Talk:Garri

message: Proposal:  move to Gari (African food).  "Gari" is a more common spelling than "garri" via Google search.  Badagnani 22:05, 13 March 2006 (UTC)
replies: text: I still think it should be moved. The first time I came across this spelling was on Wikipedia. Google shows "gari" as the more popular spelling as mentioned above, though this should not be the only criterium. It is the more popular spelling from my personal experience and Wikipedia should not change it to suit its taste. It could be changed to Gari (food) or Gari (African food) as suggested above.--Natsubee 06:44, 6 August 2007 (UTC)
thread_title: Title of article

message: How does garri relate to the Brazilian starch called "polvilho azedo" in Portuguese? It's a pre-fermented starch made from the yuca (cassava, manioc, tapioca) root. I imagine it's very similar to garri in powdered form.  — Preceding unsigned comment added by 98.235.148.35 (talk) 02:00, 25 March 2012 (UTC)
replies: text: I thought cassava came from South America.  I could be completely wrong, but I think it was introduced in West Africa as a byproduct of the slave trade. Regardless, it still has been used for centuries in West Africa. I will do some more research.Rcollman (talk) 18:25, 10 March 2017 (UTC)
replies: text: "Cassava was introduced into Africa by Portuguese traders from Brazil in the 16th century (Okigbo, 1980). It was initially adopted as a famine-reserve crop." http://www.fao.org/docrep/009/a0154e/A0154E02.htm cites Okigbo, Bede, N. 1980. Nutritional implications of projects giving high priority to the production of staples of low nutritive quality. The case of cassava in the humid tropics of West Africa. Food and Nutrition Bulletin, 2(4). United Nations University, Tokyo.  Cassava can withstand drought and many native West African pests and diseases.Rcollman (talk) 18:38, 10 March 2017 (UTC)
thread_title: Brazilian polvilho azedo

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message: 1. 0	INTRODUCTION
Globally, money is one of the items most frequently passed from hand to hand. During its passing, money can get contaminated and may thus play a role in the transmission of microorganisms to other people.   For example, money may get contaminated with microorganisms from the respiratory and gastro-intestinal tract during counting. Money is not usually suitable for the survival of microorganisms, except for some that are resistant to external conditions and non-resistant forms of spores.  In addition, the general hygiene levels of a community or society may contribute to the amount of microbes found on coins and notes, and thus the chance of transmission during handling of money (Jolaoso, 1981; Awodi et al., 2001; Itoda, 2001).  
The Naira note is the official currency of the Federal Republic of Nigeria, issued and regulated by the Central Bank of Nigeria (CBN). According to CBN, the expected lifespan of the Naira notes is 24 months but the mishandling reduces this to less than 6 months. The abused Naira note denotes the currency, which had been fairly long (not more than 24 months) in circulation, mishandled, structurally disfigured, literally mutilated and for most of the time they are dirty. Incidentally, abused Naira notes were reported as vehicles of bacterial, mold and other parasitic infections and agents of cross contamination (Jolaoso, 1981; Awodi et al., 2001; Itoda, 2001). Studies from other parts of world (Shukla, 1980; Oyler et al ., 1996; Pachter et al ., 1997; Havas, 2000) have also shown that bank notes revealed the presence of high load of germs, which could cause tuberculosis, meningitis, pneumonia, tonsillitis, peptic ulcers, genital tract infections, gastro-intestinal tract infections and lung diseases. Contact with contaminated currency notes could also cause diarrhoea and urinary tract infections besides skin burn and septicaemic infections. The abused Nigerian currency became an issue of concern particularly in the recent times when the CBN embarked on a nationwide enlightenment campaigns aimed at educating the public on the proper ways of handling the Naira notes. 
This study aims at determining the types and population of the microorganisms (bacteria and fungi) on the abused Naira notes from Kano metropolis.  
