacked the surreal humour that would later dominate the soft drink's advertising from Orange Man", "-23.975304427702213" ], [ "Waters of March Other uses The song was adapted for use in a series of adverts for Coca-Cola. These ended with the then current slogan Coke Is It.\n This was also used in a 1994 ad for Ayala Malls in the Philippines.", "-23.953086189139867" ], [ "promotional run\" to promote the third season of the web series Stranger Things, as part of a partnership deal with Netflix. About 500,000 cans of New Coke were produced for the promotion. Taste test problems In his book Blink: The Power of Thinking Without Thinking (2005), Malcolm Gladwell relates his conversations with market researchers in the food industry who put most of the blame for the failure of New Coke on the flawed nature of taste tests. They claim most are subject to systematic biases. Tests such as the Pepsi Challenge were \"sip tests\", meaning that drinkers were given small", "-23.936718082986772" ], [ "sponsoring. The advertising and the promotion were integral to Pepsi's marketing strategy, television and press ads and the Pepsi Chart Show (screened on Channel 5) all spelt out that the only way to listen to the single was to buy Pepsi. Producing 92 million promotional packs of the cola, 600,000 CDs were redeemed with the promotion. With a redemption rate of nearly 10 percent, Pepsi recorded its biggest-ever take up on the promotion and saw its market share rise from 15.1% on 12 July to 19.6% on 9 August, its highest for several years. \nThe version on the Japanese edition", "-23.92438003543066" ], [ "day off saying, \"By today's action, Coke has admitted that it's not the real thing.\" Company dissatisfaction Some Coca-Cola executives had quietly been arguing for a reintroduction of the old formula as early as May. By mid June, when soft drink sales usually start to rise, the numbers showed that new Coke was leveling among consumers. Executives feared social peer pressure was now affecting their bottom line. Some consumers even began trying to obtain \"old\" Coke from overseas, where the new formula had not yet been introduced, as domestic stocks of the old drink were exhausted. Over the course of", "-23.835518561085337" ], [ "iconic \"Hey Kid, Catch!\" commercial, which is interrupted by two Coca-Cola \"brand managers\" accusing Troy Polamalu of \"stealing\" their commercial.\nIn Australia, the product's launch was promoted by a fake front group; the campaign included outdoor graffiti and online spamming that mentioned a fake blog. Once exposed, consumer advocates assailed the campaign as misleading and established the Zero Coke Movement to comment on the ethics of Coke's activities.\nCoca-Cola Zero sponsors Bundesliga club Borussia Dortmund, the NASCAR Sprint Cup Series Coke Zero 400 at Daytona International Speedway in July, and also the Suzuka 8 Hours in Japan, a motorcycle endurance race.\nIn 2013,", "-23.826967102882918" ], [ "and Drug Administration discovered \"thousands\" of contaminated beers nationwide first appeared in 2014 at the site huzlers. The claims continue to be shared via social media. U.S. News & World Report debunked the article after it went viral by saying the U.S. government didn't find Coors Light beer laced with cocaine, despite claims that originated on a satirical website.\n \"This story is not true,\" said FDA spokesman Peter Cassell.\"", "-23.73786673200084" ], [ "beaten both Pepsi-Cola and the old Coke formula in multiple blind taste tests, consumer response was overwhelmingly negative. The company quickly reintroduced the original beverage, rebranded as \"Coca-Cola Classic\", while continuing to market the new version as \"Coke\".\nNew Coke remained on the market, in North America only, for 17 years—the last 10 as \"Coke II\"—until it was quietly discontinued in 2002. The \"Classic\" designation remained on the original product's label, its prominence gradually decreasing over the years, until it was removed entirely in 2009. Contemporary labeling now displays the phrase \"Original Taste.\" Mexican Coke In the early 2000s, cane sugar-sweetened", "-23.71452929105726" ], [ "been. \"We are still allowing advertising,\" Councilman Herndon, one of the backers of the ad ban said. \"We just don't want it in your face.\" \nDespite the rules against allowing dispensaries to advertise in the public space, the magazine High Times has sued the state of Colorado in order to gain advertising in print press. The law states that stores providing recreational marijuana can advertise in publications that have \"reliable evidence that no more than 30 percent of the publication's readership is reasonably expected to be under the age of 21\". This lawsuit argues that the inability to advertise in", "-23.67777900067449" ], [ "the government had seized the barrels and kegs. Harvey Washington Wiley, a chemist and head of the Bureau of Chemistry in the U.S. Department of Agriculture led the lawsuit. Wiley was anti Coca-Cola mainly because he was against the added caffeine. The trial included many studies as well as paid testimonies from both parties and in the end was dismissed by the judge. However, the United States government ended up winning the case when they took it to the Supreme Court in 1916. This resulted in the reduction of caffeine content in Coca-Cola. Caffeine In 1916, there was a federal", "-23.654944856767543" ], [ "considered Best in Show at CES 2013 because the broadcaster was in active litigation over an automatic commercial skipping feature on the device.\nAn older SodaStream commercial was shown in its place, which also featured exploding pop bottles in a similar fashion, but with no direct references to any other brand; ironically, this particular ad had been banned in the United Kingdom by Clearcast for being considered \"a denigration of the bottled drinks market.\"\nAnother SodaStream ad featuring Scarlett Johansson was produced for and aired during Super Bowl XLVIII in 2014; the supposed rejection of an initial version for containing the line", "-23.615019427248626" ], [ "The law also prohibited more than two languages from being used on the pack to ensure that the specified warning is legible and prominent. Advertising The Cable Television Network (Regulation) Amendment Bill, in force since 8 September 2000, completely prohibits cigarette and alcohol advertisements.\nWith effect from 2 October 2012, the government began screening two anti-tobacco advertisements, titled \"Sponge\" and \"Mukesh\", in movie theatres and on television. It is also mandatory for theatres to display a disclaimer on-screen whenever smoking scenes are depicted in the movie. The \"Sponge\" and \"Mukesh\" ads were replaced by new ads, titled \"Child\" and \"Dhuan\", from", "-23.5863822621468" ], [ "and banks are high on the list as well. Tobacco advertising Prior to 1999, billboards were a major venue of cigarette advertising; 10% of Michigan billboards advertise alcohol and tobacco, according to the Detroit Free Press. This is particularly true in countries where tobacco advertisements are not allowed in other media. For example, in the US, tobacco advertising was banned on radio and television in 1971, leaving billboards and magazines as some of the last places tobacco could be advertised. Billboards made the news in America when, in the tobacco settlement of 1999, all cigarette billboards were replaced with anti-smoking", "-23.58338046507197" ], [ "that young people are aware of the most heavily advertised cigarette brands.\" Alcohol is portrayed in advertising similarly to smoking, \"Alcohol ads continue to appeal to children and portrayals of alcohol use in the entertainment media are extensive\". The consumption of alcohol is glamorized and shown without consequences in advertisements, music, magazines, television, film, etc. The advertisements include alcoholic beverages with colorful packaging and sweet tasting flavors, catering to the interests and likes of children and teens. The alcohol industry has a big financial stake in underage drinking, hoping to gain lifelong customers. Therefore, the media are overrun with alcohol", "-23.57749072802835" ], [ "for over two years to ensure that it resonated with consumers, Pepsi launched Pepsi Stuff, which was an instant success. Due to its success, the program was expanded to include Mountain Dew and Pepsi's international markets worldwide. The company continued to run the program for many years, continually innovating with new features each year.\nThe Pepsi Stuff promotion became the subject of a lawsuit. In one of the many commercials, Pepsi showed a young man in the cockpit of a Harrier Jump Jet. Below ran the caption \"Harrier Jet: 7 million Pepsi Points\". There was a mechanism for buying additional Pepsi", "-23.57636494192593" ], [ "under-perform, and the studio was sold to Sony in 1989.\nCoca-Cola has gone through a number of different advertising slogans in its long history, including \"The pause that refreshes\", \"I had like to buy the world a Coke\", and \"Coke is it\".\nIn 2006, Coca-Cola introduced My Coke Rewards, a customer loyalty campaign where consumers earn points by entering codes from specially marked packages of Coca-Cola products into a website. These points can be redeemed for various prizes or sweepstakes entries.\nIn Australia in 2011, Coca-Cola began the \"share a Coke\" campaign, where the Coca-Cola logo was replaced on the bottles and replaced", "-23.493775212606124" ], [ "finding their bottles exploding and disappearing when another person uses the SodaStream to make their own beverages; representing a disruption of the soft drink market. The ad was rejected by CBS for its direct attacks towards the two rival companies. A Forbes writer expressed concern that the network may have had intentionally shown protectionism towards the two soft drink companies (who have been long-time Super Bowl advertisers), and drew comparisons to a recent incident where the CBS-owned technology news site CNET was controversially forced by its parent company to block Dish Network's Hopper with Sling digital video recorder from being", "-23.486941402574303" ], [ "global ad that reflects people from different walks of life coming together in a spirit of harmony, and we think that's an important message to convey\". According to marketing expert Mike Jackson, part of the problem was that Pepsi did not have a history of promoting social justice causes.\nThe advertisement was parodied in a YouTube video by comedian Vito Gesualdi, who filmed himself handing out cans of Pepsi at an April 15, 2017, protest in Berkeley, California. Gesualdi stated he was trying to \"bridge the divide\" in America with cans of Pepsi; however, almost all the cans distributed", "-23.406357596322778" ], [ "of the situation, saying that had people been fired or demoted over New Coke, it would have sent a message that risk-taking was strongly discouraged at the company.\nIn the late 1990s, Zyman summed up the New Coke experience thus:\nYes, it infuriated the public, cost us a ton of money and lasted for only 77 days before we reintroduced Coca-Cola Classic. Still, New Coke was a success because it revitalized the brand and reattached the public to Coke.\nNew Coke continued to do what it had originally been designed to do: win taste tests. In 1987, The Wall Street Journal surveyed 100", "-23.358447823062306" ], [ "product. For example, the company used a song performed by Presley, A Little Less Conversation, in a Japanese Coca-Cola commercial.\nOther artists that promoted Coca-Cola include David Bowie, George Michael, Elton John, and Whitney Houston, who appeared in the Diet Coke commercial, among many others.\nNot all musical references to Coca-Cola went well. A line in \"Lola\" by the Kinks was originally recorded as \"You drink champagne and it tastes just like Coca-Cola.\" When the British Broadcasting Corporation refused to play the song because of the commercial reference, lead singer Ray Davies re-recorded the lyric as \"it tastes just like cherry cola\"", "-23.346198743151035" ], [ "tune, \"Things Go Better with Coke\", but they are most remembered for introducing the 1969 new slogan recording, used as the main theme for Coca-Cola on both radio and television commercials — \"It's The Real Thing\".\nIn 1968, they tried covering The Move's hit \"Fire Brigade\" for the US market, but with little airplay or sales. In 1970, they recorded an album for the US World Pacific record label, and then signed with Capitol in both the UK and US in 1971.\nThen followed a steady succession of singles, some of which were hits outside of the UK and US, culminating in", "-23.341750194202177" ], [ "and the Medicine Show appeared on the cover of Rolling Stone.\nEven with the success of \"the Cover of the Rolling Stone\" the BBC Radio network refused to play it as it violated their advertising a trademark name rules, (the Kinks had to change \"Coca-Cola\" to \"Cherry Cola\" in their song \"Lola\" to get around the rule). CBS Records responded by setting up a phone line that would play the song to anyone willing to dial in, which helped build the buzz. The BBC was only able to play the song after some of their DJs edited themselves shouting the words", "-23.338339908863418" ], [ "in which the word \"Classic\" was no longer so prominent, leading to speculation that it would eventually be removed and the last traces of New Coke eliminated. In 2009, Coca-Cola permanently removed \"Classic\" from its North American packaging. Currently, as of 2017, packages of original Coca-Cola have since been branded with an \"Original Taste\" banner above the label, as part of the brand's worldwide \"One Brand\" marketing campaign, first introduced in 2016. Commercial legacy \"For a product so widely despised,\" noted AdWeek blogger Tim Nudd in 2006, \"New Coke (a.k.a. Coke II) still gets an admirable amount of ink.\" He", "-23.335907706292346" ], [ "were more upset about the withdrawal of the old formula than the taste of the new one.\nRoger Enrico, then director of Pepsi's North American operations, declared a company-wide holiday and took out a full-page ad in The New York Times proclaiming that Pepsi had won the long-running \"Cola Wars\". Since Coke officials were preoccupied over the weekend with preparations for the announcement, their Pepsi counterparts had time to cultivate skepticism among reporters, sounding themes that would later come into play in the public discourse over the changed drink. After the announcement on April 23, PepsiCo gave its employees the", "-23.2436896993313" ], [ "when the Coca-Cola driver refuses to return the (superior) Pepsi product. The new ad riffed on the same story, with the drivers this time coming to blows over the then-Pepsi MAX at the expense of Coca-Cola's much more popular Coke Zero, with the song \"Why Can't We Be Friends?\" by the American funk band War as the soundtrack. \nIn 2011, Snoop Dogg was featured in an ad campaign around the time of Super Bowl XLV.\nIn early 2010, Pepsi released a limited edition called \"Pepsi Max Cease Fire.\" It is Diet Pepsi Lime in the Pepsi Max formula, and is being", "-23.20551955376868" ], [ "response, tobacco companies offered to stop all advertising on television, if this coordinated action was granted immunity from antitrust laws; they further agreed to have warning labels on cigarette packages and advertising. Tobacco ads ceased to appear on television in the United States at the end of 1970 (on 1 January 1971). Cigarette advertising shifted to print media. Consequently, anti-smoking announcements were no longer required to satisfy the FCC's fairness doctrine. Passive smoking In the late 1960s, Banzhaf and the Action on Smoking and Health worked against passive smoking. In 1969, Ralph Nader had petitioned the Federal Aviation Administration to", "-23.189446637228684" ], [ "Pepsi, but not between Pepsi and RC Cola.\nIn his book, Bad Habits, humorist Dave Barry describes the Pepsi challenge as, \"Pepsi’s ongoing misguided attempt to convince the general public that Coke and Pepsi are not the same thing, which of course they are.\" Contest In 1981, Pepsi ran a \"Pepsi Challenge Payoff\" contest that would hand out a large prize to anyone who could gather Pepsi bottle caps that spelled out the words \"Pepsi Challenge\".", "-23.151510419877013" ], [ "the latter – but if the new formula was simply an HFCS-sweetened Diet Coke, Coca-Cola could not argue the formula was unique. Bottlers, particularly in the South, were also tired of facing personal opprobrium over the change. Many reported that some acquaintances and even friends and relatives had ostracized them, or had expressed displeasure in other emotionally hurtful ways. On June 23, several of the bottlers took these complaints to Coca-Cola executives in a private meeting. With the company now fearing boycotts not only from its consumers but its bottlers, talks about reintroducing the old formula moved from \"if\" to", "-23.14960779863759" ], [ "fountains. The formula was concocted in 1893 by a North Carolina pharmacist.\nPepsi was only one of scores of cola drinks when he became president, and like all the others, was making little headway against the giant Coca-Cola bottling concern. But Pepsi made $3 million in 1938, increased profits an impressive 76 percent, and saw its stock increase in value from $70 to $190 a share.\nMr. Mack decided that real success would only come at the expense of Coke. In the late 1930s, in a notable court case, Pepsi won from Coke the right to add \"cola\" to its name. By the", "-23.13871430500876" ], [ "to get airplay for the song.\nPolitical cartoonist Michel Kichka satirized a famous Coca-Cola billboard in his 1982 poster \"And I Love New York.\" On the billboard, the Coca-Cola wave is accompanied by the words \"Enjoy Coke.\" In Kichka's poster, the lettering and script above the Coca-Cola wave instead read \"Enjoy Cocaine.\" Medicinal application Coca-Cola is sometimes used for the treatment of gastric phytobezoars. In about 50% of cases studied, Coca-Cola alone was found to be effective in gastric phytobezoar dissolution. Unfortunately, this treatment can result in the potential of developing small bowel obstruction in a minority of cases, necessitating surgical", "-23.126781033730367" ], [ "the Pepsi product because she believes in the product and the company behind it, rather than some celebrity endorsements which feel forced, or where consumers see through the endorsement and assume it's just a business decision on behalf of the celebrity to make some extra cash.\nAn example of implicit endorsement can be explained by noticing the growing number of 'Beats by Dre' portable speakers that have been appearing in pop and hip-hop music videos, (such music videos include Lady Gaga, Miley Cyrus, Nicki Minaj and Britney Spears (Ortiz, 2014)). The celebrities involved are not expressly mentioning the Beats product within", "-23.10936608130578" ], [ "chastising him for \"giving money to the Yankees.\" The young punk defends his choice, saying that Pepsi is a Korean product, referring to the Pepsi logo's resemblance of the Taeguk symbol on the South Korean flag.", "-23.087764823183534" ], [ "a range of commercials. It was used in Argentina to advertise Quilmes beer. It was used again for a Diet Coke commercial in the USA and Canada, appearing initially during the 2007 Oscars and also during American Idol. In 2010, the song was featured in a commercial for Travelers Insurance.\nDrummer Ian Stoddart (one time member of Win) departed in late 2005, and was replaced by Murray Briggs, Riley's brother, formerly of the Anarcho/street punk band Oi Polloi.\nA well received second album Do Whatever Turns You On, produced by Calum Malcolm, was released by Rough Trade on 3", "-23.04790898731153" ], [ "\"when\".\nFinally, the Coca-Cola board decided that enough was enough, and plans were set in motion to bring back the old Coke. Company president Donald Keough revealed years later, in the documentary The People vs. Coke (2002), that they realized this was the only right thing to do when they visited a small restaurant in Monaco and the owner proudly said they served \"the real thing, it's a real Coke,\" offering them a chilled 6 and 1/2 oz. glass bottle of original Coca-Cola. Reversal On the afternoon of July 11, 1985, Coca-Cola executives announced the return of the original formula,", "-23.0246060876525" ], [ "mocking the switch. Ads for New Coke were booed heavily when they appeared on the scoreboard at the Houston Astrodome. Even Fidel Castro, a longtime Coca-Cola drinker, contributed to the backlash, calling New Coke a sign of American capitalist decadence. Goizueta's father expressed similar misgivings to his son, who later recalled that it was the only time his father had agreed with Castro, whose rule he had fled Cuba to avoid.\nGay Mullins, a Seattle retiree looking to start a public relations firm with $120,000 of borrowed money, formed the organization Old Cola Drinkers of America on May 28 to lobby", "-23.00707692260039" ], [ "sponsoring of television and radio shows. In 2002, the \"Protection of Young Persons Act\" banned the advertising of tobacco products in cinemas before 6 p.m. On January 1, 2007, the European Tobacco advertisement directive came into effect, banning the advertising of tobacco products on the internet, in newspapers and magazines. The regulation also banned sponsorship of any event which is broadcast internationally. Germany is the only EU member state to still legally permit billboard and cinema advertising for tobacco products. Warning labels In accordance with EU Tobacco Products Directive II, all sold cigarettes, rolling tobacco and hookah tobacco manufacturers have", "-22.93582024760326" ], [ "Soda outbid Coca-Cola to sign a five-year contract for the pouring rights of non-alcoholic beverages at the stadium, making it the only venue in the NFL that did not have a contract with either Coca-Cola or Pepsi. Jones Soda, known for unusual and holiday-themed soda flavors such as Blue Bubblegum and Turkey & Gravy, said it was working to develop football-related soda flavors, such as \"grass-stain\". In June 2010, the Seahawks and Jones Soda announced their mutual decision to end the Jones sponsorship, following which Coca-Cola reclaimed the vending rights with a new five-year agreement. Transportation CenturyLink Field is bordered", "-22.930685513521894" ], [ "\"Genesis does what Nintendon't\" immediately became a catchphrase following the release of the Sega Genesis (known as Mega Drive in PAL countries).\nA 30-second commercial promoting sustainability, showing soda bottles exploding each time a person makes a drink using his Sodastream machine, was banned in the United Kingdom in 2012. Clearcast, the organization that preapproves TV advertising in the U.K., explained that they \"thought it was a denigration of the bottled drinks market.\" The same ad, crafted by Alex Bogusky, ran in the United States, Sweden, Australia, and other countries. An appeal by Sodastream to reverse Clearcast's decision to censor", "-22.92039286857471" ], [ "linear path), skateboards, rolls, and stumbles through various areas, avoiding dangers and collecting cans of Pepsi, all while trying to reach a thirsty person as in the commercials. Sports sponsorships Pepsi has official sponsorship deals with the National Football League, National Hockey League, and National Basketball Association. It was the sponsor of Major League Soccer until December 2015 and Major League Baseball until April 2017, both leagues signing deals with Coca-Cola. Pepsi also has the naming rights to the Pepsi Center, an indoor sports facility in Denver, Colorado. In 1997, after his sponsorship with Coca-Cola ended, retired NASCAR Sprint Cup", "-22.892784812662285" ], [ "II In 1985, New Coke was sold only in the United States, United States territories, and Canada while the original formula continued to be sold in the rest of the world. New Coke was eventually returned to the company's product portfolio; it was test-marketed in certain U.S. cities under the name Coke II in 1990, which was taken national in late 1992, despite the company's original intention not to create a second brand. Filmmaker Miranda July is said to have suggested the name of Coke II while working as a tastemaker for an ad agency.\nThe Coca-Cola Company did practically nothing", "-22.8903817004757" ], [ "Continuing an ongoing theme in the promotion of Coke Zero, the ad was interrupted by a Coca-Cola \"brand manager\" accusing Polamalu of \"stealing\" their commercial; in response, Polamalu tackled him and ripped off his shirt to give to the child. In 2012, Procter & Gamble aired a parody of the ad entitled \"Stinky\". The ad saw Greene reprise his role, but having the young fan throw Downy Unstoppables fabric softener to Greene instead of Coca-Cola, and the fan rejecting his jersey because it smelled. In 2016, Joe Greene was reunited with Okon as part of a segment for CBS's Super", "-22.879191106621874" ], [ "of chips at the same time, and after a brief pause, passionately kissing and dry humping each other, much to the surprise of the other man present. The advertisement was initially put on a waiting list before the network outright rejected it due to it violating CBS's broadcast standards and because CBS believed ManCrunch's did not have sufficient credit (ability to pay for the ad). ManCrunch accused CBS of discrimination saying, \"If the ad showed a man and woman kissing it would have been accepted.\" The New York Post concluded it was \"no more racy than nearly any beer", "-22.87543551856652" ], [ "that PepsiCo had been granted an order by the Delhi High Court, ordering Facebook, Instagram, Twitter, and YouTube to remove or block various \"disparaging and defamatory\" posts perpetuating a false rumour that Kurkure products contain plastics. The rumour had frequently been spread via videos depicting the snacks being flammable, even though this is based primarily on their starch content. PepsiCo faced criticism over the move, as it also included the geoblocking of Twitter posts that were clearly satirizing the controversy and order.", "-22.869944744976237" ], [ "be activated because the taste is rewarding. When the subjects were informed of the brand names the consumers preferred Coke, and only Coke activated the ventromedial prefrontal cortex, suggesting that drinking the Coke brand is rewarding beyond simply the taste itself. More subjects preferred Coke when they knew it was Coke than when the taste testing was anonymous, which demonstrates the power of branding to influence consumer behavior. There was also significant activation in the hippocampus and dorsolateral prefrontal cortex when subjects knew they were drinking Coke. These brain structures are known to play a role", "-22.86153295427721" ], [ "Coca-Cola has been prominently featured in many films and television programs. It was a major plot element in films such as One, Two, Three, The Coca-Cola Kid, and The Gods Must Be Crazy, among many others. In music, in the Beatles' song, \"Come Together\", the lyrics say, \"He shoot Coca-Cola\", he say.... The Beach Boys also referenced Coca-Cola in their 1964 song \"All Summer Long\" (i.e. Member when you spilled Coke all over your blouse?)\nThe best selling artist of all time Elvis Presley, promoted Coca-Cola during his last tour of 1977. The Coca-Cola Company used Elvis' image to promote the", "-22.82820885287947" ], [ "randomly selected cola drinkers, the majority of whom indicated a preference for Pepsi, with Classic Coke accounting for the remainder save two New Coke loyalists. When this group was given a chance to try all three in a blind test, New Coke slightly edged out Pepsi, but many drinkers reacted angrily to finding they had chosen a brand other than their favorite.\nGoizueta claimed that he never once regretted the decision to change Coca-Cola. He even threw a tenth anniversary party for New Coke in 1995 and continued to drink it until his death in 1997. After Coca-Cola Classic In the", "-22.79694754938828" ], [ "In June 2009, the United States Senate passed anti-smoking legislation described by USA Today as \"the most sweeping tobacco-control measure ever passed by Congress\". This legislation directly impacted the marketing and consumption of light tobacco products. In addition to giving the FDA regulatory power over all tobacco products, the bill severely restricted the tobacco industry's previous marketing strategies, many of which relied on making implicit health claims about their products. According to the bill, cigarette manufacturers are also forbidden from using product descriptors such as \"light\", \"low-tar\", and \"mild\".\nCritics of the legislation question whether it will have a significant", "-22.780983294025646" ], [ "most influential ads in TV history\". It served as a milestone—the first instance of the recording industry's involvement with advertising.\nMarketing analysts have noted Coca-Cola's strategy of marrying the idea of happiness and universal love of the product illustrated by the song.\nThe commercial has continued receiving accolades in more recent times. In 2000, Channel 4 and The Sunday Times ranked the song 16th in the 100 Greatest TV Ads, while in 2005, ITV ranked the advertisement 10th in its list of the greatest advertisements of all time. The Hillside Singers After the TV commercial aired, radio stations began to get calls", "-22.76721444112627" ], [ "thinking Crystal Pepsi had no sugar, and marketing the product as if it were \"medicinal\". Zyman said \"Pepsi spent an enormous amount of money on the brand and, regardless, we killed it. Both of them were dead within six months.\" Marketing A large marketing campaign was launched, for which the company invented the world's first photo-realistic, computer-generated bus wrap printing. A series of television advertisements featuring Van Halen's hit song \"Right Now\" premiered on national television on January 31, 1993, during Super Bowl XXVII. This commercial was parodied by Saturday Night Live with their \"Crystal Gravy\" commercial. Full-sized sample bottles", "-22.739322754350724" ], [ "than its predecessors, and featured the singles \"Jinx\" and \"Jack Pepsi\". \n\"Jack Pepsi\" was released as a single, but Pepsi filed a lawsuit against the band due to the cover art on the single, which was the Pepsi logo with \"Tad\" in place of \"PEPSI.\" However, the so-called \"Pepsi logo\" was missing the left and right colorations in the actual Pepsi logo, one being of a light blue color; said light blue color never appeared on the Tad artwork, making this at best an attempt at \"folk art\", not even coming close to \"copyright infringement\". Another lawsuit was filed due", "-22.709994093398564" ], [ "records for a celebrity endorsement. The first Pepsi campaign, which ran in the US from 1983 to 1984 and launched its \"New Generation\" theme, included tour sponsorship, public relations events, and in-store displays. Jackson helped to create the advertisement, and suggested using his song \"Billie Jean\", with revised lyrics, as its jingle.\nOn January 27, 1984, Michael and other members of the Jacksons filmed a Pepsi commercial overseen by Phil Dusenberry, a BBDO ad agency executive, and Alan Pottasch, Pepsi's Worldwide Creative Director, at the Shrine Auditorium in Los Angeles. During a simulated concert before a full house of fans, pyrotechnics", "-22.546324403316248" ], [ "sponsor. They had all but concluded a lucrative deal with Quaker Oats when King came to them with a deal he had already signed with Pepsi. Although it would pay them less money, they had to take it and break off talks with Quaker. Part of the deal was that Michael, who did not drink Pepsi, would have to do two commercials. He made sure that his face appeared minimally in them to avoid overexposing his image. During filming of one of the two commercials, Michael suffered second and third degree burns on his scalp when a firework effect malfunctioned,", "-22.503883343728376" ], [ "minerals, [..] or any prohibited substance”, energy drinks, birth control, condoms, and hard liquor. In the 2017 season, the NFL will, with restrictions, allow a limited amount of liquor advertising during broadcasts.\nThe NFL imposes restrictions on sponsored segments during game coverage; this does not apply to national or local radio broadcasts. These are permitted only prior to kick off, during halftime, and following the game; however, these segments (and other programming with title sponsorships, particularly halftime and post-game shows or other sports properties) can be advertised a couple of times during game coverage, and \"aerial footage\" providers (i.e. sponsored blimps)", "-22.468799343972933" ], [ "ad film director. The catchphrase became a runaway success and other business entities sought to appropriate it in their messaging. Pepsi litigated actively to assert an exclusive right to use the slogan.", "-22.454143801238388" ], [ "and opinions on its content: those against the ad argued that per the melting pot principle, Coca-Cola should not have used languages other than English, the most common language of the country, to promote its products to ethnic minorities, and former Republican Congressman Allen West stated that \"If we cannot be proud enough as a country to sing 'America the Beautiful' in English in a commercial during the Super Bowl, by a company as American as they come—doggone we are on the road to perdition.\" By contrast, others praised the ad for celebrating the diversity of American people. Guardian writer", "-22.36977996036876" ], [ "LIII was played in Atlanta, which is where Coca-Cola has its head office. Pepsi has been a major sponsor of the NFL for years, most recently renewing its sponsorship deal in 2011. Pepsi advertising tied to the game poked fun at the situation with slogans such as \"Pepsi in Atlanta. How Refreshing\", \"Hey Atlanta, Thanks For Hosting. We'll Bring The Drinks\", and \"Look Who's in Town for Super Bowl LIII\". Both companies ran television ads during the Super Bowl, as Coca-Cola aired the commercial \"A Coke is a Coke\" just before the Super Bowl's National Anthem, while Pepsi ran a", "-22.313754202157725" ], [ "1940s, Pepsi too was an international giant and second only to Coca-Cola in sales.\nAnother noted move he made was to dispense with long, wordy advertisements on radio and broadcast memorable commercial jingles. One famous spot pointed out:\n\"Pepsi-Cola hits the spot,\n\"Twelve full ounces, that's a lot,\n\"Twice as much for a nickel, too,\n\"Pepsi-Cola is the drink for you.\"\nUnder Mr. Mack's direction, Pepsi also became known for its aggressive promotion campaigns. Before he stepped down, the company was financing nearly 120 new scholarships each year. It began a national program of scholarships for black students in 1945. The company also financed art exhibits,", "-22.266949714990915" ], [ "also endorsed by pop singer Britney Spears in 2002 and 2003 as part of her contract with the company; it also appeared in a promotion with Austin Powers in Goldmember.\nThe product appears to be no longer actively marketed and does not appear on the list of brands on Pepsi's official website. Pepsi Twist production was ended in the U.S. during the summer of 2006, however the drink is still available in Malaysia, Japan, Poland, Germany, Italy, China and some other nations.\nIn 2005, Japanese toy company Takara released a special edition Transformers Optimus Prime (known as \"Convoy\" in Japan) figure in", "-22.23805798032845" ], [ "were safe but not effective. For example, there was an attempt to outlaw Coca-Cola in 1909 because of its excessive caffeine content; caffeine had replaced cocaine as the active ingredient in Coca-Cola in 1903. In the case United States v. Forty Barrels and Twenty Kegs of Coca-Cola, the judge found that Coca-Cola had a right to use caffeine as it saw fit, although Coca-Cola eventually lost when the government appealed to the Supreme Court. It reached a settlement with the United States government to reduce the caffeine amount.\nIn addition to caffeine, the Pure Food and Drug Act required that drugs", "-22.21667246913421" ], [ "and skill poured into consumer research on the new Coca-Cola could not measure or reveal the deep and abiding emotional attachment to original Coca-Cola felt by so many people.\"\nGay Mullins, founder of the organization Old Cola Drinkers of America (which had lobbied Coca-Cola to either reintroduce the old formula or sell it to someone else), was given the first case of Coca-Cola Classic. Aftermath and legacy By the end of 1985, Coca-Cola Classic was substantially outselling both New Coke and Pepsi. Six months after the rollout, Coke's sales had increased at more than twice the rate of Pepsi's.\nNew Coke's sales", "-22.197994376241695" ], [ "they had Diet Cokes together. That celebration comes with the connotation that they no longer drink alcoholic beverages, but that a toast was customary.\nWith the popularity of this story, the NFL capitalized on it in an official commercial that aired during Super Bowl LIII commemorating the 100th year of the NFL. The commercial featured \"44 of the greatest NFL athletes\" at a formal dinner event with almost everyone dressed in black tie. Cacophony breaks out, and three members of the '72 Dolphins, Larry Little, Paul Warfield, Larry Csonka, are shown casually sitting at a table together uniquely", "-22.196500971185742" ], [ "Smoking Act banned television advertising of cigarettes. As a result, tobacco companies began to sponsor sporting events as a way to spend their excess advertising dollars and to circumvent the Public Health Cigarette Smoking Act's ban on television advertising. RJR's sponsorship became more controversial in the wake of the 1998 Tobacco Industry Settlement that sharply restricted avenues for tobacco advertising, including sports sponsorships.\nThe changes that resulted from RJR's involvement in the series as well as from the reduction in schedule from 48 to 31 races per year established 1972 as the beginning of NASCAR's \"modern era\". The season was made", "-22.175666195536905" ], [ "sales were up 8% over the same period as the year before.\nMost Coke drinkers resumed buying the new Coke at much the same level as they had the old one. Surveys indicated that the majority of regular Coke drinkers liked the new flavoring. Three quarters of the respondents said they would buy New Coke again. The big test, however, remained in the Southeast, where Coke was first bottled and tasted. Backlash Despite New Coke's acceptance with a large number of Coca-Cola drinkers, many more resented the change in formula and were not shy about making that known — just as", "-22.15814535622485" ], [ "Coca-Cola embarked on a multimillion-dollar advertising campaign which at its helm was a new logo for the company, in which the trademark was housed in a square with a \"dynamic ribbon\" near the bottom. A large electric sign, which alternated the new look and slogan \"It's the Real Thing\" in vibrant and eclectic red and white color patterns, replaced the previous one, and was a staple of Times Square for over 20 years.\nThe sign wouldn't be updated again until 1991, with the addition of a $3 million, neon-illuminated display, which featured a Coke bottle as the centerpiece. The Coke", "-22.148333449455095" ], [ "called \"Project Kansas\", took its name from a photo of Kansas journalist William Allen White drinking a Coke; the image had been used extensively in Coca-Cola advertising and hung on several executives' walls.\nThe sweeter cola overwhelmingly beat both regular Coke and Pepsi in taste tests, surveys, and focus groups. Asked if they would buy and drink the product if it were Coca-Cola, most testers said they would, although it would take some getting used to. About 10-12% of testers felt angry and alienated at the thought, and said they might stop drinking Coke altogether. Their presence in focus groups tended", "-22.119531952776015" ], [ "a Bollywood movie, Dil Maange More starring Shahid Kapoor. Pepsi advertisement The slogan was coined as a tagline for a Pepsi television advertisement series that first ran in December 1998 and sought to establish Pepsi as a strong brand with Indian youth. It was a continuation of Pepsi's advertising campaign in the mid-to-late nineties, which it had initially launched as an ambush marketing effort against Coca-Cola during the 1996 Cricket World Cup. The ads featured prominent sports personalities and film stars, such as Sachin Tendulkar, Shahrukh Khan, Amitabh Bachchan, and Pawan Kalyan and were directed by Prahlad Kakkar, a veteran", "-22.106943105289247" ], [ "large beer company who threatened to pull advertising. Author Andy Crouch later confirmed the cancellation, saying it was due to low ratings, rather than pressure from advertisers.", "-22.040644636465004" ], [ "was introduced in the United States. Its marketing strategy centered on the drink's caffeine content, billing it as a means to promote wakefulness. The drink's initial slogan read: \"All the sugar and twice the caffeine.\"\nIn 1995, PepsiCo launched Josta, the first energy drink introduced by a major US drink company (one that had interests outside energy drinks), but Pepsi discontinued the product in 1999. Pepsi would later return to the energy drink market with the AMP brand.\nIn Europe, energy drinks were pioneered by the Lisa company and a product named \"Power Horse\", before Dietrich Mateschitz, an Austrian entrepreneur, introduced the", "-22.03117056179326" ], [ "news coverage created a moral panic surrounding cocaine use, which had earlier been viewed in a more benign or even positive way. that made enacting this legislation so important. In September and October of 1986, the House (with a Democratic majority) and the Senate (with a Republican majority) competed over which could propose the most severe laws in advance of the pivotal midterm election.\nA few House Democrats expressed considerable concern about the provisions of the bill. However, most ultimately voted for it, describing election pressures and fear of criticism as swaying their decision. Representative Mike Lowry (D), who voted", "-22.028386523001245" ], [ "time something like this was being done in the music industry. Pepsi also benefited from having their product associated with Madonna, thereby creating promotion. According to the company's advertising head Alan Pottasch, \"the global media buy and unprecedented debut of this long awaited single will put Pepsi first and foremost in consumer's [sic] minds\". Madonna had initially refused to dance and sing in the commercial, but later accepted after being introduced to choreographer Vince Paterson.\nPepsi premiered the commercial during the global telecast of the 31st Grammy Awards in February 1989. A week later, the advertisement was aired during NBC's", "-21.988605465885485" ] ]

[ "Because video games are being rendered on your local machine. The World of Warcraft servers aren't sending frames to your computer, they're sending \"player \"loldude\" x=2563 y=4403 NPC \"person mcPersonson\" x=2582 y=4430 ...\", and your computer uses that information to inform how it builds the screen that gets shown to you. When you're streaming, then you are actually sending frames over the internet. You need to send the color data for every single pixel on the screen, as well as the audio that goes with it.", "The delay is \"used for better quality streaming\". Live streaming is different from say, a YouTube video because of the way it works. YouTube has a 'handshake' meaning packets (pieces of information) are first verified before being sent to the user, so that no/very little information is lost, meaning a better video quality. this is the TCP protocol. Livestreaming sites use the UDP protocol which doesnt involve this 'handshake', which means that if they were to just allow a live feed with no delay, a lot of packets could be lost through transit, so they leave a delay so that they themselves can verify the packets have reached them. Another reason is because of the constant increase in livestream usage, the companies needs to have an efficient way to manage all the traffic and videos which takes up a lot of bandwidth. Steam does the same by throtteling (slowing down) download speeds to it can server a larger population and have a consistant speed. P.S There are a few more suttle reasons but I covered some of the main ones.", "If you're watching URL_0 , most of the time, they are on a delay (imposed by twitch). This is helpful to prevent stream sniping, but it's also to be able to better control the content.", "They can be done near instantaneously, however this could give advantages to opponents. For example: map locations" ]

[ [ "Games Done Quick Format Speedrunners take turns demonstrating their prowess at beating various video games in the quickest possible time, done in front of an audience as well as a livestream through Twitch.tv. Sometimes these runs may be executed in an unusual or specific way, such as fully completing every level, completing a game blindfolded, or featuring multiple runners racing against one another to complete a game first. Video games run in Games Done Quick events include both retro and modern titles. The runs typically feature commentary from the runner(s) or experienced commentators, as well as donation messages read by", "-28.815056789346272" ], [ "input is fast enough.\nWhen using cloud gaming, inputs by the player can lead to short delays until a response can be seen by them. Inputs must first be transmitted to the remote server, then the server must start rendering the graphics of the action being performed and stream the video back to the player over the network, taking additional time. Thus, the player experiences a noticeable delay between pressing a button and seeing something happen on-screen. Depending on the skill and experience of the player, this can cause disorientation and confusion similar to Delayed Auditory Feedback and hampers navigation and", "-28.315838815207826" ], [ "watching a cut scene. The intended results of this style of presentation is to increase immersion and to maintain a smoothly-flowing experience that keeps the player's interest.\nScripted sequences trigger off of a number of things. A timer, progress of the game, or a check point could activate a scripted sequence. For players that speedrun video games, skipping these scripted sequences that would otherwise slow down their completion time is a talent. Being able to manipulate the games hit boxes so that the game does not trigger sequence is efficient for fast completions. Examples in-game Half-Life uses scripted sequences throughout", "-27.80986584277707" ], [ "the simulation, which itself might cause problems if taken too far, or if the client and server simulations are running at significantly different rates.\nGames may limit the number of times per second that updates are sent to a particular client, and/or are sent about particular objects in the game's world. Because of limitations in the amount of bandwidth available, and the CPU time that's taken by network communication, some games prioritize certain critical communication while limiting the frequency and priority of less important information. As with the tickrate, this effectively increases the synchronization latency. Game engines may also reduce the", "-27.70897580689052" ], [ "the game responds only a short time after an action is performed. This is especially problematic in first-person shooters, where enemies are likely to move as a player attempts to shoot them and the margin for errors is often small. Solutions and lag compensation There are various methods for reducing or disguising delays, though many of these have their drawbacks and may not be applicable in all cases. If synchronization is not possible by the game itself, the clients may be able to choose to play on servers in geographical proximity to themselves in order to reduce latencies, or the", "-27.64357395656407" ], [ "and wasting more time, or failing a setup for a difficult trick. Depending on the game, the time differences between possible routes, along with other advantages from frame-by-frame precision, tool-assisted speedruns surpass their unassisted counterparts by a few seconds to entire hours. For example, the fastest Super Mario Bros. TAS currently stands at 04:54.032 (4'49\" using Speed Demos Archive timing, 4:51 using standard unassisted timing), while the fastest unassisted run stands at 4'57\" (4:55.796 using standard unassisted timing, from somewes). Timing conventions Tool-assisted runs are timed by input, i.e. from game power-on to the last input necessary to reach the", "-27.27757698345522" ], [ "to work with them. The AWOMO platform - technical overview The technology behind AWOMO is based on the principle that a player does not need to hold all of the game data locally in order to run and start playing the game. Instead, when the user logs into AWOMO, the server checks the reliable connection speed between server and user. It then calculates the smallest possible 'stub' of data that will enable the player to launch the game and continue playing with no interruption, with the rest of the data downloading as a background task.\nThis technique was employed by Exent,", "-27.264218904048903" ], [ "even just move the objects out of the players path. Another example is motion sensor where a persons movement is able to be captured and put into a game. Some motion sensor games are based on where the controller is. The reason for that is because there is a signal that is sent from the controller to the console or computer so that the actions being done can create certain movements in the game. Other type of motion sensor games are webcam style where the player moves around in front of it, and the actions are repeated by a game", "-27.191930385706655" ], [ "further by using controller buttons to teleport a short distance, with minimal or no virtual reality sickness. A “walking” mode enables players to move continuously rather than teleporting; however, this poses a higher risk of motion sickness. Motion controllers are required to pick up and handle objects in the game world, including balls, weapons, construction tools, and other objects. Game modes Rec Room consists of separate multiplayer games, including first-person shooters, cooperative action role-playing games, a charades-like game, and five sports game. Rec Room also provides in-game tools for user-generated content. User-generated content An in-game item called the maker pen", "-27.149635549692903" ], [ "to be failed. Players also have access to a map to help them make their way around the mall and pinpoint where they must go in the main game mode, can receive calls on a transceiver about anything suspicious that Frank can investigate (he cannot jump, attack, switch weapons, or pick up/use any item when taking a call), and can view Frank's watch to determine what time it is; in-game time progresses faster than real time, with a day in the game taking two hours of real time, while the time of day also affects the behaviour of the zombies", "-27.127420072694804" ], [ "rates. The player client switches between streaming the different encodings depending on available resources. \"The result: very little buffering, fast start time and a good experience for both high-end and low-end connections.\"\nMore specifically, and as the implementations in use today are, adaptive bitrate streaming is a method of video streaming over HTTP where the source content is encoded at multiple bit rates, then each of the different bit rate streams are segmented into small multi-second parts. The streaming client is made aware of the available streams at differing bit rates, and segments of the streams by a manifest file.", "-26.912991713470547" ], [ "found difficult to comprehend, and in a manner that often bypassed large areas of the level. Stitching a series of the fastest runs together into a coherent whole created a demonstration of the entire game. Recamming is also used with speedruns in order to make the experience more movie-like, with arbitrary control of camera angles, editing, and sound that can be applied with editing software after the runs are first recorded. However, the fastest possible time for a given level will not necessarily result in the fastest time used to contribute to \"running\" the entire game. One example is acquiring", "-26.844943663687445" ], [ "vast number of players. Since a typical server can handle around 10,000–12,000 players, 4000–5000 active simultaneously, dividing the game into several servers has up until now been the solution. This approach has also helped with technical issues, such as lag, that many players experience. Another difficulty, especially relevant to real-time simulation games, is time synchronization across hundreds or thousands of players. Many games rely on time synchronization to drive their physics simulation as well as their scoring and damage detection. Game types There are several types of massively multiplayer online games. Role-playing Massively multiplayer online role-playing games, known", "-26.82644444842299" ], [ "of this is that the players can be presented with a graphical representation of the game and an interactive interface to guide them through their turn. Since the notifications only have to remind the players that it is their turn they can just as easily be sent via instant messaging.\nSome sites have extended this gaming style by allowing the players to see each other's actions as they are made. This allows for real time playing while everyone is online and active, or slower progress if not.\nIncreasingly, this format is being adopted by social and mobile games, often described using the", "-26.74021460599033" ], [ "because it is possible for a sending computer to transmit information at a faster rate than the destination computer can receive and process it. This can happen if the receiving computers have a heavy traffic load in comparison to the sending computer, or if the receiving computer has less processing power than the sending computer. Stop-and-wait Stop-and-wait flow control is the simplest form of flow control. In this method the message is broken into multiple frames, and the receiver indicates its readiness to receive a frame of data. The sender waits for a receipt acknowledgement (ACK) after every frame for", "-26.646032171556726" ], [ "Such games have no turn order; a player can always move while the other players are \"thinking\". However, static games never punishes a player for \"thinking\" too long (delaying its own moves), so such games never become contests of speed. All elementary games are automatically static, and so are the games allowed to be interpretations of general atoms.\nThere are two players in static games: the machine and the environment. The machine can only follow algorithmic strategies, while there are no restrictions on the behavior of the environment. Each run (play) is won by one of these players and lost by", "-26.463240498444065" ], [ "instructions given to the player, such as locating two identical characters and locating the fastest-moving character in a crowd of walking people. In single-player mode, the player must get through as many stages as possible before the time limit runs out, with each Mii found extending the number of seconds left on the timer and giving a certain number of points depending on how quickly the player locates and chooses them. In multiplayer mode, two players compete to find the highest number of Mii characters within two minutes. Choosing an incorrect Mii in single-player mode removes a number of seconds", "-26.45707594009582" ], [ "United Kingdom only), electronic mail, and with a chatbot on a proprietary Macromedia Flash interface designed to resemble an instant messaging system. Rob Cooper, producer with the BBC's interactive drama and entertainment department, stated, \"You play for around 20 minutes a day and it makes use of AI chats to feed you info. Typically, it will take around 15 days to solve, a clue at a time.