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{ "paragraph": [ "USS Wisconsin (BB-64)\n", "USS \"Wisconsin\" (BB-64) is an , the second ship of the United States Navy to be named in honor of the U.S. state of Wisconsin. She was built at the Philadelphia Naval Shipyard in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania and launched on 7 December 1943 (the second anniversary of the Pearl Harbor raid), sponsored by the wife of Governor Walter Goodland of Wisconsin.\n", "During her career, \"Wisconsin\" served in the Pacific Theater of World War II, where she shelled Japanese fortifications and screened United States aircraft carriers as they conducted air raids against enemy positions. During the Korean War, \"Wisconsin\" shelled North Korean targets in support of United Nations and South Korean ground operations, after which she was decommissioned. She was reactivated on 1 August 1986; after a modernization program, she participated in Operation Desert Storm in January and February 1991.\n", "\"Wisconsin\" was last decommissioned in September 1991 after a total of 14 years of active service in the fleet, and having earned a total of six battle stars for service in World War II and Korea, as well as a Navy Unit Commendation for service during the January/February 1991 Gulf War. She currently functions as a museum ship operated by Nauticus, The National Maritime Center in Norfolk, Virginia. \"Wisconsin\" was stricken from the Naval Vessel Register (NVR) 17 March 2006, and was donated for permanent use as a museum ship. On 15 April 2010, the City of Norfolk officially took over ownership of the ship.\n", "Section::::Construction.\n", "\"Wisconsin\" was one of the \"fast battleship\" designs planned in 1938 by the Preliminary Design Branch at the Bureau of Construction and Repair. She was the third of four completed ships of the of battleships. Her keel was laid down on 25 January 1941, at the Philadelphia Navy Yard. She was launched on 7 December 1943, sponsored by Mrs. Goodland, wife of Walter S. Goodland, the Governor of Wisconsin, and commissioned on 16 April 1944, with Captain Earl E. Stone in command.\n", "\"Wisconsin\"s main battery consisted of nine /50 cal Mark 7 guns, which could hurl armor-piercing shells some . The secondary battery consisted of 20 /38 cal guns in ten twin turrets, which could fire at targets up to away. With the advent of air power and the need to gain and maintain air superiority came a need to protect the growing fleet of allied aircraft carriers; to this end, \"Wisconsin\" was fitted with an array of Oerlikon 20 mm and Bofors 40 mm anti-aircraft guns to defend allied carriers from enemy airstrikes. When reactivated in 1986, \"Wisconsin\" had her 20 mm and 40 mm AA guns removed, and was outfitted with Phalanx CIWS mounts for protection against enemy missiles and aircraft, and Armored Box Launchers and Quad Cell Launchers designed to fire Tomahawk missiles and Harpoon missiles, respectively. \"Wisconsin\" and her sister ship \"Missouri\" were fitted with thicker traverse bulkhead armor, , compared to in the first two ships of her class, the \"Iowa\" and \"New Jersey\".\n", "\"Wisconsin\" is numerically the highest numbered US battleship built. Although her keel was laid after the s, she was commissioned before the 's commissioning date. Thus, \"Wisconsin\"'s construction began after \"Missouri\"'s, and finished earlier. \"Iowa\" and \"Wisconsin\" were finally stricken from the Naval Vessel Register on 17 March 2006, making them the last battleships on a navy list in the world.\n", "Section::::World War II (1944–1945).\n", "Section::::World War II (1944–1945).:Shakedown and service with 3rd Fleet, Admiral Halsey.\n", "After the ship's trials and initial training in the Chesapeake Bay, \"Wisconsin\" departed Norfolk, Virginia, on 7 July 1944, bound for the British West Indies. Following her shakedown cruise (conducted out of Trinidad) she returned to the builder's yard for alterations and repairs.\n", "On 24 September 1944, \"Wisconsin\" sailed for the west coast, transiting the Panama Canal, and reporting for duty with the Pacific Fleet on 2 October. The battleship later moved to Hawaiian waters for training exercises and then headed for the Western Caroline Islands. Upon reaching the Caroline Island Ulithi she joined Admiral William F. Halsey's 3rd Fleet on 9 December.\n", "Due to the length of time it took to build her, \"Wisconsin\" missed much of the initial thrust into Japanese-held territory, having arrived at a time when the reconquest of the Philippines was well underway. As a part of that movement, the planners had envisioned landings on the southwest coast of Mindoro, south of Luzon. From that point, American forces could threaten Japanese shipping lanes through the South China Sea. In preparation for the coming invasion of Mindoro, \"Wisconsin\" was assigned to protect the 3rd Fleet's Fast Carrier Task Force (TF 38), as they conducted air raids at Manila to soften up Japanese positions.\n", "On 18 December, the ships of TF 38 unexpectedly found themselves in a fight for their lives when Typhoon Cobra overtook the force–seven fleet and six light carriers, eight battleships, 15 cruisers, and about 50 destroyers–during their attempt to refuel at sea. At the time the ships were operating about east of Luzon in the Philippine Sea. The carriers had just completed three days of heavy raids against Japanese airfields, suppressing enemy aircraft during the American amphibious operations against Mindoro in the Philippines. The task force rendezvoused with Captain Jasper T. Acuff and his fueling group 17 December with the intention of refueling all ships in the task force and replacing lost aircraft. Although the sea had been growing rougher all day, the nearby cyclonic disturbance gave relatively little warning of its approach. On 18 December, the small but violent typhoon overtook the Task Force while many of the ships were attempting to refuel. Many of the ships were caught near the center of the storm and buffeted by extreme seas and hurricane-force winds. Three destroyers, , , and , capsized and sank with nearly all hands, while a cruiser, five aircraft carriers, and three destroyers suffered serious damage. Approximately 790 officers and men were lost or killed, with another 80 injured. Fires occurred in three carriers when planes broke loose in their hangars and some 146 planes on various ships were lost or damaged beyond economical repair by fires, impact damage, or by being swept overboard. \"Wisconsin\" reported two injured sailors as a result of the typhoon, but otherwise proved her seaworthiness as she escaped the storm unscathed.\n", "\"Wisconsin\"s next operation was to assist with the occupation of Luzon. Bypassing the southern beaches, American amphibious forces went ashore at Lingayen Gulf, the scene of initial Japanese assaults to take Luzon nearly three years before.\n", "\"Wisconsin\", armed with heavy anti-aircraft batteries, performed escort duty for TF 38's fast carriers during air strikes against Formosa, Luzon, and the Nansei Shoto to neutralize Japanese forces there and to cover the unfolding Allied Lingayen Gulf operations. Those strikes, lasting from 3–22 January 1945, included a thrust into the South China Sea, in the hope that major units of the Imperial Japanese Navy could be drawn into battle.\n", "\"Wisconsin\"s carrier group launched air strikes between Saigon and Camranh Bay, French Indochina, on 12 January, resulting in severe losses for the enemy. TF 38's warplanes sank 41 ships and heavily damaged docks, storage areas, and aircraft facilities. Formosa, already struck on 3–4 January, was raided again on 9 January 15 January, and 21 January. Throughout January \"Wisconsin\" shielded the carriers as they conducted air raids at Hong Kong, Canton, Hainan Island, the Canton oil refineries, the Hong Kong Naval Station, and Okinawa.\n", "Section::::World War II (1944–1945).:Service with 5th Fleet, Admiral Spruance.\n", "\"Wisconsin\" was assigned to the 5th Fleet when Admiral Raymond A. Spruance relieved Admiral Halsey as Commander of the Fleet. She moved northward with the redesignated TF 58 as the carriers headed for the Tokyo area. On 16 February, the task force approached the Japanese coast under cover of adverse weather conditions and achieved complete tactical surprise. As a result, \"Wisconsin\" and the other ships shot down 322 enemy planes and destroyed 177 more on the ground. Japanese shipping, both naval and merchant, also suffered drastically, as did hangars and aircraft installations.\n", "\"Wisconsin\" and the task force moved to Iwo Jima on 17 February to provide direct support for the landings slated to take place on 19 February. They revisited Tokyo on 25 February and hit the island of Hachino off the coast of Honshū the next day, resulting in heavy damage to ground facilities; additionally, American planes sank five small vessels and destroyed 158 planes.\n", "\"Wisconsin\"s task force stood out of Ulithi on 14 March bound for Japan. The mission of that group was to eliminate airborne resistance from the Japanese homeland to American forces off Okinawa. Enemy fleet units at Kure and Kobe, on southern Honshū, reeled under the impact of the explosive blows delivered by TF 58's airmen. On 18–19 March, from a point southwest of Kyūshū, TF 58 hit enemy airfields on that island; unfortunately, allied anti-aircraft fire on 19 March failed to stop an attack on the carrier . That afternoon, \"Wisconsin\" and the task force retired from Kyūshū, screening the blazing and battered flattop, and shooting down 48 attackers.\n", "On 24 March, \"Wisconsin\" trained her guns on targets ashore on Okinawa. Together with the other battle-wagons of the task force, she pounded Japanese positions and installations in preparation for the landings. Japanese resistance, while fierce, was doomed to failure by dwindling numbers of aircraft and trained pilots.\n", "While TF 58's planes were dealing with and her escorts, enemy aircraft attacked the American surface units. Combat air patrols (CAP) shot down 15 enemy planes, and ships' gunfire shot down another three, but not before one \"kamikaze\" attack penetrated the CAP and screen to crash on the flight deck of the fleet carrier . On 11 April, the Japanese renewed their \"kamikaze\" attacks; and only drastic maneuvers and heavy barrages of gunfire saved the task force. Combat air patrols shot down 17 planes, and ships' gunfire shot down 12. The next day, 151 enemy aircraft attacked TF 58, but \"Wisconsin\", together with other units of the screens for the vital carriers, kept the \"kamikaze\" pilots at bay and destroyed them before they could reach their targets. Over the days that ensued, Japanese \"kamikaze\" attacks managed to crash into three carriers—, and —on successive days.\n", "By 4 June, a typhoon was swirling through the Fleet. \"Wisconsin\" rode out the storm unscathed, but three cruisers, two carriers, and a destroyer suffered serious damage. Offensive operations were resumed on 8 June with a final aerial assault on Kyūshū. Japanese aerial response was virtually nonexistent; 29 planes were located and destroyed. On that day, one of \"Wisconsin\"s floatplanes landed and rescued a downed pilot from the carrier .\n", "Section::::World War II (1944–1945).:Bombardment of Japan.\n", "\"Wisconsin\" ultimately put into Leyte Gulf and dropped anchor there on 13 June for repairs and replenishment. Three weeks later, on 1 July, the battleship and her escorts sailed once more for Japanese home waters for carrier air strikes on the enemy's heartland. Nine days later, carrier planes from TF 38 destroyed 72 enemy aircraft on the ground and smashed industrial sites in the Tokyo area. \"Wisconsin\" and the other ships made no attempt whatsoever to conceal the location of their armada, due in large part to a weak Japanese response to their presence.\n", "On 16 July, \"Wisconsin\" fired her guns at the steel mills and oil refineries at Muroran, Hokkaido. Two days later, she wrecked industrial facilities in the Hitachi Miro area, on the coast of Honshū-, northeast of Tokyo itself. During that bombardment, British battleships of the British Pacific Fleet contributed their heavy shellfire. By that point in the war, Allied warships such as \"Wisconsin\" were able to shell the Japanese homeland almost at will.\n", "TF 38's planes subsequently blasted the Japanese naval base at Yokosuka, and put the former fleet flagship \"Nagato\" out of action, one of the two remaining Japanese battleships. Throughout July and into August, Admiral Halsey's airmen visited destruction upon the Japanese, the last instance being against Tokyo on 13 August. Two days later, the Japanese surrendered, ending World War II.\n", "\"Wisconsin\", as part of the occupying force, arrived at Tokyo Bay on 5 September, three days after the formal surrender occurred on board the battleship . During \"Wisconsin\"s brief career in World War II, she had steamed since commissioning; had shot down three enemy planes; had claimed assists on four occasions; and had fueled her screening destroyers on some 250 occasions.\n", "Section::::World War II (1944–1945).:Post World War II (1945–1950).\n", "Shifting subsequently to Okinawa, the battleship embarked homeward-bound GIs on 22 September 1945, as part of Operation Magic Carpet staged to bring soldiers, sailors, and marines home from the far-flung battlefronts of the Pacific. Departing Okinawa on 23 September, \"Wisconsin\" reached Pearl Harbor on 4 October, remaining there for five days before she pushed on for the west coast on the last leg of her state-side bound voyage. She reached San Francisco on 15 October.\n", "Heading for the east coast of the United States soon after the start of the new year, 1946, \"Wisconsin\" transited the Panama Canal from 11–13 January and reached Hampton Roads, Virginia on 18 January. Following a cruise south to Guantánamo Bay, Cuba, the battleship entered the Norfolk Naval Shipyard for overhaul. After repairs and alterations that consumed the summer months, \"Wisconsin\" sailed for South American waters.\n", "Over the weeks that ensued, the battleship visited Valparaíso, Chile, from 1–6 November; Callao, Peru, from 9–13 November; Balboa, Canal Zone, from 16–20 November; and La Guaira, Venezuela, from 22–26 November, before returning to Norfolk on 2 December 1946.\n", "\"Wisconsin\" spent nearly all of 1947 as a training ship, taking naval reservists on two-week cruises throughout the year. Those voyages commenced at Bayonne, New Jersey, and saw visits conducted at Guantánamo Bay, Cuba, and the Panama Canal Zone. While underway at sea, the ship would perform various drills and exercises before the cruise would end where it had started, at Bayonne. During June and July 1947, \"Wisconsin\" took United States Naval Academy midshipmen on cruises to northern European waters.\n", "In January 1948, \"Wisconsin\" reported to the Atlantic Reserve Fleet at Norfolk for inactivation. Placed out of commission, in reserve on 1 July, \"Wisconsin\" was assigned to the Norfolk group of the Atlantic Reserve Fleet.\n", "Section::::The Korean War (1950–1952).\n", "Her sojourn in \"mothballs\", however, was comparatively brief, due to the North Korean invasion of South Korea in late June 1950. \"Wisconsin\" was recommissioned on 3 March 1951 with Captain Thomas Burrowes in command. After shakedown training, the revitalized battleship conducted two midshipmen training cruises, taking the officers-to-be to Edinburgh, Scotland; Lisbon, Portugal; Halifax, Nova Scotia; New York City; and Guantánamo Bay, Cuba, before she returned to Norfolk. While leaving New York, \"Wisconsin\" was accidentally grounded on mud flats in New York Harbor, but was freed on 23 August 1951 with no damage to the ship.\n", "\"Wisconsin\" departed Norfolk on 25 October, bound for the Pacific. She transited the Panama Canal on 29 October and reached Yokosuka, Japan, on 21 November. There, she relieved as flagship for Vice Admiral H. M. Martin, Commander, 7th Fleet.\n", "On 26 November, with Vice Admiral Martin and Rear Admiral F.P. Denebrink, Commander, Service Force, Pacific, embarked, \"Wisconsin\" departed Yokosuka for Korean waters to support the fast carrier operations of TF 77. She left the company of the carrier force on 2 December and, screened by the destroyer , provided gunfire support for the Republic of Korea (ROK) Corps in the Kasong-Kosong area. After disembarking Admiral Denebrink on 3 December at Kangnung, the battleship resumed station on the Korean \"bombline\", providing gunfire support for the American 1st Marine Division. \"Wisconsin\"s shelling accounted for a tank, two gun emplacements, and a building. She continued her gunfire support task for the 1st Marine Division and 1st ROK Corps through 6 December, accounting for enemy bunkers, artillery positions, and troop concentrations. On one occasion during that time, the battleship received a request for call-fire support and provided three star-shells for the 1st ROK Corps, illuminating an enemy attack that was consequently repulsed with considerable enemy casualties.\n", "After being relieved on the gunline by the heavy cruiser on 6 December, \"Wisconsin\" briefly retired from gunfire support duties. She resumed them, however, in the Kasong-Kosong area on 11 December screened by the destroyer . The following day, 12 December, saw the helicopter embarkation on \"Wisconsin\" of Rear Admiral H. R. Thurber, Commander, Battleship Division 2 (BatDiv 2), as part of his inspection trip in the Far East.\n", "\"Wisconsin\" continued her naval gunfire support duties on the \"bombline,\" shelling enemy bunkers, command posts, artillery positions, and trench systems through 14 December. She departed the \"bombline\" on that day to render special gunfire support duties in the Kojo area shelling coastal targets in support of United Nations (UN) troops ashore. That same day, \"Wisconsin\" returned to the Kasong-Kosong area. On 15 December, she disembarked Admiral Thurber by helicopter. The next day, \"Wisconsin\" departed Korean waters, heading for Sasebo to rearm.\n", "Returning to the combat zone on 17 December, \"Wisconsin\" embarked United States Senator Homer Ferguson of Michigan on 18 December. That day, the battleship supported the 11th ROK invasion with night illumination fire that enabled the ROK troops to repulse a North Korean assault with heavy enemy casualties. Departing the \"bombline\" on 19 December, the battleship transferred Ferguson by helicopter to the carrier .\n", "On 20 December, \"Wisconsin\" participated in a coordinated air-surface bombardment of Wonsan to neutralize pre-selected targets in its area. The ship shifted its bombardment station to the western end of Wonsan harbor, hitting boats and small craft in the inner swept channel with her 5-inch (127mm) guns during the afternoon and helping forestall attempts to assault the friendly-held islands nearby. \"Wisconsin\" then made an anti-boat sweep to the north, firing her 5-inch batteries on suspected boat concentrations. She then provided gunfire support to UN troops operating at the \"bombline\" until 22 December, when she rejoined the carrier task force.\n", "On 28 December, Cardinal Francis Spellman, on a Korean tour over the Christmas holidays, helicoptered aboard the ship to celebrate Mass for the Catholic members of the crew. He left as he came, off Pohang. On New Year's Eve day \"Wisconsin\" put into Yokosuka.\n", "\"Wisconsin\" departed that port on 8 January 1952 and returned to Korean waters. She reached Pusan the following day and entertained the President of South Korea, Syngman Rhee, and his wife, on 10 January. The couple received full military honors as they came on board, which Rhee reciprocated by awarding Vice Admiral Martin the ROK Order of the Military Merit.\n", "\"Wisconsin\" returned to the \"bombline\" on 11 January, and over the ensuing days delivered heavy gunfire support for the 1st Marine Division and the 1st ROK Corps. As before, her primary targets were command posts, shelters, bunkers, troop concentrations and mortar positions. As before, she stood ready to deliver call-fire support as needed, shelling enemy troops in the open on 14 January at the request of the ROK 1st Corps.\n", "Rearming once more at Sasebo, she shortly joined TF 77 off the coast of Korea and resumed support at the \"bombline\" on 23 January. Three days later, she shifted again to the Kojo region, to participate in a coordinated air and gun strike. That same day, the battleship returned to the \"bombline\" and shelled the command post and communications center for the 15th North Korean Division during call-fire missions for the 1st Marine Division.\n", "Returning to Wonsan at the end of January, \"Wisconsin\" bombarded enemy guns at Hodo Pando before she was rearmed at Sasebo. The battleship rejoined TF 77 on 2 February, and the next day blasted railway buildings and marshaling yards at Hodo Pando and Kojo before rejoining TF 77. After replenishment at Yokosuka a few days later, she returned to the Kosong area and resumed gunfire support. During that time, she destroyed railway bridges and a small shipyard while conducting call-fire missions on enemy command posts, bunkers, and personnel shelters, making numerous cuts on enemy trench lines in the process.\n", "On 26 February, \"Wisconsin\" arrived at Pusan where Vice Admiral Shon, the ROK Chief of Naval Operations; United States Ambassador J.J. Muccio; and Rear Admiral Scott-Montcrief, Royal Navy, Commander, Task Group 95.12 (TG 95.12), visited the battleship. Departing that South Korean port the following day, \"Wisconsin\" reached Yokosuka on 2 March, and a week later she shifted to Sasebo to prepare to return to Korean waters.\n", "\"Wisconsin\" arrived off Songjin, Korea on 15 March and concentrated her gunfire on enemy railway transport. Early that morning, she destroyed a communist troop train trapped outside a destroyed tunnel. That afternoon, she received the first direct hit in her history, when one of four shells from a North Korean 152mm gun battery struck the shield of a starboard 40 mm mount; although little material damage resulted, three men were injured. \"Wisconsin\" subsequently destroyed that battery with a full 16-inch (406 mm) salvo before continuing her mission. After lending a hand to support once more the 1st Marine Division with her heavy rifles, the battleship returned to Japan on 19 March.\n", "Relieved as flagship of the 7th Fleet on 1 April by sister ship , \"Wisconsin\" departed Yokosuka, bound for the United States. \"En route\" home, she touched briefly at Guam, where she took part in the successful test of the Navy's largest floating dry-dock on 4–5 April, the first ever to accommodate an . She continued her homeward-bound voyage via Pearl Harbor and arrived at Long Beach, California on 19 April before continuing on for Norfolk.\n", "Section::::Post Korean War (1952–1981).\n", "On 9 June, \"Wisconsin\" resumed her role as a training ship, taking midshipmen to Greenock, Scotland; Brest, France; and Guantánamo Bay, Cuba, before returning to Norfolk. She departed Hampton Roads on 25 August and participated in the NATO exercise Operation Mainbrace, which was held out of Greenock, Scotland. After her return to Norfolk, \"Wisconsin\" underwent an overhaul in the naval shipyard there. \"Wisconsin\" remained in the Atlantic fleet throughout 1952 and into 1953, training midshipmen and conducting exercises. After a month of routine maintenance \"Wisconsin\" departed Norfolk on 9 September 1953, bound for the Far East.\n", "Sailing via the Panama Canal to Japan, \"Wisconsin\" relieved as 7th Fleet flagship on 12 October. During the months that followed, \"Wisconsin\" visited the Japanese ports of Kobe, Sasebo Navy Yard, Yokosuka, Otaru, and Nagasaki. She spent Christmas at Hong Kong and was ultimately relieved of flagship duties on 1 April 1954 and returned to the United States soon thereafter, reaching Norfolk, via Long Beach and the Panama Canal, on 4 May.\n", "Entering the Norfolk Naval Shipyard on 11 June, \"Wisconsin\" underwent a brief overhaul and commenced a midshipman training cruise on 12 July. After revisiting Greenock, Brest, and Guantánamo Bay, the ship returned to the Norfolk Naval Shipyard for repairs. Shortly thereafter, \"Wisconsin\" participated in Atlantic Fleet exercises as flagship for Commander, Second Fleet. Departing Norfolk in January 1955, \"Wisconsin\" took part in Operation Springboard, during which time she visited Port-au-Prince, Haiti. Then, upon returning to Norfolk, the battleship conducted another midshipman's cruise that summer, visiting Edinburgh; Copenhagen, Denmark; and Guantánamo Bay before returning to the United States.\n", "Upon completion of a major overhaul at the New York Naval Shipyard, \"Wisconsin\" headed south for refresher training in the Caribbean Sea, later taking part in another Springboard exercise. During that cruise, she again visited Port-au-Prince and added Tampico, Mexico, and Cartagena, Colombia, to her list of ports of call. She returned to Norfolk on the last day of March 1955 for local operations. On 19 October, while operating in the East River in New York Harbor, \"Wisconsin\" was accidentally grounded. However, the ship was freed in about an hour without any serious damage.\n", "Throughout April 1956 and into May, \"Wisconsin\" operated locally off the Virginia Capes. On 6 May, the battleship collided with the destroyer in a heavy fog; \"Wisconsin\" put into Norfolk with extensive damage to her bow, and one week later entered dry dock at the Norfolk Naval Shipyard. A novel experiment sped her repairs and enabled the ship to carry out her scheduled midshipman training cruise that summer. A 120-ton, 68 foot (21 m) section of the bow of \"Wisconsin\"'s incomplete sister ship was transported by barge, in one section, from Newport News Shipbuilding and Drydock Corporation of Newport News, Virginia, across Hampton Roads to the Norfolk Naval Shipyard. Working around the clock, \"Wisconsin\"s ship's force and shipyard personnel completed the operation which grafted on the new bow in 16 days. On 28 June 1956, the ship was ready for sea.\n", "\"Wisconsin\" resumed her midshipman training on 9 July 1956. That autumn, \"Wisconsin\" participated in Atlantic Fleet exercises off the coast of the Carolinas, returning to port on 8 November 1956. Entering the Norfolk Naval Shipyard a week later, the battleship underwent major repairs that were not finished until 2 January 1957.\n", "After local operations off the Virginia capes on 3–4 January 1957 and from 9–11 January, \"Wisconsin\" departed Norfolk on 16 January, reporting to Commander, Fleet Training Group, at Naval Station Guantánamo Bay, Cuba. \"Wisconsin\" served as Admiral Henry Crommelin's flagship during the ensuing shore bombardment practices and other exercises held off the isle of Culebra, Puerto Rico, from 2–4 February. Sailing for Norfolk upon completion of the training period, the battleship arrived on 7 February and resumed local operations off Norfolk. On 27 March, \"Wisconsin\" sailed for the Mediterranean Sea, reaching Gibraltar on 6 April, she pushed on that day to rendezvous with TF 60 in the Aegean Sea before reporting to Turkey for the NATO Exercise Red Pivot.\n", "Departing Xeros Bay on 14 April, she arrived at Naples four days later, \"Wisconsin\" conducted exercises in the eastern Mediterranean. In the course of those operational training evolutions, she rescued a pilot and crewman who survived the crash of a plane from the aircraft carrier . \"Wisconsin\" reached Valencia, Spain, on 10 May and, three days later, entertained prominent civilian and military officials of the city.\n", "Departing Valencia on 17 April, \"Wisconsin\" reached Norfolk on 27 May. En route, she was called upon to sink a Boeing KC-97F-55-BO Stratofreighter, \"51-0258\", which had ditched in the Atlantic on 9 May, 550 km (343.8 mls) SE of the Azores Islands following a double engine failure, and subsequently floated for ten days.\n", "On 27 May, Rear Admiral L.S. Parks relieved Rear Admiral Crommelin as Commander, BatDiv 2. Departing Norfolk on 19 June, the battleship, over the ensuing weeks, conducted a midshipman training cruise through the Panama Canal to South American waters, and reached Valparaiso on 3 July. Eight days later, the battleship headed back to the Panama Canal and the Atlantic.\n", "After exercises at Guantánamo Bay and off Culebra, \"Wisconsin\" reached Norfolk on 5 August and conducted local operations that lasted into September. She then participated in NATO exercises which took her across the North Atlantic to the British Isles.\n", "\"Wisconsin\"s days as an active fleet unit were numbered, and she prepared to make her last cruise. On 4 November, she departed Norfolk with a large group of prominent guests on board. Reaching New York City on 6 November, the battleship disembarked her guests and, on 8 November, headed for Bayonne, New Jersey, to commence a pre-inactivation overhaul. She was placed out of commission at Bayonne on 8 March 1958, and joined the United States Navy reserve fleet (better known as the \"Mothball Fleet\") there, leaving the United States Navy without an active battleship for the first time since 1895. Subsequently, taken to the Philadelphia Naval Shipyard, \"Wisconsin\" remained there with her sister ship \"Iowa\" into the 1980s. While berthed in the Philadelphia Naval Yard, an electrical fire damaged the ship and left her as the \"Iowa\"-class battleship in the worst material condition prior to her 1980s reactivation.\n", "Section::::Reactivation (1986–1990).\n", "As part of President Ronald Reagan's Navy Secretary John F. Lehman's effort to create a \"600-ship Navy,\" \"Wisconsin\" was reactivated 1 August 1986, a Pre-Commissioning Unit (PCU) crew established, and the ship moved under tow to the Avondale Shipyard in New Orleans, Louisiana, to commence pre-recommissioning workups. The battleship was then towed from the Avondale Shipyard and arrived at Ingalls Shipbuilding in Pascagoula, Mississippi on 2 January 1987 to receive weapons system upgrades for her modernization. During the modernization, \"Wisconsin\" had all of her remaining 20 mm Oerlikon and 40 mm Bofors anti-aircraft guns removed, due to their ineffectiveness against modern jet fighters and enemy anti-ship missiles; additionally, the two gun mounts located at mid-ship and in the aft on the port and starboard side of the battleship were removed.\n", "Over the next several months, the ship was upgraded with the most advanced weaponry available. Among the new weapon systems installed were four MK 141 quad cell launchers for 16 AGM-84 Harpoon anti-ship missiles, eight Armored Box Launcher (ABL) mounts for 32 BGM-109 Tomahawk missiles, and a quartet of the United States Navy's Phalanx Close in Weapon System (CIWS) 20mm Gatling guns for defense against enemy anti-ship missiles and enemy aircraft. \"Wisconsin\" also received eight RQ-2 Pioneer Unmanned Aerial Vehicles, which are remotely controlled drones that replaced the helicopters previously used to spot for her nine guns. Also included in her modernization were upgrades to radar and fire control systems for her guns and missiles, and improved electronic warfare capabilities. Armed as such, \"Wisconsin\" was formally recommissioned on 22 October 1988 in Pascagoula, Mississippi under the command of Captain Jerry M. Blesch, USN. Assigned to the United States Atlantic Fleet, she was subsequently homeported at Naval Station Norfolk, Virginia, where she became the centerpiece of her own surface action group (SAG), also referred to as a battleship battle group (BBBG).\n", "During the renovation, pieces of the teak deck were removed and made into commemorative pieces, but they were not marked with an edition number indicating how many were actually created. A brass plaque with the ships name appears on the left and an inscription reading:\n", "\"Wisconsin\" spent the first part of 1989 conducting training exercises in the Atlantic Ocean and off the coast of Puerto Rico before returning to the Philadelphia Naval Shipyard for a post recommissioning shakedown that lasted the rest of the year. In mid-1990 the battleship participated in a fleet exercise.\n", "Section::::Gulf War (January/February 1991).\n", "On 2 August 1990, Iraq invaded Kuwait. In the middle of the month, President George H. W. Bush, in keeping with the Carter Doctrine, sent the first of several hundred thousand troops, along with a strong force of naval support to Saudi Arabia and the Persian Gulf area to support a multi-national force in a standoff with Iraqi dictator Saddam Hussein. On 7 August, \"Wisconsin\" and her battle group were ordered to deploy in defense of Kuwait for Operation Desert Shield, and they arrived in the Persian Gulf on 23 August. On 15 January 1991, Operation Desert Storm commenced operations, and \"Wisconsin\" found herself serving alongside her sister \"Missouri\", just as she had done in Korea forty years previously. Both \"Wisconsin\" and \"Missouri\" launched Tomahawk Missile attacks against Iraq; they were among the first ships to fire cruise missiles during the 1991 Gulf War. \"Wisconsin\" served as the Tomahawk Land Attack Missile (TLAM) strike commander for the Persian Gulf, directing the sequence of launches that marked the opening of Operation Desert Storm and firing a total of 24 of her own TLAMs during the first two days of the campaign. \"Wisconsin\" also assumed the responsibility of the local anti-surface warfare coordinator for the Northern Persian Gulf Surface Action Group.\n", "\"Wisconsin\", escorted by , relieved \"Missouri\" on 6 February, then answered her first combat call for gunfire support since March 1952. The most recently recommissioned battleship sent 11 shells across of space to destroy an Iraqi artillery battery in southern Kuwait during a mission called in by USMC OV-10 Bronco aircraft. Using an Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV) as a spotter in combat for the first time, \"Wisconsin\" pounded an Iraqi communications compound on 7 February. Her main guns lobbed 24 shells on Iraqi artillery sites, missile facilities, and electronic warfare sites along the coast. That evening she targeted naval sites with her guns, firing 50 rounds which severely damaged or sunk 15 Iraqi boats, and destroyed several piers at the Khawr al-Mufattah marina. In response to calls for fire support from US and coalition forces, \"Wisconsin\"s turrets boomed again on 9 February, blasting bunkers and artillery sites, and shelling Iraqi troop positions near Khafji after the Iraqis were ousted from the city by Saudi and Qatari armor. On 21 February, one of \"Wisconsin\"s UAVs observed several trucks resupplying an Iraqi command post; in response, \"Wisconsin\" trained her guns on the complex, leveling or heavily damaging 10 of the buildings. \"Wisconsin\" and \"Missouri\" alternated positions on the gun line, using their guns to destroy enemy targets and soften defenses along the Kuwait coastline for a possible amphibious assault.\n", "On the night of 23 February, \"Missouri\" and \"Wisconsin\" turned their big guns on Kuwait's Faylaka Island to support the US-led coalition ground offensive to free Kuwait from the Iraqi occupation forces. The two ships were to conduct a diversionary assault aimed at convincing the Iraqi forces arrayed along the shores of Faylaka Island that Coalition forces were preparing to launch an amphibious invasion. As part of this attack, \"Missouri\" and \"Wisconsin\" were directed to shell known Iraqi defensive positions on the island. Shortly after \"Missouri\" completed her shelling of Faylaka Island, \"Wisconsin\", while still over the horizon (and thus out of visual range of the Iraqi forces) launched her RQ-2 Pioneer Unmanned Aerial Vehicle to spot for her guns. As \"Wisconsin\"s drone approached Faylaka Island, the pilot of the drone was instructed to fly the vehicle low over Iraqi positions so that the soldiers would know that they were once again being targeted by a battleship. Iraqi troops on the ground heard the Pioneer's distinctive buzzing sound, and having witnessed the effects of \"Missouri\"s artillery strike on their trench line, the Iraqi troops decided to signal their willingness to surrender by waving makeshift white flags, an action dutifully noted aboard \"Wisconsin\". Amused at this sudden development, the men assigned to the drone's aircrew called \"Wisconsin\"s commanding officer, Captain David S. Bill III, and asked, \"Sir, they want to surrender, what should I do with them?\" This surrender to \"Wisconsin\"s Pioneer has since become one of the most remembered moments of the Gulf War; the incident was also the first-ever surrender of enemy troops to an unmanned aircraft controlled by a ship. \"Wisconsin\" drone also carried out a number of reconnaissance missions on occupied Kuwait before the coalition's ground offensive.\n", "The next day, \"Wisconsin\" answered two separate call fire support missions for coalition forces by suppressing Iraqi troops barricaded in a pair of bunkers. After witnessing the effects of \"Wisconsin\"s strike against the Iraqi positions an elated Saudi marine commander commented over the radio, \"I wish we had a battleship in our navy.\"\n", "Both \"Wisconsin\" and \"Missouri\" passed the million-pound mark of ordnance delivered on Iraqi targets by the time president George H. W. Bush ended hostilities on 28 February. With one last salvo from her big guns, \"Wisconsin\" fired the last naval gunfire support mission of the war, and thus was the final battleship in world history to see action. \"Wisconsin\" remained in the Persian Gulf after the cease-fire took effect, and returned home on 28 March 1991. During the eight months \"Wisconsin\" spent in the Persian Gulf, she had flown 348 UAV hours, recorded 661 safe helicopter landings, steamed , fired 319 rounds, 881 rounds, 5,200 20 mm Phalanx CIWS rounds., and launched 24 Tomahawk cruise missiles. Since all four remaining battleships were decommissioned and stricken following the Gulf War, this was the last time that United States battleships actively participated in a war.\n", "Section::::Museum ship (1992–present).\n", "With the collapse of the Soviet Union in the early 1990s and the absence of a perceived threat to the United States came drastic cuts in the defense budget. The high cost of maintaining and operating battleships as part of the United States Navy's active fleet became uneconomical; as a result, \"Wisconsin\" was decommissioned on 30 September 1991 after 14 total years of active service, and joined the Reserve Fleet at the Philadelphia Naval Shipyard. She was stricken from the Naval Vessel Register (NVR) on 12 January 1995, then on 15 October 1996, she was moved to the Norfolk Naval Shipyard, and on 12 February 1998, she was restored to the Naval Vessel Register. On 7 December 2000, the battleship was towed from Portsmouth, Virginia and berthed adjacent to Nauticus, The National Maritime Center in Norfolk. On 16 April 2001 the battleship's weather decks were opened to the public by the Hampton Roads Naval Museum, a U.S. Navy museum charged with \"Wisconsin\"s interpretation and public visitation. The ship was still owned by the Navy and was considered part of the mothball fleet.\n", "\"Wisconsin\" was named (along with ) as one of two US Navy battleships to be maintained in the United States Navy reserve fleets in accordance with the National Defense Authorization Act of 1996 as shore bombardment vessels. However, \"Wisconsin\" was then over 60 years old and would have required extensive modernization to return to the fleet since most of her technology dated back to World War II, and the missile and electronic warfare equipment added to the battleship during her 1988–89 modernization were considered obsolete. Furthermore, during the 1991 Gulf War, she was said to be hindered by Iraqi naval mines, and reports on the Internet suggest that the majority of the shore bombardments were successfully carried out by US s and their guns. In addition, the cost of modernizing the battleships was estimated to be around $500 million for reactivation and $1.5 billion for a full modernization program.\n", "On 17 March 2006, the Secretary of the Navy exercised his authority to strike \"Iowa\" and \"Wisconsin\" from the NVR, which cleared the way for both ships to be donated for use as museums; however, the United States Congress remained \"deeply concerned\" over the loss of naval surface gunfire support that the battleships provided, and noted that \"...navy efforts to improve upon, much less replace, this capability have been highly problematic.\" Partially as a consequence, Congress passed , the National Defense Authorization Act 2006, requiring that the battleships be kept and maintained in a state of readiness should they ever be needed again. Congress had ordered that the following measures be implemented to ensure that \"Wisconsin\" could be returned to active duty if needed:\n", "BULLET::::1. She must not be altered in any way that would impair her military utility;\n", "BULLET::::2. The battleship must be preserved in her present condition through the continued use of cathodic protection, dehumidification systems, and any other preservation methods as needed;\n", "BULLET::::3. Spare parts and unique equipment such as the gun barrels and projectiles be preserved in adequate numbers to support \"Wisconsin\", if reactivated;\n", "BULLET::::4. The Navy must prepare plans for the rapid reactivation of \"Wisconsin\" should she be returned to the Navy in the event of a national emergency.\n", "These four conditions closely mirror the original three conditions that the Nation Defense Authorization Act of 1996 laid out for the maintenance of \"Wisconsin\" while she was in the Mothball Fleet. It was unlikely that these conditions would impede a plan to turn \"Wisconsin\" into a permanent museum ship at her berth in Norfolk.\n", "On 14 December 2009 the US Navy officially transferred \"Wisconsin\" to the city of Norfolk, ending the requirement for the ship to be preserved for possible recall to active duty. The US Navy had paid the city of Norfolk $2.8 million between 2000 and 2009 to maintain the ship. A formal ceremony transferring the ship to the city of Norfolk took place on 16 April 2010. \"Wisconsin\" was listed on the National Register of Historic Places on 28 March 2012.\n", "Section::::Awards.\n", "\"Wisconsin\" earned five battle stars for her World War II service, and one for the Korean War. The ship also received the Combat Action Ribbon and Navy Unit Commendation for actions in the Korean War and Operation Desert Storm in 1991. She also received over a dozen more awards for World War II, the Korean War and Operations Desert Shield/Desert Storm.\n", "Section::::See also.\n", "BULLET::::- List of broadsides of major World War II ships\n", "BULLET::::- List of museum ships\n", "BULLET::::- U.S. Navy museums (and other battleship museums)\n", "Section::::References.\n", "Section::::References.:Further reading.\n", "BULLET::::- Paul Chan, Ian and McAuley, Rob. \"The Battleships\". Channel 4 Books, London\n", "BULLET::::- Naval Historical Foundation. \"The Navy\". Hugh Lauter Levin Associates.\n", "BULLET::::- The Floating Drydock. \"United States Naval Vessels\", ONI 222-US, Kresgeville, PA 18333.\n", "BULLET::::- Polmar, Norman. \"The Naval Institute Guide to the Ships and Aircraft of the U.S. Fleet.\" 2001 Naval Institute Press. .\n", "Section::::External links.\n", "BULLET::::- Nauticus, Norfolk, VA\n", "BULLET::::- NAVSOURCE Photo Gallery: Numerous photographs of USS \"Wisconsin\"\n", "BULLET::::- Hampton Roads Naval Museum\n", "BULLET::::- Operation Desert Storm Timeline\n", "BULLET::::- Maritimequest USS Wisconsin BB-64 Photo Gallery\n", "BULLET::::- USS Wisconsin Photo Gallery and Facts\n", "BULLET::::- USS Wisconsin Association\n", "BULLET::::- 1995 US General Accounting Office report on the US Navy’s Naval Surface Fire Support program\n", "BULLET::::- 2005 US Government Accountability Office Report: Issues Related to Navy Battleships\n", "BULLET::::- Satellite image of the USS Wisconsin\n", "BULLET::::- 1956 Booklet of General Plans for the U.S.S. \"Wisconsin\" (BB-64), Iowa Class, hosted by the Historical Naval Ships Association (HNSA) Digital Collections\n" ] }

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{ "description": "Iowa-class battleship", "enwikiquote_title": "", "wikidata_id": "Q1265287", "wikidata_label": "USS Wisconsin", "wikipedia_title": "USS Wisconsin (BB-64)", "aliases": { "alias": [ "BB-64" ] } }

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{ "paragraph": [ "Suffering\n", "Suffering, or pain in a broad sense, may be an experience of unpleasantness and aversion associated with the perception of harm or threat of harm in an individual. Suffering is the basic element that makes up the negative valence of affective phenomena. The opposite of suffering is pleasure or happiness.\n", "Suffering is often categorized as physical or mental. It may come in all degrees of intensity, from mild to intolerable. Factors of duration and frequency of occurrence usually compound that of intensity. Attitudes toward suffering may vary widely, in the sufferer or other people, according to how much it is regarded as avoidable or unavoidable, useful or useless, deserved or undeserved.\n", "Suffering occurs in the lives of sentient beings in numerous manners, often dramatically. As a result, many fields of human activity are concerned with some aspects of suffering. These aspects may include the nature of suffering, its processes, its origin and causes, its meaning and significance, its related personal, social, and cultural behaviors, its remedies, management, and uses.\n", "Section::::Terminology.\n", "The word \"suffering\" is sometimes used in the narrow sense of physical pain, but more often it refers to mental pain, or more often yet it refers to pain in the broad sense, i.e. to any unpleasant feeling, emotion or sensation. The word \"pain\" usually refers to physical pain, but it is also a common synonym of \"suffering\". The words \"pain\" and \"suffering\" are often used both together in different ways. For instance, they may be used as interchangeable synonyms. Or they may be used in 'contradistinction' to one another, as in \"pain is physical, suffering is mental\", or \"pain is inevitable, suffering is optional\". Or they may be used to define each other, as in \"pain is physical suffering\", or \"suffering is severe physical or mental pain\".\n", "Qualifiers, such as \"physical\", \"mental\", \"emotional\", and \"psychological\", are often used to refer to certain types of pain or suffering. In particular, \"mental pain (or suffering)\" may be used in relationship with \"physical pain (or suffering)\" for distinguishing between two wide categories of pain or suffering. A first caveat concerning such a distinction is that it uses \"physical pain\" in a sense that normally includes not only the 'typical sensory experience of physical pain' but also other unpleasant bodily experiences including air hunger, hunger, vestibular suffering, nausea, sleep deprivation, and itching. A second caveat is that the terms \"physical\" or \"mental\" should not be taken too literally: physical pain or suffering, as a matter of fact, happens through conscious minds and involves emotional aspects, while mental pain or suffering happens through physical brains and, being an emotion, involves important physiological aspects.\n", "The word \"unpleasantness\", which some people use as a synonym of \"suffering\" or \"pain\" in the broad sense, may be used to refer to the basic affective dimension of pain (its suffering aspect), usually in contrast with the sensory dimension, as for instance in this sentence: \"Pain-unpleasantness is often, though not always, closely linked to both the intensity and unique qualities of the painful sensation.\" Other current words that have a definition with some similarity to \"suffering\" include \"distress, unhappiness, misery, affliction, woe, ill, discomfort, displeasure, disagreeableness\".\n", "Section::::Philosophy.\n", "Hedonism, as an ethical theory, claims that good and bad consist ultimately in pleasure and pain. Many hedonists, in accordance with Epicurus and contrarily to popular perception of his doctrine, advocate that we should first seek to avoid suffering and that the greatest pleasure lies in a robust state of profound tranquility (ataraxia) that is free from the worrisome pursuit or the unwelcome consequences of ephemeral pleasures.\n", "For Stoicism, the greatest good lies in reason and virtue, but the soul best reaches it through a kind of indifference (apatheia) to pleasure and pain: as a consequence, this doctrine has become identified with stern self-control in regard to suffering.\n", "Jeremy Bentham developed hedonistic utilitarianism, a popular doctrine in ethics, politics, and economics. Bentham argued that the right act or policy was that which would cause \"the greatest happiness of the greatest number\". He suggested a procedure called hedonic or felicific calculus, for determining how much pleasure and pain would result from any action. John Stuart Mill improved and promoted the doctrine of hedonistic utilitarianism. Karl Popper, in \"The Open Society and Its Enemies\", proposed a negative utilitarianism, which prioritizes the reduction of suffering over the enhancement of happiness when speaking of utility: \"I believe that there is, from the ethical point of view, no symmetry between suffering and happiness, or between pain and pleasure. (...) human suffering makes a direct moral appeal for help, while there is no similar call to increase the happiness of a man who is doing well anyway.\" David Pearce, for his part, advocates a utilitarianism that aims straightforwardly at the abolition of suffering through the use of biotechnology (see more details below in section Biology, neurology, psychology). Another aspect worthy of mention here is that many utilitarians since Bentham hold that the moral status of a being comes from its ability to feel pleasure and pain: therefore, moral agents should consider not only the interests of human beings but also those of (other) animals. Richard Ryder came to the same conclusion in his concepts of 'speciesism' and 'painism'. Peter Singer's writings, especially the book \"Animal Liberation\", represent the leading edge of this kind of utilitarianism for animals as well as for people.\n", "Another doctrine related to the relief of suffering is humanitarianism (see also humanitarian principles, humanitarian aid, and humane society). \"Where humanitarian efforts seek a positive addition to the happiness of sentient beings, it is to make the unhappy happy rather than the happy happier. (...) [Humanitarianism] is an ingredient in many social attitudes; in the modern world it has so penetrated into diverse movements (...) that it can hardly be said to exist in itself.\"\n", "Pessimists hold this world to be mainly bad, or even the worst possible, plagued with, among other things, unbearable and unstoppable suffering. Some identify suffering as the nature of the world, and conclude that it would be better if life did not exist at all. Arthur Schopenhauer recommends us to take refuge in things like art, philosophy, loss of the will to live, and tolerance toward 'fellow-sufferers'.\n", "Friedrich Nietzsche, first influenced by Schopenhauer, developed afterward quite another attitude, arguing that the suffering of life is productive, exalting the will to power, despising weak compassion or pity, and recommending us to embrace willfully the 'eternal return' of the greatest sufferings. \n", "Philosophy of pain is a philosophical specialty that focuses on physical pain and is, through that, relevant to suffering in general.\n", "Section::::Religion.\n", "Suffering plays an important role in a number of religions, regarding matters such as the following: consolation or relief; moral conduct (do no harm, help the afflicted, show compassion); spiritual advancement through life hardships or through self-imposed trials (mortification of the flesh, penance, ascetism); ultimate destiny (salvation, damnation, hell). Theodicy deals with the problem of evil, which is the difficulty of reconciling the existence of an omnipotent and benevolent god with the existence of evil: a quintessential form of evil, for many people, is extreme suffering, especially in innocent children, or in creatures destined to an eternity of torments (see problem of hell).\n", "The 'Four Noble Truths' of Buddhism are about dukkha, a term often translated as suffering. They state the nature of suffering, its cause, its cessation, and the way leading to its cessation, the Noble Eightfold Path. Buddhism considers liberation from \"dukkha\" and the practice of compassion (karuna) as basic for leading a holy life and attaining nirvana.\n", "Hinduism holds that suffering follows naturally from personal negative behaviors in one's current life or in a past life (see karma in Hinduism). One must accept suffering as a just consequence and as an opportunity for spiritual progress. Thus the soul or true self, which is eternally free of any suffering, may come to manifest itself in the person, who then achieves liberation (moksha). Abstinence from causing pain or harm to other beings, called ahimsa, is a central tenet of Hinduism, and even more so of another Indian religion, Jainism (see ahimsa in Jainism).\n", "In Judaism, suffering is often seen as a punishment for sins and a test of a person's faith, like the Book of Job illustrates.\n", "For Christianity, redemptive suffering is the belief that human suffering, when accepted and offered up in union with the Passion of Jesus, can remit the just punishment for sins and allow to grow in the love of God, others and oneself.\n", "In Islam, the faithful must endure suffering with hope and faith, not resist or ask why, accept it as Allah's will and submit to it as a test of faith. Allah never asks more than can be endured. One must also work to alleviate the suffering of others, as well as one's own. Suffering is also seen as a blessing. Through that gift, the sufferer remembers God and connects with him. Suffering expunges the sins of human beings and cleanses their soul for the immense reward of the afterlife, and the avoidance of hell.\n", "According to the Bahá'í Faith, all suffering is a brief and temporary manifestation of physical life, whose source is the material aspects of physical existence, and often attachment to them, whereas only joy exists in the spiritual worlds.\n", "Section::::Arts and literature.\n", "[[Image:Bruegel, Pieter de Oude - De val van icarus - hi res.jpg|thumb|340px|right|\"[[Landscape with the Fall of Icarus]]\"by [[Pieter Brueghel the Elder]]]]\n", "Artistic and literary works often engage with suffering, sometimes at great cost to their creators or performers. The Literature, Arts, and Medicine Database offers a list of such works under the categories art, film, literature, and theater. Be it in the tragic, comic or other genres, art and literature offer means to alleviate (and perhaps also exacerbate) suffering, as argued for instance in Harold Schweizer's \"Suffering and the remedy of art\".\n", "This Brueghel painting is among those that inspired W. H. Auden's poem [[Musée des Beaux Arts (poem)|Musée des Beaux Arts]]:\n", "\"About suffering they were never wrong,\" br\n", "\"The Old Masters; how well, they understood\" br\n", "\"Its human position; how it takes place\" br\n", "\"While someone else is eating or opening a window or just walking dully along;\"br\n", "\"(...)\"br\n", "\"In Breughel's Icarus, for instance: how everything turns away\" br\n", "\"Quite leisurely from the disaster; (...)\"\n", "Section::::Social sciences.\n", "\"Social suffering\", according to [[Arthur Kleinman]] and others, describes \"collective and individual human suffering associated with life conditions shaped by powerful social forces\". Such suffering is an increasing concern in medical anthropology, ethnography, mass media analysis, and Holocaust studies, says Iain Wilkinson, who is developing a sociology of suffering.\n", "The \"[[Encyclopedia of World Problems and Human Potential]]\" is a work by the [[Union of International Associations]]. Its main databases are about world problems (56,564 profiles), global strategies and solutions (32,547 profiles), human values (3,257 profiles), and human development (4,817 profiles). It states that \"the most fundamental entry common to the core parts is that of pain (or suffering)\" and \"common to the core parts is the learning dimension of new understanding or insight in response to suffering\".\n", "[[Ralph G.H. Siu]], an American author, urged in 1988 the \"creation of a new and vigorous academic discipline, called panetics, to be devoted to the study of the infliction of suffering\", The International Society for Panetics was founded in 1991 to study and develop ways to reduce the infliction of human suffering by individuals acting through professions, corporations, governments, and other social groups.\n", "In economics, the following notions relate not only to the matters suggested by their positive appellations, but to the matter of suffering as well: [[Quality of life|Well-being or Quality of life]], [[Welfare economics]], [[Happiness economics]], [[Gross National Happiness]], [[Genuine Progress Indicator]].\n", "In law, \"[[Pain and suffering]]\" is a legal term that refers to the mental distress or physical pain endured by a plaintiff as a result of injury for which the plaintiff seeks redress. Assessments of pain and suffering are required to be made for attributing legal awards. In the Western world these are typical made by juries in a discretionary fashion and are regarded as subjective, variable, and difficult to predict, for instance in the US, UK, Australia, and New Zealand. See also, in US law, [[Negligent infliction of emotional distress]] and [[Intentional infliction of emotional distress]].\n", "In management and organization studies, drawing on the work of Eric Cassell, suffering has been defined as the distress a person experiences when they perceive a threat to any aspect of their continued existence, whether physical, psychological, or social. Other researchers have noted that suffering results from an inability to control actions that usually define one's view of one's self and that the characteristics of suffering include the loss of autonomy, or the loss of valued relationships or sense of self. Suffering is therefore determined not by the threat itself but, rather, by its meaning to the individual and the threat to their personhood.\n", "Section::::Biology, neurology, psychology.\n", "Suffering and [[pleasure]] are respectively the negative and positive affects, or hedonic tones, or [[valence (psychology)|valences]] that psychologists often identify as basic in our emotional lives. The evolutionary role of physical and mental suffering, through natural selection, is primordial: it [[warning system|warns]] of threats, motivates [[coping (psychology)|coping]] ([[fight-or-flight response|fight or flight]], [[escapism]]), and [[reinforce]]s negatively certain behaviors (see [[punishment (psychology)|punishment]], [[aversives]]). Despite its initial disrupting nature, suffering contributes to the organization of meaning in an individual's world and psyche. In turn, meaning determines how individuals or societies experience and deal with suffering.\n", "[[Image:MRI Head 5 slices.jpg|thumb|Neuroimaging sheds light on the seat of suffering]]\n", "Many brain structures and physiological processes are involved in suffering. Various hypotheses try to account for the experience of suffering. One of these, the \"pain overlap theory\" takes note, thanks to neuroimaging studies, that the [[cingulate cortex]] fires up when the brain feels suffering from experimentally induced social distress or physical pain as well. The theory proposes therefore that physical pain and social pain (i.e. two radically differing kinds of suffering) share a common phenomenological and neurological basis.\n", "According to [[David Pearce (philosopher)|David Pearce]]’s online manifesto [[The Hedonistic Imperative]], suffering is the avoidable result of Darwinian genetic design. Pearce promotes replacing the pain/pleasure axis with a robot-like response to noxious stimuli or with gradients of bliss, through [[genetic engineering]] and other technical scientific advances.\n", "Hedonistic psychology, [[affective science]], and [[affective neuroscience]] are some of the emerging scientific fields that could in the coming years focus their attention on the phenomenon of suffering.\n", "Section::::Health care.\n", "Disease and injury may contribute to suffering in humans and animals. For example, suffering may be a feature of mental or physical illness such as [[borderline personality disorder]] and occasionally in [[Cancer|advanced cancer]]. [[Health care]] addresses this suffering in many ways, in subfields such as [[medicine]], [[clinical psychology]], [[psychotherapy]], [[alternative medicine]], [[hygiene]], [[public health]], and through various [[health care provider]]s.\n", "Health care approaches to suffering, however, remain problematic. Physician and author Eric Cassell, widely cited on the subject of attending to the suffering person as a primary goal of medicine, has defined suffering as \"the state of severe distress associated with events that threaten the intactness of the person\". Cassell writes: \"The obligation of physicians to relieve human suffering stretches back to antiquity. Despite this fact, little attention is explicitly given to the problem of suffering in medical education, research or practice.\" Mirroring the traditional body and mind dichotomy that underlies its teaching and practice, medicine strongly distinguishes [[pain]] from suffering, and most attention goes to the treatment of pain. Nevertheless, physical pain itself still lacks adequate attention from the medical community, according to numerous reports. Besides, some medical fields like [[palliative care]], [[pain management|pain management (or pain medicine)]], [[oncology]], or [[psychiatry]], do somewhat address suffering 'as such'. In palliative care, for instance, pioneer [[Cicely Saunders]] created the concept of 'total pain' ('total suffering' say now the textbooks), which encompasses the whole set of physical and mental distress, discomfort, symptoms, problems, or needs that a patient may experience hurtfully.\n", "Section::::Relief and prevention in society.\n", "Since suffering is such a universal motivating experience, people, when asked, can relate their activities to its relief and prevention. Farmers, for instance, may claim that they prevent famine, artists may say that they take our minds off our worries, and teachers may hold that they hand down tools for coping with life hazards. In certain aspects of collective life, however, suffering is more readily an explicit concern by itself. Such aspects may include [[public health]], [[human rights]], [[humanitarian aid]], [[disaster relief]], [[philanthropy]], [[economic aid]], [[social services]], [[insurance]], and [[animal welfare]]. To these can be added the aspects of [[security]] and [[safety]], which relate to precautionary measures taken by individuals or families, to interventions by the military, the police, the firefighters, and to notions or fields like [[social security]], [[environmental security]], and [[human security]].\n", "Section::::Uses.\n", "Philosopher Leonard Katz wrote: \"But Nature, as we now know, regards ultimately only fitness and not our happiness (...), and does not scruple to use hate, fear, punishment and even war alongside affection in ordering social groups and selecting among them, just as she uses pain as well as pleasure to get us to feed, water and protect our bodies and also in forging our social bonds.\"\n", "People make use of suffering for specific social or personal purposes in many areas of human life, as can be seen in the following instances:\n", "BULLET::::- In arts, literature, or entertainment, people may use suffering for creation, for performance, or for enjoyment. Entertainment particularly makes use of suffering in [[blood sport]]s and [[Violence#Violence in the media|violence in the media]], including [[Video game controversy|violent video games]] depiction of suffering. A more or less great amount of suffering is involved in [[body art]]. The most common forms of body art include [[tattooing]], [[body piercing]], [[scarification]], [[human branding]]. Another form of body art is a sub-category of [[performance art]], in which for instance the body is mutilated or pushed to its physical limits.\n", "BULLET::::- In business and various organizations, suffering may be used for constraining humans or animals into required behaviors.\n", "BULLET::::- In a criminal context, people may use suffering for coercion, revenge, or pleasure.\n", "BULLET::::- In interpersonal relationships, especially in places like families, schools, or workplaces, suffering is used for various motives, particularly under the form of [[abuse]] and [[punishment]]. In another fashion related to interpersonal relationships, the sick, or victims, or [[malingering|malingerers]], may use suffering more or less voluntarily to get [[Primary gain|primary, secondary, or tertiary gain]].\n", "BULLET::::- In law, suffering is used for [[punishment]] (see [[penal law]] ); victims may refer to what legal texts call \"[[pain and suffering]]\" to get compensation; lawyers may use a victim's suffering as an argument against the accused; an accused's or defendant's suffering may be an argument in their favor; authorities at times use light or heavy [[torture]] in order to get information or a confession.\n", "BULLET::::- In the news media, suffering is often the raw material.\n", "BULLET::::- In personal conduct, people may use suffering for themselves, in a positive way. Personal suffering may lead, if bitterness, depression, or spitefulness is avoided, to character-building, spiritual growth, or moral achievement; realizing the extent or gravity of suffering in the world may motivate one to relieve it and may give an inspiring direction to one's life. Alternatively, people may make self-detrimental use of suffering. Some may be caught in compulsive reenactment of painful feelings in order to protect them from seeing that those feelings have their origin in unmentionable past experiences; some may addictively indulge in disagreeable emotions like fear, anger, or jealousy, in order to enjoy pleasant feelings of arousal or release that often accompany these emotions; some may engage in acts of [[self-harm]] aimed at relieving otherwise unbearable states of mind.\n", "BULLET::::- In politics, there is purposeful infliction of suffering in [[war]], [[torture]], and [[terrorism]]; people may use nonphysical suffering against competitors in nonviolent power struggles; people who argue for a policy may put forward the need to relieve, prevent or avenge suffering; individuals or groups may use past suffering as a political lever in their favor.\n", "BULLET::::- In religion, suffering is used especially to grow spiritually, to expiate, to inspire compassion and help, to frighten, to punish.\n", "BULLET::::- In [[rites of passage]] (see also [[hazing]], [[ragging]]), rituals that make use of suffering are frequent.\n", "BULLET::::- In science, humans and animals are subjected on purpose to aversive experiences for the study of suffering or other phenomena.\n", "BULLET::::- In sex, especially in a context of [[sadism and masochism]] or [[BDSM]], individuals may use a certain amount of physical or mental suffering (e.g. pain, humiliation).\n", "BULLET::::- In sports, suffering may be used to outperform competitors or oneself; see [[sports injury]], and [[no pain, no gain]]; see also [[blood sport]] and [[violence in sport]] as instances of pain-based entertainment.\n", "Section::::Selected bibliography.\n", "BULLET::::- [[Joseph A. Amato]]. \"Victims and Values: A History and a Theory of Suffering.\" New York: Praeger, 1990.\n", "BULLET::::- James Davies. \"The Importance of Suffering: the value and meaning of emotional discontent\". London: Routledge\n", "BULLET::::- Cynthia Halpern. \"Suffering, Politics, Power: a Genealogy in Modern Political Theory.\" Albany: State University of New York Press, 2002.\n", "BULLET::::- Jamie Mayerfeld. \"Suffering and Moral Responsibility.\" New York: Oxford University Press, 2005.\n", "BULLET::::- Thomas Metzinger. \"Suffering.\"In Kurt Almqvist & Anders Haag (2017)[eds.], The Return of Consciousness. Stockholm: Axel and Margaret Ax:son Johnson Foundation.\n", "BULLET::::- David B. Morris. \"The Culture of Pain.\" Berkeley: University of California, 2002.\n", "BULLET::::- [[Elaine Scarry]]. \"The Body in Pain: The Making and Unmaking of the World.\" New York: Oxford University Press, 1987.\n", "BULLET::::- [[Ronald Anderson]]. \"World Suffering and Quality of Life\", Social Indicators Research Series, Volume 56, 2015. ; Also: \"Human Suffering and Quality of Life\", SpringerBriefs in Well-Being and Quality of Life Research, 2014.\n", "Section::::References.\n", "[[Category:Suffering| ]]\n", "[[Category:Feeling]]\n", "[[Category:Pain]]\n", "[[Category:Social issues]]\n", "[[ml:വേദന]]\n", "[[ckb:ئازار]]\n" ] }