1.1	Factors responsible for contamination of money
In day to day transactions, money is handled by persons of varying health and hygienic standards and also stored under varying environmental and personal hygienic conditions. In most of the countries, poor currency handling culture is widespread, and there is indiscriminate abuse of currency notes. An individual living in unhygienic conditions and having unhygienic habits will contaminate the notes e.g., keeping currency notes in socks, shoes and pockets, under the carpet or rugs and squeezing them in the hand  frequently introduces an array of  microbes to the notes. Attitudes such as the wetting of hands or fingers with saliva or use of contaminated water to lubricate the hand in counting money and use of food  contaminated fingers in handling currency notes may not  only enhance the contamination  of currency notes but may also increase the risk of infection from contaminated ones. In addition, contamination of currency notes can also be traced to dust, soil, water, microflora of the body of handlers (hand, skin, etc.,) (Awe et al ., 2010). Microorganisms on the skin can be transferred from cashiers, salespeople and the general public to the currency notes that they handle (Badvi et al., 2010). Paper currency can also be contaminated by droplets during coughing, sneezing, touching with previously contaminated hands or other materials and by their placement on dirty surfaces (Ahmed et al., 2010).
Contamination from the anal region, wounds and nasal secretions are also potential sources of transfer of microorganisms to currency notes during handling (Igumbor et al., 2007). Source of contamination could also be due to poor or negative money handling practices like spraying during ceremonies where such notes may be trampled upon when they fall on the ground (Ogo et al., 2004). These notes pass through many hands, during which pathogens become imposed on them and thus act as vehicles delivering microbes to contaminate the hands of the next user.
Paper currency remains for few years in circulation and provides a large surface area as a breeding ground for pathogens (Podhajny, 2004). Further, storage of these notes in polythene, cotton or leather bags in humid and dark conditions also favours the growth of fungal and bacterial organisms on them (Barolia et al., 2011). Currency notes of lower denomination receive the most rough handling as they are circulated among people from various occupations and walks of life, like beggars, street food vendors, shoe-shiners, school children, butchers, etc. Therefore, there are chances of higher levels of microbial contamination on lower denomination notes.
 
2.1	Microbes from currency notes and coins in circulation
Evidences of microbial contamination of currency notes has been reported by various researchers from Myanmar (Khin et al., 1989), Turkey (Goktas and Oktay, 1992), Australia (FSA, 2000), India (Singh et al., 2002), China (Xu et al., 2005) and Ghana (Feglo and Nkansah, 2010). Abrams and Waterman (1972) examined both paper and coin currency and found 70% of them to be contaminated with bacteria. Bosch and Steyn (1997) showed that 90% of South-African bank notes in circulation were contaminated with bacteria or fungi. In United States, it was found that 94% of the US one dollar bills were contaminated with pathogenic or potentially pathogenic organisms (Pope et al., 2002).  Another study conducted in Egypt showed bacterial counts above 5.0 cm2 in 65% of the tested bills (El-Dars and Hassan, 2005). Basavarajappa et al., (2005) also reported that 96% of the assessed currency notes were contaminated with bacteria (Klebsiella pneumoniae, Escherichia coli, Staphlococcus aureus, Pseudomonas species and Salmonella typhi), fungi and protozoans. From Bangladesh, Hosen et al. (2006) found that 80 ± 5% of old two- Taka notes had bacterial contamination. Igumbor et al. (2007) tested 240 banknotes for microbial contamination and found all of them to be contaminated with either bacteria or fungi.They also found that 84-100% of all the banknotes were contaminated with bacteria. Umeh et al. (2007) found that 89% of the studied Nigerian naira notes were contaminated with bacteria. A study by Tagoe et al. (2010) confirms that Ghanian currency notes were 100% contaminated, both with pathogenic and nonpathogenic organisms. Similarly, some studies have shown bacterial and fungal contamination varying from 60% to 96% on tested paper currencies (Alwakeel and Nasser, 2011).