\"\nPlayer reaction to the game has varied. Players have described the Flash animation instant messaging system as \"odd\" and unlike actual instant messaging systems in nature.\nDuring the beta testing, Christy Dena, in a lengthy", "-26.434614117169986" ], [ "low-performance system, causing the frame rate to drop dramatically. However, this is typically true of all video recording during gaming, and was not unique to Xfire.\nThe clients main function was as an instant messenger. Similar to other such online services, any user who had been added as a 'friend' could be immediately contacted through text chat. To communicate with other users in-game, Xfire users could send and receive instant messages from inside any game that was running in full screen mode, regardless of the games the sender or recipient were in. This eliminated the need to minimize the game window.", "-26.325886333128437" ], [ "to music broadcasts, creative content, and more recently, \"in real life\" streams. Content on the site can be viewed either live or via video on demand. Applications Notable applications to publish and record live streams at the same time include MotionCaster, Open Broadcaster Software, Wirecast, and XSplit Broadcaster. They are used to publish streams to Youtube, Facebook, Periscope and Twitch.tv, among others. Video games Live streaming playing of video games gained popularity during the 2010s. David M. Ewalt referred to Twitch.tv as \"the ESPN of video games\". The website spawned from and grew to overshadow Justin.tv, and was purchased by", "-26.238763432600535" ], [ "send the player to the next location near instantaneously.", "-26.215606885554735" ], [ "for requiring such restriction. Previous Need for Speed games have featured connected online worlds for players to race and inhabit together, although they have not required a player to stay connected to play the game. This was met with criticism from critics, who pointed to 2013's SimCity, which was unplayable at launch as a result of requiring an online connection to play. The reason for an always-online internet connection was because of Autolog's new in-game snapshot feature explained by Marcus Nilsson which rewards the players and their snapshots with Rep Points, Experience Points and in-game money if other players liked", "-26.205306665506214" ], [ "local and thus see the game via the first player's computer or console, or can be remote, watching the game be played through streaming media services. All players – whether local or remote – use web-enabled devices, including personal computers and mobile or tablet devices, to enter a provided \"room code\" at Jackbox's dedicated servers to enter the game. Games are generally limited to around 8 active players, but any other players connecting to the room after these players are connected become audience participants, who can impact how scoring is determined and influence the winner.\nEach game generally has a period", "-26.14314149087295" ], [ "average 5 seconds), players re-spawn and may choose another weapon—this cycle repeats for the duration of the map, unless Survival Mode is enabled (in which case a spawning system similar to Counter-Strike is used). After a certain allotted time (on average 15 or 20 minutes), the map changes and scores are reset as players continue in another round. Players can chat with each other throughout matches (and to their own teams, for cooperative team-based game modes).\nMost games are fast-paced and chaotic. Bodies often explode in a spectacle of blood and body parts, sometimes being hurled clear across the map. Besides", "-26.14220155274961" ], [ "then appeared on the screen, warning players to complete the challenge before the 3-day deadline or risk dropping out of the game.\nWhat followed was mainly a series of Internet-based Flash games, which tested abilities such as memorisation, note-making, decision-making, skill and research. One memorable section of the game, \"Tunnel\", involved a maze of tunnels which had to be navigated in real-time. In order to complete the game in time, many players had to wake up in the middle of the night in order to make their crucial last move before the deadline. Hints, important information, and phone numbers needed to", "-26.058922106283717" ], [ "send blocks to the opponent's screen. Arcade mode is available for one or two players, with players able to choose their difficulty independently of one another.\nChain reaction\nChain reaction mode centers on getting as many chain reactions as possible.\nTime trial\nIn time trial mode, players try to keep their screen from filling with blocks for as long as possible.", "-26.054718823521398" ], [ "and Yellow Dog Linux. Both Server and Player software require continuous internet access. In addition to streaming games StreamMyGame enables its members to record games to a video file that can be uploaded to sites such as YouTube. Game streaming service Members select a game they want to play on the StreamMyGame website, the website sends an encrypted message to the Server, the Server starts the game and captures its video and audio. The captured video and audio is sent to a Player via Real Time Streaming Protocol and displayed. The Player captures keyboard and mouse commands and sends these", "-26.044680275468636" ], [ "the game server without the game lagging or disconnecting players. In time dilation, the game slows to ten percent normal speed, with each second of game time displaying as ten seconds of real time. The two sides traded Titan kills every hour, when their Doomsday weapons could fire again, and the system became filled with warp disruption bubbles, making extraction difficult. For a while neither side gained any real advantage, though CFC/Rus managed to on-line their Territorial Control Units and held a slight lead in the number of enemy Titans destroyed. Throughout the engagement, related battles played out across the", "-26.042245655859006" ], [ "players can locate plays more easily because they often know where the next move is likely to be found.\nIn most games, a small number of plays are at intersections that were previously occupied (this happens, for example, during a ko fight). Annotations by the side of the kifu give this information, usually in the form '57 at 51' or something comparable. Game records are usually completed by information on the players' ranks, the date and competition data, location, winning player and margin of victory.\nMany of the most important games are now available in machine-readable form, using one of a small", "-25.97515918913996" ], [ "games. Other applications need broadband streaming capability in order to deliver real-time video. Others don't really care as long as they can get the bits there, like e-mail or file transfers and things like that. But it should not be the case that the supplier of the access to the network mediates this on a competitive basis, but you may still have different kinds of service depending on what the requirements are for the different applications.\" Content caching Content caching is the process by which frequently accessed contents are temporarily stored in strategic network positions (e.g., in servers close to", "-25.96082816645503" ], [ "application creates a compilation video. The user can keep multiple timelines. It also allows users to post directly on social networks. The main interface in 1 Second Everyday is a calendar, which shows the user which days have snippets, and which they can still fill in.\nIn the beginning, 1 Second Everyday restricted the recording to one second. However, the developers later released Super Seconds, which allowed users to record an additional half a second video. In 2014, 1 Second Everyday Crowds was launched, which is an area in the application featuring compilations of second clips from different users. In the", "-25.933226271430613" ], [ "ending scene and/or the game credits. Any introductory cutscenes, game-loading screens, and trailing dialogues after the last boss battle (if input is necessary to scroll through the text) are included in the final times. The times are exact (to the nearest frame), a level of precision that is not possible with unassisted runs because it cannot be determined from a recording when exactly the input ended. Speed Demos Archive and Twin Galaxies measure only the length of the gameplay proper, and begin timing when the player gains control of the character and ends timing when the player loses it. These", "-25.91567982698325" ], [ "host, and the other machines send their updates to that host, which then sends the aggregated updates out to all of the machines again. Given a sixteen-player game like Bolo, at any particular point in time up to fifteen clients would send their update data to the host, which then sends fifteen larger packets with the game state back out. Bolo's implementation had only one large packet on the network at any given time, greatly reducing traffic.\nIn the case of a newly starting game, the first machine to start up would generate the packet, but seeing no other addresses in", "-25.871301087841857" ], [ "are combined with pre-rendered full motion video. Though rarer than the other two possible combinations, the pairing of live action video with real time graphics is seen in games such as Killing Time. Interactive cutscenes Interactive cutscenes involve the computer taking control of the player character while prompts (such as a sequence of button presses) appear onscreen, requiring the player to follow them in order to continue or succeed at the action. This gameplay mechanic, commonly called quick time events, has its origins in interactive movie laserdisc video games such as Dragon's Lair, Road Blaster, and Space Ace. Criticism", "-25.85981463193457" ], [ "each player clears out their screen, the quicker the other player's screen will fill up. Since filled screens offer the most opportunity for chaining together large combos, the tide can turn very quickly.\nThere is also another single player mode called Solo Mode. Any character can be played in this mode. The aim in Solo Mode is to continually clear the screen from coins and try to keep the game going for as long as possible.", "-25.8470603863243" ], [ "update, unlocks a time-trial mode. In this mode, players are able to select a track and vehicle to race around and achieve the best time. When online, players can upload their best times to see where they rank in a global leaderboard. There is also the ability to download the \"ghosts\" of best laps of other players—including the creators—and race against them.\nOn 6 September 2007 in Europe, a second add-on was made available for purchase on the PlayStation Network, called the Coyote Revenge Weekend VIP Pass (named Revenge Weekend in North America). This download, when used in conjunction with the", "-25.811879087879788" ], [ "Anticipation (video game) Gameplay Before the game begins, the number of human and computer players must be chosen, as well as the difficulty setting. There must always be at least one human player, and the total number of players (human plus computer opponents) can be no more than four. Players use the controllers to buzz in during the game; if more than two players are competing, they may either share the controllers or use the NES Four Score to allow each one to have his/her own.\nAnticipation combines gameplay elements from Pictionary and Trivial Pursuit board games. The player is represented", "-25.807350081551704" ], [ "streams that use variable bit rate encoding, the number of bits per unit of time is not obscured, and this can be exploited to guess spoken phrases. Similarly, the burst patterns that common video encoders produce are often sufficient to identify the streaming video a user is watching uniquely. Even the total size of an object alone, such as a website, file, software package download, or online video, can uniquely identify an object, if the attacker knows or can guess a known set the object comes from. The side-channel of encrypted content length was used to extract passwords from", "-25.806351513645495" ], [ "time a Jammer is cleared - once this meter is filled, a star will drop from the top of the screen and clear all Jammers on-screen. The game becomes progressively harder as it progresses, increasing the speed of the dropping blocks and Jammers. Once the blocks and Jammers reach the top of the screen, the game will be over.\nAlongside a single-player option, a multiplayer option is also available. The second player's screen will replace the Jammers with white-colored robots named 'Pipopapo-Tai\", which behave the same as regular Jammers. In the multiplayer mode, the objective is to fill up the other", "-25.76050880877301" ], [ "invited participants speedrun numerous games over the course of the event, typically five to six days, usually with commentary over the course of the games. During semi-annual event, the speedruns are performed live in front of an audience and broadcast to Twitch and other services, with viewers able to donate during the length of the event. There has also been shorter one-off special Games Done Quick events for specific occasions, such as one to support the victims of the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami. As of January 21, 2019, Games Done Quick has raised over US$19 million to various", "-25.760487521154573" ], [ "that utilize a quick time event to feature more action packed game play. As the player navigates the level, they must react to the event to continue. Criticisms Games such as Call of Duty have been criticized for a reliance on these sequences, as many feel they tend to guide a player through a game by the invisible hand of the developers, blocking progression with invisible walls until the scripted sequence has triggered further progression. Also, the use of scripted sequences may diminish replay value as the surprise effect is negated upon subsequent play-throughs.", "-25.75783705030335" ], [ "for more advanced gameplay elements. Gameplay consisted of watching an animated video and pressing the correct button every few seconds to avoid seeing a (circumstance-specific) loss scene and losing a life. Compared to modern titles, games like Dragon's Lair would require the player to memorize the proper sequence and timing of their input, effectively making the entire game one continuous QTE. Such uses were also seen as giving the player only the illusion of control, as outside of responding to QTE, there were no other commands the player could enter; effectively, these games were considered the equivalent of watching a", "-25.742680341238156" ], [ "Progress through the game's world is continuous; although the game is divided up into chapters, the only significant pauses are when the game needs to load the next part of an environment. Opposing Force also features an extended multiplayer, incorporating the various new environments and weapons into the original deathmatch mode used in Half-Life. After release, a new capture the flag mode with additional levels, items and powerups, was created by Gearbox for the game.\nFor the most part the player battles through the single-player game alone, but is occasionally assisted by friendly non-player characters. Security guards and scientists will occasionally", "-25.74067840538919" ], [ "aiming in the game world. When rapidly inputting a long combination move, the on-screen character will not be synchronized with the button presses. This usually causes severe confusion in the player resulting in the failure of the combination move.\nThe extra input lag can also make it very difficult to play certain single player games. For example, if an enemy takes a swing at the player and the player is expected to block, then by the time the player's screen shows that the enemy has commenced attacking, the enemy would have already struck and killed the player on the server.", "-25.72786880703643" ], [ "machines in the game would continue to pass the packet and respond to join requests as normal. As long as there was at least one machine remaining in any particular game, it would continue to be available for new players to join.\nThe downside of this approach is that any particular machine has to wait the entire round-trip in order to receive updates. Thus the overall latency was relatively high. In an era when most networks were local and a round trip might take only a few hundred milliseconds, this was not a problem, whereas the low throughput of LocalTalk could", "-25.700083775329404" ], [ "great deal of game time is spent either waiting and watching for the next time a production button could be clicked, or rapidly alternating between different units and buildings, clicking their respective button.\nA third common criticism is that real-time gameplay often degenerates into \"rushes\" where the players try to gain the advantage and subsequently defeat the opponent as quickly in the game as possible, preferably before the opposition is capable of successfully reacting. For example, the original Command & Conquer gave birth to the now-common \"tank rush\" tactic, where the game outcome is often decided very early on by one", "-25.696372611782863" ], [ "differences in timing conventions can result in seemingly discrepant times between unassisted and tool-assisted runs. For example, the most recent Super Mario Bros. speedrun by Andrew Gardikis, a 4:58 by SDA timing, seems to be only 0.69 seconds slower than the current tool-assisted world record of 4 minutes and 57.31 seconds by HappyLee, but his run actually contains 5 minutes and 1 second of input starting from power-on. Unassisted runs faster than their assisted counterparts Because tool-assisted speedruns often take more time to create than unassisted speedruns, discovery of a time-saving trick may lead to a situation of the fastest", "-25.68609584310616" ], [ "rival platforms\". Willington found the lengthy load times an issue which plagues the game, \"totally at odds\" with the normal pace of gameplay. Gaston said that the loading times were \"simply unforgivable\"; he routinely waited over 50 seconds after selecting a race to start it, which minimised the ability to comfortably play the game \"on the go\". Walton also found the long loading times infuriating in a handheld game, and said that having to wait more than 40 seconds to start a race was far longer than it should have been. Although Furfari found that the game had one of", "-25.68444670120516" ], [ "singleplayer to multiplayer focused. It is possible that with network bandwidth having increased many times over the years, variable translation control could return to multiplayer games. What could be done is population based scaling. When more players come near each other, the number of bits per direction could proportionally scale down. As fewer players are near each other the number of bits per direction could scale back up. This would at least allow the player fluid motion or near fluid motion at least some of the time in multiplayer games. Other applications Google Earth utilises variable translation control.", "-25.66089050413393" ], [ "with feedback loops between the user and the rest of the system creating the potential to always encounter something unknown or unexpected.\nVideo games differ from text-based communication in that on-screen images are meant to be figures that actually occupy a space and the animation shows the movement of those figures. Images are supposed to form the positive volume that delineates the empty space. A game adopts the cyberspace metaphor by engaging more players in the game, and then figuratively representing them on the screen as avatars. Games do not have to stop at the avatar-player level, but current implementations aiming", "-25.632348531042226" ], [ "game notably averts the common trope of bouncing a connection between several intermediary computers before reaching the target computer. Instead, a simplified system of a variable speed countdown is used to force the player to act quickly. If this countdown reaches zero, the player is given one last chance to avoid a game over by hacking their ISP and changing their IP address.\nOnce superuser privileges have been obtained, the file system of the computer is investigated. The exact task on each computer varies for each mission, but can, in general, be performed by running a specific command to access one", "-25.581954380322713" ], [ "Stickam Go Live Anyone could \"go live\" and broadcast live video on Stickam from their computer, iPhone or iPad within seconds. It was also possible to connect HD and other cameras, mixers, and audio feeds to send HD and professional broadcast streams out via Stickam. Stickam's live video players came with built-in chat capabilities, allowing both text chat and optional video chat. Stickam's player and live stream abilities are recognized in a Variety Magazine article as a \"more customizable player\" that has the ability to engage fans in a powerful way using their virtual face-to-face interaction. Social media login Stickam", "-25.58015475916909" ], [ "him away. Gameplay The key feature of TimeShift is the player's ability to control time: slowing, stopping or even rewinding time more or less at will. This allows a player to stop time to dodge an incoming projectile or steal an enemy's weapon. Specific time-related puzzles also require these abilities. The player's abilities also affect the color of their environment in such that slowing time produces a blueshift, rewinding it produces a yellow haze, and stopping time creates a white filter \"haze\". The player must use them wisely to make its way through the game. In some parts of the", "-25.549379540607333" ], [ "time on each of the screens, allowing the players to view events occurring in the sky without needing to switch perspectives. This is done by using a \"rolling log\" effect, in which the terrain seems to bend and roll beneath the player's feet when travelling about the village. Online connectivity Wild World is the first game in the Animal Crossing series to feature online play and was the second game to utilize Nintendo Wi-Fi Connection, with which players can visit other villages. Because players are required to exchange and register Friend Codes prior to visiting, connection to random players is", "-25.547633562469855" ], [ "the player moves throughout the world. Teleportation pads allow the player to move around the world quickly and act as save points. The player also respawns at their last activated teleportation pad if they die, which can be caused by falling long distances, being in too much water for too long, or by the player making B.U.D. self-destruct. Additionally, players can scan various flora and fauna into the teleporters to retrieve data from them. Items can be picked up by the player and stored in B.U.D.'s backpack one at a time, such as flower parachutes that make the player fall", "-25.535416342936514" ], [ "include editing and scripted narration, while streaming is an unedited experience performed on the fly. Contemporary Let's Play videos are similar to a player completing a game via streaming video for an audience. According to Patrick Lee of The A.V. Club, a good Let's Play video distinguishes itself from straightforward streaming playthroughs when the player has sufficiently familiarized themselves with the game as to be able to offer better commentary and show off more of the game to their audience, is able to provide the audience with personal recollections about the game, or can play through a game they have", "-25.491344500769628" ], [ "to run at 60 frames-per-second, restrictions in the environment limited the single-player mode to 30 frames-per-second; the multiplayer mode runs at 60 frames per second.\nFor the game's environment sounds, the team performed outdoor recording; they ensured the environments \"felt alive but not overbuilt\" by introducing several ambient changes as players progress through the locations. The variation of in-game locations introduced several challenges for the team, as they attempted to make each location very different for players to feel as they \"they were being propelled to different locations across the world\". The game also uses quadraphonic sound, which senior sound designer", "-25.46765102187055" ], [ "of one particular service are therefore not transmitted continuously but in compact periodical bursts with interruptions in between. Multiplexing of several services leads again to a continuous, uninterrupted transmitted stream of constant data-rate. Burst transmission This kind of signal can be received time-selectively: the terminal synchronizes to the bursts of the wanted service but switches to a power-save mode during the intermediate time when other services are being transmitted. The power-save time between bursts, relative to the on-time required for the reception of an individual service, is a direct measure of the power saving provided by time slicing. Bursts entering", "-25.465037244055566" ], [ "a secondary weapon, which is most often an inaccurate handgun, and spray fire while attempting to find cover.\nThe predominant reason that shooters do not limit the effectiveness of twitch scenarios is because the average gamer has little time to actually play the game, especially if they play in online lobbies, with the amount of time the average gamer has to play games limited to between two and four hours per day. A game that requires a large amount of skill may deter these gamers from playing at all. At the same time, due to the popularity of the internet, there", "-25.452741776452513" ], [ "have up to four people sharing the same live-stream but each person can play the same game or a totally different game. Users can spend \"Sparks\" (earned for watching and participating in streams) to activate these interactivity features, and Mixer support can be integrated into games via an SDK.\nIn November 2018, the site unveiled a major update branded as \"Season 2\", including features launching immediately, and plans for upcoming features. The update added automatic quality adjustment for the player, \"Skills\"—a feature that can be used to trigger special animations and effects in chat. Some premium skills are purchased using the", "-25.414041082491167" ], [ "for videogame consoles, this feature is also useful for other interactive applications. Similar options have long been available on home audio hardware and modems for the same reason. Connection through VGA cable or component should eliminate perceivable input lag on many TVs even if they already have a game mode. Advanced post-processing is non existent on analog connection and the signal traverses without delay. Display lag versus response time LCD screens with a high response-time value often do not give satisfactory experience when viewing fast-moving images (they often leave streaks or blur; called ghosting). But an LCD screen with both", "-25.406153587886365" ], [ "out at the selected fast-forward or rewind speed within the original bandwidth envelope. Alternatively, the server may pregenerate an entirely new video stream with at least one forward and backward speed and switch to it when requested.", "-25.40553831163561" ], [ "video streams in which only serial access is possible, digital video allows for random access to the media, which raises the possibility of alternative fast forwarding algorithms and visualizations. In video streaming formats, such as H.264, fast forward algorithms use the I-frames to sample the video at faster than normal speed. In streaming videos, fast-forward represents a useful search or browsing mechanism, but introduces extra network overhead when non-I-frames are transmitted in addition to the viewed I-frames and extra computational complexity in the video transcoder. Finding more network bandwidth-conserving and computationally efficient algorithms for accommodating both fast-forward and normal speed", "-25.398889918389614" ], [ "on separate controllers to take over gameplay when one player dies. Gilray estimates the game has an approximate play time of eight hours, which extends to approximately 15 hours when taking into account the two modes of gameplay included in the game. The game's secret areas and puzzles are in the same place as the original, but were altered slightly to suit the scrolling screen. Some secrets have been expanded, others re-designed with new environments, and some entirely new to the game. There are also puzzles based on music and timing. The developers have changed one thing from the beginning", "-25.3784162857919" ], [ "gradually by taking on the ghosts of rivals, those with similar race times. Users had the option to submit these times for others around the world to view. Players could also manage and register friends using the channel and see if any of them were currently online.\nAnother feature of the channel were Tournaments, where Nintendo would, on a regular basis, invite players to challenges in which a certain objective must be achieved in the fastest time possible similar to the missions mode found on the 2005 Nintendo DS game Mario Kart DS. Players were also able to compare their competition", "-25.35491637991072" ], [ "in a relatively long unassisted speedrun would not prevent the runner from holding their world record title. After the advent of frame-advance, frame-precise movement has also come to be expected, the lack of which may be characterized as sloppy play. Another difference is in the standards of use of waiting time in the speedrun: in situations where it is not possible to make the game move faster, and the player has to wait, such as in autoscrolling or any other areas of a game in which the runner does not have control over the speed, the runner is advised in", "-25.34255590615794" ], [ "stream. As the frame propagated through each repeater the preamble would get shorter and shorter. Too many bits lost meant that an end node may not have enough preamble bits to lock on and the entire frame would be missed.\nVarious repeaters (hubs) may use slightly different implementations and operate differently. Each repeater would lose more or less bits while locking on, some could lose as many as 5 or 6 bits. You could create a network with more repeaters if you made sure the total number of lost preamble bits wouldn't exceed the requirements of the receiving", "-25.324463862314587" ], [ "game could differ between different players, and this conflicted with the all-important synchronization in a multiplayer context. The effect could also be misused to artificially slow down the action, and exploit the extra reaction time that became available to the player that way. Although largely irrelevant if one played the game on one's own, it caused a lot of trouble for online competitions (see below).\nSuccessors Grand Prix 3 and Grand Prix 4 offered LAN-play and were even hacked to be playable over the Internet, but never performed reasonably. Even when the first boom of 3D acceleration chipsets revolutionized gaming, the", "-25.300622929702513" ], [ "a mix between new and previously known games, including titles such as Beat Saber, VRChat, Superhot VR, Moss and Robo Recall. Some games such as Rec Room and VRChat allow for cross-platform multiplayer. Passthrough Oculus Passthrough is a feature of the Oculus Quest which allows the user to see the real world in monoscopic black and white through the built-in cameras. This is primarily used as a safety feature; when a user exits their defined playing area, the display will switch from virtual reality to Passthrough. At Oculus Connect 6, an update for the Quest was announced that would upgrade", "-25.258717491466086" ], [ "streams; viewers can explore the streamer's inventory and skill tree, and special chests in game will offer the opportunity for viewers to receive the same gun/item that the stream finds via way of a Shift Code they can enter into their own game, scaled appropriately for their character's level.\nGearbox creative director Paul Sage estimated that players will spend about 35 hours through the main quest line along with some side missions. True Vault Hunter Mode, a type of New Game Plus, allows players to replay the campaign after finishing it with their leveled-up character, fighting more difficult enemies for a", "-25.257873611990362" ], [ "a live stream is broken up into minute length files that are swarmed via P2P software such as BitTorrent, Coral, or Dijjer. However, this suffers from excessive overhead for the formation of a new swarm every minute.\nA new technique is to stripe a live stream into multiple substreams, akin to RAID striping. Forward error correction and timing information is applied to these substreams such that the original stream can be reformed using at least all but one of the substreams (fountain codes are an efficient way to make and combine the substreams). In turn, these streams are relayed", "-25.256912271375768" ], [ "provide real-time information for fans. This technology can capture what is happening during a live broadcast in real-time, and it takes machine learning technology to understand what is happening, and then it generates real-time information to display to the viewer. OneView On April 26, 2018, Esports One announced the launch of their Twitch extension, OneView, for League of Legends streams on the Twitch platform. OneView allows a Twitch streamer's viewers to make real-time predictions about what will happen in a game, earn experience for their predictions, level up and earn rewards unique to each streamer using the extension.", "-25.23445760755567" ], [ "Deep Blue, and Go with AlphaGo. In comparison with other games that have used AI systems to play against human players, Dota 2 differs as explained below:\nLong run view: The bots run at 30 frames per second for an average match time of 45 minutes, which results in 80,000 ticks per game. OpenAI Five observes every fourth frame, generating 20,000 moves. By comparison, chess usually ends before 40 moves, while Go ends before 150 moves.\nPartially observed state of the game: Players and their allies can only see the map directly around them. The rest of it is covered in a", "-25.229123149765655" ], [ "has been designed as part of a wider action research to create an \"Art of Speed\". Rules of the game Every player draws on a small part of a global mosaic formed by the dynamic juxtaposition of those parts, which are manipulated by all the participants (eventually it will be possible for several thousand players to play simultaneously). Every player can therefore change the sign in his/her square, depending on the overall state of the image, which itself depends on the actions of all the individual players. Out of this cybernetic loop emerges a kind of narrative: autonomous forms, sometimes", "-25.21429477550555" ], [ "a specified time (called a time out). The receiver sends the ACK to let the sender know that the frame of data was received correctly. The sender will then send the next frame only after the ACK. Pros and cons of stop and wait Pros\nThe only advantage of this method of flow control is its simplicity.\nCons\nThe sender needs to wait for the ACK after every frame it transmits. This is a source of inefficiency, and is particularly bad when the propagation delay is much longer than the transmission delay.\nStop and wait can also create inefficiencies when sending longer transmissions. When", "-25.19651682593394" ], [ "might exist on a distributed collection of mobile devices. If a player reconnects to a device they previously connected to, they find that their relevant world data is still present. In the video game Destiny, a World Server provides the persistent world data for the game instances (called \"bubbles\"), which are created on demand as a number of players are matched to play the game together. The term 'persistent world' is frequently used by players of Neverwinter Nights (2002) and Neverwinter Nights 2 (2006) to refer to MMORPG-like online environments created using the toolkits of games such as Arkaz, Avlis,", "-25.175957015024323" ], [ "the interceding frames are displayed slightly faster than intended, resulting in an effect similar to judder. (See Telecine: Frame rate differences.) Input lag Video games, which use a wide variety of rendering engines, tend to benefit visually from vertical synchronization since a rendering engine is normally expected to build each frame in real time, based on whatever the engine's variables specify at the moment a frame is requested. However, because vertical synchronization causes input lag, it interferes with the interactive nature of games, and particularly interferes with games that require precise timing or fast reaction times. Benchmarking Lastly, benchmarking a video", "-25.15232838508018" ], [ "similar to other popular in-game video recording software products, but allowed users to record videos up to 10 minutes in length for free.\nXfire added a video streaming feature in version 1.97. To view a broadcast, a web browser plugin was required, supporting only Internet Explorer and Mozilla Firefox. In version 1.113, released on August 17, 2009, the broadcast system was changed to allow a plugin-less, Flash-based view compatible with any Flash-enabled browser. This feature let anyone watch a live feed of a user's screen while they were playing a game. Live streams had accompanying chat rooms that let anyone who", "-25.119339381635655" ], [ "to another screen. However, if both players lose all their lives on the same screen, the game is over, although if they have any continues, they can continue from the same screen. Otherwise, they will have to resume from the beginning of the stage using a password.\nIn order to progress through the game, players must collect various items to use. Each player can only hold one item at a time (two in single player). The grappling hook is used to cross large gaps between hooks, though can also be used to knock back enemies and collect items from long distances.", "-25.096774353645742" ], [ "be used to skip video and dialog sequences, and right-clicking on screen exits avoids waiting for character walking. Useful \"Go to...\" text indicates previously-unexplored exits. A handy instant-navigation feature is also available for part of the game.\nThe game is actually somewhat non-linear since some tasks can be solved in a different order, with the gameplay periodically simplified by one-way plot elements. There are only twelve saved-game slots, which may be too few for some players. However, multiple sets of saved games can be retained by manually copying SAVEGAME.* files from the game installation directory. An audible indication of the main", "-25.085037949625985" ], [ "time the player plays the game, and their behavior is different each playthrough based upon whether or not they are human. Due to the random nature of the game, the script swelled to 500 pages, and the quality assurance people had to play through the game 2,500 times to experience every possible variation.\nBecause of how central to the plot randomness is, NPC behavior was not scripted. Instead, each NPC is assigned certain goals to accomplish based upon whether they are a replicant or a human. How they go about accomplishing these goals is handled by the AI system, and can", "-25.05652094760444" ], [ "result it took about seven minutes for the game to load, and a bug resulted in the game entering the first screen as soon as the tape had finished loading instead of waiting for the user to start the game. Further issues related to the lack of music and in game sound, and the way that video memory was mapped in the C16, this resulted in a number of the screens having to be removed so that load time and video mapping could be correctly handled. Orao The Orao version was made in 1987 by Nenad Mihailovic. It was made", "-25.047363974423206" ], [ "often have a setting to avoid it or have dedicated screenshot functions. Screen recording The screen recording capability of some screen capture programs is a time-saving way to create instructions and presentations, but the resulting files are often large.\nA common problem with video recordings is the action jumps, instead of flowing smoothly, due to low frame rate. Though getting faster all the time, ordinary PCs are not yet fast enough to play videos and simultaneously capture them at professional frame rates, i.e. 30 frame/s. For many cases, high frame rates are not required. This is not generally an issue if", "-25.04585069906898" ], [ "saved, and the Pre-T galaxy is erased when \"T-Mode\" exists. On some servers, \"Pre-T Robots\" fill in empty player spots to create a 4 vs. 4 game, but get replaced by players as the players log on.\nPlayers join and leave the game as they wish. Pickup games can be as short as ten or fifteen minutes, but are normally much longer. \"Clue Games\" are games between experienced players, which are usually timed for an hour with a half-hour of overtime, and a scoring system is used to determine victory. History Netrek is largely derived from Empire, written for the PLATO", "-25.042032080265926" ], [ "Adobe HTTP Dynamic Streaming \"HTTP Dynamic streaming is the process of efficiently delivering streaming video to users by dynamically switching among different streams of varying quality and size during playback. This provides users with the best possible viewing experience their bandwidth and local computer hardware (CPU) can support. Another major goal of dynamic streaming is to make this process smooth and seamless to users, so that if up-scaling or down-scaling the quality of the stream is necessary, it is a smooth and nearly unnoticeable switch without disrupting the continuous playback.\"\nThe latest versions of Flash Player and Flash Media Server support", "-25.028329642722383" ], [ "unassisted speedrun being faster than its tool-assisted counterpart.\nFrom August 13 to 21, 2007, the fastest unassisted speedrun of Pokémon Blue was 4 minutes faster than the best TAS, due to a new trick that allowed walking through walls. On August 21, however, a TAS was submitted that was 20 minutes faster than the unassisted run.\nSome games may produce beneficial glitches if the inserted cartridge is manipulated, which may not be reproduced on an emulator for a TAS. One of the most famous examples is The Legend of Zelda: Ocarina of Time, where lifting the side of the cartridge may allow", "-25.007475718506612" ], [ "sequenced audio can include dynamic shifts, such as additional orchestration during battle scenes, etc., streamed audio cannot. Some games, such as Super Mario Galaxy (2007), work around this by synchronizing sequenced and streaming audio so that additional effects can be added to the streamed music.", "-24.94454952381784" ], [ "fades in or out. Audio cues can also be placed into groups, so that multiple files can be triggered at one moment. Video playback The video capability of the software in its most recent version allows a designer to add video files to their cue lists, allowing them to be time aligned with other cues, including audio files. Video files can be altered in real time in QLab, by integrating a Quartz Composer file. The designer can also select on which video card or cards the video will play. It is useful to note that the speed of the computer", "-24.937611281115096" ], [ "counts as a move, and the robots will respond by moving towards the new location. Because the location is randomly selected, it is possible that the player teleports right into the path of a robot. In some versions of the game, there is a \"safe teleport\" feature which the player may use a limited number of times (for instance once per level) and there may also be a close-range weapon which kills all robots within the immediate vicinity, the use of which would be limited in a similar way.\nA few versions also add a tank, which is not killed when", "-24.928613188429154" ], [ "also determines how quickly players are moving through the level towards each objective; if it detects that players have remained in one place for too long or are not making enough progress, it will summon a horde of common infected to force any players and AI Characters present to move from their current location and combat the new threat. Besides pacing, the Director also controls some video and audio elements of the game to set a mood for a boss encounter or to draw the players' attention to a certain area. Valve calls the way the Director is working \"procedural", "-24.8869739419315" ], [ "game. Neologism status \"Speedrun\" and \"game replay\" emerged in recent years as a subset of \"play-through\" and gained popularity by being entertaining and competitive while needing only minutes of video. Video sharing websites accelerated their acceptance. Advances in consumer recording equipment, codecs, hard drive space, and internet services were necessary before complete games could reasonably be saved and shared.\nOutside of the communities specializing in the practice, \"longplay\" is relatively unknown, though understood from context. The ambiguous umbrella term \"play-through\" is widely used instead. History The term \"Longplay\" was first introduced by the German computer magazine \"64’er – Das Magazin für", "-24.872729140741285" ], [ "and uninitialized memory pointer.\nQuickTime 7.6 has been found to disable Mac users' ability to play certain games, such as Civilization IV and The Sims 2. There are fixes available from the publisher, Aspyr.\nQuickTime 7 lacks support for H.264 Sample Aspect Ratio. QuickTime X does not have this limitation, but many Apple products (such as iTunes and Apple TV) still use the older QuickTime 7 engine.\nQuickTime 7.7.x on Windows fails to encode H.264 on multi-core systems with more than approximately 20 threads, e.g. HP Z820 with 2× 8-core CPUs. A suggested solution is to disable hyper-threading/limit CPU cores. Encoding speed and", "-24.830170961096883" ], [ "errors. Doing this, however, carries the risk of crashing the game or even causing permanent damage to the game medium.\nHeavy use of glitches are often used in performing a speedrun of a video game. One type of glitch often used for speedrunning is a stack overflow, which is referred to as \"overflowing.\" Another type of speedrunning glitch, which is almost impossible to do by humans and is mostly made use of in tool assisted speedruns, is arbitrary code execution which will cause an object in a game to do something outside of its intended function.\nPart of the quality assurance", "-24.828895975661" ], [ "period of time before re-accessing the link. However, a user will wait (\"back off\") for a random amount of time proportional to the number of times it has successively tried to access the link. The channel capture effect happens when one user continues to \"win\" the link.\nFor example, user A and user B both try to access a quiet link at the same time. Since they detect a collision, user A waits for a random time between 0 and 1 time units and so does user B. Let's say user A chooses a lower back-off time. User A then begins", "-24.820178993366426" ], [ "Quick time event In video games, a quick time event (QTE) is a method of context-sensitive gameplay in which the player performs actions on the control device shortly after the appearance of an on-screen instruction/prompt. It allows for limited control of the game character during cut scenes or cinematic sequences in the game. Performing the wrong prompt or not at all results in the character's failure at their task and often in an immediate game over, or a life being lost and being shown a death/failure animation.\nThe term \"quick time event\" is attributed to Yu Suzuki, director of the game", "-24.819645243202103" ], [ "a similar format to skirmish mode whereby the goal is to eliminate the other team. Games over the Internet can be completely random, in the form of a Quick Match. Players can also play in Custom Matches where the number of players, the map and rules are decided upon by the host.\nThe online feature originally worked via GameSpy servers. After the shutdown of GameSpy in 2014, these were no longer available.\nA replacement online option has been developed by Revora. The software, instructions and support can be found on CnC Online.\nThe macOS version of the game released for the Mac App", "-24.81575115583837" ], [ "may synchronize the local server time or allow players to change the time to any time they may desire.", "-24.809328050505428" ], [ "to walk around for a couple of seconds in total silence until Slender Man finally appears behind the player and ends the game. However, instead of the normal death screen appearing, a slightly different version is played in which the static slowly fades out instead of abruptly stopping. A few moments later the player awakens in the forest, now in the daytime, and can move around for a few seconds before the screen goes black and plays the end credits. New game modes are then unlocked. There is also a grace period in the very beginning of the game, during", "-24.77234411111567" ], [ "actual game is stored, executed, and rendered on the remote operator's or game company's server and the video results are streamed directly to a consumer's computers over the internet. This allows access to games without the need of a console and largely makes the capability of the user's computer unimportant, as the server is the system that is running the processing needs. The controls and button presses from the user are transmitted directly to the server, where they are recorded, and the server then sends back the game's response to the input controls.\nGaming on demand is a game service which", "-24.75817461661063" ], [ "64, and Super Mario World.\nTASBot contains a \"replay board\", which takes a predetermined list of inputs from a Linux machine and uses them to send signals directly to a console's controller ports. The list of inputs is written and recorded manually, tested on an emulator. Controller inputs need to be timed extremely accurately; some live runs failed as a result of slight electromagnetic interference from crossed wires. Speedruns At its debut during AGDQ in 2014, TASBot played Super Mario World. By leveraging an arbitrary code execution glitch, the run allowed players to play Pong and Snake inside the game. At", "-24.754823421862966" ] ]

[ "It's a series of numbers. And you can copy it, but you can still only spend it once because the transaction ledger- the list of which wallets sent which bitcoins to which other wallets- is public. It's not like spending a Bitcoin physically removes the data from your computer and sends it in a tube to the other computer. It's just that you need the other machines mining bitcoins to verify your transaction and they won't verify it if you try to spend it twice.", "Bitcoin is a system where every user has a copy of the records of every single deal ever made. A wallet is the password to instructions of how to tell the system to give a specific bitcoin (or a fraction) to another wallet. So there is nothing to copy, the password can only be used once, which makes everyone in the system write to their records (which is why you can't reverse transactions).", "Your computer doesn't store a single bitcoin at a time like a dollar bill, it stores a large number that is proof to the rest of the world that you can spend a particular bitcoin. Copying it will only copy the proof that you own it, not the money itself. Copying the key to a safe does not duplicate the safe or the safe's contents.", "Because it's not a file - all that is stored is a record of every transaction that's ever occured. So if Alice pays Bob 100 bitcoins, then Bob has 100 bitcoins. Then if Bob pays Charles 20 bitcoins, then Bob now has 80 bitcoins. But nowhere is Bob's total number of bitcoins recorded - what's recorded are the transactions that have occured. The number of Bitcoins in Bob's wallet is simply the number of bitcoins that he's recieved minus those he's paid out. This record of transactions is called the *blockchain*." ]