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{ "description": "pain, mental, or emotional unhappiness caused by bad things happening", "enwikiquote_title": "Suffering", "wikidata_id": "Q5780945", "wikidata_label": "suffering", "wikipedia_title": "Suffering", "aliases": { "alias": [] } }

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{ "paragraph": [ "Technological convergence\n", "Technological convergence is a tendency for technologies that were originally quite unrelated to become more closely integrated and even unified as they develop and advance. The concept is roughly analogous to convergent evolution in biological systems, such that (for example) the ancestors of whales became progressively more like fish in outward form and function, despite not being fish and not coming from a fish lineage. In technological convergence, a cardinal example to convey the concept is that telephones, television, and computers began as separate and mostly unrelated technologies but have converged in many ways into interrelated parts of a telecommunication and media industry underpinned by common elements of digital electronics and software. \n", "Section::::Definitions.\n", "\"\"Convergence is a deep integration of knowledge, tools, and all relevant activities of human activity for a common goal, to allow society to answer new questions to change the respective physical or social ecosystem. Such changes in the respective ecosystem open new trends, pathways, and opportunities in the following divergent phase of the process\"\" (Roco 2002, Bainbridge and Roco 2016 ). \n", "Siddhartha Menon defines convergence, in his \"Policy initiative Dilemmas on Media Covergence: A Cross National Perspective\", as integration and digitalization. Integration, here, is defined as \"a process of transformation measure by the degree to which diverse media such as phone, data broadcast and information technology infrastructures are combined into a single seamless all purpose network architecture platform\". Digitalization is not so much defined by its physical infrastructure, but by the content or the medium. Jan van Dijk suggests that \"digitalization means breaking down signals into bytes consisting of ones and zeros\". Convergence is defined by Blackman, 1998, as a trend in the evolution of technology services and industry structures. Convergence is later defined more specifically as the coming together of telecommunications, computing and broadcasting into a single digital bit-stream. Mueller stands against the statement that convergence is really a takeover of all forms of media by one technology: digital computers.\n", "Media technological convergence is the tendency that as technology changes, different technological system sometimes evolve toward performing similar tasks. Digital convergence refers to the convergence of four industries into one conglomerate, ITTCE (Information Technologies, Telecommunication, Consumer Electronics, and Entertainment). Previously separate technologies such as voice (and telephony features), data (and productivity applications), and video can now share resources and interact with each other synergistically. Telecommunications convergence (also called \"network convergence\") describes emerging telecommunications technologies, and network architecture used to migrate multiple communications services into a single network. Specifically this involves the converging of previously distinct media such as telephony and data communications into common interfaces on single devices, such as most smart phones can make phone calls and search the web.\n", "Media convergence is the interlinking of computing and other information technologies, media content, media companies and communication networks that have arisen as the result of the evolution and popularization of the Internet as well as the activities, products and services that have emerged in the digital media space. Closely linked to the multilevel process of media convergence are also several developments in different areas of the media and communication sector which are also summarized under the term of media deconvergence. Many experts view this as simply being the tip of the iceberg, as all facets of institutional activity and social life such as business, government, art, journalism, health, and education are increasingly being carried out in these digital media spaces across a growing network of information and communication technology devices. Also included in this topic is the basis of computer networks, wherein many different operating systems are able to communicate via different protocols. \n", "Convergent services, such as VoIP, IPTV, Smart TV, and others, tend to replace the older technologies and thus can disrupt markets. IP-based convergence is inevitable and will result in new service and new demand in the market. When the old technology converges into the public-owned common, IP based services become access-independent or less dependent. The old service is access-dependent.\n", "The term digital convergence means the ability to view the same multimedia content from different types devices. These are all thanks to the digitization of content (movies, pictures, music, voice, text) and the development of connections methods. Reading emails on your TV via a connected smartphone, watch a streaming movie on the home theater connected to the Internet. Digital convergence simplifies our life into our living room. Formerly, each unit operated independently and networks were not interconnected. Today, information flows on the same network and are stored, read, viewed or listened via same types of equipment. Networks, technologies and content converge on a single device. Result: it saves time and simplifies life. Some examples of digital convergence are; 1. Windows 10. 2. The Iphone, Android or other smart phone devices. 3. Google Glass 4. Iwatch 5. Drawing Tablets for Pc’s 6. Automatic washing machine.\n", "Section::::Elements of Technology Convergence.\n", "There are 5 elements of Technological Convergence which are: \n", "[1] Technology,It is a common for technologies that are viewed as very different to develop similar features with time that blur differences. In 1995, a television and a mobile phone were completely different devices. In recent years, they may have similar features such as the ability to connect to wifi, play rich internet-based media and run apps. People may use either their television or phone to play a game or communicate with relatives, using the same software. [2] Media & Content, a television and internet services were once viewed as separate but have begun to converge. It is likely that music, movies, video games and informational content will eventually converge to the point that they are no longer distinct formats. For example, future music may always come with an interactive music video that resembles a game. \n", "[3] Services application, in the late 1990s, there was a large difference between business and consumer software and services. With time, this line has blurred. Technology tends to move from a large number of highly specific tools towards a small set of flexible tools with broad applications. \n", "[4] Robots & Machines, it is increasingly common for machines such as vehicles or appliances to have semi-autonomous features that technically make them robots. \n", "[5] Virtual Reality, can be viewed as the convergence of real life with digital entities such as games and information environments.\n", "Section::::History of media technological convergence.\n", "Communication networks were designed to carry different types of information independently. The older media, such as television and radio, are broadcasting networks with passive audiences. Convergence of telecommunication technology permits the manipulation of all forms of information, voice, data, and video. Telecommunication has changed from a world of scarcity to one of seemingly limitless capacity. Consequently, the possibility of audience interactivity morphs the passive audience into an engaged audience. The historical roots of convergence can be traced back to the emergence of mobile telephony and the Internet, although the term properly applies only from the point in marketing history when fixed and mobile telephony began to be offered by operators as joined products. Fixed and mobile operators were, for most of the 1990s, independent companies. Even when the same organization marketed both products, these were sold and serviced independently.\n", "In the 1990s an implicit and often explicit assumption was that new media was going to replace the old media and Internet was going to replace broadcasting. In Nicholas Negroponte's \"Being Digital\", Negroponte predicts the collapse of broadcast networks in favor of an era of narrow-casting. He also suggests that no government regulation can shatter the media conglomerate. \"The monolithic empires of mass media are dissolving into an array of cottage industries... Media barons of today will be grasping to hold onto their centralized empires tomorrow... The combined forces of technology and human nature will ultimately take a stronger hand in plurality than any laws Congress can invent.\" The new media companies claimed that the old media would be absorbed fully and completely into the orbit of the emerging technologies.\n", "George Gilder dismisses such claims saying, \"The computer industry is converging with the television industry in the same sense that the automobile converged with the horse, the TV converged with the nickelodeon, the word-processing program converged with the typewriter, the CAD program converged with the drafting board, and digital desktop publishing converged with the Linotype machine and the letterpress.\" Gilder believes that computers had come not to transform mass culture but to destroy it.\n", "Media companies put Media Convergence back to their agenda, after the dot-com bubble burst. Erstwhile Knight Ridder promulgated concept of portable magazines, newspaper, and books in 1994.\"Within news corporations it became increasingly obvious that an editorial model based on mere replication in the internet of contents that had previously been written for print newspapers, radio, or television was no longer sufficient.\" The rise of digital communication in the late 20th century has made it possible for media organizations (or individuals) to deliver text, audio, and video material over the same wired, wireless, or fiber-optic connections. At the same time, it inspired some media organizations to explore multimedia delivery of information. This digital convergence of news media, in particular, was called \"Mediamorphosis\" by researcher Roger Fidler , in his 1997 book by that name. Today, we are surrounded by a multi-level convergent media world where all modes of communication and information are continually reforming to adapt to the enduring demands of technologies, \"changing the way we create, consume, learn and interact with each other\".\n", "Section::::Converging technological fields.\n", "NBIC, an acronym for Nanotechnology, Biotechnology, Information technology and Cognitive science, was, in 2014, the most popular term for converging technologies. It was introduced into public discourse through the publication of \"Converging Technologies for Improving Human Performance\", a report sponsored in part by the U.S. National Science Foundation. Various other acronyms have been offered for the same concept such as GNR (Genetics, Nanotechnology and Robotics) (Bill Joy, 2000, Why the future doesn't need us). Journalist Joel Garreau in \"Radical Evolution: The Promise and Peril of Enhancing Our Minds, Our Bodies — and What It Means to Be Human\" uses \"GRIN\", for Genetic, Robotic, Information, and Nano processes, while science journalist Douglas Mulhall in \"Our Molecular Future: How Nanotechnology, Robotics, Genetics and Artificial Intelligence Will Transform Our World\" uses \"GRAIN\", for Genetics, Robotics, Artificial Intelligence, and Nanotechnology. Another acronym coined by the ETC Group is \"BANG\" for \"Bits, Atoms, Neurons, Genes\".\n", "Section::::Converging science and technology fields.\n", "A comprehensive term used by Roco, Bainbridge, Tonn and Whitesides is Convergence of Knowledge, Technology and Society (2013). Bainbridge and Roco edited and co-authored the Springer reference Handbook of Science and Technology Convergence (2016) defining the concept of convergence in various science, technology and medical fields. Roco published Principles and Methods that Facilitate Convergence (2015) \n", "Section::::Examples of technology implications.\n", "Convergent solutions include both fixed-line and mobile technologies. Recent examples of new, convergent services include:\n", "BULLET::::- Using the Internet for voice and video telephony\n", "BULLET::::- Video on demand\n", "BULLET::::- Fixed-mobile convergence\n", "BULLET::::- Mobile-to-mobile convergence\n", "BULLET::::- Location-based services\n", "BULLET::::- Integrated products and bundles\n", "Convergent technologies can integrate the fixed-line with mobile to deliver convergent solutions. Convergent technologies include:\n", "BULLET::::- IP Multimedia Subsystem\n", "BULLET::::- Session Initiation Protocol\n", "BULLET::::- IPTV\n", "BULLET::::- Voice over IP\n", "BULLET::::- Voice call continuity\n", "BULLET::::- Digital video broadcasting – handheld\n", "Section::::Convergence in appliances.\n", "Some media observers expect that we will eventually access all media content through one device, or \"black box\". As such, media business practice has been to identify the next \"black box\" to invest in and provide media for. This has caused a number of problems. Firstly, as \"black boxes\" are invented and abandoned, the individual is left with numerous devices that can perform the same task, rather than one dedicated for each task. For example, one may own both a computer and a video games console, subsequently owning two DVD players. This is contrary to the streamlined goal of the \"black box\" theory, and instead creates clutter. Secondly, technological convergence tends to be experimental in nature. This has led to consumers owning technologies with additional functions that are harder, if not impractical, to use rather than one specific device. Many people would only watch the TV for the duration of the meal's cooking time, or whilst in the kitchen, but would not use the microwave as the household TV. These examples show that in many cases technological convergence is unnecessary or unneeded.\n", "Furthermore, although consumers primarily use a specialized media device for their needs, other \"black box\" devices that perform the same task can be used to suit their current situation. As a 2002 Cheskin Research report explained: \"...Your email needs and expectations are different whether you're at home, work, school, commuting, the airport, etc., and these different devices are designed to suit your needs for accessing content depending on where you are- your situated context.\" Despite the creation of \"black boxes\", intended to perform all tasks, the trend is to use devices that can suit the consumer's physical position. Due to the variable utility of portable technology, convergence occurs in high-end mobile devices. They incorporate multimedia services, GPS, Internet access, and mobile telephony into a single device, heralding the rise of what has been termed the \"smartphone,\" a device designed to remove the need to carry multiple devices. Convergence of media occurs when multiple products come together to form one product with the advantages of all of them, also known as the black box. This idea of one technology, concocted by Henry Jenkins, has become known more as a fallacy because of the inability to actually put all technical pieces into one. For example, while people can have e-mail and Internet on their phone, they still want full computers with Internet and e-mail in addition. Mobile phones are a good example, in that they incorporate digital cameras, mp3 players, voice recorders, and other devices. This type of convergence is popular. For the consumer, it means more features in less space; for media conglomerates it means remaining competitive.\n", "However, convergence has a downside. Particularly in initial forms, converged devices are frequently less functional and reliable than their component parts (e.g., a mobile phone's web browser may not render some web pages correctly, due to not supporting certain rendering methods, such as the iPhone browser not supporting Flash content). As the number of functions in a single device escalates, the ability of that device to serve its original function decreases. As Rheingold asserts, technological convergence holds immense potential for the \"improvement of life and liberty in some ways and (could) degrade it in others\". He believes the same technology has the potential to be \"used as both a weapon of social control and a means of resistance\". Since technology has evolved in the past ten years or so, companies are beginning to converge technologies to create demand for new products. This includes phone companies integrating 3G and 4G on their phones. In the mid 20th century, television converged the technologies of movies and radio, and television is now being converged with the mobile phone industry and the Internet. Phone calls are also being made with the use of personal computers. Converging technologies combine multiple technologies into one. Newer mobile phones feature cameras, and can hold images, videos, music, and other media. Manufacturers now integrate more advanced features, such as video recording, GPS receivers, data storage, and security mechanisms into the traditional cellphone.\n", "Section::::Convergence on the internet.\n", "The role of the internet has changed from its original use as a communication tool to easier and faster access to information and services, mainly through a broadband connection. The television, radio and newspapers were the world's media for accessing news and entertainment; now, all three media have converged into one, and people all over the world can read and hear news and other information on the internet. The convergence of the internet and conventional TV became popular in the 2010s, through Smart TV, also sometimes referred to as \"Connected TV\" or \"Hybrid TV\", (not to be confused with IPTV, Internet TV, or with Web TV). Smart TV is used to describe the current trend of integration of the Internet and Web 2.0 features into modern television sets and set-top boxes, as well as the technological convergence between computers and these television sets or set-top boxes. These new devices most often also have a much higher focus on online interactive media, Internet TV, over-the-top content, as well as on-demand streaming media, and less focus on traditional broadcast media like previous generations of television sets and set-top boxes always have had.\n", "Section::::Digital convergence.\n", "Digital Convergence means inclination for various innovations, media sources, content that become similar with the time. It enables the convergence of access devices and content as well as the industry participant operations and strategy. This is how this type of technological convergence creates opportunities, particularly in the area of product development and growth strategies for digital product companies. The same can be said in the case of individual content producers such as vloggers in the YouTube video-sharing platform. The convergence in this example is demonstrated in the involvement of the Internet, home devices such as smart television, camera, the YouTube application, and the digital content. In this setup, there are the so-called \"spokes\", which are the devices that connect to a central hub, which could either be the smart TV or PC. Here, the Internet serves as the intermediary, particularly through its interactivity tools and social networking, in order to create unique mixes of products and services via horizontal integration.\n", "The above example highlights how digital convergence encompasses three phenomena:\n", "BULLET::::1. previously stand-alone devices are being connected by networks and software, significantly enhancing functionalities;\n", "BULLET::::2. previously stand-alone products are being converged onto the same platform, creating hybrid products in the process; and,\n", "BULLET::::3. companies are crossing traditional boundaries such as hardware and software to provide new products and new sources of competition.\n", "Another example is the convergence of different types of digital contents. According to Harry Strasser, former CTO of Siemens \"[digital convergence will substantially impact people's lifestyle and work style]\". The next hot trend in digital convergence is converged content, mixing personal (user-generated) content with professional (copyright protected) content. An example are personal music videos that combine user-generated photos with chart music. The German startup Trivid GmbH has developed Clipgenerator that enables users to create personal music videos with popular chart music and to share them in social communities such as Facebook, Myspace and Bebo.\n", "Section::::Convergence in the marketplace.\n", "Convergence is a global marketplace dynamic in which different companies and sectors are being brought together, both as competitors and collaborators, across traditional boundaries of industry and technology. In a world dominated by convergence, many traditional products, services and types of companies will become less relevant, but a stunning array of new ones is possible. An array of technology developments act as accelerators of convergence, including mobility, analytics, cloud, digital and social networks. As a disruptive force, convergence is a threat to the unprepared, but a tremendous growth opportunity for companies that can out-innovate and out-execute their ever-expanding list of competitors under dramatically new marketplace rules. With convergence, lines are blurred as companies diversify outside of their original markets. For instance, mobile services are increasingly an important part of the automobile; chemicals companies work with agribusiness; device manufacturers sell music, video and books; booksellers become consumer device companies; search and advertising companies become telecommunications companies (\"telcos\"); media companies act like telcos and vice versa; retailers act like financial services companies and vice versa; cosmetics companies work with pharmaceutical companies; and more. Mobile phone usage broadens dramatically, enabling users to make payments online, watch videos, or even adjusting their home thermostat while away at work.\n", "Section::::Media convergence.\n", "Generally, media convergence refers to the merging of both old and new media and can be seen as a product, a system or a process. Jenkins states that convergence is, \"the flow of content across multiple media platforms, the cooperation between multiple media industries, and the migratory behaviour of media audiences who would go almost anywhere in search of the kinds of entertainment experiences they wanted\" According to Jenkins, there are five areas of convergence: technological, economic, social or organic, cultural and global. So media convergence is not just a technological shift or a technological process, it also includes shifts within the industrial, cultural, and social paradigms that encourage the consumer to seek out new information. Convergence, simply put, is how individual consumers interact with others on a social level and use various media platforms to create new experiences, new forms of media and content that connect us socially, and not just to other consumers, but to the corporate producers of media in ways that have not been as readily accessible in the past. However, Lugmayr and Dal Zotto argued, that media convergence takes place on technology, content, consumer, business model, and management level. They argue, that media convergence is a matter of evolution and can be described through the triadic phenomenon of convergence, divergence, and coexistence. Today's digital media ecosystems coexist, as e.g. mobile app stores provide vendor lock-ins into particular eco-systems; some technology platforms are converging under one technology, due to e.g. the usage of common communication protocols as in digital TV; and other media are diverging, as e.g. media content offerings are more and more specializing and provides a space for niche media.\n", "Advances in technology bring the ability for technological convergence that Rheingold believes can alter the \"social-side effects,\" in that \"the virtual, social and physical world are colliding, merging and coordinating.\" It was predicted in the late 1980s, around the time that CD-ROM was becoming commonplace, that a digital revolution would take place, and that old media would be pushed to one side by new media. Broadcasting is increasingly being replaced by the Internet, enabling consumers all over the world the freedom to access their preferred media content more easily and at a more available rate than ever before.\n", "However, when the dot-com bubble of the 1990s suddenly popped, that poured cold water over the talk of such a digital revolution. In today's society, the idea of media convergence has once again emerged as a key point of reference as newer as well as established media companies attempt to visualize the future of the entertainment industry. If this revolutionary digital paradigm shift presumed that old media would be increasingly replaced by new media, the convergence paradigm that is currently emerging suggests that new and old media would interact in more complex ways than previously predicted. The paradigm shift that followed the digital revolution assumed that new media was going to change everything. When the dot com market crashed, there was a tendency to imagine that nothing had changed. The real truth lay somewhere in between as there were so many aspects of the current media environment to take into consideration. Many industry leaders are increasingly reverting to media convergence as a way of making sense in an era of disorientating change. In that respect, media convergence in theory is essentially an old concept taking on a new meaning. Media convergence, in reality, is more than just a shift in technology. It alters relationships between industries, technologies, audiences, genres and markets. Media convergence changes the rationality media industries operate in, and the way that media consumers process news and entertainment. Media convergence is essentially a process and not an outcome, so no single black box controls the flow of media. With proliferation of different media channels and increasing portability of new telecommunications and computing technologies, we have entered into an era where media constantly surrounds us.\n", "Media convergence requires that media companies rethink existing assumptions about media from the consumer's point of view, as these affect marketing and programming decisions. Media producers must respond to newly empowered consumers.\n", "Conversely, it would seem that hardware is instead diverging whilst media content is converging. Media has developed into brands that can offer content in a number of forms. Two examples of this are \"Star Wars\" and \"The Matrix\". Both are films, but are also books, video games, cartoons, and action figures. Branding encourages expansion of one concept, rather than the creation of new ideas. In contrast, hardware has diversified to accommodate media convergence. Hardware must be specific to each function. While most scholars argue that the flow of cross-media is accelerating, O'Donnell suggests, especially between films and video game, the semblance of media convergence is misunderstood by people outside of the media production industry. The conglomeration of media industry continues to sell the same story line in different media. For example, Batman is in comics, films, anime, and games. However, the data to create the image of batman in each media is created individually by different teams of creators. The same character and the same visual effect repetitively appear in different media is because of the synergy of media industry to make them similar as possible. In addition, convergence does not happen when the game of two different consoles is produced. No flows between two consoles because it is faster to create game from scratch for the industry.\n", "One of the more interesting new media journalism forms is virtual reality. Reuters, a major international news service, has created and staffed a news “island” in the popular online virtual reality environment Second Life (www.secondlife.com, accessed January 3, 2008). Open to anyone, Second Life has emerged as a compelling 3D virtual reality for millions of citizens around the world who have created avatars (virtual representations of themselves) to populate and live in an altered state where personal flight is a reality, altered egos can flourish, and real money (US$1,296,257 were spent during the 24 hours concluding at 10:19 a.m. eastern time January 7, 2008) can be made without ever setting foot into the real world. The Reuters Island in Second Life is a virtual version of the Reuters real-world news service but covering the domain of Second Life for the citizens of Second Life (numbering 11,807,742 residents as of January 5, 2008).\n", "Media convergence in the digital era means the changes that are taking place with older forms of media and media companies. Media convergence has two roles, the first is the technological merging of different media channels – for example, magazines, radio programs, TV shows, and movies, now are available on the Internet through laptops, iPads, and smartphones. As discussed in \"Media Culture\" (by Campbell), convergence of technology is not new. It has been going on since the late 1920s. An example is RCA, the Radio Corporation of America, which purchased Victor Talking Machine Company and introduced machines that could receive radio and play recorded music. Next came the TV, and radio lost some of its appeal as people started watching television, which has both talking and music as well as visuals. As technology advances, convergence of media change to keep up. The second definition of media convergence Campbell discusses is cross-platform by media companies. This usually involves consolidating various media holdings, such as cable, phone, television (over the air, satellite, cable) and Internet access under one corporate umbrella. This is not for the consumer to have more media choices, this is for the benefit of the company to cut down on costs and maximize its profits. As stated in the article, Convergence Culture and Media Work, by Mark Deuze, “the convergence of production and consumption of media across companies, channels, genres, and technologies is an expression of the convergence of all aspects of everyday life: work and play, the local and the global, self and social identity.\"\n", "Section::::Media convergence.:Convergence culture.\n", "Henry Jenkins determines convergence culture to be the flow of content across multiple media platforms, the cooperation between multiple media industries, and the migratory behavior of media audiences who will go almost anywhere in search of the kinds of entertainment experiences they want. The convergence culture is an important factor in transmedia storytelling. Convergence culture introduces new stories and arguments from one form of media into many. Transmedia storytelling is defined by Jenkins as a process \"where integral elements of a fiction get dispersed systematically across multiple delivery channels for the purpose of creating a unified and coordinated entertainment experience. Ideally, each medium makes its own unique contribution to the unfolding of the story\". For instance, The Matrix starts as a film, which is followed by two other instalments, but in a convergence culture it is not constrained to that form. It becomes a story not only told in the movies but in animated shorts, video games and comic books, three different media platforms. Online, a wiki is created to keep track of the story's expanding canon. Fan films, discussion forums, and social media pages also form, expanding The Matrix to different online platforms. Convergence culture took what started as a film and expanded it across almost every type of media. Bert is Evil (images) Bert and Bin Laden appeared in CNN coverage of anti-American protest following September 11. The association of Bert and Bin Laden links back to the Ignacio's Photoshop project for fun.\n", "Convergence culture is a part of participatory culture. Because average people can now access their interests on many types of media they can also have more of a say. Fans and consumers are able to participate in the creation and circulation of new content. Some companies take advantage of this and search for feedback from their customers through social media and sharing sites such as YouTube. \n", "Besides marketing and entertainment, convergence culture has also affected the way we interact with news and information. We can access news on multiple levels of media from the radio, TV, newspapers, and the internet. The internet allows more people to be able to report the news through independent broadcasts and therefore allows a multitude of perspectives to be put forward and accessed by people in many different areas. Convergence allows news to be gathered on a much larger scale. For instance, photographs were taken of torture at Abu Ghraib. These photos were shared and eventually posted on the internet. This led to the breaking of a news story in newspapers, on TV, and the internet.\n", "Media scholar Henry Jenkins has described the media convergence with participatory culture as:\n", "Section::::Media convergence.:Cell phone convergence.\n", "The social function of the cell phone changes as the technology converges. Because of technological advancement, cell phones function more than just as a phone. They contain an internet connection, video players, MP3 players, gaming, and a camera. Another example, Rok Sako To Rok Lo (2004) was screened in Delhi, Bangalore, Hyderabad, Mumbai, and other part of India through EDGE-enabled mobile phones with live video streaming facility.\n", "Section::::Media convergence.:Social movements.\n", "The integration of social movements in cyberspace is one of the potential strategies that social movements can use in the age of media convergence. Because of the neutrality of the internet and the end-to-end design, the power structure of the internet was designed to avoid discrimination between applications. Mexico's Zapatistas campaign for land rights was one of the most influential case in the information age; Manuel Castells defines the Zapatistas as \"the first informational guerrilla movement\". The Zapatista uprising had been marginalized by the popular press. The Zapatistas were able to construct a grassroots, decentralized social movement by using the internet. The Zapatistas Effect, observed by Cleaver, continues to organize social movements on a global scale. A sophisticated webmetric analysis, which maps the links between different websites and seeks to identify important nodal points in a network, demonstrates that the Zapatistas cause binds together hundreds of global NGOs. The majority of the social movement organized by Zapatistas targets their campaign especially against global neoliberalism. A successful social movement not only need online support but also protest on the street. Papic wrote, \"Social Media Alone Do Not Instigate Revolutions\", which discusses how the use of social media in social movements needs good organization both online and offline. A study, \"Journalism in the age of media convergence: a survey of undergraduates’ technology-related news habits\", concluded that several focus group respondents reported they generally did not actively engage in media convergence, such as viewing slide shows or listening to podcast that accompanied an online story, as part of their Web-based news consumption, a significant number of students indicated the interactive features often associated with online news and media convergence were indeed appealing to them.\n", "Section::::Examples in Regulation.\n", "Section::::Examples in Regulation.:Example: VoIP.\n", "The U.S. Federal Communications Commission (FCC) has not been able to decide how to regulate VoIP (Internet Telephony) because the convergent technology is still growing and changing. In addition to its growth, FCC is tentative to set regulation on VoIP in order to promote competition in the telecommunication industry. There is not a clear line between telecommunication service and the information service because of the growth of the new convergent media. Historically, telecommunication is subject to state regulation. The state of California concerned about the increasing popularity of internet telephony will eventually obliterate funding for the Universal Service Fund Some states attempt to assert their traditional role of common carrier oversight onto this new technology. Meisel and Needles (2005) suggests that the FCC, federal courts, and state regulatory bodies on access line charges will directly impact the speed in which Internet telephony market grows. On one hand, the FCC is hesitant to regulate convergent technology because VoIP with different feature from the old Telecommunication; no fixed model to build legislature yet. On the other hand, the regulations is needed because Service over the internet might be quickly replaced telecommunication service, which will affect the entire economy.\n", "Convergence has also raised several debates about classification of certain telecommunications services. As the lines between data transmission, and voice and media transmission are eroded, regulators are faced with the task of how best to classify the converging segments of the telecommunication sector. Traditionally, telecommunication regulation has focused on the operation of physical infrastructure, networks, and access to network. No content is regulated in the telecommunication because the content is considered private. In contrast, film and Television are regulated by contents. The rating system regulates its distribution to the audience. Self-regulation is promoted by the industry. Bogle senior persuaded the entire industry to pay 0.1 percent levy on all advertising and the money was used to give authority to the Advertising Standards Authority, which keeps the government away from setting legislature in the media industry.\n", "The premises to regulate the new media, two-ways communications, concerns much about the change from old media to new media. Each medium has different features and characteristics. First, internet, the new medium, manipulates all form of information – voice, data and video. Second, the old regulation on the old media, such as radio and Television, emphasized its regulation on the scarcity of the channels. Internet, on the other hand, has the limitless capacity, due to the end-to-end design. Third, Two-ways communication encourages interactivity between the content producers and the audiences. \n", "\"...Fundamental basis for classification, therefore, is to consider the need for regulation in terms of either market failure or in the public interests\"(Blackman). The Electronic Frontier Foundation (EFF), founded in 1990, is a non profit organization to defend free speech, privacy, innovation and consumer rights. DMCA, Digital Millennium Copyright Act regulates and protect the digital content producers and consumers.\n", "Section::::Examples in Regulation.:Emerging trends in communications.\n", "Network neutrality has emerged as an issue. Wu and Lessig (2004) set out two reasons to adapt neutral network model for computer networks. First, \"a neutral network eliminates the risk of future discrimination, providing more incentive to invest in broadband application development.\" Second, \"neutral network facilitates fair competition among application, no bias between applications.\" The two reasons also coincide with FCC's interest to stimulate investment and enhance innovation in broadband technology and services.\n", "Despite regulatory efforts of deregulation, privatization, and liberalization, the infrastructure barrier has been a negative factor in achieving effective competition. \"Kim et al. argues that IP dissociates the telephony application from the infrastructure and Internet telephony is at the forefront of such dissociation.\" The neutrality of the network is very important for fair competition. As the former FCC Charman Michael Powell put it: \"From its inception, the Internet was designed, as those present during the course of its creating will tell you, to prevent government or a corporation or anyone else from controlling it. It was designed to defeat discrimination against users, ideas and technologies\". Because of these reasons, Shin concludes that regulator should make sure to regulate application and infrastructure separately.\n", "The layered model was first proposed by Solum and Chug, Sicker, and Nakahata. Sicker, Warbach and Witt have supported using a layered model to regulate the telecommunications industry with the emergence of convergence services. Many researchers have different layered approach, but they all agree that the emergence of convergent technology will create challenges and ambiguities for regulations. The key point of the layered model is that it reflects the reality of network architecture, and current business model.\n", "The layered Model consists of 1. Access Layer – where the physical infrastructure resides: copper wires, cable, or fiber optic. 2. transport layer – the provider of service. 3. Application layer – the interface between the data and the users. 4. content layer – the layer which users see. In \"Convergence Technologies and the Layered Policy Model: Implication for Regulating Future Communications\", Shin combines the Layered Model and Network Neutrality as the principle to regulate the future convergent Media Industry.\n", "Section::::Example: Messaging.\n", "Combination services include those that integrate SMS with voice, such as voice SMS. Providers include Bubble Motion, Jott, Kirusa, and SpinVox. Several operators have launched services that combine SMS with mobile instant messaging (MIM) and presence. Text-to-landline services also exist, where subscribers can send text messages to any landline phone and are charged at standard rates. The text messages are converted into spoken language. This service has been popular in America, where fixed and mobile numbers are similar. Inbound SMS has been converging to enable reception of different formats (SMS, voice, MMS, etc.). UK companies, including consumer goods companies and media giants, should soon be able to let consumers contact them via voice, SMS, MMS, IVR, or video using one five-digit number or long number. In April 2008, O2 UK launched voice-enabled shortcodes, adding voice functionality to the five-digit codes already used for SMS. This type of convergence is helpful for media companies, broadcasters, enterprises, call centres and help desks who need to develop a consistent contact strategy with the consumer. Because SMS is very popular today, it became relevant to include text messaging as a contact possibility for consumers. To avoid having multiple numbers (one for voice calls, another one for SMS), a simple way is to merge the reception of both formats under one number. This means that a consumer can text or call one number and be sure that the message will be received.\n", "Section::::Example: Mobile.\n", "\"Mobile service provisions\" refers not only to the ability to purchase mobile phone services, but the ability to wirelessly access everything: voice, Internet, audio, and video. Advancements in WiMAX and other leading edge technologies provide the ability to transfer information over a wireless link at a variety of speeds, distances, and non-line-of-sight conditions.\n", "Section::::Example: Multi-play in telecommunications.\n", "Multi-play is a marketing term describing the provision of different telecommunication services, such as Internet access, television, telephone, and mobile phone service, by organisations that traditionally only offered one or two of these services. Multi-play is a catch-all phrase; usually, the terms triple play (voice, video and data) or quadruple play (voice, video, data and wireless) are used to describe a more specific meaning. A dual play service is a marketing term for the provisioning of the two services: it can be high-speed Internet (digital subscriber line) and telephone service over a single broadband connection in the case of phone companies, or high-speed Internet (cable modem) and TV service over a single broadband connection in the case of cable TV companies. The convergence can also concern the underlying communication infrastructure. An example of this is a triple play service, where communication services are packaged allowing consumers to purchase TV, Internet, and telephony in one subscription. The broadband cable market is transforming as pay-TV providers move aggressively into what was once considered the telco space. Meanwhile, customer expectations have risen as consumer and business customers alike seek rich content, multi-use devices, networked products and converged services including on-demand video, digital TV, high speed Internet, VoIP, and wireless applications. It is uncharted territory for most broadband companies.\n", "A quadruple play service combines the triple play service of broadband Internet access, television, and telephone with wireless service provisions. This service set is also sometimes humorously referred to as \"The Fantastic Four\" or \"Grand Slam\". A fundamental aspect of the quadruple play is not only the long-awaited broadband convergence but also the players involved. Many of them, from the largest global service providers to whom we connect today via wires and cables to the smallest of startup service providers are interested. Opportunities are attractive: the big three telecom services – telephony, cable television, and wireless—could combine their industries. In the UK, the merger of NTL:Telewest and Virgin Mobile resulted in a company offering a quadruple play of cable television, broadband Internet, home telephone, and mobile telephone services.\n", "Section::::Example: Home network.\n", "Early in the 21st century, home LAN convergence so rapidly integrated home routers, wireless access points, and DSL modems that users were hard put to identify the resulting box they used to connect their computers to their Internet service. A general term for such a combined device is a residential gateway.\n", "Section::::See also.\n", "BULLET::::- Computer multitasking (the software equivalent of a converged device)\n", "BULLET::::- Convergence (telecommunications)\n", "BULLET::::- Dongle, can facilitate inclusion of non-converged devices.\n", "BULLET::::- Digital rhetoric\n", "BULLET::::- Generic Access Network\n", "BULLET::::- UMA Today\n", "BULLET::::- IP Multimedia Subsystem (IMS)\n", "BULLET::::- Mobile VoIP\n", "BULLET::::- Next Generation Networks\n", "BULLET::::- Next generation network services\n", "BULLET::::- Post-convergent\n", "BULLET::::- Second screen\n", "Section::::Further reading.\n", "BULLET::::- Jenkins, H. Convergence Culture: Where Old and New Media Collide. New York: New York UP, 2006. Print.\n", "BULLET::::- Artur Lugmayr, Cinzia Dal Zotto, Media Convergence Handbook, Vol 1. and Vol. 2, Springer-Verlag, 2016\n", "Section::::External links.\n", "BULLET::::- Amdocs MultiPlay Strategy WhitePaper\n", "BULLET::::- Technology Convergence Update with Bob Brown – Video\n" ] }

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{ "pageid": 206586, "parentid": 886074383, "revid": 887870458, "pre_dump": true, "timestamp": "2019-03-15T10:53:21Z", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Technological%20convergence&oldid=887870458" }