From India, few studies regarding microbial load of currency notes and coins have been conducted. Bhat et al. (2010) found that 100% of the currency notes were contaminated with the species of bacteria namely Escherichia, Proteus and Staphylococcus. Rote et al. (2010) collected currency samples of different denominations from different occupational groups and evaluated them for the presence of microbial contaminants. They were able to isolate bacteria like Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli, Bacillus sp. Klebsiella sp., Proteus mirabilis and fungi like Aspergillus niger and Fusarium species from these paper notes. A survey carried out by Abirami et al. (2012) in Nanded city (Maharashtra) also revealed heavy contamination of currency notes and coins by important fungal species like Aspergillus niger (60.37%), A. flavus (3.98%), A. nidulans (0.2%), Penicillium citrinum (17.80%), Alternaria tenuis (0.20%), Curvularia pallescens (0.20%), Cladosporium cladosporioides (10.69%), Rhizopus stolonifer (1.04%), Fusarium sp. (0.20%) and Trichoderma viride (0.20%). Among the recovered species, those of Aspergillus, Penicillium and Fusarium were the most frequent. Researchers from other parts of the world have also reported fungal and bacterial contamination of notes. From Nigeria, Okungbowa and Dede (2010) isolated various fungi from naira notes (Nigerian currency) and their frequencies varied. Later, Ayandele and Adeniyi (2011) isolated 79 different microorganisms from  naira notes and some of  the prevalent microbes included Staphylococcus aureus (3.8 %), Bacillus subtilis (10.1%), Enterobacter aerogenes (8.9%), Staphylococcus epidermidis and Aspergillus niger (11.4%), Bacillus megaterium (12.7%), Escherichia coli (3.8%), Pseudomonas putida and Aeromonas hydrophila (6.3%), Fusarium solani and Colletotrichum truncatum (5.1%), and Trichoderma reesei and Colletotrichum gloesporoides (7.6%). Orukotan and Yabaya (2011) also surveyed naira notes, comprising of all the denominations for microbial contamination in Kaduna metropolis. The microorganisms recovered from these notes included Escherichia coli, Bacillus, Salmonella, Streptococcus, Staphylococcus aureus, Proteus, Klebsiella, Micrococcus, Fusarium, Penicillium, Aspergillus and Rhizopus. They observed that among the recovered fungal isolates, Aspergillus species were the most common. Infact, Aspergillus species are usually present where organic debris abounds. Therefore, it reflects the fact that money is handled carelessly and dropped on dirty surfaces. Few other studies have revealed that parasite cysts and eggs are also prevalent on dirty and mutilated naira currency, whereas the fresh notes had no parasite (Ameh and Balogun, 1997; Ogo et al., 2004 ; Matur et al., 2010). It was observed that the presence of dirt on the notes was related with the presence of cysts or eggs of the parasites. These cysts and eggs recovered from the mutilated notes are of high socio-economic importance as they pose danger to the health of man e.g., Entamoeba histolytica and Ascaris lumbricoides are easily transmitted orally.  An important study conducted by Matur et al. (2010) reported that out of the 200 naira notes that were examined, 32% were contaminated with various species of parasites and 58% with bacteria species, whereas the fresh notes had no contamination. Parasites encountered included Ascaris lumbricoides eggs (4.5%), hookworm ova (8.5%), lice of the genus Pediculus humanus corporis (5.0%), Enterobius vermicularis eggs (0.5%), flagellate cysts (1.5%) and Entamoeba histolytica cysts (12.5%). He also recovered bacteria including Staphylococcus spp (30.5%), Escherichia coli (9.0%), Klebsiella spp. (6.5%), Pseudomonas spp. (6.5%) and Proteus spp. (5.5%).
From Iran, Dehghani et al. (2011) observed the presence of some medically important bacteria, such as, Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus, Bacillus, Klebsiella, Streptococcus, Serratia, Salmonella, Pseudomonas, Citrobacter, Shigella, Listeria, Enterobacter, Micrococcus and species of two fungal genera, Penicillium and Aspergillus on Iranian currency notes. Another study was conducted by Alwakeel and Nasser (2011) to determine the amount of contamination among Saudi Arabian currency notes. Of the 390 currency notes on which fungal and bacterial analysis was conducted, 282 (72.3%) were found to be contaminated with bacteria and fungi. This number is higher than the previous report from Egypt (El-Dars and Hassan, 2005) but is lower than the Indian (Basavarajappa et al., 2005) and US reports (Pope et al., 2002).  Fungi isolated from these currency notes included Aspergillus niger, A. flavus, Candida spp., Penicillium spp. and Rhizopus spp. Among these, Aspergillus niger was the most common isolate present in both old and new currency notes, followed in decreasing order by Aspergillus flavus. They also tested the effect of three types of commercial disinfectants viz., antiseptic liquid, sterilized liquid soap and hand gel sanitizer on the growth of fungi. Results revealed that the antiseptic liquid and the sterilized liquid soap were able to disinfect notes contaminated with Aspergillus niger and Rhizopus spp. but not those infected with Aspergillus flavus and Penicillium spp. However, hand gel sanitizer showed no effect on the isolated fungal species.