[ [ "bit was set, the file could not be copied. It was called the bozo bit because it was copy protection so weak that only a bozo would think of it, and only a bozo would be deterred by it. After Mac System 4, introduced in early 1987, the Finder ignored this bit.\nThe cassette and ROM filing systems and the Advanced Disc Filing System of Acorn MOS feature a rudimentary copy protection mechanism where a file with a certain flag set cannot be loaded except to execute it.\nThe Compact Disc has a similar \"no copy\" bit in the subcode, but nearly", "-29.31654917576816" ], [ "the original and its clone will share the same object.\nBut where the value is a mutable object it must be deep copied. One solution is to remove the final modifier from the field, giving up the benefits the modifier conferred.\nFor this reason, some programmers suggest to make the objects in the hierarchy Serializable, and create copies by serializing the old object and then creating a new object from the resulting bitstream, which handles final data members correctly, but is significantly slower.\nAlternatively, one can return a completely new object from the current objects fields, which can be done first calling", "-29.183963606392354" ], [ "Object copying In object-oriented programming, object copying is creating a copy of an existing object, a unit of data in object-oriented programming. The resulting object is called an object copy or simply copy of the original object. Copying is basic but has subtleties and can have significant overhead. There are several ways to copy an object, most commonly by a copy constructor or cloning. Copying is done mostly so the copy can be modified or moved, or the current value preserved. If either of these is unneeded, a reference to the original data is sufficient and more efficient, as no", "-28.14000775511522" ], [ "need not be copied.\nA Java example, when \"copying\" an object using simple assignment:\nObject original = new Object();Object copy = null;copy = original; // does not copy object but only its reference\nThe object is not duplicated, the variables 'original' and 'copy' are actually referring to the same object. In C++, the equivalent code\nObject* original = new Object();Object* copy = NULL;copy = original;\nmakes it clear that it is a pointer to the object being copied, not the object itself. Cloning The process of actually making another exact replica of the object instead of just its reference is called cloning. In most languages,", "-28.130362767718907" ], [ "characters be copied over when only four of them are actually in the buffer? Tackling one byte at a time, there is no problem serving this request, because as a byte is copied over, it may be fed again as input to the copy command. When the copy-from position makes it to the initial destination position, it is consequently fed data that was pasted from the beginning of the copy-from position. The operation is thus equivalent to the statement \"copy the data you were given and repetitively paste it until it fits\". As this type of pair repeats a single", "-27.96686687480542" ], [ "copying machine, called BitBitJump, copies one bit in memory and passes the execution unconditionally to the address specified by one of the operands of the instruction. This process turns out to be capable of universal computation (i.e. being able to execute any algorithm and to interpret any other universal machine) because copying bits can conditionally modify the code that will be subsequently executed. Multi-bit copying machine Yet another bit operating machine, similar to BitBitJump, copies several bits at the same time. The problem of computational universality is solved in this case by keeping predefined jump tables in the memory. Transport", "-27.773133107606554" ], [ "Cloning (programming) Shallow copies In most programming languages (exceptions include: Ruby), primitive types such as double, float, int, long, etc. simply store their values somewhere in the computer's memory (often the call stack). By using simple assignment, you can copy the contents of the variable to another one:\nCopying primitive types in Java or C++:\nint original = 42;int copy = 0;copy = original;\nMany OOP programming languages (including Java, D, ECMAScript, and C#) make use of object references. Object references, which are similar to pointers in other languages, allow for objects to be passed around by address so that the whole object", "-27.747754946089117" ], [ "copying occurs.\nObjects in general store composite data. While in simple cases copying can be done by allocating a new, uninitialized object and copying all fields (attributes) from the original object, in more complex cases this does not result in desired behavior. Methods of copying The design goal of most objects is to give the resemblance of being made out of one monolithic block even though most are not. As objects are made up of several different parts, copying becomes nontrivial. Several strategies exist to treat this problem.\nConsider an object A, which contains fields xᵢ (more concretely, consider if A is", "-27.45285834860988" ], [ "within that subsystem are then able to read or write the file.\nThe sticky bit, formally known as the save text on swap bit, derives its name from its original purpose. Originally the sticky bit caused a process's initial memory image to be stored as a contiguous image on the disk drive which was used to store real memory pages when they were not in use. This improved the performance of commonly executed commands by making the initial memory image readily available. Modern UNIX systems no longer perform that function when the bit is set, but the name", "-27.36340801307233" ], [ "Digital copy A digital copy is a commercially distributed computer file containing a media product such as a film or music album. The term contrasts this computer file with the physical copy (typically a DVD or Blu-ray disc) with which the digital copy is usually offered as part of a bundle. It allows the disc's purchaser to acquire a single copy of the film on digital device such as a personal computer, smartphone, tablet, and/or digital media player, and view it on those devices (and often across all of them with one account) without requiring access to the physical media.", "-27.073413526115473" ], [ "Virtual printer In computing a virtual printer is a simulated device whose user interface and API resemble that of a printer driver, but which is not connected with a physical computer printer.\nWhen a document is \"printed\" by a virtual printer, instead of physically printing it on paper or other material the underlying software processes the images of its pages in some other way, often resulting in a file being produced or the images being transmitted. History In the early 1960s the B5500 Master Control Program (MCP) operating system included virtual printers, called \"Printer Backups\" in the form of Printer Backup", "-26.68298360425979" ], [ "data was written incorrectly or the existing data has been corrupted while on the disk such that no distinction can be made, but usually the hard disk returns the area as unreadable. The other concept that using digital copying is website copy, digital copying has more interpretation than just the basic concept of disk read and write itself. Digital Copy is a sample of interpretation of digital copying. Copying rights The concept of copying has a particular significance in certain areas of law. In each of the primary areas of intellectual property law, a number of cases have refined the", "-26.57695665337087" ], [ "November 2016 it was retired. It had become obsolete as news on bitcoin is now widely disseminated.\nBitcoin Core includes a scripting language inspired by Forth that can define transactions and specify parameters. ScriptPubKey is used to \"lock\" transactions based on a set of future conditions. scriptSig is used to meet these conditions or \"unlock\" a transaction. Operations on the data are performed by various OP_Codes. Two stacks are used - main and alt. Looping is forbidden.\nBitcoin Core uses OpenTimestamps to timestamp merge commits. Version history Bitcoin 0.1 was released on 9 January 2009 by Satoshi Nakamoto with only Windows supported.", "-26.49290520527211" ], [ "Users arrange mixing by themselves. This model solves the problem of stealing, as there is no middleman. When it is completely formed, the exchange of bitcoins between the participants begins. Apart from mixing server, none of the participants can know the connection between the incoming and outgoing addresses of coins. \nThe Dark Wallet client software for bitcoin was built to natively mix transactions between users to achieve the same effect without relying on a centralized service.", "-26.49235865578885" ], [ "bitcoins can be said to exist in the form of unspent outputs of transactions. Transactions Transactions are defined using a Forth-like scripting language. Transactions consist of one or more inputs and one or more outputs. When a user sends bitcoins, the user designates each address and the amount of bitcoin being sent to that address in an output. To prevent double spending, each input must refer to a previous unspent output in the blockchain. The use of multiple inputs corresponds to the use of multiple coins in a cash transaction. Since transactions can have multiple outputs, users can send bitcoins", "-26.489811990526505" ], [ "can be copied to computer files, in a process called \"dumping\". The resulting files are often generically called ROM images or ROMs regardless of the kind of storage they came from. A game usually consists of multiple ROM and PAL images; these are collectively stored inside a single ZIP file, constituting a ROM set. In addition to the \"parent\" ROM set (usually chosen as the most recent \"World\" version of the game), games may have \"clone\" ROM sets with different program code, different language text intended for different markets etc. For example, Street Fighter II Turbo is considered a variant", "-26.45509698888054" ], [ "built by Konrad Zuse, used binary notation for numbers. Physical representation A bit can be stored by a digital device or other physical system that exists in either of two possible distinct states. These may be the two stable states of a flip-flop, two positions of an electrical switch, two distinct voltage or current levels allowed by a circuit, two distinct levels of light intensity, two directions of magnetization or polarization, the orientation of reversible double stranded DNA, etc.\nBits can be implemented in several forms. In most modern computing devices, a bit is usually represented by an electrical voltage or", "-26.418451774399728" ], [ "the chain of ownership. Unlike traditional check endorsements, bitcoin transactions are irreversible, which eliminates risk of chargeback fraud.\nAlthough it is possible to handle bitcoins individually, it would be unwieldy to require a separate transaction for every bitcoin in a transaction. Transactions are therefore allowed to contain multiple inputs and outputs, allowing bitcoins to be split and combined. Common transactions will have either a single input from a larger previous transaction or multiple inputs combining smaller amounts, and one or two outputs: one for the payment, and one returning the change, if any, to the sender. Any difference between the total", "-26.288313845405355" ], [ "Sticky bit History The sticky bit was introduced in the Fifth Edition of Unix (in 1974) for use with pure executable files. When set, it instructed the operating system to retain the text segment of the program in swap space after the process exited. This speeds up subsequent executions by allowing the kernel to make a single operation of moving the program from swap to real memory. Thus, frequently-used programs like editors would load noticeably faster. One notable problem with \"stickied\" programs was replacing the executable (for instance, during patching); to do so required removing the sticky bit from the", "-26.212090742745204" ], [ "such as a cue sheet or log file from the ripping software.\nTo rip the contents out of a container is different from simply copying the whole container or a file. When creating a copy, nothing looks into the transferred file, nor checks if there is any encryption or not, and raw copy is also not aware of any file format. One can copy a DVD byte by byte via programs like the Linux dd command onto a hard disk, and play the resulting ISO file just as one would play the original DVD.\nTo rip contents is also different from grabbing", "-25.953522690368118" ], [ "to the fact that any type of information or content can now be stored and transmitted in the same digital form, it can be used to create a virtual representation of the product (in the form of a digital twin), thus decoupling the information from its physical form. Therefore, the homogenization of data and the decoupling of the information from its physical artifact, have allowed digital twins to come into existence. However, digital twins also enable increasingly more information on physical products to be stored digitally and become decoupled from the product itself.\nAs data is increasingly digitized, it can be", "-25.85944722709246" ], [ "were once used to draw graphics on images in such a way that drawing them twice on the background reverts the background to its original state. The NOT bitwise operation is also an involution, and is a special case of the XOR operation where one parameter has all bits set to 1.\nAnother example is a bit mask and shift function operating on color values stored as integers, say in the form RGB, that swaps R and B, resulting in the form BGR.\nf(f(RGB))=RGB, f(f(BGR))=BGR.\nThe RC4 cryptographic cipher is an involution, as encryption and decryption operations use the same function.", "-25.775069202762097" ], [ "Bitcoin Core Features Bitcoin Core includes a transaction verification engine and connects to the bitcoin network as a full node. Moreover, a cryptocurrency wallet, which can be used to transfer funds, is included by default. The wallet allows for the sending and receiving of bitcoins. It does not facilitate the buying or selling of bitcoin. It allows users to generate QR codes to receive payment.\nThe software validates the entire blockchain, which includes all bitcoin transactions ever. This distributed ledger which has reached more than 235 gigabytes in size as of Jan 2019, must be downloaded or synchronised before full", "-25.735022602544632" ], [ "the widespread use of digital image editing.\n20th century Xerox technology made possible the ability to copy both flat images and three-dimensional objects using the copier as a scanning camera. Such copier images could then be combined with real objects in a traditional cut-and-glue collage manner.\nContemporary photograph editors in magazines now create \"paste-ups\" digitally. Creating a photomontage has, for the most part, become easier with the advent of computer software such as Adobe Photoshop, Paint Shop Pro, Corel Photopaint, Pixelmator, Paint.NET, or GIMP. These programs make the changes digitally, allowing for faster workflow and more precise results. They also mitigate mistakes", "-25.72134070622269" ], [ "could be downloaded from the host computer. Data for the glyphs was sent by encoding a set of six vertical pixels into a single character code, and then sending many of these Sixels to the terminal, which decoded them into the character set memory. In later models, the same sixel concept would be used to send bitmapped graphics as well. Character graphics were a common example of these downloaded sets.", "-25.71805434421185" ], [ "be recorded (at the very least, with a video camera and recorder). In practice, almost-perfect copies can typically be made by tapping into the analog output of a player (e.g. the speaker output or headphone jacks) and, once redigitized into an unprotected form, duplicated indefinitely. Copying text-based content in this way is more tedious, but the same principle applies: if it can be printed or displayed, it can also be scanned and OCRed. With basic software and some patience, these techniques can be applied by a typical computer-literate user.\nSince these basic technical facts exist, it follows that a determined", "-25.631695091600704" ], [ "technology is that it is cheap and easy to generate the credential and it can easily be applied to cards or other items. However the same affordability and simplicity makes the technology susceptible to fraud, because fake barcodes can also be created cheaply and easily, for example by photocopying real ones. One attempt to reduce fraud is to print the barcode using carbon-based ink, and then cover the bar code with a dark red overlay. The barcode can then be read with an optical reader tuned to the infrared spectrum, but can not easily be copied by a copy", "-25.567843290118617" ], [ "even glitter and glow-in-the-dark.\" Pirates Press' engineers have created a technology that can digitally recreate a record before it is cut to analyze what the grooves would look like with different input settings or a different version of the master.", "-25.518481043933207" ], [ "useful for erasing text by overprinting with ink).\nNon-erasable Programmable ROMs are typically implemented as arrays of fusible elements, each representing a bit, which can only be switched one way, usually from one to zero. In such PROMs, the DEL and NUL characters can be used in the same way that they were used on punched tape: one to reserve meaningless fill bytes that can be written later, and the other to convert written bytes to meaningless fill bytes. For PROMs that switch one to zero, the roles of NUL and DEL are reversed; also, DEL will only work with 7-bit", "-25.50806621191441" ], [ "existing data in the ROM image and change levels, character graphics, or any other aspect the program allows. While normally played on emulators, these newly edited ROM images could theoretically be used in conjunction with a flash drive to actually create carts for the older system, allowing the modified ROM images to run on the original hardware. A notable recent example of such a fangame is The Legend of Zelda: Parallel Worlds which was hailed by reviewers as a remarkable unofficial sequel to A Link to the Past. Other notable examples include Legend of Zelda: Curse from the Outskirts, Blaster", "-25.490492977732174" ], [ "are represented bitcoins, thus bringing transparency, traceability of license and presale options. Interesting Facts In December 2, 2016 (Riga, Latvia) Antons organized Guinness World Record - Biggest Rube Goldberg Machine as a founder and CEO of Scandiweb. The machine consists of 412 steps.", "-25.489291292704365" ], [ "Windows certain registry keys use short filenames, which are sometimes not reproduced by file-based backup, some commercial software uses copy protection that will cause problems if a file is moved to a different disk sector, and file-based backups do not always reproduce metadata such as security attributes. Creating a bit-identical disk image is one way to ensure the system backup will be exactly as the original. Bit-identical images can be made in Linux with dd, available on nearly all live CDs.\nMost commercial imaging software is \"user-friendly\" and \"automatic\" but may not create bit-identical images. These programs have most of the", "-25.429213982482906" ], [ "ROM image Creation ROMs can be copied from the read-only memory chips found in cartridge-based games and many arcade machines using a dedicated device in a process known as dumping. For most common home video game systems, these devices are widely available, examples being the Doctor V64 or the Retrode.\nDumping ROMs from arcade machines, which in fact are highly customized PCBs, often requires individual setups for each machine along with a large amount of expertise. Copy protection mechanisms While ROM images are often used as a means of preserving the history of computer games, they are also often used to", "-25.415489041726687" ], [ "the list as the default option.\nIn February 2018, it was announced that the wallet integrated with ShapeShift using their API to allow for multi-currency conversions within the wallet between Bitcoin Cash (BCH) and Bitcoin (BTC).\nIn May 2018, Bitcoin.com decided to partially reverse a controversial change made to its website by listing back Bitcoin Cash as Bitcoin Cash instead of Bitcoin (BCH) while Bitcoin.com still list Bitcoin as Bitcoin Core (BTC) on the site.\nIn March 2018, the Bitcoin.com wallet announced that 2 million Bitcoin wallets have been downloaded since it was released. Bitcoin Mining Bitcoin.com started mining with its own pool", "-25.393889959494118" ], [ "Economics of bitcoin Classification Bitcoin is a digital asset designed by its inventor, Satoshi Nakamoto, to work as a currency. It is commonly referred to with terms like: digital currency, digital cash, virtual currency, electronic currency, digital gold, or cryptocurrency.\nThe question whether bitcoin is a currency or not is disputed. Bitcoins have three useful qualities in a currency, according to The Economist in January 2015: they are \"hard to earn, limited in supply and easy to verify\". Economists define money as a store of value, a medium of exchange and a unit of account, and agree that bitcoin has some", "-25.385365758324042" ], [ "wallet to confirm that they intended to make the transaction. Hardware wallets never expose their private keys, keeping bitcoins in cold storage even when used with computers that may be compromised by malware. Implementations The first wallet program, simply named Bitcoin, and sometimes referred to as the Satoshi client, was released in 2009 by Satoshi Nakamoto as open-source software. In version 0.5 the client moved from the wxWidgets user interface toolkit to Qt, and the whole bundle was referred to as Bitcoin-Qt. After the release of version 0.9, the software bundle was renamed Bitcoin Core to distinguish itself from the", "-25.37170252762735" ], [ "a deep copy. When initially copying an object, a (fast) shallow copy is used. A counter is also used to track how many objects share the data. When the program wants to modify an object, it can determine if the data is shared (by examining the counter) and can do a deep copy if needed.\nLazy copy looks to the outside just as a deep copy, but takes advantage of the speed of a shallow copy whenever possible. The downside are rather high but constant base costs because of the counter. Also, in certain situations, circular references can cause problems.\nLazy copy", "-25.346193310047965" ], [ "dense storage for \"random\" bits, that is, where each bit is equally likely to be 0 or 1, and each one is independent. But most data is not random, so it may be possible to store it more compactly. For example, the data of a typical fax image is not random and can be compressed. Run-length encoding is commonly used to compress these long streams. However, most compressed data formats are not so easy to access randomly; also by compressing bit arrays too aggressively we run the risk of losing the benefits due to bit-level parallelism (vectorization). Thus, instead of", "-25.34257717442233" ], [ "disk images to simulate the floppy drive of the computer being emulated. This is usually simpler to program than accessing a real floppy drive (particularly if the disks are in a format not supported by the host operating system), and allows a large library of software to be managed. Copy protection circumvention A mini image is an optical disc image file in a format that fakes the disk's content to bypass CD/DVD copy protection.\nBecause they are the full size of the original disk, Mini Images are stored instead. Mini Images are small, on the order of kilobytes, and contain just", "-25.337166767916642" ], [ "as \"bitcoin\" and operates using cryptography. Stross later blogged that the reference was intentional, saying \"I wrote Neptune's Brood in 2011. Bitcoin was obscure back then, and I figured had just enough name recognition to be a useful term for an interstellar currency: it'd clue people in that it was a networked digital currency.\" Film The 2014 documentary The Rise and Rise of Bitcoin portrays the diversity of motives behind the use of bitcoin by interviewing people who use it. These include a computer programmer and a drug dealer. The 2016 documentary Banking on Bitcoin is an introduction to the", "-25.331787148257717" ], [ "Fields notified the development team about it and the bug was fixed. Controversy There are two factions of bitcoin supporters, that support large blocks or small blocks. The Bitcoin Cash faction favors the use of its currency as a medium of exchange for commerce while the Bitcoin-supporting faction view bitcoin's primary use as that of a store of value. Some Bitcoin supporters like to call Bitcoin Cash “Bcash,” “Btrash,” or simply a scam, while Bitcoin Cash advocates insist that their implementation is the pure form of Bitcoin.\nSamson Mow of Blockstream pointed to Bitcoin Cash's use of the \"Bitcoin\" name as", "-25.233163864468224" ], [ "match, or the ABA problem. It is possible that between the time the old value is read and the time CAS is attempted, some other processors or threads change the memory location two or more times such that it acquires a bit pattern which matches the old value. The problem arises if this new bit pattern, which looks exactly like the old value, has a different meaning: for instance, it could be a recycled address, or a wrapped version counter.\nA general solution to this is to use a double-length CAS (DCAS). E.g. on a 32-bit system, a 64-bit CAS can", "-25.21508856123546" ], [ "Commodore 64 Part of the Fast Hack'em disk copy software was a nibbler used to produce copies of copy protected Commodore 64 commercial software. When using the nibbler, disk copying was done on a very low level, bit-by-bit rather than using standard Commodore DOS commands. This effectively nullified the efficacy of deliberate disk errors, non-standard track layouts, and related forms of copy prevention. Copying a protected disk took approximately 60 seconds if being copied directly to another disk drive, or 3 minutes (plus several disk swaps) if performed using a single disk drive.\nNIBtools is a modern (circa 2006) open source", "-25.200203117849014" ], [ "tools for copying disks and removing copy protection. Tapes could be copied with special software, but often it was simply done by dubbing the cassette in a dual deck tape recorder, or by relying on an Action Replay cartridge to freeze the program in memory and save to cassette. Cracked games could often be copied manually without any special tools. In Europe, some hardware devices, colloquially known as \"black boxes\" were available under the counter that connected two C1530 tape decks together at the connection point to the C64 permitting a copy to be made whilst loading a game. This", "-25.18763211168698" ], [ "clone copies an object's tainted state, frozen state, and any singleton methods it may have, whereas dup copies only its tainted state. Deep copies may be achieved by dumping and loading an object's byte stream or YAML serialization. Alternatively, you can use the deep_dive gem to do a controlled deep copy of your object graphs. \nIn Perl, nested structures are stored by the use of references, thus a developer can either loop over the entire structure and re-reference the data or use the dclone() function from the module Storable.\nIn VBA, an assignment of variables of type Object is a", "-25.15155541698914" ], [ "it is made of. Because a Trojan can consist of many components, the designer can distribute the parts of a malicious logic on the chip. The additional logic can occupy the chip wherever it is needed to modify, add or remove a function. If the function of the Trojan demands it, on the one hand malicious components can be scattered. This is called loose distribution. On the other hand, a Trojan can consist of only few components, so the area is small where the malicious logic occupies the layout of the chip. In contrast this is called tight distribution.\nIf the", "-25.139269801602495" ], [ "AppleSingle to combine the forks, and then using Uuencode or Base64 on the resulting file, but none of these solutions ever became popular and BinHex 4.0 survived well into the late 1990s. File archives of classic Mac OS software are still filled with BinHexed files. BinHex 4 file format Looking at the contents of a BinHex file, one will notice that it has a message on the first line identifying it as BinHex, followed by many 64-character lines made up of seemingly random letters, numbers, and punctuation marks. Here is a sample of what BinHex actually looks like:\n(This file", "-25.096324084239313" ], [ "ASCII characters (e.g., Bell) and characters that would take more than one character space (e.g., tab) are typically represented by a dot (\".\") in the following ASCII field. Early history Since the invention of computers and their different uses, a variety of file formats has been created. In some special circumstances it was convenient to be able to access the data as a series of raw digits. A program called SUPERZAP (AMASPZAP) was available for IBM OS/360 systems which could edit raw disk records and also understood the format of executable files. Pairs of hexadecimal digits (each pair can represent", "-25.09136498015141" ], [ "refreshing, migration, versioning, and access control since the data is located in multiple places.\nUnderstanding digital preservation means comprehending how digital information is produced and reproduced. Because digital information (e.g., a file) can be exactly replicated down to the bit level, it is possible to create identical copies of data. Exact duplicates allow archives and libraries to manage, store, and provide access to identical copies of data across multiple systems and/or environments. Emulation Emulation is the replicating of functionality of an obsolete system. According to van der Hoeven, \"Emulation does not focus on the digital object, but on the hard- and", "-25.06538899394218" ], [ "making his formation half traditional and half digital, for example sketching by hand but doing color management digitally. It is also the reason that he shuns the ubiquitous use of Macs in modern graphic design and instead relies on Corel Draw on PC.", "-25.044145152322017" ], [ "several computer programs have been made with the goal of simulating the images generated by a physical pinscreen.\nOne of the advantages of using digital pinscreen animation is the recovery of images. With the traditional pinscreen, there is no way to recover a previous image except for creating it all over again with no guarantee of precision. With digital pinscreen, the same image can be retrieved and altered without having to be recreated.", "-25.042602265253663" ], [ "bit may be represented by two levels of electric charge stored in a capacitor. In certain types of programmable logic arrays and read-only memory, a bit may be represented by the presence or absence of a conducting path at a certain point of a circuit. In optical discs, a bit is encoded as the presence or absence of a microscopic pit on a reflective surface. In one-dimensional bar codes, bits are encoded as the thickness of alternating black and white lines. Multiple bits Multiple bits may be expressed and represented in several ways. For convenience of representing commonly reoccurring groups", "-24.939795757411048" ], [ "the ZX Spectrum and Commodore 64.\nClones released for 8-bit computers are Quasimodo (1983) from Synapse Software for the Atari 8-bit family and The Great Wall (1986) from Artic Computing for the Acorn Electron and BBC Micro.", "-24.907889880007133" ], [ "devised a new format for storing real numbers in computers use a variable number of bits depending on the number of digits required, called unum number format. Normal formats store numbers as a fixed number of bits, for example 64 bits is usual for double-precision floating-point format numbers. This can allow them to be smaller than doubles for fast processing and also more precise or larger than the limits for double when desirable.", "-24.90239972175914" ], [ "hobby has been revived through the use of IT-based printers, especially the ink-jet and laser colour printers, with the availability of inexpensive cutting plotters and laser engravers also reducing the time, effort, and tedium associated with cutting out the many parts. Using a vector graphics package, it is even possible for anyone to create their own models from scratch, though most use special software \nPre-printed models may be downloaded from the internet. A web ring lists some of these while others offer a range of models from the simple to the complex.", "-24.88139830275759" ], [ "Satoshi Nakamoto Development of bitcoin In October 2008, Nakamoto published a paper on the cryptography mailing list at metzdowd.com describing the bitcoin digital currency. It was titled \"Bitcoin: A Peer-to-Peer Electronic Cash System\". In January 2009, Nakamoto released the first bitcoin software that launched the network and the first units of the bitcoin cryptocurrency, called bitcoins. Satoshi Nakamoto released the Version 0.1 of bitcoin software on Sourceforge on 9 January 2009.\nNakamoto claimed that work on the writing of the code began in 2007. Nakamoto knew that due to its nature, the core design would have to be able to support", "-24.87357295997208" ], [ "circuit (chip) designers have included hidden graphics elements termed chip art, including images, phrases, developer initials, logos, and more. This artwork, like the rest of the chip, is reproduced in each copy by lithography and etching. These are visible only when the chip package is opened and examined under magnification. The 1984 CVAX microchip implementation of the MicroVAX CPU contained in its etchings the Russian phrase in the Cyrillic alphabet \"VAX: When you care enough to steal the very best\", placed there because, \"knowing that some CVAXs would end up in the USSR, the team wanted the Russians to know", "-24.869966249039862" ], [ "This was followed by some minor bug fixing versions. On 16 December 2009 Bitcoin 0.2 was released. It included a Linux version for the first time and made use of multi-core processors for mining. In version 0.3.2 Nakamoto included checkpoints as a safeguard. After the release of version 0.3.9 Satoshi Nakamoto left the project and shortly after stopped communicating on online forums.\nBetween 2011 and 2013 new versions of the software were released at Bitcoin.org. Developers wanted to differentiate themselves as creators of software rather than advocates for bitcoin and so now maintain bitcoincore.org for just the software.\nBitcoin-Qt version 0.5.0 was", "-24.839499255816918" ], [ "great example of how the open protocol of Bitcoin can be used with diverse purposes. Protocols Twister is a decentralized system, but instead of other networks of this kind (like pump.io / Identi.ca, StatusNet / GNU social or Diaspora), it doesn't require you to use your own server or doesn’t require you to trust on a third one in order to use it. It works as a peer-to-peer program. Bitcoin This is achieved through the bitcoin protocol (not through the net used by the cryptocurrency). Basically, the protocol handles the register of users and the accesses. In the same way", "-24.832680574138067" ], [ "A or B), the change is visible in the other. Shallow copies are simple and typically cheap, as they can be usually implemented by simply copying the bits exactly. Deep copy An alternative is a deep copy, meaning that fields are dereferenced: rather than references to objects being copied, new copy objects are created for any referenced objects, and references to these placed in B. The result is different from the result a shallow copy gives in that the objects referenced by the copy B are distinct from those referenced by A, and independent. Deep copies are more expensive, due", "-24.829049113439396" ], [ "method called hardware overlay. Generally, there is no way to extract a computed image back out of the graphics card, though software may exist for special cases or specific video cards.\nOne way these images can be captured is to turn off the hardware overlay. Because many computers have no hardware overlay, most programs are built to work without it, just a little slower. In Windows XP, this is disabled by opening the Display Properties menu, clicking on the \"Settings\" tab, clicking, \"Advanced\", \"Troubleshoot\", and moving the Hardware Acceleration Slider to \"None.\"\nFree software media players may also use the overlay but", "-24.783349568388076" ], [ "custom application can interpret the file differently: a byte may be a sound, or a pixel, or even an entire word. Binary itself is meaningless, until such time as an executed algorithm defines what should be done with each bit, byte, word or block. Thus, just examining the binary and attempting to match it against known formats can lead to the wrong conclusion as to what it actually represents. This fact can be used in steganography, where an algorithm interprets a binary data file differently to reveal hidden content. Without the algorithm, it is impossible to", "-24.742546996159945" ], [ "operating system and may be read or edited using appropriate tools. Records Files are made of records, which are similar to rows within tables of a relational database. Each record has a unique key (called a \"record ID\") to distinguish it from other records in the file. These record IDs are typically hashed so that data can be retrieved quickly and efficiently.\nRecords (including record IDs) store the actual data as pure ASCII strings; there is no binary data stored in U2. For example, the hardware representation of a floating-point number would be converted to its ASCII equivalent before being", "-24.741908876545494" ], [ "modifying and accidental selection.\nA special tool, Create Tiled Clones, is provided to create symmetrical or grid-like drawings using various plane symmetries.\nObjects can be cut, copied and pasted using a clipboard. However, as of version 0.46, Inkscape uses an internal variable rather than the Operating System clipboard, which limits copy and paste operations to one application instance. Objects can be copied between documents by opening them from the File menu in an already opened window, rather than by opening a second file from the operating system's shell. Performance: New preferences option A new option called \"Rendering tile multiplier\" was added under", "-24.73381942796277" ], [ "the stored data. According to Popular Mechanics magazine, Bitcasa uses a convergent encryption method whereby a client's data is assigned an anonymous identifier before it is uploaded. If that data already exists on the Bitcasa servers (such as a popular song), it is not uploaded but is instead earmarked as available for download by that client. This protocol is said to reduce upload time. Bitcasa's encryption method reportedly cloaks the data while it is still on the client's computer and then blocks of data are sent by an enterprise-grade AES-256 encryption method to the data cloud for storage. ", "-24.720094389282167" ], [ "which relies on randomly generated filenames to link them. Not only does this exacerbate the issue of knowing exactly what is in an MXF file without specialized tools, but it breaks the functionality of standard desktop computer techniques which are generally used to manipulate data on a level as fundamental as moving, copying, renaming, and deleting. Using a randomly generated filename is uninformative to the user, but changing the name breaks the loose database structure between files.\nFurthermore, the currently popular MXF export tools (i.e. the ones that are free or cost the least) will not allow the user to create", "-24.679607299505733" ], [ "and some are completely dead. The remarked chips are assumed to either be factory rejects from back when the chip was still produced, or possibly \"reject pulls\" from one of the chip pulling operations that were used to supply the chips used in the Elektron SIDStation and the HardSID cards. Fake SID chips have also been supplied to unwitting buyers from unscrupulous manufacturers in China; the supplied chips are laser-etched with completely bogus markings, and the chip inside the package is not a SID at all. Game audio The majority of games produced for the Commodore 64 made use of", "-24.672709652848425" ], [ "Binary-safe Binary-safe file read and write While all textual data can be represented in binary-form, it must be done so through character encoding. In addition to this, how newlines are represented may vary depending on the platform used. Windows, Linux and macOS all represent newlines differently in binary form. This means that reading a file as binary data, parsing it as text and then writing it back to disk (thus reconverting it back to binary form) may result in a different binary representation than the one originally used.\nMost programming languages let the programmer decide whether to parse the contents of", "-24.65810621669516" ], [ "the 1k ROM within the Intel 8041 microcontroller used to drive the printer. The Z80 would copy 256 bytes via the ASIC into RAM, providing sufficient instructions to load the first sector from a floppy. The ROM-based code cannot display text, being too small to support character generation; instead, it displays a bright screen which is progressively filled by black stripes as the code is loaded from floppy.\nTo make the printer cheap enough to be included with every PCW, Amstrad placed the majority of its drive electronics inside the PCW cabinet. The printer case contained only electromechanical", "-24.6440629712597" ], [ "244, the Court of Appeal had held that a computer file containing data that represented the original photograph in another form was \"a copy of a photograph\" as per section 7(2) of the 1978 Act.\nTherefore, downloading an indecent photograph from the Internet was \"making a copy of an indecent photograph\" since a copy of that photograph had been caused to exist on the computer to which it had been downloaded.", "-24.626509123365395" ], [ "software was proposed under the name Bitcoin ABC at a conference that month. In July 2017, the Bitcoin Cash name was proposed by mining pool ViaBTC. The change, called a fork, took effect on 1 August 2017. As a result, the bitcoin ledger called the blockchain and the cryptocurrency split in two.\nA Hong Kong newspaper likened this to a new version of word processing software saying:\nBitcoin cash is like a new version of Microsoft Word, which generates documents that can no longer be opened via the older versions.\nBryan Kelly, a stock analyst likened it to a software upgrade:\nBitcoin cash is", "-24.607923021198076" ], [ "because they fulfill the need to back up bootlegs copy in case the original is illegally sold or lost; and because they permit the private development of new software on the device.\nIn Japan, these devices are known as magicom (マジコン, \"magic computer\"), an umbrella term for any device that enables piracy on game consoles. History The spiritual forefather of copier devices can be traced back to the Famicom Disk System, an official add-on device for the Japanese version of the Nintendo Entertainment System. Users quickly discovered ways to copy these disks with ordinary home computers of the time and", "-24.588026170735247" ], [ "bitcoins as equivalent, establishing the basic level of fungibility. Researchers have pointed out that the history of each bitcoin is registered and publicly available in the blockchain ledger, and that some users may refuse to accept bitcoins coming from controversial transactions, which would harm bitcoin's fungibility. For example, in 2012, Mt. Gox froze accounts of users who deposited bitcoins that were known to have just been stolen. Scalability The blocks in the blockchain were originally limited to 32 megabytes in size. The block size limit of one megabyte was introduced by Satoshi Nakamoto in 2010. Eventually the block size limit", "-24.583766605355777" ], [ "of older video game console cartridges. Another example is making backups of firmware/OS ROMs from older computers or other devices - for archival purposes, as in many cases, the original chips are PROMs and thus at risk of exceeding their usable data lifetime.\nThe resultant memory dump files are known as ROM images or abbreviated ROMs, and can be used to produce duplicate ROMs - for example to produce new cartridges or as digital files for playing in console emulators. The term ROM image originated when most console games were distributed on cartridges containing ROM chips, but achieved such widespread usage", "-24.560687966353726" ], [ "a swap device on the least recently used (LRU) basis. This approach makes zswap a true swap cache, as the oldest cached pages are evicted to a swap device once the cache is full, making room for newer swapped pages to be compressed and cached.\nzbud is a special-purpose memory allocator used internally by zswap for storing compressed pages, implemented as a rewrite of the zbud allocator used by the Oracle's zcache, which is another virtual memory compression implementation for the Linux kernel. Internally, zbud works by storing up to two compressed pages (\"buddies\", hence the allocator name) per", "-24.53240792415454" ], [ "doing a “hard fork” or “effectively a software upgrade,” Kelly said on “Fast Money.” “When you do a software upgrade, everybody usually agrees. But in this particular case, everybody is not agreeing.”\nAt the time of the software upgrade (also known as a fork) anyone owning bitcoin was also in possession of the same number of Bitcoin Cash units. The technical difference between Bitcoin Cash and Bitcoin is that Bitcoin Cash allows larger blocks in its blockchain than Bitcoin, which in theory allows it to process more transactions per second. Bitcoin Cash was the first of the Bitcoin forks, in which", "-24.49594771338161" ], [ "meaning they can be used for multiple hits with a single shot. Clones The Atari 8-bit family games Airstrike (1982) and Bellum (1983) are both Scramble clones. Skramble (1983) is a clone for the Commodore 64. Whirlybird Run (1983) is a TRS-80 Color Computer clone. Legal history In Stern Electronics, Inc. v. Kaufman, 669 F.2d 852, the Second Circuit held that Stern could copyright the images and sounds in the game, not just the source code that produced them.", "-24.457354572194163" ], [ "as a computer program, microcontroller or any electronic system capable of interpreting an input to create an output); digitized text data and raw audio and video recordings are not usually considered digital art in themselves, but can be part of the larger project of computer art and information art. Artworks are considered digital painting when created in similar fashion to non-digital paintings but using software on a computer platform and digitally outputting the resulting image as painted on canvas.\nAndy Warhol created digital art using a Commodore Amiga where the computer was publicly introduced at the Lincoln Center, New York in", "-24.421286135242553" ], [ "contain all 256 possible eight-bit byte values. Many computer programs came to rely on this distinction between seven-bit text and eight-bit binary data, and would not function properly if non-ASCII characters appeared in data that was expected to include only ASCII text. For example, if the value of the eighth bit is not preserved, the program might interpret a byte value above 127 as a flag telling it to perform some function.\nIt is often desirable, however, to be able to send non-textual data through text-based systems, such as when one might attach an image file to an e-mail", "-24.37800828559739" ], [ "to 16 bits that are not actually true.\nVideo cards with 10 bits per component started coming to market in the late 1990s. An early example was the Radius ThunderPower card for the Macintosh, which included extensions for QuickDraw and Adobe Photoshop plugins to support editing 30-bit images.\nThe HDMI 1.3 specification defines bit depths of 30 bits (1.073 billion colors), 36 bits (68.71 billion colors), and 48 bits (281.5 trillion colors).\nIn that regard, the Nvidia Quadro graphics cards manufactured after 2006 support 30-bit deep color and Pascal or later Geforce and Titan cards when paired with the Studio Driver as", "-24.343969015812036" ], [ "digital money for cash. In that case, digital currency represents electronic money (e-money). Digital currency denominated in its own units of value or with decentralized or automatic issuance will be considered as a virtual currency.\nAs such, bitcoin is a digital currency but also a type of virtual currency. Bitcoin and its alternatives are based on cryptographic algorithms, so these kinds of virtual currencies are also called cryptocurrencies. Digital versus traditional currency Most of the traditional money supply is bank money held on computers. This is also considered digital currency. One could argue that our increasingly cashless society means that all", "-24.33615970541723" ], [ "constant runs of bits, and thus can be efficiently encoded by run-length encoding. This is done (in the transform domain) in the Progressive Graphics File image format, for instance. Bitmap displays Some computers displayed graphics in bit-plane format, most notably the Amiga and Atari ST, contrasting with the more common packed format. This allowed certain classes of image manipulation to be performed using bitwise operations (especially by a blitter chip), and parallax scrolling effects. Video Motion Estimation Some motion estimation algorithms can be performed using bit planes (e.g. after the application of a filter to turn salient edge features into", "-24.326547188218683" ], [ "doublequote character embedded in the string (\\\" becomes \"), or by modifying the meaning of a sequence of characters including the hexadecimal value of a doublequote character (\\x22 becomes \").\nC, C++, Java, and Ruby all allow exactly the same two backslash escape styles. The PostScript language and Microsoft Rich Text Format also use backslash escapes. The quoted-printable encoding uses the equals sign as an escape character.\nURL and URI use %-escapes to quote characters with a special meaning, as for non-ASCII characters. The ampersand (&) character may be considered as an escape character in SGML and derived formats such as HTML", "-24.288879434461705" ], [ "to easily copy currency. In an attempt to prevent this, banks have sought to add filtering features to the software and hardware available to the public that senses features of currency, and then locks out the reproduction of any material with these marks. One known example of such a system is the EURion constellation. Copy-evident Sometimes only the original document has value. An original signed cheque for example has value but a photocopy of it does not. An original prescription script can be filled but a photocopy of it should not be. Copy-evident technologies provide security to hard copy documents", "-24.26679887692444" ], [ "on the ROM always stays with the device so the two cannot be accidentally separated. Also, if the ROM is on the card, both the peripheral hardware and the driver software provided by the ROM are installed together with no extra effort to install the software. An additional advantage of ROM on some early PC systems (notably including the IBM PCjr) was that ROM was faster than main system RAM. (On modern systems, the case is very much the reverse of this, and BIOS ROM code is usually copied (\"shadowed\") into RAM so it will run faster.)\nThere are many methods", "-24.240038012489094" ], [ "for other bitcoins which have a different transaction history.", "-24.224401752464473" ], [ "underlying network. Forks Bitcoin Core is, perhaps, the best known implementation or client. Alternative clients (forks of Bitcoin Core) exist, such as Bitcoin XT, Bitcoin Unlimited, and Parity Bitcoin.\nOn 1 August 2017, a hard fork of bitcoin was created, known as Bitcoin Cash. Bitcoin Cash has a larger block size limit and had an identical blockchain at the time of fork. On 24 October 2017 another hard fork, Bitcoin Gold, was created. Bitcoin Gold changes the proof-of-work algorithm used in mining, as the developers felt that mining had become too specialized. Trend towards centralization Researchers have pointed out at a", "-24.1958499008324" ], [ "ClipX Features This simple clipboard program captures text and images copied to the Windows Clipboard and allows the user to access a history of copied items, any item of which can be reselected for pasting.\nClipX can be recalled via a hotkey and supports both bitmap and text clipboards. ClipX offers a simple right-click menu for accessing copied items and configuring the program, while a left-click displays recently copied items. Under Configuration, you can specify how many clips the program retains and whether it should ignore text or bitmap files. Default hot keys let you pull up the list of clips,", "-24.19430253075552" ], [ "Operation not permitted Sticky bit with SGID 3171 on a directory named 'blog' owned by the group 'engineers' and the user 'root'\nA user named 'torvalds' who belongs to the group 'engineers' creates a file or directory named 'thoughts' inside the directory 'blog'. A user named 'wozniak' who also belongs to the group 'engineers' cannot delete, rename, or move the file or directory named 'thoughts', because he is not the owner and the sticky bit is set. However, if 'thoughts' is a file, then 'wozniak' can edit it.\nSticky bit has the final decision. If sticky bit and SGID had not been", "-24.187715908541577" ], [ "are stored in a computer in the form of a grid of picture elements, or pixels. These pixels contain the image's color and brightness information. Image editors can change the pixels to enhance the image in many ways. The pixels can be changed as a group, or individually, by the sophisticated algorithms within the image editors. This article mostly refers to bitmap graphics editors, which are often used to alter photographs and other raster graphics. However, vector graphics software, such as Adobe Illustrator, CorelDRAW, Xara Designer Pro or Inkscape, are used to create and modify vector images, which are stored", "-24.183424034214113" ], [ "of the original. However, the growth in size of storage media and developments such as cloud computing have led to more use of 'live' acquisitions whereby a 'logical' copy of the data is acquired rather than a complete image of the physical storage device. Both acquired image (or logical copy) and original media/data are hashed (using an algorithm such as SHA-1 or MD5) and the values compared to verify the copy is accurate.\nAn alternative (and patented) approach (that has been dubbed 'hybrid forensics' or 'distributed forensics') combines digital forensics and ediscovery processes. This approach has been embodied in a", "-24.182626218302175" ], [ "the actual PS version for the printer. On the Mac this turned out to be easy to solve, as the Mac file system includes two parts (known as forks) that are logically referred to as one file. By placing the PostScript in the data fork and a standard Mac PICT resource in the resource fork, both images could be moved about together invisibly as if they were one file. While a PICT preview often contains a bitmap, it could also contain a vector representation of the whole image, providing very high quality previews.\nNeither of these technologies is commonly used on", "-24.172503286521533" ], [ "from another computer on the network, the cookie has to be copied to that other computer. How the cookie is copied is a system-dependent issue: for example, on Unix-like platforms, scp can be used to copy the cookie.\nThe two systems using this method are MIT-MAGIC-COOKIE-1 and XDM-AUTHORIZATION-1. In the first method, the client simply sends the cookie when requested to authenticate. In the second method, a secret key is also stored in the .Xauthority file. The client creates a string by concatenating the current time, a transport-dependent identifier, and the cookie, encrypts the resulting string, and sends it to the", "-24.151787292736117" ], [ "the character graphics were supplied in ROM, and there were several versions of the ROMs with different glyphs. The user could not know in advance which version he would receive.", "-24.09975875640521" ], [ "the \"functional idea of the program, rather than to the expression of that idea in software.\" Holding (1) NO - When it comes to computer programs, copyright law does not protect against \"non-textual\" copying.\nAs long as the underlying source code is different, there is no problem if the ultimate Look and Feel are similar. In the present case, the fact easyJet didn't have access aided the court in finding no infringement. Moreover, the court took into account that the peculiar aspect of computer programs is that there are several different ways of producing a similar or identical result. ", "-24.097981742641423" ], [ "(likewise for comparison operations). This is not implemented in most object-oriented languages, however, though there is partial support in Eiffel. Implementation Nearly all object-oriented programming languages provide some way to copy objects. As most languages do not provide most objects for programs, a programmer must define how an object should be copied, just as they must define if two objects are identical or even comparable in the first place. Many languages provide some default behavior.\nHow copying is solved varies from language to language, and what concept of an object it has. Lazy copy A lazy copy is an implementation of", "-24.09671855632041" ], [ "network to verify and time-stamp new coins, because unless a majority of the parties agreed to accept new solutions, they couldn’t start on the next puzzle.\nWhen attempting to design transactions with a digital coin, you run into the \"double-spending problem.\" Once data have been created, reproducing them is a simple matter of copying and pasting. Most digital currencies solve the problem by relinquishing some control to a central authority, which keeps track of each account’s balance. This was an unacceptable solution for Szabo. \"I was trying to mimic as closely as possible in cyberspace the security and trust characteristics of", "-24.068424610522925" ], [ "bitwise XOR may be used to invert selected bits in a register (also called toggle or flip). Any bit may be toggled by XORing it with 1. For example, given the bit pattern 0010 (decimal 2) the second and fourth bits may be toggled by a bitwise XOR with a bit pattern containing 1 in the second and fourth positions:\n 0010 (decimal 2)\nXOR 1010 (decimal 10)\n = 1000 (decimal 8)\nThis technique may be used to manipulate bit patterns representing sets of Boolean states.\nAssembly language programmers and optimizing compilers sometimes use XOR as a short-cut to setting", "-24.059084471562528" ], [ "who made copies of the game a free demo of the first level before demanding that the player show proof of purchase. However, the algorithm for computing the MordorCharge numbers was not very complicated, and consisted of little more than adding three numbers modulo 9000. Those having knowledge of the method could calculate the correct response using a small lookup table and some relatively simple arithmetic.\nAlthough such means of discouraging copying would be considered little more than a nuisance today, it was fairly effective at a time when few people had access to online services. A similar copy protection,", "-24.051245414535515" ], [ "\"Digital copy\" is also commonly referred to as \"Digital HD\" (where it is referencing a high-definition digital copy). Features There are three types of a digital copy. The first is a copy made in advance and included on the disc. The second is created dynamically from the DVD content itself. In both scenarios the publisher decides which content, formats, digital rights management (DRM) systems and technical parameters are used for the Digital Copy. Digital Copy systems based on existing pre-generated files are less flexible than dynamic transcoding solutions. The third version is an alphanumeric code included on a slip of", "-24.048386542039225" ] ]