{ "paragraph": [ "William Halsey Jr.\n", "Fleet Admiral William Frederick Halsey Jr., KBE (October 30, 1882 – August 16, 1959), known as Bill Halsey or \"Bull\" Halsey, was an American admiral in the United States Navy during World War II. He is one of four individuals to have attained the rank of fleet admiral of the United States Navy, the others being Ernest King, William Leahy, and Chester W. Nimitz.\n", "Born in Elizabeth, New Jersey, Halsey graduated from the United States Naval Academy in 1904. He served in the Great White Fleet and, during World War I, commanded the destroyer . He took command of the aircraft carrier in 1935 after completing a course in naval aviation, and was promoted to the rank of rear admiral in 1938. At the start of the War in the Pacific (1941–1945), Halsey commanded the task force centered on the carrier in a series of raids against Japanese-held targets. \n", "Halsey was made commander, South Pacific Area, and led the Allied forces over the course of the Battle for Guadalcanal (1942–43) and the fighting up the Solomon chain (1942–45). In 1943 he was made commander of the Third Fleet, the post he held through the rest of the war. He took part in the Battle for Leyte Gulf, the largest naval battle of the Second World War and, by some criteria, the largest naval battle in history. He was promoted to fleet admiral in December 1945 and retired from active service in March 1947.\n", "Section::::Early years.\n", "Halsey was born in Elizabeth, New Jersey, on October 30, 1882, the son of U.S. Navy Captain William F. Halsey Sr. Through his father he was a descendant of Senator Rufus King, who was an American lawyer, politician, diplomat, and Federalist. Halsey attended the Pingry School.\n", "After waiting two years to receive an appointment to the United States Naval Academy, Halsey decided to study medicine at the University of Virginia and then join the Navy as a physician. He chose Virginia because his best friend, Karl Osterhause, was there. While there, Halsey joined the Delta Psi fraternity and was also a member of the secretive Seven Society. After his first year, Halsey received his appointment to the United States Naval Academy at Annapolis, and entered the Academy in the fall of 1900. While attending the academy he lettered in football as a fullback and earned several athletic honors. Halsey graduated from the Naval Academy on February 2, 1904. \n", "Following graduation he spent his early service years in battleships, and sailed with the main battle fleet aboard the battleship as Roosevelt's Great White Fleet circumnavigated the globe from 1907 to 1909. Halsey was on the bridge of the battleship on April 13, 1904, when a flareback from the port gun in her after turret ignited a powder charge and set off two others. No explosion occurred, but the rapid burning of the powder burnt and suffocated to death 31 officers and enlisted. This resulted in Halsey dreading the 13th of every month, especially when it fell on a Friday.\n", "After his service on \"Missouri\", Halsey served aboard torpedo boats, beginning with in 1909. Halsey was one of the few officers who was promoted directly from ensign to full lieutenant, skipping the rank of lieutenant (junior grade). Torpedoes and torpedo boats became specialties of his, and he commanded the First Group of the Atlantic Fleet's Torpedo Flotilla in 1912 through 1913. Halsey commanded a number of torpedo boats and destroyers during the 1910s and 1920s. At that time, the destroyer and the torpedo boat, though extremely hazardous delivery methods, were the most effective way to bring the torpedo into combat against capital ships. Lieutenant Commander Halsey's World War I service, including command of in 1918, earned him the Navy Cross.\n", "Section::::Interwar years.\n", "In October 1922, he was the naval attaché at the American Embassy in Berlin, Germany. One year later, he was given additional duty as naval attaché at the American Embassies in Christiania, Norway; Copenhagen, Denmark; and Stockholm, Sweden. He then returned to sea duty, again in destroyers in European waters, in command of and . Upon his return to the U.S. in 1927, he served one year as executive officer of the battleship , and then for three years in command of , the station ship at the Naval Academy. Captain Halsey continued his destroyer duty on his next two-year stint at sea, starting in 1930 as Commander Destroyer Division Three of the Scouting Force, before returning to study at the Naval War College in Newport, Rhode Island.\n", "In 1934 the chief of the Bureau of Aeronautics, Navy Admiral Ernest King, offered Halsey command of the aircraft carrier , subject to completion of the course of an air observer. Captain Halsey elected to enroll as a cadet for the full 12-week Naval Aviator course rather than the simpler Naval Aviation Observer program. \"I thought it better to be able to fly the aircraft itself than to just sit back and be at the mercy of the pilot.\" Halsey earned his Naval Aviator's Wings on May 15, 1935, at the age of 52, the oldest person to do so in the history of the U.S. Navy. While he had approval from his wife to train as an observer, she learned from a letter after the fact that he had changed to pilot training, and she told her daughter, \"What do you think that the old fool is doing now? He's learning to fly!\" He went on to command \"Saratoga\", and later the Naval Air Station Pensacola at Pensacola, Florida. Halsey considered airpower an important part of the future navy, commenting, \"The naval officer in the next war had better know his aviation, and good.\" Captain Halsey was promoted to rear admiral in 1938. During this time he commanded carrier divisions and served as the overall commander of the Aircraft Battle Force.\n", "Section::::World War II.\n", "Traditional naval doctrine envisioned naval combat fought between opposing battleship gun lines. This view was challenged when army airman General Billy Mitchell demonstrated the capability of aircraft to substantially damage and sink even the most heavily armored naval vessel. In the interwar debate that followed, some saw the carrier as defensive in nature, providing air cover to protect the battle group from shore-based aircraft. Carrier-based aircraft were lighter in design and had not been shown to be as lethal. The adage \"Capital ships cannot withstand land-based air power\" was well known. Aviation proponents, however, imagined bringing the fight to the enemy with the use of air power. Halsey was a firm believer in the aircraft carrier as the primary naval offensive weapon system. When he testified at Admiral Husband Kimmel's hearing after the Pearl Harbor debacle he summed up American carrier tactics being to \"get to the other fellow with everything you have as fast as you can and to dump it on him.\" Halsey testified he would never hesitate to use the carrier as an offensive weapon.\n", "In April 1940, Halsey's ships, as part of Battle Fleet, moved to Hawaii and in June 1940, he was promoted to vice admiral (temporary rank): appointed commander Carrier Division 2 and commander Aircraft Battle Force.\n", "With tensions high and war imminent, U.S. Naval intelligence indicated Wake Island would be the target of a Japanese surprise attack. In response, on 28 November 1941 Admiral Kimmel ordered Halsey to take to ferry aircraft to Wake Island to reinforce the Marines there. Kimmel had given Halsey \"a free hand\" to attack and destroy any Japanese military forces encountered. The planes flew off her deck on December 2. Highly anxious of being spotted and then jumped by the Japanese carrier force, Halsey gave orders to \"sink any shipping sighted, shoot down any plane encountered.\" Protested his operations officer, \"Goddammit, Admiral, you can't start a private war of your own! Who's going to take the responsibility?\" Said Halsey: \"I'll take it! If anything gets in my way, we'll shoot first and argue afterwards.\" \n", "A storm delayed \"Enterprise\" on her return voyage to Hawaii. Instead of returning on December 6 as planned, she was still 200 miles out at sea, when she received word that the surprise attack anticipated was not at Wake Island, but at Pearl Harbor itself. News of the attack came in the form of overhearing desperate radio transmissions from one of her aircraft sent forward to Pearl Harbor, attempting to identify itself as American. The plane was shot down, and her pilot and crew were lost. In the immediate wake of the attack upon Pearl Harbor, Admiral Kimmel named Halsey \"commander of all the ships at sea.\" \"Enterprise\" searched south and west of the Hawaiian islands for the Japanese attackers, but did not locate the six Japanese fleet carriers then retiring to the north and west.\n", "Section::::World War II.:Early Pacific carrier raids.\n", "Vice Admiral Halsey and \"Enterprise\" slipped back into Pearl Harbor on the evening of December 8. Surveying the wreckage of the Pacific Fleet, he remarked, \"Before we're through with them, the Japanese language will be spoken only in hell.\" Halsey was an aggressive commander. Above all else, he was an energetic and demanding leader who had the ability to invigorate the U.S. Navy's fighting spirit when most required. In the early months of the war, as the nation was rocked by the fall of one western bastion after another, Halsey looked to take the fight to the enemy. Serving as commander, Carrier Division 2, aboard his flagship \"Enterprise\", Halsey led a series of hit-and-run raids against the Japanese, striking the Gilbert and Marshall islands in February, Wake Island in March, and carrying out the Doolittle Raid in April 1942 against the Japanese capital Tokyo and other places on Japan's largest and most populous island Honshu, the first air raid to strike the Japanese Home Islands, providing an important boost to American morale. Halsey's slogan, \"Hit hard, hit fast, hit often,\" soon became a byword for the Navy.\n", "Halsey returned to Pearl Harbor from his last raid on May 26, 1942, in poor health due to the extremely serious and stressful conditions at hand. He had spent nearly all of the previous six months on the bridge of the carrier \"Enterprise,\" directing the Navy's counterstrikes. Shingles covered a great deal of his body and caused unbearable itching, making it nearly impossible for him to sleep. Gaunt and having lost twenty pounds, he was medically ordered to the hospital in Hawaii.\n", "Meanwhile, U.S. Naval intelligence had strongly ascertained that the Japanese were planning an attack on the central Pacific island of Midway. Admiral Chester Nimitz, Commander in Chief, U.S. Pacific Fleet, determined to take the opportunity to engage them. Losing Midway would have been a very serious threat because the Japanese then could easily take Hawaii and threaten the west coast of the United States. The loss of his most aggressive and combat experienced carrier admiral, Halsey, on the eve of this crisis was a severe blow to Nimitz. Nimitz met with Halsey, who recommended his cruiser division commander, Rear Admiral Raymond Spruance, to take command for the upcoming Midway operation. Nimitz considered the move, but it would mean stepping over Rear Admiral Frank Fletcher of Task Force 17, who was the senior of the two men. After interviewing Fletcher and reviewing his reports from the Coral Sea engagement, Nimitz was convinced that Fletcher's performance was sound, and he was given the responsibility of command in the defense of Midway. Acting upon Halsey's recommendations, Nimitz then made Rear Admiral Spruance commander of Halsey's Task Force 16, comprising the carriers \"Enterprise\" and \"Hornet\". To aid Spruance, who had no experience as the commander of a carrier force, Halsey sent along his irascible chief of staff, Captain Miles Browning. The ensuing harrowing Battle of Midway was a crucial turning point in the war for the United States and a dramatic victory for the U.S. Navy.\n", "Halsey's skin condition was so serious, he was sent on the light cruiser to San Francisco where he was met by a leading allergist for specialized treatment. The skin condition soon receded but Halsey was ordered to stand down for the next six weeks and relax. While detached stateside during his convalescence, he visited family and traveled to Washington D.C. In late August, he accepted a speaking engagement at the U.S. Naval Academy at Annapolis. Prior to the discussion of his raids against the Japanese positions in the Marshall Islands, Halsey informed the midshipmen before him, \"Missing the Battle of Midway has been the greatest disappointment of my career, but I am going back to the Pacific where I intend personally to have a crack at those yellow-bellied sons of bitches and their carriers,\" which was received with loud applause.\n", "At the completion of his convalescence in September 1942, Admiral Nimitz reassigned Halsey to Commander, Air Force, Pacific Fleet.\n", "Section::::World War II.:South Pacific Area Command.\n", "After being medically approved to return to duty, Halsey was named to command a carrier task force in the South Pacific Area. Since \"Enterprise\" was still laid up in Pearl Harbor undergoing repairs following the Battle of the Eastern Solomons, and the other ships of Task Force 16 were still being readied, he began a familiarization trip to the south Pacific on October 15, 1942, arriving at area headquarters at Nouméa in New Caledonia on October 18. The Guadalcanal Campaign was at a critical juncture, with the 1st Marine Division, 11,000 men, under the combat command of Marine Major General Alexander A. Vandegrift holding on by a thread around Henderson (Air) Field. The Marines did receive additional support from the U.S. Army's 164th Regiment with a complement of 2,800 soldiers on October 13. This addition only helped to fill some of the serious holes and was insufficient to sustain the battle of itself.\n", "During this critical juncture, naval support was tenuous due to Vice Admiral Robert L. Ghormley's reticence, malaise and lackluster performance. Pacific Fleet commander Chester Nimitz had concluded that Vice Admiral Ghormley had become dispirited and exhausted. Nimitz made his decision to change the South Pacific Area command while Halsey was en route. As Halsey's aircraft came to rest in Nouméa, a whaleboat came alongside carrying Ghormley's flag lieutenant. Meeting him before he could board the flagship, the lieutenant handed over a sealed envelope containing a message from Nimitz:\n", "The order came as an awkward surprise to Halsey. Ghormley was a long time personal friend, and had been since their days as teammates on the football team back at Annapolis. Awkward or not, the two men carried out their directives. Halsey's command now included all ground, sea, and air forces in the South Pacific area. News of the change flashed and produced an immediate boost to morale with the beleaguered Marines, energizing his command. He was widely considered the U.S. Navy's most aggressive admiral, and with good reason. He set about assessing the situation to determine what actions were needed. Ghormley had been unsure of his command's ability to maintain the Marine toehold on Guadalcanal, and had been mindful of leaving them trapped there for a repeat of the Bataan Peninsula disaster. Halsey punctiliously made it clear he did not plan to withdraw the Marines. He not only intended to counter the Japanese efforts to dislodge them, he intended to secure the island. Above all else, he wanted to regain the initiative and take the fight to the Japanese. It was two days after Halsey had taken command in October 1942 that he gave an order that all naval officers in the South Pacific would dispense with wearing neckties with their tropical uniforms. As Richard Frank commented in his account of the Battle for Guadalcanal:\n", "Halsey led the South Pacific command through what was for the U.S. Navy the most tenuous phase of the war. Halsey committed his limited naval forces through a series of naval battles around Guadalcanal, including the carrier engagements of the Battle of the Santa Cruz Islands and the Naval Battle of Guadalcanal. These engagements checked the Japanese advance and drained their naval forces of carrier aircraft and pilots. In November Halsey's willingness to place at risk his command's two fast battleships in the confined waters around Guadalcanal for a night engagement paid off with the U.S. Navy winning the Naval Battle of Guadalcanal, the decisive naval engagement of the Guadalcanal campaign that doomed the Japanese garrison and wrested control from the Japanese.\n", "IJN aviation proved to be formidable during the Solomon campaign. In April 1943, Halsey assigned Admiral Marc Mitscher to Commander Air, Solomon Islands (ComAirSols) where he directed a mixed bag of Army, Navy, Marine and New Zealand aircraft in the airwar over Guadalcanal and up the Solomon chain. Said Halsey: \"I knew we'd probably catch hell from the Japs in the air. That's why I sent Pete Mitscher up there. Pete was a fighting fool and I knew it.\"\n", "Typical for the period was an exchange that occurred between Halsey and one of his staff officers in June 1943. South Pacific Command was expecting the arrival of an additional air group to support their next offensive. As a part of the long view of winning the war taken by Nimitz, upon its arrival at Fiji the group was given new orders to return stateside and be broken up, its pilots to be used as instructors for pilot training. South Pacific command had been counting on the air group for their operations up the Solomon chain. The staff officer who brought the dispatch to Halsey remarked \"If they do that to us we will have to go on the defensive.\" The admiral turned to the speaker and replied: \"As long as I have one plane and one pilot, I will stay on the offensive.\"\n", "Admiral Halsey's forces spent the rest of the year battling up the Solomon Islands chain to Bougainville. At Bougainville the Japanese had two airfields in the southern tip of the island, and another at the northern most peninsula, with a fourth on Buki just across the northern passage. Here, instead of landing near the Japanese airfields and taking them away against the bulk of the Japanese defenders, Halsey landed his invasion force of 14,000 Marines in Empress Augusta Bay, about halfway up the west coast of Bougainville. There he had the Seabees clear and build their own airfield. Two days after the landing, a large cruiser force was sent down from Japan to Rabaul in preparation for a night engagement against Halsey's screening force and supply ships in Empress Augusta Bay. The Japanese had been conserving their naval forces over the past year, but now committed a force of seven heavy cruisers, along with one light cruiser and four destroyers. At Rabaul the force refueled in preparation for the coming night battle. Halsey had no surface forces anywhere near equivalent strength to oppose them. The battleships , and assorted cruisers had been transferred to the Central Pacific to support the upcoming invasion of Tarawa. Other than the destroyer screen, the only force Halsey had available were the carrier airgroups on and . Rabaul was a heavily fortified port, with five airfields and extensive anti-aircraft batteries. Other than the surprise raid at Pearl Harbor, no mission against such a target had ever been accomplished with carrier aircraft. It was highly dangerous to the aircrews, and to the carriers as well. With the landing in the balance, Halsey sent his two carriers to steam north through the night to get into range of Rabaul, then launch a daybreak raid on the base. Aircraft from recently captured Vella Lavella were sent over to provide a combat air patrol over the carriers. All available aircraft from the two carriers were committed to the raid itself. The mission was a stunning success, so damaging the cruiser force at Rabaul as to make them no longer a threat. Aircraft losses in the raid were light. Halsey later described the threat to the landings \"the most desperate emergency that confronted me in my entire term as ComSoPac.\"\n", "Following the successful Bougainville operation, he then isolated and neutralized the Japanese naval stronghold at Rabaul by capturing surrounding positions in the Bismarck Archipelago in a series of amphibious landings known as Operation Cartwheel. This enabled the continuation of the drive north without the heavy fighting that would have been necessary to capture the base itself. With the neutralization of Rabaul, major operations in the South Pacific Command came to a close. With his determination and grit, Halsey had bolstered his command's resolve and seized the initiative from the Japanese until ships, aircraft and crews produced and trained in the States could arrive in 1943 and 1944 to tip the scales of the war in favor of the allies.\n", "Section::::World War II.:Battles of the Central Pacific.\n", "As the war progressed it moved out of the South Pacific and into the Central Pacific. Admiral Halsey's command shifted with it, and in May 1944 he was promoted to commanding officer of the newly formed Third Fleet. He commanded actions from the Philippines to Japan. From September 1944 to January 1945, he led the campaigns to take the Palaus, Leyte and Luzon, and on many raids on Japanese bases, including off the shores of Formosa, China, and Vietnam.\n", "By this point in the conflict the U.S. Navy was doing things the Japanese high command had not thought possible. The Fast Carrier Task Force was able to bring to battle enough air power to overpower land based aircraft and dominate whatever area the fleet was operating in. Moreover, the Navy's ability to establish forward operating ports as they did at Majuro, Enewetak and Ulithi, and their ability to convoy supplies out to the combat task forces allowed the fleet to operate for extended periods of time far out to sea in the central and western Pacific. The Japanese Navy conserved itself in port and would sortie in force to engage the enemy. The U.S. Navy remained at sea and on station, dominating whatever region it entered. The size of the Pacific Ocean, which Japanese planners had thought would limit the U.S. Navy's ability to operate in the western Pacific, would not be adequate to protect Japan.\n", "Command of the \"big blue fleet\" was alternated with Raymond Spruance. Under Spruance the fleet designation was the Fifth Fleet and the Fast Carrier Task Force was designated \"Task Force 58\". Under Halsey the fleet was designated Third Fleet and the Fast Carrier Task Force was designated \"Task Force 38\". The split command structure was intended to confuse the Japanese and created a higher tempo of operations. While Spruance was at sea operating the fleet, Halsey and his staff, self-dubbed the \"Department of Dirty Tricks\", would be planning the next series of operations. The two admirals were a contrast in styles. Halsey was aggressive and a risk taker. Spruance was calculating, professional and cautious. Most higher-ranking officers preferred to serve under Spruance; most common sailors were proud to serve under Halsey.\n", "Section::::World War II.:Battles of the Central Pacific.:Leyte Gulf.\n", "In October 1944, amphibious forces of the U.S. Seventh Fleet carried out General Douglas MacArthur's major landings on the island of Leyte in the Central Philippines. Halsey's Third Fleet was assigned to cover and support Seventh Fleet operations around Leyte. Halsey's plans assumed the Japanese fleet or a major portion of it would challenge the effort, creating an opportunity to engage it decisively. Halsey directed the Third Fleet \"will seek the enemy and attempt to bring about a decisive engagement if he undertakes operations beyond support of superior land based air forces.\"\n", "In response to the invasion, the Japanese launched their final major naval effort, an operation known as 'Sho-Go', involving almost all their surviving fleet. It was aimed at destroying the invasion shipping in the Leyte Gulf. The Northern Force of Admiral Ozawa was built around the remaining Japanese aircraft carriers, now weakened by the heavy loss of trained pilots. The Northern Force was meant to lure the covering U.S. forces away from the Gulf while two surface battle-groups, the Center Force and the Southern Force, were to break through to the beachhead and attack the invasion shipping. These forces were built around the remaining strength of the Japanese Navy, and comprised a total of 7 battleships and 16 cruisers. The operation brought about the Battle for Leyte Gulf, the largest naval battle of the Second World War and, by some criteria, the largest naval battle in history.\n", "The Center Force commanded by Vice Admiral Takeo Kurita was located October 23 coming through the Palawan Passage by two American submarines, which attacked the force, sinking two heavy cruisers and damaging a third. The following day Third Fleet's aircraft carriers launched strikes against Kurita's Center Force, sinking the battleship and damaging the heavy cruiser , causing the force to turn westward back towards its base. Kurita appeared to be retiring but he later reversed course and headed back into the San Bernardino Strait. At this point Ozawa's Northern Force was located by Third Fleet scout aircraft. Halsey made the momentous decision to take all available strength northwards to destroy the Japanese carrier forces, planning to strike them at dawn of October 25. He considered leaving a battle group behind to guard the strait, and made tentative plans to do so, but he felt he would also have to leave one of his three carrier groups to provide air cover, weakening his chance to crush the remaining Japanese carrier forces. The entire Third Fleet steamed northward. San Bernardino Strait was effectively left unguarded by any major surface fleet.\n", "Section::::World War II.:Battles of the Central Pacific.:Battle off Samar.\n", "In moving Third Fleet northwards, Halsey failed to advise Admiral Thomas Kinkaid of Seventh Fleet of his decision. Seventh Fleet intercepts of organizational messages from Halsey to his own task group commanders seemed to indicate that Halsey had formed a task force and detached it to protect the San Bernardino Strait, but this was not the case. Kinkaid and his staff failed to confirm this with Halsey, and neither had confirmed this with Nimitz.\n", "Despite aerial reconnaissance reports on the night of October 24–25 of Kurita's Center Force in the San Bernardino Strait, Halsey continued to take Third Fleet northwards, away from Leyte Gulf.\n", "When Kurita's Center Force emerged from the San Bernardino Strait on the morning of October 25, there was nothing to oppose them except a small force of escort carriers and screening destroyers and destroyer escorts, Task Unit 77.4.3 \"Taffy 3\", which had been tasked and armed to attack troops on land and guard against submarines, not oppose the largest enemy surface fleet since the battle of Midway, led by the largest battleship in the world. Advancing down the coast of the island of Samar towards the troop transports and support ships of the Leyte Gulf landing, they took Seventh Fleet's escort carriers and their screening ships entirely by surprise.\n", "In the desperate Battle off Samar which followed, Kurita's ships destroyed one of the escort carriers and three ships of the carriers' screen, and damaging a number of other ships as well. The remarkable resistance of the screening ships of Taffy 3 against Kurita's battle-group remains one of the most heroic feats in the history of the US Navy. Their efforts and those of the few aircraft that the escort carriers could put up took a heavy toll on Kurita's ships and convinced him that he was facing a stronger force than was the case. Mistaking the escort carriers for Halsey's fleet carriers, and fearing entrapment from the six battleships of the Third Fleet battleship group, he decided to withdraw back through the San Bernardino Strait and to the west without achieving his objective of disrupting the Leyte landing.\n", "When the Seventh Fleet's escort carriers found themselves under attack from the Center Force, Halsey began to receive a succession of desperate calls from Kinkaid asking for immediate assistance off Samar. For over two hours Halsey turned a deaf ear to these calls. Then, shortly after 10:00 hours, a message was received from Admiral Nimitz: \"Where is repeat where is Task Force 34? The world wonders\". The tail end of this message, The world wonders, was intended as padding designed to confuse enemy decoders, but was mistakenly left in the message when it was handed to Halsey. The urgent inquiry had seemingly become a stinging rebuke. The fiery Halsey threw his hat on the deck of the bridge and began cursing. Finally Halsey's Chief of Staff, Rear Admiral Robert \"Mick\" Carney, confronted him, telling Halsey \"Stop it! What the hell's the matter with you? Pull yourself together.\"\n", "Halsey cooled but continued to steam Third Fleet northward to close on Ozawa's Northern Force for a full hour after receiving the signal from Nimitz. Then, Halsey ordered Task Force 34 south. As Task Force 34 proceeded south they were further delayed when the battle force had to slow to 12 knots so that the battleships could refuel their escorting destroyers. The refueling cost a two and a half hour further delay. By the time Task Force 34 arrived at the scene it was too late to assist the Seventh Fleet's escort carrier groups. Kurita had already decided to retire and had left the area. A single straggling destroyer was caught by Halsey's advance cruisers and destroyers, but the rest of Kurita's force was able to escape.\n", "Meanwhile the major part Third Fleet continued to close on Ozawa's Northern Force, which included one fleet carrier (the last surviving Japanese carrier of the six that had attacked Pearl Harbor) and three light carriers. The Battle of Cape Engaño resulted in Halsey's Third Fleet sinking all four of Ozawa's carriers.\n", "The same attributes that made Halsey an invaluable leader in the desperate early months of the war, his desire to bring the fight to the enemy, his willingness to take on a gamble, worked against him in the later stages of the war. Halsey received much criticism for his decisions during the battle, with naval historian Samuel Morison terming the Third Fleet run to the north \"Halsey's Blunder.\" However, the destruction of the Japanese carriers had been an important goal up to that point, and the Leyte landings were still successful despite Halsey falling for the IJN decoy.\n", "Section::::World War II.:Halsey's Typhoon.\n", "After the Leyte Gulf engagement, December found the Third Fleet confronted with another powerful enemy in the form of Typhoon Cobra, which was dubbed \"Halsey's Typhoon\" by many.\n", "While conducting operations off the Philippines, the fleet had to discontinue refueling due to a Pacific storm. Rather than move Third Fleet away, Halsey chose to remain on station for another day. In fairness, he received conflicting information from Pearl Harbor and his own staff. The Hawaiian weathermen predicted a northerly path for the storm, which would have cleared Task Force 38 by some two hundred miles. Eventually his own staff provided a prediction regarding the direction of the storm that was far closer to the mark with a westerly direction. \n", "However, Halsey played the odds, declining to cancel planned operations and requiring the ships of Third Fleet to hold formation. On the evening of December 17 Third Fleet was unable to land its combat air patrol due to the pitching and rolling decks of the carriers. All the aircraft were ditched in the ocean and lost, but the pilots were all saved by accompanying destroyers. By 10:00 a.m. the next morning the barometer on the flagship was noted to be dropping precipitously. With increasingly heavy seas the fleet still attempted to maintain stations. The threat was greatest to the fleet's destroyers, which did not have the fuel reserves of the larger ships and were running dangerously low. Finally, at 11:49 a.m., Halsey issued the order for the ships of the fleet to take the most comfortable course available to them. Many of the smaller ships had already been forced to do so. \n", "Between 11:00 a.m. and 2:00 p.m., the typhoon did its worst damage, tossing the ships in waves. The barometer continued to drop and the wind roared at with gusts well over . At 1:45 p.m. Halsey issued a typhoon warning to Fleet Weather Central. By this time Third Fleet had lost three of its destroyers. By the time the storm had cleared the next day a great many ships in the fleet had been damaged, 146 aircraft were destroyed and 802 seamen had been lost. For the next three days Third Fleet conducted search and rescue operations, finally retiring to Ulithi on 22 December 1944.\n", "Following the typhoon a Navy court of inquiry was convened on board in the Naval base at Ulithi. Admiral Nimitz, CINCPAC, was in attendance at the court. Forty-three-year-old Captain Herbert K. Gates, of \"Cascade\", was the Judge Advocate. The inquiry found that though Halsey had committed an error of judgement in sailing the Third Fleet into the heart of the typhoon, it stopped short of unambiguously recommending sanction. The events surrounding Typhoon Cobra were similar to those the Japanese navy had faced some nine years earlier in what they termed \"The Fourth Fleet Incident.\"\n", "Section::::World War II.:End of the war.\n", "During January 1945 the Third Fleet attacked Formosa and Luzon, and raided the South China Sea in support of the landing of US Army forces on Luzon. At the conclusion of this operation, Halsey passed command of the ships that made up Third Fleet to Admiral Spruance on January 26, whereupon its designation changed to Fifth Fleet. Returning home Halsey was asked about General MacArthur. General MacArthur was not the easiest man to work with, and vied with the Navy over the conduct and management of the war in the Pacific. Halsey had worked well with MacArthur and did not mind saying so. When a reporter asked Halsey if he thought General MacArthur's fleet (7th Fleet) would get to Tokyo first, the admiral grinned and answered \"We're going there together.\" Then seriously he added \"He's a very fine man. I have worked under him for over two years and have the greatest admiration and respect for him.\"\n", "Spruance held command of 5th Fleet until May, when command returned to Halsey. In early June 1945 the 3rd Fleet again sailed through the path of Typhoon Connie. On this occasion, six men were swept overboard and lost, along with 75 airplanes lost or destroyed, with another 70 badly damaged. Though some ships sustained significant damage, none were lost. A Navy court of inquiry was again convened, this time recommending that Halsey be reassigned, but Admiral Nimitz declined to abide by this recommendation, citing Halsey's prior service record, despite that record including a previous instance of negligently sailing his fleet through a typhoon.\n", "Halsey led Third Fleet through the final stages of the war, striking targets on the Japanese homeland itself. Third Fleet aircraft conducted attacks upon Tokyo, the naval base at Kure and the northern Japanese island of Hokkaidō, and Third Fleet battleships engaged in the bombardment of a number of Japanese coastal cities in preparation for an invasion of Japan, which ultimately never had to be undertaken.\n", "After the cessation of hostilities, Halsey, still aggressively cautious of Japanese kamikaze attacks, ordered Third Fleet to maintain a protective air cover with the following communiqué: \n", "He was present when Japan formally surrendered on the deck of his flagship, , on September 2, 1945.\n", "Section::::Postwar years.\n", "Immediately after the surrender of Japan, 54 ships of the Third Fleet returned to the United States, with Halsey's four-star flag flying from USS \"South Dakota\", for the annual Navy Day Celebrations in San Francisco on October 27, 1945. He hauled down his flag on 22 November 1945, and was assigned special duty in the office of the Secretary of the Navy. On December 11, 1945, he took the oath as Fleet Admiral, becoming the fourth and still the most recent naval officer awarded that rank. Fleet Admiral Halsey made a goodwill flying trip, passing by Central and South America, covering nearly 28,000 miles and 11 nations. He retired from active service in March 1947 but, as a Fleet Admiral, he was not taken off active duty status.\n", "Halsey was asked about the weapons used to win the war and he answered:\n", "Halsey joined the New Jersey Society of the Sons of the American Revolution in 1946. Upon retirement, he joined the board of two subsidiaries of the International Telephone and Telegraph Company, including the American Cable and Radio Corporation, and served until 1957. He maintained an office near the top of the ITT Building at 67 Broad Street, New York City in the late 1950s. He was involved in a number of efforts to preserve his former flagship as a memorial in New York Harbor. They proved fruitless, as it was not possible to secure sufficient funding to preserve the ship.\n", "Section::::Death.\n", "Halsey died on August 16, 1959, while on holiday on Fishers Island, New York. After lying in state in the Washington National Cathedral, he was interred on August 20, 1959, near his parents in Arlington National Cemetery. His wife, Frances Grandy Halsey, is buried with him.\n", "Asked about his contribution in the Pacific and the role he played in defending the United States, Halsey said merely:\n", "Section::::Personal life.\n", "While at the University of Virginia he met Frances Cooke Grandy (1887–1968) of Norfolk, Virginia, who Halsey called \"Fan.\" After his return from the Great White Fleet's circumnavigation of the globe and upon his promotion to the rank of full lieutenant he was able to persuade her to marry him. They married on December 1, 1909, at Christ Church in Norfolk. Among the ushers were Halsey's friends Thomas C. Hart and Husband E. Kimmel. Fan developed manic depression in the late 1930s and eventually had to live apart from Halsey. The couple had two children, Margaret Bradford (October 10, 1910, to December 1979) and William Fredrick Halsey III (September 8, 1915, to September 23, 2003). Admiral Halsey is also the great-uncle of actor Charles Oliver Hand, known professionally as Brett Halsey, who chose his stage name as a reference to him.\n", "Section::::Dates of rank.\n", "Halsey never held the rank of lieutenant (junior grade), as he was appointed a full lieutenant after three years of service as an ensign. For administrative reasons, Halsey's naval record states he was promoted to the rank of lieutenant (junior grade) and lieutenant on the same day.\n", "At the time of Halsey's promotion to rear admiral, both rear admirals lower half (O-7) and rear admirals upper half (O-8) wore two stars. This was the case until 1982. During World War II and up until 1950, the Navy used the one star commodore rank for certain staff specialties.\n", "Section::::Awards and decorations.\n", "Section::::Awards and decorations.:Foreign awards.\n", "Section::::In popular culture.\n", "BULLET::::- Halsey was portrayed by James Cagney in the 1959 bio-pic, \"The Gallant Hours\"; by James Whitmore in the 1970 film, \"Tora! Tora! Tora!\"; and by Robert Mitchum in the 1976 film, \"Midway\".\n", "BULLET::::- Halsey makes a brief appearance in Herman Wouk's novel \"The Winds of War\", and has a more substantial supporting role in the sequel \"War and Remembrance\". Wouk was extremely critical of Halsey's handling of the battle at Leyte Gulf, but also said he was too great a builder of naval morale to be retired in disgrace. (Chapter 92) Halsey was portrayed in the 1983 television miniseries adaptation of \"The Winds of War\" by Richard X. Slattery, and in the 1988 miniseries adaptation of \"War and Remembrance\" by Pat Hingle.\n", "BULLET::::- Halsey has been portrayed in a number of other films and TV miniseries, played by Glenn Morshower (\"Pearl Harbor\", 2001), Kenneth Tobey (\"MacArthur\", 1977), Jack Diamond (\"Battle Stations\", 1956), John Maxwell, (\"The Eternal Sea\", 1955) and Morris Ankrum (\"Thirty Seconds Over Tokyo\", 1944).\n", "BULLET::::- An \"Admiral Halsey\" is mentioned in the Paul and Linda McCartney song \"Uncle Albert/Admiral Halsey\". The chorus of \"hands across the water, heads across the sky\" was a reference to the American aid programs of World War II. McCartney later specified that the second half of the song was indeed in honor of William Halsey.\n", "BULLET::::- On March 4, 1951, Halsey appeared as a mystery guest on episode No. 40 of the game show, \"What's My Line\", where the panel correctly deduced his identity.\n", "BULLET::::- In the television series, \"McHale's Navy\", one of Captain Binghampton's catchphrases whenever he would get frustrated with one of McHale's schemes was, \"What in the name of Halsey is going on here?\"\n", "BULLET::::- Halsey is mentioned in the 1990 film \"The Hunt for Red October\". Soviet submarine commander Marko Ramius, while engaged in battle with the Soviet attack submarine \"Konovalov\", asks Jack Ryan what books he wrote for the CIA. Ryan mentions one about Admiral Halsey, entitled \"The Fighting Sailor\" (not to be confused with a real book of the same title); Ramius reveals his awareness of the book and expresses disdain for Ryan's assessment of Halsey, saying, \"Your conclusions were all wrong, Ryan. Halsey acted stupidly.\"\n", "BULLET::::- The fictional aircraft carrier USS \"William Halsey\" in Darren Sapp's novel, \"Fire on the Flight Deck\", is named for Halsey.\n", "BULLET::::- On May 30, 2018, he was added as an unlockable unique commander for the United States Navy in the videogame World of Warships.\n", "BULLET::::- A character in Seth MacFarlane's \"The Orville\" is named Admiral Halsey, presumably after Admiral Halsey.\n", "BULLET::::- Halsey appears as a purchasable general in the Easytech mobile game \"World Conqueror 4\".\n", "Section::::See also.\n", "BULLET::::- List of Fleet and Grand Admirals\n", "BULLET::::- List of United States military leaders by rank\n", "BULLET::::- List of military figures by nickname\n", "BULLET::::- Gene Markey\n", "Section::::Bibliography.\n", "BULLET::::- (The book is online)\n", "BULLET::::- Hughes, Thomas, \"Learning to Fight: Bill Halsey and the Early American Destroyer Force,\" \"Journal of Military History,\" 77 (Jan. 2013), 71–90.\n", "BULLET::::- (History of United States Naval Operations in World War II)\n", "BULLET::::- Taylor, Theodore. \"The Magnificent Mitscher\". New York: Norton, 1954; reprinted Annapolis, Md.: Naval Institute Press, 1991. .\n", "BULLET::::- Willmott, H.P. (1984) \"June, 1944\" Blandford Press\n" ] }

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{ "description": "United States admiral", "enwikiquote_title": "William Frederick Halsey, Jr.", "wikidata_id": "Q439984", "wikidata_label": "William Halsey Jr.", "wikipedia_title": "William Halsey Jr.", "aliases": { "alias": [ "William Frederick Halsey, Jr." ] } }

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{ "paragraph": [ "UNIVAC 1105\n", "The UNIVAC 1105 was a follow-on computer to the UNIVAC 1103A introduced by Sperry Rand in September 1958. The UNIVAC 1105 used 21 types of vacuum tubes, 11 types of diodes, 10 types of transistors, and three core types.\n", "The UNIVAC 1105 had either 8,192 or 12,288 words of 36-bit magnetic core memory, in two or three banks of 4,096 words each. Magnetic drum memory provided either 16,384 or 32,768 words, in one or two drums with 16,384 words each. Sixteen to twenty-four UNISERVO II tape drives were connected, with a maximum capacity (not counting block overhead) of 1,200,000 words per tape.\n", "Fixed-point numbers had a one-bit sign and a 35-bit value, with negative values represented in ones' complement format. Floating-point numbers had a one-bit sign, an eight-bit characteristic, and a 27-bit mantissa. Instructions had a six-bit operation code and two 15-bit operand addresses.\n", "A complete UNIVAC 1105 computer system required 160 kW of power (175 KVA, 0.9 power factor) and an air conditioning unit with a power of at least 35 tons (123 kW) for cooling input water. The computer system weighed about with a floor loading of 47 lb/ft² (230 kg/m²) and required a room 49 x 64 x 10 ft (15 x 20 x 3 m). The floor space for the computer was approximately 3,752 ft² (350 m²). The power, refrigeration and equipment room was approximately 2,450 ft² (230 m²).\n", "Section::::Chapel Hill.\n", "In 1959, a Univac 1105 located in the basement of Phillips Hall of The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill was one of three computers of its type. It was intended primarily for the United States Census Bureau, which had one of its own; Armour Institute of Technology had the other. The Chapel Hill unit cost $2.4 million, with the improvements to the basement, including 16-inch concrete walls to protect it from nuclear attack, added $1.2 million. Its memory was less than 50 kilobytes, or one 8 1/2 x 11 document, with the capability of adding 30,000 numbers per second. The Univac was 60 feet long, weighed 19 tons, and used 7200 vacuum tubes. Its printer had a speed of 600 lines per minute.\n", "Section::::See also.\n", "BULLET::::- List of UNIVAC products\n", "BULLET::::- History of computing hardware\n", "BULLET::::- List of vacuum tube computers\n", "Section::::External links.\n", "BULLET::::- BRL REPORT NO. 1115 March 1961: UNIVAC 1105 by Martin H. Weik\n" ] }

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{ "paragraph": [ "Lunar geologic timescale\n", "The lunar geological timescale (or selenological timescale) divides the history of Earth's Moon into five generally recognized periods: the Copernican, Eratosthenian, Imbrian (Late and Early epochs), Nectarian, and Pre-Nectarian. The boundaries of this time scale are related to large impact events that have modified the lunar surface, changes in crater formation through time, and the size-frequency distribution of craters superposed on geological units. The absolute ages for these periods have been constrained by radiometric dating of samples obtained from the lunar surface. However, there is still much debate concerning the ages of certain key events, because correlating lunar regolith samples with geological units on the Moon is difficult, and most lunar radiometric ages have been highly affected by an intense history of bombardment.\n", "Section::::Lunar stratigraphy.\n", "The primary geological processes that have modified the lunar surface are impact cratering and volcanism, and by using standard stratigraphic principles (such as the law of superposition) it is possible to order these geological events in time. At one time, it was thought that the mare basalts might represent a single stratigraphic unit with a unique age, but it is now recognized that mare volcanism was an ongoing process, beginning as early as 4.2 Ga (1 Ga = 1 billion years ago) and continuing to perhaps as late as 1.2 Ga. Impact events are by far the most useful for defining a lunar stratigraphy as they are numerous and form in a geological instant. The continued effects of impact cratering over long periods of time modify the morphology of lunar landforms in a quantitative way, and the state of erosion of a landform can also be used to assign a relative age.\n", "The lunar geological time scale has been divided into five periods (Pre-Nectarian, Nectarian, Imbrian, Eratosthenian, and Copernican) with one of these (the Imbrian) being subdivided into two epochs. These divisions of geological time are based on the recognition of convenient geomorphological markers, and as such, they should not be taken to imply that any fundamental changes in geological processes have occurred at these boundaries. The Moon is unique in the solar system in that it is the only body (other than the Earth) for which we possess rock samples with a known geological context. By correlating the ages of samples obtained from the Apollo missions to known geological units, it has been possible to assign absolute ages to some of these geological periods. The timeline below represents one such attempt, but it is important to note (as is discussed below) that some of the ages are either uncertain, or disputed. In many lunar highland regions, it is not possible to distinguish between Nectarian and Pre-Nectarian materials, and these deposits are sometimes labeled as just Pre-Imbrian.\n", "Section::::Lunar stratigraphy.:Pre-Nectarian.\n", "The Pre-Nectarian period is defined from the point at which the lunar crust formed, to the time of the Nectaris impact event. Nectaris is a multi-ring impact basin that formed on the near side of the Moon, and its ejecta blanket serves as a useful stratigraphic marker. 30 impact basins from this period are recognized, the oldest of which is the South Pole–Aitken basin. This geological period has been informally subdivided into the Cryptic and Basin Groups 1-9, but these divisions are not used on any geological maps.\n", "Section::::Lunar stratigraphy.:Nectarian.\n", "The Nectarian period encompasses all events that occurred between the formation of the Nectaris and Imbrium impact basins. 12 multi-ring impact basins are recognized in the Nectarian period, including the Serenitatis and Crisium basins. One of the scientific objectives of the Apollo 16 mission was to date material excavated by the Nectaris impact basin. Nevertheless, the age of the Nectaris basin is somewhat contentious, with the most frequently cited numbers being 3.92 Ga, and less frequently 3.85 Ga. Recently, it has been suggested that the Nectaris basin could be, in fact, much older at ~4.1 Ga.\n", "Section::::Lunar stratigraphy.:Imbrian.\n", "The Imbrian period has been subdivided into Late and Early epochs. The Early Imbrian is defined as the time between the formation of the Imbrium and Orientale impact basins. The Imbrium basin is believed to have formed at 3.85 Ga, though a minority opinion places this event at 3.77 Ga. The Schrödinger basin is the only other multi-ring basin that is Lower Imbrian in age, and no large multi-ring basins formed after this epoch.\n", "The Late Imbrian is defined as the time between the formation of the Orientale basin, and the time at which craters of a certain size (D) have been obliterated by erosional processes. The age of the Orientale basin has not been directly determined, though it must be older than 3.72 Ga (based on Upper Imbrian ages of mare basalts) and could be as old as 3.84 Ga based on the size-frequency distributions of craters superposed on Orientale ejecta. About two-thirds of the Moon's mare basalts erupted within the Upper Imbrian Series, with many of these lavas filling the depressions associated with older impact basins.\n", "Section::::Lunar stratigraphy.:Eratosthenian.\n", "The base of the Eratosthenian period is defined by the time at which craters on a geological unit of a certain size D have been almost completely obliterated by erosional processes. The principal erosional agent on the Moon is impact cratering itself, though seismic modification could play a minor role as well. The absolute age of this boundary is not well defined, but is commonly quoted as being near 3.2 Ga. The younger boundary of this period is defined based on the recognition that freshly excavated materials on the lunar surface are generally bright and that they become darker over time as a result of space weathering processes. Operationally, this period was originally defined as the time at which impact craters lost their bright ray systems. This definition, however, has recently been subjected to some criticism as some crater rays are bright for compositional reasons that are unrelated to the amount of space weathering they have incurred. In particular, if the ejecta from a crater formed in the highlands (which is composed of bright anorthositic materials) is deposited on the low albedo mare, it will remain bright even after being space weathered.\n", "Section::::Lunar stratigraphy.:Copernican.\n", "The Copernican period is the youngest geological period of the Moon. Originally, the presence of a bright ray system surrounding an impact crater was used to define Copernican units, but as mentioned above, this is complicated by the presence of compositional ray systems. The base of the Copernican period does not correspond to the formation of the impact crater Copernicus. The age of the base of the Copernican is not well constrained, but a commonly quoted number is 1.1 Ga. The Copernican extends until the present day.\n", "Section::::Relationship to Earth's geologic time scale.\n", "The divisions of the lunar geologic time scale are based on the recognition of a few convenient geomorphological markers. While these divisions are extremely useful for ordering geological events in a relative manner, it is important to realize that the boundaries do not imply any fundamental change of geological processes. Furthermore, as the oldest geological periods of the Moon are based exclusively on the times of individual impact events (in particular, Nectaris, Imbrium, and Orientale), these punctual events will most likely not correspond to any specific geological event on the other terrestrial planets, such as Mercury, Venus, Earth, or Mars.\n", "Nevertheless, at least one notable scientific work has advocated using the lunar geological time scale to subdivide the Hadean eon of Earth's geologic time scale. In particular, it is sometimes found that the Hadean is subdivided into the Cryptic, Basin Groups 1-9, Nectarian, and Early Imbrian. This notation is not entirely consistent with the above lunar geologic time scale in that the Cryptic and Basin Groups 1-9 (both of which are only informal terms that are not used in geologic maps) comprise the Pre-Nectarian period.\n", "Section::::See also.\n", "BULLET::::- Crater counting\n", "BULLET::::- Geology of the Moon\n", "BULLET::::- Geologic time scale (Earth)\n", "BULLET::::- Impact crater\n", "BULLET::::- Late Heavy Bombardment\n", "Section::::References.\n", "Cited references\n", "General references\n" ] }

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{ "paragraph": [ "Sabrina (actress)\n", "Norma Ann Sykes (19 May 1936 – 24 November 2016), better known as Sabrina or Sabby, was a 1950s English glamour model who progressed to a minor film career. She was best known for her hourglass figure of breasts coupled with a tiny waist and hips.\n", "Sabrina was one of \"a host of exotic, glamorous (British) starlets ... modelled on the likes of Marilyn Monroe, Jayne Mansfield and Lana Turner\"; others included Diana Dors, Belinda Lee, Shirley Eaton and Sandra Dorne.\n", "Section::::Early life and career.\n", "Sabrina was born on 19 May 1936 at Stepping Hill Hospital in Stockport, Cheshire, to Walter and Annie Sykes. She lived in Buckingham Street, Heaviley, for about 13 years and attended St George's School there, before moving with her mother to Blackpool. She spent some time in hospital with rheumatic fever. At the age of 16 she moved to London, where she worked as a waitress and did some nude modelling, posing for Russell Gay in a photoshoot that led to her appearance on the five of spades in a deck of nude playing cards.\n", "In 1955 she was chosen to play a dumb blonde sidekick in Arthur Askey's new television series \"Before Your Very Eyes\" (BBC 1952–56, ITV 1956–58). The show ran from 18 February 1955 to 20 April 1956, and made Sabrina a household name. She was promoted by the BBC as \"the bosomy blonde who didn't talk\", but surviving kinescope episodes show quite clearly that she did.\n", "James Beney, of Walton Films, released a 100-foot 9.5 mm short glamour film \"At Home With Sabrina\" around July 1955.\n", "\"Goodnight with Sabrina\" (c.1958, 3:49 mins) is included with \"Beat Girl\", in 2016, newly remastered by \"BFI Flipside\"\n", "She made her film debut in \"Stock Car\" in 1955. She then appeared in a small role in the 1956 film \"Ramsbottom Rides Again\". In her third film, \"Blue Murder at St Trinian's\" (1957), she had a non-speaking role in which, despite sharing equal billing with the star Alastair Sim on posters and appearing in many publicity stills in school uniform, she was required only to sit up in bed wearing a nightdress, reading a book, while the action took place around her.\n", "Sabrina's penultimate film role was in the western \"The Phantom Gunslinger\" (1970), in which she starred alongside Troy Donahue. Her final film was the horror movie \"The Ice House\" (1969), in which she replaced Jayne Mansfield, who had died in a car crash two years earlier.\n", "On 27 November 1967 Sabrina married Dr. Harold Melsheimer (born 11 June 1927 in Germany), a Hollywood gynaecologist/obstetrician. They divorced ten years later.\n", "In 2002 an article in the \"Daily Mail\" claimed that Sabrina was living \"a lonely and sad existence\" in Los Angeles. The paper later issued an apology, stating that \"allegations in the article were untrue and that she lives in a desirable residence in West Toluca Lake\". However, in 2007 there were further newspaper reports that Sabrina had become a hermit, \"living in squalor\" in a Spanish-style house on a street known as 'Smog Central', under the flightpath of Burbank Airport. Sabrina admitted that she was confined to the house due to back problems, but denied living in squalor.\n", "Having suffered ill health for many years, partly owing to botched back surgery, she died of blood poisoning in 2016, at the age of 80.\n", "Section::::Cultural depictions.\n", "The scripts of \"The Goon Show\" are littered with references to Sabrina's bosom, such as \"By the measurements of Sabrina!\" and \"By the sweaters of Sabrina!\"\n", "In \"The Scandal Magazine\", an episode of the radio programme \"Hancock's Half Hour\", Sid James plays the editor of a sleazy gossip magazine that has carried an embarrassing story about Tony Hancock. James tells Hancock that his readers \"will believe anything. ... If I told them that Sabrina was Arthur Askey's mother, they'd believe me.\" Hancock replies, \"Well, I don't\", pauses and asks, \"She's not, is she?\" James says emphatically \"No\", but Hancock reflects, \"Mind you, there is a resemblance ...\"\n", "Hunchfront of Lime Grove – \"A somewhat unappealing nickname given to the generously endowed starlet known as Sabrina ...\"\n", "In the 1950s members of the Royal Air Force dubbed parts of the Hawker Hunter jet fighter plane \"Sabrinas\" owing to two large humps on the underside of the aircraft. Similarly, in the late 1950s, when ERF, a British firm that made lorries (trucks), produced a semi-forward control heavy goods vehicle (HGV) with a short protruding bonnet, these vehicles were nicknamed \"Sabrinas\" because they had \"a little more in front\".\n", "The 1959 Triumph TR3S 1985 cc iron-block alloy-headed engine was called \"Sabrina\" because of its dome-shaped cam drivers.\n", "In 1974 the British motoring press gave the name \"Sabrinas\" to the oversized pairs of protruding rubber bumper blocks added to the MG MGB, Midget and Triumph TR6 sports cars, when U.S. safety regulations mandated sturdier impact protection. The name stuck and is used around the world. See Dagmar bumpers.\n", "Section::::Television appearances.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Before Your Very Eyes\" (1955–1956, ten episodes)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Double Your Money\" (1955)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Tarzan\" (one episode, 1967)\n", "BULLET::::- \"This Is Your Life\" (Arthur Askey, 1974)\n", "Section::::Acting credits.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Stock Car\" (1955)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Ramsbottom Rides Again\" (1956)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Blue Murder at St Trinian's\" (1957)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Goodnight with Sabrina\" (1958)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Make Mine a Million\" (1959)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Satan in High Heels\" (1962)\n", "BULLET::::- \"House of the Black Death\" (1965)\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Ice House\" (1969)\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Phantom Gunslinger\" (1970)\n", "Section::::References.\n", "Notes\n", "Citations\n", "Bibliography\n", "Section::::External links.\n", "BULLET::::- The Complete Sabrina (Norma Sykes) Encyclopaedia\n", "BULLET::::- At Home – (Sabrina Encyclopaedia)\n", "BULLET::::- http://www.npg.org.uk/collections/search/person/mp101768/norma-ann-sykes-sabrina\n", "BULLET::::- Sabrina at aenigma\n", "BULLET::::- 1959 award of D.Litt. (Hon)\n" ] }

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{ "description": "English model and actress", "enwikiquote_title": "", "wikidata_id": "Q507196", "wikidata_label": "Sabrina", "wikipedia_title": "Sabrina (actress)", "aliases": { "alias": [ "Norma Ann Sykes", "Nora Sykes" ] } }

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{ "paragraph": [ "Partisan\n", "Partisan may refer to:\n", "Section::::Politics.\n", "BULLET::::- Partisan (politics), a committed member of a political party\n", "Section::::Military.\n", "BULLET::::- Partisan (weapon), a pole weapon\n", "BULLET::::- Partisan (military), paramilitary forces engaged behind the front line\n", "BULLET::::- Albanian Resistance of World War II, the Partisans of Albania during World War II\n", "BULLET::::- Armenian irregular units, referring to Armenian guerrillas from World War I\n", "BULLET::::- Belarusian partisans, in World War II and after\n", "BULLET::::- Bulgarian resistance movement during World War II, a Bulgarian resistance movement during World War II\n", "BULLET::::- Czech partisans, a Czech resistance movement during World War II\n", "BULLET::::- Forest Brothers, after World War II against the Soviet Union\n", "BULLET::::- French Resistance, during World War II\n", "BULLET::::- Werwolf, Germany's World War II movement\n", "BULLET::::- Germany's planned World War II Alpine National redoubt\n", "BULLET::::- Greek Resistance, in World War II and after\n", "BULLET::::- Italian resistance movement, in World War II\n", "BULLET::::- Jewish partisans, among the Jewish resistance movement in Nazi-occupied Europe\n", "BULLET::::- Bielski partisans, a Jewish resistance group during World War II\n", "BULLET::::- Latvian partisans, in World War II and after\n", "BULLET::::- Leśni (Polish resistance movement), in World War II\n", "BULLET::::- Lithuanian partisans, in World War II and after\n", "BULLET::::- Slovak partisans, in Slovak National Uprising, an armed insurrection during World War II\n", "BULLET::::- Slovene partisans\n", "BULLET::::- Soviet partisans, for the USSR in World War II\n", "BULLET::::- Soviet partisans in Estonia, during World War II against Nazi-Germany\n", "BULLET::::- Yugoslav Partisans, in World War II and after\n", "Section::::Films.\n", "BULLET::::- Partisan film, a subgenre of war films in Yugoslavia\n", "BULLET::::- \"Partisan\" (film), a 2015 Australian film\n", "BULLET::::- \"Partisans\", a 1974 Yugoslavian partisan film\n", "Section::::Music.\n", "BULLET::::- Po šumama i gorama, a Yugoslav Partisan version of the traditional song of Red Partisans in Serbia during 1918–1920 Russian Civil War\n", "BULLET::::- \"Chant des Partisans\", a 1943 French patriotic song from World War II\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Partisan\", a song written by Anna Marly and later covered by both Leonard Cohen and 16 Horsepower\n", "BULLET::::- The Partisans (band), a 1980s punk and Oi! band\n", "BULLET::::- Partisan Records, an American independent record label based in Brooklyn, New York\n", "BULLET::::- The Partisan Seed, music moniker for Filipe Miranda, a Portuguese singer/songwriter\n", "Section::::Other uses.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Partisans\" (novel), a 1982 novel by Alistair MacLean about the Yugoslav partisans\n", "BULLET::::- Partisan game, in combinatorial game theory\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Partisans\" (sculpture) in Boston\n", "Section::::See also.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Partisan Review\", a United States political and literary quarterly\n", "BULLET::::- Partizan (disambiguation)\n", "BULLET::::- Partizani (disambiguation)\n" ] }

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{ "paragraph": [ "Criccieth Castle\n", "Criccieth Castle () is a native Welsh castle situated on the headland between two beaches in Criccieth, Gwynedd, in North Wales, on a rocky peninsula overlooking Tremadog Bay. It was built by Llywelyn the Great of the kingdom of Gwynedd, but was heavily modified following its capture by English forces of Edward I in the late 13th century.\n", "Section::::Construction.\n", "Although the stone castle was begun in the 1230s, there were three main building phases plus several periods of remodelling. The earliest part of the masonry castle is the inner ward which was started by Llywelyn the Great. Unlike most other Welsh native strongholds, the inner ward at Criccieth was protected by a gatehouse with twin D-shaped towers that was protected by a gate and portcullis, with murder holes in the passage, and outward facing arrowslits in each tower. This design might have been copied from English designs on the Marches at Beeston Castle, Cheshire or Montgomery Castle, Powys. The two towers of the gatehouse provided accommodation and their height was later increased in the Edwardian period. The castle's well was also in the gatehouse passage which was supplied by a spring fed cistern.\n", "In the 1260s or 1270s, an outer ward was added during the second building phase under Llywelyn ap Gruffudd. A new gateway was added in the outer curtain with a large two-storey rectangular tower. The castle, although not a proper concentric design, now had two circuits of circular defences.\n", "Criccieth was taken by English forces in 1283. Under James of Saint George, another two storey rectangular tower connected to the rest of the castle by a curtain wall, the \"Engine Tower\" (now in ruins) might have been the foundation for a siege engine. The gatehouse had another storey added and several Welsh mural towers were strengthened. An outer barbican was added to the outer curtain wall.\n", "Under Welsh stewardship, the principal residence was in the SW tower but when the castle was taken over by the English, accommodation was situated in the towers of the D-shaped gatehouse. Timber buildings, which included a great hall, were erected within the inner ward.\n", "Section::::History.\n", "A Motte and bailey stood at a different site in Criccieth before the masonry castle was built. In 1283 the castle was captured by English under the command of Edward I. It was then remodelled by James of St George.\n", "In 1294, Madoc ap Llywelyn, a distant relation of Llywelyn ap Gruffudd, began an uprising against English rule that spread quickly through Wales. Several English-held towns were razed and Criccieth (along with Harlech Castle and Aberystwyth Castle) were besieged that winter. Its residents survived until spring when the castle was resupplied.\n", "In the 14th century the castle had a notable Welsh constable called Hywel ap Gruffydd, known as Howell the Axe, who fought for Edward III at the Battle of Poitiers in 1356.\n", "The castle was used as a prison until 1404 when Welsh forces captured the castle during the rebellion of Owain Glyndŵr. The Welsh then tore down its walls and set the castle alight. Some stonework still show the scorch marks.\n", "Criccieth was also one of several locations Romantic artist Joseph Mallord William Turner used for his famous series of paintings depicting shipwrecked mariners.\n", "Section::::Present day.\n", "The castle is maintained by Cadw. It includes exhibits and information on Welsh castles as well as the 12th century Anglo-Norman writer Gerald of Wales.\n", "Section::::Constable.\n", "The constable of the castle was \"ex officio\" also the Mayor of Criccieth.\n", "Section::::Constable.:List of Constables.\n", "Source The Castle Community: The Personnel of English and Welsh Castles, 1272-1422\n", "Section::::See also.\n", "BULLET::::- Castles in Great Britain and Ireland\n", "BULLET::::- List of castles in Wales\n", "Section::::External links.\n", "BULLET::::- Cadw visitor's page\n", "BULLET::::- www.geograph.co.uk : photos of Criccieth castle\n" ] }

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{ "description": "castle in Criccieth, north Wales", "enwikiquote_title": "", "wikidata_id": "Q1139896", "wikidata_label": "Criccieth Castle", "wikipedia_title": "Criccieth Castle", "aliases": { "alias": [] } }

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{ "paragraph": [ "Caprifoliaceae\n", "The Caprifoliaceae or honeysuckle family is a clade of dicotyledonous flowering plants consisting of about 860 species in 42 genera, with a nearly cosmopolitan distribution. Centres of diversity are found in eastern North America and eastern Asia, while they are absent in tropical and southern Africa.\n", "Section::::Description.\n", "The flowering plants in this clade are mostly shrubs and vines : rarely herbs. They include some ornamental garden plants grown in temperate regions. The leaves are mostly opposite with no stipules (appendages at the base of a leafstalk or petiole), and may be either evergreen or deciduous. The flowers are tubular funnel-shaped or bell-like, usually with five outward spreading lobes or points, and are often fragrant. They usually form a small calyx with small bracts. The fruit is in most cases a berry or a drupe. The genera \"Diervilla\" and \"Weigela\" have capsular fruit, while \"Heptacodium\" has an achene.\n", "Section::::Taxonomy.\n", "Views of the family-level classification of the traditionally accepted Caprifoliaceae and other plants in the botanical order Dipsacales have been considerably revised in recent decades. Most botanists now accept the placement of two of the most familiar members of this group, the elderberries (\"Sambucus\") and the viburnums (\"Viburnum\"), in the family Adoxaceae instead; these were formerly classified here.\n", "Several other families of the more broadly treated Caprifoliaceae \"s.l.\" are separated by some but not all authors; these are treated as subfamilies in the listing of selected genera below, along with estimated numbers of species.\n", "Diervilloideae\n", "BULLET::::- \"Diervilla\" (Bush honeysuckle): 3 species\n", "BULLET::::- \"Weigela\": 10 species.\n", "Caprifolioideae \"s.s.\"\n", "BULLET::::- \"Heptacodium\" (Seven-son flower): 1 species\n", "BULLET::::- \"Leycesteria\": 6 species\n", "BULLET::::- \"Lonicera\" (Honeysuckle): 180 species\n", "BULLET::::- \"Symphoricarpos\" (Snowberry): 17 species\n", "BULLET::::- \"Triosteum\" (Horsegentian): 6 species\n", "Linnaeoideae\n", "BULLET::::- \"Abelia\": 30 species\n", "BULLET::::- \"Dipelta\": 4 species\n", "BULLET::::- \"Kolkwitzia\" (Beautybush): 1 species\n", "BULLET::::- \"Linnaea\" (Twinflower): 1 species\n", "Morinoideae\n", "BULLET::::- \"Acanthocalyx\": 3 species\n", "BULLET::::- \"Cryptothladia \"\n", "BULLET::::- \"Morina\"\n", "BULLET::::- \"Zabelia\"\n", "Dipsacoideae\n", "BULLET::::- \"Cephalaria\"\n", "BULLET::::- \"Dipsacus \" (Teasel): 15 species\n", "BULLET::::- \"Knautia\"\n", "BULLET::::- \"Pterocephalus\": 25 species\n", "BULLET::::- \"Scabiosa\" (Scabious, pincushion flower): 30 species\n", "BULLET::::- \"Succisa\"\n", "BULLET::::- \"Succisella\"\n", "BULLET::::- \"Triplostegia\"\n", "Valerianoideae\n", "BULLET::::- \"Centranthus\": 12 species\n", "BULLET::::- \"Fedia\"\n", "BULLET::::- \"Nardostachys \": 3 species\n", "BULLET::::- \"Patrinia\": 17 species\n", "BULLET::::- \"Plectritis\" (Seablushes): 5 species\n", "BULLET::::- \"Valeriana\" (Valerians): 125 species\n", "BULLET::::- \"Valerianella \"(Cornsalads): 20 species\n", "Section::::Uses.\n", "The plants belonging to this family are mainly hardy shrubs or vines of ornamental value, many of which are popular garden shrubs, notably species belonging to the genera \"Abelia\", \"Lonicera\", and \"Weigela\". \n", "A few, however, have become invasive weeds outside their native ranges (such as \"Lonicera japonica\").\n", "Section::::References.\n", "BULLET::::- Flowering Plants of the World, 1987, Vernon H. Heywood, Andromeda Oxford Ltd.,\n", "BULLET::::- Botanica, Gordon Cheers, Random House Australia,\n", "Section::::External links.\n", "BULLET::::- Caprifoliaceae in Topwalks\n", "BULLET::::- Species account : Caprifoliaceae\n", "BULLET::::- Comparison Table for the Cornidae\n" ] }

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{ "description": "family of plants", "enwikiquote_title": "", "wikidata_id": "Q156301", "wikidata_label": "Caprifoliaceae", "wikipedia_title": "Caprifoliaceae", "aliases": { "alias": [] } }

{ "pageid": 206609, "parentid": 883713140, "revid": 902950182, "pre_dump": true, "timestamp": "2019-06-22T14:05:39Z", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Caprifoliaceae&oldid=902950182" }