The degree of contamination and types of microbes present on the currency notes is dependent on sanitary conditions of the area, microbe endemism and texture of paper notes (Dehgani et al., 2011). The number of organisms present is also influenced by the ability of microbes to survive in dry environment (Beumer, 2007). Studies have shown that more the paper currency stays in circulation, higher is the risk of being contaminated. For example, Egyptian paper notes minted in the year 2000 had more bacterial contamination than those minted in 2003 (El-Dars and Hassan, 2005). According to a study conducted in Australia, it was found among the currencies collected from 10 different countries that lower the index value of the money, higher is the microbial content of the currency (Vriesekoop et al., 2010). They further showed that the age of the notes and the material that was used to produce the notes influence the degree of microbial contamination. Earlier studies have also shown that the lower denomination notes harbour the greatest bulk of infectious agents since they are exchanged more than higher denomination notes (Gadsby, 1998; Uneke and Ogbu, 2007). A significant direct relationship has been found between the physical condition of the paper notes and microbial contamination. Old, tattered and dirty notes are more contaminated than the fresh  notes and thus support the finding that damaged or soiled notes especially those held together with bits of sticky tapes are predominantly contaminated (Siddique, 2003). Uneke and Ogbu (2007) also reported that mutilated and dirty notes were more contaminated with microbes. They observed that intact fresh paper notes also have certain degree of dirt and microbial contamination. Recently, a study conducted by Sharma and Sumbali (2013) also showed that mint notes were less contaminated with fungal species (17) as compared to the soiled notes (37 fungal species). An association between the level of contamination and the possesser of currency like beggars, hawkers, bus conductors, butchers, traders, bankers etc., has also been observed. Khin et al. (1989) recovered high levels of enteric pathogens from paper money samples obtained from butchers and fish mongers of a local market in Rangoon, Myanmar. Even in the most developing countries, sanitation facilities at slaughter houses and meat markets are inadequate, resulting in very poor environmental sanitation, thus enhancing cross contamination from simultaneous handling of money and animal products. Recently, Uraku et al. (2012) investigated the spore count from currency samples collected from beggars to have the highest cfu (2.4 x 10-5), followed in decreasing order by currency handled by hawkers (1.8 x 10-5), market women (1.6 x 10-5), bus conductors (1.5 x 10-5) and bankers (1.0 x 10-5). The highest spore count on currency samples collected from beggars may be attributed to their living environment. Further, it was also observed that no particular type of denomination was susceptible to or protected against contamination since pathogens were found on all the denominations of currency notes.
In poorer societies, low value denomination currency notes and especially coins are frequently exchanged unlike in richer communities that use high value denomination. Although there are numerous reports on microbiological examination of paper currency, there are only few reports on examination of monetary coinage. In 1999, Jiang and Doyle suggested that coins could serve as potential vehicles for transmitting both E. coli O157:H7 and Salmonella. There is not much information on the isolation of fungal spores from coins. The first report on isolation of potentially pathogenic fungi from money coins was made by Kuria et al. (2009). The significant isolates included species of Penicillium, Aspergillus, Fusarium, Rhizopus, Alternaria and yeast fungi. Havas (2000) reported higher numbers of bacteria in notes than coins. In another study, it has been found that paper notes are more susceptible to contamination than polymer notes and coins (Prasai et al., 2008). Therefore, coins are relatively safer to handle as they carry few microorganisms (Barro et al., 2006; Beumer, 2007). During a recent investigation carried by Sharma and Sumbali (2013), total  of 37 fungal species belonging to 15 genera were recovered from the sampled soiled and mint currency notes of Jammu city (India). Among the recovered fungal species, Zygomycotina was represented by one species each of Absidia (A. corymbifera), Mucor (M. hiemalis), Rhizopus (R. oryzae) and Syncephalastrum (S. racemosum), which accounted for 10.8% of the recovered fungal species. Ascomycotina was represented by Chaetomium globosum, C. indicum, Emericella nidulans var. echinulatus and Eurotium chevalieri, which contributed 10.8% of the total recovered mycodiversity, whereas representation of mitosporic fungi was maximum, amounting to 78.4% of the recovered fungal species.The mitosporic fungi included eleven species of Aspergillus (A. flavus, A. fumigatus, A. japonicus, A. nidulans, A. niger, A. ochraceous, A. parasiticus, A. sydowii, A. terreus, A. terricola var. americana and A. versicolor), seven species of Penicillium (P. brevicompactum, P. chrysogenum, P. citrinum, P. expansum, P. griseofulvum, P. oxalicum and P. waksmanii), four species of Fusarium (F. oxysporum, F. pallidoroseum, F. solani and F. verticilloides), two species each of Curvularia (C. lunata and C. pallescens) and Paecilomyces (P. fusisporus and P. liliacinus), and one  species each of Cladosporium (C. cladosporioides), Trichoderma (T. koningii) and Alternaria (A. alternata). Investigations carried by Sharma and Sumbali (2013) revealed that Aspergillus was represented by maximum number of species (11), which accounted for 29.7% of the total recovered mycoflora, followed in decreasing order by Penicillium (18.9%) and Fusarium (10.8%), whereas the remaining 12 fungal genera contributed 40.6 % of the total recovered mycodiversity. The fungal species of common occurrence included Aspergillus flavus, A. japonicus, A. nidulans, A. niger, Fusarium pallidoroseum and Penicillium griseofulvum.