[ "I think the significance is a subjective thing - to me, it is the fact that at one time Mars behaved a lot like Earth did - it had an active core, and an atmosphere that was capable of generating and maintaining a water supply. This in turn supports the possibility that at one time there may have been life on Mars (or at the very least that life could theoretically have been supported at one time). This means that, even though many of the planets we've discovered are dead like Mars currently, they may not have been at one time. That in turn means that, given trillions of planets, there are very likely to be some that are CURRENTLY not dead, and therefore could currently be supporting life. Source: NOT a scientist or someone educated on this matter in any way - this is purely my initial reaction to the announcement.", "1 comment, 1 hour old, 0 upvotes and close to the frontpage? Reddit is really confusing me these days.", "I find it quite terrifying actually, what 'killed' Mars?", "I remember reading something about how the planets formed. When a system first forms, all the planets are still real hot. Now the farther out they are from the star or sun, the faster they will cool. Then ones closer will cool slower or not at all. Earth just so happens to be in a great spot where the cooling happened and then we are just warm enough and close enough to the sun for life to develop before it gets too cold too fast or too hot. Now other planets will also go through the stages of water and such and atmosphere, but it may happen too fast for life to develop. Think of it as goldilocks and the three bears. That one was juuuuust right. This doesn't have as much to do with the atmosphere. But it kind of shows that Yeah Mars probably was able to develop life but the planets stages probably went by too fast. We need to find a planet that is in the sweet spot for life like ours. Then again it is entirely possible there is life on every planet that we can't even conceive of how they would live or survive. Proof is here on earth already for that with the organisms at the bottom of the ocean that receive no sunlight and only receive energy from heat vents from the bottom of the ocean.", "As it has been mentioned in this thread, more so that at one point in time Mars was capable of harboring life. The question then is, what kind of life? If complex as life on Earth this would potentially mean that Mars may have fossils buried under the surface, which that would probably THE biggest discovery thus far in human history. Imagine finding fossils on Mars. Moreover, the next questions after that would probably be what caused life to die out? Where did the life go (assuming that it was similar to humans in critical thinking)? and how did the life look? Thinking about this atm makes me wish I could find a spaceship and fly out to Mars myself. Even further, if lets say fossils was very similar to humans, or dinosaurs, or other species that would mean we could have potentially originated on Mars.", "To me, the significance is the fact that in our very tiny solar system, located within our expanding universe which size can not be fathomed contains a planet which may have contained life at one point in its history. When you take into account the trillions of solar systems within our universe, and our solar system has two plants by which supported life. That, almost without argument, there are trillions of planets in our universe which could/have supported life. Basically, their findings give light to the possibility of extraterrestrial life outside our solar system. Their findings almost make it ignorant to think there isn't life outside of planet Earth.", "It is one more step in our understanding of how planets form and live, which is why we study such things. It's also more confirmation that a planet would almost certainly have to have a robust magnetosphere (like Earth's) to be able to support anything more than the most simple lifeforms. But if you want it in science-fictiony terms, it means that the notion that we could terraform Mars with any technology we're likely to have in the next several centuries just became even MORE unlikely than it already was.", "I know we're talking about science here, but I think there's something very poetic about the whole thing. Mars is dead, or at least not as alive as Earth. Earth is so strange, so alive and moving and active...and now Mars just seems to flat and still, like a corpse.", "The theory that the sun had slowly eroded the Mars atmosphere with solar winds, was just a theory. Now, they have evidence that this theory is correct. Science is built on informed assertions which must be tested to be confirmed or refuted. This is evidence which helps to confirm an assertion about the 4 billion year history of a planet which may have once been more like ours.", "Because it proves mars had a magnetic field but it doesn't have one now. Until recently, it was assumed that magnetic fields are stable and fairly permanent. This proves a perfectly habitable planet can suddendly lose it's field and quickly decay into a wasteland", "Not much. It still has the amount and composition we all ready knew. They now can measure the rate it gets 'blown' away.", "Is there any tectonic activity recorded on mars, I'm wondering if the core is still as active as earth's as well." ]

[ [ "the Mariner 6 and Mariner 7 flyby spacecraft, and the observations helped to trigger a scientific revolution in Mars knowledge. The Mariner 6 & 7 infrared radiometer results showed that the atmosphere of Mars is composed mostly of carbon dioxide (CO₂), and they were also able to detect trace amounts water on the surface of Mars.", "-37.641417475184426" ], [ "and out of Mars orbit for example. (See also Mars cycler)\nMariner IV flyby of Mars in July 1965 returned more accurate atmospheric data about Mars and much closer views of its surface then previously. \nMariner 6 and Mariner 7 flyby of Mars in 1969 caused another breakthrough in knowledge about the planet. The Mariner 6 & 7 infrared radiometer results from he flyby showed that the atmosphere of Mars was composed mostly of carbon dioxide (CO₂), and they were also able to detect trace amounts water on the surface of Mars.\nIn 2018, the twin Mars Cube One performed a", "-36.80955844512209" ], [ "composition of the Martian atmosphere in the mid-20th Century. Lewis David Kaplan and his team detected the signals of water vapor and carbon dioxide in the spectrogram of Mars in 1964, as well as carbon monoxide in 1969. In 1965, the measurements made during Mariner 4's flyby confirmed that the Martian atmosphere is constituted mostly of carbon dioxide, and the surface pressure is about 400 to 700 Pa.\nIn the 1970s, two landers of the Viking program provided the first ever in-situ measurements of the composition of the Martian atmosphere. Since then, many orbiters and landers have been sent to Mars", "-36.17143075794411" ], [ "to measure different properties of the Martian atmosphere, such as concentration of trace gases and isotopic ratios. In addition, telescopic observations and analysis of Martian meteorites provide independent sources of information to verify the findings. The imageries and measurements made by these spacecrafts greatly improve our understanding of the atmospheric processes outside Earth. Curiosity and InSight are still operating at the surface of Mars to carry out experiments and report the local daily weather. Mars 2020 and Rosalind Franklin are scheduled to launch in year 2020. Carbon dioxide CO₂ is the main component of the Martian atmosphere. It has a", "-34.87129619209736" ], [ "1943, Walter Adams and Theodore Dunham at the Mount Wilson Observatory tried to identify oxygen and water vapor in the Martian atmosphere, with generally negative results. The only component of the Martian atmosphere known for certain was carbon dioxide (CO₂) identified spectroscopically by Gerard Kuiper in 1947. Water vapor was not unequivocally detected on Mars until 1963.\nThe composition of the polar caps, assumed to be water ice since the time of Cassini (1666), was questioned by a few scientists in the late 1800s who favored CO₂ ice, because of the planet's overall low temperature and apparent lack of appreciable water.", "-34.67848993181542" ], [ "growing.\nMars has been studied by Earth-based instruments since the 17th century, but it is only since the exploration of Mars began in the mid-1960s that close-range observation has been possible. Flyby and orbital spacecraft have provided data from above, while landers and rovers have measured atmospheric conditions directly. Advanced Earth-orbital instruments today continue to provide some useful \"big picture\" observations of relatively large weather phenomena.\nThe first Martian flyby mission was Mariner 4, which arrived in 1965. That quick two-day pass (July 14–15, 1965) with crude instruments contributed little to the state of knowledge of Martian climate. Later Mariner missions", "-34.60975283506559" ], [ "appear along the ground, as well as dust devils. With this data, scientists will be able to gain even greater insights into Mars' weather and climate, supplementing what was collected by previous missions, and what is currently being gathered by the Curiosity rover about 600 km to the south.", "-34.34941453122883" ], [ "lake environment in ancient times on Mars became the drier environment in more modern times.\nOn August 5, 2017, NASA celebrated the fifth anniversary of the Curiosity rover mission landing, and related exploratory accomplishments, on the planet Mars. (Videos: Curiosity's First Five Years (02:07); Curiosity's POV: Five Years Driving (05:49); Curiosity's Discoveries About Gale Crater (02:54))\nOn June 7, 2018, NASA's Curiosity made two significant discoveries in Gale. Organic molecules preserved in 3.5 billion-year-old bedrock and seasonal variations in the level of methane in the atmosphere further support the theory that past conditions may have been conducive to life. It is possible", "-34.10199748544619" ], [ "Mars was born of a world much like the Moon, but with just a wisp of an atmosphere to blow the dust around. This view of Mars would last nearly another decade until Mariner 9 showed a much more dynamic Mars with hints that the planet’s past environment was more clement than the present one.\nOn January 24, 2014, NASA reported that current studies on Mars by the Curiosity and Opportunity rovers will be searching for evidence of ancient life, including a biosphere based on autotrophic, chemotrophic and/or chemolithoautotrophic microorganisms, as well as ancient water, including fluvio-lacustrine environments (plains related to", "-33.864432748785475" ], [ "orbital motions of Mars and Earth, American astronomer Walter Sydney Adams was able to directly measure the amount of oxygen and water vapor in the atmosphere of Mars. He determined that \"extreme desert conditions\" were prevalent on Mars. In 1934, Adams and American astronomer Theodore Dunham, Jr. found that the amount of oxygen in the atmosphere of Mars was less than one percent of the amount over a comparable area on Earth.\nIn 1927, Dutch graduate student Cyprianus Annius van den Bosch made a determination of the mass of Mars based upon the motions of the Martian moons, with an accuracy", "-33.70241559455462" ], [ "demonstrate the presence of life on the planet, identify the chemical(s) responsible for the Viking results, or both. The Mars Science Laboratory mission landed the Curiosity rover on August 6, 2012, and its goals include investigation of the Martian climate, geology, and whether Mars could have ever supported life, including investigation of the role of water and planetary habitability. Astrobiology research on Mars will continue with the ExoMars Trace Gas Orbiter in 2016, ExoMars rover on 2018, and the Mars 2020 rover in 2020.\nIn 2008, the Thermal and Evolved Gas Analyzer was operated at Mars, which could chemically analyze", "-33.70078284878946" ], [ "stratospheric balloon flights. The first observations of the polar wind, ions flowing out from the atmosphere, were made by his ion mass spectrometer flown on the ISIS spacecraft in 1971.\nHoffman is a co-investigator for the TEGA experiment that flew on the Mars Scout Phoenix mission that descended on Mars on May 25, 2008. The spacecraft will land in the far northern region of Mars, above the Arctic Circle in the area that the Mars Odyssey spacecraft has found evidence for water. An arm on the lander will dig a trench a meter deep in the surface of Mars to look", "-33.655048273853026" ], [ "and interstellar space.\nOn November 26, 2011, NASA's Mars Science Laboratory mission was successfully launched for Mars. Curiosity successfully landed on Mars on August 6, 2012, and subsequently began its search for evidence of past or present life on Mars. NASA Advisory Council In response to the Apollo 1 accident, which killed three astronauts in 1967, Congress directed NASA to form an Aerospace Safety Advisory Panel (ASAP) to advise the NASA Administrator on safety issues and hazards in NASA's aerospace programs. In the aftermath of the Shuttle Columbia disaster, Congress required that the ASAP submit an annual report to the NASA", "-33.64325241332699" ], [ "reason for a drastic climatic change in the Martian atmosphere from the time it could sustain liquid water to today, when the atmosphere is so thin that water can only exist as ice or vapour, to help understand how and why Mars is losing its hydrogen and oxygen into space, and the connection between the upper and lower levels of the Martian atmosphere. Data from the Hope probe will also help to model the Earth's atmosphere and study its evolution over millions of years.\nAll data gained from the mission will be made available to 200 universities and research institutes", "-33.58250582130859" ], [ "she investigated heat transfer in an engine rocket nozzle. She completed an MSc in Planetary Science at Caltech in 2006 and a PhD \"Inquiries into the consequences of planetary-scale impacts and the implications of carbonates in the hyper-arid core of the Sahara\" in 2010, under the supervision of Oded Aharonson. While at Caltech, she led a study published in Nature in 2008 that demonstrated that the dichotomy in the surface age and relative altitude between Mars's northern and southern hemispheres could have been caused by Mars being struck by a large impactor early in its history. Research Marinova began working", "-33.540648232999956" ], [ "operated nominally throughout its cruise and Mars orbital insertion phases on January 29, 1989, gathering data on the Sun, the interplanetary medium, Mars, and Phobos. Phobos 2 investigated Mars's surface and atmosphere and returned 37 images of Phobos with a resolution of up to 40 meters.", "-33.517519197484944" ], [ "throwing doubt on the burgeoning theory that the atmosphere of Mars is similar to that of the Earth. Previous detections of water in the atmosphere of Mars were explained by unfavorable conditions, and Campbell determined that the water signature came entirely from the Earth's atmosphere. Although he agreed that the ice caps did indicate there was water in the atmosphere, he did not believe the caps were sufficiently large to allow the water vapor to be detected. At the time, Campbell's results were considered controversial and were criticized by members of the astronomical community, but they were confirmed by American", "-33.48458290530834" ], [ "on Mars, and starting in 2019, the experiments will incorporate exposure to low temperature, salts, and high pressure. Mars-2 Mars-1 was the first spacecraft launched to Mars in 1962, but communication was lost while en route to Mars. With Mars-2 and Mars-3 in 1971–1972, information was obtained on the nature of the surface rocks and altitude profiles of the surface density of the soil, its thermal conductivity, and thermal anomalies detected on the surface of Mars. The program found that its northern polar cap has a temperature below −110 °C (−166 °F) and that the water vapor content in the atmosphere of", "-33.38434413052164" ], [ "conditions on Mars. The Curiosity rover landed on Mars on Aeolis Palus in Gale Crater, near Aeolis Mons (a.k.a. Mount Sharp), on August 6, 2012.\nOn December 16, 2014, NASA reported the Curiosity rover detected a \"tenfold spike\", likely localized, in the amount of methane in the Martian atmosphere. Sample measurements taken \"a dozen times over 20 months\" showed increases in late 2013 and early 2014, averaging \"7 parts of methane per billion in the atmosphere\". Before and after that, readings averaged around one-tenth that level. In addition, low levels of chlorobenzene (C\n₆H\n₅Cl), were detected in powder drilled from one of", "-33.36135826410333" ], [ "Atmosphere of Mars History of atmospheric observations In 1784, German-born British astronomer William Herschel published an article about his observations of the Martian atmosphere in Philosophical Transactions and noted the occasional movement of a brighter region on Mars, which he attributed to clouds and vapors. In 1809, French astronomer Honoré Flaugergues wrote about his observation of \"yellow clouds\" on Mars, which are likely to be dust storm events. In 1864, William Rutter Dawes observed that \"the ruddy tint of the planet does not arise from any peculiarity of its atmosphere seems to be fully proved by the fact that", "-33.35770664613301" ], [ "were reported on Mount Sharp near the Curiosity rover. Overview Research indicates that in the past there was liquid water flowing on the surface of Mars, creating large areas similar to Earth's oceans. However, the question remains as to where the water has gone.\nThe Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter (MRO) is a multipurpose spacecraft launched in 2005 designed to conduct reconnaissance and exploration of Mars from orbit. The spacecraft is managed by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL). The HiRISE camera onboard the MRO is at the forefront of the ongoing RSL studies as it helps chart the features with images of closely", "-33.31393341117655" ], [ "that evidence exists for an ancient Martian ocean, likely in the planet's northern hemisphere and about the size of Earth's Arctic Ocean, or approximately 19% of the Martian surface. This finding was derived from the ratio of water and deuterium in the modern Martian atmosphere compared to the ratio found on Earth. Eight times as much deuterium was found at Mars than exists on Earth, suggesting that ancient Mars had significantly higher levels of water. Results from the Curiosity rover had previously found a high ratio of deuterium in Gale Crater, though not significantly high enough to suggest the presence", "-33.29438526800368" ], [ "Curiosity on the way to Glenelg, was a mugearite and very similar to terrestrial mugearite rocks.\nOn December 9, 2013, NASA reported that Mars once had a large freshwater lake inside Gale Crater, that could have been a hospitable environment for microbial life.\nOn December 16, 2014, NASA reported detecting an unusual increase, then decrease, in the amounts of methane in the atmosphere of the planet Mars; in addition, organic chemicals were detected in powder drilled from a rock by the Curiosity rover. Also, based on deuterium to hydrogen ratio studies, much of the water at Gale Crater on Mars was found", "-33.24657318959362" ], [ "Mare Boreum quadrangle Freezing of atmosphere Research based on slight changes in the orbits of spacecraft around Mars over 16 years found that when one hemisphere experiences winter, approximately 3 trillion to 4 trillion tons of carbon dioxide freezes out of the atmosphere onto the northern and southern polar caps. This represents 12 to 16 percent of the mass of the entire Martian atmosphere. These observation support predictions from the Mars Global Reference Atmospheric Model—2010. Proof for ocean Strong evidence for a one time ancient ocean was found in Mare Boreum near the north pole (as well as the", "-33.2257412331237" ], [ "Trace Gas Orbiter History Investigations with space and Earth-based observatories have demonstrated the presence of a small amount of methane on the atmosphere of Mars that seems to vary with location and time. This may indicate the presence of microbial life on Mars, or a geochemical process such as volcanism or hydrothermal activity.\nThe challenge to discern the source of methane in the atmosphere of Mars prompted the independent planning by ESA and NASA of one orbiter each that would carry instruments in order to determine if its formation is of biological or geological origin, as well as its decomposition products", "-33.12937531247735" ], [ "Mars 96 Scientific goals Mars 96 was intended to solve several problems concerning our understanding of Mars. The scientific goal of the mission was to analyze the planet's evolutionary history of its surface, atmosphere, and inner structure. Other studies during cruise, such as astrophysical studies were to be made. They can be broken down into several categories. Martian surface Studies of the Martian surface were to include a global topographical survey, mineralogical mapping, soil composition, and studies of the cryolithozone and its deep structure. Atmosphere Studies of the atmosphere were to include studies of the climate, abundance of certain elements,", "-33.123597145138774" ], [ "program above) found that a planet-wide dust storm was in progress. The mission controllers used the time spent waiting for the storm to clear to have the probe rendezvous with, and photograph, Phobos. When the storm cleared sufficiently for Mars' surface to be photographed by Mariner 9, the pictures returned represented a substantial advance over previous missions. These pictures were the first to offer more detailed evidence that liquid water might at one time have flowed on the planetary surface. They also finally discerned the true nature of many Martian albedo features. For example, Nix Olympica was", "-33.099297396620386" ], [ "and evidence for geyser-like water flows within the last decade have made Mars the most likely extraterrestrial environment for finding liquid water, and therefore alien life, in the Solar System. Moreover, some geologic evidence suggests that Mars could have been warm and wet on a global scale in its distant past. Intense geologic activity has reshaped the surface of the Earth, erasing evidence of our earliest history. Martian rocks can be even older than Earth rocks, though, so exploring Mars may help us decipher the story of our own geologic evolution including the origin of life on", "-33.07981873456447" ], [ "the surface of Mars were temporarily doubled, and were associated with an aurora 25-times brighter than any observed earlier, due to a massive, and unexpected, Solar particle event and associated solar storm in the middle of the month. Astrobiology The radiation sources that are of concern for human health also affect microbial survival as well as the preservation of organic chemicals and biomolecules. The RAD is currently quantifying the flux of biologically hazardous radiation at the surface of Mars today, and will help determine how these fluxes vary on diurnal, seasonal, solar cycle and episodic (flare, storm) timescales. These measurements", "-33.06906551728025" ], [ "scientists were surprised to find the atmosphere was thick with \"a planet-wide robe of dust, the largest storm ever observed.\" The surface was totally obscured. Unable to reprogram the mission computers, both Mars 2 and Mars 3 dispatched their landers immediately, and the orbiters used up a significant portion of their available data resources in snapping images of the featureless dust clouds below, rather than the surface mapping intended.\nThe Mars 2 orbiter sent back data covering the period from December 1971 to March 1972, although transmissions continued through August. It was announced that Mars 2 and Mars 3", "-33.00945500875241" ], [ "Mars, revealing an ancient ocean on Mars and unexpected strong isototopic anomalies across the planet; obtained the first astronomical measurement of water D/H of a periodic comet; acquired a deep search for organics in the Martian atmosphere, and discovered multiple isotopic carbon dioxide bands on Mars at infrared wavelengths. He develops non-LTE radiative transfer models and quantum molecular models at GSFC resulting in billions of spectral lines suitable for cometary, planetary and astrophysical sciences, including exoplanets. During his Ph.D thesis, he was the lead designer and developer of the high resolution spectrometer onboard SOFIA, and developed a full non-linear dynamical", "-32.949506728095" ], [ "been a hospitable environment for microbial life.\nOn December 16, 2014, NASA reported detecting, by the Curiosity rover at Gale, an unusual increase, then decrease, in the amounts of methane in the atmosphere of the planet Mars; in addition, organic chemicals were detected in powder drilled from a rock. Also, based on deuterium to hydrogen ratio studies, much of the water at Gale on Mars was found to have been lost during ancient times, before the lakebed in the crater was formed; afterwards, large amounts of water continued to be lost.\nOn October 8, 2015, NASA confirmed that lakes and streams existed", "-32.87043183132846" ], [ "12 to 16 percent of the mass of the entire Martian atmosphere. These observation support predictions from the Mars Global Reference Atmospheric Model—2010. Lake of liquid water Scientists reported in July 2018, the discovery of a lake of liquid water under the southern ice cap. The measurements were gathered with the Mars Advanced Radar for Subsurface and Ionosphere Sounding (MARSIS) on board the European Space Agency's orbiting Mars Express spacecraft. Radar reflections showed a bright spot in the ice layers that analysis later showed that it had to be a lake of liquid water. It", "-32.869286995672155" ], [ "at the atmospheres of Solar System planets. He discovered water vapor in the atmosphere of Mars, and derived the abundance of carbon dioxide in Mars' atmosphere, from which he and his collaborators inferred that Mars has an atmosphere very much more tenuous than Earth's.", "-32.77143541490659" ], [ "an ocean, likely in the planet's northern hemisphere and about the size of Earth's Arctic Ocean. This finding was derived from the ratio of water and deuterium in the modern Martian atmosphere compared to the ratio found on Earth and derived from telescopic observations. Eight times as much deuterium was inferred at the polar deposits of Mars than exists on Earth (VSMOW), suggesting that ancient Mars had significantly higher levels of water. The representative atmospheric value obtained from the maps (7 VSMOW) is not affected by climatological effects as those measured by localized rovers, although the telescopic measurements are within", "-32.70813351380639" ], [ "left earth. Two were brought to Mars by the Viking program. Venera 11 and 12 and Pioneer Venus analysed the atmosphere of Venus with GC-MS. The Huygens probe of the Cassini–Huygens mission landed one GC-MS on Saturn's largest moon, Titan. The MSL Curiosity rover's Sample Analysis at Mars (SAM) instrument contains both a gas chromatograph and quadrupol mass spectrometer that can be used in tandem as a GC-MS. The material in the comet 67P/Churyumov–Gerasimenko was analysed by the Rosetta mission with a chiral GC-MS in 2014. Medicine Dozens of congenital metabolic diseases also known as inborn errors of metabolism", "-32.61276087060105" ], [ "Mars Express Orbiter had detected traces of formaldehyde in the atmosphere of Mars. Vittorio Formisano, the director of the PFS, has speculated that the formaldehyde could be the byproduct of the oxidation of methane and, according to him, would provide evidence that Mars is either extremely geologically active or harboring colonies of microbial life. NASA scientists consider the preliminary findings well worth a follow-up but have also rejected the claims of life. Viking lander biological experiments The 1970s Viking program placed two identical landers on the surface of Mars tasked to look for biosignatures of microbial life on the surface.", "-32.610213520529214" ], [ "internet on climate modelling and research. This current Mars climate simulation model has its origins with the internet era. How it works This Mars climate model is a complex 3-dimensional (height, latitude, longitude) model, which represents the processes of atmospheric heating by gases and ground-air heat transfer, as well as large-scale atmospheric motions.\nThe current model has not been modified for use with distributed computing systems like BOINC. Methane on Mars The Martian atmosphere contains 10 nmol/mol methane (CH₄). In 2014, NASA reported that the Curiosity rover detected a tenfold increase ('spike') in methane in the atmosphere around it in late", "-32.54978795596253" ], [ "or interdisciplinary scientist on the orbiting Geophysical Observatory Missions, Apollo-17, Apollo-Soyuz, Voyager, Pioneer Venus Multiprobe and Orbiter, Galileo, Comet Rendezvous Asteroid Flyby, and Cassini. Based on observations by the Pioneer Venus entry probe, he concluded that Venus once had an ocean before a runaway greenhouse effect led to its current state. Analyzing similar data from Martian meteorites, he again argued for a substantial Martian ocean, anticipating the current series of missions to Mars. In these and many other cases he laid the foundation for our current understanding of planetary atmospheres.\nIn 1999, Tom described his career this way, \"I parlayed my", "-32.54327253642259" ], [ "features was adopted in 1960 by the International Astronomical Union. Since the 1960s, multiple robotic spacecraft have been sent to explore Mars from orbit and the surface. The planet has remained under observation by ground and space-based instruments across a broad range of the electromagnetic spectrum. The discovery of meteorites on Earth that originated on Mars has allowed laboratory examination of the chemical conditions on the planet. Earliest records The existence of Mars as a wandering object in the night sky was recorded by ancient Egyptian astronomers. By the 2nd millennium BCE they were familiar with the apparent retrograde motion", "-32.53546663731686" ], [ "instruments at the W. M. Keck Observatory and the NASA Infrared Telescope Facility, to map out different isotopic forms of water in Mars’s atmosphere over a six-year period.", "-32.50375588287716" ], [ "planet's desiccation.\nSpectroscopic analysis of Mars's atmosphere began in earnest in 1894, when U.S. astronomer William Wallace Campbell showed that neither water nor oxygen was present in the Martian atmosphere.\nBy 1909 better telescopes and the best perihelic opposition of Mars since 1877 conclusively put an end to the canal hypothesis.\nThe science fiction genre, although not so named during the time, developed during the late 19th century. Jules Verne's Around the Moon (1870) features a discussion of the possibility of life on the Moon, but with the conclusion that it is barren.\nStories involving extraterrestrials are found in e.g. Garrett P. Serviss's Edison's", "-32.47296141809784" ], [ "developed the Gaia hypothesis, for which he is most widely known.\nIn early 1961, Lovelock was engaged by NASA to develop sensitive instruments for the analysis of extraterrestrial atmospheres and planetary surfaces. The Viking program, which visited Mars in the late 1970s, was motivated in part to determine whether Mars supported life, and many of the sensors and experiments that were ultimately deployed aimed to resolve this issue. During work on a precursor of this program, Lovelock became interested in the composition of the Martian atmosphere, reasoning that many life forms on Mars would be obliged to make use of it", "-32.449664369778475" ], [ "for a couple of months until the dust settled. The main surface imaging did not get underway until mid-January 1972. However, surface-obscured images did contribute to the collection of Mars science, including understanding of the existence of several huge high-altitude volcanoes of the Tharsis Bulge that gradually became visible as the dust storm abated. This unexpected situation made a strong case for the desirability of studying a planet from orbit rather than merely flying past. It also highlighted the importance of flexible mission software. The Soviet Union's Mars 2 and Mars 3 probes, which arrived during the same", "-32.43376573428395" ], [ "and meteorological sense. They could also see Mars' polar ice caps shrinking and growing with these changing seasons. It was only when they interpreted changes in surface features as being due to the seasonal growth of plants that life was hypothesized by them (in fact, Martian dust storms are responsible for some of this). By the late 1920s, however, it was known that Mars is very dry and has a very low atmospheric pressure.\nIn 1889, American astronomer Charles A. Young reported that Schiaparelli's canal discovery of 1877 had been confirmed in 1881, though new canals had appeared where there had", "-32.39783991413424" ], [ "below the shallow surface. The ground truth for its measurements came on July 31, 2008, when NASA announced that the Phoenix lander confirmed the presence of water on Mars, as predicted in 2002 based on data from the Odyssey orbiter. The science team is trying to determine whether the water ice ever thaws enough to be available for microscopic life, and if carbon-containing chemicals and other raw materials for life are present.\nThe orbiter also discovered vast deposits of bulk water ice near the surface of equatorial regions. Evidence for equatorial hydration is both morphological and compositional and is", "-32.38254586426774" ], [ "Mars. Low pressure Further complicating estimates of the habitability of the Martian surface is the fact that very little is known about the growth of microorganisms at pressures close to those on the surface of Mars. Some teams determined that some bacteria may be capable of cellular replication down to 25 mbar, but that is still above the atmospheric pressures found on Mars (range 1–14 mbar). In another study, twenty-six strains of bacteria were chosen based on their recovery from spacecraft assembly facilities, and only Serratia liquefaciens strain ATCC 27592 exhibited growth at 7 mbar, 0 °C, and CO₂-enriched anoxic atmospheres.", "-32.28229633328738" ], [ "to contain significant amounts of methanogens, which were not previously suspected to thrive in a desert environment. This research supported the possibility of microbial life on Mars and demonstrated that members of a manned mission could detect such signs of life during an EVA. Mars-500 The Mars-500 mission was a series of experiments conducted between 2007 and 2011 and sponsored by Russia, the European Space Agency, and China. The primary focus of these experiments was to study the effects of long-term isolation on a small crew, so that the psychological difficulties of a voyage to Mars and an", "-32.278506660040875" ], [ "(and, thus, alter it). However, the atmosphere was found to be in a stable condition close to its chemical equilibrium, with very little oxygen, methane, or hydrogen, but with an overwhelming abundance of carbon dioxide. To Lovelock, the stark contrast between the Martian atmosphere and chemically dynamic mixture of the Earth's biosphere was strongly indicative of the absence of life on Mars. However, when they were finally launched to Mars, the Viking probes still searched (unsuccessfully) for extant life there. Further experiments to search for life on Mars have been carried out by further space probes, most recently NASA'S 2012", "-32.27438369925949" ], [ "Ocean. This finding was derived from the ratio of water to deuterium in the modern Martian atmosphere compared to that ratio on Earth. The amount of Martian deuterium is eight times the amount that exists on Earth, suggesting that ancient Mars had significantly higher levels of water. Results from the Curiosity rover had previously found a high ratio of deuterium in Gale Crater, though not significantly high enough to suggest the former presence of an ocean. Other scientists caution that these results have not been confirmed, and point out that Martian climate models have not yet shown that the planet", "-32.266010659281164" ], [ "In addition, Mars lacks a thick atmosphere, ozone layer, and magnetic field, allowing solar and cosmic radiation to strike the surface unimpeded. The damaging effects of ionizing radiation on cellular structure is another one of the prime limiting factors on the survival of life on the surface. Therefore, the best potential locations for discovering life on Mars may be in subsurface environments. On November 22, 2016, NASA reported finding a large amount of underground ice on Mars; the volume of water detected is equivalent to the volume of water in Lake Superior. In July 2018, Italian scientists reported the discovery", "-32.25764311608509" ], [ "Mars was by Mariner 4 in 1964. Since that time, unmanned spacecraft have successfully examined each of the Solar System's planets, as well their moons and many minor planets and comets. They remain a fundamental tool for the exploration of outer space, as well as observation of the Earth. In August 2012, Voyager 1 became the first man-made object to leave the Solar System and enter interstellar space.\nThe absence of air makes outer space an ideal location for astronomy at all wavelengths of the electromagnetic spectrum. This is evidenced by the spectacular pictures sent back by the Hubble Space Telescope,", "-32.23773261804308" ], [ "river in Spain. NASA officials soon distanced NASA from the scientists' claims, and Stoker herself backed off from her initial assertions. Though such methane findings are still debated, support among some scientists for the existence of life on Mars exists.\nIn November 2011 NASA launched the Mars Science Laboratory that landed the Curiosity rover on Mars. It is designed to assess the past and present habitability on Mars using a variety of scientific instruments. The rover landed on Mars at Gale Crater in August 2012.\nThe Gaia hypothesis stipulates that any planet with a robust population of life will have an atmosphere", "-32.23314593936084" ], [ "to hunt for evidence of past or present water and volcanic activity on Mars. In 2002, it was announced that the probe's gamma-ray spectrometer and neutron spectrometer had detected large amounts of hydrogen, indicating that there are vast deposits of water ice in the upper three meters of Mars' soil within 60° latitude of the south pole.\nOn June 2, 2003, the European Space Agency's Mars Express set off from Baikonur Cosmodrome to Mars. The Mars Express craft consists of the Mars Express Orbiter and the stationary lander Beagle 2. The lander carried a digging device and the smallest mass spectrometer", "-32.20114543060481" ], [ "of Mars' environment – amongst its collection of data for Martian geology, climate and availability of water, are instruments that search for biosignatures daily. Thus far, its results have not been fruitful. Earth Many studies on Earth have been conducted to collect data on the response of terrestrial microbes to various simulated environmental conditions of outer space. The responses of microbes, such as viruses, bacterial cells, bacterial and fungal spores, and lichens, to isolated factors of outer space (microgravity, galactic cosmic radiation, solar UV radiation, and space vacuum) were determined in space and laboratory simulation experiments. In general, microorganisms tended", "-32.19297240153537" ], [ "2013 and early 2014. Four measurements taken over two months in this period averaged 7.2 ppb, implying that Mars is episodically producing or releasing methane from an unknown source. Before and after that, readings averaged around one-tenth that level. On 7 June 2018, NASA announced a cyclical seasonal variation in the background level of atmospheric methane.\nThe principal candidates for the origin of Mars' methane include non-biological processes such as water-rock reactions, radiolysis of water, and pyrite formation, all of which produce H₂ that could then generate methane and other hydrocarbons via Fischer–Tropsch synthesis with CO and CO₂. It has also been", "-32.18461227924854" ], [ "nearly polar orbit over the course of one complete Martian year, the equivalent of nearly two Earth years. Mars Global Surveyor completed its primary mission on January 31, 2001, and completed several extended mission phases.\nThe mission studied the entire Martian surface, atmosphere, and interior, and returned more data about the red planet than all previous Mars missions combined. The data has been archived and remains available publicly.\nAmong key scientific findings, Global Surveyor took pictures of gullies and debris flow features that suggest there may be current sources of liquid water, similar to an aquifer, at or near the surface of", "-32.16487038740888" ], [ "comes from orbiting spacecraft and landers. (See Exploration of Mars for list.) Most of these spacecraft carry spectrometers and other instruments to measure the surface composition of Mars by either remote sensing from orbit or in situ analyses on the surface. We also have many actual samples of Mars in the form of meteorites that have made their way to Earth. Martian meteorites (often called SNC's, for Shergottites, Nakhlites, and Chassignites—the groups of meteorites first shown to have a martian origin) provide data on the chemical composition of Mars' crust and interior that would not otherwise be available except through", "-32.14387398463441" ], [ "with NASA in 2010, where she used Earth analogs (including the Arctic, Sahara Desert, Mount Kilimanjaro and the Dry Valleys of Antarctica) to understand Mars. Here she was one of seven team members who spent three austral summers in Antarctica, testing ice-penetrating drills for a future mission to Mars. NASA's IceBite, which drilled several meters into the ground ice to collect deep ice and search for signs of organics and life, was documented by Marinova for Astrobiology Magazine. Next she joined the Pavilion Lake Research Project, studying at the distribution and morphology of microbialites in Pavilion Lake, Canada. Her final", "-32.0785312172884" ], [ "Mars is five thousand times less than on Earth. No signs of life were found. Mariner 4 Mariner 4 probe performed the first successful flyby of the planet Mars, returning the first pictures of the Martian surface in 1965. The photographs showed an arid Mars without rivers, oceans, or any signs of life. Further, it revealed that the surface (at least the parts that it photographed) was covered in craters, indicating a lack of plate tectonics and weathering of any kind for the last 4 billion years. The probe also found that Mars has no global magnetic field that would", "-32.05078955981298" ], [ "Mumma of NASA's Goddard Flight Center, and verified by the Mars Express Orbiter (2004) and in Titan's atmosphere by the Huygens probe (2005). This debate was furthered with the discovery of 'transient', 'spikes of methane' on Mars by the Curiosity Rover.\nIt is also argued that atmospheric methane can come from volcanoes or other fissures in the planet's crust and that without an isotopic signature, the origin or source may be difficult to identify.\nOn 13 April 2017, NASA confirmed that the dive of the Cassini orbiter spacecraft on 28 October 2015 discovered the Enceladus plume which has all the ingredients for", "-32.03633707418339" ], [ "Climate of Mars The climate of the planet Mars has been a topic of scientific curiosity for centuries, in part because it is the only terrestrial planet whose surface can be directly observed in detail from the Earth with help from a telescope.\nAlthough Mars is smaller than the Earth, 11% of Earth's mass, and 50% farther from the Sun than the Earth, its climate has important similarities, such as the presence of polar ice caps, seasonal changes and observable weather patterns. It has attracted sustained study from planetologists and climatologists. While Mars' climate has similarities to Earth's, including periodic ice", "-32.03058512226198" ], [ "mirrors in Texas with the intention of signaling Martians.\nIn recent decades, the high resolution mapping of the surface of Mars, culminating in Mars Global Surveyor, revealed no artifacts of habitation by 'intelligent' life, but pseudoscientific speculation about intelligent life on Mars continues from commentators such as Richard C. Hoagland. Reminiscent of the canali controversy, some speculations are based on small scale features perceived in the spacecraft images, such as 'pyramids' and the 'Face on Mars'. Planetary astronomer Carl Sagan wrote:\nMars has become a kind of mythic arena onto which we have projected our Earthly hopes and fears.\nThe depiction of Mars", "-32.010471877321834" ], [ "of observations and computer modeling was first applied to Mars due to the ideal atmospheric pressure for characterising granular materials based upon temperature. The Mariner 6, Mariner 7, and Mariner 9 spacecraft carried thermal infrared radiometers, and a global map of thermal inertia was produced from modeled surface temperatures collected by the Infrared Thermal Mapper Instruments (IRTM) on board the Viking 1 and 2 Orbiters.\nThe original thermophysical models were based upon the studies of lunar temperature variations. Further development of the models for Mars included surface-atmosphere energy transfer, atmospheric back-radiation, surface emissivity variations, CO₂ frost and blocky surfaces, variability of", "-31.975919575314038" ], [ "the presence of water vapor and ozone in its atmosphere. The camera was built and is operated by Malin Space Science Systems. It has a 180-degree fisheye lens with the seven color filters bonded directly on a single CCD sensor. CRISM (spectrometer) The Compact Reconnaissance Imaging Spectrometer for Mars (CRISM) instrument is a visible and near infrared (VNIR) spectrometer that is used to produce detailed maps of the surface mineralogy of Mars. It operates from 370 to 3920 nm, measures the spectrum in 544 channels (each 6.55 nm wide), and has a resolution of 18 m (59 ft) at an altitude of 300 km (190 mi). CRISM", "-31.952551967311592" ], [ "of volcanic rock in Mars' crust. Modern climates To understand Mars' ancient climate, and whether it might have created environments habitable for life, first we need to understand Mars' climate today. Each mission to Mars has made new advances in understanding its climate. Mars has seasonal variations in the abundances of water vapor, water ice clouds and hazes, and atmospheric dust. During southern summer, when Mars is closest to the Sun (at perihelion), solar heating can raise massive dust storms. Regional dust storms - ones having a 1000-kilometer scale - show surprising repeatability Mars-year to Mars-year. Once every decade or", "-31.939780896835146" ], [ "optical illusion, and the atmosphere was found to be too thin to support an Earth-like environment.\nYellow clouds on Mars have been observed since the 1870s, which Eugène M. Antoniadi suggested were windblown sand or dust. During the 1920s, the range of Martian surface temperature was measured; it ranged from −85 to 7 °C (−121 to 45 °F). The planetary atmosphere was found to be arid with only trace amounts of oxygen and water. In 1947, Gerard Kuiper showed that the thin Martian atmosphere contained extensive carbon dioxide; roughly double the quantity found in Earth's atmosphere. The first standard nomenclature for Mars albedo", "-31.896489998689503" ], [ "assessing the geology of the target regions. From its landing point, Curiosity drove half a kilometer northeast to the low lying depression. A flatter and more lightly colored region than the previous terrain, this region was designated Yellowknife Bay. A top mission priority for the Mars Science Laboratory team was to capture a 360-degree, color panoramic image of this region. This image was then to be used to select drilling locations of the rock samples, John Klein and Cumberland, taken from Yellowknife Bay. Habitability Conditions on Mars during the first billion years were dramatically different from the present day. Whether", "-31.858692589623388" ], [ "its drawbacks. Human Exploration of Mars Argox, or half-Argox/half-Nitrox is a possible Oxygen mixture for Human exploration of Mars due to the relative abundance of Argon in the Martian atmosphere. The Martian atmosphere is composed of approximately: 95% CO2, 1.9% Argon, 1.9% Nitrogen. While it is possible for humans to breathe pure oxygen, a pure oxygen atmosphere was implicated in the Apollo 1 fire. As such, Mars habitats may have a need for additional gases. One possibility is to take nitrogen and argon from the atmosphere of Mars; however, they are hard to separate from each other. As a", "-31.823471494637488" ], [ "line of evidence for late Noachian (3.7 ± 0.3 Ga) paleoclimate on Mars, and are interpreted as forming under a hyperarid frigid paleoclimate. Radiometric dating suggests the paleosols at Yellowknife Bay are 3.7 billion years old (± 0.3 billion years) and reveal a change from possible \"warm and wet\" conditions of the Early Noachian (~4.1-3.9 Ga) to an extreme arid and cold climate with limited soil formation.\nRemote sensing of the Martian surface by the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter (MRO)'s CRISM instrument and the Infrared Mineralogical Mapping Spectrometer (OMEGA) has detected the presence of dioctahedral and trioctahedral phyllosilicate clays in thousands of", "-31.820221842775936" ], [ "environment on the surface of Mars, which it started doing immediately after MSL landed in August 2012. Turned on after launch, the RAD recorded several radiation spikes caused by the Sun.\nRAD is funded by the Exploration Systems Mission Directorate at NASA Headquarters and Germany's Space Agency (DLR), and developed by the Southwest Research Institute (SwRI) and the extraterrestrial physics group at Christian-Albrechts-Universität zu Kiel, Germany. Results On 31 May 2013, NASA scientists reported the results obtained during cruise, and stated that the equivalent dose radiation for even the shortest round-trip with current propulsion systems and comparable shielding is found", "-31.79424617474433" ], [ "Telescope, along with instruments at the W. M. Keck Observatory and the NASA Infrared Telescope Facility, to map out different forms of water in Mars's atmosphere over a six-year period. Ice cap From observations with the Shallow Radar instrument (SHARAD) onboard the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter, researchers determined that the total volume of water ice in the northern ice cap is 821000 cubic kilometers. That is equal to 30% of the Earth's Greenland ice sheet, or enough to cover the surface of Mars to a depth of 5.6 meters Dunes Sand dunes have been found in many", "-31.763852734235115" ], [ "opposition of 1719, Maraldi observed both polar caps and temporal variability in their extent.\nWilliam Herschel was the first to deduce the low density of the Martian atmosphere in his 1784 paper entitled On the remarkable appearances at the polar regions on the planet Mars, the inclination of its axis, the position of its poles, and its spheroidal figure; with a few hints relating to its real diameter and atmosphere. When Mars appeared to pass close by two faint stars with no effect on their brightness, Herschel correctly concluded that this meant that there was little atmosphere around Mars to interfere", "-31.74019979737932" ], [ "planet Mars. Such a finding, along with previous discoveries that water may have been present on ancient Mars, further supports the possible early habitability of Gale Crater on Mars.\nHydrogen is present as water (H₂O) ice and in hydrated minerals. Carbon occurs as carbon dioxide (CO₂) in the atmosphere and sometimes as dry ice at the poles. An unknown amount of carbon is also stored in carbonates. Molecular nitrogen (N₂) makes up 2.7 percent of the atmosphere. As far as we know, organic compounds are absent except for a trace of methane detected in the atmosphere. On 16 December 2014, NASA", "-31.734297991657513" ], [ "lower Martian atmosphere were \"approximately 10 times\" higher \"suggesting that biological processes may not be responsible for the observed CH₄\". The scientists suggested measuring the H₂ and CH₄ flux at the Martian surface for a more accurate assessment. Other scientists have recently reported methods of detecting hydrogen and methane in extraterrestrial atmospheres.\nEven if rover missions determine that microscopic Martian life is the seasonal source of the methane, the life forms probably reside far below the surface, outside of the rover's reach. Formaldehyde In February 2005, it was announced that the Planetary Fourier Spectrometer (PFS) on the European Space Agency's", "-31.723663516662782" ], [ "of sediment transport by water and wind in ancient sedimentary layers is important, because it provides insight into past climatic regimes and potential habitability.\nThe Mars Science Laboratory Curiosity rover was launched on Saturday, November 26, 2011 on board an Atlas V-541 rocket from Cape Canaveral, Florida. The rover landed in Gale Crater on August 5, 2012. Curiosity's mission is to determine the planet's habitability and has been doing this using a suite of sophisticated instruments including cameras, spectrometers, environmental sensors, sample collection tools, and laboratory-quality geochemical instruments.\nCuriosity landed at the foot of Mt. Sharp – Gale Crater's central mound –", "-31.71600538707571" ], [ "layer. Both Mars Global Surveyor and Mars Express have detected ionised atmospheric particles trailing off into space behind Mars, and this atmospheric loss is being studied by the MAVEN orbiter. Compared to Earth, the atmosphere of Mars is quite rarefied. Atmospheric pressure on the surface today ranges from a low of 30 Pa (0.030 kPa) on Olympus Mons to over 1,155 Pa (1.155 kPa) in Hellas Planitia, with a mean pressure at the surface level of 600 Pa (0.60 kPa). The highest atmospheric density on Mars is equal to that found 35 km (115,000 ft) above Earth's surface. The resulting mean surface pressure is only 0.6% of that", "-31.70989873004146" ], [ "solar wind, whose rapidly moving ions and magnetic field may be responsible for Mars' current condition. End of program In 2010, the NASA Science Directorate announced that the Mars Scout program would be incorporated into the Discovery program, which was re-scoped to allow Mars missions to be proposed. InSight Mars lander won the next Discovery slot.", "-31.69923337475484" ], [ "is widely thought to have existed on Mars in the past, and now can occasionally be found as low-volume liquid brines in shallow Martian soil. The origin of the potential biosignature of methane observed in Mars' atmosphere is unexplained, although hypotheses not involving life have also been proposed.