{ "paragraph": [ "Comparative\n", "In general linguistics, the comparative is a syntactic construction that serves to express a comparison between two (or more) entities or groups of entities in quality or degree - see also comparison (grammar) for an overview of comparison, as well as positive and superlative degrees of comparison. For example \"This sofa is more comfortable than that one\" and \"James is smaller than Chris\". The syntax of comparative constructions is poorly understood due to the complexity of the data. In particular, the comparative frequently occurs with independent mechanisms of syntax such as coordination and forms of ellipsis (gapping, pseudogapping, null complement anaphora, stripping, verb phrase ellipsis). The interaction of the various mechanisms complicates the analysis.\n", "Section::::Absolute and null forms.\n", "A number of fixed expressions use a comparative form where no comparison is being asserted, such as \"higher education\" or \"younger generation\". These comparatives can be called \"absolute\".\n", "Similarly, a null comparative is one in which the starting point for comparison is not stated. These comparisons are frequently found in advertising, for example, in typical assertions such as \"Our burgers have more flavor\", \"Our picture is sharper\" or \"50% more\". These uses of the comparative do not mention what it is they are being compared to. In some cases it is easy to infer what the missing element in a null comparative is. In other cases, the speaker or writer has been deliberately vague, for example \"Glasgow's miles better\".\n", "Scientific classification, taxonomy, and geographical categorization conventionally include the adjectives \"greater\" and \"lesser\", when a \"large\" or \"small\" variety of an item is meant, as in the greater celandine as opposed to the lesser celandine. These adjectives may at first sight appear as a kind of \"null comparative\", when as is usual, they are cited without their opposite counterpart. It should be apparent, however, that an entirely different variety of animal, scientific, or geographical object is intended. Thus it may be found, for example, that the lesser panda entails a giant panda variety, and a gazetteer would establish that there are the Lesser Antilles as well as the Greater Antilles. It is in the nature of grammatical conventions evolving over time that it is difficult to establish when they first became widely accepted, but both \"greater\" and \"lesser\" in these instances have over time become mere adjectives (or adverbial constructs), so losing their \"comparative\" connotation. Further, \"Greater\" indicates the inclusion adjacent areas when referring to metropolitan areas, such as when suburbs are intended. Although it implies a comparison with a narrower definition that refers to a central city only, such as Greater London versus the City of London, or Greater New York versus New York City, it is not part of the \"comparative\" in the grammatical sense of this article. A comparative always compares something directly with something else.\n", "Section::::Comparative coordination vs. comparative subordination.\n", "At times the syntax of comparatives matches the syntax of coordination, and at other times, it must be characterized in terms of subordination.\n", "Section::::Comparative coordination vs. comparative subordination.:Comparative coordination.\n", "The syntax of comparatives can closely mirror the syntax of coordination. The similarity in structure across the following a- and b-sentences illustrates this point. The conjuncts of the coordinate structures are enclosed in square brackets:\n", "The structure of the b-sentences involving comparatives is closely similar to the structure of the a-sentences involving coordination. Based on this similarity, many have argued that the syntax of comparatives overlaps with the syntax of coordination at least some of the time. In this regard, the \"than\" in the b-sentences should be viewed as a coordinator (coordinate conjunction), not as a subordinator (subordinate conjunction).\n", "Section::::Comparative coordination vs. comparative subordination.:Comparative subordination.\n", "Examples of the comparative that do not allow an analysis in terms of coordination (because the necessary parallel structures are not present) are instances of comparative subordination. In such cases, \"than\" has the status of a preposition or a subordinator (subordinate conjunction), e.g.\n", "Since the parallel structures associated with coordinate structures, i.e., the conjuncts, cannot be acknowledged in these sentences, the only analysis available is one in terms of subordination, whereby \"than\" has the status of a subordinator (as in sentences a-d) or of a preposition (as in sentence e). What this means is that the syntax of comparatives is complex because at times an analysis in terms of coordination is warranted, whereas at other times, the analysis must assume subordination.\n", "Section::::Comparative deletion and subdeletion.\n", "There are two types of ellipsis that are unique to the \"than\"-clauses of comparatives: \"comparative deletion\" and \"comparative subdeletion\". The existence of comparative deletion as an ellipsis mechanism is widely acknowledged, whereas the status of comparative subdeletion as an ellipsis mechanism is more controversial.\n", "Section::::Comparative deletion and subdeletion.:Comparative deletion.\n", "Comparative deletion is an obligatory ellipsis mechanism that occurs in the \"than\"-clause of a comparative construction. The elided material of comparative deletion is indicated using a blank, and the unacceptable b-sentences show what is construed as having been elided in the a-sentences:\n", "Section::::Comparative deletion and subdeletion.:Comparative subdeletion.\n", "Comparative subdeletion is a second type of ellipsis in comparatives that some accounts acknowledge. It occurs when the focused constituent in the \"than\"-clause is not deleted because it is distinct from its counterpart in the main clause. In other words, comparative subdeletion occurs when comparative deletion does not because the constituents being compared are distinct, e.g.\n", "Accounts that acknowledge comparative subdeletion posit a null measure expression in the position marked by the blank (x-many, x-much). This element serves to focus the expression in the same way that \"-er\" or \"more\" focuses its counterpart in the main clause. Various arguments are put forth that motivate the existence of this null element. These arguments will not be reproduced here, though. Suffice it to say that the sentences in which subdeletion is supposedly occurring are qualitatively different from sentences in which comparative deletion occurs, e.g., \"He has more cats than you have ___ .\"\n", "Section::::Independent ellipsis mechanisms in \"than\"-clauses.\n", "There are a number of independent ellipsis mechanisms that occur in the \"than-\"clauses of comparative constructions: gapping, pseudogapping, null complement anaphora, stripping, and verb phrase ellipsis. These mechanisms are independent of comparative clauses because they also occur when the comparative is not involved. The presence of these ellipsis mechanisms in \"than\"-clauses complicates the analysis considerably, since they render it difficult to discern which aspects of the syntax of comparatives are unique to comparatives.\n", "The fact that the five independent ellipsis mechanisms (and possibly others) can occur in the \"than\"-clauses of comparatives has rendered the study of the syntax of comparatives particularly difficult. One is often not sure which ellipsis mechanisms are involved in a given \"than\"-clause. One thing is clear, however: the five ellipsis mechanisms illustrated here are distinct from the two ellipsis mechanisms that are unique to comparatives mentioned above (comparative deletion and comparative subdeletion).\n", "Section::::Double comparatives.\n", "If an adjective has two comparative markers, it is known as a double comparative (e.g. \"more louder\"). The use of double comparatives is generally associated with Appalachian English and African American Vernacular English, though they were common in Early Modern English and were used by Shakespeare.\n", "Section::::Universals of comparative constructions.\n", "Russell Ultan (1972) surveyed 20 languages and observed that the comparative and superlative are inflected forms of (near-)identical bases with respective to the positive and equative. Jonathan D. Bobaljik (2012) contends that Ultan’s generalization is a strong contender for a linguistic universal. Bobaljik formulates the Comparative-Superlative Generalization: With respect to the positive, if any adjective’s comparative degree were suppletive, so would its superlative; vice versa, if any adjective’s superlative degree were suppletive, then its so would its comparative. \n", "Bobaljik proposes the Containment Hypothesis: \"The representation of the superlative properly contains that of the comparative (in all languages that have a morphological superlative)\". Indeed:\n", "BULLET::::- in many languages (Persian, Ubykh, Cherokee, Chukchi, etc.) the superlative transparently contains the comparative;\n", "BULLET::::- in Celtic languages, Arabic, Klon, Totnac, etc. the comparatives and the superlatives are formally similar;\n", "BULLET::::- in Romance languages, Greek, Maltese, etc. the superlatives are derived from the comparatives by means of the addition of definite articles.\n", "Additionally, Bobaljik asserts that Universal Grammar lacks the superlative morpheme.\n", "Section::::See also.\n", "BULLET::::- Coordination\n", "BULLET::::- Ellipsis\n", "BULLET::::- Gapping\n", "BULLET::::- Pseudogapping\n", "BULLET::::- Stripping\n", "BULLET::::- Subordination\n", "BULLET::::- Verb phrase ellipsis\n", "Section::::References.\n", "BULLET::::- Bobaljik, J. D. 2012. Universals in Comparative Morphology. MIT Press.\n", "BULLET::::- Bresnan, J. 1973. Syntax of the comparative clause construction in English. Linguistic Inquiry 35, 275-343.\n", "BULLET::::- Bresnan, J. 1976. On the form and functioning of transformations. Linguistic Inquiry 7, 3-40.\n", "BULLET::::- Corver, N. 2006. Comparative deletion and subdeletion. Volume 1, The Blackwell companion to syntax, eds. M. Everaert and H. van Riemsdijk, 582-637. Malden: Blackwell.\n", "BULLET::::- Grimshaw, J. 1987. Subdeletion. Linguistic Inquiry, 659-669.\n", "BULLET::::- Huddleston, R. and G. Pullum. 2002. The Cambridge gammar of the English Language.\n", "BULLET::::- Lechner, W. 2004. Ellipsis in comparatives. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.\n", "BULLET::::- Napoli D.J. 1983. Comparative ellisis: A phrase structure analysis. Linguistic Inquiry 14, 675-694.\n", "BULLET::::- Osborne, T. 2009. Comparative coordination vs. comparative subordination. Natural Language and Linguistic Theory 27, 427-454.\n", "BULLET::::- Pinkham, J. 1982. The formation of comparative clauses in French and English. Doctoral dissertation, Harvard University.\n", "BULLET::::- Ryan, K. 1983. \"Than\" as a coordination. Papers from the nineteenth regional meeting of the Chicago Linguistics Society. 353-361.\n", "BULLET::::- Stassen, Leon. 1985. Comparison and universal grammar. Oxford: Blackwell.\n" ] }

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{ "description": "syntactic construction that serves to express a comparison", "enwikiquote_title": "", "wikidata_id": "Q14169499", "wikidata_label": "comparative", "wikipedia_title": "Comparative", "aliases": { "alias": [] } }

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{ "paragraph": [ "Dolwyddelan Castle\n", "Dolwyddelan Castle () is a Welsh castle located near Dolwyddelan in Conwy County Borough in North Wales. It is thought to have been built in the early 13th century by Llywelyn the Great, Prince of Gwynedd and Wales. Though the castle was then only one tower with two floors, a second tower was built in the late 13th century and a third floor was added to the first during the late 15th century repairs.\n", "Section::::Construction.\n", "The castle was built, using mostly local grit and slate rubble, as one of the Snowdonian strongholds of the princes of Gwynedd. Though there are no records of the exact construction date, it is thought that a single rectangular tower, with two floors, was built in the early 13th century. The first floor would have consisted of a main chamber with a fireplace, with a trapdoor for entrance to the basement, and the main keep's doorway would have been covered by a porch or forebuilding.\n", "The second two-storey tower was added by Edward I during the repairs in 1283–84 and linked by an irregular curtain wall with a courtyard in the centre, with further work undertaken in 1290–92. This second tower contained a fireplace on the top floor reached by internal stairs. A third storey was added to the main keep in the late 15th century, resulting in it then reaching a height of . The castle was heavily restored between 1848 and 1850 by Baron Willoughby de Eresby during which time the battlements were added.\n", "Section::::History.\n", "The Welsh castle, built in the early 13th century, functioned as a guard post along a main route through North Wales. It was reputed to be the birthplace of Llywelyn the Great, though it is now thought that he was born at Tomen Castell, a small tower that previously stood on a nearby hill, and that he built Dolwyddelan Castle. On 18 January 1283 it was captured by Edward I of England's forces during the final stages of his conquest of Wales. Some historians have suggested that there may have been a deal between the defenders of the castle and Edward I in which its surrender was negotiated. The castle was then modified and strengthened until at least 1286 for occupation by an English garrison with recorded repairs including carpentry, the bridge, and the water mill.\n", "Edwardian troops maintained a military presence here until 1290. As the long-term strategy of control in Wales began to rely on military and administrative centres accessible by sea, the inland castles became obsolete.\n", "In the 15th century, the upper storey and drainage system were added to the keep by local lord Maredudd ap Ieuan who acquired the lease in 1488. It was restored and partly re-modelled in the 19th century by Lord Willoughby de Eresby, who added the distinctive battlements. It was reported that in around 1810 one of the towers may have collapsed.\n", "In 1930 the building was placed under the guardianship of the Ministry of Works. The castle is now under the protection of Cadw, which is part of the Welsh Assembly's historic environment division.\n", "Section::::Media appearances.\n", "In 1980 the location was used for all the outdoor shots of Ulrich's castle during the making of the film \"Dragonslayer\".\n", "Section::::See also.\n", "BULLET::::- Castles in Great Britain and Ireland\n", "BULLET::::- List of castles in Wales\n", "Section::::External links.\n", "BULLET::::- www.geograph.co.uk : photos of Dolwyddelan Castle\n" ] }

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{ "description": "Grade I listed building in Conwy County Borough.", "enwikiquote_title": "", "wikidata_id": "Q2369922", "wikidata_label": "Dolwyddelan Castle", "wikipedia_title": "Dolwyddelan Castle", "aliases": { "alias": [] } }

{ "pageid": 206611, "parentid": 868262556, "revid": 907937465, "pre_dump": true, "timestamp": "2019-07-26T09:27:13Z", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dolwyddelan%20Castle&oldid=907937465" }

{ "paragraph": [ "Scillus\n", "Scillus or Skillous () was a town of Triphylia, a district of ancient Elis, situated 20 stadia south of Olympia. In 572 BCE the Scilluntians assisted Pyrrhus, king of Pisa, in making war upon the Eleians; but they were completely conquered by the latter, and both Pisa and Scillus were razed to the ground. Scillus remained desolate till about 392 BCE, when the Lacedaemonians, who had a few years previously compelled the Eleians to renounce their supremacy over their dependent cities, colonised Scillus and gave it to Xenophon, then an exile from Athens. Xenophon resided here more than twenty years, and probably composed the \"Anabasis\" here, but was expelled from it by the Eleians soon after the Battle of Leuctra, in 371 BCE. He has left us a description of the place, which he says was situated 20 stadia from the Sacred Grove of Zeus, on the road to Olympia from Sparta, It stood upon the river Selinus, which was also the name of the river flowing by the temple of Artemis at Ephesus, and like the latter it abounded in fish and shell-fish. Here Xenophon, from a tenth of the spoils acquired in the Asiatic campaign, dedicated a temple to Artemis, in imitation of the celebrated temple at Ephesus, and instituted a festival to the goddess. Scillus stood amidst woods and meadows, and afforded abundant pasture for cattle; while the neighbouring mountains supplied wild hogs, roebucks, and stags. When Pausanias visited Scillus five centuries afterwards the temple of Artemis still remained, and a statue of Xenophon, made of Pentelic marble.\n", "Scillus's site is near the modern village of Makrisia.\n" ] }

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{ "description": "town of Triphylia", "enwikiquote_title": "", "wikidata_id": "Q733291", "wikidata_label": "Scillus", "wikipedia_title": "Scillus", "aliases": { "alias": [] } }

{ "pageid": 206613, "parentid": 860621321, "revid": 860621724, "pre_dump": true, "timestamp": "2018-09-21T23:10:10Z", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Scillus&oldid=860621724" }

{ "paragraph": [ "Arthur L. Bristol\n", "Arthur LeRoy Bristol, Jr. (July 15, 1886 – April 27, 1942), was a Vice Admiral in the United States Navy, who held important commands during World War I and World War II, and was an early aircraft carrier commander.\n", "Section::::Early life and career.\n", "Born in Charleston, South Carolina, he entered the United States Naval Academy on September 23, 1902 and graduated with the Class of 1906. After the prescribed two years of sea duty, which he served in the pre-dreadnought USS \"Illinois\" (Battleship No. 7), he received his commission as ensign in 1908. Transferred to \"Mayflower\" in 1909, he remained in that Presidential yacht until ordered to Berlin, Germany, in January 1912 for a year and one-half as a naval attaché. In June 1913, he returned home to command the new destroyer \"Cummings\" (Destroyer No. 44) upon her completion at Bath Iron Works. A year later, he received the concurrent command of \"Terry\" (Destroyer No. 25) and the 2nd Division, Reserve Torpedo Flotilla, U.S. Atlantic Fleet. He then briefly commanded \"Jarvis\" (Destroyer No. 38).\n", "Section::::World War I.\n", "Late in 1915, Bristol was assigned the duties of aide and torpedo officer on the staff of Commander, Torpedo Flotilla, Atlantic Fleet and, in the winter of 1916, he became aide and flag secretary to the Commander, Destroyer Force, Atlantic Fleet. In the summer of 1917, soon after the United States entered World War I, he became aide and flag secretary for Commander, Cruiser Force, Atlantic Fleet. After serving in that capacity into the following winter, Bristol was awarded the Navy Cross for his service as flag secretary and acting chief of staff to Commander, Cruiser and Transport Force. While holding that post, he worked closely with Army authorities in the handling of troopship movements.\n", "Later, as flag secretary for the Commander, Cruiser and Transport Force, he earned the Distinguished Service Medal. Going ashore in February 1918, he labored in Washington through the end of World War I and into the spring of 1919 on duty in the Office of the Chief of Naval Operations.\n", "Section::::Russian Civil War.\n", "Bristol then commanded \"Breckinridge\" (DD-148) and \"Overton\" (DD-239) in succession, serving in the latter during that ship's operations in the Black Sea during the capitulation of White Russian forces to the Bolsheviks in November 1920. For his services rendered during the evacuation of the Crimea, a grateful Russian government-in-exile presented him with the Order of St. Stanislav, III Class.\n", "Section::::Assignments during the interwar years.\n", "Detached from \"Overton\" in August 1921, Bristol again served in Washington attached to the Navy General Board and then went to Philadelphia to assist in the decommissioning of destroyers. A course of instruction at the Naval War College in Newport, Rhode Island occupied him from July 1922 to May 1923, and he next served as an instructor on the staff of that institution from May 1923 to May 1924. Following a brief tour as aide for Commander, Scouting Fleet, he sailed to Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, to join the American naval mission there. \n", "Reporting to the battleship \"Arizona\" (BB-39) in February 1927, Bristol served as executive officer of that dreadnought until April of the following year, and then moved to the Naval Air Station (NAS), San Diego, California for aviation instruction. Following further flight training at NAS, Pensacola, Florida, he was designated a naval aviator and was sent to the Asiatic Fleet, where he served as commanding officer of the seaplane tender \"Jason\" (AV-2) and later, as Commander, Aircraft Squadrons, Asiatic Fleet. \n", "Detached in the spring of 1931, he checked in briefly at the Office of Naval Intelligence in Washington before proceeding on to the United Kingdom to become naval attaché in London on October 1, 1931. A brief stop in the Office of the Chief of Naval Operations upon his return from England in the spring of 1934 preceded his traveling to the Newport News Shipbuilding and Dry Dock Co., Newport News, Virginia, as prospective commanding officer of the new aircraft carrier \"Ranger\" (CV-4).\n", "Section::::Carrier commander.\n", "The first commanding officer of the Navy's first aircraft carrier to be built as such from the keel up, Bristol took \"Ranger\" to South American waters on shakedown and commanded her thereafter until June 1936, when he became Commanding Officer NAS, San Diego. During the latter tour, he served on the Hepburn Board, participating in the investigations into suitable base sites in the United States and its possessions. \n", "Becoming Commander, Patrol Wing 2, at Pearl Harbor, on July 27, 1939, Bristol was given flag rank on August 1, and, the following summer, became Commander Carrier Division 1. He then served as Commander, Aircraft, Scouting Force (September 18, to October 12, 1940), and as Commander, Patrol Wings, United States Fleet (October 12, 1940 to January 23, 1941) before reporting to the Office of the Chief of Naval Operations on January 25, 1941.\n", "Section::::World War II.\n", "With increasing American alarm over the course of the Battle of the Atlantic, the Roosevelt administration took steps to aid the British. To help escort convoys across the Atlantic, the Navy established the Support Force, U.S. Atlantic Fleet, and based it at Newport. On March 1, 1941, Rear Admiral Bristol became the Force's first commander. He held this important position throughout the tense, undeclared war with Germany in the summer and autumn of 1941 and through America's entry into the global conflict on December 7, of that year. Designated vice admiral on February 27, 1942, Bristol remained in that important command until he suffered a fatal heart attack at NS Argentia, Newfoundland, on April 27, 1942.\n", "Section::::Namesake.\n", "The destroyer escort USS \"Arthur L Bristol\" (DE-281) was named in honor of Vice Admiral Bristol. She was converted during construction into the high-speed transport USS \"Arthur L. Bristol\" (APD-97), and was in commission as such from 1945 to 1946.\n", "The Arthur L. Bristol School, which educated the children of U.S. Navy personnel between 1957 and 1995 at Naval Air Station Argentia, Newfoundland, also was named for Vice Admiral Bristol.\n" ] }

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{ "description": "United States Navy Vice admiral", "enwikiquote_title": "", "wikidata_id": "Q4799409", "wikidata_label": "Arthur L. Bristol", "wikipedia_title": "Arthur L. Bristol", "aliases": { "alias": [] } }

{ "pageid": 206612, "parentid": 876566132, "revid": 904576704, "pre_dump": true, "timestamp": "2019-07-03T03:42:21Z", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Arthur%20L.%20Bristol&oldid=904576704" }

{ "paragraph": [ "NGC 2264\n", "NGC 2264 is the designation number of the New General Catalogue that identifies two astronomical objects as a single object: the Cone Nebula, and the Christmas Tree Cluster. Two other objects are within this designation but not officially included, the Snowflake Cluster, and the Fox Fur Nebula.\n", "All of the objects are located in the Monoceros constellation and are located about 800 parsecs or 2600 light-years from Earth.\n", "NGC 2264 is sometimes referred to as the Christmas Tree Cluster and the Cone Nebula. However, the designation of NGC 2264 in the New General Catalogue refers to both objects and not the cluster alone.\n", "NGC2264 is the location where the Cone Nebula, The Stellar Snowflake Cluster and the Christmas Tree Cluster have formed in this emission nebula. For reference, the Stellar Snowflake Cluster is located 2,700 light years away in the constellation Monoceros. The Monoceros constellation is not typically visible by the naked eye due to its lack of colossal stars.\n", "The Snowflake Cluster was granted its name due to its unmistakable pinwheel-like shape and its assortment of bright colors. The Christmas Tree star formation consists of young stars obscured by heavy layers of dust clouds. These dust clouds, along with hydrogen and helium are producing luminous new stars. The combination of dense clouds and an array of colors creates a color map filled with varying wavelengths. As seen in the photographs taken by the Spitzer Space telescope, we are able to differentiate between young, red stars and older blue stars.\n", "With varying youthful stars, comes vast changes to the overall structure of the clusters and nebula. For a cluster to be considered a Snowflake, it must remain in the original location the star was formed.\n", "When referring to this emission nebula overall, there are several aspects that contribute to the prominent configuration of a snowflake and/or Christmas tree cluster. There is a diverse arrangement of brilliant colors, and an evolving process of structure that follow star formation in a nebula. \n", "Section::::External links.\n", "BULLET::::- NGC 2264 @ SEDS NGC objects pages\n", "BULLET::::- Coordinates: 06 41 00, +09° 53′ 00″\n", "BULLET::::- O Tannenbaum, O Tannenbaum! - Astronomy Sketch of the Day, 12-25-2008\n", "BULLET::::- Stellar Snowflake Cluster\n", "BULLET::::- Spitzer Spots Stellar Snowflake on the 'Christmas Tree Cluster'\n" ] }

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{ "description": "open cluster", "enwikiquote_title": "", "wikidata_id": "Q226134", "wikidata_label": "NGC 2264", "wikipedia_title": "NGC 2264", "aliases": { "alias": [] } }

{ "pageid": 206614, "parentid": 861111030, "revid": 880290891, "pre_dump": true, "timestamp": "2019-01-26T16:22:22Z", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=NGC%202264&oldid=880290891" }

{ "paragraph": [ "NGC 7742\n", "NGC 7742 also known as Fried Egg Galaxy is a face-on unbarred spiral galaxy in the constellation Pegasus.\n", "The galaxy is unusual in that it contains a ring but no bar. Typically, bars are needed to produce a ring structure. The bars' gravitational forces move gas to the ends of the bars, where it forms into the rings seen in many barred spiral galaxies. In this galaxy, however, no bar is present, so this mechanism cannot be used to explain the formation of the ring. O. K. Sil'chenko and A. V. Moiseev proposed that the ring was formed partly as the result of a merger event in which a smaller gas-rich dwarf galaxy collided with NGC 7742. As evidence for this, they point to the unusually bright central region, the presence of highly inclined central gas disk, and the presence of gas that is counterrotating (or rotating in the opposite direction) with respect to the stars.\n", "Two Type II supernovae, SN 1993R and SN 2014cy, have been detected in NGC 7742.\n", "Section::::See also.\n", "BULLET::::- NGC 7217 - \"a face-on spiral galaxy with identical characteristics\"\n", "BULLET::::- Sombrero Galaxy - \"a similar galaxy with a dust ring\"\n", "Section::::External links.\n", "BULLET::::- NGC 7742 at ESA/Hubble\n" ] }

{ "paragraph_id": [ 1, 1, 1, 2, 3, 3, 3, 5, 6, 8 ], "start": [ 62, 83, 97, 500, 4, 24, 37, 12, 12, 12 ], "end": [ 75, 96, 104, 512, 21, 32, 46, 20, 27, 34 ], "text": [ "spiral galaxy", "constellation", "Pegasus", "dwarf galaxy", "Type II supernova", "SN 1993R", "SN 2014cy", "NGC 7217", "Sombrero Galaxy", "NGC 7742 at ESA/Hubble" ], "href": [ "spiral%20galaxy", "constellation", "Pegasus%20constellation", "dwarf%20galaxy", "Type%20II%20supernova", "SN%201993R", "SN%202014cy", "NGC%207217", "Sombrero%20Galaxy", "https%3A//web.archive.org/web/20070117183551/http%3A//www.spacetelescope.org/images/html/opo9828a.html" ], "wikipedia_title": [ "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "" ], "wikipedia_id": [ "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "" ] }

{ "description": "galaxy", "enwikiquote_title": "", "wikidata_id": "Q741756", "wikidata_label": "NGC 7742", "wikipedia_title": "NGC 7742", "aliases": { "alias": [] } }

{ "pageid": 206618, "parentid": 883321761, "revid": 897282101, "pre_dump": true, "timestamp": "2019-05-16T00:43:21Z", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=NGC%207742&oldid=897282101" }

{ "paragraph": [ "Helix Nebula\n", "The Helix Nebula, also known as NGC 7293, is a planetary nebula (PN) located in the constellation Aquarius. Discovered by Karl Ludwig Harding, probably before 1824, this object is one of the closest to the Earth of all the bright planetary nebulae. The distance, measured by the \"Gaia\" mission, is 655±13 light-years. It is similar in appearance to the Cat's Eye Nebula and the Ring Nebula, whose size, age, and physical characteristics are similar to the Dumbbell Nebula, varying only in its relative proximity and the appearance from the equatorial viewing angle. The Helix Nebula has sometimes been referred to as the \"Eye of God\" in pop culture, as well as the \"Eye of Sauron\".\n", "Section::::General information.\n", "The Helix Nebula is an example of a planetary nebula, formed by an intermediate to low-mass star, which sheds its outer layers near the end of its evolution. Gases from the star in the surrounding space appear, from our vantage point, as if we are looking down a helix structure. The remnant central stellar core, known as a planetary nebula nucleus or PNN, is destined to become a white dwarf star. The observed glow of the central star is so energetic that it causes the previously expelled gases to brightly fluoresce.\n", "The nebula is in the constellation of Aquarius, and lies about 650 light-years away, spanning about 0.8 parsecs (2.5 light-years). Its age is estimated to be years, based on its measured expansion rate of 31 km·s.\n", "Section::::Structure.\n", "The Helix Nebula is thought to be shaped like a prolate spheroid with strong density concentrations toward the filled disk along the equatorial plane, whose major axis is inclined about 21° to 37° from our vantage point. The size of the inner disk is 8×19 arcmin in diameter (0.52 pc); the outer torus is 12×22 arcmin in diameter (0.77 pc); and the outer-most ring is about 25 arcmin in diameter (1.76 pc). We see the outer-most ring as flattened on one side due to its colliding with the ambient interstellar medium.\n", "Expansion of the whole planetary nebula structure is estimated to have occurred in the last 6,560 years, and 12,100 years for the inner disk. Spectroscopically, the outer ring's expansion rate is 40 km/s, and about 32 km/s for the inner disk.\n", "Section::::Structure.:Knots.\n", "The Helix Nebula was the first planetary nebula discovered to contain cometary knots. Its main ring contains knots of nebulosity, which have now been detected in many nearby planetaries. These knots are highly radially symmetric (from the PNN) and are described as \"cometary\", each centered on a core of neutral molecular gas and containing bright cusps (local photoionization fronts) towards the central star and tails away from it. All tails extend away from the PNN in a radial direction. Excluding the tails, each knot is approximately the size of the Solar system, while each of the cusp knots are optically thick due to Lyc photons from the PNN. There are more than 20,000 cometary knots estimated to be in the Helix Nebula.\n", "The excitation temperature varies across the Helix nebula. The rotational-vibrational temperature ranges from 1800 K in a cometary knot located in the inner region of the nebula are about 2.5′ (arcmin) from the central PNN, calculated at about 900 K in the outer region at the distance of 5.6′.\n", "Section::::See also.\n", "BULLET::::- New General Catalogue (NGC)\n", "Section::::External links.\n", "BULLET::::- NASA/JPL-Caltech - The Helix Nebula (NGC 7293)\n", "BULLET::::- SEDS - The Helix Nebula (NGC 7293)\n", "BULLET::::- NightSkyInfo – The Helix Nebula (NGC 7293)\n", "BULLET::::- Snopes - Helix Eye of God - Urban Legend\n", "BULLET::::- Helix Nebula (NGC 7293) at Constellation Guide\n" ] }

{ "paragraph_id": [ 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 3, 3, 3, 3, 3, 4, 4, 6, 6, 6, 6, 9, 9, 9, 10, 10, 12, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18 ], "start": [ 47, 84, 98, 122, 206, 230, 280, 353, 378, 456, 666, 36, 220, 263, 382, 511, 38, 104, 48, 133, 157, 497, 70, 361, 626, 4, 115, 12, 12, 12, 12, 12, 12 ], "end": [ 63, 97, 106, 141, 211, 246, 284, 369, 389, 471, 679, 52, 233, 268, 393, 520, 46, 110, 64, 140, 167, 516, 83, 376, 636, 26, 116, 33, 58, 46, 54, 52, 58 ], "text": [ "planetary nebula", "constellation", "Aquarius", "Karl Ludwig Harding", "Earth", "planetary nebula", "Gaia", "Cat's Eye Nebula", "Ring Nebula", "Dumbbell Nebula", "Eye of Sauron", "planetary nebula", "vantage point", "helix", "white dwarf", "fluoresce", "Aquarius", "parsec", "prolate spheroid", "equator", "major axis", "interstellar medium", "cometary knot", "photoionization", "Lyc photon", "excitation temperature", "K", "New General Catalogue", "NASA/JPL-Caltech - The Helix Nebula (NGC 7293)", "SEDS - The Helix Nebula (NGC 7293)", "NightSkyInfo – The Helix Nebula (NGC 7293)", "Snopes - Helix Eye of God - Urban Legend", "Helix Nebula (NGC 7293) at Constellation Guide" ], "href": [ "planetary%20nebula", "constellation", "Aquarius%20%28constellation%29", "Karl%20Ludwig%20Harding", "Earth", "planetary%20nebula", "Gaia_%28spacecraft%29", "Cat%27s%20Eye%20Nebula", "Ring%20Nebula", "Dumbbell%20Nebula", "Eye%20of%20Sauron", "planetary%20nebula", "Perspective%20%28visual%29", "helix", "white%20dwarf", "fluoresce", "Aquarius%20%28constellation%29", "parsec", "prolate%20spheroid", "equator", "major%20axis", "interstellar%20medium", "cometary%20knot", "photoionization", "Lyc%20photon", "excitation%20temperature", "kelvin", "New%20General%20Catalogue", "http%3A//www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/spitzer/multimedia/pia15817.html", "http%3A//messier.seds.org/xtra/ngc/n7293.html", "http%3A//www.nightskyinfo.com/archive/helix_planetary_nebula", "http%3A//www.snopes.com/photos/space/eyeofgod.asp", "http%3A//www.constellation-guide.com/helix-nebula-ngc-7293-caldwell-63-in-aquarius/" ], "wikipedia_title": [ "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "" ], "wikipedia_id": [ "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "" ] }

{ "description": "planetary nebula", "enwikiquote_title": "", "wikidata_id": "Q15828", "wikidata_label": "Helix Nebula", "wikipedia_title": "Helix Nebula", "aliases": { "alias": [ "NGC 7293", "The Helix" ] } }

{ "pageid": 206634, "parentid": 908694515, "revid": 908694645, "pre_dump": true, "timestamp": "2019-07-31T10:55:42Z", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Helix%20Nebula&oldid=908694645" }

{ "paragraph": [ "Johann Gottfried Galle\n", "Johann Gottfried Galle (9 June 1812 – 10 July 1910) was a German astronomer from Radis, Germany, at the Berlin Observatory who, on 23 September 1846, with the assistance of student Heinrich Louis d'Arrest, was the first person to view the planet Neptune and know what he was looking at. Urbain Le Verrier had predicted the existence and position of Neptune, and sent the coordinates to Galle, asking him to verify. Galle found Neptune in the same night he received Le Verrier's letter, within 1° of the predicted position. The discovery of Neptune is widely regarded as a dramatic validation of celestial mechanics, and is one of the most remarkable moments of 19th-century science.\n", "Section::::Early life.\n", "Galle was born in the Papsthaus (a house in the Pabst wood) 2 km west of Radis in the vicinity of the town of Gräfenhainichen, as the first son of Marie Henriette \"née Pannier\" (1790–1839) and Johann Gottfried Galle (1790–1853), an operator of a tar oven. He attended the Gymnasium in Wittenberg and studied at Friedrich-Wilhelms-Universität Berlin from 1830 to 1833. He became a teacher at the Gymnasium in Guben, teaching mathematics and physics. Later on, he transferred to the Gymnasium in Berlin.\n", "Section::::Berlin Observatory.\n", "He had started to work as an assistant to Johann Franz Encke in 1835 immediately following the completion of the new Berlin Observatory. Galle worked there for the next 16 years, making use especially of a Fraunhofer-refractor with 9 Zoll (~22.5 cm) aperture. In 1838 he discovered an inner, dark ring of Saturn. From 2 December 1839 to 6 March 1840 he discovered three new comets.\n", "In 1845 Galle was awarded a Dr. phil.. His doctoral thesis was a reduction and critical discussion of Ole Rømer's observation of meridian transits of stars and planets on the days from 20 October to 23 October 1706.\n", "Section::::Berlin Observatory.:Discovery of Neptune.\n", "Around the same time in 1845 he sent a copy of his thesis to Urbain Le Verrier, but only received an answer a year later. Sent on 18 September 1846, it reached Galle on the morning of 23 September. \n", "Le Verrier had been investigating the perturbations of the orbit of the planet Uranus and from this he derived the position of a still undiscovered planet, and requested Galle to search in the corresponding section of sky. The very same night (after Encke gave permission to search, against his own judgement), in collaboration with his assistant Heinrich Louis d'Arrest, Galle discovered a star of 8th. magnitude, only 1° away from the calculated position, which was not recorded in the \"Berliner Akademischen Sternkarte\". Over the next two evenings, a proper motion of the celestial object of 4 seconds of arc was measured, which determined it absolutely as a planet, for which Le Verrier proposed the name Neptune. Galle always refused to be acknowledged as the discoverer of Neptune; he attributed the discovery to Le Verrier.\n", "In 1847 Galle was designated as the successor to Friedrich Wilhelm Bessel as Director of Königsberg Observatory. Before the enacted nomination from Friedrich Wilhelm IV effected \"de facto\", Galle withdrew his application at the beginning of 1848 due to an intrigue against him led by Carl Gustav Jacob Jacobi.\n", "Section::::Breslau Observatory.\n", "In 1851 he moved to Breslau (today Wrocław) to become the director of the local observatory, and in 1856 he became Professor of Astronomy at the Schlesischen Friedrich-Wilhelms-Universität Breslau. He worked in Breslau for over 45 years. For the academic year 1875/76 he was elected Rector. At Breslau he dealt with the exact determination of planetary orbits and developed methods for calculating the height of the aurorae and the path of meteors, and consolidated the data for all 414 comets discovered up to 1894 into one work (with the help of his son). Otherwise he concerned himself with the Earth's magnetic field and climatology. Altogether he published over 200 works.\n", "Section::::Later years.\n", "In 1897 Galle returned to Potsdam, where he died in 1910 at the age of 98. He was survived by his wife and two sons, Andreas Galle and Georg Galle (1860–1946).\n", "The town of Gräfenhainichen, which is close to his birthplace, erected a memorial to him in 1977.\n", "Two craters, one on the Moon and the \"happy face\" one on Mars, the asteroid 2097 Galle, and a ring of Neptune have been named in his honor.\n", "Section::::External links.\n", "Google celebrated Johann Gottfried Galle's 200th Birthday with Google Doodle https://www.google.com/doodles/johann-gottfried-galles-200th-birthday!\n", "BULLET::::- J. Galle @ Astrophysics Data System\n", "Section::::External links.:Astronomical images.\n", "BULLET::::- NASA photo of the Mars crater \"Galle\" (a.k.a. \"Happy Face Crater\")\n" ] }

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{ "description": "German astronomer", "enwikiquote_title": "", "wikidata_id": "Q76431", "wikidata_label": "Johann Gottfried Galle", "wikipedia_title": "Johann Gottfried Galle", "aliases": { "alias": [] } }

{ "pageid": 206620, "parentid": 896850014, "revid": 904196735, "pre_dump": true, "timestamp": "2019-06-30T16:07:57Z", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Johann%20Gottfried%20Galle&oldid=904196735" }

{ "paragraph": [ "Walter M. Miller Jr.\n", "Walter Michael Miller Jr. (January 23, 1923 – January 9, 1996) was an American science fiction writer. He is known primarily for \"A Canticle for Leibowitz\" (1959), the only novel he published in his lifetime. Prior to its publication he was a writer of short stories.\n", "Section::::Early life.\n", "Miller was born in New Smyrna Beach, Florida. Educated at the University of Tennessee and the University of Texas, he worked as an engineer. During World War II, he served in the Army Air Corps as a radioman and tail gunner, flying more than fifty bombing missions over Italy. He took part in the bombing of the Benedictine Abbey at Monte Cassino, which proved a traumatic experience for him. Joe Haldeman reported that Miller \"had Post Traumatic Stress Disorder for 30 years before it had a name\", and that Miller displayed a photograph he had taken of Ron Kovic prominently in his living room.\n", "After the war, Miller converted to Catholicism. He married Anna Louise Becker in 1945 and they had four children. He lived with science-fiction writer Judith Merril in 1953.\n", "Section::::Career.\n", "Between 1951 and 1957, Miller published over three dozen science fiction short stories, winning a Hugo Award in 1955 for the story \"The Darfsteller\". He also wrote scripts for the television show \"Captain Video\" in 1953. Late in the 1950s, Miller assembled a novel from three closely related novellas he had published in \"The Magazine of Fantasy and Science Fiction\" in 1955, 1956 and 1957. The novel, entitled \"A Canticle for Leibowitz\", was published in 1959.\n", "\"A Canticle for Leibowitz\" is a post-apocalyptic novel revolving around the canonisation of Saint Leibowitz and is considered a masterpiece of the genre. It won the 1961 Hugo Award for Best Novel.\n", "After the success of \"A Canticle For Leibowitz\", Miller never published another new novel or story in his lifetime, although several compilations of Miller's earlier stories were issued in the 1960s and 1970s. A radio adaptation of \"A Canticle for Leibowitz\" was produced by WHA Radio and NPR in 1981 and is available on CD. A radio adaptation of the first two parts was broadcast in the UK by the BBC in 1992. Further details can be found on the BBC Genome Project.\n", "Section::::Later years.\n", "In Miller's later years, he became a recluse, avoiding contact with nearly everyone, including family members; he never allowed his literary agent, Don Congdon, to meet him. According to science fiction writer Terry Bisson, Miller struggled with depression, but had managed to nearly complete a 600-page manuscript for the sequel to \"Canticle\" before taking his own life with a firearm in January 1996, shortly after his wife's death. The sequel, \"Saint Leibowitz and the Wild Horse Woman\", was completed by Bisson at Miller's request and published in 1997.\n", "Section::::Publications.\n", "Section::::Publications.:Saint Leibowitz series.\n", "The series includes Miller's two novels, published almost 40 years apart.\n", "BULLET::::- \"A Canticle for Leibowitz\" (J. B. Lippincott, 1959)\n", "BULLET::::- Fiat Homo, revised version of \"A Canticle for Leibowitz\", 1955\n", "BULLET::::- Fiat Lux, revision of \"And the Light Is Risen\", 1956\n", "BULLET::::- Fiat Voluntas Tua, revision of \"The Last Canticle\", 1957\n", "BULLET::::- \"Saint Leibowitz and the Wild Horse Woman\" (1997) – \"Terry Bisson finished the nearly complete, and reportedly very polished, manuscript left by Miller.\"\n", "Section::::Publications.:Collections.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Conditionally Human\" (1962) 3 stories\n", "BULLET::::- \"The View from the Stars\" (1965) 9 stories\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Science Fiction Stories of Walter M. Miller Jr.\" (1977) - omnibus of \"Conditionally Human\" and \"The View from the Stars\"\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Best of Walter M. Miller Jr.\" (1980) - omnibus of \"Conditionally Human\" and \"The View from the Stars\" plus two added stories, \"The Lineman\" and \"Vengeance for Nikolai\"\n", "BULLET::::- \"Conditionally Human and Other Stories\" (1982) - 6 stories from the 1980 omnibus\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Darfstellar and Other Stories\" (1982) - the remaining 8 stories from the 1980 omnibus\n", "Section::::Publications.:Short stories.\n", "BULLET::::- \"MacDoughal's Wife\" (in \"American Mercury\" March 1950; not science fiction)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Month of Mary\" (in\" Extension Magazine\" May 1950; not science fiction )\n", "BULLET::::- \"Dark Benediction\" (1951)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Izzard and the Membrane\" (1951)\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Little Creeps\" (1951)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Secret of the Death Dome\" (1951)\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Song of Vorhu\" (1951)\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Soul-Empty Ones\" (1951)\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Space Witch\" (1951)\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Big Hunger\" (1952)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Big Joe and the Nth Generation\" (1952; also known as \"It Takes a Thief\")\n", "BULLET::::- \"Bitter Victory\" (1952)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Blood Bank\" (1952)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Cold Awakening\" (1952)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Command Performance\" (1952, also known as \"Anybody Else Like Me?\")\n", "BULLET::::- \"Conditionally Human\" (1952)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Dumb Waiter\" (1952)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Gravesong\" (1952)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Let My People Go\" (1952)\n", "BULLET::::- \"No Moon for Me\" (1952)\n", "BULLET::::- \"A Family Matter\" (1952)\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Reluctant Traitor\" (\"Amazing Stories\", January 1952)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Please Me Plus Three\" (in \"Other Worlds Science Stories\", August 1952)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Six and Ten Are Johnny\" (1952)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Crucifixus Etiam\" (1953, also known as \"The Sower Does Not Reap\")\n", "BULLET::::- \"I, Dreamer\" (1953)\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Yokel\" (1953)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Wolf Pack\" (1953)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Check and Checkmate\" (1953)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Death of a Spaceman\" (1954, also known as \"Memento Homo\")\n", "BULLET::::- \"I Made You\" (1954)\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Ties that Bind\" (1954)\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Will\" (1954)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Way of a Rebel\" (1954)\n", "BULLET::::- \"A Canticle for Leibowitz\" (\"The Magazine of Fantasy & Science Fiction\", April 1955; reprinted as \"The First Canticle\"; revised into \"A Canticle for Leibowitz\")\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Darfsteller\" (1955)\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Hoofer\" (1955)\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Triflin' Man\" (1955, also known as \"You Triflin' Skunk!\")\n", "BULLET::::- \"And the Light is Risen\" (\"The Magazine of Fantasy & Science Fiction\", August 1956; revised into \"A Canticle for Leibowitz\")\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Last Canticle\" (\"The Magazine of Fantasy & Science Fiction\", February 1957; revised into \"A Canticle for Leibowitz\")\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Lineman\" (1957)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Vengeance for Nikolai\" (1957; also known as \"The Song of Marya\")\n", "Section::::Publications.:Anthologies.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Beyond Armageddon: Twenty-One Sermons to the Dead\", eds. Martin H. Greenberg and Miller (Donald I. Fine, 1985)\n", "Section::::Works about Miller.\n", "BULLET::::- Roberson, W. H. (2011). \"Walter M. Miller Jr.: A Reference Guide to His Fiction and His Life\".\n", "BULLET::::- Roberson, W. H., and Battenfeld, R. L. (1992). \"Walter M. Miller Jr.: A Bio-Bibliography\".\n", "BULLET::::- Secrest, Rose (2002). \"Glorificemus: A Study of the Fiction of Walter M. Miller Jr.\"\n", "BULLET::::- Musch, Sebastian (2016). \"The Atomic Priesthood and Nuclear Waste Management - Religion, Sci-fi Literature and the End of our Civilization\" Zygon - Journal of Religion and Science, 51 (3), p. 626-639.\n", "Section::::External links.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Sebastian Musch: The Atomic Priesthood and Nuclear Waste Management - Religion, Sci-fi Literature and the End of our Civilization\n" ] }

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{ "description": "American fiction writer", "enwikiquote_title": "Walter M. Miller, Jr.", "wikidata_id": "Q357839", "wikidata_label": "Walter M. Miller", "wikipedia_title": "Walter M. Miller Jr.", "aliases": { "alias": [ "Walter M. Miller, Jr.", "Walter Michael Miller, Jr." ] } }

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{ "paragraph": [ "Gruffudd ap Cynan\n", "Gruffudd ap Cynan (c. 1055 – 1137), sometimes written as Gruffydd ap Cynan, was King of Gwynedd from 1081 until his death in 1137. In the course of a long and eventful life, he became a key figure in Welsh resistance to Norman rule, and was remembered as King of all Wales. As a descendant of Rhodri Mawr, Gruffudd ap Cynan was a senior member of the princely House of Aberffraw.\n", "Through his mother, Gruffudd had close family connections with the Norse settlement around Dublin and he frequently used Ireland as a refuge and as a source of troops. He three times gained the throne of Gwynedd and then lost it again, before regaining it once more in 1099 and this time keeping power until his death. Gruffudd laid the foundations which were built upon by his son Owain Gwynedd and his great-grandson Llywelyn the Great.\n", "Section::::Life.\n", "Unusually for a Welsh king or prince, a near-contemporary biography of Gruffudd, \"The history of Gruffudd ap Cynan\", has survived. Much of our knowledge of Gruffudd comes from this source. The traditional view among scholars was that it was written during the third quarter of the 12th century during the reign of Gruffudd's son, Owain Gwynedd, but it has recently been suggested that it may date from the early reign of Llywelyn the Great, around 1200. The author is not known.\n", "Most of the existing manuscripts of the history are in Welsh but these are clearly translations of a Latin original. It is usually considered that the original Latin version has been lost, and that existing Latin versions are re-translations from the Welsh. However Russell (2006) has suggested that the Latin version in Peniarth MS 434E incorporates the original Latin version, later amended to bring it into line with the Welsh text.\n", "Section::::Life.:Ancestry.\n", "According to the \"Life of Gruffudd ap Cynan\", Gruffudd was born in Dublin and reared near Swords, County Dublin in Ireland. He was the son of a Welsh Prince, Cynan ap Iago, who was a claimant to the Kingship of Gwynedd but was probably never its king, though his father, Gruffudd's grandfather, Iago ab Idwal ap Meurig had ruled Gwynedd from 1023 to 1039. When Gruffudd first appeared on the scene in Wales the Welsh annals several times refer to him as \"grandson of Iago\" rather than the more usual \"son of Cynan\", indicating that his father was little known in Wales. Cynan ap Iago seems to have died while Gruffudd was still young, since the \"History\" describes his mother telling him who his father was.\n", "According to \"Historia Gruffud vab Kenan\", Gruffudd's mother was Ragnailt ingen Amlaíb, a granddaughter of King Sigtrygg Silkbeard and a member of the Hiberno-Norse Uí Ímair dynasty. The latter had two sons named Amlaíb: one died in 1013, whilst another died in 1034. Either man could have been Ragnailt's father.\n", "During his many struggles to gain the kingship of Gwynedd, Gruffudd received considerable aid from Ireland, from the Hiberno-Norse at Dublin, the Isles and Wexford and from Muircheartach Ua Briain, because he was also descendant through his mother from Brian Boru, High King of Ireland.\n", "Section::::Life.:First bid for the throne.\n", "Gruffudd first attempted to take over the rule of Gwynedd in 1075, following the death of Bleddyn ap Cynfyn. Trahaearn ap Caradog had seized control of Gwynedd but had not yet firmly established himself. Gruffudd landed on Abermenai Point, Anglesey with an Irish force, and with the assistance of troops provided by the Norman Robert of Rhuddlan first defeated and killed Cynwrig ap Rhiwallon, an ally of Trahaearn who held Llŷn, then defeated Trahaearn himself in the battle of Gwaed Erw in Meirionnydd and gained control of Gwynedd.\n", "Gruffudd then led his forces eastwards to reclaim territories taken over by the Normans, and despite the assistance previously given by Robert of Rhuddlan attacked and destroyed Rhuddlan Castle. However tension between Gruffudd's Danish-Irish bodyguard and the local Welsh led to a rebellion in Llŷn, and Trahaearn took the opportunity to counterattack, defeating Gruffudd at the battle of Bron yr Erw above Clynnog Fawr the same year.\n", "Section::::Life.:Second bid for the throne and capture by the Normans.\n", "Gruffudd fled to Ireland but, in 1081, returned and made an alliance with Rhys ap Tewdwr, prince of Deheubarth. Rhys had been attacked by Caradog ap Gruffudd of Gwent and Morgannwg, and had been forced to flee to St David's Cathedral. Gruffudd this time embarked from Waterford with a force composed of Danes and Irish and landed near St David's, presumably by prior arrangement with Rhys. He was joined here by a force of his supporters from Gwynedd, and he and Rhys marched north to seek Trahaearn ap Caradog and Caradog ap Gruffudd who had themselves made an alliance and been joined by Meilyr ap Rhiwallon of Powys. The armies of the two confederacies met at the Battle of Mynydd Carn, with Gruffudd and Rhys victorious and Trahaearn, Caradog and Meilyr all being killed. Gruffudd was thus able to seize power in Gwynedd for the second time.\n", "He was soon faced with a new enemy, as the Normans were now encroaching on Gwynedd. Gruffudd had not been king very long when he was enticed to a meeting with Hugh, Earl of Chester and Hugh, Earl of Shrewsbury at Rhug, near Corwen. At the meeting Gruffudd was seized and taken prisoner. According to his biographer this was by the treachery of one of his own men, Meirion Goch. Gruffudd was imprisoned in Earl Hugh's castle at Chester for many years while Earl Hugh and Robert of Rhuddlan went on to take possession of Gwynedd, building castles at Bangor, Caernarfon and Aberlleiniog.\n", "Section::::Life.:Escape from captivity and third reign.\n", "Gruffudd reappeared on the scene years later, having escaped from captivity. According to his biography he was in fetters in the market-place at Chester when Cynwrig the Tall, on a visit to the city, saw his opportunity when the burgesses were at dinner. He picked Gruffudd up, fetters and all, and carried him out of the city on his shoulders. There is debate among historians as to the year of Gruffudd's escape. Ordericus Vitalis mentions a \"Grifridus\" attacking the Normans in 1088. The \"History\" in one place states that Gruffudd was imprisoned for twelve years, in another that he was imprisoned for sixteen years. Since he was captured in 1081, that would date his release to 1093 or 1097. J.E. Lloyd favours 1093, considering that Gruffudd was involved at the beginning of the Welsh uprising in 1094. K.L. Maund on the other hand favours 1097, pointing out that there is no reference to Gruffudd in the contemporary annals until 1098. D. Simon Evans inclines to the view that Ordericus Vitalis' date of 1088 could be correct, suggesting that an argument based on the silence of the annals is unsafe.\n", "Gruffudd again took refuge in Ireland but returned to Gwynedd to lead the assaults on Norman castles such as Aber Lleiniog. The Welsh revolt had begun in 1094 and by late 1095 had spread to many parts of Wales. This induced William II of England (William Rufus) to intervene, invading northern Wales in 1095. However his army was unable to bring the Welsh to battle and returned to Chester without having achieved very much. King William mounted a second invasion in 1097, but again without much success. The \"History\" only mentions one invasion by Rufus, which could indicate that Gruffudd did not feature in the resistance to the first invasion. At this time Cadwgan ap Bleddyn of Powys led the Welsh resistance.\n", "In the summer of 1098, Earl Hugh of Chester joined with Earl Hugh of Shrewsbury in another attempt to recover his losses in Gwynedd. Gruffudd and his ally Cadwgan ap Bleddyn retreated to Anglesey, but were then forced to flee to Ireland in a skiff when a fleet he had hired from the Danish settlement in Ireland accepted a better offer from the Normans and changed sides.\n", "Section::::Life.:King for the fourth time and consolidation.\n", "The situation was changed by the arrival of a Norwegian fleet under the command of King Magnus III of Norway, also known as Magnus Barefoot, who attacked the Norman forces near the eastern end of the Menai Straits. Earl Hugh of Shrewsbury was killed by an arrow said to have been shot by Magnus himself. The Normans were obliged to evacuate Anglesey, and the following year, Gruffudd returned from Ireland to take possession again, having apparently come to an agreement with Earl Hugh of Chester.\n", "With the death of Hugh of Chester in 1101, Gruffudd was able to consolidate his position in Gwynedd, as much by diplomacy as by force. He met King Henry I of England who granted him the rule of Llŷn, Eifionydd, Ardudwy and Arllechwedd, considerably extending his kingdom. By 1114, he had gained enough power to induce King Henry to invade Gwynedd in a three-pronged attack, one detachment led by King Alexander I of Scotland. Faced by overwhelming force, Gruffudd was obliged to pay homage to Henry and to pay a heavy fine, but lost no territory. By about 1118, Gruffudd's advancing years meant that most of the fighting, which pushed Gwynedd's borders eastward and southwards, was done by his three sons by his wife Angharad, daughter of Owain ab Edwin of Tegeingl: Cadwallon, Owain Gwynedd and later Cadwaladr. The cantrefs of Rhos and Rhufoniog were annexed in 1118, Meirionnydd captured from Powys in 1123, and Dyffryn Clwyd in 1124. Another invasion by the king of England in 1121 was a military failure. The king had to come to terms with Gruffudd and made no further attempt to invade Gwynedd during Gruffudd's reign. The death of Cadwallon in a battle against the forces of Powys near Llangollen in 1132 checked further expansion for the time being.\n", "Gruffudd was now powerful enough to ensure that his nominee David the Scot was consecrated as Bishop of Bangor in 1120. The see had been effectively vacant since Bishop Hervey le Breton had been forced to flee by the Welsh almost twenty years before, since Gruffudd and King Henry could not agree on a candidate. David went on to rebuild Bangor Cathedral with a large financial contribution from Gruffudd.\n", "Owain and Cadwaladr, in alliance with Gruffudd ap Rhys of Deheubarth, gained a crushing victory over the Normans at Crug Mawr near Cardigan in 1136 and took possession of Ceredigion. The latter part of Gruffydd's reign was considered to be a \"Golden Age\"; according to the \"Life of Gruffudd ap Cynan\" Gwynedd was \"bespangled with lime-washed churches like the stars in the firmament\".\n", "Section::::Death and succession.\n", "Gruffudd died in his bed, old and blind, in 1137 and was mourned by the annalist of Brut y Tywysogion as the \"head and king and defender and pacifier of all Wales\". He was buried by the high altar in Bangor Cathedral which he had been involved in rebuilding. He also made bequests to many other churches, including one to Christ Church Cathedral, Dublin where he had worshipped as a boy. He was succeeded as king of Gwynedd by his son Owain Gwynedd. His daughter Gwenllian, who married Gruffudd ap Rhys of Deheubarth, son of his old ally Rhys ap Tewdwr, is also notable for her resistance to English rule.\n", "Section::::Children.\n", "The family line of Cynan shows he had many children by several different women. With wife Angharad (daughter of Owain ab Edwin) he had: \n", "BULLET::::- Owain Gwynedd (Owain ap Gruffudd), married (1) Gwladus (Gladys) ferch Llywarch, daughter of Llywarch ap Trahaearn (2) Cristin ferch Goronwy, daughter of Goronwy ab Owain\n", "BULLET::::- Cadwaladr ap Gruffudd, married Alice de Clare, daughter of Richard Fitz Gilbert de Clare\n", "BULLET::::- Cadwallon ap Gruffudd\n", "BULLET::::- Mareda/Marared\n", "BULLET::::- Susanna, married Madog ap Maredudd, prince of Powys\n", "BULLET::::- Ranulht/Rannillt\n", "BULLET::::- Agnes/Annest ferch gruffydd\n", "BULLET::::- Gwenllian ferch Gruffudd, married Gruffudd ap Rhys, prince of Deheubarth\n", "Section::::References.\n", "Section::::References.:Sources.\n", "BULLET::::- . Translation online at The Celtic Literature Collective\n", "BULLET::::- Ancestral Roots of Certain American Colonists Who Came to America Before 1700 by Frederick Lewis Weis, Lines: 176B-26, 239–5\n" ] }