2.2	Microbes from currency counting machines
There is  a great probability of finding similar type of mycoflora on the  notes and coins present in the counting rooms and the counting machines of various banks. Recently, a study was carried out by Eneumor et al. (2012) to isolate and identify microorganisms associated with the currency counting machines and counting rooms environment in four commercial banks operating in Nigeria. It was found that 70% of all the currency counting machines from the four banks were contaminated with bacteria and 25% with fungi. Most of the organisms were isolated from the currency counting machines while currency counting rooms had fewer isolates or none in some cases. Most commonly six  bacterial species (Salmonella typhi, Staphylococcus sp., Escherichia coli, Streptococcus pyogenes, Enterococcus sp. and Proteus sp.) and 4 fungal genera (Aspergillus, Mucor, Rhizopus and Penicillium) were isolated. The identified microorganisms have pathogenic potential and hence their presence on such surfaces could serve as a source of cross-transmission of bacterial and fungal infections in the banks and the general community. In addition, findings of this work further suggest that dirty currency notes could harbour harmful micro-organisms, which may get deposited on the currency counting machines and in the environment of the counting rooms, thereby posing risk to customers and bankers alike.
2.3	Health concerns and other related issues
Studies conducted by various researchers have reported potential threat of the contaminated notes carrying pathogenic microbes for human health. Fomites (inanimate objects) are generally the main sources of infection in a community. Communicable diseases spread through contact with fomites and transfer through paper currencies is an important route (Pope et al., 2002). It is a very good vector for transmission of diseases due to their high circulation and frequency of handling (Wamae, 2009). The possibility that currency notes might act as vectors for the transmission of potential pathogenic microorganisms was suggested initially by Abrams and Waterman (1972). Later, isolation of bacterial, fungal and parasitic agents from currency notes   have confirmed that they may play an important role in the transmission of pathogenic microorganisms as well as in the spread of drug-resistant strains in the community, which are responsible for wide range of diseases. Antimicrobial resistance is a global phenomenon that has resulted in high morbidity and mortality as a result of treatment failures and increased health care costs (Laxminarayan and Malani, 2007).
In the recent years, opportunistic fungal infections have emerged as the interesting areas of research. The mould species isolated from paper notes and coins namely Penicillium, Fusarium, Rhizopus and Altenaria species cause a variety of opportunistic infections (Forbes et al., 1994). Amongst the various species of Aspergillus that are found frequently on the old paper notes and even on the intact newly minted notes, Aspergillus niger is known to be the predominant one. Though it is less likely to cause human disease, yet whenever many spores are inhaled, it can cause aspergillosis (Schuster et al., 2002). Inhalation of a large number of spores can sometimes cause acute pneumonia. The fungus can also colonize cavities in the lung. In patients with AIDS or other cases of immunocompromised patients, it invades all parts of the body and causes death (Campbell and Steward, 1980; Khin et al., 1989). It can also cause serious lung diseases as well as otomycosis (Ozcan et al., 2004; Ozhak-Baysan et al., 2010). Candida species can cause serious endocarditis (Halawa et al., 2011; Madhavan et al., 2011). Similarly, some Penicillium species are known to cause occasional infections in man e.g., penicilliosis, pneumonia, etc., (Ekenna et al., 2007; Dehghani et al. (2011). Rhizopus, a common mold, may cause mucormycosis and can be an agent for zygomycosis and eye infections (Antoniadou, 2009). Fusarium solani may cause a range of invasive mycoses and opportunistic infection in immunocompromised patients (Zhang et al., 2006). They also produce mycotoxins in food, which is dangerous to human and other animals (Grundy and Grundy, 1974). Similarly, Cryptococcus is also reported to cause opportunistic infection in immuno-compromised individuals (Currie and Casadevall, 1994).