\nThere is evidence that Mars had a warmer and wetter past: dried-up river beds, polar ice caps, volcanoes, and minerals that form in the presence of water have all been found. Nevertheless, present conditions on Mars' subsurface may support life. Evidence obtained by the Curiosity rover studying Aeolis Palus, Gale Crater in 2013", "-31.66715045706951" ], [ "nature, and compositional and microscopic-imagery analysis showed this to be primarily with composition of Jarosite, a ferrous sulfate mineral that is characteristically an evaporite that is the residue from the evaporation of a salty pond or sea.\nThe mission has provided substantial evidence of past water activity on Mars. In addition to investigating the \"water hypothesis\", Opportunity has also obtained astronomical observations and atmospheric data.\nThe extended mission took the rover across the plains to a series of larger craters in the south, with the arrival at the edge of a 25-km diameter crater, Endeavour Crater, eight years after landing. The orbital", "-31.634160492219962" ], [ "of Mars, the evolution of the martian atmosphere and climate, atmospheric chemistry, the potential for life on Mars and elsewhere, and the philosophical and societal issues in astrobiology.\nIn September 2008, the MAVEN project, a Mars orbiter, was chosen as an upcoming NASA exploration mission. The probe was launched on November 18, 2013. Jakosky is serving as the MAVEN's principal investigator. The $485 million program represents the largest research contract ever awarded to the University of Colorado at Boulder.", "-31.61093789304141" ], [ "John P. Grotzinger Studies on Mars John Grotzinger is involved in several planetary missions. He was Project Scientist for the Mars Science Laboratory (MSL) Curiosity rover mission, a Participating Scientist for the Mars Exploration Rover (MER) mission, and a Participating Scientist for the High Resolution Science Experiment (HiRISE) camera, on board the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter (MRO).\nGrotzinger has made significant contributions to understanding the early environmental history of Mars, as preserved within its record of sedimentary rocks. A long-standing goal of Mars environmental studies has been to understand the role of water throughout its geologic history. The presence of water", "-31.572432066168403" ], [ "Science Laboratory landed on Aeolis Palus near Aeolis Mons in Gale Crater.\nOn August 5, 2012, the Mars Science Laboratory rover, Curiosity, landed at the foot of a layered mountain inside Gale crater. As the mission progressed, discoveries and conclusions were released from NASA detailing the mounting evidence that Gale once contained a large lake. On September 27, 2012, scientists announced that the Curiosity found evidence for an ancient streambed suggesting a \"vigorous flow\" of water on Mars. On December 9, 2013, NASA reported that Gale Crater contained an ancient freshwater lake which could have been a hospitable environment for microbial", "-31.52651471243371" ], [ "Sample Analysis at Mars Sample Analysis at Mars (SAM) is a suite of instruments on the Mars Science Laboratory Curiosity rover. The SAM instrument suite will analyze organics and gases from both atmospheric and solid samples.\nIt was developed by the NASA Goddard Space Flight Center, the Laboratoire des Atmosphères Milieux Observations Spatiales (LATMOS) associated to the Laboratoire Inter-Universitaire des Systèmes Atmosphériques (LISA) (jointly operated by France's Centre national de la recherche scientifique and Parisian universities), and Honeybee Robotics, along with many additional external partners. Subsystems The SAM also has three subsystems: the 'chemical separation and processing laboratory', for", "-31.52120974630816" ], [ "is hypothesized to be the result of a flow of ground water, either before the deposition of the eroded sediments or else in relatively recent geologic history.\nAccording to NASA, an estimated 20,000 to 40,000 heat-resistant bacterial spores were on Curiosity at launch, and as much as 1,000 times that number may not have been counted. Rover's role in the landing system Previous NASA Mars rovers became active only after the successful entry, descent and landing on the Martian surface. Curiosity, on the other hand, was active when it touched down on the surface of Mars, employing the rover suspension system", "-31.518503728002543" ], [ "explaining the rationale of the two names and held an informal poll to determine which one was preferred by their readers. Over 2700 people voted, with Aeolis Mons winning by 57% to Mount Sharp's 43%. Spacecraft exploration On December 16, 2014, NASA reported detecting, based on measurements by the Curiosity rover, an unusual increase, then decrease, in the amounts of methane in the atmosphere of the planet Mars; as well as, detecting Martian organic chemicals in powder drilled from a rock by the rover. Also, based on deuterium to hydrogen ratio studies, much of the water at Gale Crater", "-31.508666383640957" ], [ "has been estimated that the primordial oceans on Mars would have covered between 36% and 75% of the planet. On November 22, 2016, NASA reported finding a large amount of underground ice in the Utopia Planitia region of Mars. The volume of water detected has been estimated to be equivalent to the volume of water in Lake Superior.\nAnalysis of Martian sandstones, using data obtained from orbital spectrometry, suggests that the waters that previously existed on the surface of Mars would have had too high a salinity to support most Earth-like life. Tosca et al. found that the Martian water", "-31.48802057849025" ], [ "with their light.\nHonore Flaugergues's 1809 discovery of \"yellow clouds\" on the surface of Mars is the first known observation of Martian dust storms. Flaugergues also observed in 1813 significant polar-ice waning during Martian springtime. His speculation that this meant that Mars was warmer than Earth proved inaccurate. Martian paleoclimatology There are two dating systems now in use for Martian geological time. One is based on crater density and has three ages: Noachian, Hesperian, and Amazonian. The other is a mineralogical timeline, also having three ages: Phyllocian, Theikian, and Siderikian.\nRecent observations and modeling are producing information not only about the present", "-31.47274917649338" ], [ "book was brief, and in 1907, Wallace returned to the subject with a book Is Mars Habitable? to criticise the claims made by Percival Lowell that there were Martian canals built by intelligent beings. Wallace did months of research, consulted various experts, and produced his own scientific analysis of the Martian climate and atmospheric conditions. Among other things, Wallace pointed out that spectroscopic analysis had shown no signs of water vapour in the Martian atmosphere, that Lowell's analysis of Mars's climate was seriously flawed and badly overestimated the surface temperature, and that low atmospheric pressure would make liquid water, let", "-31.45340740174288" ], [ "1964, Mariner 4 was launched successfully on a 7½-month voyage to Mars..\nMariner 4 flew past Mars on July 14, 1965, providing the first close-up photographs of another planet. The pictures, gradually played back to Earth from a small tape recorder on the probe, showed impact craters. It provided radically more accurate data about the planet; a surface atmospheric pressure of about 1% of Earth's and daytime temperatures of −100 °C (−148 °F) were estimated. No magnetic field or Martian radiation belts were detected. The new data meant redesigns for then planned Martian landers, and showed life would have a more difficult", "-31.426770162419416" ], [ "that could have existed on Mars. The unmanned Lake Vida Meteorological Station monitors climate conditions around the lake year round for such scientific study.\nA 2010 field campaign, funded by the National Science Foundation through the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009, to investigate the microbiology and geochemistry of Lake Vida. Led by Peter Doran and Alison Murray from Nevada's Desert Research Institute, the expedition recovered ice cores, brine and sediment samples from the lake using clean drilling procedures to avoid contamination.\nThe lake itself has no permanent settlements or infrastructure. The nearby Lake Vida Meteorological Station is unmanned, sending meteorological", "-31.40409090315734" ], [ "the past environment and whether Mars was habitable. Since then, the discovery of salts and clays from former lakebeds has been a key success of missions to Mars by NASA and ESA. Catling was on the Science Team for NASA’s Phoenix Lander mission, which in 2008 was the first spacecraft to land in the ice-rich high latitudes of Mars. Catling contributed to research that included the first scoops by a lander of water ice from below the surface of Mars and the first measurement of soluble salts in martian soil, including the soil pH. In experimental work with Jonathan Toner", "-31.40403757648164" ], [ "of Mars water\", \"as well as the current north-south asymmetry of the seasonal ice cap albedos.\" The atmosphere of Mars is currently \"a nonlinear pump of water into the northern hemisphere of Mars.\"", "-31.36326930375799" ], [ "(Mariner 6, and Mariner 7) filled in some of the gaps in basic climate information. Data-based climate studies started in earnest with the Viking program landers in 1975 and continue with such probes as the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.\nThis observational work has been complemented by a type of scientific computer simulation called the Mars general circulation model. Several different iterations of MGCM have led to an increased understanding of Mars as well as the limits of such models. Historical climate observations Giacomo Maraldi determined in 1704 that the southern cap is not centered on the rotational pole of Mars. During the", "-31.356517698208336" ], [ "Martian summer) in combination with the canals led to speculation about life on Mars, and it was a long-held belief that Mars contained vast seas and vegetation. The telescope never reached the resolution required to give proof to any speculations. As bigger telescopes were used, fewer long, straight canali were observed. During an observation in 1909 by Flammarion with an 84 cm (33 in) telescope, irregular patterns were observed, but no canali were seen.\nEven in the 1960s articles were published on Martian biology, putting aside explanations other than life for the seasonal changes on Mars. Detailed scenarios for the metabolism and chemical", "-31.35076472981018" ], [ "in six-month shifts. These studies were made before the discovery of water ice (5.6 ± 2.9% by mass) in a polar crater, which may substantially affect plans. 2005 Exploration Systems Architecture Study The Exploration Systems Architecture Study (ESAS) is the official title of a large-scale, system level study released by NASA in November 2005 in response to American president George W. Bush's announcement on 14 January 2004 of his goal of returning astronauts to the Moon and eventually Mars—known as the Vision for Space Exploration (and unofficially as \"Moon, Mars and Beyond\" in some aerospace circles, though the specifics", "-31.322712405584753" ], [ "were observed during the 1997 versus 1977 perihelion periods\" and \"that the global aphelion atmosphere of Mars is colder, less dusty, and cloudier than indicated by the established Viking climatology,\" with \"generally colder atmospheric temperatures and lower dust loading in recent decades on Mars than during the Viking Mission.\" The Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter, though spanning a much shorter dataset, shows no warming of planetary average temperature, and a possible cooling. \"MCS MY 28 temperatures are an average of 0.9 (daytime) and 1.7 K (night- time) cooler than Thermal Emission Spectrometer|TES]] MY 24 measurements.\" Locally and regionally, however,", "-31.247595555032603" ], [ "NASA field centers have formulated a \"Reference Mission\" addressing human exploration of Mars. This report summarizes their work and describes a plan for the first human missions to Mars, using approaches that are technically feasible, have reasonable risks, and have relatively low costs. The architecture for the Mars Reference Mission builds on previous work of the Synthesis Group (1991) and Zubrin's (1991) concepts for the use of propellants derived from the Martian Atmosphere. In defining the Reference Mission, choices have been made. In this report, the rationale for each choice is documented; however, unanticipated technology advances or political decisions might", "-31.242838790996757" ], [ "on Mars was found to have been lost during ancient times, before the lakebed in the crater was formed; afterwards, large amounts of water continued to be lost.\nOn June 1, 2017, NASA reported that the Curiosity rover provided evidence of an ancient lake in Gale crater on Mars that could have been favorable for microbial life; the ancient lake was stratified, with shallows rich in oxidants and depths poor in oxidants; and, the ancient lake provided many different types of microbe-friendly environments at the same time. NASA further reported that the Curiosity rover will continue to explore higher and younger", "-31.238842443330213" ], [ "its website. (On Monday [September 28, 2015], scientists announced that signs of liquid water could be seen in photographs taken on Mars by a camera on the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter, timing that suggests NASA certainly has the whole cross-promotion thing down.)\" Jim Erickson, NASA project manager, said the film would show moviegoers \"the risks and rewards\" of humans traveling to Mars.\nIn October 2015, NASA presented a new web tool to follow Watney's trek across Mars and details of NASA's next steps, as well as a health hazards report for a real-world human journey to Mars. Marketing 20th Century Fox launched", "-31.232310143142968" ] ]

[ "You have arteries which supply the blood and veins which take it away, but in between those two is a massive spiderweb of smaller capillaries which get that good blood to every cell in the body then take it away once the cells get what they need. So even though you have had an amputation, there are still thousands of connections between your arteries and veins in what remains of that amputated limb. URL_0 URL_1 ", "It circulates mostly as it always did. I bet you are imagining blood circulation like some sort of highway loop with big arteries directly connected to big veins, and the smaller vessels and capillaries branching off from them. It isn't like that: The blood from the heart is split up again and again until it is all going through tiny capillaries. Then the blood to go back to the heart is collected from the tissue by capillaries which then combine back into larger veins. So if you cut off a limb it isn't like you removed a section of that central highway backbone and need to reroute before things can flow. Instead think of it like a fluid source being split up to be pushed through a sponge (the tissues) and then collected on the other side by a return fluid system. If you remove a big section of the sponge and plug up the larger supply tubes everything else continues as normal.", "Picture a ladder standing on end. The ladder is hollow. Now start pumping blood up one leg of the ladder. The blood reaches the first rung, and some of the blood goes through the rung and down the other leg. The rest of the blood continues up the leg of the ladder, until it reaches the second rung, and some of the blood flows through it and down the other leg. This continues all the way up, with blood flowing up the leg of the ladder, across the rungs, and down the other side. Now, cut the top off of the ladder. Blood will continue to flow up the leg, across the remaining rungs, and down the other side. That's how blood flows through a limb after an amputation.", "Imagine arteries and veins as the vertical legs of a ladder, it doesn't matter how tall the ladder is, there are always horizontal rungs in the ladder for blood to flow from one side to the other.", "Follow up question: Say you lose a leg in a car accident. Is there danger from applying a tourniquet to the arteries still pumping blood to the now blocked end? Overpressure? I'm not talking about flesh dying after the choke point, but the rest of the body's ability with this?", "A water treatment facility supplies water to the entire city's four regions, the south, north, east, and west. What it does is send water through very large pipes into these different regions, and then smaller pipes and containers capture the water and start dividing it by streets, then smaller pipes send water into homes, and smaller pipes send the water into the faucets, toilets, and showers. Then, drains take it all back in the same way small pipes in the drain to the bigger pipes under the homes to bigger sewer pipes in the ground that take the water all the way back to the water treatment facility to purify the water. One day, a tornado rips through and rips up some of the houses, to the root, in the southern region. Water status pouring out very wastefully and if left unchecked*, too much water will be wasted that other regions in the city need. So, what they do is just shut down the main pipe leading into the southern region so water doesn't go into that region, but the other regions are still functioning as normal. Water still flows into those regions, runs through the main pipe then smaller pipes into homes and back into sewers and back to the water treatment facility. It just doesn't have to go into the southern region anymore. Edit*", "I think the main misconception is that people believe our blood system was a circle. You know, you pump blood in the arteries and all the blod flows in a giant cucular path all arround your body until it reaches your heart again. If you cut a leg the path is broken and blood cannot flow anymore. If that was the case we had a big problem because that would mean if you cut a vein blood would pour out as if it was an arterie and you would die. Thankfully this is not the case. We have two seperate blood systems. The arterie which has overpressure and the vein system which has an underpressue. Cutting a vein open some will get out but due to the underpressue most of it will stay inside. If you cut an arterie you will see a fountain of blood and you have to apply pressure on the wound to keep the blood inside. So how this works is your heart pumps blood from your veins into your arteries system. This constant overpressure in the main arteries presses the blood through tiny paths in between all cells of your body. The underpressure in the veins sucks alll this blood into its system again. So instead of a giant circle you have many arteries and veins which are all dead ends creating over and underpressures. Attached to those dead ends are many many tiny tunnels acting like a web all across your body were the blood gets pressed into and sucked out again. The mechanism is much more simple than it sounds and you could easily rebuild it using a regular pump. Fun fact: Due to this overpressue effect your face for example slighly increases in size each time the heart pumps. It's hard to see with the human eye but a camera and a neat algorithm can see it. This is how good authentification software verifies a person is actually a living being and not a photograph for example.", "**Super simple ELi5** First, you have linkages that loop at every level –– shoulder, bicep, fingers, etc. Second is chemicals. There tons of chemical signaling that will sense if a limb falls off and trigger what's called \"angiogenesis,\" which constructs larger and more blood vessels.", "Im going to try to dumb it down further. The blood in your body is like cars on the street when the main road closes you can still get to where you need because there is more then one street to a destination. Now with someone losing a limb you have more of a roundabout at the end of the limb to allow all the blood to come back.", "Just like a tree, with its roots still pumping water into each of its leaves even after one branch is cut off.", "Blood will sinus up to a point. If you remove the most distant connections there will be a certain amount of stasis. I amputated the tip of a finger and that finger gets cold because the blood doesn't flow through as effectively. None of the tissue dies but the blood simply doesn't have the normal connections at the end of the finger. Arms and legs do that too, to a lesser extend since they have way more vessels than a finger. Source: I'm a physician assistant with an amputated distal phalanx on my left ring finger.", "While this will probably get buried but coming up on 8 years as an amputee, immediately following the surgery mine and most legs swell. Depending on the person and body type you can experience extreme volume changes in an amputated limb. Even now if I spend all day swimming my prosthetic will fit funny.", "when you get a limb amputated a surgeon will make sure to connect the loose ends of the arteries and veins, but honestly it really shouldn't be an issue. there are tons of branches of the major arteries in you body and eventually everything is pushed through the capillaries which are located literally everywhere in your body, except the center of your eye. There are also connections between many smaller arteries in the body so if blood flow is lost to an area then these connections can help pick up the slack. The only issue i'd really see you running into is if you amputate an area that doesn't have abundant interconnections in arterial blood supply, but any surgeon worth their salt will be aware of these problem areas and will patch you up good", "Some folk missing a large part of this- that end artery isn't blind with no connections. The body sorts this out through a process known as neovascularisation, literally the formation of new arterioles (small arteries) and capillaries at the terminal end of the arteries. That capillary bed meets up with a venous plexus, again formed by neovascularisation, to drain back into venous circulation. And voila, circulation is restored. Source: slogged through 6 years of medschool.", "It's a huge circuit. The body already had a massive web of capillaries everywhere. If they amputated say your foot, your major arteries don't go that far. If say your leg, they'll sew the artery so you don't bleed out. The artery will eventually sprout new capillaries that provide oxygen, waste and blood exchange. One thing people who lose an extremity suffer from is false limb syndrome", "The bear ELI5 answer is considering it a 2 layer web. One web is fresh blood spreading out from the middle The other is used blood returning to the center. Cut a section of the web out and it wouldn't effect the flow to and from the other sections.", "Lymph system doesn't always cope well.. just saying' (not med so happy to be corrected because I don't know)", "It helps if you think of your circulatory system like a pressurized grid. Sure, half of it flows one way and half of it flows the other to make it \"circular\", but it is not linear. Meaning blood doesn't always follow a set path. one blood cell might make a full \"circulation\" of the system in 10 seconds by immediately being perfused to the heart and then expelled into the superior vena cava and find itself right back where it started. Another might end up in some stagnated blood in a varicose vein in someones leg and be stuck there for hours before eeking it's way back to the heart. If instead of thinking of the circulatory system as a system that circulates blood, think of it as a three dimensional grid of pressurized pipes that generally flow in one direction. If you cut off some of the grid, the rest can still function relatively the same. That being said, I wouldn't classify post amputation circulation as normal at all. Especially immediately after the amputation. over years, angiogenesis (the growing of new blood vessels) will re-construct a grid of pipes to create the best possible circulation. But that still wouldn't be normal. We can also thank modern medicine for better techniques of surgical amputation. These days we understand in detail the anatomy of the vasculature, nerves, muscles, and have perfected techniques that maximize perfusion of the remaining tissue. If you had an amputation during the civil war when things were much more crude, altered circulation could cause tissue to necrose, and become gangrenous, killing you. If the surgical amputation was done in a way where you had better postoperative circulation in the area you might have survived. So, although there are some good reasons you can survive an amputation and have great perfusion in that limb after, the opposite could happen as well. Because of that, I can't say that someone with an amputation has \"normal\" circulation in that area, although (especially with modern surgical techniques) they may well have excellent circulation.", "Know how you get to work even when some of the roads are closed or there's a traffic jam? That. Blood moves through your body based on pressure -- it is highest on the 'out' side of your heart, and then drops off the farther it gets from your heart. At many, many points along the way, blood is trying to find a way to get to a lower pressure area, and so it moves along from a network of arteries, through cells, and back into veins, where it is pulled back into the heart and recirculated again. Just like on our highways, some road closures have a big impact. It can starve that flow of blood so that there's not a way to get around fast enough to get into the tissues past the constriction. When that happens, the tissue dies. Think of muscles, fingers, toes, like neighborhoods, and your arteries and veins like highways. A road closure in a neighborhood isn't a big deal because there's a bunch of roads nearby, so it'll really only affect a couple of houses. But if a freeway or an offramp blows up, that entire neighborhood becomes inaccessible. All the blood (cars) will try to cram into the sidestreets to get in. Of course, it goes slower. A lot slower. Your circulatory system looks very much like our transportation networks do, and breakdowns look much the same way and happen for similar reasons. The difference is... you don't die if you don't get home on time. Your soft tissues do.", "Lots of people have already given great answers but I thought I'd also give my two cents. If after the limb amputation the blood supply is lacking and the oxygen concentration in surrounding tissues falls below 1% the cells are said to be hypoxic (don't have enough oxygen). The cells recognise hypoxia and promote the secretion of a protein named vascular endothelial growth factor. In essence this protein (along with many others) induces the formation of blood vessels in tissues where the oxygen concentration is too low. An increase in vasculature results in increased blood flow to the area and thus the oxygen concentration in the tissues increases, eventually coming back to normal tissue oxygen concentration. TL;DR: if cells don't have enough oxygen they can promote the formation of now blood vessels!", "In terms of blood pressure autonomic control, cardiac output and peripheral vascular resistance are also regulated or adjusted dynamically by specialized neurons at the central baroreception sites (in the [carotid sinus]( URL_1 ) and aortic arch), which measure pressure and are able to modulate the system such as vagus nerve and [Renin–angiotensin system]( URL_0 ) to the effect of how much blood the heart is pumping out (heart rate) and also the diameter of arterioles in order to keep blood pressure around a set safe value.", "Question has been answered, but: I'm still curious to if a \"high pressure\" artery like the thigh artery (femoral) is cut near the hip, couldn't the shortened \"stop\" influence vessel pressure and burst capillaries nearby? As this \"thicker\" region of the artery has no natural end-point branching as in a \"full leg\"? Double-whammy: Could an amputation of a whole limb, say a leg, increase the blood pressure, or for instance hemoglobin levels, of a patient in any significant way?", "Arteries and veins are like highways. If something obstructs the highway, the cars can still get where they're going by taking the back roads (capillaries). If the highway is broken permanently, eventually a few of the back roads get built up to be a new highway.", "Arteries and veins are like roadway system for the body. If a road is closed off, the cars (blood) will just have to take a detour at the next street to get to where they are going. There are multiple ways to different areas.", "The way this question is phrased makes me think you don't really know what you're trying to ask. And the top answer does not really address it. Blood does not circulate through a limb once it is disconnected from the body.", "I like the ladder analogy. Blood goes up the right, in to the rungs, and down the left. If you cut off a few feet, blood just doesn't go as far.", "You have vains. They move youre blood everywhere. So when ur hand gets cut off the blood hits the end of ur arm and goes back the other way", "So glad you asked this, tried to ask the exact same question a few days back but I'm new and have no idea how to post properly!!" ]

[ [ "formed, blood quickly pools within a few hours and, if left untreated, forms a clot. The clot may spontaneously mobilize from the vessel wall leading to a pulmonary embolism, or stroke. Management Management of thrombosed external hemorrhoids has been poorly studied as of 2018. If diagnosed within the first few hours of presentation, the pooling blood may be evacuated using a syringe. Once the blood has clotted, removal by this method is no longer possible and the clot can be removed via an incision over the lump under local anesthetic. The incision is not stitched, but will heal. Care needs", "-32.88355623278039" ], [ "atrial contraction can result in some stagnant blood in the left atrium (LA) or left atrial appendage (LAA). This lack of movement of blood can lead to thrombus formation (blood clotting). If the clot becomes mobile and is carried away by the blood circulation, it is called an embolus. An embolus proceeds through smaller and smaller arteries until it plugs one of them and prevents blood from flowing through the artery. This process results in end organ damage due to loss of nutrients, oxygen, and removal of cellular waste products. Emboli in the brain may result in an ischemic stroke", "-32.76213918434223" ], [ "and push blood through the valves in veins toward the right atrium.\nThe blood circulation was famously described by William Harvey in 1628. Production and degradation of blood cells In vertebrates, the various cells of blood are made in the bone marrow in a process called hematopoiesis, which includes erythropoiesis, the production of red blood cells; and myelopoiesis, the production of white blood cells and platelets. During childhood, almost every human bone produces red blood cells; as adults, red blood cell production is limited to the larger bones: the bodies of the vertebrae, the breastbone (sternum), the ribcage, the pelvic bones,", "-32.6513932856069" ], [ "a group of symptoms due to loss of function of the distal part of the spinal cord - loss of control over the bladder, rectum and skin sensation around the anus. If the blood supply to a single nerve is interrupted by an embolus, the result is loss of function in the muscles supplied by that nerve; this phenomenon is called a mononeuropathy. Causes It is relatively unusual (25% of the total number of cases) for cholesterol emboli to occur spontaneously; this usually happens in people with severe atherosclerosis of the large arteries such as the aorta. In the other", "-32.31297798838932" ], [ "Limb infarction Affected tissues The major tissues affected are nerves and muscles, where irreversible damage starts to occur after 4–6 hours of cessation of blood supply. Skeletal muscle, the major tissue affected, is still relatively resistant to infarction compared to the heart and brain because its ability to rely on anaerobic metabolism by glycogen stored in the cells may supply the muscle tissue long enough for any clot to dissolve, either by intervention or the body's own system for thrombus breakdown. In contrast, brain tissue (in cerebral infarction) does not store glycogen, and the heart (in myocardial infarction) is so", "-32.263420333503745" ], [ "cell death.\nThe ostium secundum provides communication between the atria after the ostium primum closes completely. Subsequently, a second wall of tissue, the septum secundum, grows over the ostium secundum in the right atrium. Blood then only passes from the right to left atrium by way of a small passageway in the septum secundum and then through the ostium secundum. This passageway is called the foramen ovale. Closure The foramen ovale normally closes at birth. At birth, when the lungs become functional, the pulmonary vascular pressure decreases and the left atrial pressure exceeds that of the right. This forces the septum", "-32.19763111363136" ], [ "and body, with the goal of preventing clot formation. This can be done in many ways, and the arteries used can be taken from several areas of the body. Arteries are typically harvested from the chest, arm, or wrist and then attached to a portion of the coronary artery, relieving pressure and limiting clotting factors in that area of the heart.\nThe procedure is typically performed because of coronary artery disease (CAD), in which a plaque-like substance builds up in the coronary artery, the main pathway carrying oxygen-rich blood to the heart. This can cause a blockage and/or a rupture, which", "-32.03543631557841" ], [ "move tissue from one site to another on the body, or from another person, without bringing its own blood supply with it. Instead, a new blood supply grows in after it is placed. A similar technique where tissue is transferred with the blood supply intact is called a flap. In some instances a grafting can be an artificially manufactured device. Examples of this are a tube to carry blood flow across a defect or from an artery to a vein for use in hemodialysis. Arthroplasty Arthroplasty on knee has been broadly used to treat knee and musculoskeletal joint dislocation. It", "-31.950066308141686" ], [ "blood supply can penetrate up to about 6 millimeters or a quarter inch. Therefore, meniscus tears that occur near the peripheral rim are able to heal after a meniscal repair. \nA study conducted by Heckman, Barber-Westin & Noyes found that it is better to repair the meniscus than rather remove it (meniscectomy). The amount of rehabilitation time required for a repair is longer than a meniscectomy, but removing the meniscus can cause osteoarthritis problems. If the meniscus is removed, the patient will be in rehab for about four to six weeks. If a repair is conducted, then the patient will", "-31.912986788142007" ], [ "Cavitation (bone) Cavitations are an area of dead bone caused by a dearth of blood flow to that part of the bone. A cavitation is a hole in the blood vessel that cannot be visually detected with the naked eye. Jawbone cavitations, also called neuralgia-inducing cavitational osteonecrosis (NICO) if they are associated with pain, are extraction sites in the jaw that have not healed.", "-31.839803050774208" ], [ "that important as a ligament but can often be vitally important as a conduit of a small artery to the head of the femur, that is, the foveal artery. This artery is not present in everyone but can become the only blood supply to the bone in the head of the femur when the neck of the femur is fractured or disrupted by injury in childhood. Blood supply The hip joint is supplied with blood from the medial circumflex femoral and lateral circumflex femoral arteries, which are both usually branches of the deep artery of the thigh (profunda femoris), but", "-31.783369546479662" ], [ "health and reaction to the procedure, the actual harvesting can be an outpatient procedure, or can require 1–2 days of recovery in the hospital.\nAnother option is to administer certain drugs that stimulate the release of stem cells from the bone marrow into circulating blood. An intravenous catheter is inserted into the donor's arm, and the stem cells are then filtered out of the blood. This procedure is similar to that used in blood or platelet donation. In adults, bone marrow may also be taken from the sternum, while the tibia is often used when taking samples from infants. In newborns,", "-31.72655204102557" ], [ "the New York Blood Center where a technique for removing similar carbohydrates was developed for blood. Dr. Stone identified and collaborated with the leading immunologist in the field Prof. Uri Galili in order to transfer the blood technique to orthopaedic tissues. Their work led to multiple patents, animal trials and subsequently, a human clinical trial of a porcine bone-patellar tendon-bone graft for reconstructing the anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) of the knee joint. In the surgical procedure, the proteins on the transplant ligament that would trigger rejection from the recipient's body are stripped off prior to transplantation. One recipient of", "-31.626563762663864" ], [ "circulating blood. In both cases, recovery is usually swift and donors typically have fully restored marrow and blood cell counts in under two weeks.\nCord blood cells are obtained from the umbilical cord and placenta of a newborn baby after the cord is clamped and cut as in a normal delivery. The cord blood is then stored frozen in a bank until needed for a transplant. The baby is not harmed in any way by this collection, as the cord blood is collected from tissues that in the past had been discarded as medical waste. The need for large registries The", "-31.405992921994766" ], [ "passes from small arteries into capillaries, then small veins and the process begins again. Blood carries oxygen, waste products, and hormones from one place in the body to another. Blood is filtered at the kidneys and liver.\nThe body consists of a number of body cavities, separated areas which house different organ systems. The brain and central nervous system reside in an area protected from the rest of the body by the blood brain barrier. The lungs sit in the pleural cavity. The intestines, liver, and spleen sit in the abdominal cavity\nHeight, weight, shape and other body proportions vary individually and", "-31.376605368976016" ], [ "by any swelling in the leg. If the pressure becomes great enough, blood flow to the muscle can be blocked, leading to a condition known as compartment syndrome. Severe damage to the nerve and blood vessels around a muscle can cause the muscle to die and amputation might be necessary.", "-31.315816288581118" ], [ "to save her life from gangrene. During the three weeks while doctors waited for demarcation between dead and living flesh to become clearer, her catheters became clogged several times and needed to be replaced with additional surgery. By the end of June, it was clear that all four limbs would need to be amputated. This was done on 2 July, amputating both legs and left arm \"optimistically\", through the knee joints, rather than above them, hoping to preserve the growth plates at the end of the long bones, which would allow for better use of prosthetics later in life.\nCleverley-Bisman's parents", "-31.314609465994636" ], [ "human anatomy: \"De Humani Corporis Fabrica\", meaning \"On the Fabric of the Human Body\". Much later, in 1628, William Harvey explained the circulation of blood through the body in veins and arteries. It was previously thought that blood was the product of food and was absorbed by muscle tissue.\nDuring the 16th century, Paracelsus, like Girolamo, discovered that illness was caused by agents outside the body such as bacteria, not by imbalances within the body.\nThe French army doctor Ambroise Paré, born in 1510, revived the ancient Greek method of tying off blood vessels. After amputation the common procedure was to cauterize", "-31.22839037502854" ], [ "is sewn into the proximal (toward the patient's head) and distal (toward the patient's foot) portions of the aorta, the aneurysmal sac is closed around the graft.\nAlternatively, the anastomosis can be carried out with expandable devices, a simpler and quicker procedure \nThe aorta and its branching arteries are cross-clamped during open surgery. This can lead to inadequate blood supply to the spinal cord, resulting in paraplegia, when repairing thoracic aneurysms. A 2004 systematic review and meta analysis found that cerebrospinal fluid drainage (CFSD), when performed in experienced centers, reduces the risk of ischemic spinal cord injury by increasing the perfusion", "-31.213449351143936" ], [ "apheresis. The donor's blood is withdrawn through a sterile needle in one arm and passed through a machine that removes white blood cells. The red blood cells are returned to the donor. The peripheral stem cell yield is boosted with daily subcutaneous injections of granulocyte-colony stimulating factor, serving to mobilize stem cells from the donor's bone marrow into the peripheral circulation. Amniotic fluid It is also possible to extract stem cells from amniotic fluid for both autologous or heterologous use at the time of childbirth. Umbilical cord blood Umbilical cord blood is obtained when a mother donates her infant's umbilical", "-31.17411567689851" ], [ "blood supply) and has many nerves going through it and/or around it, amputation of the extremity may be necessary. Some surgeons argue that amputation should be the procedure of choice when possible, due to the increased chance of a better quality of life. Otherwise, surgeons may opt for a limb-saving treatment, by removing less of the surrounding tissue or part of the bone, which is replaced by a metal rod or grafts.\nRadiation will also be used in conjunction with surgery, especially if the limb was not amputated. Radiation is rarely used as a sole treatment.\nIn some instances, the oncologist", "-31.15831663562858" ], [ "the body tissues, and then to two longitudinal sinuses next to the gills. After being oxygenated, the blood flows into the body cavity, and back to the heart. The blood contains haemocyanin, a blue copper-based pigment performing the same function as haemoglobin in vertebrates, and also has blood cells that aid in clotting.\nThe excretory system consists of two pairs of coxal glands connected to a bladder that opens near the base of the last pair of walking legs. The brain is relatively large, and, as in many arthropods, surrounds the oesophagus. In both sexes, the single gonad lies next to", "-30.99537551490357" ], [ "body wall and a pair of arteries that supply the antennae, this is referred to as an open circulation. The timing of the pumping procedure can be divided into two parts: diastole and systole. During diastole, blood flows through the ostia from the pericardial sinus (the cavity containing the heart) into the heart. When the systole begins, the ostia close and the heart muscles contract inwards, reducing the volume of the heart. This pumps the blood from the front end of the heart into the perivisceral sinus containing the organs. In this way, the various organs are supplied with nutrients", "-30.98330922301102" ], [ "arteries occluded, abundant collateral circulation prevents uterine necrosis, and the fibroids decrease in size and vascularity as they receive the bulk of the embolization material. The procedure can be performed in a hospital, surgical center or office setting and commonly take no longer than an hour to perform. Post-procedurally if access was gained via a femoral artery puncture an occlusion device can be used to hasten healing of the puncture site and the patient is asked to remain with the leg extended for several hours but many patients are discharged the same day with some remaining in the hospital", "-30.971116648463067" ], [ "a stage called algor mortis. Shortly after death, within three to six hours, the muscular tissues become rigid and incapable of relaxing, during a stage called rigor mortis. Since blood is no longer being pumped through the body, gravity causes it to drain to the dependent portions of the body, creating an overall bluish-purple discolouration termed livor mortis or, more commonly, lividity.\nOnce the heart stops, the blood can no longer supply oxygen or remove carbon dioxide from the tissues. The resulting decrease in pH and other chemical changes causes cells to lose their structural integrity, bringing about the release", "-30.93487970143906" ], [ "of the umbilical vessels, grows into them, and they are vascularized.\nBlood is carried to the villi by the paired umbilical arteries, which branch into chorionic arteries and enter the chorionic villi as cotyledon arteries. After circulating through the capillaries of the villi, the blood is returned to the embryo by the umbilical vein. Until about the end of the second month of pregnancy, the villi cover the entire chorion, and are almost uniform in size; but, after this, they develop unequally. Parts The part of the chorion that is in contact with the decidua capsularis undergoes atrophy, so that by", "-30.91516366187716" ], [ "arteries arise from the aorta, provide major anastomoses and supplement the blood flow to the spinal cord. In humans the largest of the anterior radicular arteries is known as the artery of Adamkiewicz, or anterior radicularis magna (ARM) artery, which usually arises between L1 and L2, but can arise anywhere from T9 to L5. Impaired blood flow through these critical radicular arteries, especially during surgical procedures that involve abrupt disruption of blood flow through the aorta for example during aortic aneursym repair, can result in spinal cord infarction and paraplegia. Somatosensory organization Somatosensory organization is divided into the dorsal column-medial", "-30.910168193680875" ], [ "Meniscal cartilage replacement therapy Anatomy The meniscus is a C-shaped piece of fibrocartilage located at the peripheral aspect of the knee joint that offers lubrication and nutrition to the joint. Each knee has two menisci, medial and lateral, whose purpose is to provide space between the tibia and the femur, preventing friction and allowing for the diffusion of articular cartilage.\nThe majority of the meniscus has no blood supply. As a result, if the meniscus is damaged, from trauma or with age, it is unable to undergo the body’s normal healing process. Therefore, a torn piece can begin", "-30.812360331998207" ], [ "creating organs to all parts of the body where it was consumed and there was no return of blood to the heart or liver. The heart did not pump blood around, the heart's motion sucked blood in during diastole and the blood moved by the pulsation of the arteries themselves.\nGalen believed that the arterial blood was created by venous blood passing from the left ventricle to the right by passing through 'pores' in the interventricular septum, air passed from the lungs via the pulmonary artery to the left side of the heart. As the arterial blood was created 'sooty' vapors", "-30.77532780416368" ], [ "tissue, like all cells in the body, needs to be supplied with oxygen, nutrients and a way of removing metabolic wastes. This is achieved by the coronary circulation, which includes arteries, veins, and lymphatic vessels. Blood flow through the coronary vessels occurs in peaks and troughs relating to the heart muscle's relaxation or contraction.\nHeart tissue receives blood from two arteries which arise just above the aortic valve. These are the left main coronary artery and the right coronary artery. The left main coronary artery splits shortly after leaving the aorta into two vessels, the left anterior descending and the left", "-30.71725196546231" ], [ "the ulnar nerve transfer was not successful. The muscle region was not reinnervated as expected, but instead turned bluish after mobilization, possibly due to a congestion of vascular supply.\nWith the left-arm amputation woman mentioned above, her phantom limb pain returned after surgery. Though at a lesser degree and resolved within 4 weeks, it still presented a serious risk because it is unclear whether it will resolve in other future patients.\nAdditionally, surgery was unsuccessful with a patient because severe nerve injuries were not detectable until during the surgery.\nIt also remains in speculation whether the transferred nerves would survive permanently. Future Research", "-30.69910056173103" ], [ "clot that breaks free and floats to the lungs is called a pulmonary embolus, a very dangerous occurrence. Blood thinners are commonly administered before surgery to reduce the probability of this type of complication. Hemorrhage Many blood vessels must be cut in order to divide the stomach and to move the bowel. Any of these may later begin bleeding, either into the abdomen (intra-abdominal hemorrhage) or into the bowel itself (gastrointestinal hemorrhage). Transfusions may be needed, and re-operation is sometimes necessary. The use of blood thinners to prevent venous thromboembolic disease may actually increase the risk of hemorrhage slightly. Hernia", "-30.613834413990844" ], [ "replantation. However, vessels and nerves of large amputated parts (e.g. arm and forearm) may be reconnected using loupe or no magnification.\nIn replantation surgery following macro-amputation (e.g. arm or leg amputation) maximal length of the replanted extremity can be preserved by vascular grafts for blood supply and pedicled or free soft tissue flaps for defect coverage. Recovery Outcome of major limb replantations can be predicted by the potassium level of the blood which flows out of the replanted part after revascularization as a high level of potassium can be a marker of muscle and tissue death. History The first replantation to", "-30.557312861896207" ], [ "Mechanism of action Blood coagulation is a complex process by which the blood forms clots. It is an essential part of hemostasis and works by stopping blood loss from damaged blood vessels. At the site of injury, where there is an exposure of blood under the endothelium, the platelets gather and immediately form a plug. That process is called primary hemostasis. Simultaneously, a secondary hemostasis occurs. It is defined as the formation of insoluble fibrin by activated coagulation factors, specifically thrombin. These factors activate each other in a blood coagulation cascade that occurs through two separate pathways that interact, the", "-30.519831492798403" ], [ "patient is anesthetised. When the donor organs arrive, they are checked for fitness; if any organs show signs of damage, they are discarded and the operation cancelled. Some patients are concerned that their organs will be removed and the donor organs won't be suitable. Since this is a possibility, it is standard procedure that the patient is not operated on until the donor organs arrive and are judged suitable, despite the time delay this involves.\nOnce suitable donor organs are present, the surgeon makes an incision starting above and finishing below the sternum, cutting all the way to the bone. The", "-30.51624872337561" ], [ "the right heart is pumped immediately through the aorta and circulated to the body and the heart itself, bypassing the lungs altogether, while the left heart pumps oxygen-rich blood continuously back into the lungs through the pulmonary artery. This is a life-threatening situation due to the resultant low oxygen levels throughout the body. Atrial septostomy allows more of the oxygen-rich blood to circulate throughout the body. The procedure is a temporary measure meant to help the patient survive until further corrective surgery can be done.\nIn the separate case of pulmonary hypertension, abnormally high blood pressure in the blood vessels within", "-30.41764710121788" ], [ "heart–lung machine to maintain perfusion to other body organs and tissues while the surgeon works in a bloodless surgical field. The surgeon places a cannula in the right atrium, vena cava, or femoral vein to withdraw blood from the body. The cannula is connected to tubing filled with isotonic crystalloid solution. Venous blood which is removed from the body by the cannula is filtered, cooled or warmed, oxygenated, and then returned to the body. The cannula used to return oxygenated blood is usually inserted in the ascending aorta, but it may be inserted in the femoral artery. The patient is", "-30.40178547942196" ], [ "portal vein to the left hepatic vein and then to the inferior vena cava, allowing placental blood to bypass the liver.\nIn the fetus, the liver does not perform the normal digestive processes and filtration of the infant liver because nutrients are received directly from the mother via the placenta. The fetal liver releases some blood stem cells that migrate to the fetal thymus, creating the T-cells or T-lymphocytes. After birth, the formation of blood stem cells shifts to the red bone marrow.\nAfter 2–5 days, the umbilical vein and ductus venosus are completely obliterated; the former becomes the round ligament of", "-30.381908397830557" ], [ "compression during contraction of adjacent skeletal muscle and arterial pulsation.\nLymph that enters the lymph vessels from the interstitial spaces usually does not flow backwards along the vessels because of the presence of valves. If excessive hydrostatic pressure develops within the lymph vessels, though, some fluid can leak back into the interstitial spaces and contribute to formation of oedema.\nFlow of the lymph in the thoracic duct in an average resting person usually approximates 100ml per hour. Accompanied by another ~25ml per hour in other lymph vessels, total lymph flow in the body is about 4 to 5 liters per day. This", "-30.374335302971303" ], [ "blood that had constituted it through the vagina. The entire process occurs over a period of several days. Menstruation may be accompanied by a series of uterine contractions; these help expel the menstrual endometrium.\nIn case of implantation, however, the endometrial lining is neither absorbed nor shed. Instead, it remains as decidua. The decidua becomes part of the placenta; it provides support and protection for the gestation.\nIf there is inadequate stimulation of the lining, due to lack of hormones, the endometrium remains thin and inactive. In humans, this will result in amenorrhea, or the absence of a menstrual period. After menopause,", "-30.368333430560597" ], [ "be influenced by the pressure of nearby muscle contraction, arterial pulse pressure and the vacuum created in the chest cavity during respiration, but these passive forces contribute only a minor percentage of lymph transport. The fluids collected are pumped into continually larger vessels and through lymph nodes, which remove debris and police the fluid for dangerous microbes. The lymph ends its journey in the thoracic duct or right lymphatic duct, which drain into the blood circulation. Diagnosis Accurate diagnosis and staging are fundamental to the management of lymphedema patients. A swollen limb can result from different conditions that require different", "-30.316155221571535" ], [ "only the internal carotid artery and nearby sections of the adjacent anterior and middle cerebral arteries, surgeons can direct other arteries, such as the external carotid artery or the superficial temporal artery to replace its circulation. The arteries are either sewn directly into the brain circulation, or placed on the surface of the brain to reestablish new circulation after a few weeks.