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Lloyd", "William II of England", "Cadwgan ap Bleddyn", "Powys", "skiff", "Magnus III of Norway", "Menai Strait", "Hugh of Shrewsbury", "Henry I of England", "Eifionydd", "Alexander I of Scotland", "Owain ab Edwin of Tegeingl", "Owain Gwynedd", "Cadwaladr", "cantref", "Meirionnydd", "Powys", "Llangollen", "David the Scot", "Bishop of Bangor", "Hervey le Breton", "Bangor Cathedral", "Gruffudd ap Rhys", "Deheubarth", "Crug Mawr", "Cardigan", "Ceredigion", "Golden Age", "Brut y Tywysogion", "head and king and defender and pacifier of all Wales", "Bangor Cathedral", "Christ Church Cathedral, Dublin", "Owain Gwynedd", "Gwenllian", "Gruffudd ap Rhys", "Owain ab Edwin", "Owain Gwynedd", "Cadwaladr ap Gruffudd", "Richard Fitz Gilbert de Clare", "Cadwallon ap Gruffudd", "Madog ap Maredudd", "Powys", "Gwenllian ferch Gruffudd", "Gruffudd ap Rhys", "Deheubarth", "The Celtic Literature Collective" ], "href": [ "Kingdom%20of%20Gwynedd", "Norman%20dynasty", "King%20of%20Wales", "Rhodri%20the%20Great", "House%20of%20Aberffraw", "Dublin", "Owain%20Gwynedd", "Llywelyn%20the%20Great", "Welsh%20language", "Dublin", "Swords%2C%20Dublin", "County%20Dublin", "Cynan%20ap%20Iago", "Iago%20ab%20Idwal%20ap%20Meurig", "Sigtrygg%20Silkbeard", "Hiberno-Norse", "U%C3%AD%20%C3%8Dmair", "Amla%C3%ADb%20mac%20Sitriuc", "Kingdom%20of%20Dublin", "Kingdom%20of%20the%20Isles", "Wexford", "Muircheartach%20Ua%20Briain", "Bleddyn%20ap%20Cynfyn", "Trahaearn%20ap%20Caradog", "Abermenai%20Point", "Normans", "Robert%20of%20Rhuddlan", "Cynwrig%20ap%20Rhiwallon", "Ll%C5%B7n%20Peninsula", "Meirionnydd", "Robert%20of%20Rhuddlan", "Rhuddlan", "Clynnog%20Fawr", "Rhys%20ap%20Tewdwr", "Deheubarth", "Caradog%20ap%20Gruffudd", "Kingdom%20of%20Gwent", "Morgannwg", "St%20David%27s%20Cathedral", "Waterford", "St%20David%27s", "Kingdom%20of%20Powys", "Battle%20of%20Mynydd%20Carn", "Hugh%20d%27Avranches%2C%201st%20Earl%20of%20Chester", "Hugh%20of%20Montgomery%2C%202nd%20Earl%20of%20Shrewsbury", "Corwen", "Bangor%2C%20Gwynedd", "Caernarfon", "Aberlleiniog", "Ordericus%20Vitalis", "John%20Edward%20Lloyd", "William%20II%20of%20England", "Cadwgan%20ap%20Bleddyn", "Kingdom%20of%20Powys", "skiff", "Magnus%20III%20of%20Norway", "Menai%20Strait", "Hugh%20of%20Montgomery%2C%202nd%20Earl%20of%20Shrewsbury", "Henry%20I%20of%20England", "Eifionydd", "Alexander%20I%20of%20Scotland", "Owain%20ab%20Edwin%20of%20Tegeingl", "Owain%20Gwynedd", "Cadwaladr%20ap%20Gruffudd", "cantref", "Meirionnydd", "Kingdom%20of%20Powys", "Llangollen", "David%20the%20Scot", "Bishop%20of%20Bangor", "Hervey%20le%20Breton", "Bangor%20Cathedral", "Gruffudd%20ap%20Rhys", "Deheubarth", "Battle%20of%20Crug%20Mawr", "Cardigan%2C%20Ceredigion", "Ceredigion", "Golden%20Age", "Brut%20y%20Tywysogion", "King%20of%20the%20Britons", "Bangor%20Cathedral", "Christ%20Church%20Cathedral%2C%20Dublin", "Owain%20Gwynedd", "Gwenllian%20ferch%20Gruffudd", "Gruffudd%20ap%20Rhys", "Owain%20ab%20Edwin%20of%20Tegeingl", "Owain%20Gwynedd", "Cadwaladr%20ap%20Gruffydd", "Richard%20Fitz%20Gilbert%20de%20Clare", "Cadwallon%20ap%20Gruffudd", "Madog%20ap%20Maredudd", "Kingdom%20of%20Powys", "Gwenllian%20ferch%20Gruffudd", "Gruffudd%20ap%20Rhys", "Deheubarth", "http%3A//www.maryjones.us/ctexts/gruffydd.html" ], "wikipedia_title": [ "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "" ], "wikipedia_id": [ "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "" ] }

{ "description": "King of Gwynedd", "enwikiquote_title": "", "wikidata_id": "Q687930", "wikidata_label": "Gruffudd ap Cynan", "wikipedia_title": "Gruffudd ap Cynan", "aliases": { "alias": [] } }

{ "pageid": 206627, "parentid": 905534091, "revid": 905916410, "pre_dump": true, "timestamp": "2019-07-12T10:04:15Z", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Gruffudd%20ap%20Cynan&oldid=905916410" }

{ "paragraph": [ "George O. Abell\n", "George Ogden Abell (March 1, 1927 – October 7, 1983) taught at UCLA. He worked as a research astronomer, administrator, as a popularizer of science and of education, and as a skeptic. He earned his B.S. in 1951, his M.S. in 1952 and his Ph.D. in 1957, all from the California Institute of Technology. He was a Ph.D. student under Donald Osterbrock. His astronomical career began as a tour guide at the Griffith Observatory in Los Angeles. Abell made great contributions to astronomical knowledge which resulted from his work during and after the National Geographic Society - Palomar Observatory Sky Survey, especially concerning clusters of galaxies and planetary nebulae. A galaxy, an asteroid, a periodic comet, and an observatory are all named in his honor. His teaching career extended beyond the campus of UCLA to the high school student oriented Summer Science Program, and educational television. He not only taught about science but also about what is not science. He was an originating member of the Committee on Scientific Investigation of Claims of the Paranormal now known as the Committee for Skeptical Inquiry.\n", "Section::::Early life.\n", "George Ogden Abell was born in Los Angeles California on March 27, 1927 to Theodore C. Abell and Annamarie (Ogden) Abell. Theodore Abell was born in Waterbury, Connecticut in 1890, was a Unitarian minister, and was one of the original members of the Hollywood Humanist Society. Annamarie was born in Kansas City, Missouri in 1896, and studied to be a librarian, worked for a short while as a librarian but eventually became a social worker. George Ogden Abell was named for his mother's brother, George Ogden.\n", "Theodore and Annamarie divorced when Abell was 6 years old. Annamarie and son went to live with her father, also George Ogden, who was an author of western novels. Theodore maintained regular contact with Abell and took him to many museums and to Griffith Observatory and planetarium when he was about 8, soon after it opened. This prompted Abell to start reading books on astronomy. Abell attended Van Nuys High School where he achieved all As in all math and science courses that he took.\n", "As a youth, Abell held many part-time jobs, he had a newspaper delivery as well as mail route, worked in a bowling alley, a restaurant, grocery store, and did home maintenance work.\n", "Section::::Military service.\n", "Abell enlisted in the US Army Air Corps after he graduated from high school in 1945 in the waning days of World War II. He took the tests that qualified him for training as a pilot, navigator or bombardier, however the war ended and those schools were shut down before he could begin training.\n", "Instead, he went to weather school at Chanute Field in Illinois. On finishing that, he had the option of staying at Chanute Field to attend forecasting school, however, that would have entailed becoming an officer and staying in the army longer. Since the war was over, getting out of the army as soon as possible seemed more important to him, so he opted to forego forecasting school. Instead he was sent to Japan where he served as an Air Corps weatherman for six months before being discharged after 18 months of total service.\n", "Section::::Education.\n", "Upon leaving the Air Corps, Abell returned to Los Angeles and worked as a gas station attendant while waiting to start school at the California Institute of Technology (Caltech). At Caltech, Abell studied physics his freshman year. However, the next year Caltech inaugurated its astronomy department and as a sophomore he switched majors to astronomy. As an undergraduate student, Abell lived in Caltech's Fleming House and bowled on the Fleming House bowling team. Abell participated in the Drama Club, and was president of the club for one year. He also wrote the music column for Caltech's weekly newspaper, \"The California Tech\", and worked at Griffith Observatory as a guide while an undergrad student.\n", "Abell received his Bachelor of Science degree in astronomy in 1951. He then continued at Caltech for graduate studies in astronomy. He received a Master of Science in 1952 and a Ph.D. in 1957. He was the first Ph.D. student of Donald Osterbrock. During his graduate student days he worked at Griffith Observatory as a lecturer.\n", "Section::::Career.\n", "Section::::Career.:Palomar sky survey.\n", "Abell's first professional astronomical occupation came as a Caltech grad student when he was an observer on the National Geographic Society – Palomar Observatory Sky Survey. Several scientific advances came out of this work including,\n", "BULLET::::- The Abell catalog of 2,712 rich clusters of galaxies, \"...a seminal contribution to observational cosmology\".\n", "BULLET::::- The recognition of second order clusters of the clusters of galaxies, which also disproved Carl Charlier's hierarchical model.\n", "BULLET::::- The study of luminosity of clusters showing how they can be used for determination of relative distances.\n", "BULLET::::- A list of 86 planetary nebulae which includes Abell 39.\n", "BULLET::::- Recognition that planetary nebulae derive from red giant stars, together with Peter Goldreich, of UCLA,\n", "BULLET::::- With Robert G. Harrington discovered periodic comet 52P/Harrington-Abell.\n", "An extended version of the clusters of galaxies catalogue was published after Abell's death in 1987 under the authorship of Abell, Harold G. Corwin and Ronald P. Olowin. This extended catalog includes clusters seen from the southern hemisphere, lists approximately 4,000 clusters of galaxies and includes thirty members with a redshift up to z = 0.2. (See List of Abell clusters.)\n", "Section::::Career.:Teaching.\n", "Section::::Career.:Teaching.:UCLA.\n", "Abell taught at the University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA) for 17 years where he was known as an outstanding and brilliant teacher. He believed that the cornerstone of teaching science is to present how and why the facts are known to be facts; and not in the mere presentation of facts that might amaze, sensationalize, entertain but not enlighten the listener.\n", "Abell chaired the UCLA Astronomy Department for seven years 1968 to 1975. He also served on several university committees and commissions, such as,\n", "BULLET::::- Faculty Senate\n", "BULLET::::- Committee on Parking and Transportation (1959)\n", "BULLET::::- Chairman of the Graduate Council (1964-1965)\n", "BULLET::::- Chairman of the Committee on Athletics (1968-1969)\n", "BULLET::::- Chairman of the Los Angeles Division (1972-1973)\n", "During the period of student unrest in the 1960s Abell was an active member and organizer of the unofficial Committee for Responsible University Government. This was due to his belief that faculty and administration standards were weakening as a result of the unrest.\n", "Section::::Career.:Teaching.:Summer science program.\n", "Abell was a leader and teacher in the Summer Science Program for talented high school students. At Thatcher School in Ojai, California he and others taught college-level physics, mathematics and astronomy to these students. A number of them went on to pursue distinguished careers in science. One such is Ed Krupp the long-time director of Griffith Observatory in Los Angeles.\n", "Section::::Career.:Teaching.:Other teaching methods.\n", "Abell also lectured at other venues, specifically at many small colleges that lacked astronomy departments. He also strove to bring the stories of science and astronomy to the people through public lectures.\n", "He wrote several books including \"Exploration of the Universe\" a textbook widely used in undergraduate astronomy courses.\n", "He helped produce educational TV programs/series such as \"Project Universe\" and \"Understanding Space and Time\". He also appeared in some of these as himself, an astronomer. \"Project Universe\" was a 30 part introductory course on astronomy that featured Ed Krupp director of Griffith Observatory in Los Angeles. Abell and Julian Schwinger created \"Understanding Space and Time\" in 16 parts to explain in layman's terms celestial mechanics, relativity, and the large scale structure of the universe.\n", "Section::::Career.:Skepticism.\n", "Abell was not just a teacher of astronomy and science, he also taught about popular topics with no scientific evidence. He was a debunker of astrology, pseudoscience, and the occult. In a tribute to Abell in \"The Quarterly Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society\", Lawrence H. Aller wrote,\n", "His opposition to such forces took many forms, in writings, and in television appearances. He was one of the co-founders of the Committee on Scientific Investigation of Claims of the Paranormal now known as CSI, the Committee for Skeptical Inquiry.\n", "Other founding members of the committee were,\n", "BULLET::::- Co-chairmen\n", "BULLET::::- Paul Kurtz\n", "BULLET::::- State University of New York at Buffalo, professor of philosophy\n", "BULLET::::- Editor of The Humanist\n", "BULLET::::- Marcello Truzzi\n", "BULLET::::- Eastern Michigan University, professor of sociology\n", "BULLET::::- Authority on witchcraft and exorcism\n", "BULLET::::- Isaac Asimov, writer\n", "BULLET::::- Bart Bok, University of Arizona, astronomer\n", "BULLET::::- Brand Blanshard, Yale University philosopher\n", "BULLET::::- L. Sprague de Camp, author of books debunking pseudoscience\n", "BULLET::::- Sidney Hook, philosopher at the Hoover Institution and emeritus at New York University\n", "BULLET::::- Ernest Nagel, Columbia, philosopher\n", "BULLET::::- Willard Van Orman Quine, Harvard, philosopher\n", "BULLET::::- B. F. Skinner, Harvard, psychologist\n", "BULLET::::- Carl Sagan, Cornell, expert on possibilities of extraterrestrial life\n", "Abell was a contributor to the organization's journal \"Skeptical Inquirer\".\n", "Section::::Astronomical namesakes.\n", "There are several astronomical bodies named for George Abell, as well as an earthbound observatory.\n", "BULLET::::- The Abell Galaxy, discovered by Abell was the largest known astronomical object for many years\n", "BULLET::::- Asteroid (3449)Abell\n", "BULLET::::- Periodic comet 52P/Harrington-Abell, which Abell co-discovered with Robert Harrington\n", "BULLET::::- George Abell Observatory, Open University, Milton Keynes, United Kingdom\n", "Section::::Affiliations.\n", "Section::::Affiliations.:Professional.\n", "BULLET::::- American Astronomical Society\n", "BULLET::::- Councilor 1969-1972\n", "BULLET::::- Education Committee, Chairman\n", "BULLET::::- Astronomical Society of the Pacific\n", "BULLET::::- President 1969-1971\n", "BULLET::::- Member Board of Directors 1982-1984\n", "BULLET::::- Royal Astronomical Society, elected a Fellow in 1970\n", "BULLET::::- International Astronomical Union\n", "BULLET::::- Cosmology Commission, President\n", "BULLET::::- Organized symposia on the large-scale structure of the universe\n", "BULLET::::- UCLA – 1979\n", "BULLET::::- Crete – 1982\n", "BULLET::::- American Association for the Advancement of Science, Member of the governing board\n", "BULLET::::- Summer Science Program\n", "BULLET::::- Academic Director 1960-1983\n", "BULLET::::- Guest speaker in other years\n", "Section::::Affiliations.:Skeptical.\n", "BULLET::::- Committee on Scientific Investigation of Claims of the Paranormal (founding member)\n", "BULLET::::- Which became Committee for Skeptical Inquiry\n", "BULLET::::- Pantheon of Skeptics, one of the initial 27 members\n", "Section::::Personal life.\n", "Abell was married twice. The first marriage occurred right after his graduation from Caltech. His first wife was a school teacher and they had two sons together named Anthony and Jonathan. This marriage ended after 19 years with the sons remaining with their father. Abell's second wife, Phyllis, was a painter who studied three years at the Philadelphia Museum School of Art but did not graduate.\n", "Abell enjoyed many hobbies during his lifetime such as, softball, bowling, music concerts and grand opera (on which he was considered an authority), record collecting, and literature. He was an avid baseball fan, frequently in attendance at Los Angeles Dodgers games.\n", "Abell died at home on October 7, 1983 after suffering a heart attack.\n", "Section::::Selected published works.\n", "BULLET::::- (PhD Thesis)\n", "Section::::Journal articles.\n", "He was slated to take over as editor of the \"Astronomical Journal\" effective January 1, 1984, but his death occurred before that appointment became effective.\n", "Section::::See also.\n", "BULLET::::- List of Abell clusters\n", "BULLET::::- Abell catalogue\n", "Section::::Obituaries.\n", "BULLET::::- JRASC 77 (1983) L85\n", "BULLET::::- QJRAS 30 (1989) 283\n", "BULLET::::- University of California: In Memoriam, 1985\n" ] }

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{ "description": "American astronomer", "enwikiquote_title": "", "wikidata_id": "Q142922", "wikidata_label": "George O. Abell", "wikipedia_title": "George O. Abell", "aliases": { "alias": [ "George Ogden Abell" ] } }

{ "pageid": 206631, "parentid": 882933679, "revid": 905266576, "pre_dump": true, "timestamp": "2019-07-08T00:49:28Z", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=George%20O.%20Abell&oldid=905266576" }

{ "paragraph": [ "USS Langley (CVL-27)\n", "USS \"Langley\" (CVL-27) was an light aircraft carrier that served the United States Navy from 1943 to 1947, and French Navy as from 1951 to 1963.\n", "Section::::Career.\n", "\"Langley\" was named for Samuel Pierpont Langley, American scientist and aviation pioneer. She carried on the name and tradition of , the first U.S. Navy aircraft carrier, which had been sunk on 27 February 1942. The ship was originally ordered as a light cruiser and named \"Fargo\" (CL‑85). She was laid down as USS \"Crown Point\" (CV‑27) by New York Shipbuilding Corporation, Camden, New Jersey United States on 11 April 1942 and renamed \"Langley\" on 13 November 1942.\n", "Section::::Career.:1943.\n", "\"Langley\" was launched on 22 May 1943 and commissioned on 31 August 1943, Captain W.M. Dillon in command. After shakedown in the Caribbean Sea, \"Langley\" departed Philadelphia on 6 December 1943 for Pearl Harbor, where she participated in training operations.\n", "Section::::Career.:1944.\n", "On 19 January 1944, she sailed with Task Force 58 (TF 58) for the attack on the Marshall Islands. From 29 January to 6 February, \"Langley\"s Carrier Air Group 32 (CVG-32) conducted raids on Wotje and Taroa Island to support the landings at Kwajalein, and from 10 through 28 February at Eniwetok. After a brief respite at Espiritu Santo, New Hebrides, \"Langley\"s aircraft hit Japanese positions on Palau, Yap, and Woleai, Caroline Islands, from 30 March to 1 April. She next proceeded to New Guinea to take part in the capture of Hollandia on 25 April. A mere 4 days later, the carrier engaged in the 2‑day strike against the Japanese bastion Truk. During the raid, \"Langley\" and her aircraft accounted for some 35 enemy planes destroyed or damaged, while losing only one aircraft herself.\n", "\"Langley\" next departed Majuro on 7 June 1944 for the Mariana and Palau Islands campaign. On 11 June, TF 58 launched a strike of 208 fighters and eight torpedo bombers against enemy bases and airfields on Saipan and Tinian. From 11 June to 8 August, \"Langley\" operated with TF 58 and also took part in the Battle of the Philippine Sea, 19 to 20 June 1944.\n", "The carrier departed Eniwetok on 29 August and sortied with TF 38, under the command of Adm. William F. Halsey for air assaults on Peleliu and airfields in the Philippines as the preliminary steps in the invasion of the Palaus from 15 to 20 September 1944. During October, she operated off Formosa and the Pescadores Islands. Later in the month, TF 38 supported the landings on Leyte. The Japanese efforts to stop the U.S. advance included the counterattack by most available major fleet units (\"Operation Sho-Go\"). On 24 October, \"Langley\"s planes took part in the Battle of the Sibuyan Sea. Aircraft of TF 38 attacked the Japanese Center Force, as it steamed toward the San Bernardino Strait and the American beachhead at Tacloban. The Japanese units temporarily retired. The following day, upon word of Japanese aircraft carriers north of Leyte, TF 38 raced to intercept. In the ensuing Battle off Cape Engaño, the Japanese lost four carriers, two battleships, four heavy cruisers, one light cruiser, and five destroyers. \"Langley\"s aircraft assisted in the destruction of the carriers \"Zuihō\" and \"Zuikaku\", the latter being the only remaining carrier of the six that had participated in the Pearl Harbor attack.\n", "During November 1944, \"Langley\" supported the Philippine landings and strikes the Manila Bay area. Aircraft of \"Langley\"s CVG-44 attacked Japanese reinforcement convoys, and airfields on Luzon and in the Cape Engaño area. On 1 December, the carrier withdrew to Ulithi for reprovisioning.\n", "Section::::Career.:1945.\n", "During January 1945, \"Langley\" participated in the South China Sea raid supporting Invasion of Lingayen Gulf. Raids were made against Formosa, French Indochina, and the China coast from 30 December 1944 to 25 January 1945.\n", "\"Langley\" next joined in the sweeps against Tokyo and Nansei Shoto in support of the landings on Iwo Jima between 10 February and 18 March 1945. She next raided airfields on the Japanese homeland, and arrived off Okinawa on 23 March. Until 11 May, the ship operated either off Okinawa or took part in strikes on Kyushu, Japan, in an effort to destroy kamikaze bases in southern Japan which were launching desperate and deadly attacks.\n", "After touching Ulithi and Pearl Harbor, she steamed to San Francisco, arriving on 3 June for repairs and modernization at the Hunters Point Naval Shipyard. She departed 1 August and reached Pearl Harbor on 8 August 1945. While there, word arrived that hostilities had ended. She completed two \"Magic Carpet\" voyages to the Pacific, transporting soldiers back to the United States, and got underway on 1 October for Philadelphia.\n", "Section::::Career.:1946.\n", "She departed from that port 15 November for the first of two trips to Europe transporting U.S. Army troops returning home from that theater. She returned to Philadelphia on 6 January 1946 and was assigned to the Atlantic Reserve Fleet, Philadelphia Group, on 31 May 1946. \"Langley\" was decommissioned on 11 February 1947.\n", "Section::::Transfer to France.\n", "\"Langley\" was taken out of \"mothballs\", refurbished and transferred to France under the Mutual Defense Assistance Program on 8 January 1951. After more than a decade of French Navy service as , she was returned to the United States on 20 March 1963 and sold to the Boston Metals Co., Baltimore, Maryland, for scrapping.\n", "Section::::References.\n", "BULLET::::- The original version of this article based on US Navy public domain text.\n", "Section::::External links.\n", "BULLET::::- navsource.org: USS \"Langley\"\n", "BULLET::::- hazegray.org: USS \"Langley\"\n", "BULLET::::- USS Langley at Nine Sisters Light Carrier Historical Documentary Project\n" ] }

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{ "description": "1943 Independence-class aircraft carrier of the United States Navy", "enwikiquote_title": "", "wikidata_id": "Q1848572", "wikidata_label": "USS Langley", "wikipedia_title": "USS Langley (CVL-27)", "aliases": { "alias": [ "CVL-27 Langley", "La Fayette" ] } }

{ "pageid": 206636, "parentid": 868739519, "revid": 880141892, "pre_dump": true, "timestamp": "2019-01-25T16:44:36Z", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=USS%20Langley%20(CVL-27)&oldid=880141892" }

{ "paragraph": [ "Messinia\n", "Messinia (; \"Messinia\", ) is a regional unit (\"perifereiaki enotita\") in the southwestern part of the Peloponnese region, in Greece. Until the implementation of the Kallikratis plan on 1 January 2011, Messinia was a prefecture (\"nomos\") covering the same territory. The capital and largest city of Messinia is Kalamata.\n", "Section::::Geography.\n", "Section::::Geography.:Physical.\n", "Messinia borders on Elis to the north, Arcadia to the northeast, and Laconia to the southeast. The Ionian Sea lies to the west, and the Gulf of Messinia to the south. The most important mountain ranges are the Taygetus in the east, the Kyparissia mountains in the northwest and the Lykodimo in the southwest. The main rivers are the Neda in the north and the Pamisos in central Messinia.\n", "Off the south coast of the southwesternmost point of Messinia lie the Messinian Oinousses islands. The largest of these are Sapientza, Schiza and Venetiko. The small island Sphacteria closes off the bay of Pylos. All these islands are virtually uninhabited.\n", "Climate may vary, in the lowlands, temperatures are a bit warmer than Athens. Snow is not common during winter months except for the mountains, especially the Taygetus. Rain and clouds are common inland.\n", "Section::::Geography.:Political.\n", "Section::::Geography.:Political.:Organization of Messinia.\n", "Before the 2010 reorganization, Messinia was a \"nomos\" (prefecture) containing 29 \"dimoi\" (municipalities) and 2 \"koinotites\" (communities). Since 2010, Messinia has been a perifereiake enoteta (regional unit) containing only 6 municipalities, but with the same population, as it did not change area in the reorganization. Some 25 municipalities and communities were incorporated politically into the other 6 according to the table below, becoming municipal units.\n", "Section::::Geography.:Political.:Provinces.\n", "The prefecture of Messinia was previously subdivided into four provinces (, \"eparchies\") :\n", "BULLET::::- Province of Kalamon - Kalamata\n", "BULLET::::- Province of Messini - Messine\n", "BULLET::::- Province of Pylia - Pylos\n", "BULLET::::- Province of Tryphilia - Kyparissia\n", "Like all provinces of Greece, they were abolished after the 2006 local elections, in line with Law 2539/1997, as part of the \"Kapodistrias reform\". Some of the enlarged municipalities (\"demoi\") created in 2011 have a territory similar to the former provinces.\n", "Section::::Geography.:Population.\n", "The main cities and towns of Messinia are (ranked by 2011 census population):\n", "BULLET::::- Kalamata 54,567\n", "BULLET::::- Filiatra 6,791\n", "BULLET::::- Messini 6,287\n", "BULLET::::- Kyparissia 5,784\n", "BULLET::::- Gargalianoi 5,569\n", "BULLET::::- Chora (Nestoras) 3,498\n", "BULLET::::- Pylos 2,767\n", "Section::::Economy.\n", "The economy of Messinia is primarily based on agricultural production although in recent years efforts are being made toward the development of activities in other sectors such as tourism.\n", "Main agricultural products are olive oil, Kalamata table olives, figs, and black raisins (sultanas). The variety of agricultural products is complemented by a small amount of stockbreeding products (beef, milk, sfela cheese, honey) and fish from the Gulf of Messinia. \n", "The tourist development observed is mainly attributable to the promotion of important archaeological sites, such as the Palace of Nestor, Ancient Messene, and the Venetian castles of Pylos, Koroni, Methoni and Kalamata, as well as to the beauty of the landscape. \n", "Another key factor for Messinia's economy is Costa Navarino a location on the border between Pylos and Trifylia, comprising several eco-friendly luxury resorts and golf courses, which is Greece’s biggest tourist development. \n", "There are many small- and medium-size firms involved in the processing and standardization of agricultural products as well as a number of enterprises devoted to wood processing, furniture manufacturing, and metal construction. The Karelia tobacco company is based in Kalamata.\n", "Section::::Economy.:Transport.\n", "The main airport in Messinia is Kalamata International Airport (KLX).\n", "The main highways in Messinia are:\n", "BULLET::::- Greek National Road 7 (Corinth - Tripoli - Kalamata)\n", "BULLET::::- Greek National Road 9 (Patras - Pyrgos - Kyparissia - Pylos)\n", "BULLET::::- Greek National Road 82 (Pylos - Kalamata - Sparti)\n", "The main railways in Messinia are:\n", "BULLET::::- Corinth - Argos - Tripoli - Zevgolateio - Kalamata\n", "BULLET::::- Patras - Pyrgos - Kalo Nero - Kyparissia\n", "BULLET::::- Kalo Nero - Zevgolateio\n", "Section::::Economy.:Communications.\n", "Section::::Economy.:Communications.:Television.\n", "BULLET::::- Notia Elliniki Teleorasi, (Southern Greece Television)\n", "BULLET::::- Best TV,\n", "BULLET::::- Mesogeios TV\n", "Section::::History.\n", "Section::::History.:Ancient period.\n", "Messinia is mentioned in the oldest work of European literature, the \"Iliad\". The name undoubtedly goes back to at least the Bronze Age, but its origins are lost in the world of mythology. The region was one of the largest that was conquered and enslaved as helots by ancient Sparta.\n", "Section::::History.:Medieval period.\n", "In the Middle Ages, Messinia shared the fortunes of the rest of the Peloponnese. Striking reminders of these conflicts are afforded by the extant ruins of the medieval strongholds of Kalamata, Coron (anc. Asine, mod. Korone), Modon (Methone) and Pylos. Messinia was a part of the Byzantine Empire.\n", "Section::::History.:Ottoman and Venetian period.\n", "Much of Messinia fell into the hands of the Ottoman Turks, a part of the area remained with the Venetian Republic. In 1534 a group of families, known as the 'Coroni', settled in Piana degli Albanesi in Sicily. They were Arvanites and Greeks from Koroni.\n", "During the 1680s, the whole of Messinia was regained by the Venetian Republic in the Morean War, and formed part of the \"Kingdom of the Morea\" until recovered by the Ottomans in 1715. The Mani Peninsula, a part of modern Messinia, was autonomous from Turkish rule due to the fact that it had no harbors.\n", "Section::::History.:Modern period.\n", "Messinia became part of independent Greece as a result of the Greek War of Independence (1821-1832). The famous naval Battle of Navarino took place near present Pylos in 1827, and was a decisive victory for Greece and its allies. The population in the area of Kalamata and Messine increased from 30,000 before World War II up to nearly 80,000 in the present day. Messinia suffered damage from the 2007 Greek forest fires.\n", "Section::::See also.\n", "BULLET::::- List of settlements in Messinia\n", "BULLET::::- Messinia (constituency)\n", "Section::::Bibliography.\n", "BULLET::::- . The previous Kapodistrias organization of all the communities in Greece. The populations are from the Census of 2001.\n", "BULLET::::- . Part 2 of the Kallicratis Plan law, No. 3852, by the Hellenic Parliament (Βουλή), publishing a table of all the official communities of Greece arranged in hierarchical order. The lowest-level populations are from the Census of 2001. All higher-level populations are the sums of the appropriate lower-level populations.\n", "BULLET::::- Kontogiannis, N.D. \"Settlements and countryside of Messinia during the late Middle Ages: the testimony of the fortifications,\" \"Byzantine and Modern Greek Studies\", 34,1 (2010), 3-29.\n" ] }

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National Road 9", "Patras", "Pyrgos", "Kyparissia", "Pylos", "Greek National Road 82", "Sparti", "Argos", "Zevgolateio", "Kalo Nero", "Notia Elliniki Teleorasi", "Best TV", "Mesogeios TV", "Iliad", "helots", "ancient Sparta", "Middle Ages", "Byzantine Empire", "Ottoman", "Turks", "Venetian Republic", "Piana degli Albanesi", "Arvanite", "Koroni", "Morean War", "Kingdom of the Morea", "Mani Peninsula", "Greek War of Independence", "Battle of Navarino", "World War II", "2007 Greek forest fires", "List of settlements in Messinia", "Messinia (constituency)" ], "href": [ "regional%20units%20of%20Greece", "Peloponnese%20%28region%29", "Administrative%20regions%20of%20Greece", "Greece", "Kallikratis%20plan", "prefectures%20of%20Greece", "Kalamata", "Elis%20%28regional%20unit%29", "Arcadia", "Laconia", "Ionian%20Sea", "Gulf%20of%20Messinia", "Taygetus", "Kyparissia%20mountains", "Lykodimo", "Neda%20%28river%29", "Pamisos%20%28river%29", "Messinian%20Oinousses", "Sapientza", "Schiza", 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{ "description": "regional unit in the southwestern part of the Peloponnese, Greece", "enwikiquote_title": "", "wikidata_id": "Q200315", "wikidata_label": "Messenia", "wikipedia_title": "Messinia", "aliases": { "alias": [ "Messinia", "Messenia Prefecture" ] } }

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{ "paragraph": [ "William Feller\n", "William \"Vilim\" Feller (July 7, 1906 – January 14, 1970), born Vilibald Srećko Feller, was a Croatian-American mathematician specializing in probability theory.\n", "Section::::Early life and education.\n", "Feller was born in Zagreb to Ida Oemichen-Perc, a Croatian-Austrian Roman Catholic, and Eugen Viktor Feller, son of a Polish-Jewish father (David Feller) and an Austrian mother (Elsa Holzer).\n", "Eugen Feller was a famous chemist and created \"Elsa fluid\" named after his mother. According to Gian-Carlo Rota, Eugen Feller's surname was a \"Slavic tongue twister\", which William changed at the age of twenty. This claim appears to be false. His forename, Vilibald, was chosen by his Catholic mother for the saint day of his birthday.\n", "Section::::Work.\n", "Feller held a docent position at the University of Kiel beginning in 1928. Because he refused to sign a Nazi oath, he fled the Nazis and went to Copenhagen, Denmark in 1933. He also lectured in Sweden (Stockholm and Lund). As a refugee in Sweden, Feller reported being troubled by increasing fascism at the universities. He reported that the mathematician Torsten Carleman would offer his opinion that Jews and foreigners should be executed.\n", "Finally, in 1939 he arrived in the U.S. where he became a citizen in 1944 and was on the faculty at Brown and Cornell. In 1950 he became a professor at Princeton University.\n", "The works of Feller are contained in 104 papers and two books on a variety of topics such as mathematical analysis, theory of measurement, functional analysis, geometry, and differential equations in addition to his work in mathematical statistics and probability.\n", "Feller was one of the greatest probabilists of the twentieth century, who is remembered for his championing of probability theory as a branch of mathematical analysis in Sweden and the United States. In the middle of the 20th century, probability theory was popular in France and Russia, while mathematical statistics was more popular in the United Kingdom and the United States, according to the Swedish statistician, Harald Cramér. His two-volume textbook on probability theory and its applications was called \"the most successful treatise on probability ever written\" by Gian-Carlo Rota. By stimulating his colleagues and students in Sweden and then in the United States, Feller helped establish research groups studying the analytic theory of probability. In his research, Feller contributed to the study of the relationship between Markov chains and differential equations, where his theory of generators of one-parameter semigroups of stochastic processes gave rise to the theory of \"Feller operators\".\n", "Section::::Results.\n", "Numerous topics relating to probability are named after him, including Feller processes, Feller's explosion test, Feller–Brown movement, and the Lindeberg–Feller theorem. Feller made fundamental contributions to renewal theory, Tauberian theorems, random walks, diffusion processes, and the law of the iterated logarithm. Feller was among those early editors who launched the journal \"Mathematical Reviews\".\n", "Section::::Notable books.\n", "BULLET::::- \"An Introduction to Probability Theory and its Applications, Volume I, 3rd edition\" (1968); 1st edn. (1950); 2nd edn. (1957)\n", "BULLET::::- \"An Introduction to Probability Theory and its Applications, Volume II, 2nd edition\" (1971)\n", "Section::::External links.\n", "BULLET::::- A biographical memoir by Murray Rosenblatt/a\n", "BULLET::::- Croatian Giants of Science - in Croatian\n", "BULLET::::- \"Fine Hall in its golden age: Remembrances of Princeton in the early fifties\" by Gian-Carlo Rota. Contains a section on Feller at Princeton.\n", "BULLET::::- Feller Matriculation Form giving personal details\n" ] }

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{ "description": "Croatian-American mathematician", "enwikiquote_title": "William Feller", "wikidata_id": "Q201426", "wikidata_label": "William Feller", "wikipedia_title": "William Feller", "aliases": { "alias": [] } }

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{ "paragraph": [ "Sainte-Anne-de-Bellevue, Quebec\n", "Sainte-Anne-de-Bellevue () is an on-island suburb located at the western tip of the Island of Montreal in southwestern Quebec, Canada. It is the second oldest community in Montreal's West Island, having been founded as a parish in 1703. The oldest, Dorval, was founded in 1667.\n", "Points of interest include the Sainte-Anne-de-Bellevue Canal (a National Historic Site of Canada), the Sainte-Anne Veterans' Hospital, the Morgan Arboretum, and the L'Anse-à-l'Orme Nature Park. Sainte-Anne-de-Bellevue is also home to John Abbott College and McGill University's Macdonald Campus, which includes the J. S. Marshall Radar Observatory and the Canadian Aviation Heritage Centre as well as about of farmland which separates the small town from neighbouring Baie-d'Urfé.\n", "Section::::History.\n", "Sainte-Anne-de-Bellevue was established on a location once known and frequented by both the Algonquin and Iroquois peoples. Situated between two important lakes (Lac des Deux-Montagnes and Lac Saint Louis) and near the confluence of two important rivers (the Saint Lawrence River and the Ottawa River) both nations recognized its natural strategic advantages and had names for the place. The oral records show that it was named “Tiotenactokte” by the Algonquin, which means \"place of the last encampments\" and that the Iroquois called it “Skanawetsy” meaning \"white waters, after the rapids\".\n", "In 1663, the Saint-Louis Mission was founded in the west end of Montreal Island at Pointe-Caron (site of the present-day Baie-d'Urfé yacht club), and was led by François-Saturnin Lascaris d'Urfé. At that time, the mission included the entire area form the tip of Montreal Island to Pointe-Claire, Île Perrot, Soulanges, Vaudreuil, and Île aux Tourtes.\n", "In 1672, King Louis XIV of France granded fiefdoms bordering on Lake of Two Mountains and Lake Saint-Louis to Louis de Berthé, Lord of Chailly, and to his brother Gabriel, Lord of La Joubardière. One of these adjacent fiefdoms was called Bellevue, due to its good views to the east and west. In 1677, the Parish of Saint-Louis-du-Bout-de-l'Île, sometimes also called Saint-Louis-du-Haut-de-l'Île, was founded. Jean de Lalonde was the first church warden. One September 30, 1687, Lalonde and four other parishioners were killed in a skirmish with the Iroquois. In 1703, the parish was closed and its registers moved to Lachine because of the constant threat from the Iroquois.\n", "Around 1712, René-Charles de Breslay (1658–1735), local parish priest from 1703 to 1719, got caught in a fierce snowstorm. He fell from his horse, broke his leg on the ice, and lost the horse. Breslay was allegedly saved through the intervention by Saint Anne, after which he built a chapel dedicated to her at the westernmost point of Montreal Island next to Fort Senneville and Tourtes Island (\"Île aux Tourtes\"). Two years later, the parish was reestablished and took the name Sainte-Anne-du-Bout-de-l'Île.\n", "From the early 1800s the town became a place of literary pilgrimage after Thomas Moore the famous Irish composer wrote one of his most celebrated works \"Canadian Boat Song\" here.\n", "In 1835, the local post office opened. In 1843, the Sainte-Anne Canal was completed, resulting in a large number of travellers and merchants passing through the village. Another impetus to its development came a few years later in 1854, when the Grand Trunk Railway was built through the area, followed by the Canadian Pacific Railway in 1887.\n", "In 1845, the place was first incorporated as the Municipality of Bout-de-l'Isle. This was abolished two years later, but in 1855, it was reestablished as the Parish Municipality of Sainte-Anne-en-l'Isle-de-Montréal. In 1878, the main settlement was incorporated as a separate village municipality, and the parish municipality was renamed to Sainte-Anne-de-Bellevue that same year. The village municipality changed its status to town (\"ville\") on January 12, 1895.\n", "The early 20th century saw several developments in Sainte-Anne-de-Bellevue: the Macdonald College (affiliated to the McGill University) was established in 1907; the Federal Government built Ste. Anne's Veteran Hospital in 1917; the Galipeault Bridge was built in 1924 and doubled in 1964, linking Sainte-Anne-de-Bellevue with Île Perrot. One of Canada's earliest Garden City experiments was undertaken in Sainte-Anne-de-Bellevue by John James Harpell, an industrialist, who around 1918 developed the neighbourhood of Gardenvale. The neighbourhood was granted its own post office in 1920.\n", "In 1911, the parish municipality lost part of its territory when Baie-d'Urfé became a separate municipality. In 1964, the town of Sainte-Anne-de-Bellevue annexed the parish municipality.\n", "On January 1, 2002, as part of the 2002–2006 municipal reorganization of Montreal, Sainte-Anne-de-Bellevue was merged into the city of Montreal and became part of the borough of L'Île-Bizard–Sainte-Geneviève–Sainte-Anne-de-Bellevue. However, after a change of government and a 2004 referendum, it was re-constituted as an independent city on January 1, 2006.\n", "Section::::Government.\n", "The current mayor of Saint-Anne-de-Bellevue is Paola Hawa. There are six city councilors. \n", "BULLET::::1. Dana Chevalier (District 1)\n", "BULLET::::2. Ryan Young (District 2)\n", "BULLET::::3. Francis Juneau (District 3)\n", "BULLET::::4. Tom Broad (District 4)\n", "BULLET::::5. Yvan Labelle (District 5)\n", "BULLET::::6. Denis Gignac (District 6)\n", "Section::::Government.:List of mayors.\n", "The former mayor of Sainte-Anne-de-Bellevue were:\n", "BULLET::::- Jules Tremblay, 1878–1879\n", "BULLET::::- Thomas Grenier, 1880–1884, 1885–1886\n", "BULLET::::- Antoine St-Denis, 1881–1883\n", "BULLET::::- D. Lebeau, 1887\n", "BULLET::::- L. Michaud, 1888–1897\n", "BULLET::::- M. C. Bezner, 1898–1899, 1901–1905, 1909–10, 1915–1916\n", "BULLET::::- L.N.F. Cypihot, 1900, 1921–1922\n", "BULLET::::- J.A. Aumais, 1906\n", "BULLET::::- Guis. Daoust, 1906, 1917–1920\n", "BULLET::::- Bruno Lalonde, 1907–1908, 1913–1914\n", "BULLET::::- J.S. Vallée, 1911–1912\n", "BULLET::::- L.J. Boileau, 1923–1931, 1933–1934\n", "BULLET::::- A.R. Demers, 1932, 1935–1938\n", "BULLET::::- E.E. Deslauriers, 1939–1951\n", "BULLET::::- Philippe Godin, 1951–1965\n", "BULLET::::- J.L. Paquin, 1965–1973\n", "BULLET::::- Alphonse Trudeau, 1973–1978\n", "BULLET::::- Marcel Marleau, 1978–1984\n", "BULLET::::- René Martin, 1984–1994\n", "BULLET::::- Bill Tierney, 1994–2001, 2005–2009\n", "BULLET::::- Francis Deroo 2009-2013\n", "BULLET::::- Paula Hawa 2013-\n", "Section::::Demographics.\n", "In the city the population was spread out with 18.5% under the age of 15, 10.4% from 15 to 24, 33.0% from 25 to 44, 17.5% from 45 to 64, and 20.8% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 38 years. For every 100 females there were 112.8 males. For every 100 females age 15 and over, there were 116.8 males.\n", "There were 1,930 households out of which 29.8% had children living with them, 40.7% were married couples living together, 7.3% had a female lone-parent as a householder, and 30.6% of all households were made up of individuals. The average married-couple family size was 3.1.\n", "Christians made up 79.4% of the population, or 61.7% Catholic, 16.5% Protestant, 0.9% Eastern Orthodox, and 0.3% other Christian. Other religions in the city include 3.3% Muslim, 1.3% Jewish, 1.3% Eastern religions, and 0.3% other religions. 14.1% of the population claimed to have no religious affiliation.\n", "The median income for a household in the city was $44,092, and the median income for a family was $65,637. Males had an average income of $41,619 versus $28,026 for females. About 5.7% of the labour force was unemployed. The largest occupation categories were 21.2% employed in business, finance, and administration occupations, 18.4% sales and service occupations, and 14.8% in social science, education, government service and religion occupations.\n", "\"Note: Percentages may not add up to 100 percent due to rounding of data samples\"\n", "Section::::Transportation.\n", "Sainte-Anne-de-Bellevue is traversed by Autoroute 40 (the Trans-Canada Highway) and Autoroute 20, which crosses the Ottawa River over the Galipeault Bridge linking it to Île Perrot.\n", "For public transit, the town is served by the Sainte-Anne-de-Bellevue commuter train station on the Vaudreuil-Hudson Line. It also covered by the bus network of the Société de transport de Montréal.\n", "It is planned that Sainte-Anne-de-Bellevue would be the westernmost terminus for the newly planned Réseau express métropolitain rapid transit system on the island of Montreal.\n", "Section::::Education.\n", "The Commission scolaire Marguerite-Bourgeoys operates Francophone public schools. It operates the École primaire du Bout-de-l'Isle.\n", "The Lester B. Pearson School Board (LBPSB) operates Anglophone public schools in the area. It operates Macdonald High School.\n", "BULLET::::- The zoned elementary school is Dorset Elementary School in Baie-D'Urfé\n", "Section::::See also.\n", "BULLET::::- List of former boroughs\n", "BULLET::::- Montreal Merger\n", "BULLET::::- Municipal reorganization in Quebec\n", "BULLET::::- Morgan Arboretum\n", "BULLET::::- Ecomuseum Zoo\n", "Section::::External links.\n", "BULLET::::- Official town site\n", "BULLET::::- Ecomuseum\n", "BULLET::::- Parks Canada – Sante-Anne-de-Bellevue locks\n", "BULLET::::- Ste-Anne-de-Bellevue Rugby Club\n", "BULLET::::- Nursing Services\n" ] }

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{ "description": "city on the island of Montreal, in Quebec, Canada", "enwikiquote_title": "", "wikidata_id": "Q141500", "wikidata_label": "Sainte-Anne-de-Bellevue", "wikipedia_title": "Sainte-Anne-de-Bellevue, Quebec", "aliases": { "alias": [] } }

{ "pageid": 206640, "parentid": 883657283, "revid": 903804545, "pre_dump": true, "timestamp": "2019-06-28T02:53:17Z", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sainte-Anne-de-Bellevue,%20Quebec&oldid=903804545" }

{ "paragraph": [ "Oswald von Nell-Breuning\n", "Oswald von Nell-Breuning SJ (8 March 1890 – 21 August 1991) was a Roman Catholic theologian and sociologist.\n", "Born in Trier, Germany into an aristocratic family, Nell-Breuning was ordained in 1921 and appointed Professor of Ethics at the Sankt Georgen Graduate School of Philosophy and Theology in 1928. He was instrumental in the drafting of Pope Pius XI's social encyclical \"Quadragesimo anno\" (1931), which – like the earlier \"Rerum novarum\" (1891), after which it was named – dealt with the \"Social Question\" and developed the principle of subsidiarity. Nell-Breuning was not allowed to publish from 1936 to the end of Nazi Germany in 1945. He died in Frankfurt am Main.\n", "Section::::References.\n", "BULLET::::- Oswald von Nell-Breuning (1890-1991)—Katholischer Sozialethiker, Sozialphilosoph und Sozialwissenschaftler\n" ] }

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{ "description": "German theologian", "enwikiquote_title": "", "wikidata_id": "Q76702", "wikidata_label": "Oswald von Nell-Breuning", "wikipedia_title": "Oswald von Nell-Breuning", "aliases": { "alias": [] } }

{ "pageid": 206650, "parentid": 903251026, "revid": 905063467, "pre_dump": true, "timestamp": "2019-07-06T15:58:10Z", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Oswald%20von%20Nell-Breuning&oldid=905063467" }