Various diseases such as diphtheria, trachoma, gastroenteritis, whooping cough and pathogenic agents causing diarrhea are known to be transmitted through fomites (Gilchrist, 1993). Pathogens related with throat infection, pneumonia, tonsillitis, peptic ulcers, urino-genital tract infection, gastroenteritis and lung abscess have also been reported to spread through currency notes (Pope et al., 2002). Ahmed et al. (2010) suggested that the Bangladesh paper currency, which is commonly contaminated with pathogenic microorganisms may play a significant role in the transmission of potentially harmful microorganisms or different diseases such as cholera, diarrhoea, and skin infections. Accumulated data obtained over the last 20 years on the microbial status and survival of pathogen on coins and currency notes indicate that simultaneous handling of food and money is a potential cause of sporadic cases of food borne illness (New et al., 1989; Goktas and Oktay, 1992; Jiang and Doyle, 1999; FSA, 2000; Pope et al., 2002; Janardan et al., 2009; Vriesekoop et al., 2010.). Moreover, the fungal isolates can produce mycotoxins in foods, which are dangerous for the health of consumers (Grundy and Grundy, 1974). These findings have very important health and economic implications, especially in the underdeveloped and developing tropical nations of the world because climatic and environmental conditions of the tropics favour growth and multiplication of many pathogenic microorganisms (Anderson, 1991; Gwatkin, 2000). Money may thus serve as an unrecognized reservoir for pathogenic and non- pathogenic microbes.
Microbial contaminants may be transmitted either directly through hand to hand contact or indirectly via food or other inanimate objects like fomites, which are capable of absorbing, harbouring and transmitting infectious organisms. Dust and dirt that commonly accumulate on such objects may also contain spores of infectious agents (Oyero and Emikpe, 2007). Fomites are generally the main sources of infection in a community and paper currency, which is an exchangeable fomite, can be a good source due to its circulation and frequency of handling. These routes of transmission are of great importance in the health of many populations in developing countries, where the frequency of infection is a general indication of local hygiene and environmental sanitation levels (Cooper, 1991). Money, which is responsible for solving health problems can turn out to be as a cause of creating health problems. It is very good vector for the transmission of diseases (Wamae, 2009).
The possibility that currency notes might act as environmental vehicles for the transmission of potential pathogenic microorganisms was suggested by Abrams and Waterman (1972). Concern over communicable diseases is giving a new meaning to the term “Dirty Money”. So far, there is no direct evidence that presence of potential pathogens on currency notes result in infections but there are chances that contaminated notes may act as potential source of infections. Although, currency notes are impregnated with disinfectants during production to inhibit microorganisms, yet pathogens have been isolated from them in different parts of the world (New et al., 1989; Goktas and Oktay, 1992; Talaro, 2005; Liu et al., 2009; Ahmed et al., 2010). Accumulated data over the past two decades indicates that simultaneous handling of paper currency and food is related to the sporadic food-borne illness cases (Brady and Kelley,2000; Michaels,2002).Various pathogens related with throat infection, pneumonia, tonsillitis, peptic ulcers, urino-genital tract infection, gastro enteritis and lung abscess have  been reported from currency notes (Saeed and Rasheed, 2011). Researchers at the Regional Sophisticated Instrumentation Center (RSIC), North Eastern University, Shillong, India, who examined Indian banknotes, found germs which can cause tuberculosis, meningitis, tonsillitis, peptic ulcers, throat infections, genital tract infections, etc. (Bhat et al., 2010). Abirami et al. also reported various diseases caused by fungal species isolated from Indian currency notes. Consequently, chances of pathogens being present on money and persisting through multiple handling cannot be underestimated. Few countries like Nigeria, United States and Australia have fostered a higher level of public awareness about the potential for currency contamination by microorganisms (News, 1998; Jiang and Doyle, 1999; FSA, 2000; Michaels, 2002; Pope et al., 2002). The risk is by no means restricted to residents of the country in question; it might even be greater for expatriates, tourists and visitors from other countries, who may not be immune to the pathogens.
   — Preceding unsigned comment added by Profaliyusuf (talk • contribs) 22:20, 10 July 2018 (UTC)
thread_title:  Microbes associated with currency