\nThere are many operations that have been developed for the condition, but currently the most favored are the in-direct procedures EDAS, EMS, and multiple burr holes and the direct procedure STA-MCA. Direct superficial temporal artery (STA) to middle cerebral", "-30.305828530574217" ], [ "the blood, are produced in the spongy tissue found in the bone, known as bone marrow. Low platelet count maybe due to the decreased production of platelets in the bone marrow. A decreased production would be due to vitamin B12 deficiency, iron deficiency, aplastic anemia, viral infections, chemotherapy, alcohol consumption, leukemia, myelodysplasia, and cirrhosis. During pregnancy, the fetus’ waste products diffuse into the mother’s sinuses (blood stream), and cause the mother's spleen to become overactive and enlarged. Normally, the spleen filters and removes the waste products and with the overload of unwanted substances in the bloodstream, the spleen", "-30.30472524342622" ], [ "hospital attendance and intravenous fluids, usually followed by blood transfusion. Once the circulating volume has been restored, investigations are performed to identify the source of bleeding and address it. Uncontrolled life-threatening bleeding may require uterine artery embolization (occlusion of the blood vessels supplying the uterus), laparotomy (surgical opening of the abdomen), occasionally leading to hysterectomy (removal of the uterus) as a last resort.\nA possible complication from protracted vaginal blood loss is iron deficiency anemia, which can develop insidiously. Eliminating the cause will resolve the anemia, although some women require iron supplements or blood transfusions to improve the anemia.", "-30.29633963295055" ], [ "lobe of the liver first joins with the portal vein. The blood then moves to the right atrium of the heart. In the fetus, there is an opening between the right and left atrium (the foramen ovale), and most of the blood flows from the right into the left atrium, thus bypassing pulmonary circulation. The majority of blood flow is into the left ventricle from where it is pumped through the aorta into the body. Some of the blood moves from the aorta through the internal iliac arteries to the umbilical arteries, and re-enters the placenta, where carbon dioxide and", "-30.29443769279169" ], [ "vessels and tissue necrosis occur. Pus accumulates in the medullary spaces of the bone, which increases the pressure and leads to collapse of the blood vessels, venous stasis and ischemia. Pus may also spread to the sub-periosteal layer, dissecting it away from the surface of the bone and further reducing the blood supply. The inferior alveolar neurovascular bundle is compressed within the mandible, causing anesthesia or paresthesia in the distribution of the mental nerve. Pus may drain via sinuses on the skin and in the mouth, and these may in time become lined with epithelium, when they are termed fistulas.\nChronic", "-30.225313082017237" ], [ "his supply of blood had halted or was still flowing, is irrelevant to the determination of when he died.\nThe autopsy showed that the crash caused multiple fractures at the base of the cranium, crushing the forehead and rupturing the temporal artery with haemorrhage in the respiratory passages. It is possible to resuscitate a dead person immediately after the heart stops through cardio-respiratory processes. The procedure is known as putting the patient on the machine. From the medical-legal viewpoint, in Ayrton's case, there is a subtle point: resuscitation measures were implemented.\n\nFrom the ethical point of view, this might well be condemned", "-30.185820437254733" ], [ "initiating the ischemic cascade. Brain tissue ceases to function if deprived of oxygen for more than 60 to 90 seconds, and after approximately three hours will suffer irreversible injury possibly leading to the death of the tissue, i.e., infarction. (This is why fibrinolytics such as alteplase are given only until three hours since the onset of the stroke.) Atherosclerosis may disrupt the blood supply by narrowing the lumen of blood vessels leading to a reduction of blood flow, by causing the formation of blood clots within the vessel, or by releasing showers of small emboli through the disintegration of atherosclerotic", "-30.177069740137085" ], [ "arteries are then detached from the common artery (truncus arteriosus) and connected to the right ventricle using a tube (a conduit or tunnel). The common artery, now separated from the pulmonary circulation, functions as the aorta with the truncal valve operating as the aortic valve. Most babies survive this surgical repair, but may require further surgery as they grow up. For example, the conduit does not grow with the child and may need to be replaced as the child grows. Furthermore, the truncal valve is often abnormal and may require future surgery to improve its function. \nThere have been", "-30.139322006492876" ], [ "blood supply, allowing it to be transferred on its artery derived from the medial circumflex femoral artery. This artery enters the muscle about 10 cm from the pubic symphysis. At this point (or 1 cm proximal) the nerve also enters.\nGracilis muscle is widely used in reconstructive surgery (graciloplasty), either as a pedicled flap or as a free microsurgical flap. Both pedicled and free flaps can be muscular or musculocutaneos (the so- called \"composite flaps\"). As a pedicled flap, gracilis muscle can be used in perineal and vaginal reconstruction, after oncological surgery, in the treatment of recurrent anovaginal and rectovaginal fistulas as well", "-30.133400363789406" ], [ "occlude, embolization through angiography may stop the bleeding. Both coils in the end-artery and stents across the area of bleeding have been used to control the hemorrhage. However, the bleeding may be refractory to the embolization, which would necessitate surgery to remove the pancreas at the source of hemorrhage. Also, the cause of bleeding may be too diffuse to be treated with embolization (such as with pancreatitis or with pancreatic cancer). This may also require surgical therapy, and usually a distal pancreatectomy, or removal of the part of the pancreas from the area of bleeding to", "-30.117968368751463" ], [ "supply, the arteries entering the kidneys branch into numerous smaller arteries and eventually form afferent arterioles that supply the glomeruli. The peritubular blood supply is composed of efferent arterioles leaving the glomeruli of reptilian-type nephrons that drain into sinuses of the cortex. On the other hand, the vasa recta are formed by efferent arterioles exiting the glomeruli of mammalia-type nephrons. Next, the renal portal system, which involves the afferent veins, obtains blood from the ischiadic and external iliac veins. The renal portal valve is situated between the renal portal vein and the common iliac vein which leads to the posterior", "-30.072283218003577" ], [ "acid, can also be utilized to minimize blood loss. Another technique, acute normovolemic hemodilution\" involves the collection of a selected calculated volume of autologous blood in collection bags prior to the start of surgery with the simultaneous replacement of an equal volume of asanguinous fluid. Since the patient's blood is now diluted, blood lost during the surgical procedure, i.e. by hemorrhage, contains smaller amounts of red blood cells. The collected autologous blood product, which contains red blood cells, platelets and coagulation factors, is reinfused at the end of the surgery. When all of these therapies are combined, blood", "-30.057440160409897" ], [ "the axis of the bone. This orientation of lamellar bone is weak, thus a secondary osteonal reconstruction is required to re-orient the lamellar bone longitudinally. This process takes three to eight weeks. Reaction After bone fracture, blood cells accumulate adjacent to the injury site. Soon after fracture, blood vessels constrict, stopping further bleeding. Within a few hours, the extravascular blood cells form a clot called a hematoma that acts as a template for callus formation. These cells, including macrophages, release inflammatory mediators such as cytokines (tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNFα), interleukin-1 family (IL-1), interleukin 6 (IL-6), 11 (IL-11), and 18", "-30.0528304601321" ], [ "technique, the great arteries are excised and reimplanted to the corresponding ventricles. The Brazilian surgeon Jatene performed the first procedure in 1975. The coronary arteries are also explanted from the anatomical aorta, which lies on the venous side and reattached to the systemic great vessel. Indeed, the initial difficulties that prevented an earlier adoption of this approach were mostly the inability to transfer the coronary arteries, besides problems with early forms of cardiopulmonary bypass that made cardiac surgery in early infancy less safe than in the present times In-hospital mortality The acute mortality associated with the Senning procedure is reported", "-30.028834616212407" ], [ "the aorta to the arteries (both carotid arteries and both vertebral arteries) that supply the brain. When the aneurysm has been located, platinum coils are deployed that cause a blood clot to form in the aneurysm, obliterating it. The decision as to which treatment is undertaken is typically made by a multidisciplinary team consisting of a neurosurgeon, neuroradiologist, and often other health professionals.\nIn general, the decision between clipping and coiling is made on the basis of the location of the aneurysm, its size and the condition of the person. Aneurysms of the middle cerebral artery and its related vessels are", "-30.026427952878294" ], [ "since no tissue is taken directly from the patient's own body. The surgeon will drill a hole forming the tibial bone tunnel and femoral bone tunnel, allowing for the patient's new ACL graft to be guided through. Once the graft is pulled through the bone tunnels, two screws are placed into the tibial and femoral bone tunnel. Recovery time ranges between one and two years or longer, depending if the patient chose an autograft or allograft. A week or so after the occurrence of the injury, the athlete is usually deceived by the fact that he/she is walking normally and", "-30.008292888262076" ], [ "judged suitable, despite the time delay this involves.\nOnce suitable donor organs are present, the surgeon makes an incision starting above and finishing below the sternum, cutting all the way to the bone. The skin edges are retracted to expose the sternum. Using a bone saw, the sternum is cut down the middle. Rib spreaders are inserted in the cut, and spread the ribs to give access to the heart and lungs of the patient.\nThe patient is connected to a heart-lung machine, which circulates and oxygenates blood. The surgeon removes the failing heart and lungs. Most surgeons endeavour to cut blood", "-29.98092246806482" ], [ "a fetus. Pathophysiology In typical anatomy, the left side of the heart receives oxygen-rich blood from the lungs and pumps it to the rest of the body. In people with HLHS, the aorta and left ventricle are underdeveloped (beginning in utero), and the aortic and mitral valves are either too small to allow sufficient blood flow or are atretic (closed) altogether. As blood returns from the lungs to the left atrium, it cannot be pumped to the rest of the body by the left ventricle. The neonate is reliant on blood flowing through an atrial septal defect to mix", "-29.969188203060185" ], [ "the lost cartilage tissue.\nHowever, regeneration is still too slow for patient care to effectively rely on this mechanism of repair. Part of this inability to regenerate quickly from injury results from the relative avascular nature of cartilage as compared to other connective tissues of the human body. Pathology Chondroblastomas can sometimes form, which are benign tumors that form at the sites of endochondral ossification due to over stimulation of the chondroblasts. When they form, they are usually found on the upper or lower tibia as well as the upper humerus where chondroblast activity is most apparent. Rarely,", "-29.96091235539643" ], [ "person than that of arteries. Function Veins serve to return blood from organs to the heart. Veins are also called \"capacitance vessels\" because most of the blood volume (60%) is contained within veins. In systemic circulation oxygenated blood is pumped by the left ventricle through the arteries to the muscles and organs of the body, where its nutrients and gases are exchanged at capillaries. After taking up cellular waste and carbon dioxide in capillaries, blood is channeled through vessels that converge with one another to form venules, which continue to converge and form the larger veins. The", "-29.929999452189804" ], [ "cholera, coma, convulsions, diabetes, epilepsy, gangrene, gout, herpes, indigestion, insanity, jaundice, leprosy, ophthalmia, plague, pneumonia, scurvy, smallpox, stroke, tetanus, tuberculosis, and for some one hundred other diseases. Bloodletting was even used to treat most forms of hemorrhaging such as nosebleed, excessive menstruation, or hemorrhoidal bleeding. Before surgery or at the onset of childbirth, blood was removed to prevent inflammation. Before amputation, it was customary to remove a quantity of blood equal to the amount believed to circulate in the limb that was to be removed.\nThere were also theories that bloodletting would cure \"heartsickness\" and \"heartbreak\". A French physician, Jacques Ferrand", "-29.897986918738752" ], [ "saphenous vein, radial artery, or internal mammary artery) is used to redirect blood from a point before the narrowing (typically the aorta) to a point beyond the obstruction. Valvular heart disease Diseased heart valves that have become abnormally narrow or abnormally leaky may require surgery. This is traditionally performed as an open surgical procedure to replace the damaged heart valve with a tissue or metallic prosthetic valve. In some circumstances, the tricuspid or mitral valves can be repaired surgically, avoiding the need for a valve replacement. Heart valves can also be treated percutaneously, using techniques that share", "-29.881237093060918" ], [ "Collateral circulation Brain Blood flow to the brain in humans and some other animals is maintained via a network of collateral arteries that anastomose (join) in the circle of Willis, which lies at the base of the brain. In the circle of Willis so-called communicating arteries exist between the front (anterior) and back (posterior) parts of the circle of Willis, as well as between the left and right side of the circle of Willis. Heart Another example in humans and some other animals is after an acute myocardial infarction (heart attack). Collateral circulation in the heart tissue will sometimes bypass", "-29.869310764071997" ], [ "artery supplies blood to the upper part of the bladder. The lower part of the bladder is supplied by the inferior vesical artery in males and by the vaginal artery in females, both of which are branches of the internal iliac arteries. In females, the uterine arteries provides additional blood supply. Venous drainage begins in a network of small vessels on the lateral and posterior surfaces of the bladder, which coalesce and pass backwards along the lateral ligaments of the bladder into the internal iliac veins.\nThe lymph drained from the bladder begins in a series of networks throughout the mucosal,", "-29.83597928591189" ], [ "of the blood flows through this hole directly into the left atrium from the right atrium, thus bypassing pulmonary circulation. The continuation of this blood flow is into the left ventricle, and from there it is pumped through the aorta into the body. Some of the blood moves from the aorta through the internal iliac arteries to the umbilical arteries, and re-enters the placenta, where carbon dioxide and other waste products from the fetus are taken up and enter the maternal circulation.\nSome of the blood entering the right atrium does not pass directly to the left atrium through the foramen", "-29.83552316883288" ], [ "be placed in the lower abdomen and its blood vessels connected to arteries and veins in the recipient's body. When this is complete, blood will be allowed to flow through the kidney again. The final step is connecting the ureter from the donor kidney to the bladder. In most cases, the kidney will soon start producing urine.\nDepending on its quality, the new kidney usually begins functioning immediately. Living donor kidneys normally require 3–5 days to reach normal functioning levels, while cadaveric donations stretch that interval to 7–15 days. Hospital stay is typically for 4–10 days. If complications arise,", "-29.782822482287884" ], [ "of the liver first joins with the portal vein. The blood then moves to the right atrium of the heart. In the fetus, there is an opening between the right and left atrium (the foramen ovale), and most of the blood flows from the right into the left atrium, thus bypassing pulmonary circulation. The majority of blood flow is into the left ventricle from where it is pumped through the aorta into the body. Some of the blood moves from the aorta through the internal iliac arteries to the umbilical arteries, and re-enters the placenta, where carbon dioxide and other", "-29.771471377258422" ], [ "the blood inside the body using the peritoneum as a natural semipermeable membrane. Wastes and excess water move from the blood, across the peritoneal membrane and into a special dialysis solution, called dialysate, in the abdominal cavity. Types There are three primary and two secondary types of dialysis: hemodialysis (primary), peritoneal dialysis (primary), hemofiltration (primary), hemodiafiltration (secondary) and intestinal dialysis (secondary). Hemodialysis In hemodialysis, the patient's blood is pumped through the blood compartment of a dialyzer, exposing it to a partially permeable membrane. The dialyzer is composed of thousands of tiny hollow synthetic fibers. The fiber wall acts as the", "-29.74545269832015" ], [ "death of the part of the gut that it usually supplies.\nThe term mesenteric artery is also used to describe smaller branches of these vessels which, particularly in smaller animals, provide a significant source of vascular resistance. These branches have a dense innervation by sympathetic nerves, allowing the brain to control their diameter and hence the resistance to blood flow to the gut. This is of particular importance when blood flow is required elsewhere, such as in exercise or shock, where a large proportion of the blood is required to supply the needs of skeletal muscle; by constricting the smaller mesenteric", "-29.734036733934772" ], [ "mandible and hence removes the pressure applied on the socket, instead of keeping constant pressure, is a very common reason that bleeding might not stop. This is likened to someone with a bleeding wound on their arm, when being instructed to apply pressure, instead holds the wound intermittently every few moments. Coagulopathies (clotting disorders, e.g. hemophilia) are sometimes discovered for the first time if a person has had no other surgical procedure in their life, but this is rare. Sometimes the blood clot can be dislodged, triggering more bleeding and formation of a new blood clot, or leading to a", "-29.697221212933073" ], [ "clotting factors in plasma to form a mesh \"plug\" to stop or prevent bleeding. Plasma is the fluid part of the blood. It contains protein, salts and clotting factors. White cells fight harmful bacteria and help prevent infection. Red cells carry oxygen from the lungs to the tissues.\nMost platelet donations are given to patients who are unable to make enough platelets in their bone marrow. For example, patients with leukaemia or other cancers may have too few platelets as the result of their disease or treatment. Also after major surgery or extensive injury, patients may need platelet transfusions to replace", "-29.69442015443201" ], [ "blood from the heart muscle are known as cardiac veins. These include the great cardiac vein, the middle cardiac vein, the small cardiac vein and the anterior cardiac veins.\nAs the left and right coronary arteries run on the surface of the heart, they can be called epicardial coronary arteries. These arteries, when healthy, are capable of autoregulation to maintain coronary blood flow at levels appropriate to the needs of the heart muscle. These relatively narrow vessels are commonly affected by atherosclerosis and can become blocked, causing angina or a heart attack. (See also: circulatory system.) The coronary arteries that", "-29.682085981180535" ], [ "the boundary of the cortex and the medulla. Each arcuate artery supplies several interlobular arteries that feed into the afferent arterioles that supply the glomeruli.\nBlood drains from the kidneys, ultimately into the inferior vena cava. After filtration occurs, the blood moves through a small network of small veins (venules) that converge into interlobular veins. As with the arteriole distribution, the veins follow the same pattern: the interlobular provide blood to the arcuate veins then back to the interlobar veins, which come to form the renal veins which exiting the kidney . Nerve supply The kidney and nervous system communicate via", "-29.6800158645201" ], [ "nerve no longer sends signals to certain muscles. Those muscles are paralyzed and their muscle function is lost. Tendon transfer surgery can be used to attempt to replace that function. Common nerve injuries that are treated with tendon transfer surgery are spinal cord, radial nerve, ulnar nerve, or median nerve injury. Tendon transfers have higher chance to treat nerve palsy, and such transfers include posterior, anterior, and anteroposterior tibial tendon transfer. Peroneal nerve and its nerve branches need to be fixed from adherence to proximal fibula, which proximal fibula is about 3~5 cm. Tendon graft Grafting is a surgical procedure to", "-29.6776280765298" ], [ "Blood transfusion is one treatment. Blood is collected from volunteer donors who agree to let doctors draw blood stem cells from their blood or bone marrow for transplantation. Blood that is taken straight from collected blood stem cells is known as peripheral blood stem cell donation. A peripheral stem cell donor must have the same blood type as the patient receiving the blood cells. Once the stem cells are in the patient’s body through an IV, the cells mature and become blood cells. Before donation, a drug is injected into the donor, which increases the number of stem", "-29.67054796766024" ], [ "few days.\nA ruptured aneurysm in an angiomyolipoma leads to blood loss that must be stopped (though embolisation) and compensated for (through intravenous fluid replacement). Therefore, removal of the affected kidney (nephrectomy) is strongly discouraged, though may occur if the emergency department is not knowledgeable about tuberous sclerosis.\nEmbolisation involves inserting a catheter along the blood vessels to the tumour. The blood vessels are then blocked, typically by injecting ethanol or inert particles. The procedure can be very painful, so analgesics are used. The destroyed kidney tissue often causes postembolisation syndrome, which manifests as nausea, vomiting, fever, and abdominal pain, and lasts", "-29.66990358795738" ], [ "from vertebrate blood in that it doesn't contain any red blood cells and therefore is without high oxygen carrying capacity, and is more similar to lymph found in vertebrates.\nBody fluids enter through one way valved ostia which are openings situated along the length of the combined aorta and heart organ. Pumping of the hemolymph occurs by waves of peristaltic contraction, originating at the body's posterior end, pumping forwards into the dorsal vessel, out via the aorta and then into the head where it flows out into the haemocoel. The hemolymph is circulated to the appendages unidirectionally with the aid of", "-29.659333071409492" ], [ "studied the arterial circle at the base of the brain, named the circle of Willis after his teacher. He wanted to see if blood would continue to flow through the head if three of the four arteries supplying blood to the head were tied.\nLower also investigated to see how cerebrospinal fluid was formed and how it circulated. These experiments led to a study of hydrocephalus, a disease in which fluid collects in the cavities of the brain. In Lower's time, it was thought that catarrh, an inflammation of the mucous membranes, might be caused by seepage of fluid from the", "-29.63176493634819" ], [ "to interfere with the normal movement of the lungs, preventing one or both lungs from fully expanding and thereby interfering with the normal transfer of oxygen and carbon dioxide to and from the blood. Secondly, blood that has been lost into the pleural cavity can no longer be circulated. Hemothoraces can lead to very significant blood loss - each half of the thorax can hold more than 1500 milliliters of blood, representing more than 25% of an average adult's total blood volume. The body may struggle to cope with this blood loss, and in order to compensate tries to maintain", "-29.625138131319545" ], [ "procedure information with an instrumental evaluation during surgical treatment. Colonic blood supply The colon receives blood from both the superior and inferior mesenteric arteries. The blood supply from these two major arteries overlap, with abundant collateral circulation via the marginal artery of the colon. However, there are weak points, or \"watershed\" areas, at the borders of the territory supplied by each of these arteries, such as the splenic flexure and the rectosigmoid junction. These watershed areas are most vulnerable to ischemia when blood flow decreases, as they have the fewest vascular collaterals.\nThe rectum receives blood from both the inferior mesenteric", "-29.623983681414757" ], [ "lungs during surgery. The CPB is operated by the perfusionist, during the heart operation the perfusionist takes over the heart function. The perfusionist works in close relation with the anesthesiologist and the surgeon.\nBlood is drained from the venous (deoxygenated) circulation, and is cycled through the CPB machine. While in the machine, the blood is filtered, heated or cooled, and infused with oxygen. Subsequently, it is pumped back into the arterial (oxygenated) circulation, thereby bypassing the heart and lungs and maintaining the perfusion of the vital organs.\nWhile the step by step process for preparation and initiation of CPB can vary between", "-29.613507746631512" ], [ "whole procedure is performed by a computer-controlled machine. Since the donor's blood is processed in a sterile single-use centrifuge, the unwanted components can be returned to the donor safely. This allows the apheresis machine to repeat the draw-centrifuge-return cycle to obtain more platelets. The bulk of the machine and the length of the donation process means most platelet donations are done in blood centers instead of mobile blood drives.\nEach country has its own rules to protect the safety of both donor and recipient. In a typical set of rules, a platelet donor must weigh at least 50 kg (110 lb)", "-29.595495078596286" ], [ "injury occurred.\nIt was believed that tendons could not undergo matrix turnover and that tenocytes were not capable of repair. However, it has since been shown that, throughout the lifetime of a person, tenocytes in the tendon actively synthesize matrix components as well as enzymes such as matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) can degrade the matrix. Tendons are capable of healing and recovering from injuries in a process that is controlled by the tenocytes and their surrounding extracellular matrix.\nThe three main stages of tendon healing are inflammation, repair or proliferation, and remodeling, which can be further divided into consolidation and maturation. These stages", "-29.58389499454097" ], [ "the tissues causing further calcium overloading and can result in potentially fatal cardiac arrhythmias and also accelerates cellular self-destruction. The restored blood flow also exaggerates the inflammation response of damaged tissues, causing white blood cells to destroy damaged cells that may otherwise still be viable. Treatment Early treatment is essential to keep the affected limb viable. The treatment options include injection of an anticoagulant, thrombolysis, embolectomy, surgical revascularisation, or partial amputation. Anticoagulant therapy is initiated to prevent further enlargement of the thrombus. Continuous IV unfractionated heparin has been the traditional agent of choice.\nIf the condition of the ischemic limb is", "-29.573381821101066" ], [ "arteries or veins of the new pancreas (thrombosis), inflammation of the pancreas (pancreatitis), infection, bleeding and rejection. Rejection may occur immediately or at any time during the patient's life. This is because the transplanted pancreas comes from another organism, thus the recipient's immune system will consider it as an aggression and try to combat it. Organ rejection is a serious condition and ought to be treated immediately. In order to prevent it, patients must take a regimen of immunosuppressive drugs. Drugs are taken in combination consisting normally of ciclosporin, azathioprine and corticosteroids. But as episodes of rejection may reoccur throughout", "-29.56930556608131" ], [ "a blood-like liquid flowed from his body. Experts and doctors were unable to give medical explanations for the incorruptibility and flexibility.\" In the years 1950 and 1952, his tomb was opened and his body supposedly still had the appearance of a living one. The official site mentions: In this century his grave has been opened four times, the last time being in 1955, and each time \"it has been noticed that his bleeding body still has its flexibility as if it were alive\"; no mentioning of later openings . The Catholic Tradition website says: Father Joseph Mahfouz, the postulator of", "-29.560385515578673" ], [ "hepatic artery, while the normal cells of the liver get about 70-80 percent of their nutrients and 50% their oxygen supply from the portal vein, and thus can survive with the hepatic artery effectively blocked. Once the catheter is carefully placed in the artery or in a selected branch, the blood flow can be occluded by injecting various items, such as plastic particles, glue, metal coils, foam, or by deploying a balloon. Additional considerations and procedural details have been reviewed. Related methods In hepatic artery chemotherapy (HAC), chemotherapy agents are given into the hepatic artery, often by steady infusion over", "-29.559804270713357" ], [ "not sufficient to sustain adequate perfusion. Thus it cannot be safely ligated in a living person, and obstruction of the celiac artery will lead to necrosis of the structures it supplies. Drainage The celiac artery is the only major artery that nourishes the abdominal digestive organs that does not have a similarly named vein.\nMost blood returning from the digestive organs (including from the area of distribution of the celiac artery) is diverted to the liver via the portal venous system for further processing and detoxification in the liver before returning to the systemic circulation via the hepatic veins.\nIn contrast to", "-29.55424561604741" ], [ "Complete tendon tear requiring surgical repair\nIt begins as inflammation in the patellar tendon where it attaches to the patella and may progress by tearing or degenerating the tendon. People present with an ache over the patella tendon. Most people are between 10 and 16 years old. Magnetic resonance imaging can reveal edema (increased T2 signal intensity) in the proximal aspect of the patellar tendon. Causes It is an overuse injury from repetitive overloading of the extensor mechanism of the knee. The microtears exceed the body's healing mechanism unless the activity is stopped.\nAmong the risk factors for patellar tendonitis are", "-29.53661988345266" ], [ "that the umbilical vein carries blood towards the fetus's heart, while the umbilical arteries carry blood away.\nThe blood flow through the umbilical cord is approximately 35 ml / min at 20 weeks, and 240 ml / min at 40 weeks of gestation. Adapted to the weight of the fetus, this corresponds to 115 ml / min / kg at 20 weeks and 64 ml / min / kg at 40 weeks. Connection to fetal circulatory system The umbilical cord enters the fetus via the abdomen, at the point which (after separation) will become the umbilicus (or navel). Within the fetus,", "-29.497276502319437" ], [ "cord blood, or the circulating blood (peripheral blood stem cells (PBSCs)). Hematopoietic cells are a type of adult (i.e., non-embryonic) stem cell that can multiply and differentiate into the three types of blood cells: red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets. Collecting hematopoietic cells Bone marrow and PBSCs come from living adult donors. Bone marrow is extracted from the donor's pelvic bones while the donor is under general or local anesthesia. PBSCs are collected from the donor's blood after five or six days of taking a drug that causes hematopoietic cells in the bone marrow to move into the", "-29.483445017249323" ], [ "primum against the septum secundum, functionally closing the foramen ovale. In time the septa eventually fuse, leaving a remnant of the foramen ovale, the fossa ovalis. Function A fetus receives oxygen not from its lungs, but from the mother's oxygen-rich blood via the placenta. Oxygenated blood from the placenta travels through the umbilical cord to the right atrium of the fetal heart. As the fetal lungs are non-functional at this time, the blood bypasses them through two cardiac shunts. The first is the foramen ovale which shunts blood from the right atrium to the left atrium. The second is the", "-29.442846134490537" ], [ "The procedure In the original DKS procedure, surgeons separated the main pulmonary artery (MPA) just below the point where it divides into the right and left pulmonary arteries. The end of the MPA was then joined to the side of the ascending aorta, allowing blood from the left heart to communicate directly with the aorta. The procedure was later accomplished via a \"double-barrel\" technique that resulted in a new aorta with two valves. Later, a modified DKS was reported in which an aortic flap technique was utilized.", "-29.413055176909438" ], [ "Synovial sac The synovial sac is one of the seven parts of a joint located in the body, along with muscle, tendon, ligament, bone, articular cartilage and bursa. The synovial sac is a thin tissue that lines the joint. It is filled with a fluid that works like oil in a car, lubricating the joint and making it move easily. If this sac is ruptured or destroyed from continuous use or being overweight over a long period of time, it may cause the bones to become stiff and can cause arthritis.", "-29.402950551942922" ], [ "is determined on the reconstructive needs. Transfer of the tissue to the head and neck allows surgeons to rebuild the patient's jaw, optimize tongue function, and reconstruct the throat. When the pieces of tissue are moved, they require their own blood supply for a chance of survival in their new location. After the surgery is completed, the blood vessels that feed the tissue transplant are reconnected to new blood vessels in the neck. These blood vessels are typically no more than 1 to 3 millimeters in diameter which means these connections need to be made with a microscope which is", "-29.38386027244269" ], [ "the fetus, the spinal cord extends the full length of the spine and regresses as the body grows. Tumours Spinal tumours can occur in the spinal cord and these can be either inside (intradural) or outside (extradural) the dura mater.", "-29.380102542694658" ], [ "other areas, including the pelvis, urethra, bladder, and in the limbs. Amputation of extremities may be necessary if the disease renders the extremity non-functional.", "-29.369458742206916" ], [ "of the muscle, very close to the sacrum. As the arteries and the veins enter the mass of the gluteal muscle, they divide into narrower blood-vessel ramifications (configured like the horizontal branches of a tree), most of which travel parallel to the muscle fibres.\nIn surgical and body contouring praxis, the plastic surgeon effects the implant-pocket undermining of the gluteus maximus muscle by carefully separating the muscle fibres to avoid severing the pertinent blood vessels, which would interfere with the blood irrigation of the muscle tissue. Therefore, to create an implant-pocket, either for a gluteal prosthesis or for lipoinjection, a low-angle", "-29.356069168890826" ], [ "allows the blood, a mixture of oxygenated and deoxygenated, to be pumped to the body via the morphologic right ventricle, through the pulmonary valve.", "-29.346308426189353" ] ]

[ "If you have a large venue, just one audio source (amp) isn't going to fill up the whole room, but you'll also probably have a large speaker system that's built specifically for filling the room with sound. So you mic the amp and send the sound out through those speakers. The reason you mic it instead of going direct out is because using the mic will give the the natural tone of the amp which will generally sound better than the raw audio signal. Also it allows a sound tech to mix levels on his own without having to constantly tell you in your monitors to turn up or turn down slightly", "It doesn't cause feedback because the mic is connected to a separate speaker, it doesn't feed back into the amp. The reason that they do it that way is that amps produce different tones depending on what volume/gain they're set to. If you like the guitar tone that comes out when your amp is set to 5, you don't want to turn it up to 10 just so that the audience can hear you. It's better to mic up the amp and then play it through a speaker.", "Two things: 1. Feedback only occurs when the microphone is feeding the amplifier it is in front of. A microphone in front of an amplifier that is carrying a different audio signal won't feedback just because of its placement. 2. In a guitar amp the speakers themselves can be an important part of the overall tone of the amplifier, so its important to get that included in the tone you send through the PA system.", "A lot of good answers here. Just going to add that this also allows bands to carry around smaller amps. Before venues had PA systems people like hendrix had to travel with 3 full stacks of amps. This was so costly to transport that he had 2 sets one in America one in Europe. Now guitarists can just have one small amp and mic it at the venue." ]

[ [ "aimed at the audience, and monitor speaker cabinets aimed back at the performers so they can hear their vocals and instruments. In many cases, front of house speakers are elevated, either by mounting them on poles or by \"flying\" them from anchors in the ceiling. The Front of House speakers are elevated to prevent the sound from being absorbed by the first few rows of audience members. The subwoofers do not need to be elevated, because deep bass is omnidirectional. In the smallest coffeehouses and bars, the audio mixer may be onstage so that the performers can mix their own", "-33.26454313145223" ], [ "vocal mic and looking at the band and calling for an impromptu repetition of the chorus) or sounds from the audience. This issue can be rectified by placing microphones in front of the stage so that the band can hear the audience. Bass shakers Drummers typically use a monitor speaker that is capable of loud bass reproduction, so that they can monitor their bass drum. Since the drums are already very loud, having a 15\" or even 18\" subwoofer producing a high sound pressure level can raise the overall stage volumes to uncomfortable levels for the drummer. Since much very", "-32.85692109667434" ], [ "a drum machine into the amp, also for practice purposes. Some practice amps have a level control knob for the line-in input. Practice amps often have a headphone jack, with a feature that turns off the power amplifier when headphones are connected. This feature enables bassists to practice silently at night, to avoid disturbing others in adjoining rooms or apartments. Higher-priced practice amps aimed at pro bassists may have a DI out jack, so that the amp's preamplifier signal can be connected directly to a mixing board for a live show's sound reinforcement system or for a sound recording session.", "-32.60515730776024" ], [ "amps, connecting headphones to a headphone jack automatically turns off the main loudspeaker). Multi-instrumentalists and bassist-singers can consider a keyboard amplifier, a small PA system, or some models of acoustic instrument amplifiers which include bass as one of the instruments which can be used; all of these options have full-range speakers that can handle the bass range.\nWhile electric bass players have used regular guitar amplifiers in large concerts since the 1960s, this is usually just for the higher register; a bass amp is still typically used for the low register, because regular guitar amps are only designed to go down", "-32.53650369945717" ], [ "in small practice amps makes these models different from most bass combo amps and speaker cabs, which are closed-back (often with bass reflex ports or vents, or less commonly, with passive radiator speakers, both of which are designed to boost the low-frequency response). Some buskers playing on the street for tips may use battery-powered practice amps, a feature available on some models.\nPractice amps often have an auxiliary line-in jack, so that the bassist can plug in a recorded music signal (often via an 1/8\" jack), to practice along with a recording. The line-in jack can also be used to plug", "-32.3027542386626" ], [ "powerful bass amplifiers means that drums are usually miked. In \"miking\" a drum kit in metal, dynamic microphones, which can handle high sound-pressure levels, are usually used to close-mic drums, which is the predominant way to mic drums for live shows. Condenser microphones are used for overheads and room mics, an approach which is more common with sound recording applications. Close miking of drums may be done using stands or by mounting the microphones on the rims of the drums, or even using microphones built into the drum itself, which eliminates the need for stands for these microphones, reducing", "-32.27807568764547" ], [ "and stand. The microphones are pulled back, switched on, and released over the speaker, and gravity causes them to swing back and forth as pendulums. As the microphone nears the speaker, a feedback tone is created. Different lengths of cable will swing at different speeds, creating an overlapping series of feedback squeals. The music created is thus the result of the process of the swinging microphones.\n\"The piece is ended sometime shortly after all mikes have come to rest and are feeding back a continuous tone by performers pulling the power cords of the amplifiers\". \"If it's done right, it's", "-32.23533338212485" ], [ "instrumentalists to improve their playing. With a good onstage monitoring system, even if there is a huge stage (e.g., at a stadium rock concert), and the musicians are far apart, the keyboardist can have a monitor speaker which reproduces the bass, rhythm guitar and drums, which helps them to play more in rhythm with the other band members. \nFrom the late 1960s to the 1980s, most monitor speaker cabinets used an external power amplifier. In the 1990s and 2000s, clubs increasingly used powered monitors, which contain an integrated power amplifier. Most monitor speakers include an L pad, a potentiometer (knob)", "-32.049968891814046" ], [ "themselves singing, so during the 1968 American tour he began placing a speaker cabinet on its side in front of the band. However, the band preferred stage side monitors for a long period, so he helped to develop these with the WEM company, even loaning the bands stage PA to other acts at both the 1969 and 1970 Isle Of Wight Festival. Pridden then requested a slanted speaker cabinet that sat on the floor and tilted upwards toward the performer. Since that time, onstage \"wedge\" monitors have become standard equipment at virtually every live performance of any scale worldwide.\nPridden has", "-32.01647770541905" ], [ "routed to the PA system or sound reinforcement system, the combination of power amplifiers and speaker enclosures which outputs the concert sounds for the audience. Pit orchestra A pit orchestra cannot be seen by all audience members. However, audience members in higher seats can see the pit musicians; as such, a typical pit orchestra in front of a stage cannot truly be considered to be hidden from the audiences' view. In some venues, there is no orchestra out in front of the stage; in this case, the pit orchestra may play in a room near the stage or backstage, watching", "-31.9797330486345" ], [ "faced inherent problems. They were forced to compete with louder horn instruments (and later amplified electric guitars), making bass parts difficult to hear. The upright bass is difficult to amplify in loud concert venue settings, because it can be prone to feedback howls. As well, the upright bass is large and awkward to transport, which also created transportation problems for touring bands. In some groups, the slap bass was utilized as band percussion in lieu of a drummer; such was the case with Bill Haley & His Saddlemen (the forerunner group to the Comets), which did not use drummers on", "-31.854767956094292" ], [ "than only use the guitar amp's pre-amp out signal. A sound engineer or music producer may send the DI out signal from the pickups to a separate track at the same time, so they can re-amp the signal later. In contrast, it is fairly common to use a DI box with electric bass.\nDistortion sound or \"texture\" from guitar amplifiers is further shaped or processed through the frequency response and distortion factors in the microphones (their response, placement, and multi-microphone comb filtering effects), microphone preamps, mixer channel equalization, and compression. Additionally, the basic sound produced by the guitar amplifier", "-31.538960184856933" ], [ "more audio sources (typically balanced audio sources) at the same time to monitor sounds during a recording session, either singing or playing from the \"live room\" or recorded tracks. Headphone amps enable singers and musicians to be able to hear other musicians who are playing in isolation booths. They also enable audio engineers and record producers to monitor a live performance or live tracking.\nHeadphone amps with sub-mixing capabilities allow the listener to adjust, mix and monitor audio signals coming from multiple sources at the same time. This kind of headphone amp is often utilized during recording sessions to sub-mix", "-31.51988100998824" ], [ "bands and singers often use small \"in ear\"-style headphone monitors rather than onstage monitor speakers. History In the early 1960s, many pop and rock concerts were performed without monitor speakers. In the early 1960s, PA systems were typically low-powered units which could only be used for the vocals. The PA systems during this era were not used to amplify the electric instruments on stage; each performer was expected to bring a powerful amplifier and speaker system to make their electric guitar, electric bass, Hammond organ or electric piano loud enough to hear onstage and to fill the venue with sound.", "-31.44757970128694" ], [ "the keyboard amp up to the PA system, and just use the sound of the keyboard amp to provide the keyboard sound for the venue. At most mid-sized venues and all large venues, such as stadiums, the signal from the keyboard amp's pre-amp out jack, DI out jack and/or the microphoned sound from the speaker and horn are fed to the mixing board and then amplified with the PA system or sound reinforcement system. In cases where a keyboardist has a rotating Leslie speaker, microphones are always used to pick up the sound, rather than taking an electronic signal from", "-31.317661755067093" ], [ "ensure that the sound is dispersed to the whole audience; if a combo keyboard amp is used as a small PA, the keyboard amp is typically placed on the floor or raised a bit by placing it on a table. In this scenario, the sound produced by the keyboard amp would be absorbed by the first several rows of audience members, and people in the back of the venue might not be able to hear the performance. Second, most small, low-wattage keyboard amps do not produce enough volume to clearly project the lead vocals into the venue so that they", "-31.274610565870717" ], [ "bass guitar was run through two amplifiers, one slightly dirtier than the other. The drums were tuned as low as possible and recorded from a distance to give a loud sound with no reverb or triggers.", "-31.244669014966348" ], [ "microphone. Direct boxes are used more often with electric bass than with electric guitar, because the tone of a guitar amplifier and speaker is often considered to be a key element of an electric guitarist's tone. While DI boxes are used to route an electric bass signal to a mixing board, the audio engineer also often uses a mic set up in front of the bassist's speaker enclosure, to capture the bass player's preamped, equalized signal from the speaker cabinet. The engineer can then use either the DI out signal or the miked cabinet in the live or recording mix,", "-31.21791704649877" ], [ "have a very small, low-powered PA system which is used mainly for vocals. Some small venues do not have monitor speakers, or they have only one, in front of the lead vocalist. Bass players who do not have a combo amp who are laying down tracks in the recording studio can plug into a DI unit (any professional recording studio will have one), which is connected to the audio console; the audio engineer can provide the bassist with the sound of their instrument through headphones.", "-31.166932760886993" ], [ "kit to make it sound less \"loud and bright\". To reduce the cymbal bleed, the microphones were rearranged and the crash cymbal was traded for a \"shorter-decay Zildjian cymbal with holes drilled in it\". A room next to the study was turned into an isolation booth to record the vocals. For the recording itself a makeshift control room was built inside a tent on the backyard, and a system of two cameras and a television provided the communication between the garage and the control room. The equipment was the same the band employed to record the albums There Is Nothing", "-31.142755869906978" ], [ "is on. More expensive amps may also have LEDs to indicate when the preamp has a signal present from the instrument (helpful for troubleshooting during set-up, because if the amp is not producing any bass sound even when the bassist is playing, and the \"signal present\" light is illuminated, this indicates that a signal is reaching the amp); when a limiter or similar speaker protection feature is activated (e.g., Peavey's DDT system); when clipping is occurring; or when the amp is in standby mode. Amps with a built-in tuner typically have several LEDs to indicate when the note being", "-31.126733381539225" ], [ "an amp may have other inputs and outputs. These can include an auxiliary input jack (sometimes with its own level control, for a drum machine), \"send\" and \"return\" jacks to create an effects loop, a “line out” jack and an extension speaker jack. Practice amps sometimes have a 1/4\" headphone jack, or stereo RCA or mini jacks for connecting a CD player, portable media player or other sound source. Some guitar amps have an XLR input so that a microphone can be plugged in for singing. Guitar amps that include a mic input are in effect small, portable PA systems.", "-31.053604244195526" ], [ "to communicate with the offstage performers. For offstage singers, a vocal booth may be set up to exclude outside sounds. Rationale There are many reasons that established bands and groups use offstage musicians and singers for concerts and concert tours. When heavy metal band KISS hired an offstage keyboardist, it was to fill in the band's sound during the live concerts with backing chords and deep bass notes. However, one of the band members felt that only guitarists should be seen on stage, due to the group's reputation as a guitar-based heavy metal band. In other cases, a group has", "-31.022201847065162" ], [ "of the microphones away from the instruments. The acoustic bass microphone was eight feet from the bass, and set down and away so it could not be seen; the same approach was taken for the acoustic guitar. For the electric guitar and pedal steel, Schmitt placed the microphones close to the amplifiers, which were set off to the side.\nAccording to Schmitt, recording sessions typically were held from 3:00 pm to 6:00 pm, and then after a two-hour break, an evening session was held from 8:00 pm to around 10:30 pm. They worked Monday through Friday with weekends off. Dylan prepared", "-30.904083484700095" ], [ "of concert and world percussion instruments. Instruments may be mechanically or electronically amplified. Some competitive circuits also allow electronic instruments such as synthesizers and bass guitars, which are typically part of the front ensemble. This wide selection of instruments allows for great timbre variety. Most front ensembles are centered in front of the front sideline of an American football field. However, for aesthetic purposes, some bands choose to put the front ensemble elsewhere on the field to better to suit the show's theme.\nIn indoor drumline competitions, however, various groups may not necessarily place the front ensemble at", "-30.8957763357148" ], [ "Ampeg amplifiers were widely used by electric bass guitarists in the 1950s and 1960s.\nLeo Fender resurrected the solid-body \"bass guitar\" in 1950 with the Fender Precision bass. Unlike the upright bass, a solid-body electric bass does not produce acoustic sound from a hollow body; while an upright bass player often benefits from using a bass amp, a bass amp is a necessity for an electric bass player.\nBy the late 1960s, as electric guitarists in rock bands began using powerful amplifiers to play large venues, bassists needed to keep up. The Acoustic 360 was a \"200-watt, solid state head designed to", "-30.82032151769272" ], [ "Since many early 1960s PA systems did not have monitors, singers could only hear their vocals by listening to the reflected sound from the audience-facing \"front of house\" speakers after it bounced back from the rear wall of the venue. This was not an effective way to hear one's vocals, though, because the sound you hear bouncing back from the rear wall of the venue is late. Because singers could not hear their vocals, it made it hard to sing in rhythm with the band and in tune.\nAt this time, many professional live sound engineers were wrestling with the problem", "-30.80356318550912" ], [ "bass side.\nB&G Guitars, a private build guitar company from Tel Aviv, Israel, uses their signature \"backwards\" sound holes on their guitars.\nHoles not positioned on the top of an acoustic guitar are called soundports. They are usually supplementary to a main soundhole, and are located on an instrument's side facing upward in playing position, allowing players to monitor their own sound.", "-30.784400609392833" ], [ "promoting with the concert tour used extensive overdubs and extra musicians, playing the songs with just a trio or quartet might sound thin compared with the album. For example, with a power trio, the electric guitar player can record several layers of guitar: riffs, chords, fills and guitar solos, giving the impression (on the album) that several guitar players are performing. If this same power trio were to play live without offstage musicians, the band's sound would not be able to match the instrumentation of the album. As such, the band may hire an offstage rhythm guitarist. \nFor bands that", "-30.745131747327832" ], [ "band played the song \"Louie Louie.