{ "paragraph": [ "Zakk Wylde\n", "Zachary Phillip Wylde (born Jeffrey Phillip Wielandt; January 14, 1967) is an American musician, singer, songwriter, and actor. He is best known for his tenure as the lead guitarist for Ozzy Osbourne and as the founder, lead singer, and guitarist of the heavy metal band Black Label Society. His signature bulls-eye design appears on many of his guitars and is widely recognized. He was also the lead guitarist and vocalist of Pride and Glory, who released one self-titled album in 1994 before disbanding. As a solo artist, he released the albums \"Book of Shadows\" and \"Book of Shadows II\".\n", "Section::::Early life.\n", "Zachary Phillip Wylde was born Jeffrey Phillip Wielandt in Bayonne, New Jersey, on January 14, 1967. He started playing guitar at the age of eight, but did not become serious about it until his early teenage years. At the age of 14, he worked at Silverton Music in Silverton, New Jersey. He grew up in Jackson, New Jersey, where he attended Jackson Memorial High School, graduating in 1985. He has stated that he would practice playing the guitar as much as 12 hours per day and would often play the guitar almost non-stop between coming home from school and leaving for school the next morning, then sleeping through the school day.\n", "Section::::Career.\n", "Wylde played locally with his first band Stone Henge, then later with local Jersey band Zyris. Later, he auditioned for lead guitarist and co-writer for Ozzy Osbourne. Wylde was hired to replace Jake E. Lee, who replaced Brad Gillis, who had himself replaced the deceased Randy Rhoads. Rhoads remains Wylde's foremost guitar-playing and stagecraft influence.\n", "Wylde gravitated toward a particular Les Paul guitar, which has become known as \"The Grail\"; his famous bullseye-painted Gibson Les Paul custom. Wylde lost the guitar in 2000 after it fell from the back of a truck transporting equipment as he was travelling between gigs in Texas. Rewards were offered to anyone that had information about the guitar. Wylde and The Grail were reunited three years later when a fan bought it at a Dallas pawn shop and saw the initials \"Z.W.\" carved into the humbucker pickups backs. He contacted Wylde's former webmaster Randy Canis to arrange its return to Wylde. Grateful, Wylde gave the fan his signature model in exchange. In 1995, Wylde auditioned for Guns N' Roses.\n", "Wylde was replaced in Osbourne's band by Joe Holmes from 1995 until his return in 2001. On January 17, 2006, Zakk Wylde was recognized at the Hollywood Rock Walk of Fame, featuring his handprints and signature, in recognition of his successful career as a musician and his contribution to the music industry. The event was open to the public and many rock celebrities were present, including Ozzy Osbourne.\n", "For a time in the mid-2000s he contributed a monthly column entitled \"Brew-tality\" for a guitar magazine, discussing his techniques and equipment, as well as transcribing riffs and solo sections. After auditions in 2004/2005, Ozzy Osbourne announced Wylde as the official guitarist for his album, \"Black Rain\", which was released in 2007. On stage with Osbourne, Wylde has been credited for lending a high level of energy and passion to performances. Black Label Society's album \"Shot To Hell\", was released on September 11, 2006 in the UK, and September 12, 2006 in the U.S. through Roadrunner records, with production by Michael Beinhorn. Black Label Society headlined the second stage at the 2006 Ozzfest, with Wylde playing double duty with Ozzy on certain dates. He also joined Ozzy Osbourne for the Ozzy and Friends Tour in replacement of the Black Sabbath tour scheduled for the summer of 2012, playing a range of European dates including Graspop Metal Meeting in Belgium.\n", "Black Label Society released 'The Song Remains Not the Same' on May 10, 2011 on E1. Wylde also played a guitar solo on Black Veil Brides' cover of Kiss' \"Unholy\", on the 2011 EP \"Rebels\".\n", "Since 2014, Wylde has led a Black Sabbath cover band called \"Zakk Sabbath\", with Wylde handling guitar and vocals, joined by Rob \"Blasko\" Nicholson on bass guitar and Joey Castillo (Danzig, Queens of the Stone Age) on drums, who replaced original drummer John Tempesta. JP Gaster (Clutch) occupied the drummer's seat in between, in September 2017. The band tours intermittently, and has released a single, three-track vinyl-only live 12\" in 2016.\n", "Wylde, Steve Vai, Nuno Bettencourt, Yngwie Malmsteen, and Tosin Abasi were featured on the Generation Axe tour in 2016, 2017, and 2018.\n", "On April 28, 2017, it was announced that Wylde will be rejoining Ozzy Osbourne's band for a 2017 summer tour.\n", "Section::::Personal life.\n", "Wylde and his wife, Barbaranne, have four children: Hayley Rae, Hendrix, Sabbath Page, and Jesse. Ozzy Osbourne is Jesse's godfather. Wylde was a close friend of fellow guitarist \"Dimebag\" Darrell Abbott and dedicated the song \"In This River\" to Abbott after his death.\n", "Wylde is a New York Yankees fan. As of 2011, he has partnered with Blair's Sauces and Snacks to produce \"Berserker\" Hot Sauce and several variations. Wylde also promotes Death Wish Coffee via his Instagram page, as they have used his name in marketing their line, \"Odinforce Blend\".\n", "In August 2009, Wylde was hospitalized due to blood clots and was subsequently forced to cancel his tour with Mudvayne and Static-X. After his hospitalization, he stopped drinking alcohol. He is a Christian who has described himself as a \"Soldier of Christ\".\n", "Section::::Equipment.\n", "Wylde is known for his use of Gibson Les Paul Custom model guitars, equipped with EMG -81 and -85 active pickups, with a \"bulls-eye\" graphic on them, a design he used to differentiate himself visually from Randy Rhoads – who was also frequently identified by his cream Les Paul Custom, the guitar he has used since he was 12 years old. The \"bulls-eye\" paint job was originally supposed to look like the spiral from the Alfred Hitchcock movie \"Vertigo\", but when it came back incorrect from the paint shop, he liked the result and decided to keep it. One of Wylde's favorite stage guitars is a GMW RR-V, a model that is famously known as the \"Polka-dot V\" Created originally by luthier Karl Sandoval of California, used by Randy Rhoads, often mistaken as a custom Flying V.\n", "Wylde's signature Les Pauls include a red flame-maple bulls-eye model, a black and antique-white bulls-eye model, an orange \"buzz-saw\" model, the pattern on which was inspired by a design on a Zippo lighter, and a \"camo\" bulls-eye model with mother of pearl neck inlays and a green camouflage paint scheme. His original bulls-eye Les Paul was purchased from one of the owners of Metaltronix Amplification. Metaltronix was building a one-off live rig for Wylde that was designed around one of the owner's guitars, a creamy white Les Paul Custom with EMG pickups, which would later become known as \"The Grail\". Wylde has a custom Dean Splittail with a mud splatter bulls-eye graphic, as well as a signature Splittail shaped Gibson model called the \"ZV\". Another Dean in his collection is a Dime series Razorback with custom Bulls-eye graphics ordered for him specially by Dimebag Darrell shortly before his murder; since receiving the guitar, he has only ever used it on stage to play \"In This River\", Zakk's personal tribute to Dimebag.\n", "In practice, Wylde uses Marshall MG Series practice combos ranging in wattage levels from 10-30W during tour/private use especially in hotels and buses. Wylde has an extensive relationship with Marshall Amplification due to his love for their amplifiers, both solid state and valve powered. Live, Wylde exclusively uses Marshall JCM 800's with twin 4 X 12 Cabinets loaded with EVM12L 300W Black Label Speakers. His usual signal path consists of his guitar (on stage pedal board) Dunlop Wylde Wah Dunlop Wylde Rotovibe MXR ZW Phase 90 MXR Wylde Overdrive MXR Carbon Copy Delay (to a back stage pedal board) MXR EVH Flanger MXR Black Label Chorus split signals, one to each distorted amp into the High Gain input.\n", "A detailed gear diagram of Wylde's 1988 Ozzy Osbourne guitar rig is well-documented.\n", "At the 2015 NAMM Show, Wylde announced his new company called Wylde Audio and provided a preview of his new line of custom guitars and amplifiers. Currently he now is seen playing Wylde Audio equipment almost exclusively.\n", "Section::::Media appearances.\n", "Section::::Media appearances.:Guest album appearances.\n", "Wylde has made guest appearances on various albums by other artists:\n", "BULLET::::- He contributed a guitar solo on Britny Fox's track \"Six Guns Loaded\" from their 1991 release, \"Bite Down Hard\".\n", "BULLET::::- He guested on Blackfoot's 1994 album \"After The Reign\" playing the second solo on the title track.\n", "BULLET::::- He played \"White Christmas\" on the \"Merry Axemas 2\" Christmas guitar album.\n", "BULLET::::- He appears as guest vocalist and guitarist on the tracks \"Soul Bleed\" and \"Reborn\" on Damageplan's debut album, \"New Found Power\".\n", "BULLET::::- He played guitar solos on Dope's single \"Addiction\" from their newest album, \"No Regrets\".\n", "BULLET::::- He plays a solo on the song \"Wanderlust\" on Fozzy's 2005 release \"All That Remains\".\n", "BULLET::::- He has worked alongside Yngwie Malmsteen and others on five of Derek Sherinian's solo albums: \"Inertia\", \"Black Utopia\", \"Mythology\", \"Blood of the Snake\" and \"Molecular Heinosity\".\n", "BULLET::::- Wylde was a judge for the 8th annual Independent Music Awards. His contributions helped assist independent artists' careers.\n", "BULLET::::- In 2010, he played lead guitar on My Darkest Days' first single \"Porn Star Dancing\", along with guest singers Chad Kroeger and Ludacris.\n", "BULLET::::- In 2011, he featured in Jamey Jasta of Hatebreed's new project, \"Jasta\", in the song \"The Fearless Must Endure\".\n", "BULLET::::- He plays the guitar solo on Black Veil Brides' cover of the Kiss song \"Unholy\" on their EP, \"Rebels\".\n", "BULLET::::- Wylde laid down a solo on \"Monument / Monolith\", a song by The Rippingtons on their album \"Built To Last\", which released in 2012.\n", "BULLET::::- He contributes a guitar solo on the track Steep Climb on Eric Gales' 2014 album Good For Sumthin.\n", "Section::::Media appearances.:Guest live performances.\n", "BULLET::::- On August 1, 1993, at Great Woods Amphitheatre in Mansfield, MA, Wylde appeared on stage with the Allman Brothers on lead guitar since Dickey Betts was unable to make the show, and they needed a guitarist at the last minute. This show is documented on the bootleg \"Zakk Goes Wylde\".\n", "BULLET::::- Wylde performed the U.S. national anthem on the electric guitar during a New York Rangers game in October 2005. He has also played the anthem at Los Angeles Kings and Dodgers games. A video of a Kings performance is included as an extra feature on the DVD \"Boozed, Broozed, and Broken-Boned\".\n", "BULLET::::- On February 1, 2007 Wylde and Nick Catanese began a tour of acoustic shows at the Hard Rock Cafe in various cities across North America. Although Catanese had to leave mid-tour due to unspecified personal reasons, Wylde continued to play shows alone. He performed several songs on both the acoustic guitar and keyboard. The tour was eventually canceled due to unspecified reasons.\n", "BULLET::::- On April 13, 2011 he was the guitarist for James Durbin on \"American Idol\", during Durbin's performance of \"Heavy Metal\" by Sammy Hagar.\n", "BULLET::::- On April 20, 2011 he joined Michael Bearden and the Ese Vatos (house band for Lopez Tonight) to perform the Lenny Kravitz song \"Are You Gonna Go My Way\".\n", "BULLET::::- On May 14, 2011 he performed the U.S. national anthem at Rockfest in Kansas City, Missouri.\n", "BULLET::::- Wylde appeared onstage December 8, 2011 in Indianapolis, IN, to play a cover of AC/DC's \"Whole Lotta Rosie\" with Guns N' Roses while Black Label Society opened for Guns N' Roses during a leg of the US tour. Wylde also did this on subsequent shows before Black Label Society finished their run on the tour.\n", "BULLET::::- In Fall 2014, Wylde appeared as one of the performers on the \"Experience Hendrix 2014\" tour along with Billy Cox, Eric Johnson, Jonny Lang, Kenny Wayne Shepherd, Buddy Guy and others. Wylde performed \"Manic Depression\", \"Little Wing\", and \"Purple Haze\" as well as playing with many of the other performers.\n", "Section::::Media appearances.:Acting.\n", "BULLET::::- In 2001, Wylde appeared as the lead guitarist for a band called Steel Dragon in the movie \"Rock Star\", also starring Mark Wahlberg and Jennifer Aniston.\n", "BULLET::::- Wylde appeared in \"Aqua Teen Hunger Force\" episode \"Spirit Journey Formation Anniversary\" as himself\n", "BULLET::::- Wylde appeared in the \"Californication\" episode \"Suicide Solution\" in 2011, credited as \"Guitar Guy\".\n", "BULLET::::- Wylde also appeared playing guitar alongside Lorne and other audience members in Angel's season 4 episode \"The Magic Bullet\" in 2003.\n", "BULLET::::- Wylde appeared in the full-length movie \"Bones\" as Jed, Bones' uncle. reference: Bones (2010 film)\n", "Section::::Media appearances.:Other media.\n", "BULLET::::- Wylde appeared in the music video game \"Guitar Hero World Tour\" as a playable character. He becomes unlocked upon defeating him in a specially recorded guitar battle and completing Stillborn from the guitarist's catalog.\n", "Section::::Discography.\n", "BULLET::::- with Black Label Society\n", "BULLET::::- 1999: \"Sonic Brew\"\n", "BULLET::::- 2000: \"Stronger Than Death\"\n", "BULLET::::- 2001: \"Alcohol Fueled Brewtality Live!! +5\"\n", "BULLET::::- 2002: \"1919 Eternal\"\n", "BULLET::::- 2003: \"The Blessed Hellride\"\n", "BULLET::::- 2004: \"Hangover Music Vol. VI\"\n", "BULLET::::- 2005: \"Mafia\"\n", "BULLET::::- 2006: \"Shot to Hell\"\n", "BULLET::::- 2009: \"Skullage\"\n", "BULLET::::- 2010: \"Order of the Black\"\n", "BULLET::::- 2011: \"The Song Remains Not The Same\"\n", "BULLET::::- 2013: \"Unblackened\"\n", "BULLET::::- 2014: \"Catacombs of the Black Vatican\"\n", "BULLET::::- 2018: \"Grimmest Hits\"\n", "BULLET::::- with Ozzy Osbourne\n", "BULLET::::- 1988: \"No Rest for the Wicked\"\n", "BULLET::::- 1990: \"Just Say Ozzy (live album)\"\n", "BULLET::::- 1991: \"No More Tears\"\n", "BULLET::::- 1993: \"Live & Loud (live album)\"\n", "BULLET::::- 1995: \"Ozzmosis\"\n", "BULLET::::- 2001: \"Down to Earth\"\n", "BULLET::::- 2002: \"Live at Budokan (live album)\"\n", "BULLET::::- 2007: \"Black Rain\"\n", "BULLET::::- with Pride & Glory\n", "BULLET::::- 1994: \"Pride & Glory\"\n", "BULLET::::- with Zakk Sabbath\n", "BULLET::::- 2016: \"Live In Detroit (live EP)\"\n", "BULLET::::- Solo\n", "BULLET::::- 1996: \"Book of Shadows\"\n", "BULLET::::- 2016: \"Book of Shadows II\"\n", "Section::::External links.\n", "BULLET::::- Black Label Society official website\n", "BULLET::::- Zakk Wylde Video Workshop (Videos in engl.) Source: Bonedo.de\n", "BULLET::::- Zakk Wylde Interview Source: Bonedo.de\n", "BULLET::::- Source: Alternative Press\n" ] }

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Lee", "Brad Gillis", "Randy Rhoads", "Guns N' Roses", "Joe Holmes", "Black Rain", "UK", "Michael Beinhorn", "Ozzy and Friends Tour", "Black Sabbath", "Black Veil Brides", "Kiss", "Rebels", "Black Sabbath", "cover band", "Rob \"Blasko\" Nicholson", "Joey Castillo", "Danzig", "Queens of the Stone Age", "John Tempesta", "Clutch", "Steve Vai", "Nuno Bettencourt", "Yngwie Malmsteen", "Tosin Abasi", "Generation Axe", "Ozzy Osbourne", "\"Dimebag\" Darrell Abbott", "New York Yankees", "Blair's Sauces and Snacks", "Death Wish Coffee", "Mudvayne", "Static-X", "Christian", "Gibson Les Paul Custom", "Randy Rhoads", "Alfred Hitchcock", "Vertigo", "luthier", "Zippo", "mother of pearl", "neck", "inlays", "Dimebag Darrell", "Wah", "Rotovibe", "Phase 90", "Overdrive", "Delay", "Chorus", "NAMM Show", "Britny Fox", "Bite Down Hard", "Blackfoot", "After The Reign", "Damageplan", "New Found Power", "Dope", "Fozzy", "All That Remains", "Yngwie Malmsteen", "Derek Sherinian", "Inertia", "Black Utopia", "Mythology", "Blood of the Snake", "Molecular Heinosity", "My Darkest Days", "Porn Star Dancing", "Chad Kroeger", "Ludacris", "Jamey Jasta", "Hatebreed", "Black Veil Brides", "Kiss", "Unholy", "Rebels", "The Rippingtons", "Built To Last", "Eric Gales", "Allman Brothers", "Dickey Betts", "New York Rangers", "Los Angeles Kings", "Dodgers", "Boozed, Broozed, and Broken-Boned", "Nick Catanese", "Hard Rock Cafe", "James Durbin", "American Idol", "Heavy Metal", "Sammy Hagar", "Lopez Tonight", "Lenny Kravitz", "\"Are You Gonna Go My Way\"", "Rockfest", "Missouri", "Whole Lotta Rosie", "Rock Star", "Mark Wahlberg", "Jennifer Aniston", "Aqua Teen Hunger Force", "Californication", "Angel", "The Magic Bullet", "Bones (2010 film)", "music video game", "Guitar Hero World Tour", "guitar battle", "Stillborn", "Sonic Brew", "Stronger Than Death", "Alcohol Fueled Brewtality Live!! +5", "1919 Eternal", "The Blessed Hellride", "Hangover Music Vol. VI", "Mafia", "Shot to Hell", "Skullage", "Order of the Black", "The Song Remains Not The Same", "Unblackened", "Catacombs of the Black Vatican", "Grimmest Hits", "No Rest for the Wicked", "Just Say Ozzy", "No More Tears", "Live & Loud", "Ozzmosis", "Down to Earth", "Live at Budokan", "Black Rain", "Pride & Glory", "EP", "Book of Shadows", "Book of Shadows II", "Black Label Society official website", "Zakk Wylde Video Workshop (Videos in engl.)", "Zakk Wylde Interview", "Source: Alternative Press" ], "href": [ "Ozzy%20Osbourne", "Heavy%20metal%20music", "Black%20Label%20Society", "Pride%20and%20Glory%20%28band%29", "Book%20of%20Shadows%20%28album%29", "Book%20of%20Shadows%20II", "Bayonne%2C%20New%20Jersey", "Silverton%2C%20New%20Jersey", "Jackson%2C%20New%20Jersey", "Jackson%20Memorial%20High%20School", "Jake%20E.%20Lee", "Brad%20Gillis", "Randy%20Rhoads", "Guns%20N%27%20Roses", "Joe%20Holmes", "Black%20Rain%20%28Ozzy%20Osbourne%20album%29", "United%20Kingdom", "Michael%20Beinhorn", "Ozzy%20and%20Friends%20Tour", "Black%20Sabbath", 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{ "description": "American musician", "enwikiquote_title": "", "wikidata_id": "Q144746", "wikidata_label": "Zakk Wylde", "wikipedia_title": "Zakk Wylde", "aliases": { "alias": [] } }

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{ "paragraph": [ "Judeo-Persian\n", "Judeo-Persian refers to both a group of Jewish dialects spoken by the Jews living in Iran and Judeo-Persian texts (written in Hebrew alphabet). As a collective term, Judeo-Persian refers to a number of Judeo-Iranian languages spoken by Jewish communities throughout the formerly extensive Persian Empire.\n", "The speakers refer to their language as \"Fārsi\". Some non-Jews refer to it as \"dzhidi\" (also written as \"zidi\", \"judi\", or \"jidi\"), which means \"Jewish\" in a derogatory sense.\n", "Judeo-Persian is basically the Persian language written in Hebrew Alphabet. However, it is often confused with other Judeo-Iranian languages and dialects spoken by the Iranian Jewish communities, such as Judeo-Shirazi, Judeo-Hamadani, and Judeo-Kashani. \n", "Section::::Persian words in Hebrew and Aramaic.\n", "The earliest evidence of the entrance of Persian words into the language of the Israelites is found in the Bible. The post-exilic portions, Hebrew as well as Aramaic, contain besides many Persian proper names and titles, a number of nouns, such as \"dat\" (or \"daad\" in current Persian) = \"law\", \"genez\" (or \"ganj\" in current Persian) = \"treasure\", \"pardes\" (or \"pardis\" or \"ferdos\" in current Persian) = \"park\" (which is the main root of the English word \"paradise\"), which came into permanent use at the time of the Achaemenid Empire.\n", "More than five hundred years after the end of that dynasty, the Jews of the Babylonian diaspora again came under the dominion of the Persians; and among such Jews the Persian language held a position similar to that held by the Greek language among the Jews of the West. Persian became to a great extent the language of everyday life among the Jews of Babylonia; and a hundred years after the conquest of that country by the Sassanids, an \"amora\" of Pumbedita, Rab Joseph (d. 323 CE), declared that the Babylonian Jews had no right to speak Aramaic, and should instead use either Hebrew or Persian. Aramaic, however, remained the language of the Jews in Israel as well as of those in Babylonia, although in the latter country a large number of Persian words found their way into the language of daily intercourse and into that of the schools, a fact which is attested by the numerous Persian derivatives in the Babylonian Talmud. But in the Aramaic Targum there are very few Persian words, because after the middle of the third century the Targumim on the Pentateuch and the Prophets were accepted as authoritative and received a fixed textual form in the Babylonian schools. In this way they were protected from the introduction of Persian elements.\n", "Section::::Literature.\n", "There is an extensive Judeo-Persian poetic religious literature, closely modeled on classical Persian poetry. The most famous poet was Mowlānā Shāhin-i Shirāzi (14th century CE), who composed epic versifications of parts of the Bible, such as the \"Musā-nāmah\" (an epic poem recounting the story of Moses); later poets composed lyric poetry of a Sufi cast. Much of this literature was collected around the beginning of the twentieth century by the ּּBukharian rabbi Shimon Hakham, who founded a printing press in Israel.\n", "Section::::Literature.:Biblical epics.\n", "BULLET::::- Mowlānā Shāhin-i Shirāzi\n", "BULLET::::- \"Bereshit-nāmah\" (The Book of Genesis)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Musā-nāmah\" (The Book of Moses)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Ardashir-nāmah\" (The Book of Ardashir): Describing the story of Esther\n", "BULLET::::- \"Ezra-nāmah\" (The Book of Ezra)\n", "BULLET::::- Emrāni\n", "BULLET::::- \"Fath-nāmah\" (The Book of Conquest): Details Joshua's conquest of Jericho\n", "BULLET::::- The Book of Ruth\n", "BULLET::::- Aharon b. Mashiach\n", "BULLET::::- \"Shoftim-nāmah\" (The Book of Judges)\n", "BULLET::::- Khwājah Bukhārā'i\n", "BULLET::::- \"Dāniyāal-nāamah\" (The Book of Daniel)\n", "Section::::Literature.:Mishnah and midrash.\n", "BULLET::::- Emrāni: \"Ganj-nāmah\" (The Book of Treasure): Poetic elaboration on the mishnaic tractate of Abot\n", "Section::::Literature.:Biblical commentaries.\n", "BULLET::::- Shimon Hakham: Commentary on Exodus 3-4\n", "Section::::Literature.:Historical texts.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Bābāi b. Lutf: Kitab-i Anusi\" (The Book of a Forced Convert)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Bābāi b. Farhād: Kitāb-i Sar guzasht-i Kāshān\" (The Book of Events in Kashan)\n", "Section::::Literature.:Religious poems.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Haft Baradam\": A poem read on the fast of Tish'a BeAb based on the story of Hannah and her seven sons\n", "BULLET::::- \"Sheshom Dar\" (ששום דר): A poem read on the festival of Shavuot detailing the commandments, based on the Azharot literature\n", "BULLET::::- \"Shira-ye Hatani\", or \"Shira\", often beginning with the words \"\"Shodi hātān mobarak bād\"\" (שדִי חתן מבארך באד): Verses sung at weddings and festive occasions. Originally composed for the groom during the \"Shabbat Hatan\" (the shabbat following the wedding)\n", "BULLET::::- Aminā:\n", "BULLET::::- \"In Praise of Moses\"\n", "BULLET::::- \"A Ghazal on the Twelve Tribes\"\n", "Section::::See also.\n", "BULLET::::- Judeo-Tat language\n", "BULLET::::- Persian Jews\n", "Section::::References.\n", "BULLET::::- Judæo-Persian (from the 1906 Public Domain Jewish Encyclopedia)\n", "BULLET::::- Vera Basch Moreen (tr. and ed.), \"In Queen Esther's Garden: An Anthology of Judeo-Persian Literature\" (Yale Judaica): Yale 2000,\n", "BULLET::::- Moreen, Vera B. \"The Legend of Adam in the Judeo-Persian Epic\" Bereshit [Nāmah]\"(14th Century).\" Proceedings of the American Academy for Jewish Research. American Academy of Jewish Research, 1990.\n", "Section::::External links.\n", "BULLET::::- Judeo-Persian Literature, Encyclopædia Iranica\n", "BULLET::::- Judeo-Persian Language, Encyclopædia Iranica\n", "BULLET::::- Jewish dialect of Isfahan, Encyclopædia Iranica\n", "BULLET::::- Judæo-Persian literature (from Jewish Encyclopedia)\n", "BULLET::::- Article from Jewish Languages site\n", "BULLET::::- A tantalising find from the Jews of medieval Afghanistan\n", "BULLET::::- On Judeo-Persian Language and Literature | Part One: State of the Field\n", "BULLET::::- Video Archive of Authentic Dialects 7dorim.com (Persian)\n" ] }

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{ "description": "language", "enwikiquote_title": "", "wikidata_id": "Q33367", "wikidata_label": "Judæo-Persian", "wikipedia_title": "Judeo-Persian", "aliases": { "alias": [ "Judeo-Persian", "Dzhidi" ] } }

{ "pageid": 206653, "parentid": 881917210, "revid": 896934291, "pre_dump": true, "timestamp": "2019-05-13T19:09:24Z", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Judeo-Persian&oldid=896934291" }

{ "paragraph": [ "Durham Cathedral\n", "The Cathedral Church of Christ, Blessed Mary the Virgin and St Cuthbert of Durham, commonly known as Durham Cathedral and home of the Shrine of St Cuthbert, is a cathedral in the city of Durham, England. It is the seat of the Bishop of Durham, the fourth-ranked bishop in the Church of England hierarchy. The present cathedral was begun in 1093, replacing the Saxon 'White Church', and is regarded as one of the finest examples of Norman architecture in Europe. In 1986 the cathedral and Durham Castle were designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site.\n", "Durham Cathedral holds the relics of Saint Cuthbert, transported to Durham by Lindisfarne monks in the ninth century, the head of Saint Oswald of Northumbria, and the remains of the Venerable Bede. In addition, its library contains one of the most complete sets of early printed books in England, the pre-Dissolution monastic accounts, and three copies of the Magna Carta.\n", "From 1080 until 1836 the Bishop of Durham enjoyed the powers of an Earl palatine, being given military and civil as well as religious leadership in order to protect the Scottish Border. The cathedral walls formed part of Durham Castle, one of the residences of the Bishop of Durham.\n", "There are daily Church of England services at the cathedral, with Durham Cathedral Choir singing daily except Mondays and when the choir is on holiday. It is a major tourist attraction and welcomed 694,429 visitors in 2018. \n", "Section::::History.\n", "Section::::History.:Anglo-Saxon.\n", "The see of Durham takes its origins from the Diocese of Lindisfarne, founded by Saint Aidan at the behest of Oswald of Northumbria around 635. The see lasted until 664, at which point it was translated to York. The see was then reinstated at Lindisfarne in 678 by the Archbishop of Canterbury. Among the many saints produced in the community at Lindisfarne Priory, Saint Cuthbert, who was Bishop of Lindisfarne from 685 until his death on Farne Island in 687, is central to the development of Durham Cathedral.\n", "After repeated Viking raids, the monks fled Lindisfarne in 875, carrying Saint Cuthbert's relics with them. The diocese of Lindisfarne remained itinerant until 882, when a community was reestablished in Chester-le-Street. The see had its seat here until 995, when further incursions once again caused the monks to move with the relics. According to local legend, the monks followed two milk maids who were searching for a dun-coloured cow and were led into a peninsula formed by a loop in the River Wear. At this point Cuthbert's coffin became immovable. This trope of hagiography was offered for a sign that the new shrine should be built here. A more prosaic set of reasons for the selection of the peninsula is its highly defensible position, and that a community established here would enjoy the protection of the Earl of Northumbria, as the bishop at this time, Aldhun, had strong family links with the earls. Nevertheless, the street leading from The Bailey past the Cathedral's eastern towers up to Palace Green is named Dun Cow Lane due to the miniature (dun) cows that used to graze in the pastures nearby.\n", "Initially, a very simple temporary structure was built from local timber to house the relics of Cuthbert. The shrine was then transferred to a sturdier, probably wooden, building known as the White Church. This church was itself replaced three years later in 998 by a stone building also known as the White Church, which was complete apart from its tower by 1018. Durham soon became a site of pilgrimage, encouraged by the growing cult of Saint Cuthbert. King Canute was one early pilgrim, granting many privileges and much land to the Durham community. The defendable position, flow of money from pilgrims and power embodied in the church at Durham ensured that a town formed around the cathedral, establishing the early core of the modern city.\n", "Section::::History.:Norman.\n", "The present cathedral was designed and built under William of St. Carilef (or William of Calais) who was appointed as the first prince-bishop by King William the Conqueror in 1080. Since that time, there have been major additions and reconstructions of some parts of the building, but the greater part of the structure remains true to the Norman design. Construction of the cathedral began in 1093 at the eastern end. The choir was completed by 1096 and work proceeded on the nave of which the walls were finished by 1128, and the high vault complete by 1135. The chapter house, partially demolished in the 18th century, was built between 1133 and 1140. William died in 1096 before the building's completion, passing responsibility to his successor, Ranulf Flambard, who also built Framwellgate Bridge, the first crossing of the River Wear in the town. Three bishops, William of St. Carilef, Ranulf Flambard and Hugh de Puiset, are all buried in the rebuilt chapter house.\n", "In the 1170s, de Puiset, after a false start at the eastern end where the subsidence and cracking prevented work from continuing, added the Galilee Chapel at the west end of the cathedral. The five-aisled building occupies the position of a porch, it functioned as a Lady chapel and the great west door was blocked during the Medieval period by an altar to the Virgin Mary. The door is now blocked by the tomb of the bishop Thomas Langley. The Galilee Chapel also holds the remains of the Venerable Bede. The main entrance to the cathedral is on the northern side, facing towards the castle.\n", "In 1228 Richard le Poore came from Salisbury where a new cathedral was being built in the Gothic style. At this time, the eastern end of the cathedral was in urgent need of repair and the proposed eastern extension had failed. Le Poore employed the architect Richard Farnham to design an eastern terminal for the building in which many monks could say the Daily Office simultaneously. The resulting building was the Chapel of the Nine Altars. The towers also date from the early 13th century, but the central tower was damaged by lightning and replaced in two stages in the 15th century, the master masons being Thomas Barton and John Bell.\n", "The Shrine of Saint Cuthbert was located in the eastern apsidal end of the cathedral. The location of the inner wall of the apse is marked on the pavement and Cuthbert's tomb is covered by a simple slab. However, an unknown monk wrote in 1593:\n", "Section::::History.:Dissolution.\n", "Cuthbert's tomb was destroyed on the orders of King Henry VIII in 1538, and the monastery's wealth handed over to the king. The body of the saint was exhumed, and according to the \"Rites of Durham\", was discovered to be uncorrupted. It was reburied under a plain stone slab worn by the knees of pilgrims, but the ancient paving around it remains intact. Two years later, on 31 December 1540, the Benedictine monastery at Durham was dissolved, and the last prior of Durham – Hugh Whitehead – became the first dean of the cathedral's secular chapter.\n", "Section::::History.:17th century.\n", "After the Battle of Dunbar on 3 September 1650, Durham Cathedral was used by Oliver Cromwell as a makeshift prison to hold Scottish prisoners of war. It is estimated that as many as 3,000 were imprisoned of whom 1,700 died in the cathedral itself, where they were kept in inhumane conditions, largely without food, water or heat. The prisoners destroyed much of the cathedral woodwork for firewood but Prior Castell's Clock, which featured the Scottish thistle, was spared. It is reputed that the prisoners' bodies were buried in unmarked graves (see further, '21st century' below). The survivors were shipped as slave labour to North America.\n", "John Cosin, Bishop of Durham who had previously been a canon of the cathedral, set about restoring the damage and refurnishing the building with new stalls, the litany desk and the towering canopy over the font. An oak screen to carry the organ was added at this time to replace a stone screen pulled down in the 16th century. On the remains of the old refectory, the Dean, John Sudbury founded a library of early printed books.\n", "Section::::History.:18th and 19th centuries.\n", "During the 18th century, the deans of Durham often held another position in the south of England, and after spending the statutory time in residence, would depart to manage their affairs. Consequently, after Cosin's refurbishment, there was little by way of restoration or rebuilding. When work commenced again on the building, it was not always of a sympathetic nature. In 1777 the architect George Nicholson, having completed Prebends' Bridge across the Wear, persuaded the dean and chapter to let him smooth off much of the outer stonework of the cathedral, thereby considerably altering its character. His successor William Morpeth demolished most of the Chapter House.\n", "In 1794 the architect James Wyatt drew up extensive plans which would have drastically transformed the building, including the demolition of the Galilee Chapel, but the Chapter changed its mind just in time to prevent this happening. Wyatt also renewed the 15th-century tracery of the Rose Window, inserting plain glass to replace what had been blown out in a storm.\n", "In 1847 Anthony Salvin removed Cosin's wooden organ screen, opening up the view of the east end from the nave, and in 1858 he restored the cloisters.\n", "The restoration of the cathedral's tower in 1859-60 was by the architect George Gilbert Scott, working with Edward Robert Robson (who went on to serve as Clerk of Works at the cathedral for six years). In 1874 Scott was responsible for the marble quire screen and pulpit in the Crossing. In 1892 Scott's pupil Charles Hodgson Fowler rebuilt the Chapter House as a memorial to Joseph Barber Lightfoot (Bishop).\n", "The great west window, depicting the \"Tree of Jesse\", was the gift of Dean George Waddington in 1867. It is the work of Clayton and Bell, who were also responsible for the \"Te Deum\" window in the South Transept (1869), the \"Four Doctors\" window in the North Transept (1875), and the Rose Window of \"Christ in Majesty\" (). \n", "Section::::History.:20th century.\n", "In the 1930s, under the inspiration of Dean Cyril Alington, work began on restoring the Shrine of Saint Cuthbert behind the High Altar as an appropriate focus of worship and pilgrimage, and was resumed after the Second World War. The four candlesticks and overhanging tester () were designed by Ninian Comper. Two large batik banners representing Saints Cuthbert and Oswald, added in 2001, are the work of Thetis Blacker. Elsewhere in the building the 1930s and 1940s saw the addition of several new stained glass windows by Hugh Ray Easton. Mark Angus' \"Daily Bread\" window dates from 1984. In the Galilee Chapel a wooden statue of the \"Annunciation\" by the Polish artist Josef Pyrz was added in 1992, the same year as Leonard Evetts' \"Stella Maris\" window.\n", "In 1986, the cathedral, together with the nearby Castle, became a World Heritage Site. The UNESCO committee classified the cathedral under criteria C (ii) (iv) (vi), reporting, \"\"Durham Cathedral is the largest and most perfect monument of 'Norman' style architecture in England\"\".\n", "In 1996, the Great Western Doorway was the setting for Bill Viola's large-scale video installation \"The Messenger,\" that was commissioned by Durham Cathedral. \n", "Section::::History.:21st century.\n", "At the beginning of this century two of the altars in the Nine Altars Chapel at the east end of the Cathedral were re-dedicated to Saint Hild of Whitby and Saint Margaret of Scotland: a striking painting of Margaret (with her son, the future king David) by Paula Rego was dedicated in 2004. Nearby a plaque, first installed in 2011 and rededicated in 2017, commemorates the Scottish soldiers who died as prisoners in the Cathedral after the Battle of Dunbar in 1650. The remains of some of these prisoners have now been identified in a mass grave uncoverered during building works in 2013 just outside the Cathedral precinct near Palace Green.\n", "In 2004 two wooden sculptures by Fenwick Lawson, \"Pietà\" and \"Tomb of Christ\", were placed in the Nine Altars Chapel, and in 2010 a new stained glass window of the \"Transfiguration\" by Tom Denny was dedicated in memory of Michael Ramsey, former Bishop of Durham and Archbishop of Canterbury.\n", "In 2016 former monastic buildings around the cloister, including the Monks' Dormitory and Prior's Kitchen, were re-opened to the public as \"Open Treasure\", an extensive exhibition displaying the Cathedral's history and possessions. \n", "In November 2009 the cathedral featured in the Lumiere festival whose highlight was the \"Crown of Light\" illumination of the North Front of the cathedral with a 15-minute presentation that told the story of Lindisfarne and the foundation of cathedral, using illustrations and text from the Lindisfarne Gospels. The Lumiere festival was repeated in 2011, 2013, 2015, and 2017.\n", "In 2017 a new \"Open Treasure\" exhibition area opened featuring the 8th-century wooden coffin of Saint Cuthbert, his gold and garnet pectoral cross, a portable altar and an ivory comb.\n", "Section::::Architecture.\n", "There is evidence that the aisle of the choir had the earliest ribbed vaults in the country, as was argued by John Bilson, English architect, at the end of the nineteenth century. Since then it has been argued that other buildings like Lessay Abbey provided the early experimental ribs that created the high technical level shown in Durham. Interestingly there is evidence in the clerestory walls of the choir that the high vault had ribs. There is controversy between John James and Malcolm Thurlby on whether these rib vaults were four-part or six-part, which remains unresolved. The building is notable for the ribbed vault of the nave roof, with some of the earliest pointed transverse arches supported on relatively slender composite piers alternated with massive drum columns, and lateral abutments concealed within the triforium over the aisles. These features appear to be precursors of the Gothic architecture of Northern France a few decades later, doubtless due to the Norman stonemasons responsible, although the building is considered Romanesque overall. The skilled use of the pointed arch and ribbed vault made it possible to cover far more elaborate and complicated ground plans than before. Buttressing made it possible to build taller buildings and open up the intervening wall spaces to create larger windows.\n", "Saint Cuthbert's tomb lies at the east in the Feretory and was once an elaborate monument of cream marble and gold. It remains a place of pilgrimage.\n", "Section::::Other burials.\n", "BULLET::::- Stephen Kemble, actor of the Kemble family\n", "BULLET::::- William de St-Calais, in the chapter house\n", "BULLET::::- Ranulf Flambard, also in the chapter house (where his tomb was opened in 1874)\n", "BULLET::::- Geoffrey Rufus, also in the chapter house (where his grave was also excavated in the 19th century)\n", "BULLET::::- William of St. Barbara, also in the chapter house (where his grave was also excavated in the 19th century)\n", "BULLET::::- Nicholas Farnham\n", "BULLET::::- Robert Neville – Bishop of Durham, in the South Aisle\n", "BULLET::::- Walter of Kirkham, in the chapter house\n", "BULLET::::- Robert Stitchill (his heart only)\n", "BULLET::::- Robert of Holy Island, in the chapter house\n", "BULLET::::- Antony Bek (Bishop of Durham)\n", "BULLET::::- Thomas Sharp, in the chapel called the Galilee\n", "BULLET::::- Thomas Mangey, in the east transept\n", "BULLET::::- Richard Kellaw, in the chapter house\n", "BULLET::::- Thomas Langley, his tomb blocking the Great West Door (necessitating the construction of the two later doors to north and south)\n", "BULLET::::- James Pilkington, at the head of Beaumont's tomb in front of the high altar\n", "BULLET::::- Alfred Robert Tucker, outside the cathedral\n", "BULLET::::- Cyril Alington, Dean of Durham and author\n", "BULLET::::- John Robson, canon of Durham\n", "Section::::Dean and chapter.\n", "The cathedral is governed by the chapter which is chaired by the dean. Durham is a \"New Foundation\" cathedral in which there are not specific roles to which members of the chapter are appointed, with the exception of the Dean and the Van Mildert Professor of Divinity. The other roles, sub-dean, precentor, sacrist, librarian and treasurer, are elected by the members of the chapter annually.\n", "As of 29 January 2019:\n", "BULLET::::- Dean — Andrew Tremlett (since 17 July 2016 installation)\n", "BULLET::::- Vice-Dean & Canon Precentor — Michael Hampel (since 17 November 2018 installation)\n", "BULLET::::- Canon Chancellor — Charlie Allen (since 22 September 2018 installation)\n", "BULLET::::- Archdeacon of Durham and Residentiary Canon — Ian Jagger (since 30 November 2006 collation & installation)\n", "BULLET::::- Diocesan Director of Mission, Discipleship, and Ministry and Residentiary Canon — Sophie Jelley (since 3 May 2015 installation)\n", "BULLET::::- Van Mildert Professor of Divinity (Durham University) and Residentiary Canon — Simon Oliver (since 20 September 2015 installation)\n", "Section::::Music.\n", "Section::::Music.:Organ.\n", "In the 17th century Durham had an organ by Smith that was replaced in 1876 by Willis, with some pipes being reused in Durham Castle chapel. Harrison & Harrison worked on the organ from 1880, with several major additions to the stop list, and a refurbishment in 1996. The cases, designed by C. Hodgson Fowler and decorated by Clayton and Bell date from 1876 and are in the galleries of the choir.\n", "Section::::Music.:Organists.\n", "The first organist recorded at Durham was John Brimley in 1557. Notable organists have included the composer Richard Hey Lloyd and choral conductor David Hill.\n", "The current Master of the Choristers and Organist is Daniel Cook, having succeeded James Lancelot in 2017. The Sub-Organist is Francesca Massey.\n", "Section::::Music.:Choir.\n", "There is a regular choir of adult lay clerks, choral scholars and child choristers. The latter are educated at the Chorister School. Traditionally child choristers were all boys, but in November 2009 the cathedral admitted female choristers for the first time. The girls and the boys serve alternately, not as a mixed choir, except at major festivals such as Easter, Advent and Christmas when the two \"top lines\" come together.\n", "Section::::Meridian line.\n", "In 1829 the Dean and Chapter authorised the engraving of a meridian line upon the floor and wall of the north cloister. A circular aperture about in the tracery of the adjoining window about above the level of the floor directs a beam of sunlight to fall upon the line at the precise time when the sun passes the meridian. It was constructed by William Lloyd Wharton, of Dryburn in the city, and Mr Carr, then Head Master of Durham School.\n", "Section::::Film and Television.\n", "Durham Cathedral has been used as a filming location in a number of cinema and television productions. Because of its distinct Romanesque architecture, the Cathedral has doubled as a number of fantasy locations in larger budget film productions, but has been seen as itself in a number of television programmes. \n", "Section::::Film and Television.:Film.\n", "The first major appearance of the Cathedral was in the 1996 adaptation of a Thomas Hardy novel, \"Jude\" . The film featured scenes of leading actor Christopher Eccleston working as a mason on the exterior of the Cathedral. \"Jude\" also featured scenes with co-star Kate Winslet inside the Cathedral, and on the adjoining Prebends Bridge. \n", "\"Elizabeth\", 1998, starring Cate Blanchett features the Cathedral doubling as The Palace of Westminster , or Whitehall. \n", "Durham Cathedral featured in the first two \"Harry Potter\" films (\"Philosopher's Stone\" and \"Chamber of Secrets\" ) as Hogwarts School of Witchcraft and Wizardry . The Cloisters appeared in a number of scenes as one of Hogwarts’ courtyards , the Chapter House as Professor McGonagall’s classroom , and the Triforium upper-levels as the Forbidden Corridor. \n", "The exterior architecture of the Cathedral also heavily inspired the design of the Hogwarts model used in the films. A section of the model is noticeably styled off the Cathedral (albeit with the addition of fantastical spires) . \n", "The palace set design in \"Snow White and The Huntsman\", 2012, was largely based Durham Cathedral’s architecture . The production team spent four days at the Cathedral conducting 3D photography of the interior, and used the data collected to build the sets both physical and digital.  Most noticeably, the movie’s throne room features columns patterned identically to those within the Cathedral . \n", "Most recently, the interior views of the Cathedral were featured in the 2019 Marvel superhero film \"\" as the indoor location of Asgard. The \"Avengers\" production team were present between April and May of 2017 filming at the Cathedral. The film directors, the Russo brothers, posted on Twitter from the site and garnered plenty of attention from fans of the film to the site. . \n", "The filming was initially believed to be for scenes in the preceding \"\" , but due to the dual production of these films, the scenes did later appear in \"Endgame\" after some fan speculation .\n", "Section::::Film and Television.:Television.\n", "Durham Cathedral features in a number of TV programs. Some of its many appearances include the gameshow \"Treasurehunt\" , and BBC staples like \"Songs of Praise\" and \"The Antiques Roadshow\" . \n", "Architectural historian Dan Cruickshank selected the Cathedral as one of his four choices for the 2002 BBC television documentary \"Britain's Best Buildings\" .\n", "It also hosted a special Christmas concert from Sting as part of a BBC2 \"Imagine\" special, also featured on PBS..\n", "In 2010 the Cathedral featured in \"Climbing Great Buildings,\" which saw presenter Jonathan Foyle exploring the Cathedral via climbing ropes . \n", "For an episode first broadcast in 2011, the BBC railway travelogue \"Great British Railway Journeys\" with Michael Portillo visited Durham and The Cathedral. Following a Bradshaw’s guide, he discusses local Victorian politics highlighted in the guide, and meets with the Cathedral Choristers . \n", "\"Richard Wilson: On the Road\", saw actor Richard Wilson visit the Cathedral on this travelogue show following the Shell Guides from the 1930s . The Grayson Perry documentary, \"\", culminated in the unveiling of his artwork in the Cathedral . \n", "The fourth episode of Britian’s Great Cathedrals with Tony Robinson, broadcast on Channel Five, featured Durham Cathedral as its subject. In it, Robinson explored the architecture, the history of the Prince Bishops, and the history of pilgrimage at the Cathedral . \n", "Following the completion of restoration on the Cathedral’s tower in May 2019, \"BBC Breakfast\" broadcast from the tower in as part of its reopening to the public .\n", "The Cathedral features noticeable in two Catherine Cookson TV Dramas, \"The Tide of Life\" and \"The Wingless Bird\" . In the later of these, the Cathedral and the surrounding riverbanks also feature prominently in its promotional material . \n", "It also featured on TV in a number of episodes of \"Inspector George Gently\" with both interior and exterior scenes.\n", "Section::::In Literature.\n", "Letitia Landon's atmospheric poem, \"Durham Cathedral\", appeared in Fisher's Drawing Room Scrap Book, 1835.\n", "Section::::Quotations.\n", "\"Durham is one of the great experiences of Europe to the eyes of those who appreciate architecture, and to the minds of those who understand architecture. The group of Cathedral, Castle, and Monastery on the rock can only be compared to Avignon and Prague.\" — Nikolaus Pevsner, \"The Buildings of England\"\n", "\"A dream, I'm bowled over...Imagine a river valley cut into the landscape with wooded sides. The river bends, and in the bend, on the hillside, lies the old town - first the residential town, then separate from it, and higher up, the castle - and then, out on its own, in the midst of tall trees, the enormous cathedral with its twin end towers. From the bridge it is a Romantic dream, a fantasy by Schinkel. This morning in the mist it was wonderful...the first thing that has made my heart pound...the cathedral in itself, just like the Matterhorn in itself - gigantic, grey, on its own.\" — Pevsner in a letter to his wife, Lola, on his first English tour in 1930.\n", "\"I paused upon the bridge, and admired and wondered at the beauty and glory of this scene...it was grand, venerable, and sweet, all at once; I never saw so lovely and magnificent a scene, nor, being content with this, do I care to see a better.\" — Nathaniel Hawthorne on Durham Cathedral, \"The English Notebooks\"\n", "'With the cathedral at Durham we reach the incomparable masterpiece of Romanesque architecture not only in England but anywhere. The moment of entering provides for an architectural experience never to be forgotten, one of the greatest England has to offer.' — Alec Clifton-Taylor, 'English Towns' series on BBC television.\n", "\"I unhesitatingly gave Durham my vote for best cathedral on planet Earth.\" — Bill Bryson, \"Notes from a Small Island\".\n", "— Walter Scott, \"Harold the Dauntless\", a poem of Saxons and Vikings set in County Durham.\n", "Section::::Durham Cathedral in Lego.\n", "Durham Cathedral contains a scale replica of itself made entirely out of Lego. It was created as part of an award winning fundraising campaign to support the creation of Open Treasure, and started in July 2013. It was completed just over three years later in July 2016, and is currently on display in the Cathedral’s Undercroft foyer between the Undercroft Restaurant and the Cathedral Shop. \n", "The replica Cathedral is made up of 300,000 Lego bricks, standing 5 ft 6in (1.7) tall and 12ft 6in (3.84m) long. It also features a modelled interior, with the nave, quire, the organ, and stained glass windows all recreated in Lego.  \n", "Its creation was funded by donation, with a donation of £1 per Lego brick.  It raised £300,000 as part of the public fundraising campaign in support of the creation of Open Treasure, the Cathedral’s new museum in its Claustral buildings.  Visitors who donated came from 182 countries across the world.  The Cathedral worked with a company called Bright Bricks on the design and recruited a team of Lego volunteers who co-ordinated the build of the model and visitor donations. \n", "The surrounding media coverage and marketing campaign garnered further support to the Lego project, especially from local businesses and organisations, and featured celebrity support such as that of Janina Ramirez, George Clarke, and Jeremy Vine. Historian and television presenter Johnathon Foyle had the honour of laying the first brick.\n", "As part of the project, a series of five Lego animated shorts were produced showcasing the history of the Cathedral. North East based film maker Matt James Smith worked with the Cathedral to create the shorts. \n", "Section::::See also.\n", "BULLET::::- Architecture of the medieval cathedrals of England\n", "BULLET::::- List of church restorations and alterations by Anthony Salvin\n", "Section::::Bibliography.\n", "BULLET::::- Clifton-Taylor, Alec (1967) \"The Cathedrals of England\". London: Thames and Hudson\n", "BULLET::::- Dodds, Glen Lyndon (1996) \"Historic Sites of County Durham\" Albion Press\n", "BULLET::::- Harvey, John (1963) \"English Cathedrals\". London: Batsford\n", "BULLET::::- Moorhouse, Geoffrey (2008) \"The Last Office: 1539 and the dissolution of a monastery\". London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson\n", "BULLET::::- Stranks, C. J. \"The Pictorial History of Durham Cathedral\". London: Pitkin Pictorials\n", "BULLET::::- Tatton-Brown, Tim (2002) \"The English Cathedral\"; text by Timothy Tatton-Brown; photography by John Crook. London: New Holland\n", "Section::::External links.\n", "BULLET::::- Durham Cathedral website\n", "BULLET::::- The Friends of Durham Cathedral\n", "BULLET::::- Gallery of photos\n", "BULLET::::- A Tour of Durham Cathedral & Castle\n", "BULLET::::- Webcam views: zoomed, wide angle\n", "BULLET::::- Voted \"Britain's Favourite Building\" in BBC Radio 4 poll, 2001\n", "BULLET::::- A history of Durham Cathedral\n", "BULLET::::- A history of Durham Cathedral choristers and choir school\n", "BULLET::::- Adrian Fletcher's Paradoxplace — Durham Cathedral Pages — Photos\n", "BULLET::::- Place Evocation: The Galilee Chapel\n", "BULLET::::- Local History Publications from County Durham Books\n", "BULLET::::- Bell's Cathedrals: The Cathedral Church of Durham — from Project Gutenberg\n", "BULLET::::- Durham Cathedral — Tourist Guide to Durham Cathedral\n" ] }

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{ "description": "cathedral in the city of Durham, England", "enwikiquote_title": "", "wikidata_id": "Q746207", "wikidata_label": "Durham Cathedral", "wikipedia_title": "Durham Cathedral", "aliases": { "alias": [ "Cathedral Church of Christ and Saint Mary the Virgin", "The Cathedral Church of Christ, Blessed Mary the Virgin and St Cuthbert of Durham" ] } }

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{ "paragraph": [ "Confederacy\n", "Confederacy may refer to:\n", "A confederation, an association of sovereign states or communities. Examples include:\n", "BULLET::::- Confederate tribes\n", "BULLET::::- Confederate States of America, a confederation of secessionist American states that existed between 1861 and 1865, consisting of eleven southern U.S. states. \"Confederacy\" may also reference the military armed forces of the CSA, such as:\n", "BULLET::::- Confederate States Army\n", "BULLET::::- Confederate States Marine Corps\n", "BULLET::::- Confederate States Navy\n", "BULLET::::- Confederate Ireland\n", "BULLET::::- Canadian Confederation\n", "BULLET::::- Confederation of the Rhine\n", "BULLET::::- Crown of Aragon\n", "BULLET::::- Gaya confederacy, an ancient grouping of territorial polities in southern Korea\n", "BULLET::::- German Confederation\n", "BULLET::::- Iroquois Confederacy, group of united Native American nations in both Canada and the United States of America\n", "BULLET::::- Maratha Confederacy\n", "BULLET::::- North German Confederation\n", "BULLET::::- Peru–Bolivian Confederation of 1836–1839\n", "BULLET::::- Powhatan Confederacy\n", "BULLET::::- Sikh Confederacy\n", "BULLET::::- Swiss Confederation\n", "BULLET::::- Old Swiss Confederacy\n", "BULLET::::- Three Confederate States of Gojoseon of the Korean Bronze Age\n", "BULLET::::- Western Confederacy\n", "Section::::Fictional confederacies.\n", "BULLET::::- Breen Confederacy, a political entity in the \"Star Trek\" universe\n", "BULLET::::- Capellan Confederation, a political entity in the \"Battletech\" universe\n", "BULLET::::- Galactic Confederacy, part of the Scientology mythos\n", "BULLET::::- Terran Confederacy, a political entity in the \"StarCraft\" universe\n", "BULLET::::- Terran Confederation (Wing Commander), a political entity in the \"Wing Commander\" universe\n", "BULLET::::- Confederation of Planet Omega, from the animated series \"Once Upon a Time... Space\"\n", "BULLET::::- Confederacy of Independent Systems, a secessionist political entity in the \"Star Wars\" universe\n", "Section::::Psychology.\n", "In psychology, confederates are actors who participate in a psychological experiment pretending to be a subject but in actuality working for the researcher.\n", "Section::::See also.\n", "BULLET::::- \"A Confederacy of Dunces\", a novel written by John Kennedy Toole, published in 1980\n", "BULLET::::- Confederacy (British political group)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Confederates\" (novel), a novel by Thomas Keneally\n", "BULLET::::- \"Confederate\" (TV series), an upcoming HBO television program\n", "BULLET::::- Confederate Motors, an American manufacturer of motorcycles\n", "BULLET::::- Chevrolet Series BA Confederate, an automobile manufactured in 1932\n", "BULLET::::- Federacy, where one or several states or regions enjoy considerably more independence than the majority\n", "BULLET::::- Federation, a union comprising a number of partially self-governing states or regions united by a central government\n" ] }

