হিন্দু ধর্মগ্রন্থের সময়কাল

হিন্দু ধর্মগ্রন্থ দুই ভাবে শ্রেণিবদ্ধ - শ্রুতি ও স্মৃতি। শ্রুতি অর্থ যা শোনা হয়েছে, আর স্মৃতি অর্থ যা মনে রাখা হয়েছে। সংহিতা, ব্রাহ্মণ, আরণ্যক ও মুখ্য উপনিষদ সহ বেদ শ্রুতিশাস্ত্রের অন্তর্গত। উল্লেখ্য যে হিন্দুশাস্ত্র মুখে মুখে সংরক্ষণ করা হয়েছিল, যার জন্য ঐতিহাসিক তারিখগুলোর সঠিক তথ্য নেই। তাই তারিখগুলিকে আনুমানিক হিসাবে নির্ণয় করা হয়। হিন্দু ধর্মগ্রন্থ মনুসংহিতা শ্রুতি স্মৃতি বেদ James Lochtefeld (2002), "Shruti", The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Vol. 2: N–Z, Rosen Publishing. আইএসবিএন ৯৭৮০৮২৩৯৩১৭৯৮, page 645 James Lochtefeld (2002), "Smrti", The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Vol. 2: N–Z, Rosen Publishing, আইএসবিএন ৯৭৮-০৮২৩৯৩১৭৯৮, page 656-657 Wendy Doniger O'Flaherty (1988), Textual Sources for the Study of Hinduism, Manchester University Press, আইএসবিএন ০-৭১৯০-১৮৬৭-৬, pages 2-3 Michael Witzel, "Vedas and Upaniṣads", in: Flood, Gavin, ed. (2003), The Blackwell Companion to Hinduism, Blackwell Publishing Ltd., আইএসবিএন ১-৪০৫১-৩২৫১-৫, pages 68-71 William Graham (1993), Beyond the Written Word: Oral Aspects of Scripture in the History of Religion, Cambridge University Press, আইএসবিএন ৯৭৮-০৫২১৪৪৮২০৮, pages 67-77 Oberlies, Thomas (Die Religion des Rgveda, Wien, 1998, p. 155) gives an estimate of 1100 BCE for the youngest hymns in book 10। Estimates for a terminus post quem of the earliest hymns are more uncertain. Oberlies (p. 158) based on 'cumulative evidence' sets wide range of 1700–1100. Flood, Gavin (1996)। An Introduction to Hinduism। পৃষ্ঠা ৩৭-৩৯; Witzel 1995, পৃষ্ঠা ৪; Anthony 2007, পৃষ্ঠা ৪৫৪; Michael Witzel (2003)। Vedas and Upaniṣads। The Blackwell Companion to Hinduism। Blackwell। পৃষ্ঠা 68-70 Flood, Gavin (১৯৯৬)। An Introduction to Hinduism। পৃষ্ঠা 37–39। আইএসবিএন 0521438780। ; Witzel 1995, পৃষ্ঠা ৪; Anthony 2007, পৃষ্ঠা ৪৫৪; Michael Witzel (2003)। Vedas and Upaniṣads। The Blackwell Companion to Hinduism। Blackwell। পৃষ্ঠা 68-70 Sharma, Shubhra (1985)। Life in the Upanishads। Abhinav Publications। পৃষ্ঠা ১৭–১৯, আইএসবিএন ৯৭৮-৮১-৭০১৭-২০২-৪ Olivelle 1998। পৃষ্ঠা ৩৬। King and Ācārya 1995। পৃষ্ঠা ৫২। Collins, Charles Dillard (1988)। The Iconography and Ritual of Śiva at Elephanta। SUNY Press। পৃষ্ঠা ৩৬। Gavin (1996)। An Introduction to Hinduism (Book)। Cambridge University Press। পৃষ্ঠা ৩৫৯। Molloy, Michael (2008)। Experiencing the World's Religions। পৃষ্ঠা ৮৭। Brockington, J. (1998)। The Sanskrit Epics, Leiden। পৃষ্ঠা ২৬। Van Buitenen; The Mahabharata Vol. 1। The Book of the Beginning। Introduction। Flood, Gavin (1996)। An Introduction to Hinduism। পৃষ্ঠা ৩৭-৩৯; Witzel 1995, পৃষ্ঠা ৪; Anthony 2007, পৃষ্ঠা ৪৫৪; Michael Witzel (2003)। Vedas and Upaniṣads। The Blackwell Companion to Hinduism। Blackwell। পৃষ্ঠা 68-70 Upadhyaya, Kashi Nath (1998)। Early Buddhism and the Bhagavadgītā। Motilal Banarsidass Publ। পৃষ্ঠা ১৬। Molloy, Michael (2008)। Experiencing the World's Religions। পৃষ্ঠা ৮৭। Narayan, R.K. The Ramayana। Penguin Group, 2006। পৃষ্ঠা ২৩। "The Indian epic, the Ramayana, dates back to 1500 BCE according to certain early scholars. Recent studies have brought it down to about the fourth century BCE." Chaurasia, Radhey Shyam। History of Ancient India: Earliest Times to 1000 A. D.। পৃষ্ঠা ৩৮। "the Kernel of the Ramayana was composed before 500 B.C. while the more recent portion were not probably added till the 2nd century B.C. and later." Hiriyanna, M. (1995)। The Essentials of Indian Philosophy। Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass। পৃষ্ঠা ১৩০। Trautmann 1971। 185। "If the Kautilīya Arthaśāstra in its present form is not so old as it pretends, the śāstra itself is certainly old, predating the dharma smritis."Mabbett 1964। "The content of the text is consistent with authorship in about the third century, C.E., and raises some questions which must be answered if it is to be assigned to the fourth B.C.E. Against this must be set the verses naming and characterising Kautilya, and the references in later literature. What emerges is that there is no necessary incompatibility between the essential claims that Chanakya was responsible for the doctrines of the Arthaśāstra, and that the text we know is a product of the later time. These do not conflict. The work could have been written late on the basis of earlier teachings and writings. Sanskrit literature being so full of derivative, traditional and stratified material, this possibility is a priori strong. Those who favour the early date usually admit the probability of interpolations....Those who favour a later date usually admit the probability that the work draws on traditional material. The controversy is therefore spurious. It is entirely possible that the Mauryan Kautilya wrote an arthaśāstra and that a later editor rewrote his work, or compressed it, or compiled a text from the teachings of his school." B. K. Matilal। Perception। An Essay on Classical Indian। Theories of Knowledge। Oxford University Press, 1986। পৃষ্ঠা ১৪। Oliver Leaman। Key Concepts in Eastern Philosophy। Routledge, 1999। পৃষ্ঠা ২৬৯। Flood, Gavin (1996)। An Introduction to Hinduism। Cambridge: Cambridge University Press। পৃষ্ঠা ৯৬। James Lochtefeld, Brahman। The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Vol.1, A–M। Rosen Publishing। পৃষ্ঠা ৭৪৬। Andrew J. Nicholson (2013)। Unifying Hinduism: Philosophy and Identity in Indian Intellectual History। Columbia University Press। পৃষ্ঠা ২৬। NV Isaeva (1992)। Shankara and Indian Philosophy। State University of New York Press। পৃষ্ঠা ৩৫, টীকা ৩০। Bagchi, P.C. (1989)। Evolution of the Tantras, Studies on the Tantras, Kolkata। Ramakrishna Mission Institute of Culture। King, Richard (1999)। Indian Philosophy: An Introduction to Hindu and Buddhist Thought। Edinburgh University Press। পৃষ্ঠা ৬৩। Chapple, Christopher (১৯৮৪)। "Introduction"। The Concise Yoga Vāsiṣṭha। Venkatesananda, Swami কর্তৃক অনূদিত। Albany: State University of New York Press। পৃষ্ঠা ix–x with footnote 3। আইএসবিএন 0-87395-955-8। ওসিএলসি 11044869।  Hanneder, Jürgen; Slaje, Walter. Moksopaya Project: Introduction ওয়েব্যাক মেশিনে আর্কাইভকৃত ২৮ ডিসেম্বর ২০০৫ তারিখে. For the Kama Sutra as a compilation, and dating to second century CE। Kkgeay। পৃষ্ঠা ৮১, ১০৩।