\" The university indicated that the sway or ripple was safe. To this day, the east upper deck still sways when fans jump up and down. In addition, several parts of the stadium have been known to vibrate due to the decibel levels generated during a typical game. Pro Football On August 30, 1990, the Chicago Bears beat the Buffalo Bills 35–7 in an NFL preseason game.\nIn 1995, the Carolina Panthers of the NFL proposed Williams–Brice Stadium as their original home while their permanent stadium was under construction in Charlotte, North Carolina. However, athletic director", "-30.69938398916338" ], [ "through the monitors, including vocals and instruments.\nDrummers generally want a blend of all of the onstage instruments and vocals in their monitor mix, with extra volume provided for bass drum, electric bass and guitar. Guitar players typically want to hear the bass drum, other guitars (e.g., rhythm guitar) and the vocals. Bass players typically ask for a good volume of bass drum along with the guitars. Vocalists typically want to hear their own vocals. Vocalists may request other instruments in their monitor mix, as well. Broadcast The broadcast mixer is responsible for audio delivered for radio or television broadcast. Broadcast", "-30.64724060415938" ], [ "playback passes, including looping, enables trying out many combinations of settings quickly, including microphone techniques. When guitar amp or amp simulator designers try various circuit component values or settings, they can use the dry tracks as prepared, always-available input test signals, and consistent reference signals.\nAnother advantage of re-amping is that it enables producers and band members to have more options for remixing and redoing a recording a long time after the original recording. If the original recording of a song with electric guitar is done in 1985, and the electric guitarist's sound was only recorded with a mic in front", "-30.643223319842946" ], [ "or rectangle shaped. Some small- to mid-sized combo amp cabinets have a wedge shape, like a keyboard amp or a stage monitor speaker cabinet. The wedge shape, also called a \"rock back\" feature, enables a bassist to point their speakers up towards themselves, to make it easier to hear their sound. Controls There are two main types of controls on bass amps: switches and rotary knobs. The simplest, least expensive practice amps and combo amps may only have a few switches and knobs, such as an \"on/off\" switch, a volume knob, and a bass and treble control knob. Mid-priced models", "-30.632072180193063" ], [ "drum machine, keyboard bass or synthesizer. Some bass amps also have an external speaker out jack. \nOn some amps with a number of input and output jacks, the jacks may be consolidated in a patch bay. Some amps have an input jack for a foot-operated switch which can be used to turn on an effect or switch to a solo channel. Some amplifiers have a \"tuner out\" jack, for sending the instrument signal to an external electronic tuner. \nBass speaker cabinets often have two 1/4\" jacks. These are provided so that one speaker cable can be plugged into the first", "-30.599983822456124" ], [ "to the foldback speakers, because the performers may also need to hear a mix without electronic effects such as echo and reverb (this is called a \"dry mix\") to stay in time and in tune with each other. In situations with poor or absent foldback mixes, vocalists may end up singing off-tune or out of time with the band.\nFor live sound reproduction during popular music concerts in mid- to large-size venues, there are typically two complete loudspeaker systems and PA systems (also called sound reinforcement systems): the \"main\" or \"front of house\" system and the \"monitor\" system. Each system consists", "-30.597848780576896" ], [ "DI out-equipped units effectively turn the practice amp into a preamplifier unit.\nA device similar in function to a practice amp is a headphone amp. It amplifies the signal from an electric bass so that a bassist can hear the instrument with headphones. Headphone amps can be used for pre-show warm-up or silent practice in a hotel room or apartment where the use of a bass amp and speaker could create a noise disturbance. Combo amps For rehearsals, studio recording sessions, or small club performances, electric and upright bass players typically use a \"combo\" amplifier, which combines a preamplifier, tone controls,", "-30.588579324608872" ], [ "only the vocals live to simplify the process of mixing the performance, because it means that the sound engineers do not have to set up microphones for different backing bands.\nBacking tracks can also be bought online through a backing track supplier and used for home practice or use in live shows. Equipment Prior to the advent of computers, backing tracks were generally employed through the use of audio tape synced with the live performance. In the 1980s, Timbuk 3 was an early band which openly used backing tracks in live performances. The band openly displayed their \"boom-box\" as the third", "-30.53985641052168" ], [ "directors and members of the band) during pregame, a style that requires the band members to lift their legs to mid-calf as they march.\nThe band begins the performance in the south end zone of the stadium and is called to attention by the drum major right before he marches out across the end zone in front of the band. Stopping at the goal line, the drum major wields his mace and uses his whistle to signal the band to take the field. The band marches out of the end zone to the beat of a single bass drum", "-30.515574466614225" ], [ "Backline (stage) History In rock music's early days in the early 1960s, PA systems were not very loud or powerful. As a result, 1960s rock bands typically used the PA system just for the vocals, even if they were playing at a large venue. As a result, the rhythm section musicians playing electric guitar, electric bass and keyboards were expected to produce enough volume to fill the venue using their own instrument amplifiers. To achieve venue-filling sound with their instruments, bands from the 1960s typically used large, powerful guitar \"stacks\" and big speaker enclosures. A standard cabinet used by bassists", "-30.48584365861643" ], [ "fans were located in a pit inside the stage area dubbed the \"Snakepit\" by the band.\nAt different points in the show, individual solo slots were offered up, typically a bass solo, a guitar solo, then later a drum solo. The drum slot was often the most popular, with James Hetfield often taking a seat behind the second kit, dueling with Ulrich. Drum parts from other bands such as Slayer might be quoted, or Kirk Hammett might appear to play a bit of \"Smoke on the Water\" along with the drums. The bass solos often included segments with the guitars.", "-30.454685704260555" ], [ "amps may be easier to transport and set up than using separate amplifier and speaker units, and as such, they are a popular choice for many bass players. Bass players in quieter, more acoustic genres (e.g., jazz quartets which play in a wine bar or a folk music group which plays in a coffeehouse) may be able to use smaller, more modestly powered combo amps. Bassists who play in genres more associated with a high stage volume (e.g., hard rock or electric blues) may tend to use, larger, more powerful (in wattage) combo amps. While a gigging musician will typically", "-30.405154872061757" ], [ "rotating Leslie speaker cabinet to create unusual sounds while the guitarist is performing.\nOnce the guitars have been tuned with an electronic tuner and strummed to ensure that they are in tune, the guitar tech usually sets up the different guitars on guitar racks, ensures that the leather or nylon straps are properly connected, and that the patch cords are plugged in properly. During the show, the guitar tech hands instruments to the guitarist or guitarists according to the types of guitar that are required in the songs that they are playing. For example, a hard rock guitarist may use a", "-30.343346456526206" ], [ "pair separately reviewed the audio from copies of Garcia's work tapes and selected concert performances for a double-live album.\nBecause the sound system was stacked behind the band, restricted-frequency, differential microphones were used in pairs, to prevent bleed and feedback loops. One was wired out-of-phase in a phase-cancellation scheme that required the singers to position very close to the microphones. This, along with the lack of a true sound/mixing board created sonic anomalies when it came time to mix the tapes. Additionally, the drum tracks suffered from distortion and some vocals had been lost – particularly those by backing vocalist Donna Godchaux –", "-30.339316894533113" ], [ "to about 80 Hz. One of the reasons bassists split their signal into a bass amp and an electric guitar amp is because this arrangement enables them to overdrive the higher-register sound from the electric guitar amp, while retaining the deep bass tone from the bass amp. Naturally-produced overdrive on bass obtained by cranking a tube amplifier or solid-state preamplifier typically results in a loss of bass tone, because when pushed into overdrive, a note goes to the upper octave second harmonic.\nBass players who do not have a combo amp who are playing live shows can connect their bass to a", "-30.26908318007918" ], [ "a separate monitor mix for separate monitors. For example, the lead singer can ask to hear mostly their voice in the monitor in front of them and the guitarist can ask to hear mostly the bassist and drummer in their monitor. Role Without a foldback system, the sound that on-stage performers would hear from front of house would be the reverberated reflections bouncing from the rear wall of the venue. The naturally reflected sound is delayed and distorted, which could, for example, cause the singer to sing out of time with the band. A separate mixed signal is often routed", "-30.13834900348138" ], [ "band track guitars before bass guitars, which is backwards from conventional recording methods. Vocalist Cory Brandan stated that this switch was, \"a great idea because we changed the chords and progressions on a lot of songs throughout recording, so we were able to have the bass follow the guitars and be a part of the rhythm section more accurately.\" Norma Jean welcomed Griffith's input on the album. During recording, he would occasionally record his own vocal tracks for songs to see how the band liked his ideas. Griffith contributed backing vocals to a number of songs, and also played piano.", "-30.13813132022551" ], [ "of a typical concert band, but modified in several ways to support outdoor performance. Piccolos are used instead of flutes. Mellophones replace the [horns]. A larger-than-usual section of metal sousaphones adds a deeper low brass sound, not to mention visual interest. The band has a higher-than-usual proportion of low- and mid-range brass instruments (baritone, trombone, sousaphone, and mellophone) and the complete woodwind section that allows the band to play traditional concert band repertoire (unlike all-brass marching bands). An auxiliary color guard and female dance squad (dubbed the \"Illinettes\") contribute another visual element to the band's performances. Style The band performs", "-30.09455826359317" ], [ "Multi-amp guitar rigs Use of Effects with Multiple Amplifiers The use of effects with multiple guitar amps is a common way to achieve a \"bigger-sounding\" tone. One of the most common and easiest ways to achieve this is through the use of a stereo delay unit. The guitar's signal enters the delay unit and gets split into two signals. One signal will usually be kept dry and go to one amplifier while the other signal will be delayed be a specific amount of time depending on the tempo of the song and go to the other amplifier. ", "-30.0797087502051" ], [ "is necessary for people at the back. U2 production manager, Willie Williams, recalls the debate within the band about the use of screens and whether they would divide the audience's attention between the stage and the screen. A video screen was installed behind the lighting tower at the 20 September show at the RFK Stadium in Washington, D.C. so the back half of the stadium could better see the band, and screens were used at most stadium shows for the rest of the tour.\nThe Joshua Tree Tour sold out stadiums around the world, the first time the band had consistently", "-30.077265704070214" ], [ "walk into the band, as the front lines of the formation part, to bring the percussion section forward. This always causes band fans to cheer in anticipation.", "-30.0763788348695" ], [ "audio consoles may provide the capabilities to make multiple monitor mixes (e.g., one mix for the lead singer, a second mix for the backing vocalist, and a third for the rhythm section musicians). In a noisy club with high-volume rock music groups, monitor engineers may be asked for just the vocals in the monitors. This is because in a rock band, the guitarist, bassist and keyboardist typically have their own large amplifiers and speakers, and rock drums are loud enough to be heard acoustically. In large venues, such as outdoor festivals, bands may request a mix of the full band", "-30.062561240571085" ], [ "drums and amplified electric guitar in a home studio is challenging, because they are usually the loudest instruments. Conventional drums require sound isolation in this scenario, unlike electronic or sampled drums. Getting an authentic electric guitar amp sound including power-tube distortion requires a power attenuator (either power-soak or power-supply based) or an isolation box, or booth. A convenient compromise is amp simulation, whether a modelling amp, preamp/processor, or software-based guitar amp simulator. Sometimes, musicians replace loud, inconvenient instruments such as drums, with keyboards, which today often provide somewhat realistic sampling. The capability of digital recording introduced by the Alesis ADAT", "-30.057896118310964" ], [ "only bring one combo amp to a show or recording session, some bassists in major touring bands have two or more combo amps on stage, with an \"A/B\" switching pedal used to select different amplifiers. In this way, a bassist could have a vintage tube combo amp and a modern solid state amp, and then switch between them to select a different tone for different songs. Bass stacks For larger venues such as stadiums and outdoor music festivals, or for music genres that use bass instruments with an extended lower range and high stage volumes (e.g., heavy metal music, grunge,", "-30.051197740722728" ], [ "including low-frequency speaker cabinets called subwoofers, full-range speaker cabinets, and high-range horns. A coffeehouse or small bar where singers perform while accompanying themselves on acoustic guitar may have a relatively small, low-powered PA system for the \"mains\", such as a pair of two 200 watt powered speakers. A large club may use several power amplifiers to provide 1000 to 2000 watts of power to the \"main\" speakers. An outdoor rock concert may use large racks of a number of power amplifiers to provide 10,000 or more watts. \nThe \"monitor\" system reproduces the sounds of the performance and directs them towards", "-30.049451248671176" ], [ "without having the possibility of subsequent overdubbing on which to fall back. This was a change for U2, who previously recorded each instrument separately and then layered them into the mix. To support his approach of having all the band members recording in a room together, Lanois eschewed having them wear headphones in favour of using monitor speakers due to their power; Mullen and bassist Adam Clayton used two each. To aid in sound isolation, gobos were built in the drawing room, although the production staff still faced issues with audio spill from the monitor speakers. Lanois said that due", "-29.96118108626638" ], [ "professional bands from styles as varied as country and heavy metal use electronic tuners to ensure that the guitars and electric bass are correctly tuned. In popular music genres such as rock music, there is a great deal of stage volume due to the use of drums and guitar amplifiers, so it can be difficult to tune \"by ear\". Electronic tuners are helpful aids at jam sessions where a number of players are sharing the stage, because it helps all of the players to have their instruments tuned to the same pitch, even if they have come to the session", "-29.932417386576162" ], [ "power amplifiers used in a sound reinforcement setting depends on the size of the venue. A small coffeehouse may have a single power amp driving two PA speakers. A nightclub may have several power amps for the main speakers, one or more power amps for the monitor speakers (pointing towards the band) and an additional power amp for the subwoofer. A stadium concert may have a large number of power amps mounted in racks. Most consumer electronics sound products, such as TVs, boom boxes, home cinema sound systems, Casio and Yamaha electronic keyboards, \"combo\" guitar amps and car stereos have", "-29.90683323725989" ], [ "all of the sound reaching the audience in large venues comes from the PA system or sound reinforcement system, the huge speaker systems pointed at the audience. As well, in the 2010s on-stage instrument amplifiers are more likely to be kept at a low volume, because when band members have their onstage amps \"cranked\" to high volume levels on stage, this makes it harder for the audio engineer to control the sound mix and blend. For example, if a heavy metal bassist had two 8x10\" cabinets and several 1x18\" subwoofer cabinets and several thousand watts of bass amplifier heads, and", "-29.873326311886558" ], [ "connection between one of the amplifiers and that amplifiers speaker. However, there are units such as the radial phazer that can provide a more exact alignment of phase. Another common problem with using multiple guitar amplifiers is that it can cause ground loops. Ground loops happen when multiple amplifiers are running off of the same AC power source. Signal gets from one amplifier to the other through the ground connection and causes a loud hum. The most simple way around this is to simply use a three-prong to two-prong adapter on one of the amplifiers.", "-29.87006597340337" ], [ "Microphone practice Multi-track recording Often each instrument or vocalist is miked separately, with one or more microphones recording to separate channels (tracks). At a later stage, the channels are combined ('mixed-down') to two channels for stereo or more for surround sound. The artists need not perform in the same place at the same time, and individual tracks (or sections of tracks) can be re-recorded to correct errors. Generally effects such as reverberation are added to each recorded channel, and different levels sent to left and right final channels to position the artist in the stereo sound-stage. Microphones may also be", "-29.858334760078037" ], [ "stand in the front, toward the sides of the stage. Keenan often faces the backdrop or the sides of the stage rather than the audience. No followspots or live cameras are used; instead, the band employs extensive backlighting to direct the focus away from the band members and toward large screens in the back and the crowd. Breckinridge Haggerty, the band's live video designer, says that the resulting dark spaces on stage \"are mostly for Maynard\". He explains, \"[a] lot of the songs are a personal journey for him and he has a hard time with the glare of the", "-29.84995725184399" ], [ "word via microphone or a recording on a sampler is used on occasion as well. Unconventional instruments such as trash cans, barrels, pipes, brooms, and other things that make percussive sounds are sometimes used. Concert Concert ensembles perform using only pit instruments, removing the marching element from the show. A drumset is often incorporated into the pit to make up for the lack of battery instruments. These indoor groups have come under hard fire in the last couple of years as to whether they should stay in the WGI circuit. In The Netherlands not only Concert groups", "-29.84083216925228" ], [ "that open back designs are not used with bass amp cabs is that open back designs make it hard to reproduce low-frequency sounds, which are crucial for bass cabinets. On electric guitar amp cabs, the reduction of some very low-frequency sounds may be desirable, as it makes the cabinet less \"boomy\"; however, for a bass cabinet, this loss of bass frequencies is generally seen as undesirable. Heads Separate bass amplifiers which do not contain speakers, often called \"heads\" or \"amp heads\", are usually integrated units, with a preamplifier, equalizer (bass and treble controls) and a power amplifier combined in a", "-29.83797025934473" ], [ "to back away from the microphones.\nMicrophones began to be placed closer to the instruments in order to produce a fuller sound. Ringo's drums had a large sweater stuffed in the bass drum to 'deaden' the sound while the bass drum microphone was positioned very close which resulted in the drum being more prominent in the mix. \"Eleanor Rigby\" features just McCartney and a double string quartet that has the instruments miked so close to the string that 'the musicians were in horror'. In \"Got to Get You into My Life\", the brass were miked in the bells of their instruments", "-29.827921039049215" ], [ "concert may use a large number of monitor wedges, big racks of power amplifiers with thousands of watts of power, and a separate mixing board and sound engineer for the monitors.\nIn most mid- to large-size venues, there is a separate sound engineer and mixing console on or beside the stage creating a mix for the monitor system. The monitor mix is often different from the \"front of house\" mix, because performers may request to hear more of certain accompaniment or rhythm section instruments. In the most sophisticated and expensive monitor set-ups, each onstage performer can ask the sound engineer for", "-29.788507076813403" ], [ "tape machines for extra warmth to the kit. Brungardt used various standard mics for the snare drum to achieve a more solid cracking sound, rather than capturing the drum's overall tone. Their miking of the guitars' amps was adapted from The Complete Beatles Recording Sessions, and as Brungardt recounted, \"It really gave us warmth and character. It allowed the amp to breathe and we got the tones of the amp along with the room. For me, that really opened things up so that I could play with the live room, using different reverbs to get a sound.\" For Saadiq's bass,", "-29.761064210006225" ], [ "for instrument amplification. Meyer Sound suggests that its 650-R2 Concert Series Subwoofer, a 14-cubic-foot (0.40 m³) enclosure with two 18-inch (460 mm) drivers, can be used for bass instrument amplification. While performers who use concert sound subwoofers for onstage monitoring may like the powerful sub-bass sound that they get onstage, sound engineers may find the use of large subwoofers (e.g., two 18″ drivers) for onstage instrument monitoring to be problematic, because it may interfere with the “Front of House” sub-bass sound. Other approaches Not all keyboard players use keyboard amplifiers to make their instruments audible on stage. Some keyboard players use a", "-29.756263276813115" ], [ "three days and the vocal parts were recorded in four days. In 2004, Leon admitted that they recorded Ramones quickly due to budget restrictions, but also that it was all the time they needed.\nThe band applied microphone placement techniques similar to those which many orchestras used. The recording process was a deliberate exaggeration of the techniques used by the Beatles in the early 1960s, with a four-track representation of the devices. The guitars can be heard separately on the stereo channels—electric bass on the left channel, rhythm guitar on the right—drums and vocals are mixed in the middle of the", "-29.754868825017184" ], [ "by layering an acoustic guitar part with a clean electric guitar. A tremolo effect on \"Can't Cry These Tears\" was inspired by 1960s production techniques. The amp modelers were used to pre-effect the recording prior to Pro Tools, in order to prevent phasing. For electric guitar recording, the band utilized cabinet miking – four microphones recorded the output of a Marshall amplifier. Acoustics were recorded using a single Blue Bottle microphone. Daniel Shulman, who had performed bass guitar on Version 2.0 and the band's two world tours, spent two separate weeks laying down bass parts. Shulman was given freedom by", "-29.742288567487776" ], [ "the Palladium in New York City on 20 September 1979 during the Clash Take the Fifth US tour. Simonon explained in a 2011 interview with Fender that he smashed the bass out of frustration when he learned that the bouncers at the concert would not allow the audience members to stand up out of their seats; \"I wasn't taking it out on the bass guitar, cos there ain't anything wrong with it.\", Simonon said. Pennie Smith, who photographed the band for the album, originally did not want the photograph to be used. She thought that it was too out of", "-29.7035168204784" ], [ "the bottom of the body—the other end must be tied onto the headstock, above the nut and below the machine heads. Amplifiers, effects and speakers Electric guitars and bass guitars have to be used with a guitar amplifier and loudspeaker or a bass amplifier and speaker, respectively, in order to make enough sound to be heard by the performer and audience. Electric guitars and bass guitars almost always use magnetic pickups, which generate an electric signal when the musician plucks, strums or otherwise plays the instrument. The amplifier and speaker strengthen this signal using a power amplifier and a loudspeaker.", "-29.696279876685367" ], [ "isn't as efficient as the seat. This helps the concert drummer to monitor his or her kick drum performance without \"polluting\" the stage with powerful low frequency waves from a subwoofer monitor. Other meanings The term \"foldback\" is sometimes applied to in-ear monitoring systems, also described as artist's cue-mixes, as they are generally set up for individual performers. \"Foldback\" may less frequently refer to current limiting protection in audio electronic amplifiers.\nThe term foldback has been used when referring to one or more video monitors facing a stage, in the same manner as an audio foldback monitor. The video monitor allows", "-29.668839530123478" ], [ "Wall of Sound (Grateful Dead) Technical challenges The Wall of Sound acted as its own monitor system, and it was therefore assembled behind the band so the members could hear exactly what their audience was hearing. Because of this, Stanley and Alembic designed a special microphone system to prevent feedback. This placed matched pairs of condenser microphones spaced 60 mm apart and run out of phase. The vocalist sang into the top microphone, and the lower mic picked up whatever other sound was present in the stage environment. The signals were added together using a differential summing amp so that the", "-29.621702889657172" ], [ "in the band's opinion. They took exception to the atmosphere inside the studio with soundproof padding and isolators. To achieve their vision, The Stooges and Gallucci stripped the entire studio of its usual gear to emulate their live performances as closely as possible. According to Gallucci, they set up the band in the way they normally play at a concert. For example, Pop was singing through a handheld microphone, and the guitar and bass amps were placed side by side. The results were very raw when compared to many contemporary records; for example, without the normal isolation baffles the vibrations", "-29.54850032519016" ], [ "to amps, such as in the popular early recording of the 1951 Ike Turner and the Kings of Rhythm song \"Rocket 88\", where guitarist Willie Kizart used a vacuum tube amplifier that had a speaker cone slightly damaged in transport. Rock guitarists began intentionally \"doctoring\" amplifiers and speakers in order to emulate this form of distortion. In 1956, guitarist Paul Burlison of the Johnny Burnette Trio deliberately dislodged a vacuum tube in his amplifier to record \"The Train Kept A-Rollin\" after a reviewer raved about the sound Burlison's damaged amplifier produced during a live performance. According to other sources", "-29.548233520215945" ], [ "trick, evade, or hoodwink the band. The \"hups\" continue until the individual stands still, at which point the band lets out a long sigh, or if the individual trips and falls down. In The Stands The Longhorn Band follows many traditions while in the stands for Longhorn football games. Most of all, all members stand for the entire game and yell before every play in conjunction with ringing their cowbells. Numerous times throughout the game, the \"Texas! . . . Fight!\" chant is yelled by the entire stadium. Also, the drumline plays cadences between almost every", "-29.533242911002162" ], [ "because Butch Vig's drum kits are silenced by filling the hollow interiors of the bass, snares and tom-toms with packing chips to enable the samplers to use drum sounds from studio versions. The cymbals were miked to capture their sound. To prevent the sound of the cymbals bleeding into Shirley Manson's vocal feed, the cymbals were insulated by a wrap-wround acrylic glass shield. To keep the stage lead-free, all electric and bass guitars sported wireless units. Guitar sounds were run through effects units direct to the soundboard; Manson also used a wireless mic. The band had performed in this fashion", "-29.529307056044786" ], [ "during the performance, typically to stereo. Remote recording and remote broadcast may be carried out simultaneously by the same crew using the same microphones.\nOne important benefit of a remote recording is that the performers will respond to the audience; they will not be as distracted by the recording process. Another reason for a remote recording is to capture an artist in a different acoustic space such as a church, ballroom or meeting hall.\nTo make a remote recording, studio-quality recording equipment is trucked to the concert venue and connected to the concert microphones with a bank of microphone splitters. Other microphones", "-29.495471402042426" ], [ "Acoustic guitars that are equipped with a piezoelectric pickup or microphone can also be plugged into an instrument amplifier, acoustic guitar amp or PA system to make them louder. With electric guitar and bass, the amplifier and speaker are not just used to make the instrument louder; by adjusting the equalizer controls, the preamplifier, and any onboard effects units (reverb, distortion/overdrive, etc.) the player can also modify the tone (aka timbre or \"colour\") and sound of the instrument. Acoustic guitar players can also use the amp to change the sound of their instrument, but in general, acoustic guitar amps are", "-29.46326456658926" ], [ "which monitor speakers pointing at the performers are placed on the stage, as well as the concepts of frontline and backline, developed during this era.\nBackline equipment can be rented for concert tours. Many travelling musicians prefer not to transport their own gear across borders and continents for fear of damage or customs hassles. In some countries, all electronic and electric gear needs documentation and certification by an electrical expert before it can be brought into the country. Another issue is that some bands may travel to a country or continent which uses a different type of AC mains power", "-29.457047504732145" ], [ "had to produce their sound for the hall, club or other venue with their own amplifiers and speaker cabinets. As a result, bass players from the 1960s often used large, powerful amplifiers and large speaker cabinets. Some bass players would even use multiple bass amplifiers, with the signal from one bass amp being sent to one or more \"slave\" amps. In the mid-1960s John Entwistle (The Who) was one of the first major players to make use of Marshall stacks. At a time when most bands used 50- to 100-watt amplifiers with single cabinets, Entwistle used twin stacks with new", "-29.403051400637196" ], [ "right), and one for the vocal microphones, which consisted of Hendrix on lead vocals, bassist Noel Redding on backing vocals, and one channel for Jacob to announce the band at the start of the show. No microphones were needed for lead guitar or bass guitar, which had their own amplifiers. The stage monitor system was simply two Altec 604E sidefills which took their signal from a custom McCune-designed combiner fed with inputs from the two Altec mixers' auxiliary outputs. This was not enough for drummer Mitch Mitchell to hear the vocals and his own drums, so in the second half", "-29.399464343237753" ], [ "\"a compressed, explosive sound\". On Moretti's advice, the transfer from the two loud guitars and the rumble of the bass picked up by the drum-kit microphones was not eliminated. The guitars were recorded more simply; Hammond and Valensi both used Fender DeVille amps on opposite sides of the room, while Raphael positioned a mic on each. The sound was then fed directly into a preamp with no equalization. Valensi commented that guitar teacher and mentor Bowersock was invaluable because he was articulating things to the producer that the group could not. While the rest of the Strokes played to a", "-29.37156120808868" ], [ "drum player is required to hit the cymbals instead of the pads for these notes when they occur. Electronic drum kits could also be used through a MIDI connection. Microphone The microphone is a standard USB microphone. Players can use most other USB microphones, while Xbox 360 users can substitute their console's headset if they wish, though the option to use a headset over a microphone is absent in Rock Band 3 and The Beatles: Rock Band. For the most part, singers are judged on how closely they match the relative pitch of the song's vocalist. During \"talking parts\"", "-29.364437543709755" ], [ "the drumhead facing horizontally, rather than vertically. This results in several things. First of all, to ensure that a vibrating membrane is facing the audience, bass drummers must face perpendicular to the rest of the band and so are the only section in most groups whose bodies do not face the audience while playing. Consequently, bass drummers usually point their drums at the back of the bass drummer in front of them, so that the drum heads will all be lined up, from the audience's point of view, next to one another in order to produce optimal sound output.", "-29.35901736795131" ], [ "widespread use in the United States. The microphone was described as recording sounds \"bigger than life\" – such as drums or amplified guitars – some Beatles and Led Zeppelin recordings featured 4038s as overhead microphones on the drum kit.\nIn a 1994 interview, Steve Albini said that \"if [he] owned one mic, this would be it\". Albini has also commented that \"really nothing beats them as an overhead on a drum kit\". Broadcast At one point, Bush House (home of the BBC World Service) used the 4038 almost exclusively.", "-29.35464919176684" ], [ "With the blowing of the drum majors' whistles the band moves into attention. The drum major blows a long whistle to signal for the rest of the band on the sidelines to kneel down. The drum major turns and faces the tuba and percussion sections. Together they bend back and shout out \"Right up in there!\" The crowd cheers knowing it is the start of pregame. At this moment the band does a sequence called \"boom up\". At the sound of a drum boom, the band on the sidelines bounces up back into attention. Then the drum major commands", "-29.330703022855232" ], [ "vocal and instruments, and an amplified speaker is placed in front of the performer. This way the lead vocalist can have a mix which forefronts their vocals, the backup singers can have a mix which emphasizes their backup vocals, and the rhythm section members can have a mix which emphasizes the bass and drums. At an outdoor rock concert, there may be several thousand watts of power going to a complex monitor system that includes wedge-shaped cabinets for vocalists and larger cabinets called \"sidefill\" cabinets to help the musicians to hear their playing and singing. In the 2000s, major professional", "-29.2986819661146" ], [ "by using \"hollow-body jazz guitars with single-coil P-90 pickups\" plugged into a Fender Twin Reverb amp with the mid turned down low and the treble turned up high.\nFunk guitarists playing rhythm guitar generally avoid distortion effects and amp overdrive to get a clean sound, and given the importance of a crisp, high sound, Fender Stratocasters and Telecasters were widely used for their cutting treble tone. The mids are often cut by guitarists to help the guitar sound different from the horn section, keyboards and other instruments. Given the focus on providing a rhythmic groove, and the lack of emphasis on", "-29.283221758928903" ], [ "prevent sudden volume peaks from vocal mics from causing unwanted distortion.\nThough some bass guitar players in metal and punk bands intentionally use fuzz bass to distort their bass sound, in other genres of music, such as pop, big band jazz and traditional country music, bass players typically seek an undistorted bass sound. To obtain a clear, undistorted bass sound, professional bass players in these genres use high-powered amplifiers with a lot of \"headroom\" and they may also use audio compressors to prevent sudden volume peaks from causing distortion. In many cases, musicians playing stage pianos or synthesizers use keyboard amplifiers", "-29.27903180334397" ], [ "of rock music, electric guitar players intentionally create feedback by playing their instrument directly in front of a heavily amplified, distorted guitar amplifier's speaker enclosure. The creative use of feedback effects was pioneered by guitarists such as Jimi Hendrix in the 1960s. This technique creates sustained, high-pitched overtones and unusual sounds not possible through regular playing techniques. Guitar feedback effects can be difficult to perform, because it is difficult to determine the sound volume and guitar position relative to a guitar amp's loudspeaker necessary for achieving the desired feedback sound. Guitar feedback effects are used in a number of rock", "-29.228321700319384" ], [ "the audience's \"attention shifts to the magnificent singing\". Related approaches Some bands have an offstage sequencer-programmer who triggers basslines, beats, digitally sampled sounds or backing tracks. Backing tracks can be as simple as a single prerecorded instrument, such as a recording of a pipe organ, which is impossible to move onstage, to string section recordings done in the studio, to full rhythm section recordings with bass, guitar, keyboards and drums. Some backing tracks also include backup vocals. An offstage technician or audio engineer triggers the sequencer, samples or backing tracks at the appropriate time. Some guitar technicians operate effects", "-29.19552604493674" ], [ "the studio. Moore arranged the group around a mic, and spent a fair amount of time balancing the sound, but at the same time they placed individual mics on each instrument to capture each individual performance on a separate track, allowing them augment the sound of the central mic as needed. The recording arrangement allowed them to capture the intimacy of live recordings. The sessions went relatively smooth, they just rolled tape and played over a handful of days in December. Because of using multiple mics and tracks, for the first time the band had created an album which had", "-29.137323659301273" ], [ "(2002) and over the years have sometimes performed Amps' songs at their concerts.", "-29.09814525915226" ], [ "Bass chorus A bass chorus is an electronic effect used with the electric bass. It creates the same \"shimmering\" sound as a chorus effect for electric guitar chorus pedals, which recreates the sound of having multiple instruments doubling the same musical line (as with a string orchestra). The difference is that bass chorus pedals are modified in various ways to suit the low pitch register of the electric bass. While several bass chorus pedal manufacturers have modified the chorus circuit so that it does not affect the lower register, others have designed the effect so that it can have an", "-29.095817283179713" ], [ "to make a relatively loud percussive sound. \nBeginning in the 1920s, the first amplifiers and speakers designed for gigging musicians became available. From the 1920s to the 1940s, upright bass players who wanted to strengthen the acoustic sound of their instrument had to use small portable PA systems or guitar amp combos designed for acoustic guitar or archtop guitars. Since these systems were not specifically designed to amplify bass instruments, their utility was limited. The only speakers available during the early 1920s were \"radio horns of limited frequency range and low acoustic output,\" and the modern cone speaker was not", "-29.07965461824824" ], [ "A wider drum with a larger head would be capable of a lower tuning. Smaller drum shells, however, do not require as much force to vibrate the drum heads.\nSometimes the front head of a kit bass drum has a hole in it to allow air to escape when the drum is struck for shorter sustain. Muffling can be installed through the hole without taking off the front head. The hole also allows microphones to be placed into the bass drum for recording and amplification. In addition to microphones, sometimes trigger pads are used to amplify the sound and provide a", "-29.056751346088276" ], [ "are used in many genres, including blues, funk, sixties pop, and indie rock. They generally have cello-style F-shaped sound holes. These can be blocked off to prevent feedback, as in B. B. King's famous Lucille. Feedback can also be reduced by making them with a solid block in the middle of the soundbox. Full hollow-body Full hollow-body guitars have large, deep bodies made of glued-together sheets, or \"plates\", of wood. They can often be played at the same volume as an acoustic guitar and therefore can be used unplugged at intimate gigs. They qualify as electric guitars inasmuch as they", "-29.038515838823514" ], [ "and LS, RS channels. The disadvantage of this approach is that direct sound pickup is quite significant.\nMany recordings do not require pickup of side reflections. For Live Pop music concerts a more appropriate array for the pickup of ambience is the cardioid trapezium. All four cardioid microphones are backward facing and angled at 60 degrees from one another, therefore similar to a semi-circle. This is effective for the pickup of audience and ambience.\nAll the above-mentioned microphone arrays take up considerable space, making them quite ineffective for field recordings. In this respect, the double MS (Mid Side) technique is quite advantageous.", "-29.03655617045365" ], [ "loud instruments such as trumpets, cymbals, a drum set, or an electric guitar amplifier.\nIn some cases, architectural modifications are used to strengthen the tone of the orchestra. The double basses may be placed on hollow wooden risers, so that the low vibrations of the instruments will be able to better resonate, or a dropped ceiling may be installed over some instrument sections, to better direct the sound outwards towards the audience. In other cases, an overhanging proscenium arch or drape, which is \"trapping\" sound, may be removed.\nIn some older music theatres, though, it may be difficult to make permanent architectural", "-29.029573445286587" ] ]

[ "It's called kwashiorkor, and it's a sign of serious protein deficiency. The stomach gets bloated because of fluid retention and because the liver expands with fat deposits. Interestingly enough, kwashiorkor gets its name from what an African tribe called it. Translated, it means \"disease of the deposed child\". What would happen is that when a 2nd child was born, the first child would be abruptly cut off breast milk and put onto a more adult diet high in carbs and low in protein. This resulted in protein deficiency.", "Hey, just wanted to clarify some things. Severe malnourishment has several sequelae (outcomes) depending on what exactly is lacking in the person's diet. The two that most people are familiar with are (1) Kwashiorkor - the kind with the really big belly and (2) Marasmus - The kind where the people look like walking skeletons. In marasmus, there is generalized severe malnourishment. These people are sick because they are lacking sufficient calories, thus they become incredibly skinny - they are literally wasting (actual medical term) away. In Kwasiorkor, there is sufficient/close to sufficient caloric intake, BUT there is INsufficient PROTEIN intake. This means that the diet is mostly rice, corn, etc. Your body needs proteins for countless things such as building muscle etc. It also needs proteins to transport fats (not soluble in blood/water) throughout your blood stream. These 'transport' protein are called lipoproteins and are made in the liver. Without these proteins, the fats consumed by the body get trapped in the liver, leading to fatty livers (contributing to the big bellies). Also, proteins are needed to maintain the proper fluid volumes in your body (I won't get into this now) and without it, you retain water, contributing to fluid retention (medically called edema), and thus also making the bellies bigger. I hope this helped :) (Source: 3rd year US Medical Student - Thanks for letting me review this concept!) EDIT: XD This is the first time i get gold! Thank you guys!!! (I guess med school paid off after all haha)", "That's called *kwashiorkor*, and it happens when there's not enough protein in a person's diet. Protein in the blood keeps water bound in blood, and if there's not enough protein then the water leaks out into the tissues, mostly in the stomach and abdominal area.", "A lot of people are saying its protein deficiency, but if so I'm curious why people in developed countries, for example anorexics, don't typically get bloated stomachs from malnutrition. If it was just protein deficiency wouldn't they get that too?", "Now question to anybody who knows: is having this issue a binary thing? Like you have it or you don't? Or can you have a mild/gradual case of it? I've had friends before who I thought were borderline malnourished and looked incredibly skinny fat or had developing, weird looking stomachs...", "When you're so malnourished your liver can't make a protein called albumin, which is required to keep fluid in your blood vessels. This causes fluid to leave the vessels and enter a cavity like your abdomen. It's the same reason why people with liver cirrhosis get abdominal distension.", "Protein deficiency. Protein in the blood, primarily albumin, is largely responsible for the osmotic force that keeps water in the pressurized vasculature from leaking out. ELI5 version: if you don't eat enough protein, your body can't put the proteins into the blood that keep water in there. The water leaks out into the abdominal cavity, among other places.", "There is also such this as protein sickness, where you have too much of it and not enough other things. This why killing a deer is enough meat to feed you through a winter in the wilderness, but you'll get sick if you do not find other sources of nutrients.", "I was always told that parasites and tapeworms caused this. Glad to finally know the true reason.", "As people have said, protein deficency; leaky blood. Also, parasites in contaminated food or water sources.", "As many had say is because of low protein intake, which leads to low albumin, which leads to a drop in oncotic pressure, which leads to loss of plasma to the tissues (edema), when we talk about the peritoneal cavity is called ascites, thats why people look bloated, they have peritoneal fluid in there, you can document this by doing the fluid wave test or an ultrasound.", "A lot of people already answered regarding lack of protein. This is one of the reasons we send Plumpy Nut to famine hit areas. URL_0 ", "What about that lower abdomen bulge that older women get? What is it/how does it happen?", "So what does a person with gout do? Is edema inevitable in their case?" ]