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{ "paragraph": [ "Judah (son of Jacob)\n", "Judah (, \"Yəhuda\" \"Yehuḏā\") was, according to the Book of Genesis, the fourth son of Jacob and Leah, the founder of the Israelite Tribe of Judah. By extension, he is indirectly eponymous of the Kingdom of Judah, the land of Judea and the word \"Jew\".\n", "According to the narrative in Genesis, Judah with Tamar is the patrilinear ancestor of the Davidic line.\n", "The Tribe of Judah figures prominently in the Deuteronomistic history, which most scholars agree was reduced to written form, although subject to exilic and post-exilic alterations and emendations, during the reign of the Judahist reformer Josiah from 641-609 BC.\n", "Section::::Etymology.\n", "The Hebrew name for Judah, \"Yehudah\" (יהודה), literally \"thanksgiving\" or \"praise,\" is the noun form of the root Y-D-H (ידה), \"to thank\" or \"to praise.\" His birth is recorded at \"Gen.\" 29:35; upon his birth, Leah exclaims, \"This time I will praise the /Yah,\" with the Hebrew word for \"I will praise,\" \"odeh\" (אודה) sharing the same root as \"Yehudah\".\n", "Section::::Biblical references.\n", "Judah is the fourth son of the patriarch Jacob and his first wife, Leah: his full brothers are Reuben, Simeon and Levi (all older), and Issachar and Zebulun (younger) and one full sister Dinah. He has six half-brothers.\n", "Following his birth, Judah's next appearance is in \"Gen\" 37, when he and his brothers cast Joseph into a pit out of jealousy after Joseph approaches them, flaunting a coat of many colors, while they are working in the field. It is Judah who spots a caravan of Ishmaelites coming towards them, on its way to Egypt and suggests that Joseph be sold to the Ishmaelites rather than killed. (\"Gen.\" 37:26-28, \"What profit is it if we slay our brother and conceal his blood? ... Let not our hand be upon him, for he is our brother, our flesh.\")\n", "Judah marries the daughter of Shua, a Canaanite. Judah and his wife have three children, Er, Onan, and Shelah. Er marries Tamar, but God kills him because he \"was wicked in the sight of the Lord\" (\"Gen.\" 38:7). Tamar becomes Onan's wife in accordance with custom, but he too is killed after he refuses to father children for his older brother's childless widow, and spills his seed instead. Although Tamar should have married Shelah, the remaining brother, Judah did not consent, and in response Tamar deceives Judah into having intercourse with her by pretending to be a prostitute. When Judah discovers that Tamar is pregnant he prepares to have her killed, but recants and confesses when he finds out that he is the father (\"Gen.\" 38:24-26). Tamar is the mother of twins, Perez (Peretz) and Zerah (Gen. 38:27-30). The former is the patrilinear ancestor of the messiah, according to the Book of Ruth (4:18-22). \n", "Meanwhile, Joseph rises to a position of power in Egypt. Twenty years after being betrayed, he meets his brothers again without them recognizing him. The youngest brother, Benjamin, had remained in Canaan with Jacob, so Joseph takes Simeon hostage and insists that the brothers return with Benjamin. Judah offers himself to Jacob as surety for Benjamin's safety, and manages to persuade Jacob to let them take Benjamin to Egypt. When the brothers return, Joseph tests them by demanding the enslavement of Benjamin. Judah pleads for Benjamin's life, and Joseph reveals his true identity.\n", "Section::::Textual criticism.\n", "Section::::Textual criticism.:Relationship between the Joseph and Judah narratives.\n", "Literary critics have focused on the relationship between the Judah story in chapter 38, and the Joseph story in chapters 37 and 39. Victor Hamilton notes some “intentional literary parallels” between the chapters, such as the exhortation to “identify” (38:25-26 and 37:32-33). J. A. Emerton, Regius Professor of Hebrew at the University of Cambridge, regards the connections as evidence for including chapter 38 in the J corpus, and suggests that the J writer dovetailed the Joseph and Judah traditions. Derek Kidner points out that the insertion of chapter 38 “creates suspense for the reader ,” but Robert Alter goes further and suggests it is a result of the “brilliant splicing of sources by a literary artist.” He notes that the same verb “identify” will play “a crucial thematic role in the dénouement of the Joseph story when he confronts his brothers in Egypt, he recognizing them, they failing to recognize him.\" Similarly, J. P. Fokkelman notes that the \"extra attention\" for Judah in chapter 38, \"sets him up for his major role as the brothers' spokesman in Genesis 44.\"\n", "Section::::Textual criticism.:Foreshadowing the hegemony of Judah.\n", "Other than Joseph (and perhaps Benjamin), Judah receives the most favorable treatment in Genesis among Jacob's sons, which according to biblical historians is a reflection on the historical primacy that the tribe of Judah possessed throughout much of Israel's history, including as the source of the Davidic line. Although Judah is only the fourth son of Leah, he is expressly depicted in Genesis as assuming a leadership role among the 10 eldest brothers, including speaking up against killing Joseph, negotiating with his father regarding Joseph's demand that Benjamin be brought down to Egypt, and pleading with Joseph after the latter secrets the silver cup into Benjamin's bag.\n", "Judah's position is further enhanced through the downfall of his older brothers: Reuben, the eldest, cedes his birthright through sexual misconduct with Jacob's concubine Bilhah (\"Gen.\" 35:22), and the bloody revenge taken by Simeon and Levi following the rape of Dinah (\"Gen.\" chap. 34). disqualifies them as leaders. The eternal legacy of these events are foreshadowed in the deathbed blessing of Jacob (\"Gen.\" 49:1-33), which has been attributed according to the documentary hypothesis to the pro-Judah Yahwist source. In Jacob's blessing, Reuben has \"not the excellency\" to lead \"because thou went up to thy father's bed, then defiled [it]\"; meanwhile, Simeon and Levi are condemned as \"cruel\" and \"weapons of violence [are] their kinship.\" (\"Gen.\" 49.:3-7.) On the other hand, Judah is praised as \"a lion's whelp\" whose brothers \"shall bow down before thee,\" and \"the sceptre shall not depart from Judah\" (Genesis 49:10), the latter a clear reference to the aspirations of the united monarchy.\n", "Archaeologist and scholar Israel Finkelstein argues that these and other pro-Judah narrative strands likely originated after the demise of the Kingdom of Israel in the 8th Century BCE: \"[I]t was only after the fall of Israel that Judah grew into a fully developed state with the necessary complement of professional priests and trained scribes able to undertake such a task. When Judah suddenly faced the non-Israelite world on its own, it needed a defining and motivating text. That text was the historical core of the Bible, composed in Jerusalem in the course of the seventh century BCE. And because Judah was the birthplace of ancient Israel's central scripture, it is hardly surprising that the biblical text repeatedly stresses Judah's special status from the very beginnings of Israel's history... [In Genesis], it was Judah, among all of Jacob's sons, whose destiny was to rule over all the other tribes in Israel.\"\n", "Section::::Textual criticism.:The story of Judah and Tamar in the historical context.\n", "Emerton notes that it is “widely agreed” that the story of Judah and Tamar “reflects a period after the settlement of the Israelites in Canaan.” He also suggests the possibility that it contains “aetiological motifs concerned with the eponymous ancestors of the clans of Judah.” Emerton notes that Dillman and Noth considered the account of the deaths of Er and Onan to “reflect the dying out of two clans of Judah bearing their names, or at least of their failure to maintain a separate existence.” However, this view was “trenchantly criticized” by Thomas L. Thompson.\n", "Section::::Jewish tradition.\n", "Section::::Jewish tradition.:Rabbinic commentaries.\n", "The text of the Torah argues that the name of \"Judah\", meaning \"to thank\" or \"admit\", refers to Leah's intent to thank Hashem, on account of having achieved four children, and derived from \"odeh\", meaning \"I will give thanks\". In classical rabbinical literature, the name is interpreted as a combination of \"Yahweh\" and a dalet (the letter \"d\"); in Gematria, the dalet has the numerical value \"4\", which these rabbinical sources argue refers to Judah being Jacob's fourth son. Since Leah was matriarch, Jewish scholars think the text's authors believed the tribe was part of the original Israelite confederation; however, it is worthy of note that the tribe of Judah was not purely Israelite, but contained a large admixture of non-Israelites, with a number of Kenizzite groups, the Jerahmeelites, and the Kenites, merging into the tribe at various points.\n", "Classical rabbinical sources refer to the passage \"... a ruler came from Judah\", from , to imply that Judah was the leader of his brothers, terming him \"the king\". This passage also describes Judah as the \"strongest of his brothers\" in which rabbinical literature portray him as having had extraordinary physical strength, able to shout for over 400 parasangs, able to crush iron into dust by his mouth, and with hair that stiffened so much, when he became angry, that it pierced his clothes.\n", "Classical rabbinical sources also allude to a war between the Canaanites and Judah's family (not mentioned in the Hebrew Bible), as a result of their destruction of Shechem in revenge for the rape of Dinah; Judah features heavily as a protagonist in accounts of this war. In these accounts Judah kills Jashub, king of Tappuah, in hand-to-hand combat, after first having deposed Jashub from his horse by throwing an extremely heavy stone (60 shekels in weight) at him from a large distance away (the Midrash Wayissau states 177⅓ cubits, while other sources have only 30 cubits); the accounts say that Judah was able to achieve this even though he was himself under attack, from arrows which Jashub was shooting at him with both hands. The accounts go on to state that while Judah was trying to remove Jashub's armour from his corpse, nine assistants of Jashub fell upon him in combat, but after Judah killed one, he scared away the others; nevertheless, Judah killed several members of Jashub's army (42 men according to the midrashic \"Book of Jasher\", but 1000 men according to the \"Testament of Judah\").\n", "According to some classical rabbinical sources, Jacob suspected that Judah had killed Joseph, especially, according to the Midrash Tanhuma, when Judah was the one who had brought the blood stained coat to Jacob.\n", "Since rabbinical sources held Judah to have been the leader of his brothers, these sources also hold that the other nine brothers blamed him to be responsible for this deception, even if it was not Judah himself who brought the coat to Jacob. Even if Judah had been trying to save Joseph, the classical rabbinical sources still regard him negatively for it; these sources argue that, as the leader of the brothers, Judah should have made more effort, and carried Joseph home to Jacob on his (Judah's) own shoulders. These sources argue that Judah's brothers, after witnessing Jacob's grief at the loss of Joseph, deposed and excommunicated Judah, as the brothers held Judah entirely responsible, since they would have brought Joseph home if Judah had asked them to do so. Divine punishment, according to such classical sources, was also inflicted on Judah in punishment; the death of Er and Onan, and of his wife, are portrayed in by such classical rabbis as being acts of divine retribution.\n", "When Benjamin was held in bondage following the accusation of stealing Joseph's cup, Judah offered himself among his brethren as a bondman in replace of him, but Joseph was strict that the punishment is only applied to the one who was guilty, not to the innocent ones.\n", "According to classical rabbinical literature, because Judah had proposed that he should bear any blame \"forever\", this ultimately led to his bones being rolled around his coffin without cease, while it was being carried during the Exodus, until Moses interceded with God, by arguing that Judah's confession (in regard to cohabiting with Tamar) had led to Reuben confessing his own incest. Apparently, Judah learned a lesson from his experience with Tamar that he must be responsible for those around him and this eventually prepares him for his future reconciliatory encounter with Joseph.\n", "\"Genesis Rabbah\", and particularly the midrashic \"book of Jasher\", expand on this by describing Judah's plea as much more extensive than given in the Torah, and more vehement.\n", "The classical rabbinical literature argues that Judah reacted violently to the threat against Benjamin, shouting so loudly that Hushim, who was then in Canaan, was able to hear Judah ask him to travel to Egypt, to help Judah destroy it; some sources have Judah angrily picking up an extremely heavy stone (400 shekels in weight), throwing it into the air, then grinding it to dust with his feet once it had landed. These rabbinical sources argue that Judah had Naphtali enumerate the districts of Egypt, and after finding out that there were 12 (historically, there were actually 20 in Lower Egypt and 22 in Upper Egypt), he decided to destroy three himself, and have his brothers destroy one of the remaining districts each; the threat of destroying Egypt was, according to these sources, what really motivated Joseph to reveal himself to his brothers.\n", "Section::::Jewish tradition.:Testament of Judah.\n", "Before his death, Judah told his children about his bravery and heroism in the wars against the kings of Canaan and the family of Esau, also confessed his shortcomings caused by wine that led him astray in his relationship with Bathshua and Tamar. Judah admonished his sons not to love gold, and not to look upon the beauty of women, for through these things, the sons of Judah will fall into misery. In his last words, he reminded them to observe the whole law of the Lord.\n", "Section::::Jewish tradition.:Dating the lifetime of Judah.\n", "According to Classical rabbinical literature, Judah was born on 15 Sivan (early June); classical sources differ on the date of death, with the Book of Jubilees advocating a death at age 119, 18 years before Levi, but the midrashic Book of Jasher advocating a death at the age of 129. The marriage of Judah and births of his children are described in a passage widely regarded as an abrupt change to the surrounding narrative. The passage is often regarded as presenting a significant chronological issue, as the surrounding context appears to constrain the events of the passage to happening within 22 years, and the context together with the passage itself requires the birth of the grandson of Judah and of his son's wife, and the birth of that son, to have happened within this time (to be consistent, this requires an average of less than 8 years gap per generation).\n", "According to textual scholars, the reason for the abrupt interruption this passage causes to the surrounding narrative, and the chronological anomaly it seems to present, is that it derives from the Jahwist source, while the immediately surrounding narrative is from the Elohist.\n", "Section::::See also.\n", "BULLET::::- Lion of Judah\n", "Section::::Bibliography.\n", "BULLET::::- Winckler, Hugo; \"Geschichte Israels\" (Berlin, 1895)\n", "BULLET::::- Meyer, Eduard; \"Die Israeliten und ihre Nachbarstämme\" (Halle, 1906)\n", "BULLET::::- Haupt, Paul; \"Studien ... Welthausen gewidmet\" (Giessen, 1914)\n" ] }

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A. Emerton", "Regius Professor of Hebrew", "University of Cambridge", "J corpus", "Derek Kidner", "Robert Alter", "dénouement", "J. P. Fokkelman", "Benjamin", "Davidic line", "Leah", "Bilhah", "rape of Dinah", "blessing of Jacob", "documentary hypothesis", "Yahwist", "united monarchy", "Kingdom of Israel", "aetiological", "Dillman", "Noth", "Thomas L. Thompson", "Torah", "Hashem", "classical rabbinical literature", "dalet", "Gematria", "Kenizzite", "Jerahmeelite", "Kenites", "Classical rabbinical sources", "parasang", "Canaanites", "Hebrew Bible", "Shechem", "Dinah", "Jashub", "shekel", "Midrash Wayissau", "cubits", "midrashic \"Book of Jasher\"", "Testament of Judah", "Midrash Tanhuma", "excommunicated", "the Exodus", "Moses", "Reuben", "Genesis Rabbah", "Hushim", "Egypt", "Naphtali", "districts of Egypt", "Lower Egypt", "Upper Egypt", "Canaan", "wine", "Classical rabbinical literature", "Sivan", "Book of Jubilees", "Levi", "midrashic Book of Jasher", "Jahwist", "Elohist", "Lion of Judah", "Winckler, Hugo", "Meyer, Eduard", "Haupt, Paul" ], "href": [ "Book%20of%20Genesis", "Jacob", "Leah", "Israelites", "Tribe%20of%20Judah", "Kingdom%20of%20Judah", "Judea%20%28Roman%20province%29", "Jew%20%28word%29", "Tamar%20%28Genesis%29", "Davidic%20line", "Deuteronomist%23Deuteronomistic%20history", "Josiah", "Jah", "biblical%20patriarchs", "Jacob", "Leah", "Reuben%20%28Bible%29", "Simeon%20%28Hebrew%20Bible%29", "Levi", "Issachar", "Zebulun", "Dinah", "Joseph%20%28son%20of%20Jacob%29", "coat%20of%20many%20colors", "Ishmaelites", "Canaan", "Er%20%28biblical%20figure%29", "Onan", "Shelah%20%28son%20of%20Judah%29", "Tamar%20%28Genesis%29", "levirate%20marriage", "Coitus%20interruptus", "prostitute", "Perez%20%28son%20of%20Judah%29", "Zerah", "Messiah%20in%20Judaism", "Canaan", "Simeon%20%28Hebrew%20Bible%29", "surety", "Egypt", "slavery", "Benjamin", "Joseph%20%28son%20of%20Jacob%29", "Victor%20P.%20Hamilton", "John%20Emerton", "Regius%20Professor%20of%20Hebrew%20%28Cambridge%29", "University%20of%20Cambridge", "Jahwist", "Derek%20Kidner", "Robert%20Alter", "d%C3%A9nouement", "J.%20P.%20Fokkelman", "Benjamin", "Davidic%20line", "Leah", "Bilhah", "Dinah%23The%20rape%20of%20Dinah", "blessing%20of%20Jacob", "documentary%20hypothesis", "Yahwist", "Kingdom%20of%20Israel%20%28united%20monarchy%29", "Kingdom%20of%20Israel%20%28Samaria%29", "Etiology", "August%20Dillmann", "Martin%20Noth", "Thomas%20L.%20Thompson", "Torah", "Hashem", "classical%20rabbinical%20literature", "dalet", "Gematria", "Kenizzite", "Jerahmeelite", "Kenites", "classical%20rabbinical%20literature", "parasang", "Canaanites", "Hebrew%20Bible", "Shechem", "Dinah", "Jashub", "shekel", "Midrash%20Wayissau", "cubits", "Sefer%20haYashar%20%28midrash%29", "Testament%20of%20Judah", "Midrash%20Tanhuma", "excommunication", "the%20Exodus", "Moses", "Reuben%20%28Bible%29", "Genesis%20Rabbah", "Hushim", "Egypt", "Naphtali", "Nome%20%28Egypt%29", "Lower%20Egypt", "Upper%20Egypt", "Canaan", "wine", "Classical%20rabbinical%20literature", "Sivan", "Book%20of%20Jubilees", "Levi", "Sefer%20haYashar%20%28midrash%29", "Jahwist", "Elohist", "Lion%20of%20Judah", "Hugo%20Winckler", "Eduard%20Meyer", "Paul%20Haupt" ], "wikipedia_title": [ "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "" ], "wikipedia_id": [ "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "" ] }

{ "description": "figure in the Hebrew Bible", "enwikiquote_title": "", "wikidata_id": "Q282220", "wikidata_label": "Judah", "wikipedia_title": "Judah (son of Jacob)", "aliases": { "alias": [ "Yehuda" ] } }

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{ "paragraph": [ "65 Cybele\n", "Cybele ( minor planet designation: 65 Cybele) is one of the largest asteroids in the Solar System and is located in the outer asteroid belt. It gives its name to the Cybele group of asteroids that orbit outward from the Sun from the 2:1 orbital resonance with Jupiter. The X-type asteroid has a relatively short rotation period of 6.0814 hours. It was discovered by Wilhelm Tempel in 1861, and named after Cybele, the earth goddess.\n", "Section::::Discovery and naming.\n", "\"Cybele\" was discovered on 8 March 1861, by German astronomer Wilhelm Tempel from the Marseilles Observatory in southeastern France. A minor controversy arose from its naming process. Tempel had awarded the honour of naming the asteroid to Carl August von Steinheil in recognition of his achievements in telescope production. Von Steinheil elected to name it \"Maximiliana\" after the reigning monarch Maximilian II of Bavaria. At the time, asteroids were conventionally given classical names, and a number of astronomers protested this contemporary appellation. The name Cybele was chosen instead, referring to the Phrygian goddess of the earth. (The previously discovered 45 Eugenia, 54 Alexandra, and 64 Angelina had nevertheless also been given non-classical names; 64 Angelina had also been discovered by Tempel, but its name stood despite similar protests.)\n", "Section::::Physical characteristics.\n", "The first Cybelian stellar occultation was observed on 17 October 1979, in the Soviet Union. The asteroid appeared to have an irregular shape, with the longest chord being measured as 245 km, closely matching results determined by the IRAS satellite in 1983 \"(see below)\". During the same 1979 occultation, a hint of a possible 11 km wide minor-planet moon at 917 km distance was detected, but has since never been corroborated. As of 2017, neither the \"Asteroid Lightcurve Data Base\" nor \"Johnstons archive\" consider \"Cybele\" to be a binary asteroid.\n", "Section::::Physical characteristics.:Diameter estimates.\n", "Mean-diameter estimates for \"Cybele\" range between 218.56 and 300.54 kilometers. According to observations by the Infrared Astronomical Satellite IRAS in 1983, the asteroid has a diameter of 237.26 km. The NEOWISE mission of NASA's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer gave a diameter of 218.56 and 276.58 km. The largest estimates of 300.54 km is from the Japanese Akari satellite. In 2004, Müller estimated \"Cybele\" using thermophysical modelling (TPM) to have dimensions of 302 × 290 × 232 km, which corresponds to a mean-diameter of 273.0 km.\n", "Section::::Spectrum.\n", "Examination of the asteroid's infrared spectrum shows an absorption feature that is similar to the one present in the spectrum of 24 Themis. This can be explained by the presence of water ice. The asteroid may be covered in a layer of fine silicate dust mixed with small amounts of water-ice and organic solids.\n", "Section::::Recent occultations.\n", "On August 24, 2008, \"Cybele\" occulted 2UCAC 24389317, a 12.7-magnitude star in the constellation Ophiuchus which showed a long axis of at least 294 km. On 11 October 2009, \"Cybele\" occulted a 13.4-magnitude star in the constellation Aquarius.\n", "Section::::External links.\n", "BULLET::::- Asteroid Lightcurve Database (LCDB), query form (info)\n", "BULLET::::- Dictionary of Minor Planet Names, Google books\n", "BULLET::::- Asteroids and comets rotation curves – (17) Thetis at Observatoire de Genève, Raoul Behrend\n", "BULLET::::- Discovery Circumstances: Numbered Minor Planets (1)-(5000) – Minor Planet Center\n" ] }

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{ "description": "outer main-belt asteroid", "enwikiquote_title": "", "wikidata_id": "Q156149", "wikidata_label": "65 Cybele", "wikipedia_title": "65 Cybele", "aliases": { "alias": [ "(65) Cybele", "Cybele" ] } }

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{ "paragraph": [ "UNIVAC 1103\n", "The UNIVAC 1103 or ERA 1103, a successor to the UNIVAC 1101, was a computer system designed by Engineering Research Associates and built by the Remington Rand corporation in October 1953. It was the first computer for which Seymour Cray was credited with design work.\n", "Section::::History.\n", "Even before the completion of the \"Atlas\" (UNIVAC 1101), the Navy asked Engineering Research Associates to design a more powerful machine. This project became Task 29, and the computer was designated \"Atlas II\".\n", "In 1952, Engineering Research Associates asked the Armed Forces Security Agency (the predecessor of the NSA) for approval to sell the \"Atlas II\" commercially. Permission was given, on the condition that several specialized instructions would be removed. The commercial version then became the UNIVAC 1103. Because of security classification, Remington Rand management was unaware of this machine before this. The first commercially sold UNIVAC 1103 was sold to the aircraft manufacturer Convair, where Marvin Stein worked with it.\n", "Remington Rand announced the UNIVAC 1103 in February 1953. The machine competed with the IBM 701 in the scientific computation market. In early 1954, a committee of the Joint Chiefs of Staff requested that the two machines be compared for the purpose of using them for a Joint Numerical Weather Prediction project. Based on the trials, the two machines had comparable computational speed, with a slight advantage for IBM's machine, but the latter was favored unanimously for its significantly faster input-output equipment.\n", "The successor machine was the UNIVAC 1103A or \"Univac Scientific\", which improved upon the design by replacing the unreliable Williams tube memory with magnetic-core memory, adding hardware floating-point instructions, and perhaps the earliest occurrence of a hardware interrupt feature.\n", "Section::::Technical details.\n", "The system used electrostatic storage, consisting of 36 Williams tubes with a capacity of 1024 bits each, giving a total random access memory of 1024 words of 36 bits each. Each of the 36 Williams tubes was five inches in diameter. A magnetic drum memory provided 16,384 words. Both the electrostatic and drum memories were directly addressable: addresses 0 through 01777 (Octal) were in electrostatic memory and 040000 through 077777 (Octal) were on the drum.\n", "Fixed-point numbers had a 1-bit sign and a 35-bit value, with negative values represented in ones' complement format.\n", "Instructions had a 6-bit operation code and two 15-bit operand addresses.\n", "Programming systems for the machine included the RECO regional coding assembler by Remington-Rand, the RAWOOP one-pass assembler and SNAP floating point interpretive system authored by the Ramo-Wooldridge Corporation of Los Angeles, the FLIP floating point interpretive system by Consolidated Vultee Aircraft of San Diego, and the CHIP floating point interpretive system by Wright Field in Ohio.\n", "UNIVAC 1103/A weighed about .\n", "Section::::1103A.\n", "The UNIVAC 1103A or Univac Scientific was an upgraded version introduced in March 1956.\n", "Significant new features on the 1103A were its magnetic-core memory and the addition of interrupts to the processor. The UNIVAC 1103A had up to 12,288 words of 36-bit magnetic core memory, in one to three banks of 4,096 words each.\n", "Fixed-point numbers had a one-bit sign and a 35-bit value, with negative values represented in ones' complement format. Floating-point numbers had a one-bit sign, an eight-bit characteristic, and a 27-bit mantissa. Instructions had a six-bit operation code and two 15-bit operand addresses.\n", "The 1103A was contemporary with, and a competitor to, the IBM 704, which also employed vacuum-tube logic, magnetic-core memory, and floating-point hardware.\n", "Section::::1104.\n", "The 1104 system was a 30-bit version of the 1103 built for Westinghouse Electric in 1957, for use on the BOMARC Missile Program. However, by the time the BOMARC was deployed in the 1960s, a more modern computer (a version of the AN/USQ-20, designated the G-40) had replaced the UNIVAC 1104.\n", "Section::::See also.\n", "BULLET::::- List of UNIVAC products\n", "BULLET::::- History of computing hardware\n", "BULLET::::- List of vacuum tube computers\n", "Section::::Further reading.\n", "BULLET::::- Oral history interviews on ERA 1103, Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota. Interviewees include William W. Butler; Arnold A. Cohen; William C. Norris; Frank C. Mullaney; Marvin L. Stein; and James E. Thornton.\n" ] }

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{ "paragraph": [ "Minstrelsy\n", "Minstrelsy may refer to:\n", "BULLET::::- The art of the medieval minstrel\n", "BULLET::::- The art of the 19th-century American minstrel show\n" ] }

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{ "description": "Wikipedia disambiguation page", "enwikiquote_title": "", "wikidata_id": "Q6869535", "wikidata_label": "Minstrelsy", "wikipedia_title": "Minstrelsy", "aliases": { "alias": [] } }

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{ "paragraph": [ "Polemarch\n", "A polemarch (, from , \"polemarchos\") was a senior military title in various ancient Greek city states (\"poleis\"). The title is derived from the words \"polemos\" (war) and \"archon\" (ruler, leader) and translates as \"warleader\" or \"warlord\". The name indicates that the polemarch's original function was to command the army; presumably the office was created to take over this function from the king. Eventually military command was transferred to the \"strategoi\" (\"στρατηγοί\"), but the date and stages of the transfer are not clear.\n", "Section::::Ancient Greece.\n", "Section::::Ancient Greece.:Athens.\n", "In Athens, the \"polemarchos\" was one of nine annually appointed \"archontes\" (\"ἄρχοντες\") and functioned as the commander of the military, though to what extent is debated among historians.\n", "At the Battle of Marathon Herodotus described the vote of the \"polemarchos\", Callimachus, as the deciding factor during debate over engagement in battle; it is disputed whether this vote implies that the position of \"polemarchos\" was an equal to the \"strategoi\" or that of a commander-in-chief. The \"polemarchos'\" military responsibilities continued until 487 BC, when a new procedure was adopted and magistrates were then appointed by lot. Following this reform, the military duties were handled by the \"strategoi.\" By the mid-5th Century BC, the \"polemarchos\"' role was reduced to ceremonial and judicial functions, and primarily presided over preliminary trials involving metics' family, inheritance, and status cases. After the preliminary stage the cases would either continue under the judgement of the \"polemarchos\", or be remitted to tribal or municipal judges. It is likely that at an earlier period, his responsibilities for cases involving aliens were more extensive. The \"polemarchos\" also conducted certain religious sacrificial offerings and arranged the funeral ceremonies for men killed in war.\n", "Section::::Ancient Greece.:Sparta.\n", "In the new structure of the Spartan Army, introduced sometime during the Peloponnesian War, a \"polemarchos\" was the commander of a \"mora\" of 576 men, one of six in the Spartan army on campaign. On occasion however they were appointed to head armies. The six Spartan \"polemarchoi\" seem to have been on equal power to kings at expeditions outside Laconia and were usually descendants of the royal houses. They were part of the royal army council and the royal escort (δαμοσία) and were supported or represented by officers (συμφορεῖς). The \"polemarchoi\" were also responsible for public meals, since, by the laws of Lycurgus, the Lacedaemonians would eat and fight in the same group. Next to their military and connected responsibilities, the \"polemarchoi\" were responsible for some civil and juridical tasks (not unlike the \"archōn polemarchos\" in Athens).\n", "Section::::Ancient Greece.:Boeotia.\n", "In the early 4th century BC several Boeotian \"poleis\" instituted the position of \"polemarchos\", though there was no unified policy. Of the surviving accounts, Plutarch and Xenophon describe three \"polemarchoi\" as executive officials of Thebes during this period.\n", "Section::::Other uses.\n", "In modern use, the Greek Letter fraternity Kappa Alpha Psi titles their fraternity leaders as Polemarchs.\n", "Section::::Fictional use.\n", "This position was featured in Orson Scott Card's novel \"Ender's Game\". In the novel, the position of polemarch was charged with the supreme command of humanity's space fleets, the International Fleet. The Polemarch, along with the positions of Strategos and Hegemon, was one of the three most powerful people alive.\n", "This title was also given to the DC Comics character Artemis of Bana-Mighdall, an Amazon in the \"Wonder Woman\" comic books. For a period Artemis served as Paradise Island's co-ruler alongside fellow Amazon Philippus. Whereas Philippus oversaw the day-to-day rule of the island, Artemis oversaw its military aspects.\n", "The title was used to signify soldiers who commanded fortifications and other camps in the 2018 Ubisoft video game \"Assassin’s Creed Odyssey\". They were the strongest regular enemies in the game and killing them would lower the ‘nation power’ of a particular state in Greece substantially.\n" ] }

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{ "description": "military rank", "enwikiquote_title": "", "wikidata_id": "Q947374", "wikidata_label": "Polemarch", "wikipedia_title": "Polemarch", "aliases": { "alias": [] } }

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{ "paragraph": [ "Stephano\n", "Stephano may refer to:\n", "BULLET::::- Fictional characters\n", "BULLET::::- Stephano (The Tempest), a drunkard in Shakespeare's \"The Tempest\"\n", "BULLET::::- An alias of Count Olaf in Lemony Snicket's \"A Series of Unfortunate Events\"\n", "BULLET::::- Other\n", "BULLET::::- Stephano (moon), a natural satellite of the planet Uranus\n", "Section::::See also.\n", "BULLET::::- Stefano, a name\n" ] }

{ "paragraph_id": [ 3, 4, 6, 8 ], "start": [ 12, 24, 12, 12 ], "end": [ 34, 34, 27, 19 ], "text": [ "Stephano (The Tempest)", "Count Olaf", "Stephano (moon)", "Stefano" ], "href": [ "Stephano%20%28The%20Tempest%29", "Count%20Olaf", "Stephano%20%28moon%29", "Stefano" ], "wikipedia_title": [ "", "", "", "" ], "wikipedia_id": [ "", "", "", "" ] }

{ "description": "Wikimedia disambiguation page", "enwikiquote_title": "", "wikidata_id": "Q445658", "wikidata_label": "Stephano", "wikipedia_title": "Stephano", "aliases": { "alias": [] } }

{ "pageid": 206683, "parentid": 645771399, "revid": 645771402, "pre_dump": true, "timestamp": "2015-02-05T17:02:41Z", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Stephano&oldid=645771402" }

{ "paragraph": [ "List of caricaturists\n", "A caricaturist is an artist who specializes in drawing caricatures.\n", "Section::::List of caricaturists.\n", "BULLET::::- Jacques Callot (1592–1635)\n", "BULLET::::- Pier Leone Ghezzi (1674–1755)\n", "BULLET::::- William Hogarth (1697–1764)\n", "BULLET::::- George Bickham the Younger (c. 1706–1771)\n", "BULLET::::- Henry Wigstead (died 1800)\n", "BULLET::::- William Austin (1721–1820)\n", "BULLET::::- John Kay (1742–1826)\n", "BULLET::::- James Sayers (1748–1825)\n", "BULLET::::- Henry Bunbury (1750–1811)\n", "BULLET::::- James Gillray (1756–1815)\n", "BULLET::::- Thomas Rowlandson (1756–1827)\n", "BULLET::::- George Moutard Woodward (c. 1760–1809)\n", "BULLET::::- Richard Newton (1777–1798)\n", "BULLET::::- Isaac Cruikshank (1786–1856)\n", "BULLET::::- Kenny Meadows (1790–1874)\n", "BULLET::::- George Cruikshank (1792–1880)\n", "BULLET::::- William Heath (1794–1840)\n", "BULLET::::- John Doyle (1797–1868)\n", "BULLET::::- Charles Williams (1798–1830)\n", "BULLET::::- Jean-Pierre Dantan (1800–1869)\n", "BULLET::::- J.J. Grandville (1803–1847)\n", "BULLET::::- Paul Gavarni (1804–1866)\n", "BULLET::::- Nikolai Stepanov (1807–1877)\n", "BULLET::::- Honoré Daumier (1808–1879)\n", "BULLET::::- John Leech (1817–1864)\n", "BULLET::::- Amédée de Noé, also known as \"Cham\" (1818–1879)\n", "BULLET::::- John Tenniel (1820–1914)\n", "BULLET::::- Melchiorre Delfico (1825–1895)\n", "BULLET::::- Alfred Grévin (1827–1892)\n", "BULLET::::- Luigi Borgomainerio (1836–1876)\n", "BULLET::::- Carlo Pellegrini (1839–1889)\n", "BULLET::::- Andre Gill (1840–1885)\n", "BULLET::::- Thomas Nast (1840–1902)\n", "BULLET::::- Arthur Good (1853–1928)\n", "BULLET::::- Émile Cohl (1857–1938)\n", "BULLET::::- Alfred Schmidt (1858–1938)\n", "BULLET::::- Georges Goursat (1863–1934)\n", "BULLET::::- Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec (1864–1901)\n", "BULLET::::- Kate Carew (1869–1961)\n", "BULLET::::- Max Beerbohm (1872–1956)\n", "BULLET::::- Lluís Bagaria (1882–1940)\n", "BULLET::::- Marjorie Organ (1886–1930)\n", "BULLET::::- Henry Bateman (1887–1970)\n", "BULLET::::- William Auerbach-Levy (1889–1964)\n", "BULLET::::- Sir David Low (1891–1963)\n", "BULLET::::- Don Barclay (1892–1975)\n", "BULLET::::- Peggy Bacon (1895-1987)\n", "BULLET::::- Alexander Saroukhan (1898–1977)\n", "BULLET::::- Boris Yefimov (1899–2008)\n", "BULLET::::- Alex Gard (1900–1948)\n", "BULLET::::- Oscar Berger (1901–1997)\n", "BULLET::::- Al Hirschfeld (1903–2003)\n", "BULLET::::- Louis Hirshman (1905–1986)\n", "BULLET::::- Sam Berman (1906–1995)\n", "BULLET::::- Joe Grant (1908–2005)\n", "BULLET::::- Aurelius Battaglia (1910–1984)\n", "BULLET::::- Emilio Coia (1911–1997)\n", "BULLET::::- George Wachsteter (1911–2004)\n", "BULLET::::- Edmund S. Valtman (1914–2005)\n", "BULLET::::- Sam Norkin (1917-2011)\n", "BULLET::::- Donald Bevan (1920-2013)\n", "BULLET::::- Ronald Searle (1920-2011)\n", "BULLET::::- Marc Sleen (1922-2016)\n", "BULLET::::- Jack Davis (1924-2016)\n", "BULLET::::- Raoul Hunter (1926–2018)\n", "BULLET::::- David Levine (1926–2009)\n", "BULLET::::- Jeff Hook (1928–2018)\n", "BULLET::::- Mort Drucker (born 1929)\n", "BULLET::::- Ranan Lurie (born 1932)\n", "BULLET::::- George Bahgoury (born 1932)\n", "BULLET::::- Predrag Koraksić Corax (born 1933)\n", "BULLET::::- Bruce Stark (born 1933)\n", "BULLET::::- Patrick Oliphant (born 1935)\n", "BULLET::::- Oğuz Aral (1936–2004)\n", "BULLET::::- Gerald Scarfe (born 1936)\n", "BULLET::::- Ralph Steadman (born 1936)\n", "BULLET::::- Cabu (1938–2015)\n", "BULLET::::- GAL (born 1940)\n", "BULLET::::- Jovan Prokopljević (born 1940)\n", "BULLET::::- Robert Grossman (born 1940)\n", "BULLET::::- György Rózsahegyi (1940–2010)\n", "BULLET::::- Abed Abdi (born 1942)\n", "BULLET::::- Malky McCormick (born 1943)\n", "BULLET::::- Vitaliy Peskov (1944–2002) (Russian: )\n", "BULLET::::- Bill Plympton (born 1946)\n", "BULLET::::- Dušan Petričić (born 1946)\n", "BULLET::::- Murray Webb (born 1947)\n", "BULLET::::- Kerry Waghorn (born 1947)\n", "BULLET::::- Ken Fallin (born 1948)\n", "BULLET::::- Steve Bell (born 1951)\n", "BULLET::::- Gerhard Haderer (born 1951)\n", "BULLET::::- Javad Alizadeh (born 1953)\n", "BULLET::::- Sam Viviano (born 1953)\n", "BULLET::::- Steve Brodner (born 1954)\n", "BULLET::::- Massoud Mehrabi (born 1955)\n", "BULLET::::- Robert Risko (born 1956)\n", "BULLET::::- Philip Burke (born 1956)\n", "BULLET::::- Tom Bachtell (born 1957)\n", "BULLET::::- Bob Staake (born 1957)\n", "BULLET::::- Dan Dunn (born 1957)\n", "BULLET::::- Shawn McManus (born 1958)\n", "BULLET::::- Jim McDermott (born 1960)\n", "BULLET::::- Prakash Shetty (born 1960)\n", "BULLET::::- Wyncie King (1884–1961)\n", "BULLET::::- Karl Meersman (born 1961)\n", "BULLET::::- Zach Trenholm (born 1961)\n", "BULLET::::- Glynis Sweeny (born 1962)\n", "BULLET::::- Sebastian Krüger (born 1963)\n", "BULLET::::- Shekhar Gurera, India (born 1965)\n", "BULLET::::- Marshall Jay Kaplan (born 1965)\n", "BULLET::::- Seyran Caferli (born 1966)\n", "BULLET::::- Kerry G. Johnson (born 1966)\n", "BULLET::::- Emad Hajjaj (born 1967)\n", "BULLET::::- Raed Khalil (born 1973)\n", "BULLET::::- Hermann Mejia (born 1973)\n", "BULLET::::- Amnon David Ar (born 1973)\n", "BULLET::::- Osama Hajjaj (born 1973)\n", "BULLET::::- S. Jithesh (born 1974)\n", "BULLET::::- Cem Kiziltug (born 1974)\n", "BULLET::::- Jaume Capdevila, \"Kap\" (born 1974)\n", "BULLET::::- Vix Caricatures - Vicky Hunt (born 1982)\n", "BULLET::::- Ash Lieb (born 1982)\n", "BULLET::::- Drew Friedman\n", "BULLET::::- Glen Hanson\n", "BULLET::::- Daniel Stieglitz (born 1980)\n", "Section::::See also.\n", "BULLET::::- List of science fiction visual artists\n", "BULLET::::- List of cartoonists\n", "BULLET::::- List of graphic designers\n" ] }

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Jithesh", "Cem Kiziltug", "Jaume Capdevila", "Vix Caricatures - Vicky Hunt", "Ash Lieb", "Drew Friedman", "Glen Hanson", "Daniel Stieglitz", "List of science fiction visual artists", "List of cartoonists", "List of graphic designers" ], "href": [ "caricature", "Jacques%20Callot", "Pier%20Leone%20Ghezzi", "William%20Hogarth", "George%20Bickham%20the%20Younger", "Henry%20Wigstead", "William%20Austin%20%28caricaturist%29", "John%20Kay%20%28caricaturist%29", "James%20Sayers", "Henry%20Bunbury%20%28caricaturist%29", "James%20Gillray", "Thomas%20Rowlandson", "George%20Moutard%20Woodward", "Richard%20Newton%20%28caricaturist%29", "Isaac%20Cruikshank", "Kenny%20Meadows", "George%20Cruikshank", "William%20Heath%20%28artist%29", "John%20Doyle%20%28artist%29", "Charles%20Williams%20%28caricaturist%29", "Jean-Pierre%20Dantan", "Jean%20Ignace%20Isidore%20G%C3%A9rard%20Grandville", "Paul%20Gavarni", "Nikolai%20Stepanov", "Honor%C3%A9%20Daumier", "John%20Leech%20%28caricaturist%29", "Am%C3%A9d%C3%A9e%20de%20No%C3%A9", "John%20Tenniel", "Melchiorre%20Delfico%20%28caricaturist%29", "Alfred%20Gr%C3%A9vin", "Luigi%20Borgomainerio", "Carlo%20Pellegrini%20%28caricaturist%29", "Andre%20Gill", "Thomas%20Nast", "Arthur%20Good", "%C3%89mile%20Cohl", "Alfred%20Schmidt%20%28artist%29", "Georges%20Goursat", "Henri%20de%20Toulouse-Lautrec", "Kate%20Carew", "Max%20Beerbohm", "Bagaria", "Marjorie%20Organ", "Henry%20Bateman", "William%20Auerbach-Levy", "David%20Low%20%28cartoonist%29", "Don%20Barclay%20%28actor%29", "Peggy%20Bacon", "Alexander%20Saroukhan", "Boris%20Yefimov", "Alex%20Gard", "Oscar%20Berger%20%28cartoonist%29", "Al%20Hirschfeld", "Louis%20Hirshman", "Sam%20Berman", "Joe%20Grant", "Aurelius%20Battaglia", "Emilio%20Coia", "George%20Wachsteter", "Edmund%20S.%20Valtman", "Sam%20Norkin", "Donald%20Bevan", "Ronald%20Searle", "Marc%20Sleen", "Jack%20Davis%20%28cartoonist%29", "Raoul%20Hunter", "David%20Levine", "Jeff%20Hook", "Mort%20Drucker", "Ranan%20Lurie", "George%20Bahgoury", "Predrag%20Koraksi%C4%87%20Corax", "Bruce%20Stark", "Patrick%20Oliphant", "O%C4%9Fuz%20Aral", "Gerald%20Scarfe", "Ralph%20Steadman", "Cabu", "GAL%20%28cartoonist%29", "Jovan%20Prokopljevi%C4%87", "Robert%20Grossman", "Gy%C3%B6rgy%20R%C3%B3zsahegyi", "Abed%20Abdi", "Malky%20McCormick", "Vitaliy%20Peskov", "Bill%20Plympton", "Du%C5%A1an%20Petri%C4%8Di%C4%87", "Murray%20Webb", "Kerry%20Waghorn", "Ken%20Fallin", "Steve%20Bell%20%28cartoonist%29", "Gerhard%20Haderer", "Javad%20Alizadeh", "Sam%20Viviano", "Steve%20Brodner", "Massoud%20Mehrabi", "Robert%20Risko", "Philip%20Burke", "Tom%20Bachtell", "Bob%20Staake", "Dan%20Dunn%20%28cartoonist%29", "Shawn%20McManus", "Jim%20McDermott%20%28illustrator%29", "Prakash%20Shetty", "Wyncie%20King", "Karl%20Meersman", "Zach%20Trenholm", "Glynis%20Sweeny", "Sebastian%20Kr%C3%BCger", "Shekhar%20Gurera", "Marshall%20Jay%20Kaplan", "Seyran%20Caferli", "Kerry%20G.%20Johnson", "Emad%20Hajjaj", "Raed%20Khalil", "Hermann%20Mejia", "Amnon%20David%20Ar", "Osama%20Hajjaj", "S.%20Jithesh", "Cem%20Kiziltug", "Jaume%20Capdevila", "Vix%20Caricatures%20-%20Vicky%20Hunt", "Ash%20Lieb", "Drew%20Friedman%20%28cartoonist%29", "Glen%20Hanson", "Daniel%20Stieglitz", "List%20of%20science%20fiction%20visual%20artists", "List%20of%20cartoonists", "List%20of%20graphic%20designers" ], "wikipedia_title": [ "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "" ], "wikipedia_id": [ "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "" ] }

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{ "paragraph": [ "USS Shangri-La\n", "USS \"Shangri-La\" (CV/CVA/CVS-38) was one of 24 s completed during or shortly after World War II for the United States Navy.\n", "Commissioned in 1944, \"Shangri-La\" participated in several campaigns in the Pacific Theater of Operations in World War II, earning two battle stars. Like many of her sister ships, she was decommissioned shortly after the end of the war, but was modernized and recommissioned in the early 1950s, and redesignated as an attack carrier (CVA). She operated in both the Pacific and Atlantic/Mediterranean for several years, and late in her career was redesignated as an anti-submarine carrier (CVS). She earned three battle stars for service in the Vietnam War.\n", "\"Shangri-La\" was decommissioned in 1971 and sold for scrap in 1988.\n", "Section::::Nomenclature.\n", "The naming of the ship was a radical departure from the general practice of the time, which was to name aircraft carriers after battles or previous US Navy ships. After the Doolittle Raid, launched from the aircraft carrier , President Roosevelt answered a reporter's question by saying that the raid had been launched from \"Shangri-La\", the fictional faraway land of the James Hilton novel \"Lost Horizon\".\n", "Section::::Construction and commissioning.\n", "\"Shangri-La\" was one of the \"long-hull\" \"Essex\"-class ships. She was laid down by the Norfolk Navy Yard, at Portsmouth, Virginia, on 15 January 1943, and was launched on 24 February 1944, sponsored by Josephine Doolittle (wife of Jimmy Doolittle). \"Shangri-La\" was commissioned on 15 September 1944, with Captain James D. Barner in command.\n", "Section::::Service history.\n", "Section::::Service history.:World War II.\n", "\"Shangri-La\" completed fitting out at Norfolk and took her shakedown cruise to Trinidad, between 15 September and 21 December 1944, at which time she returned to Norfolk. On 17 January 1945, she stood out of Hampton Roads, formed up with large cruiser and destroyer , and sailed for Panama. The three ships arrived at Cristobal, Panama Canal Zone on 23 January and transited the canal the next day. \"Shangri-La\" departed from Balboa on 25 January and arrived at San Diego, California on 4 February. There she loaded passengers, stores, and extra planes for transit to Hawaii and got underway on 7 February. Upon her arrival at Pearl Harbor on 15 February, she commenced two months of duty, qualifying land-based Navy pilots in carrier landings.\n", "On 10 April, she weighed anchor for Ulithi Atoll where she arrived 10 days later. After an overnight stay in the lagoon, \"Shangri-La\" departed Ulithi in company with destroyers and to report for duty with Vice Admiral Marc A. Mitscher's Task Force 58 (TF 58). On 24 April, she joined Task Group 58.4 (TG 58.4) while it was conducting a fueling rendezvous with TG 50.8. The next day, \"Shangri-La\" and her air group, CVG-85, launched their first strike against the Japanese. The target was Okino Daito Jima, a group of islands several hundred miles to the southeast of Okinawa. Her planes successfully destroyed radar and radio installations there and, upon their recovery, the task group sailed for Okinawa. \"Shangri-La\" supplied combat air patrols for the task group and close air support for the 10th Army on Okinawa before returning to Ulithi on 14 May.\n", "While at Ulithi, \"Shangri-La\" became the flagship of Carrier Task Force 2. Vice Admiral John S. McCain, Sr. hoisted his flag on \"Shangri-La\" on 18 May. Six days later, TG 58.4, with \"Shangri-La\" in company, sortied from the lagoon. On 28 May, TG 58.4 became TG 38.4 and McCain relieved Mitscher as Commander, TF 38, retaining \"Shangri-La\" as his flagship. On 2–3 June, the task force launched air strikes on the Japanese home islands – aimed particularly at Kyūshū, the southernmost of the major islands. Facing the stiffest airborne resistance to date, \"Shangri-La\"s airmen suffered their heaviest casualties.\n", "On 4–5 June, she moved off to the northwest to avoid a typhoon; then, on 6 June, her planes returned to close air support duty over Okinawa. On 8 June, her air group hit Kyūshū again, and, on the following day, they came back to Okinawa. On 10 June, the task force cleared Okinawa for Leyte, conducting drills en route. \"Shangri-La\" entered Leyte Gulf and anchored in San Pedro Bay on 13 June. She remained at anchor there for the rest of June, engaged in upkeep and recreation.\n", "On 1 July, \"Shangri-La\" got underway from Leyte to return to the combat zone. On the 2nd, the oath of office of Assistant Secretary of the Navy for Air was administered to John L. Sullivan on board \"Shangri-La\", the first ceremony of its type ever undertaken in a combat zone. Eight days later, her air group commenced a series of air strikes against Japan which lasted until the capitulation on 15 August.\n", "\"Shangri-La\"s planes ranged the length of the island chain during these raids. On the 10th, they attacked Tokyo, the first raid there since the strikes of the previous February. On 14–15 July, they pounded Honshū and Hokkaidō and, on 18 July, returned to Tokyo, also bombing battleship , moored close to shore at Yokosuka. From 20–22 July, \"Shangri-La\" joined the logistics group for fuel, replacement aircraft, and mail. By 24 July, her pilots were attacking shipping in the vicinity of Kure. They returned the next day for a repeat performance, before departing for a two-day replenishment period on 26-27 July. On the following day, \"Shangri-La\"s aircraft damaged light cruiser and battleship , the latter so badly that she beached and flooded. She later had to be abandoned. They pummeled Tokyo again on 30 July, then cleared the area to replenish on 31 July and 1 August.\n", "\"Shangri-La\" spent the next four days in the retirement area waiting for a typhoon to pass. On 9 August, after heavy fog had caused the cancellation of the previous day's missions, the carrier sent her planes aloft to bomb Honshū and Hokkaido once again. The next day, they raided Tokyo and central Honshū, then retired from the area for logistics. She evaded another typhoon on 11–12 August, then hit Tokyo again on 13 August. After replenishing on 14 August, she sent planes to strike the airfields around Tokyo on the morning of 15 August 1945. Soon thereafter, Japan's capitulation was announced; and the fleet was ordered to cease hostilities. \"Shangri-La\" steamed around in the strike area from 15–23 August, patrolling the Honshū area on the latter date. From 23 August – 16 September, her planes sortied on missions of mercy, air-dropping supplies to Allied prisoners of war in Japan.\n", "\"Shangri-La\" entered Tokyo Bay on 16 September, almost two weeks after the surrender ceremony onboard battleship , and remained there until 1 October. Departing Japan, she arrived at Okinawa on 4 October staying until 6 October, and then headed for the United States in company with Task Unit 38.1.1. She sailed into San Pedro Bay, on 21 October and stayed at Long Beach for three weeks. On 5 November, she shifted to San Diego, departing that port a month later for Bremerton, Washington. She entered Puget Sound on 9 December, underwent availability until 30 December, and then returned to San Diego.\n", "Section::::Service history.:Post-war.\n", "Upon her return, \"Shangri-La\" began normal operations out of San Diego, primarily engaged in pilot carrier landing qualifications. In May 1946, she sailed for the Central Pacific to participate in Operation Crossroads, the atomic bomb tests conducted at Bikini Atoll. Following this, she made a brief training cruise to Pearl Harbor, then wintered at Puget Sound Naval Shipyard. In March 1947, she deployed again, calling at Pearl Harbor and Sydney, Australia. When she returned to the United States, \"Shangri-La\" was decommissioned and placed in the Reserve Fleet at San Francisco on 7 November 1947.\n", "\"Shangri-La\" recommissioned on 10 May 1951, Captain Francis L. Busey in command. For the next year, she conducted training and readiness operations out of Boston, Massachusetts. Reclassified as an attack carrier (\"CVA-38\") in 1952, she returned to Puget Sound that fall and decommissioned again on 14 November, this time for modernization at Puget Sound Naval Shipyard. During the next two years, she received an angled flight deck, twin steam catapults, and her aircraft elevators and arresting gear were overhauled. At a cost of approximately $7 million, she was virtually a new ship when she commissioned for the third time on 10 January 1955, Captain Roscoe L. Newman commanding; she was the second (after CV-A 36 Antietam) operational U.S. carrier with an angled flight deck. She conducted intensive fleet training for the remainder of 1955, then deployed to the Far East on 5 January 1956. Until 1960, she alternated western Pacific cruises with operations out of San Diego. On 16 March 1960, she put to sea from San Diego en route to her new home port, Mayport, Florida. She entered Mayport after visits to Callao, Peru; Valparaíso, Chile; Port of Spain, Trinidad; Bayonne, New Jersey; and Norfolk, Virginia.\n", "After six weeks of underway training in the local operating area around Guantánamo Bay, Cuba, she embarked upon her first Atlantic deployment, a NATO exercise followed by liberty in Southampton, England. Almost immediately after her return to Mayport, \"Shangri-La\" was ordered back to sea—this time to the Caribbean in response to trouble in Guatemala and Nicaragua. She returned to Mayport on 25 November and remained in port for more than two months.\n", "Between 1961 and 1970, \"Shangri-La\" alternated between deployments to the Mediterranean and operations in the western Atlantic, out of Mayport. She sailed east for her first tour of duty with the 6th Fleet on 2 February 1961. She returned to the United States that fall and entered the New York Naval Shipyard. Back in Mayport by the beginning of 1962, \"Shangri-La\" stood out again for the Mediterranean on 7 February. After about six months of cruising with the 6th Fleet, she departed the Mediterranean in mid-August and arrived in Mayport on 28 August.\n", "Following a month's stay at her home port, the aircraft carrier headed for New York and a major overhaul. \"Shangri-La\" was modified extensively during her stay in the yard. Four of her 5 in (127 mm) mounts were removed, but she received a new air search and height finding radar and a new arrester system. In addition, much of her electrical and engineering equipment was renovated. After sea trials and visits to Bayonne and Norfolk, \"Shangri-La\" returned to Mayport for a week in late March 1963; then put to sea for operations in the Caribbean. Eight months of similar duty followed before \"Shangri-La\" weighed anchor for another deployment. On 1 October 1963, she headed back to the 6th Fleet for a seven-month tour.\n", "Section::::Service history.:Vietnam.\n", "\"Shangri-La\" continued her United States Second Fleet and Sixth Fleet assignments for the next six years. From 15 February 1965 to 20 September 1965, she made a Mediterranean deployment with Carrier Air Wing 10 embarked.\n", "In the fall of 1965, \"Shangri-La\" was accidentally rammed by the destroyer during war games. \"Shangri-La\" was struck below the waterline, breaching the hull. On the destroyer, one man was killed and another injured. The ship itself suffered a bent hull. There were no casualties on the carrier and the hole was quickly patched. As a result of this incident, she underwent an extensive overhaul during the winter of 1965 and the spring of 1966, this time at Philadelphia, then resumed operations as before. On 30 June 1969, she was redesignated an antisubmarine warfare carrier (\"CVS-38\").\n", "In 1970, \"Shangri-La\" returned to the western Pacific after an absence of 10 years. She got underway from Mayport on 5 March, stopped at Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, from 13–16 March, and headed east through the Atlantic and Indian oceans. She arrived in Subic Bay, Philippines on 4 April, and during the next seven months launched combat sorties from Yankee Station. Her tours of duty on Yankee Station were punctuated by frequent logistics trips to Subic Bay, by visits to Manila and Hong Kong, in October, and by 12 days in drydock at Yokosuka, Japan, in July.\n", "On 9 November, \"Shangri-La\" stood out of Subic Bay to return home. En route to Mayport, she visited Sydney, Australia; Wellington, New Zealand; and Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. She arrived in Mayport on 16 December and began preparations for inactivation. After inactivation overhaul at the Boston Naval Shipyard, South Annex, \"Shangri-La\" decommissioned on 30 July 1971. She was placed in the Atlantic Reserve Fleet and berthed at the Philadelphia Naval Shipyard.\n", "Section::::Fate.\n", "\"Shangri-La\" remained in the reserve fleet for the next 11 years, and was stricken from the Naval Vessel Register on 15 July 1982. She was retained by MARAD for several years to provide spare parts for the training carrier . On 9 August 1988, she was sold for scrap and later towed to Taiwan for demolition.\n", "An anchor from \"Shangri-La\" is in Litchfield, Minnesota. One of \"Shangri-La\"s four propellers is on display outside Meding's Seafood in Milford, Delaware.\n", "Section::::Awards.\n", "\"Shangri-La\" earned two battle stars for World War II service and three battle stars for service in the Vietnam War.\n", "BULLET::::- Meritorious Unit Commendation\n", "BULLET::::- Navy Expeditionary Medal\n", "BULLET::::- American Campaign Medal\n", "BULLET::::- Asiatic-Pacific Campaign Medal with two battle stars\n", "BULLET::::- World War II Victory Medal\n", "BULLET::::- Navy Occupation Medal with \"ASIA\" clasp\n", "BULLET::::- China Service Medal\n", "BULLET::::- National Defense Service Medal with star\n", "BULLET::::- Armed Forces Expeditionary Medal\n", "BULLET::::- Vietnam Service Medal with three battle stars\n", "BULLET::::- Republic of Vietnam Campaign Medal\n", "Section::::See also.\n", "BULLET::::- List of aircraft carriers\n", "BULLET::::- List of aircraft carriers of the United States Navy\n", "Section::::External links.\n", "BULLET::::- USS \"Shangri-La\" Reunion Association homepage\n", "BULLET::::- Naval History and Heritage Command\n" ] }

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{ "paragraph": [ "Rosa Albach-Retty\n", "Rosa Albach-Retty (26 December 1874 – 26 August 1980) was a German-born Austrian movie and stage actress. She is mainly remembered today as actress Romy Schneider's paternal grandmother.\n", "Section::::Life.\n", "Born into a well-known family of Austrian actors, she was the daughter of actor and director Rudolf Retty. Trained by her father, she began her stage career in 1890 at the Deutsches Theater and the Lessing Theater in Berlin, where she successfully performed in the title role of \"Minna von Barnhelm\". In 1895, she went to the Volkstheater in Vienna and in 1903 joined the Burgtheater ensemble.\n", "Albach-Retty was married to the Austro-Hungarian Army officer Karl Albach; she was the mother of Wolf Albach-Retty (1906–1967), an Austrian movie actor who married German movie actress Magda Schneider in 1937. She thereby was the grandmother of Romy Schneider and great-grandmother of Sarah Biasini.\n", "Albach-Retty made her first film appearance in 1930, in Georg Jacoby's \"Money on the Street\", and made her last appearance in the 1955 remake \"The Congress Dances\" directed by Franz Antel. She died in 1980 at the age of 105.\n", "Section::::Selected filmography.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Money on the Street\" (1930)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Episode\" (1935)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Maria Ilona\" (1939)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Hotel Sacher\" (1939)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Whom the Gods Love\" (1942)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Vienna 1910\" (1943)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Maria Theresa\" (1951)\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Spendthrift\" (1953)\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Congress Dances\" (1955)\n", "Section::::Decorations and awards.\n", "BULLET::::- 1955: Grand Decoration of Honour for Services to the Republic of Austria\n", "BULLET::::- 1958: Kainz Medal\n", "BULLET::::- 1963: Austrian Cross of Honour for Science and Art, 1st class\n", "BULLET::::- 1977: Grand Decoration of Honour in Silver for Services to the Republic of Austria\n", "Section::::See also.\n", "BULLET::::- List of centenarians (actors, filmmakers and entertainers)\n", "Section::::External links.\n", "BULLET::::- Recordings with Rosa Albach-Retty in the Online Archive of the Österreichische Mediathek (in German). Retrieved 29 July 2019\n" ] }