[ [ "Abdominal distension Treatment Bloating is not life-threatening. In most cases, bloating can be handled with simple home remedies and changes in lifestyle. Persistent or recurrent bloating may be caused by intestinal parasites, other infections, or other medical conditions. Foods Certain foods have been known to worsen bloating. Poorly digested components of many foods are excreted into the large intestine where they are degraded by bacteria, producing excess gas. Depending on the undigested component, this may affect the odor and the volume of gas created.\nExcess dietary fiber intake is a known cause of belching, gas and bloating. \nMany vegetables", "-35.01341909944313" ], [ "Stomach disease Chronic disorders Disorders of the stomach are very common and induce a significant amount of morbidity and suffering in the population. Data from hospitals indicate that more than 25% of the population suffers from some type of chronic stomach disorder including abdominal pain and indigestion. These symptoms occur for long periods and cause prolonged suffering, time off work and a poor quality of life. Moreover, visits to doctors, expense of investigations and treatment result in many days lost from work and a colossal cost to the financial system. Gastritis In the stomach there is a slight balance between", "-32.64223635889357" ], [ "are known to cause bloating due to high levels of fiber and undigestible sugars such as raffinose (e.g. beans, cabbage, broccoli).\nThere are many individuals who are unable to tolerate dairy products because of lactose intolerance. Such foods should be eliminated from the diet if symptoms develop. Medications For some people, recurrent distension symptoms worsen their quality of life and thus many resort to health supplements or medications. Dietary supplements containing various enzymes, for example Beano, are formulated to help break down complex carbohydrates and vegetables in order to reduce substances in the gut that cause bacterial overgrowth and subsequent", "-32.604586400295375" ], [ "until the food is digested all the way.\nPostmortem bloating occurs in cadavers, due to the formation of gases by bacterial action and putrefaction of the internal tissues of the abdomen and the inside of the intestines. Related conditions Conditions that are related to bloating include constipation, lactose intolerance, and acid reflux disease. All of these conditions share the same symptoms and can share the same causative agents. These causes include unhealthy diet, smoking, alcohol consumption, low amount of exercise, and overall health. Each of these conditions can be experienced as a symptom of the others and is also a cause", "-32.4515191228129" ], [ "lead to the stomach's inability to contract and lose its ability to empty itself. Side effects of gastroparesis include chronic indigestion, nausea and vomiting.", "-31.651675810688175" ], [ "the stomach is empty and to stop when the stomach is stretched). Leptin is produced by adipose tissue to signal fat storage reserves in the body, and mediates long-term appetitive controls (i.e. to eat more when fat storages are low and less when fat storages are high). Although administration of leptin may be effective in a small subset of obese individuals who are leptin-deficient, most obese individuals are thought to be leptin resistant and have been found to have high levels of leptin. This resistance is thought to explain in part why administration of leptin has not been shown to", "-31.3344354670553" ], [ "much like burping, but helps the body pass gas through the anus, not the mouth. Bacteria present in the intestinal tract cause gas to be expelled from the anus. They produce the gas as food is digested and moved from the small intestine. This gas builds up and causes swelling or bloating in the abdominal area before it is released. Constipation A common gastrointestinal problem is constipation—infrequent bowel movements, hard stools, or strain during the movements—which causes serious cases of bloating. Since most cases of constipation are temporary, simple lifestyle changes, such as getting more exercise and increasing one's intake", "-31.144642054045107" ], [ "Starvation Signs and symptoms Early symptoms include impulsivity, irritability, and hyperactivity. Atrophy (wasting away) of the stomach weakens the perception of hunger, since the perception is controlled by the volume of the stomach that is empty. Individuals experiencing starvation lose substantial fat (adipose tissue) and muscle mass as the body breaks down these tissues for energy. Catabolysis is the process of a body breaking down its own muscles and other tissues in order to keep vital systems such as the nervous system and heart muscle (myocardium) functioning. The energy deficiency inherent in starvation causes fatigue and renders the victim more", "-31.142321730556432" ], [ "fat from food) the gastrointestinal tract and gut flora are not adapted to processing fats, leading to problems in the large intestine.\nThe cholesterol contained in bile will occasionally accrete into lumps in the gallbladder, forming gallstones. Cholesterol gallstones are generally treated through surgical removal of the gallbladder. However, they can sometimes be dissolved by increasing the concentration of certain naturally occurring bile acids, such as chenodeoxycholic acid and ursodeoxycholic acid.\nOn an empty stomach – after repeated vomiting, for example – a person's vomit may be green or dark yellow, and very bitter. The bitter and greenish component", "-31.073465580353513" ], [ "oral intake. Eliciting a careful dietary history from patients with suspected malabsorption is therefore crucial. Excessive flatus and abdominal bloating may reflect excessive gas production due to fermentation of unabsorbed carbohydrate, especially among patients with primary or secondary disaccharidase deficiency. Malabsorption of dietary nutrients and excessive fluid secretion by inflamed small intestine also contribute to abdominal distention and bloating. Prevalence, severity, and character of abdominal pain vary considerably among the various disease processes associated with intestinal malabsorption. For example, pain is common in patients with chronic pancreatitis or pancreatic cancer and Crohn's disease, but it is absent in many patients", "-30.973548583337106" ], [ "Intestinal malrotation Causes The exact cause of intestinal malrotation is unknown. It is not definitively associated with a particular gene, but there is some evidence of recurrence in families. Diagnosis Malrotation is most often diagnosed during infancy, however, some cases are not discovered until later in childhood or even adulthood.\nWith acutely ill patients, consider emergency surgery laparotomy if there is a high index of suspicion.\nIn cases of volvulus, plain radiography may demonstrate signs of duodenal obstruction with dilatation of the proximal duodenum and stomach but it is often non-specific. Ultrasonography may be useful in some cases of volvulus, depicting a", "-30.73345777729992" ], [ "of the stomach is lined with cilia (minute hairs) that compress undigested solids, which then pass through the intestine and out through the anus.\nThere are no nephridia (\"little kidneys\") or other excretory organs in bryozoa, and it is thought that ammonia diffuses out through the body wall and lophophore. More complex waste products are not excreted but accumulate in the polypide, which degenerates after a few weeks. Some of the old polypide is recycled, but much of it remains as a large mass of dying cells containing accumulated wastes, and this is compressed into a \"brown body\". When the degeneration", "-30.511882286751643" ], [ "Friedrich Paul Reichel. It involves a resection of 2/3 of the stomach with blind closure of the duodenal stump and a retrocolic gastro-jejunal anastomosis. Post-operative effects The most obvious effect of the removal of the stomach is the loss of a storage place for food while it is being digested. Since only a small amount of food can be allowed into the small intestine at a time, the patient will have to eat small amounts of food regularly in order to prevent gastric dumping syndrome.\nAnother major effect is the loss of the intrinsic-factor-secreting parietal cells in the stomach lining. Intrinsic", "-30.462777291540988" ], [ "(pouch)'s opening.\nSome people find they must make adjustments to their diet after having an ileostomy. Tough or high-fiber foods (for example: potato skins, tomato skins, and raw vegetables) are hard to digest in the small intestine and may cause blockages or discomfort when passing through the stoma. Chewing food thoroughly can help to minimize such problems. Some people also find that certain foods cause annoying gas or diarrhea. Many foods can change the color of the intestinal output, causing alarm; beetroot, for instance, produces a red output that may appear to be blood. Nevertheless, people", "-30.430061343009584" ], [ "stomach emptying time than men. A hormonal link has been suggested, as gastroparesis symptoms tend to worsen the week before menstruation when progesterone levels are highest. Neither theory has been proven definitively. Mechanism Gastroparesis can be connected to hypochlorhydria and be caused by chloride, sodium and/or zinc deficiency, as these minerals are needed for the stomach to produce adequate levels of gastric acid (HCl) to properly empty itself of a meal.\nOn the molecular level, it is thought that gastroparesis can be caused by the loss of neuronal nitric oxide expression since the cells in the GI tract secrete nitric oxide.", "-30.419397103512892" ], [ "your stomach and you are on the verge of developing an ulcer. This was caused by eating raw fish.\" Whereupon he prepared two pints of a decoction for the governor, [Hua Tuo] had him drink one pint first and then after a little while had him finish the remainder. In the space of time that it takes to eat a meal, the governor vomited up three pints or so of parasites. They had red heads and were all wriggling; half of their bodies looked like raw fish slices. The discomfort that he had experienced was immediately relieved. \"This sickness will", "-30.34338615706656" ], [ "diverticulum may also result in halitosis due to aging food retained in the esophagus. Stomach The stomach is considered by most researchers as a very uncommon source of bad breath. The esophagus is a closed and collapsed tube, and continuous flow of gas or putrid substances from the stomach indicates a health problem—such as reflux serious enough to be bringing up stomach contents or a fistula between the stomach and the esophagus—which will demonstrate more serious manifestations than just foul odor.\nIn the case of allyl methyl sulfide (the byproduct of garlic's digestion), odor does not come from the stomach, since", "-30.270982721587643" ], [ "the intestinal metaplasia of the stomach as a feature of chronic gastritis.", "-30.20927995722741" ], [ "is generally passive.\nThe underlying starvation, malnourishment, and usually dehydration, associated with emaciation, affect and are harmful to organ systems throughout the body. The emaciated individual experiences disturbances of the blood, circulatory, and urinary systems; these include hyponatremia and/or hypokalemia (low sodium and/or potassium in the blood, respectively), anemia (low hemoglobin), improper function of lymph (immune system-related white blood matter) and the lymphatic system, and pleurisy (fluid in the pleural cavity surrounding the lungs) and edema (swelling in general) caused by poor or improper function of the kidneys to eliminate wastes from the blood. Cause In most of Africa, poverty, malnutrition", "-30.164529177127406" ], [ "accustomed to living in a state of chronically compromised health. Indeed, after starting a gluten-free diet and subsequent improvement becomes evident, such individuals are often able to retrospectively recall and recognise prior symptoms of their untreated disease which they had mistakenly ignored. Gastrointestinal Diarrhoea that is characteristic of coeliac disease is chronic, pale, of large volume, and abnormally bad smelling. Abdominal pain, cramping, bloating with abdominal distension (thought to be due to fermentative production of bowel gas), and mouth ulcers may be present. As the bowel becomes more damaged, a degree of lactose intolerance may develop. Frequently, the symptoms are", "-29.871872740215622" ], [ "types of complaints that relate to intestinal gas, which may present individually or in combination. Bloating and pain Patients may complain of bloating as abdominal distension, discomfort and pain from \"trapped wind\". In the past, functional bowel disorders such as irritable bowel syndrome that produced symptoms of bloating were attributed to increased production of intestinal gas. However, three significant pieces of evidence refute this theory. First, in normal subjects, even very high rates of gas infusion into the small intestine (30 ml/min) is tolerated without complaints of pain or bloating and harmlessly passed as flatus per rectum. Secondly, studies aiming to", "-29.86884296918288" ], [ "poorly absorbed in the small intestine and subsequently fermented by the bacteria in the distal small and proximal large intestine. This is a normal phenomenon, common to everyone. The resultant production of gas potentially results in bloating and flatulence.\nNevertheless, although FODMAPs can cause certain digestive discomfort in some people, not only do they not cause intestinal inflammation, but they help to prevent it because they produce beneficial alterations in the intestinal flora that contribute to maintain the good health of the colon.\nFODMAPs are not the cause of irritable bowel syndrome nor other functional gastrointestinal disorders, but rather a person develops", "-29.86689764430048" ], [ "sphincter of the stomach, and delayed stomach emptying. Historically, vagotomy was combined with pyloroplasty or gastroenterostomy to counter this problem.", "-29.825351875158958" ], [ "of excessive salivation (as might occur when nauseated or as the result of gastroesophageal reflux disease). The endogenous gases are produced either as a by-product of digesting certain types of food, or of incomplete digestion, as is the case during steatorrhea. Anything that causes food to be incompletely digested by the stomach or small intestine may cause flatulence when the material arrives in the large intestine, due to fermentation by yeast or prokaryotes normally or abnormally present in the gastrointestinal tract.\nFlatulence-producing foods are typically high in certain polysaccharides, especially oligosaccharides such as inulin. Those foods include beans, lentils, dairy products,", "-29.798034140490927" ], [ "Anuria Signs and symptoms Anuria itself is a symptom, not a disease. It is often associated with other symptoms of kidney failure, such as lack of appetite, weakness, nausea and vomiting. These are mostly the result of buildup of toxins in the blood which would normally be removed by healthy kidneys. Causes Failure of kidney function, which can have multiple causes including medications or toxins (e.g., antifreeze, cephalosporins, ACEIs); diabetes; high blood pressure. Stones or tumours in the urinary tract can also cause it by creating an obstruction to urinary flow. High blood calcium, oxalate, or uric acid, can contribute", "-29.787355911554187" ], [ "correction. Dumping syndrome Normally, the pyloric valve at the lower end of the stomach regulates the release of food into the bowel. When the gastric bypass patient eats a sugary food, the sugar passes rapidly into the intestine, where it gives rise to a physiological reaction called dumping syndrome. The body will flood the intestines with gastric content in an attempt to dilute the sugars. An affected person may feel their heart beating rapidly and forcefully, break into a cold sweat, get a feeling of butterflies in the stomach, and may have an anxiety attack. The person usually has to", "-29.75313664774876" ], [ "to state that \"Stomach inflation is a complex problem that may cause regurgitation, [gastric acid] aspiration, and, possibly, death.\" When stomach inflation leads to vomiting of highly acidic stomach acids, delivery of subsequent breaths can force these caustic acids down into the lungs where they cause life-threatening or fatal lung injuries including Mendelson's syndrome, aspiration pneumonia, acute respiratory distress syndrome and \"pulmonary injuries similar to that seen in victims of chlorine gas exposure\". Apart from the risks of gastric inflation causing vomiting and regurgitation, at least two reports have been found indicating that gastric insufflation itself remains", "-29.578141728183255" ], [ "survive easier in the stomachs of malnourished individuals who have less stomach acid. Once the cyst reaches the small intestine, trophozoites are produced. The trophozoites then colonize the large intestine, where they live in the lumen and feed on the intestinal flora. Some trophozoites invade the wall of the colon using proteolytic enzymes and multiply, and some of them return to the lumen. In the lumen, trophozoites may disintegrate or undergo encystation. Encystation is triggered by dehydration of the intestinal contents and usually occurs in the distal large intestine, but may also occur outside of the host in feces. Now", "-29.567270857514814" ], [ "decreased nutrient absorption, decreased intake of food, increased metabolic requirements, and direct nutrient loss. Parasite infections, in particular intestinal worm infections (helminthiasis), can also lead to malnutrition. A leading cause of diarrhea and intestinal worm infections in children in developing countries is lack of sanitation and hygiene.\nPeople may become malnourished due to abnormal nutrient loss (due to diarrhea or chronic illness affecting the small bowel). This conditions may include Crohn's disease or untreated coeliac disease. Malnutrition may also occur due to increased energy expenditure (secondary malnutrition). Undernutrition A lack of adequate breastfeeding leads to malnutrition in infants and children, associated", "-29.514993555203546" ], [ "Malabsorption Gastrointestinal manifestations Depending on the nature of the disease process causing malabsorption and its extent, gastrointestinal symptoms may range from severe to subtle or may even be totally absent. Diarrhea, weight loss, flatulence, abdominal bloating, abdominal cramps, and pain may be present. Although diarrhea is a common complaint, the character and frequency of stools may vary considerably ranging from over 10 watery stools per day to less than one voluminous putty-like stool, the latter causing some patients to complain of constipation. On the other hand, stool mass is invariably increased in patients with steatorrhea and generalized malabsorption above the", "-29.465914036438335" ], [ "it can also occur from a blockage at the distal end of stomach, a cancer or a stroke. Symptoms of gastroparesis includes abdominal pain, fullness, bloating, nausea, vomiting after eating food, loss of appetite and feeling of fullness after eating small amounts of food. Diarrhea During digestion, food is stored in the liquid present in the stomach. The food that is not digested travels to the large intestine and colon in liquid form. These organs begin to absorb the water turning the food into a more solid form. Different viruses or bacteria can increase the amount of liquid that is", "-29.454756480641663" ], [ "Cricopharyngeal spasm Causes Causes include stress and anxiety. Other causes are not yet clear. In some cases, eating certain foods may bring on acute spasms, in susceptible individuals. Peanuts, pumpkin seeds and other nuts may trigger these spasms. Physiology There are two sphincters in the oesophagus. They are normally contracted and they relax when one swallows so that food can pass through them going to the stomach. They then squeeze closed again to prevent regurgitation of the stomach contents. If this normal contraction becomes a spasm, these symptoms begin.", "-29.381547095545102" ], [ "of protein, has been degraded to the point that it cannot handle any protein. At this point, attempts to correct the disorder by giving food or protein are futile.\nThe body has a natural store of fat (also called adipose tissue) that stores reserve energy. One can still stay alive while the body breaks down the fatty tissue (hence people wasting away from starvation).\nThe person may, during catabolysis, have large amounts of lipids, proteins, and amino acids in the bloodstream, due to the muscle fibers and adipose tissues being broken down and sent to the nervous system and brain. ", "-29.214351121874643" ], [ "unable to properly digest fats. Symptoms include ataxia, peripheral neuropathy and other forms of nerve dysfunction. Treatment includes vitamin E.\nCharacteristics of the syndrome include the presence of acanthocytes (burr-cell malformation of the erythrocytes), and the reduction or even absence of B-lipoproteins. Complications include retinitis pigmentosa, degenerative changes in the central nervous system involving the cerebellum and long tracts, fatty diarrhea, ataxia, areflexia, demyelination, defective intestinal lipid absorption with low serum cholesterol level, intestinal malabsorption, amaurosis, retarded growth, and steatorrhea. Intellectual development may be slightly retarded.\nMany afflicted with the syndrome are unable to walk.\nThe syndrome appears in infancy. Affected children appear", "-29.184975418727845" ], [ "animal from aspirating its stomach contents while put asleep during surgery.\nWhen a person undergoes surgery, they first go a period of time without eating or drinking before an elective surgery. This allows the patient's stomach to empty and decreases the opportunity of aspirating stomach content while placed under an anesthetizing agent. These precautions can not be undertaken when dealing with livestock. The calf's stomach has compartments that work \"like a giant fermenting vat\". This means that the stomach can never be emptied. Because of this, the food material within the stomach is frequently regurgitated back into the mouth. Coupled with", "-29.164664010866545" ], [ "Steatorrhea Causes Impaired digestion or absorption can result in fatty stools.\nPossible causes include exocrine pancreatic insufficiency, with poor digestion from lack of lipases, loss of bile salts, which reduces micelle formation, and small intestinal disease producing malabsorption. Various other causes include certain medicines that block fat absorption, or indigestible or excess oil/fat in diet.\nThe absence of bile secretion can cause the feces to turn gray or pale. Other features of fat malabsorption may also occur such as reduced bone density, difficulty with vision under low light levels, bleeding, bruising and slow blood clotting times. Medications Orlistat (also known by", "-29.163550121011212" ], [ "severe than those induced by food allergy, but can include anaphylaxis. Research directions FODMAPs are fermentable oligo-, di-, monosaccharides and polyols, which are poorly absorbed in the small intestine and subsequently fermented by the bacteria in the distal small and proximal large intestine. This is a normal phenomenon, common to everyone. The resultant production of gas potentially results in bloating and flatulence. Although FODMAPs can produce certain digestive discomfort in some people, not only do they not cause intestinal inflammation, but they avoid it, because they produce beneficial alterations in the intestinal flora that contribute to maintain the good health", "-29.092609985993477" ], [ "much food or liquid in your stomach if your stomach doesn’t have that capability can make you vomit.\" Thus, the vomiting response is likely due to an inability for the stomach to contain the substances.", "-29.07592849411958" ], [ "intestinal symptoms from Crohn's disease often feel better when they do not eat and might lose their appetite. People with extensive small intestine disease may also have malabsorption of carbohydrates or lipids, which can further exacerbate weight loss. Extraintestinal Crohn's disease can affect many organ systems beyond the gastrointestinal tract. Inflammation of the interior portion of the eye, known as uveitis, can cause blurred vision and eye pain, especially when exposed to light (photophobia). Inflammation may also involve the white part of the eye (sclera), a condition called episcleritis. Both episcleritis and uveitis can lead to loss of vision if", "-28.941985689860303" ], [ "Median arcuate ligament syndrome Signs and symptoms Patients with MALS reportedly experience abdominal pain, particularly in the epigastrium, which may be associated with eating and which may result in anorexia and weight loss.The pain can be in the left or right side, but usually where the ribs meet. Other signs are persistent nausea, lassitude (especially after a heavy meal) and exercise intolerance. Diarrhea is a common symptom, some experience constipation. While some experience vomiting, not everyone does. Exercise or certain postures can aggravate the symptoms. Occasionally, physical examination reveals an abdominal bruit in the mid-epigastrium.\nComplications of MALS result from chronic", "-28.849543606680527" ], [ "Diverticulitis Signs and symptoms Diverticulitis typically presents with left lower quadrant abdominal pain of sudden onset. There may also be fever, nausea, diarrhea or constipation, and blood in the stool. Causes The causes of diverticulitis are poorly understood, with approximately 40 percent due to genes and 60 percent due to environmental factors. Conditions that increase the risk of developing diverticulitis include arterial hypertension and immunosuppression. Obesity is another risk factor. Low levels of vitamin D are associated with an increased risk of diverticulitis. Diet It is unclear what role dietary fibre plays in diverticulitis. It is often stated that a", "-28.849465996026993" ], [ "to connect the stomach to the duodenum so as to facilitate the passage of food from one to the other. This tube is called a gastroduodenostomy. Stenosis Pyloric stenosis refers to a pylorus that is narrow. This is due to congenital hypertrophy of the pyloric sphincter. The lumen of the pylorus is narrower, and less food is able to pass through. This problem is often detected in the early weeks of life. When it is present, a newborn baby may projectile vomit after eating, but despite vomiting remain hungry. Pyloric stenosis may be managed by the insertion of a stent,", "-28.796746407053433" ], [ "of the patients tested positive for a hydrogen breath test, which indicated an overgrowth of bacteria in the small intestine. Bacterial overgrowth causes the gut ecology to change and induces nausea and vomiting. Recurring nausea and vomiting eventually change the absorbance rate of food, contributing to the vitamin and nutrition deficiencies common in post-operative gastric bypass patients. Protein nutrition Proteins are essential food substances, contained in foods such as vegetables, fruits, legumes, nuts, meat, fish, poultry, dairy products and eggs. With reduced ability to eat a large volume of food, gastric bypass patients must focus on eating their protein requirements", "-28.690426211920567" ], [ "scurvy, osteoporosis, impaired immune system, disorders of cell metabolism, certain forms of cancer, symptoms of premature aging, and poor psychological health (including eating disorders), among many others. Malnutrition Malnutrition refers to insufficient, excessive, or imbalanced consumption of nutrients. In developed countries, the diseases of malnutrition are most often associated with nutritional imbalances or excessive consumption.\nAlthough there are more people in the world who are malnourished due to excessive consumption, according to the United Nations World Health Organization, the greatest challenge in developing nations today is not starvation, but insufficient nutrition – the lack of nutrients necessary for the growth and", "-28.67407819221262" ], [ "points in 3 months with an endoluminal sleeve Restrictive procedures Procedures that are restrictive shrink the size of the stomach or take up space inside the stomach, making people feel more full when they eat less. Vertical banded gastroplasty In the vertical banded gastroplasty, also called the Mason procedure or stomach stapling, a part of the stomach is permanently stapled to create a smaller pre-stomach pouch, which serves as the new stomach. Adjustable gastric band The restriction of the stomach also can be created using a silicone band, which can be adjusted by addition or removal of saline through a", "-28.637021199450828" ], [ "common presenting symptoms are gastrointestinal issues such as nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain, and diarrhea, and neurologic or ocular symptoms such as hearing loss, weakness, and peripheral neuropathy. These gastrointestinal symptoms cause patients with MNGIE to be very thin and experience persistent weight loss and this often leads to MNGIE being misdiagnosed as an eating disorder. These symptoms without presentation of disordered eating and warped body image warrant further investigation into the possibility of MNGIE as a diagnosis. Presentation of these symptoms and lack of disordered eating are not enough for a diagnosis. Radiologic studies showing hypoperistalsis, large atonic stomach, dilated", "-28.566118333488703" ], [ "(hole) in the stomach which is a surgical emergency. In many individuals, the progressive bleeding from an ulcer mixes with the feces and presents as black stools. Presence of blood in stools is often the first sign that there is a problem in the stomach. Gastroparesis Another very common long term problem which is now more appreciated is gastroparesis. Gastroparesis affects millions of individuals and is often never suspected and most patients have a delay in diagnosis. Basically in gastroparesis, the stomach motility disappears and food remains stagnant in the stomach. The most common cause of gastroparesis is diabetes but", "-28.555661284422968" ], [ "stomachaches that often occur. Overdose can result in drowsiness, nausea, epigastric pain, and vomiting.", "-28.50230682309484" ], [ "was more likely to overeat and have a preference for junk food. Even when the offspring were not given the option of junk food, their bodies metabolized food differently from offspring whose mother ate healthier. Offspring of mothers who ate badly had higher levels of cholesterol and triglycerides in their bloodstream and higher risk of heart disease. In addition, these offspring had higher levels of glucose and insulin, which indicate development of type 2 diabetes. The rats were studied through adulthood and were found to be fatter than the offspring whose mothers ate healthier. This study showed that the diet", "-28.498514146369416" ], [ "ability to maintain energy balances, homeostasis cannot be maintained and one's prognosis will be dismal. Causes of intestinal failure may be clinically complex, and may result from a combination of nutritional, infectious, traumatic, and metabolic complications that affect ordinary anatomy and physiology. Many underlying conditions that serve as precursors to failure are genetic or congenital in nature. For example, severe inflammation, ulceration, bowel obstruction, fistulation, perforation, or other pathologies of Crohn's disease may severely compromise intestinal function. Despite the danger these conditions may pose in themselves, they may lead to even further, more serious complications that necessitate replacement of the", "-28.463353945408016" ], [ "The unabsorbed fats and starches pass into the large intestine, where bacterial actions may act on them to produce irritants and malodorous gases. These larger effects on nutrition are traded for a relatively modest increase in total weight loss. Mini-gastric bypass (MGB) The mini-gastric bypass procedure was first developed by Robert Rutledge from the US in 1997, as a modification of the standard Billroth II procedure. A mini gastric bypass creates a long narrow tube of the stomach along its right border (the lesser curvature). A loop of the small gut is brought up and hooked to this tube at", "-28.453377987723798" ], [ "This is why starvation often shows an enlarged abdomen. The abdomen is swollen with edema or water retention caused by the lack of protein in their diet.\nWhen the capillary walls are too permeable, protein can leak out of the blood and settle in the tissue spaces. It will then act like a magnet for water, continuously attracting more water from the blood to accumulate in the tissue spaces. Other factors Certain medications are prone to causing water retention. These include estrogens, thereby including drugs for hormone replacement therapy or the combined oral contraceptive pill, as well as non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs", "-28.40387652767822" ], [ "Harrier said that even if supplies were properly cooked, residents suffering from stomach ulcers had a risk of absorbing the toxin through the stomach lining, offering a direct route to the bloodstream. Being similar to Lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD), ergot would not survive in the acidic environment of a typical human's stomach, especially in properly cooked food. But if some but not all residents were malnourished and suffering from bleeding stomach ulcers, only they could be affected by ingesting contaminated grains, leaving the majority unaffected, explaining why ergotism was not previously recognized. Harrier argued that the numbers could", "-28.321192178875208" ], [ "stomach is wrapped, or plicated, around the inferior part of the esophagus, preventing herniation of the stomach through the hiatus in the diaphragm and the reflux of gastric acid. The procedure is now commonly performed laparoscopically. With proper patient selection, laparoscopic fundoplication recent studies have indicated relatively low complication rates, quick recovery, and relatively good long term results. Epidemiology Incidence of hiatal hernias increases with age; approximately 60% of individuals aged 50 or older have a hiatal hernia. Of these, 9% are symptomatic, depending on the competence of the lower esophageal sphincter (LES). 95% of these are \"sliding\" hiatal", "-28.20994519595115" ], [ "cannot be good until it begins to rot, is bagoong and those who have eaten it and tasted it know that it neither is nor should be rotten.", "-28.20289396250155" ], [ "(months to years) onset of constipation because this information changes the differential diagnosis. This in the context of accompanied symptoms help physicians discover the cause of constipation. People often describe their constipation as bowel movements that are difficult to pass, firm stool with lumpy or hard consistency, and excessive straining during bowel movements. Bloating, abdominal distension, and abdominal pain often accompany constipation. Chronic constipation (symptoms present at least three days per month for more than three months) associated with abdominal discomfort is often diagnosed as irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) when no obvious cause is found.\nPoor dietary habits, previous abdominal surgeries,", "-28.14348173106555" ], [ "Fecal impaction Signs and symptoms Symptoms include chronic constipation. There can be fecal incontinence and paradoxical or overflow diarrhea (encopresis) as liquid stool passes around the obstruction. Complications may include necrosis and ulcers of the rectal tissue. Abdominal pain and bloating could also be present depending on the severity of the condition. Loss of appetite can also occur. Causes There are many possible causes; for example, physical inactivity, not eating enough (particularly of fiber), and not drinking enough water. Medications such as opioid pain relievers (suboxone, methadone, codeine, oxycodone, hydrocodone, etc.) and certain sedatives that reduce intestinal movement may cause", "-28.119325653184205" ], [ "as digestive tract, plays an important role in one's health and that's why it is said that all diseases begin in the gut. The four aforesaid humors, or Akhlat, are supposed to supply the cells and the body organs with necessary nutrients.\nTherefore, the healthier the humors are the healthier the body. So, selecting healthy food stuff in accordance with the main Mizaj (temperament) to aid digestion is the point to keep healthy. Excessive amounts of blood, yellow bile, black bile, and phlegm is rooted from the fact that someone has not stick to their healthy diet.\nIn the Iranian traditional medicine", "-28.08907094784081" ], [ "Healthy digestion Disruptions to healthy digestion Many events can disrupt digestion. Disrupted digestion can have many symptoms, including diarrhea, constipation, heartburn, bloating, flatulence, and indigestion.\nSome people have chronic medical conditions which disrupt their digestion. Other people might be taking a drug which disrupts their digestion. In those cases, the person's goals for healthy digestion might be to have their personal best possible digestion since they have other health problems to manage.\nFood intolerance can disrupt digestion. Healthy lifestyle Whenever possible, it is easier for a person to prevent digestive problems from happening rather than to seek to treat them after they", "-28.065529788305867" ], [ "break down fat causes diarrhea and vomiting which eventually causes FTT (Failure to Thrive) and need of TPN (Total Parenteral Nutrition) if not given correct formula. Further this will cause protein losing enteropathy and very low albumin.", "-27.997617021930637" ], [ "end stage of type I and type II hernias occurs when the whole stomach migrates up into the chest by rotating 180° around its longitudinal axis, with the cardia and pylorus as fixed points. In this situation the abnormality is usually referred to as an intrathoracic stomach. Treatment In the great majority of cases, sufferers experience no life-altering discomfort, and no treatment is required. If there is pain or discomfort, 3 or 4 sips of room temperature water will usually relieve the pain. Symptomatic patients should elevate the head of their beds and avoid lying down directly after meals. If", "-27.964041566228843" ], [ "or dyspepsia, vomiting, and in chronic disease, digestive problems leading to forms of malnutrition. In addition to routine tests, an endoscopy might be used to examine or take a biopsy from the stomach. Intestinal disease The small and large intestines may be affected by infectious, autoimmune, and physiological states. Inflammation of the intestines is called enterocolitis, which may lead to diarrhea.\nAcute conditions affecting the bowels include infectious diarrhoea and mesenteric ischaemia. Causes of constipation may include faecal impaction and bowel obstruction, which may in turn be caused by ileus, intussusception, volvulus. Inflammatory bowel disease is a condition of unknown", "-27.935474058645923" ], [ "rumen acidosis can lead to death of the animal, and will occur if the animal is allowed to eat a diet with no roughage but high levels of highly digestible starchy concentrate. Some dairy cows in intensive systems of milk production may have sub-acute acidosis because of the high rates of cereals in their diets relative to an insufficient amount of forage. However most producers provide adequate fodder in the form of hay to prevent this.", "-27.896528951241635" ], [ "anorexia nervosa, pituitary gland malfunction and other endocrine problems, and numerous other illnesses and eating disorders.\nA chronic lack of nutritious food can cause various illnesses, and will eventually lead to starvation. When this happens in a locality on a massive scale, it is considered a famine.\nIf eating and drinking is not possible, as is often the case when recovering from surgery, alternatives are enteral nutrition and parenteral nutrition. Mammals To maintain a high constant body temperature is energy expensive—mammals therefore need a nutritious and plentiful diet. While the earliest mammals were probably predators, different species have since adapted to meet", "-27.892662456142716" ], [ "and quenching of free radicals. Specific deficiencies of cyanocobalamin, thiamine, riboflavin, niacin, and pyridoxine, folic acid, and other proteins with sulfur-containing amino acids may play a role.\nMonths of depletion are usually necessary to deplete body stores of most nutrients and a nutritional optic neuropathy may be present in a patient with or without obvious evidence of under-nutrition. An individual suffering from starvation could be easily recognized as a person who is undernourished due to their cachectic corporal appearance. However, a not so obvious individual may be the recipient of a gastric bypass surgery, a procedure that may lead to", "-27.88316313391988" ], [ "be affected and these infections are unlikely to result in an epidemic, even if transmissible.\nGastrointestinal disorders are observed as either constipation or diarrhea. These are almost always the result of a problem with the diet, but if the diet is optimal, they could be the symptom of an infectious disease. Constipation in chinchillas is difficult to observe in groups because it may not be obvious than an animal is not contributing to the population's waste. If it is identified, mild treatments include feeding paraffin to soften the feces. Mental health Chinchillas are easily distressed and when they are unhappy they", "-27.87013082334306" ], [ "affects breeds with deep, narrow chests, such as Great Danes, St. Bernards, German Shepherds, Standard Poodles and Irish Setters. The stomach twists on its supporting ligaments, sealing off the exits, and the contents begin to generate gas pressure which is very painful and rapidly causes shock and necrosis of large areas of stomach tissue. It can be fatal within a few hours. Dogs who have experienced bloat are very susceptible to recurrences. Treatment involves stabilization and abdominal surgery to tack the dog's stomach down to prevent recurrence (gastropexy). Eye diseases Eye diseases are common in dogs. Cataracts,", "-27.849944753263117" ], [ "causing malnutrition in the UK. In 2013, he said that \"last year more than 27,000 people were diagnosed as suffering from malnutrition in Leeds – not Lesotho, not Liberia, not Lusaka but Leeds?\" and feels these reports \"disgrace us all, leaving a dark stain on our consciences\". Government welfare reform were, \nbeginning to bite – with reductions in housing benefit for so-called under-occupation of social housing, the cap on benefits for workless householders and single parents, and the gradual replacement of the disability living allowance with a personal independence payment\". General election In the run up to the 2017", "-27.848093965425505" ], [ "unlike bulimia, rumination is not self-inflicted. Adults and adolescents with rumination syndrome are generally well aware of their gradually increasing malnutrition, but are unable to control the reflex. In contrast, those with bulimia intentionally induce vomiting, and seldom re-swallow food.\nGastroparesis is another common misdiagnosis. Like rumination syndrome, patients with gastroparesis often bring up food following the ingestion of a meal. Unlike rumination, gastroparesis causes vomiting (in contrast to regurgitation) of food, which is not being digested further, from the stomach. This vomiting occurs several hours after a meal is ingested, preceded by nausea and retching, and has the bitter or", "-27.81047936610412" ], [ "beriberi, pellagra, and scurvy. These diseases collectively can also cause diarrhea, skin rashes, edema, and heart failure. Individuals are often irritable and lethargic as a result.\nThere is insufficient scientific data on exactly how long people can live without food. Although the length of time varies with an individual's percentage of body fat and general health, one medical study estimates that in adults complete starvation leads to death within 8 to 12 weeks. Starvation begins when an individual has lost about 30%, or about a third, of their normal body weight. Once the loss reaches 40%", "-27.80903914233204" ], [ "of the gut microbiome in relatively short timescales. However, if wanting to change the microbiome to combat a disease or illness, long-term changes in diet have proven to be most successful. Malnourishment Malnourished human children have less mature and less diverse gut microbiota than healthy children, and changes in the microbiome associated with nutrient scarcity can in turn be a pathophysiological cause of malnutrition. Malnourished children also typically have more potentially pathogenic gut flora, and more yeast in their mouths and throats. Altering diet may lead to changes in gut microbiota composition and diversity. Geography Gut microbiome composition depends on", "-27.78188283171039" ], [ "growing share of the population in the upcoming years. Factors contributing to this growth include rising life expectancy and falling birth rates. Malnourishment Further information (including graphs): http://apps.who.int/nutrition/landscape/report.aspx?iso=SGP&rid=1620&goButton=Go\nMalnourishment is “a condition caused by inadequate, excessive or imbalance intake of nutrients\". Common indicators used to measure malnourishment are body mass index and vitamin deficiencies. Children From 1977 to 2000, children malnutrition for those aged five and younger had moments of improvement and backtrack. The prevalence of children being underweight, having stunted growth or being weak has improved. More specifically, in 2000 it was 8.9% less common for a child to be", "-27.725964757541078" ], [ "300,000 people had become ill, with more than 50,000 infant hospitalizations and six infant deaths. In a study published in the New England Journal of Medicine, it was reported that melamine exposure increased the incidence of urinary tract stones by seven times in children.\nMelamine may have been added to fool government protein content tests after water was added to fraudulently dilute the milk. Because of melamine's high nitrogen content (66% by mass versus approx. 10–12% for typical protein), it can cause the protein content of food to appear higher than the true value. Officials estimate that about 20% of the", "-27.721096138557186" ], [ "stomach disorder where the stomach cannot function properly) on 23 March 1874 at Stanfield House, Upper Wick, Worcestershire, and was buried in the family tomb at St Peter's, Powick.", "-27.72055099811405" ], [ "fall off and he or she would continue to improve in health if they halted consumption of ergot. The trunk of the body remained relatively untouched by the disease until its final stages and the victims, not understanding the cause of their ailment, would continue to imbibe ergot-laden food for weeks until the condition reached their digestive system. It is believed that the peasantry and children were most susceptible to ergotism, though the wealthy were afflicted as well, as at times entire villages relied on tainted crops for sustenance and during times of famine, ergotism reached into every house. Ergot", "-27.701118813129142" ], [ "There can also be problems of abnormal distension of the abdomen after meals. Long-term health issues Long-term negative health effects were reported. Chronic diarrhoea is a common and frequent complication, and further leading to higher risk of proctologic diseases such as haemorrhoids. More seriously, the risks of developing nephrolithiasis and chronic kidney disease are 28.7% and 9.0% respectively in the long term. Nutritional deficiencies and solutions Nutritional deficiencies are often seen in patients after the surgery due to malabsorption. They include: Loss of appetite Anorexia is considered to be a normal response found after the first few weeks of the", "-27.689186379458988" ], [ "the naturally produced enzyme lactase in the stomach. Lactose intolerance is exemplified by the inability to tolerate and fully digest dairy products, such as milk, ice cream, cheese and pizza. Symptoms may include a painful combination of digestive discomfort, including gas, cramping, bloating or diarrhea. According to the American Academy of Pediatrics Committee on Nutrition (2006), \"the symptoms of lactose intolerance can lead to significant discomfort, disruption of the quality of life, and loss of school attendance, leisure and sports activities, and work time, all at a cost to individuals, families, and society.\" \nCurrently, there is no", "-27.642929242516402" ], [ "enters the stomach through the esophagus via the lower esophageal sphincter. The stomach releases proteases (protein-digesting enzymes such as pepsin) and hydrochloric acid, which kills or inhibits bacteria and provides the acidic pH of 2 for the proteases to work. Food is churned by the stomach through muscular contractions of the wall called peristalsis – reducing the volume of the bolus, before looping around the fundus and the body of stomach as the boluses are converted into chyme (partially digested food). Chyme slowly passes through the pyloric sphincter and into the duodenum of the small intestine, where the extraction of", "-27.616523336968385" ], [ "the stomach muscles. These contractions—sometimes called hunger pangs once they become severe—are believed to be triggered by high concentrations of the ghrelin hormone. The hormones Peptide YY and Leptin can have an opposite effect on the appetite, causing the sensation of being full. Ghrelin can be released if blood sugar levels get low—a condition that can result from long periods without eating. Stomach contractions from hunger can be especially severe and painful in children and young adults.\nHunger pangs can be made worse by irregular meals. People who cannot afford to eat more than once a day sometimes refuse one-off additional", "-27.582842545816675" ], [ "carcinoma, though not usually in cases of adenocarcinoma. Eventual weight loss due to reduced appetite and undernutrition is common. Pain behind the breastbone or in the region around the stomach often feels like heartburn. The pain can frequently be severe, worsening when food of any sort is swallowed. Another sign may be an unusually husky, raspy, or hoarse-sounding cough, a result of the tumor affecting the recurrent laryngeal nerve.\nThe presence of the tumor may disrupt the normal contractions of the esophagus when swallowing. This can lead to nausea and vomiting, regurgitation of food and coughing. There is also an", "-27.575910903920885" ], [ "(1.2 to 1.7 in). During the entire period, the adults do not eat and their stomachs shrink dramatically.", "-27.550603085459443" ], [ "intolerance due to small bowel disease may benefit from avoiding lactose-containing foods. Patients who cannot eat may be given total parenteral nutrition (TPN), a source of vitamins and nutrients.\nFish oil may be effective in reducing the chance of relapse in less severe cases.\nBecause the terminal ileum is the most common site of involvement and is the site for vitamin B₁₂ absorption, people with Crohn's disease are at risk for B₁₂ deficiency and may need supplementation. In cases with extensive small intestine involvement, the fat-soluble vitamins A, D, E and K may be deficient. Folate deficiency is a risk for patients", "-27.53310569387395" ], [ "produced. Diets that aim to reduce the amount of undigested fermentable food residues arriving in the colon have been shown to significantly reduce the volume of flatus produced. Again, increased volume of intestinal gas will not cause bloating and pain in normal subjects. Abnormal intestinal gas dynamics will create pain, distension, and bloating, regardless of whether there is high or low total flatus volume. Smell Although flatus possesses physiological smell, this may be abnormally increased in some patients and cause social distress to the patient. Increased smell of flatus presents a distinct clinical issue from other complaints related to intestinal", "-27.532613466260955" ], [ "preparing these protein sources for further digestion and absorption in the small intestine. Pathology Dairy cattle on high production diets are susceptible to a number of pathologies, most commonly after calving. A gas-filled abomasum can move into an abnormal location, resulting in left-displaced abomasum (LDA) or right-displaced abomasum (RDA). If the abomasum displaces to the right, it is at risk of torsion and becoming a right torsioned abomasum (RTA). A displaced abomasum will cause cows to present all or some of the following signs: loss of appetite, decrease rumen contractions, decrease cud chewing, and drop in milk production. While an", "-27.520179522922263" ], [ "even destroy the stomach or its lining. In some cases bile, normally used to aid digestion in the small intestine, will enter through the pyloric valve of the stomach if it has been removed during surgery or does not work properly, also leading to gastritis. Gastritis may also be caused by other medical conditions, including HIV/AIDS, Crohn's disease, certain connective tissue disorders, and liver or kidney failure. Since 1992, chronic gastritis lesions are classified according to the Sydney system. Metaplasia Mucous gland metaplasia, the reversible replacement of differentiated cells, occurs in the setting of severe damage of the", "-27.493595598032698" ], [ "starvation is shown to have limited intrauterine growth and has been identified as one of the most important contributors to coronary heart disease as well as other chronic diseases later in life. These findings agree well with Barker's hypothesis; it supports the theory that maternal under-nutrition leads to a lower birth weight due to restricted intrauterine development and ultimately leads to higher risks of chronic conditions in adult life. The french paradox The French paradox regards the seemingly paradoxical fact that people living in France since many generations suffer from a relatively little incidence of heart disease, although the traditional", "-27.435757050290704" ], [ "professional eater Tim Janus, who ate 36 hot dogs in 10 minutes before doctors intervened. It was concluded that through training, Janus' stomach failed to have normal muscle contractions called peristalsis, a function which transfers food from the stomach down the digestive tract.\nOther medical professionals contend that binge eating can cause stomach perforations in those with ulcers and gulping large quantities of water during training can lead to water intoxication, a condition which dilutes electrolytes in the blood. Gastroparesis, also known as stomach paralysis, is also a concern among those who routinely stretch their stomachs beyond capacity. The condition may", "-27.36652640067041" ], [ "and reports showed that there were no traces of food in her stomach, but some alcohol (possibly from her medication) was found and it is possible that she had not consumed anything for more than three days and as a consequence starved to death. The police ruled out any foul play and it was determined she succumbed due to total organ failure and diabetes.\nParveen Babi converted to Christianity during the last years of her life, as she stated in an interview, and was baptised in a Protestant Anglican Church at Malabar Hill. and expressed a desire to be buried as", "-27.32400479059288" ], [ "Gastric outlet obstruction Signs and symptoms The main symptom is vomiting, which typically occurs after meals, of undigested food devoid of any bile. A history of previous peptic ulcers and loss of weight is not uncommon. In advanced cases, signs to look for on physical examination are wasting and dehydration. Visible peristalsis from left to right may be present. Succussion splash is a splash-like sound heard over the stomach in the left upper quadrant of the abdomen on shaking the patient, with or without the stethoscope. Bowel sound may be increased (borborygmi) due to excessive peristaltic action of the", "-27.314823778229766" ], [ "in the proximal small intestine causes bile and acid to accumulate in the stomach, typically leading to periodic vomiting, or if the vagus nerve is damaged. Where such conditions are only short term, as in a hospital setting, a nasal tube connected to suction is usually used. A blockage lower in the intestinal tract may be addressed with a surgical procedure known as a colostomy, and either type of blockage may be corrected with a bowel resection under appropriate circumstances. If such correction is not possible or practical, nutrition may be supplied by parenteral nutrition. Gastrojejunal feeding tube A", "-27.312393732951023" ], [ "a stretching of the wall of the stomach pouch, stimulating nerves that tell the brain that the stomach is full. The patient feels a sensation of fullness, as if they had just eaten a large meal—but with just a thimble-full of food. Most people do not stop eating simply in response to a feeling of fullness, but the patient rapidly learns that subsequent bites must be eaten very slowly and carefully, to avoid increasing discomfort or vomiting.\nFood is first churned in the stomach before passing into the small intestine. When the lumen of the small intestine comes into contact with", "-27.281990529299947" ], [ "medications that kill fast-dividing cells. Malnutrition and dehydration can result when the recipient does not eat or drink enough, or when the person vomits frequently, because of gastrointestinal damage. This can result in rapid weight loss, or occasionally in weight gain, if the person eats too much in an effort to allay nausea or heartburn. Weight gain can also be caused by some steroid medications. These side-effects can frequently be reduced or eliminated with antiemetic drugs. Self-care measures, such as eating frequent small meals and drinking clear liquids or ginger tea, are often recommended. In general, this is a temporary", "-27.28152190661058" ], [ "dehydration and can become life-threatening without treatment. Constipation Constipation refers to bowel movements that are infrequent or hard to pass. Constipation is a common cause of painful defecation. Severe constipation includes obstipation (failure to pass stools or gas) and fecal impaction, which can progress to bowel obstruction and become life-threatening. Others Bile overload is very rare, and not a health threat. Problems as simple as serious diarrhea may cause blood in one's stool. Black stools caused by the presence of blood usually indicate a problem in the intestines (the black color is a sign of digested blood), whereas red streaks", "-27.24920941935852" ], [ "which contribute to malnutrition. The malabsorption may be due to a loss of brush border enzymes, erosion and flattening of the villi, and inflammation of the lamina propria. Others Ascaris have an aversion to some general anesthetics and may exit the body, sometimes through the mouth, when an infected individual is put under general anesthesia. Lifecycle The first appearance of eggs in stools is 60–70 days. In larval ascariasis, symptoms occur 4–16 days after infection. The final symptoms are gastrointestinal discomfort, colic and vomiting, fever, and observation of live worms in stools. Some patients may have pulmonary symptoms or neurological", "-27.228488510241732" ], [ "in MBO include mechanical compression of the gut, motility disorders, gastrointestinal secretion accumulation, decreased gastrointestinal absorption, and inflammation. Bowel obstruction and the resulting nausea may also occur as a result of anti-cancer therapy such as radiation, or adhesion after surgery. Impaired gastric emptying as a result of bowel obstruction may not respond to drugs alone, and surgical intervention is sometimes the only means of symptom relief. Some constipating drugs used in cancer therapy such as opioids may cause a slowing of peristalsis of the gut, which may lead to a functional bowel obstruction. Anticipatory A common consequence of cancer", "-27.213648371282034" ], [ "Bilirubinuria Causes The most common cause of bilirubinuria is hepatocellular disease. More rare causes include inherited disorders, such as Dubin–Johnson syndrome and Rotor syndrome.\nAlthough Gilbert's syndrome and Crigler–Najjar syndrome are characterized by increased bilirubin in the serum, the bilirubin in these inherited disorders is not conjugated and thus not excreted in the urine.\nThe increase of stercobilin (urobilin) in the feces and urine is caused by the enhanced intracellular hemolysis of erythrocytes. Formed an unconjugated bilirubin entering the intestine, gives a large number of stercobilinogen (urobilinogen). Last absorbed into the blood and passes into the urine.", "-27.211770769703435" ], [ "lesion to the VMH makes rats overproduce leptin, which they cannot respond to causing them to over eat, leading to obesity.\nResearchers looked at a series of twenty-one animals of various degrees of adiposity, with respect to growth appearance, fat distribution, general physical condition, and the correlation between the level of adiposity attained and the correlation of the hypothalamic lesion. Lesions in the hypothalamic area, particularly the region of the ventromedial hypothalamus interrupts a large number of the descending fibers from the hypothalamic cell groups that were found to contribute to obesity in rats.\nAnother study found that there seems to be", "-27.21039154729806" ], [ "initiating feeds in a malnourished patient. Refeeding syndrome is caused by a shift in fluid and electrolytes in a malnourished person as they receive artificial refeeding. It is potentially fatal, and can occur whether receiving enteral or parenteral nutrition. The most serious and common electrolyte abnormality is hypophosphatemia, although sodium abnormalities are common as well. It can also cause changes in glucose, protein, and fat metabolism. Incidence of refeeding syndrome is high, with one prospective cohort study showing 34% of ICU experienced hypophosphatemia soon after feeding was restarted. Prognosis Children with failure to thrive are at an increased risk for", "-27.203352946527957" ], [ "trouble occurs in breaking down or synthesizing fats (or fat-like substances). Lipid metabolism disorders are associated with an increase in the concentrations of plasma lipids in the blood such as LDL cholesterol, VLDL, and triglycerides which most commonly lead to cardiovascular diseases. A good deal of the time these disorders are hereditary, meaning it's a condition that is passed along from parent to child through their genes. Gaucher's disease (types I, II, and III), Niemann–Pick disease, Tay–Sachs disease, and Fabry's disease are all diseases where those afflicted can have a disorder of their body's lipid metabolism. Rarer diseases concerning a", "-27.20278263904038" ], [ "overeating is curbed because exceeding the capacity of the stomach causes nausea and vomiting. Diet restrictions after recovery from surgery depend in part on the type of surgery. Many patients will need to take a daily multivitamin pill for life to compensate for reduced absorption of essential nutrients. Because patients cannot eat a large quantity of food, physicians typically recommend a diet that is relatively high in protein and low in fats and alcohol. Fluid recommendations It is very common, within the first month post-surgery, for a patient to undergo volume depletion and dehydration. Patients have difficulty drinking", "-27.15735337487422" ] ]