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{ "paragraph": [ "Caricature\n", "A caricature is a rendered image showing the features of its subject in a simplified or exaggerated way through sketching, pencil strokes, or through other artistic drawings.\n", "In literature, a caricature is a description of a person using exaggeration of some characteristics and oversimplification of others.\n", "Caricatures can be insulting or complimentary and can serve a political purpose or be drawn solely for entertainment. Caricatures of politicians are commonly used in editorial cartoons, while caricatures of movie stars are often found in entertainment magazines.\n", "Section::::Etymology.\n", "The term is derived from the Italian \"caricare\"—to charge or load. An early definition occurs in the English doctor Thomas Browne's \"Christian Morals\", published posthumously in 1716.\n", "with the footnote:\n", "Thus, the word \"caricature\" essentially means a \"loaded portrait\". Until the mid 19th century, it was commonly and mistakenly believed that the term shared the same root as the French 'charcuterie', likely owing to Parisian street artists using cured meats in their satirical portrayal of public figures.\n", "Section::::History.\n", "Some of the earliest caricatures are found in the works of Leonardo da Vinci, who actively sought people with deformities to use as models. The point was to offer an impression of the original which was more striking than a portrait.\n", "Caricature took a road to its first successes in the closed aristocratic circles of France and Italy, where such portraits could be passed about for mutual enjoyment.\n", "While the first book on caricature drawing to be published in England was Mary Darly's \"A Book of Caricaturas\" (c. 1762), the first known North American caricatures were drawn in 1759 during the battle for Quebec. These caricatures were the work of Brig.-Gen. George Townshend whose caricatures of British General James Wolfe, depicted as \"Deformed and crass and hideous\" (Snell), were drawn to amuse fellow officers. Elsewhere, two great practitioners of the art of caricature in 18th-century Britain were Thomas Rowlandson (1756–1827) and James Gillray (1757–1815). Rowlandson was more of an artist and his work took its inspiration mostly from the public at large. Gillray was more concerned with the vicious visual satirisation of political life. They were, however, great friends and caroused together in the pubs of London.\n", "In a lecture titled \"The History and Art of Caricature\", the British caricaturist Ted Harrison said that the caricaturist can choose to either mock or wound the subject with an effective caricature. Drawing caricatures can simply be a form of entertainment and amusement – in which case gentle mockery is in order – or the art can be employed to make a serious social or political point. A caricaturist draws on (1) the natural characteristics of the subject (the big ears, long nose, etc.); (2) the acquired characteristics (stoop, scars, facial lines etc.); and (3) the vanities (choice of hair style, spectacles, clothes, expressions, and mannerisms).\n", "Section::::Notable caricaturists.\n", "BULLET::::- Sir Max Beerbohm (1872–1956, British), created and published caricatures of the famous men of his own time and earlier. His style of single-figure caricatures in formalized groupings was established by 1896 and flourished until about 1930. His published works include \"Caricatures of Twenty-five Gentlemen\" (1896), \"The Poets' Corner\" (1904), and \"Rossetti and His Circle\" (1922). He published widely in fashionable magazines of the time, and his works were exhibited regularly in London at the Carfax Gallery (1901–18) and Leicester Galleries (1911–57).\n", "BULLET::::- George Cruikshank (1792–1878, British) created political prints that attacked the royal family and leading politicians. He went on to create social caricatures of British life for popular publications such as \"The Comic Almanack\" (1835–1853) and \"Omnibus\" (1842). Cruikshanks' \"New Union Club\" of 1819 is notable in the context of slavery. He also earned fame as a book illustrator for Charles Dickens and many other authors.\n", "BULLET::::- Honoré Daumier (1808–1879, French) created over 4,000 lithographs, most of them caricatures on political, social, and everyday themes. They were published in the daily French newspapers (\"Le Charivari\", \"La Caricature\" etc.)\n", "BULLET::::- Mort Drucker (1929-, American) joined \"Mad\" in 1957 and became well known for his parodies of movie satires. He combined a comic strip style with caricature likenesses of film actors for \"Mad\", and he also contributed covers to \"Time\". He has been recognized for his work with the National Cartoonists Society Special Features Award for 1985, 1986, 1987, and 1988, and their Reuben Award for 1987.\n", "BULLET::::- Alex Gard (1900–1948, Russian) created more than 700 caricatures of show business celebrities and other notables for the walls of Sardi's Restaurant in the theater district of New York City: the first artist to do so. Today the images are part of the Billy Rose Theatre Collection of The New York Public Library for the Performing Arts.\n", "BULLET::::- Al Hirschfeld (1903–2003, American) was best known for his simple black and white renditions of celebrities and Broadway stars which used flowing contour lines over heavy rendering. He was also known for depicting a variety of other famous people, from politicians, musicians, singers and even television stars like the cast of \"\". He was even commissioned by the United States Postal Service to provide art for U.S. stamps. Permanent collections of Hirschfeld's work appear at the Metropolitan Museum of Art and the Museum of Modern Art in New York, and he boasts a star on the St. Louis Walk of Fame.\n", "BULLET::::- S. Jithesh is known for his speedy style of Celebrity Caricaturing Stage Shows. He performs a 'Caricature Stage Show' which is a blend of poetry, anecdotes and socio-political satire and caricature.\n", "BULLET::::- Sebastian Krüger (1963, German) is known for his grotesque, yet hyper-realistic distortions of the facial features of celebrities, which he renders primarily in acrylic paint, and for which he has won praise from \"The Times\". He is well known for his lifelike depictions of The Rolling Stones, in particular, Keith Richards. Krüger has published three collections of his works, and has a yearly art calendar from Morpheus International. Krüger's art can be seen frequently in \"Playboy\" magazine and has also been featured in the likes of \"Stern\", \"L’Espresso\", \"Penthouse\", and \"Der Spiegel\" and \"USA Today\". He has recently been working on select motion picture projects.\n", "BULLET::::- David Levine (1926–2009, American) is noted for his caricatures in \"The New York Review of Books\" and \"Playboy\" magazine. His first cartoons appeared in 1963. Since then he has drawn hundreds of pen-and-ink caricatures of famous writers and politicians for the newspaper.\n", "BULLET::::- Hermann Mejia (Venezuelan) is known for his frequent work for \"MAD Magazine\". Mejia uses multiple techniques in his work, sometimes rendering his illustrations in black and white ink and copious amounts of cross-hatching, sometimes using watercolor, and sometimes combinations of both.\n", "BULLET::::- Thomas Nast (1840–1902, American) was a famous caricaturist and editorial cartoonist in the 19th century and is considered by some as written in 1908 by \"The New York Times\" to be the father of American political cartooning. He is often credited with creating the definitive caricature of Santa Claus, and often mistakenly credited with creating the definitive caricatures of the Democratic Donkey and the Republican Elephant.\n", "BULLET::::- Sam Viviano (1953, American) has done much work for corporations and in advertising, having contributed to \"Rolling Stone\", \"Family Weekly\", \"Reader's Digest\", \"Consumer Reports\", and \"Mad\", of which he is currently the art director. Viviano’s caricatures are known for their wide jaws, which Viviano has explained is a result of his incorporation of side views as well as front views into his distortions of the human face. He has also developed a reputation for his ability to do crowd scenes. Explaining his twice-yearly covers for \"Institutional Investor\" magazine, Viviano has said that his upper limit is sixty caricatures in nine days.\n", "Section::::Computerization.\n", "There have been some efforts to produce caricatures automatically or semi-automatically using computer graphics techniques. For example, a system proposed by Akleman et al. provides warping tools specifically designed toward rapidly producing caricatures. There are very few software programs designed specifically for automatically creating caricatures.\n", "Computer graphic system requires quite different skill sets to design a caricature as compared to the caricatures created on paper. Thus using a computer in the digital production of caricatures requires advanced knowledge of the program's functionality. Rather than being a simpler method of caricature creation, it can be a more complex method of creating images that feature finer coloring textures than can be created using more traditional methods.\n", "A milestone in formally defining caricature was Susan Brennan's master's thesis in 1982. In her system, caricature was formalized as the process of exaggerating differences from an average face. For example, if Prince Charles has more prominent ears than the average person, in his caricature the ears will be much larger than normal. Brennan's system implemented this idea in a partially automated fashion as follows: the operator was required to input a frontal drawing of the desired person having a standardized topology (the number and ordering of lines for every face). She obtained a corresponding drawing of an average male face. Then, the particular face was caricatured simply by subtracting from the particular face the corresponding point on the mean face (the origin being placed in the middle of the face), scaling this difference by a factor larger than one, and adding the scaled difference back onto the mean face.\n", "Though Brennan's formalization was introduced in the 1980s, it remains relevant in recent work. Mo et al. refined the idea by noting that the population variance of the feature should be taken into account. For example, the distance between the eyes varies less than other features such as the size of the nose. Thus even a small variation in the eye spacing is unusual and should be exaggerated, whereas a correspondingly small change in the nose size relative to the mean would not be unusual enough to be worthy of exaggeration.\n", "On the other hand, Liang et al. argue that caricature varies depending on the artist and cannot be captured in a single definition. Their system uses machine learning techniques to automatically learn and mimic the style of a particular caricature artist, given training data in the form of a number of face photographs and the corresponding caricatures by that artist. The results produced by computer graphic systems are arguably not yet of the same quality as those produced by human artists. For example, most systems are restricted to exactly frontal poses, whereas many or even most manually produced caricatures (and face portraits in general) choose an off-center \"three-quarters\" view. Brennan's caricature drawings were frontal-pose line drawings. More recent systems can produce caricatures in a variety of styles, including direct geometric distortion of photographs.\n", "Section::::Caricature advantage.\n", "Brennan's caricature generator was used to test recognition of caricatures. Rhodes, Brennan and Carey demonstrated that caricatures were recognised more accurately than the original images. They used line drawn images but Benson and Perrett showed similar effects with photographic quality images. Explanations for this advantage have been based on both norm-based theories of face recognition and exemplar-based theories of face recognition.\n", "Section::::Modern use.\n", "Beside the political and public-figure satire, most contemporary caricatures are used as gifts or souvenirs, often drawn by street vendors. For a small fee, a caricature can be drawn specifically (and quickly) for a patron. These are popular at street fairs, carnivals, and even weddings, often with humorous results.\n", "Caricature artists are also popular attractions at many places frequented by tourists, especially oceanfront boardwalks, where vacationers can have a humorous caricature sketched in a few minutes for a small fee. Caricature artists can sometimes be hired for parties, where they will draw caricatures of the guests for their entertainment.\n", "Section::::Modern use.:Museums.\n", "There are numerous museums dedicated to caricature throughout the world, including the \"Museo de la Caricatura\" of Mexico City, the \"Muzeum Karykatury\" in Warsaw, the Caricatura Museum Frankfurt, the Wilhelm Busch Museum in Hanover and the \"Cartoonmuseum\" in Basel. The first museum of caricature in the Arab world was opened in March, 2009, at Fayoum, Egypt.\n", "Section::::See also.\n", "BULLET::::- List of caricaturists\n", "BULLET::::- Cartoon\n", "BULLET::::- Controversial newspaper caricatures\n", "BULLET::::- Jyllands-Posten Muhammad cartoons controversy\n", "BULLET::::- Persona\n", "BULLET::::- Physiognomy\n", "BULLET::::- Satire\n", "BULLET::::- Zoomorphism\n", "BULLET::::- Arab Cartoon Award\n", "BULLET::::- Meme\n", "Section::::External links.\n", "BULLET::::- International Society of Caricature Artists (ISCA) Official site of the International Society of Caricature Artists – a non-profit association devoted to the art of caricature (Formerly the National Caricaturist Network (NCN))\n", "BULLET::::- \"Daumier Drawings\", an exhibition catalog from The Metropolitan Museum of Art (fully available online as PDF), which focuses on this great caricaturist\n", "BULLET::::- [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al_Hirschfeld Al Hirschfeld, An american caricaturist\n", "BULLET::::- Refer Caricature gifts\n" ] }

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{ "paragraph": [ "Lager Beer Riot\n", "The Lager Beer Riot occurred on April 21, 1855 in Chicago, Illinois. Mayor Levi Boone, a Nativist politician and great-nephew of Daniel Boone, renewed enforcement of an old local ordinance mandating that taverns be closed on Sundays and led the city council to raise the cost of a liquor license from $50 per year to $300 per year, renewable quarterly. The move was seen as targeting German immigrants in particular, and subsequently caused a greater sense of community between the group.\n", "Section::::Background.\n", "Chicago's rapid growth in the 1840s and 1850s was due in large part to German and Irish Catholic immigrants. During this time, Chicago was developing into an attractive opportunity for many immigrants. Although the jobs that awaited these immigrant were often poor-paying wage based positions, these opportunities were often more promising than that of their home country. These immigrants settled in their own neighborhoods, German immigrants congregating mainly on the North Side, across the Chicago River from City Hall and the older Protestant part of the city. The German settlers worked a six-day week, leaving Sunday as their primary day to socialize; much of this socialization took place in the small taverns that dotted the North Side of Chicago. German-language newspapers, such as the Turners, and German craft unions gave the German population of Chicago a high degree of social and political cohesiveness. Additionally, the Forty-Eighters among them had previously used demonstrations as a political tool during the European revolutions of 1848.\n", "As in much of the rest of the country, nativist distrust of Catholic influence produced a backlash in the form of the \"Know-Nothing\" movement. In the election of 1854, the Temperance Party candidate, Amos Throop, lost by nearly 20% points to Isaac Lawrence Milliken. Nevertheless, after winning the election, Milliken declared himself in favor of temperance as well. Milliken lost the following year to Levi Boone, the American Party candidate. Levi Boone ran on an anti-immigrant and anti-catholic platform of the Know-Nothing Party which garnered him enough support to win the election. The Know-Nothing Party nationally had been feeding off the swell of nationalist sentiments brewing in the nation in the 1840s and 1850s. In his inauguration speech, Mayor Boone stated, \"I cannot be blind to the existence in our midst of a powerful politico-religious organization, all its members owing, and its chief officers bound under an oath of allegiance to the temporal, as well as the spiritual supremacy of a foreign despot.\" Associated with his fear of foreigners, Boone, a Baptist and temperance advocate, believed that the Sabbath was profaned by having drinking establishments open on Sunday. However, the temperance movement was seen as a means of control, utilized by the elites to further control the working class, in the eyes of immigrants. Although Boone's actions were in anticipation of Illinois enacting by referendum a Maine law that would prohibit the sale of alcohol for recreational purposes, the referendum failed in June 1855, by a statewide vote of 54% to 46%. The following year, after Boone was turned out of office, the prohibition was repealed.\n", "Before 1853, Chicago had only \"a small force of armed municipal officers.\" The Cook County sheriff's office was largely responsible for policing the city, whose constable system \"was modeled on the colonial and English systems.\" Lacking any distinction of their own, elected town constables and night watchmen contributed to the protection of the city. In response to the inadequacy of the constable system, a police department separate and distinct from municipal courts was established in 1853. All eighty men who comprised the newly formed Chicago Police department were native born.\n", "Section::::Events.\n", "Despite the renewed enforcement of Chicago's liquor ordinance, tavern owners continued to sell beer on Sundays. This resulted in over 200 Germans being arrested in violation of both the License and Sunday ordinances. The numerous arrests lead to the scheduling of a test case for the 21st of April. Saloon keepers \"decided to unite for defense and resistance, [and] contributed toward a common fund and counsel to represent all.\"\n", "Robin Einhorn argues that the scheduling of such an event, \"in effect, scheduled the riot.\" Protesters clashed with police near the Cook County Court House. Waves of angry immigrants stormed the downtown area. \"As the marchers, coming from the north with fife and drum, approached the Chicago River at Clark Street,\" the mayor ordered the swing bridges opened to stop further waves of protestors from crossing the river. This left some trapped on the bridges, police then fired shots at protesters stuck on the Clark Street Bridge over the Chicago River. A policeman named George W. Hunt was shot in the arm by a rioter named Peter Martin. Martin was then killed by police, and Hunt's arm had to be amputated. Rumors flew throughout the city that more protesters were killed, although there is no evidence to support this. Loaded cannons set on the public square contributed to these rumors.\n", "Section::::Outcomes.\n", "The Lager Beer Riot lead to a compromise in which the city council lowered the liquor licence fee from $300 to $100. The council decided not to release those already imprisoned for not paying the $300 fee, but most of those arrested during the riot were released and not charged.\n", "The Lager Beer Riot illustrates the risk German immigrants were willing to bear in order to protect German saloon owners who they perceived as leaders of their community. Mayor Levi Boone's temperance policy thus united German property owners—who could have been a natural ally of the mayor because of their strong interest in order—with working class German immigrants.\n", "In addition to the economic implications of the riot, there were compelling socio-cultural reasons for German immigrants to protest the newly instated ordinance. Mitrani posits that, \"To the German and Irish immigrants, drinking beer on Sundays was an orderly and habitual way to spend their one day off...Yet on a deeper level, this clash over drinking marked the opening salvo in a struggle over how the new class of wage workers would spend their time.\" The riot over beer represents a larger issue of a nativist approach to control the immigrant working class. Drinking, particularly on Sundays, was considered unacceptable. Closing taverns on Sundays and raising the cost of liquor licenses was a way to enforce what was considered acceptable behavior. While the new policies were an attempt to control the immigrant class, the events of the riot proved to be a call for a new type of order. Within a week of the riot, a committee was formed and worked with the city government to pass a series of reforms that ultimately resulted in the founding of the Chicago Police Department.\n", "The lasting effects of such a traumatic event would influence Chicago for decades to come. Tensions only increased between those who advocated temperance and those who enjoyed the pastime. According to Sam Mitrani, \"the bulk of those arrested [had] working-class occupations...[and] the only arrestees who were not part of or tied to [Chicago's] growing working class were four ministers, eight doctors, and four lawyers.\"\n", "Section::::See also.\n", "BULLET::::- List of incidents of civil unrest in the United States\n", "BULLET::::- Germans in Chicago\n", "Section::::External links.\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Chicago Lager Beer Riots\" (Archive). Goethe Institute. (German version, Archive)\n" ] }

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{ "paragraph": [ "Begging the question\n", "In classical rhetoric and logic, begging the question is an informal fallacy that occurs when an argument's premises assume the truth of the conclusion, instead of supporting it. It is a type of circular reasoning: an argument that requires that the desired conclusion be true. This often occurs in an indirect way such that the fallacy's presence is hidden, or at least not easily apparent.\n", "In modern vernacular usage, however, begging the question is often used to mean \"raising the question\" or \"suggesting the question\". Sometimes it is confused with \"dodging the question\", an attempt to avoid it.\n", "The phrase \"begging the question\" originated in the 16th century as a mistranslation of the Latin \",\" which actually translates to \"assuming the initial point\".\n", "Section::::History.\n", "The original phrase used by Aristotle from which \"begging the question\" descends is: τὸ ἐξ ἀρχῆς (or sometimes ἐν ἀρχῇ) αἰτεῖν, \"asking for the initial thing.\" Aristotle's intended meaning is closely tied to the type of dialectical argument he discusses in his \"Topics\", book VIII: a formalized debate in which the defending party asserts a thesis that the attacking party must attempt to refute by asking yes-or-no questions and deducing some inconsistency between the responses and the original thesis.\n", "In this stylized form of debate, the proposition that the answerer undertakes to defend is called \"the initial thing\" (τὸ ἐξ ἀρχῆς, τὸ ἐν ἀρχῇ) and one of the rules of the debate is that the questioner cannot simply ask for it (that would be trivial and uninteresting). Aristotle discusses this in \"Sophistical Refutations\" and in \"Prior Analytics\" book II, (64b, 34–65a 9, for circular reasoning see 57b, 18–59b, 1).\n", "The stylized dialectical exchanges Aristotle discusses in the \"Topics\" included rules for scoring the debate, and one important issue was precisely the matter of \"asking for the initial thing\"—which included not just making the actual thesis adopted by the answerer into a question, but also making a question out of a sentence that was too close to that thesis (for example, \"PA\" II 16).\n", "The term was translated into English from Latin in the 16th century. The Latin version, ', \"asking for the starting point\", can be interpreted in different ways. ' (from '), in the post-classical context in which the phrase arose, means \"assuming\" or \"postulating\", but in the older classical sense means \"petition\", \"request\" or \"beseeching\". ', genitive of ', means \"beginning\", \"basis\" or \"premise\" (of an argument). Literally ' means \"assuming the premise\" or \"assuming the original point\".\n", "The Latin phrase comes from the Greek (\"\", \"asking the original point\") in Aristotle's \"Prior Analytics\" II xvi 64b28–65a26:\n", "Aristotle's distinction between apodictic science and other forms of non-demonstrative knowledge rests on an epistemology and metaphysics wherein appropriate first principles become apparent to the trained dialectician:\n", "Thomas Fowler believed that ' would be more properly called ', which is literally \"begging the question\".\n", "Section::::Definition.\n", "To \"beg the question\" is to put forward an argument whose validity requires that its own conclusion be true.\n", "Also called \"\", the fallacy is an attempt to support a claim with a premise that itself presupposes the claim. It is an attempt to prove a proposition while simultaneously taking the proposition for granted.\n", "Given the single variable C (claim), \"begging the question\" is an attempt to assert that . In two variables, and , it attempts to pass as the valid claim . This is a form of circular reasoning, and may involve any number of variables.\n", "When the fallacy involves only a single variable, it is sometimes called a \"hysteron proteron\" (Greek for \"later earlier\"), a rhetorical device, as in the statement:\n", "BULLET::::- \"Opium induces sleep because it has a \"soporific\" quality.\"\n", "This form of the fallacy may not be immediately obvious. Linguistic variations in syntax, sentence structure and literary device may conceal it, as may other factors involved in an argument's delivery. It may take the form of an unstated premise which is essential but not identical to the conclusion, or is \"controversial or questionable for the same reasons that typically might lead someone to question the conclusion\":\n", "For example, one can obscure the fallacy by first making a statement in concrete terms, then attempting to pass off an identical statement, delivered in abstract terms, as evidence for the original. One could also \"bring forth a proposition expressed in words of Saxon origin, and give as a reason for it the very same proposition stated in words of Norman origin\", as here:\n", "BULLET::::- \"To allow every man an unbounded freedom of speech must always be, on the whole, advantageous to the State, for it is highly conducive to the interests of the community that each individual should enjoy a liberty perfectly unlimited of expressing his sentiments.\"\n", "When the fallacy of begging the question is committed in more than one step, some authors dub it \"\" (\"reasoning in a circle\") or, more commonly, \"circular reasoning\".\n", "Begging the question is not considered a formal fallacy (an argument that is defective because it uses an incorrect deductive step). Rather, it is a type of informal fallacy that is logically valid but unpersuasive, in that it fails to prove anything other than what is already assumed.\n", "Section::::Related fallacies.\n", "Closely connected with begging the question is the fallacy of circular reasoning (\"), a fallacy in which the reasoner begins with the conclusion. The individual components of a circular argument can be logically valid because if the premises are true, the conclusion must be true, and does not lack relevance. However, circular reasoning is not persuasive because a listener who doubts the conclusion also doubts the premise that leads to it.\n", "Begging the question is similar to the \"complex question\" (also known as \"trick question\" or \"fallacy of many questions\"): a question that, to be valid, requires the truth of another question that has not been established. For example, \"Which color dress is Mary wearing?\" may be fallacious because it presupposes that Mary is wearing a dress. Unless it has previously been established that her outfit is a dress, the question is fallacious because she could be wearing pants instead.\n", "Another related fallacy is \"ignoratio elenchi\" or \"irrelevant conclusion\": an argument that fails to address the issue in question, but appears to do so. An example might be a situation where A and B are debating whether the law permits A to do something. If A attempts to support his position with an argument that the law \"ought\" to allow him to do the thing in question, then he is guilty of '.\n", "Section::::Contemporary usage.\n", "Many contemporary English speakers use \"begs the question\" (or equivalent rephrasings thereof) to mean \"raises the question\", \"invites the question\", \"suggests the question\", etc.. Such preface is then followed with the question, as in: \n", "BULLET::::- [...] \"personal letter delivery is at an all-time low... Which begs the question: are open letters the only kind the future will know?\"\n", "BULLET::::- \"Hopewell's success begs the question: why aren't more companies doing the same?\".\n", "BULLET::::- [Universal access to all-female schools is] \"an appeal bound to elicit sympathy, especially from guilty liberals, but it begs the question of whether the daughters of the rich benefit from single-sex education.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Spending the summer travelling around India is a great idea, but it does beg the question of how we can afford it.\"\n", "BULLET::::- \"Still, the question begs to be asked: How could a team with one road win possibly be overconfident?\"\n", "BULLET::::- \"The other key question that begs to be answered is: what is valuable in Yahoo to buy?\"\n", "Some prescriptivist grammarians and people versed in philosophy, logic, and law object to such usage as \"incorrect\", or at best unclear, claiming that the classical sense of Aristotelian logic is the only \"correct\" one.\n", "The phrase is sometimes used in the opposite sense, of \"evades the question\" or \"ignores the question\".\n", "Section::::See also.\n", "BULLET::::- Ambiguity\n", "BULLET::::- Catch-22 (logic)\n", "BULLET::::- Circular definition\n", "BULLET::::- \"Consequentia mirabilis\"\n", "BULLET::::- Euphemism treadmill\n", "BULLET::::- Fallacies of definition\n", "BULLET::::- Open-question argument\n", "BULLET::::- Polysyllogism\n", "BULLET::::- Presuppositional apologetics\n", "BULLET::::- Regress argument (\"\")\n", "BULLET::::- Spin (propaganda)\n", "Section::::References.\n", "BULLET::::- Cohen, Morris Raphael, Ernest Nagel, and John Corcoran. \"An Introduction to Logic\". Hackett Publishing, 1993. .\n", "BULLET::::- Davies, Arthur Ernest. \"A Text-book of Logic\". R.G. Adams and Company, 1915.\n", "BULLET::::- Follett, Wilson. \"Modern American Usage: A Guide\". Macmillan, 1966. .\n", "BULLET::::- Gibson, William Ralph Boyce, and Augusta Klein. \"The Problem of Logic\". A. and C. Black, 1908.\n", "BULLET::::- Herrick, Paul. \"The Many Worlds of Logic\". Oxford University Press, 2000.\n", "BULLET::::- Kahane, Howard, and Nancy Cavender. \"Logic and contemporary rhetoric : the use of reason in everyday life\". Cengage Learning, 2005. .\n", "BULLET::::- Kilpatrick, James. \"Begging Question Assumes Proof of an Unproved Proposition.\" \"Rocky Mountain News (CO)\" 6 April 1997. Accessed through Access World News on 3 June 2009.\n", "BULLET::::- Martin, Robert M. \"There Are Two Errors in the Title of This Book: A sourcebook of philosophical puzzles, paradoxes and problems\". Broadview Press, 2002. .\n", "BULLET::::- Mercier, Charles Arthur. \"A New Logic\". Open Court Publishing Company, 1912.\n", "BULLET::::- Mill, John Stuart. \"A system of logic, ratiocinative and inductive: being a connected view of the principles of evidence, and the methods of scientific investigation\". J.W. Parker, 1851.\n", "BULLET::::- Safire, William. \"On Language: Take my question please!.\" \"The New York Times\" 26 July 1998. Accessed 3 June 2009.\n", "BULLET::::- Schiller, Ferdinand Canning Scott. \"Formal logic, a scientific and social problem\". London: Macmillan, 1912.\n", "BULLET::::- Welton, James. \"Fallacies incident to method.\" \"A Manual of Logic\", Vol. 2. London: W.B. Clive University Tutorial Press, 1905.\n" ] }

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{ "description": "type of fallacy, where a proposition is assumed as a premise, which itself needs a proof and directly entails the conclusion", "enwikiquote_title": "", "wikidata_id": "Q219429", "wikidata_label": "begging the question", "wikipedia_title": "Begging the question", "aliases": { "alias": [ "petitio principii", "Begging the question" ] } }

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{ "paragraph": [ "John Manley\n", "John Paul Manley (born January 5, 1950) is a Canadian lawyer, businessman, and politician. He served as Liberal Member of Parliament for Ottawa South from 1988 to 2004, and was deputy prime minister between 2002 and 2003. From January 2010 until October 2018 he was President and CEO of the Business Council of Canada. He currently serves on the advisory board of the and on the Leaders' Debates Commission.\n", "Section::::Background.\n", "Manley was born in Ottawa, Ontario, and attended Bell High School. He received a BA from Carleton University in 1971 and an LL.B. from the University of Ottawa in 1976. He also studied at the University of Lausanne.\n", "After law school Manley clerked under Bora Laskin, the Chief Justice of Canada. He was called to the Ontario bar in 1978.\n", "Manley's early career was in tax law at the firm Perley-Robertson Hill & McDougall LLP.\n", "He is married to Judith Manley with whom he has three children: Rebecca, David and Sarah.\n", "Manley is also an accomplished marathoner.\n", "Section::::Cabinet career.\n", "He was first elected as an MP in the 1988 election. When the Liberals came to power under Jean Chrétien following the 1993 election he became Minister of Industry. During his time in Industry, Manley was a staunch supporter of Canada-based research and development, and also of increased technology use in public schools. In particular, he felt that the so-called \"wired classroom\" would help to equalize the gap between urban and smaller, rural schools. These initiatives were partially aimed at combating the \"brain drain\", and Manley himself stated that \"Canada needs to pursue policies that will make it a magnet for brains, attracting them from elsewhere and retaining the ones we have.\"\n", "Manley also unveiled a multimillion-dollar rescue package for the cash-strapped Ottawa Senators, being a friend of owner Rod Bryden, but later withdrew the aid after critics argued that there were better uses for public funds.\n", "Manley supported Dalton McGuinty's successful bid to lead the Ontario Liberal Party in 1996.\n", "He was shuffled to Minister of Foreign Affairs on the eve of the 2000 election. He was widely applauded for his work in foreign affairs, particularly for helping to ease strained Canada-U.S. relations. He was seen as able to communicate with the U.S. administration, and had a good working relationship with both Colin Powell and Tom Ridge. David Rudd, then director of Toronto's Canadian Institute of Strategic Studies said: \"Under Manley, the government of Canada talks to Washington, not at it.\" In January 2002 he was appointed as Deputy Prime Minister and given special responsibility for security in response to 9/11. For his performance in these roles, he was named \"Time\" Magazine's \"Canadian newsmaker of the year\" in 2001.\n", "In May 2002, Chrétien appointed Manley as Minister of Finance, following the departure of Paul Martin. His 2003 federal budget laid out billions of dollars in new spending, primarily in health-care, child-care, and for First Nations. It also introduced new accountability features to help limit federal waste.\n", "Section::::2003 Liberal leadership election.\n", "When Jean Chrétien announced his decision to retire, Manley announced his intention to run for the Liberal leadership. His primary competition was Martin, although Industry Minister Allan Rock and Heritage Minister and former Deputy Prime Minister Sheila Copps also ran, while Brian Tobin briefly contemplated running. Manley's polling numbers and fundraising were slightly behind that of Rock's, while well ahead of Copps but far behind Martin.\n", "From the beginning, it was apparent that Martin had a significant head start on his rivals. Martin's record as Minister of Finance was impressive and he also controlled much of the party machinery by 2002. Manley attacked Martin's refusal to disclose his campaign contributors, but failed to make a significant dent in Martin's support. Manley generally polled around 25% during his time in the contest, and he had the support of ministers Jane Stewart and Susan Whelan and backbench MP John H. Bryden. The rest of cabinet and most of caucus said that they would back Martin (with Martin's large lead, even most Chrétien supporters grudgingly voted for Martin), including Rock who dropped out of the race early on. Seeing his inevitable defeat, Manley withdrew from the race on July 22, 2003, and endorsed Martin.\n", "Upon Martin's landslide victory at the leadership convention on November 14, 2003, political commentators wondered whether someone so closely linked to Chrétien would avoid a potentially embarrassing demotion in Martin's new cabinet. That year, Manley had several times expressed his interest in returning to the Foreign Affairs ministry, as it was likely that Martin would appoint his own lieutenant to the Finance portfolio. Though both were ideologically on the right wing of the Liberal party, Manley's attacks on Martin's campaign donations had likely poisoned the relationship between the two men, hurting Manley's chances of remaining a Minister. Indeed, Manley, Stewart, and Whelan were dropped from cabinet, while Bryden's constituency was abolished after Martin was sworn in as Prime Minister.\n", "Martin, who would release the list of his new cabinet in a few days, decided to offer Manley a role as Ambassador to the United States, a patronage posting Manley said he would seriously consider. In the end, Manley declined the ambassadorial appointment, apparently because it would take him out of the country and \"out of the loop\" for fundraising and other political activities with a long-term view towards his own eventual bid for the Liberal leadership someday. Frank McKenna, who had also been considered a federal leadership contender, was appointed instead. On November 28, Manley announced his retirement from politics, remaining as a backbencher until the 2004 federal election.\n", "Section::::Post-political career.\n", "Shortly after Manley announced his retirement from federal politics, Dalton McGuinty, Premier of Ontario and close friend of Manley, appointed him to chair a Royal Commission on the energy system of Ontario in the wake of the eastern North American blackout of 2003.\n", "On May 18, 2004, he joined the law firm McCarthy Tétrault as counsel, working in their Toronto and Ottawa offices. On May 26, 2004, Manley was named to the Board of Directors of telecommunications firm Nortel Networks. On January 27, 2005, he was elected to the Board of Directors of the Canadian Imperial Bank of Commerce. He was also co-chair of the Independent Task Force on North America, a project of the U.S. Council on Foreign Relations. In March 2005, the Task Force released a report that advocated a North American union, an economic union between Canada, Mexico and the United States which would resemble the European Union.\n", "In an interview with \"La Presse\" published on January 24, 2005, he openly declared his ongoing interest in the Liberal leadership. In what was seen by political followers as an unusually frank admission, Manley said he would be a candidate to replace Paul Martin if he were to step down in the next three to four years and was maintaining a cross-country organizational network for this purpose. Although he denied the existence of a formal pact with former cabinet-mate Martin Cauchon, he indicated that in a later leadership race he would probably throw his support to the younger man. On January 25, 2006, Manley sent a letter to supporters indicating that he was not going to contest the Liberal leadership after the resignation of Paul Martin.\n", "On October 12, 2007, Manley was appointed by Conservative Prime Minister Stephen Harper to head an independent, non-partisan panel reviewing Canada's mission and future role in Afghanistan, a position he had discussed with Liberal leader Stéphane Dion beforehand. Both Dion and Liberal Foreign Affairs critic Bob Rae had encouraging words for the panel.\n", "Manley's panel reported on Canada's Afghanistan mission to Prime Minister Harper on January 28, 2008. Harper accepted the findings, which argued for an indefinite extension of the mission beyond February 2009, but also pointed to logistical and equipment shortfalls, communications challenges with telling the mission's story to Canadians, and a coming manpower strength shortage. The report's recommendations were accepted by the house when the Liberals backed them along with the Conservatives.\n", "Manley had been mentioned as a possible contender for the leadership of the Liberal Party after Stéphane Dion's resignation following the 2008 election, but on November 4, 2008, he announced that he would not be a candidate.\n", "In the December 6, 2008 edition of \"The Globe and Mail\", Manley demanded Liberal leader Stéphane Dion step down so the party can find another leader before Christmas and to \"rebuild the Liberal Party, rather than leading a coalition with the NDP. He added, \"the notion that the public would accept Stéphane Dion as prime minister, after having resoundingly rejected that possibility a few weeks earlier, was delusional at best ... Mr. Dion had seemed to accept responsibility for the defeat (although somewhat reluctantly), and should have left his post immediately.\" Dion did, in fact, step down as party leader shortly after Manley's letter was published, however this was a result of internal party pressure and the significance of Manley's letter to this end is debatable.\n", "In June 2009, Manley was named the new President and CEO of the Business Council of Canada (BCC), then known as the Canadian Council of Chief Executives, effective January 2010. He stepped down from that position effective October 15, 2018, and was succeeded by Goldy Hyder.\n", "On July 1, 2009, Manley was appointed an Officer of the Order of Canada for his contributions to Canadian politics, notably as a cabinet minister, and as a business and community leader who had played an important role in the promotion of international aid and co-operation.\n", "He is a member of the Trilateral Commission and sits on the Advisory Council of the Canadian Defence and Foreign Affairs Institute. In 2014, he was appointed as Chairman of the Board of CIBC.\n", "Section::::Political ideology.\n", "Manley is regarded by some as being from the centre-right of the Liberal party, favouring fiscal conservatism, free trade, and friendly relations with the United States, although his budget included substantial program spending.\n", "Manley seems committed to many of the policies implemented under Chrétien, particularly to expanding foreign aid and improving Canada's \"knowledge economy\".\n", "Manley is known as a republican and an advocate of the abolition of the Canadian monarchy. This point of view created quite a controversy when, in response to a reporter's question, he publicly stated that the monarchy was unnecessary during a 12-day tour of Canada by the Queen. Manley served as the Queen's escort for the trip.\n" ] }

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{ "description": "Canadian politician", "enwikiquote_title": "", "wikidata_id": "Q1389967", "wikidata_label": "John Manley", "wikipedia_title": "John Manley", "aliases": { "alias": [] } }

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{ "paragraph": [ "President of Poland\n", "The President of the Republic of Poland (, shorter form: \"Prezydent RP\") is the head of state of Poland. Their rights and obligations are determined in the Constitution of Poland. The president heads the executive branch. In addition the president has a right to dissolve parliament in certain cases, veto legislation and represents Poland in the international arena.\n", "Section::::History.\n", "The first president of Poland, Gabriel Narutowicz, was sworn in as president of the Second Polish Republic on 11 December 1922. He was elected by the National Assembly (the Sejm and the Senate) under the terms of the 1921 March Constitution. Narutowicz was assassinated on 16 December 1922. Previously Józef Piłsudski had been \"Chief of State\" (\"Naczelnik Państwa\") under the provisional Small Constitution of 1919. In 1926 Piłsudski staged the \"May Coup\", deposed President Stanisław Wojciechowski and had the National Assembly elect a new one, Ignacy Mościcki, thus establishing the \"Sanation regime\". Before Piłsudski's death, parliament passed a more authoritarian 1935 April Constitution of Poland (not in accord with the amendment procedures of the 1921 March Constitution). Mościcki continued as president until he resigned in 1939 in the aftermath of the German Invasion of Poland. Mościcki and his government went into exile into Romania, where Mościcki was interned. In Angers, France Władysław Raczkiewicz, at the time the speaker of the Senate, assumed the presidency after Mościcki's resignation on 29 September 1939. Following the fall of France, the president and the Polish government-in-exile were evacuated to London, United Kingdom. The transfer from Mościcki to Raczkiewicz was in accordance with Article 24 of the 1935 April Constitution. Raczkiewicz was followed by a succession of presidents in exile, of whom the last one was Ryszard Kaczorowski.\n", "In 1944–45 Poland became a part of Soviet-controlled central-eastern Europe. Bolesław Bierut assumed the reins of government and in July 1945 was internationally recognized as the head of state. The Senate was abolished in 1946 by the Polish people's referendum. When the Sejm passed the Small Constitution of 1947, based in part on the 1921 March Constitution, Bierut was elected president by that body. He served until the Constitution of the Polish People's Republic of 1952 eliminated the office of the president.\n", "Following the 1989 amendments to the constitution which restored the presidency, Wojciech Jaruzelski, the existing head of state, took office. In Poland's first direct presidential election, Lech Wałęsa won and was sworn in on 22 December 1990. The office of the president was preserved in the Constitution of Poland passed in 1997; the constitution now provides the requirements for, the duties of and the authority of the office.\n", "Section::::Election.\n", "The President of Poland is elected directly by the people to serve for five years and can be reelected only once. Pursuant to the provisions of the Constitution, the President is elected by an absolute majority. If no candidate succeeds in passing this threshold, a second round of voting is held with the participation of the two candidates with the largest and second largest number of votes respectively.\n", "In order to be registered as a candidate in the presidential election, one must be a Polish citizen, be at least 35 years old on the day of the first round of the election and collect at least 100,000 signatures of registered voters.\n", "Section::::Powers.\n", "The President has a free choice in selecting the Prime Minister, yet in practice he usually gives the task of forming a new government to a politician supported by the political party with the majority of seats in the Sejm (usually, though not always, it is the leader of that political party).\n", "The President has the right to initiate the legislative process. He also has the opportunity to directly influence it by using his veto to stop a bill; however, his veto can be overruled by a three-fifths majority vote in the presence of at least half of the statutory number of members of the Sejm (230). Before signing a bill into law, the President can also ask the Constitutional Tribunal to verify its compliance with the Constitution, which in practice bears a decisive influence on the legislative process.\n", "In his role as supreme representative of the Polish state, the President has power to ratify and revoke international agreements, nominates and recalls ambassadors, and formally accepts the accreditations of representatives of other states. The President also makes decisions on award of highest academic titles, as well as state distinctions and orders. In addition, he has the right of clemency, viz. he can dismiss final court verdicts (in practice, the President consults such decisions with the Minister of Justice).\n", "The President is also the Supreme Commander of the Armed Forces; he appoints the Chief of the General Staff and the commanders of all of the service branches; in wartime he nominates the Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces and can order a general mobilization. The President performs his duties with the help of the following offices: the Chancellery of the President, the Office of National Security, and the Body of Advisors to the President.\n", "Section::::Presidential residencies and properties.\n", "Several properties are owned by the Office of the President and are used by the Head of State as his or her official residence, private residence, residence for visiting foreign officials etc.\n", "BULLET::::- The Presidential Palace in Warsaw is largest palace in Warsaw and the official seat of the President of the Republic of Poland since 1993. The first presidential tenant was Lech Wałęsa when he moved to the Palace from Belweder in 1994.\n", "BULLET::::- Belweder, in Warsaw, was the official seat of the President until 1993, and is currently owned by the Office of the President as the \"official residence of the President\" and is used by the President and the Government for ceremonial purposes. The palace also serves as an official residence for heads of state on official visits to Poland and other important guests.\n", "BULLET::::- Presidential Castle in Wisła in a château built for the Habsburgs as their hunting cottage, which was rebuilt between 1929-1931 and used as recreational residence by President Ignacy Mościcki. Since 2002 it is again a property of the President, restored and opened in 2005 by the President Aleksander Kwaśniewski. It is today a recreational and conference centre for the President and a hotel.\n", "BULLET::::- Residence of the President of the Republic of Poland in Łucień.\n", "BULLET::::- Manor House of the President of the Republic of Poland in Ciechocinek.\n", "BULLET::::- Presidential Residence 'Jurata-Hel' in Hel. The president's Baltic coastal retreat.\n", "Section::::Acting President of Poland.\n", "The constitution states that the President is an elected office, there is no directly elected presidential line of succession. If the President is unable to execute his/her powers and duties, the Marshal of the Sejm will have the powers of a President for a maximum of 60 days until elections are called.\n", "On 10 April 2010, a plane carrying Polish President Lech Kaczyński, his wife, and 94 others including many Polish officials crashed near Smolensk-North Airport in Russia. There were no survivors. Bronisław Komorowski took over acting presidential powers following the incident. On 8 July Bronislaw Komorowski resigned from the office of Marshal of the Sejm after winning the presidential election. According to the constitution, the acting president then became the Marshal of the Senate, Bogdan Borusewicz. In the afternoon Grzegorz Schetyna was elected as a new Marshal of the Sejm and he became acting president. Schetyna served as the interim head of state until Komorowski's swearing-in on 6 August.\n", "Section::::Former Presidents.\n", "Within Poland, former presidents are entitled to lifetime personal security protection by Biuro Ochrony Rządu officers, in addition to receiving a substantial pension and a private office. On 10 April 2010, Lech Kaczyński, president at the time, and Ryszard Kaczorowski, the last president-in-exile although not internationally recognized, died in the crash of the Polish Air Force Tu-154 en route to Russia.\n", "As of 2019, three former Presidents of Poland are alive:\n", "BULLET::::- Lech Wałęsa (1990–1995)\n", "BULLET::::- Aleksander Kwaśniewski (1995–2005)\n", "BULLET::::- Bronisław Komorowski (2010–2015)\n", "Also, three former Acting Presidents are alive:\n", "BULLET::::- Bronisław Komorowski (2010)\n", "BULLET::::- Bogdan Borusewicz (2010)\n", "BULLET::::- Grzegorz Schetyna (2010)\n", "Section::::Living former Presidents.\n", "There are three living former Polish Presidents:\n", "Section::::See also.\n", "BULLET::::- Polish presidential elections of 1990, 1995, 2000, 2005, 2010, 2015, 2020\n", "BULLET::::- Prime Minister of Poland\n", "BULLET::::- Polish government in exile\n", "BULLET::::- List of heads of state of Poland\n", "BULLET::::- List of Polish monarchs\n", "BULLET::::- Lists of incumbents\n", "BULLET::::- Naczelnik państwa\n", "Section::::External links.\n", "BULLET::::- President of Poland Official Website\n" ] }

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{ "description": "head of state of Republic of Poland", "enwikiquote_title": "", "wikidata_id": "Q1054799", "wikidata_label": "President of Poland", "wikipedia_title": "President of Poland", "aliases": { "alias": [] } }

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{ "paragraph": [ "753 BC\n", "Section::::Events.\n", "BULLET::::- April 21: Rome founded by Romulus (according to tradition). Beginning of the Roman \"Ab urbe condita\" calendar.\n" ] }

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{ "description": "year", "enwikiquote_title": "", "wikidata_id": "Q493878", "wikidata_label": "753 BC", "wikipedia_title": "753 BC", "aliases": { "alias": [] } }

{ "pageid": 43585, "parentid": 858396534, "revid": 902078154, "pre_dump": true, "timestamp": "2019-06-16T11:41:23Z", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=753%20BC&oldid=902078154" }

{ "paragraph": [ "Édouard Roche\n", "Édouard Albert Roche (17 October 1820 – 27 April 1883) was a French astronomer and mathematician, who is best known for his work in the field of celestial mechanics. His name was given to the concepts of the Roche sphere, Roche limit and Roche lobe. He also was the author of works in meteorology.\n", "Section::::Biography.\n", "He was born in Montpellier, and studied at the University of Montpellier, receiving his D.Sc. in 1844 and later becoming a professor at the same institution, where he served in the Faculté des Sciences starting in 1849. Roche made a mathematical study of Laplace's nebular hypothesis and presented his results in a series of papers to the Academy of Montpellier from his appointment until 1877. The most important were on comets (1860) and the nebular hypothesis itself (1873). Roche's studies examined the effects of strong gravitational fields upon swarms of tiny particles.\n", "He is perhaps most famous for his theory that the planetary rings of Saturn were formed when a large moon came too close to Saturn and was pulled apart by gravitational forces. He described a method of calculating the distance at which an object held together only by gravity would break up due to tidal forces; this distance became known as the Roche limit.\n", "His other best known works also involved orbital mechanics. The Roche sphere describes the limits at which an object which is in orbit around two other objects will be captured by one or the other, and the Roche lobe approximates the gravitational sphere of influence of one astronomical body in the face of perturbations from another heavier body around which it orbits.\n", "Section::::Works.\n", "Roche's works are in French, his vernacular language.\n", "Section::::Works.:Lists of works.\n", "BULLET::::- List of works, on the site of the Académie des sciences (31 items) (Includes—unnumbered—works commenting that of Roche. Also includes works in meteorology)\n", "BULLET::::- , in \"Mémoires de la Société des sciences, de l'agriculture et des arts de Lille\", 1885 (34 items)\n", "Section::::See also.\n", "BULLET::::- Roche lobe\n", "BULLET::::- Roche limit\n", "BULLET::::- Roche sphere\n", "Section::::References.\n", "BULLET::::- Z. Kopal, \"The Roche problem\", Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht, 1989 .\n" ] }

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{ "description": "French astronomer", "enwikiquote_title": "", "wikidata_id": "Q274223", "wikidata_label": "Édouard Roche", "wikipedia_title": "Édouard Roche", "aliases": { "alias": [ "Edward Roche", "Edouard Roche", "Édouard Albert Roche", "Edouard Albert Roche" ] } }

{ "pageid": 43591, "parentid": 831055434, "revid": 836463415, "pre_dump": true, "timestamp": "2018-04-14T23:45:28Z", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Édouard%20Roche&oldid=836463415" }

{ "paragraph": [ "Teresa of Ávila\n", "Saint Teresa of Ávila, born Teresa Sánchez de Cepeda y Ahumada, also called Saint Teresa of Jesus (28 March 15154 October 1582), was a Spanish noblewoman who chose a monastic life in the Catholic Church. A Carmelite nun, prominent Spanish mystic, religious reformer, author, theologian of the contemplative life and mental prayer, she earned the rare distinction of being declared a Doctor of the Church over four centuries after her death. Active during the Counter-Reformation, she reformed the Carmelite Orders of both women and men. The movement she initiated was later joined by the younger Spanish Carmelite friar and mystic, Saint John of the Cross. It led eventually to the establishment of the Discalced Carmelites. A formal papal decree adopting the split was issued in 1580.\n", "Teresa, who had been a social celebrity in her home province, was dogged by early family losses and ill health. In her mature years, she became the central figure of a movement of spiritual and monastic renewal borne out of an inner conviction and honed by ascetic practice. She was also at the centre of deep ecclesiastical controversy as she took on the pervasive laxity in her order against the background of the Protestant reformation sweeping over Europe and the Spanish Inquisition asserting church discipline in her home country. The consequences were to last well beyond her life. \n", "Forty years after her death in 1622, Teresa was canonized by Pope Gregory XV. At the time she was considered a candidate for national patron saint of Spain, but lost out to St. James the Apostle. She has since become one of the patron saints of Spain. \n", "Her written contributions, which include her autobiography, \"The Life of Teresa of Jesus\" and her seminal work \"The Interior Castle\", are today an integral part of Spanish Renaissance literature. Together with \"The Way of Perfection\", her works form part of the Literary canon of Christian mysticism and Christian meditation practice, and continue to attract interest from people both within and outside the Catholic Church. \n", "However, not until 27 September 1970 did Pope Paul VI proclaim Teresa a \"Doctor of the Church\" in recognition of her centuries-long spiritual legacy to Catholicism. \n", "Other associations with Teresa beyond her writings continue to exert a wide influence. A \"Santero\" image of the Immaculate Conception of El Viejo said to have been sent by her with a brother emigrating to Peru, was canonically crowned by Pope John Paul II on December 28, 1989 at the Shrine of El Viejo in Nicaragua. Another Catholic tradition holds that Saint Teresa is personally associated with devotion to the Infant Jesus of Prague, a statue she may have owned. Since her death, her reputation has grown, leading to multiple portrayals. She continues to be widely noted as inspiration to philosophers, theologians, historians, neurologists, fiction writers, artists as well as countless ordinary people interested in Christian spirituality and mysticism. \n", "Speaking to pilgrims from Avila in October 1981, Pope John Paul II said: \"It is necessary for the rich legacy left by Teresa of Jesus to be deeply reconsidered so that it can effect a renewal of the inner life of your nation and thereby influence the renewal of life in the entire church in all its aspects. The giant figure of the Great Teresa should act as a strong encouragement in that direction not only on a local or national scale but also on a universal scale\".\n", "Section::::Early life.\n", "Teresa Sánchez de Cepeda y Ahumada was born in 1515 in Ávila, Spain. Her paternal grandfather, Juan Sánchez de Toledo, was a marrano or Converso, a Jew forced to convert to Christianity or emigrate. When Teresa's father was a child, Juan was condemned by the Spanish Inquisition for allegedly returning to the Jewish faith, but he was later able to assume a Catholic identity. Her father, , was a successful wool merchant and one of the wealthiest men in Ávila. He bought a knighthood and assimilated successfully into Christian society.\n", "Previously married to Catalina del Peso y Henao, with whom he had three children, in 1509, Sánchez de Cepeda married Teresa's mother, Beatriz de Ahumada y Cuevas, in Gotarrendura.\n", "Teresa's mother was keen to raise her daughter as a pious Christian. Teresa was fascinated by accounts of the lives of the saints and ran away from home at age seven with her brother Rodrigo to find martyrdom among the Moors. Her uncle stopped them on the road as he was returning to the town, having spotted them outside the town walls.\n", "When Teresa was eleven years old, her mother died, leaving her grief-stricken. This prompted her to embrace a deeper devotion to the Virgin Mary as her spiritual mother. Teresa was also enamored of popular fiction, which at the time was primarily medieval tales of knighthood and works about fashion, gardens and flowers. Teresa was sent to the Augustinian nuns' school at Ávila.\n", "Section::::Early life.:Entry into religious life.\n", "After completing her education, she initially resisted the idea of a religious vocation, but after a stay with her uncle and other relatives, she relented. In 1536 aged 18, much to the disappointment of her pious and austere father, she decided to enter the local easy-going Carmelite \"Convent of the Incarnation\", significantly built on top of land that had been used previously as a burial ground for Jews. She took up religious reading on contemplative prayer, especially Osuna’s \"Third Spiritual Alphabet\" (1527). Her zeal for mortification caused her to become ill again and she spent almost a year in bed, causing huge worry to her community and family. She nearly died but, she recovered thanks to the miraculous intercession of St. Joseph, she believed. She began to experience instances of religious ecstasy.\n", "Section::::Early life.:Foundations of spirituality.\n", "Her reading of medieval mystics, consisted of directions for examinations of conscience and for spiritual self-concentration and inner contemplation known in mystical nomenclature as \"oratio recollectionis\" or \"oratio mentalis\". She also dipped into other mystical ascetic works such as the \"Tractatus de oratione et meditatione\" of Saint Peter of Alcantara, and perhaps some upon which Saint Ignatius of Loyola based his \"Spiritual Exercises\"—possibly the \"Spiritual Exercises\" themselves.\n", "She reported that, during her illness, she had risen from the lowest stage, \"recollection\", to the \"devotions of silence\" or even to the \"devotions of ecstasy\", which was one of perfect union with God (see ). During this final stage, she said she frequently experienced a rich \"blessing of tears\". As the Catholic distinction between mortal and venial sin became clear to her, she came to understand the awful terror of sin and the inherent nature of original sin. She also became conscious of her own natural impotence in confronting sin and the necessity of absolute subjection to God.\n", "Around 1556, friends suggested that her newfound knowledge was diabolical, not divine. She had begun to inflict mortifications of the flesh upon herself. But her confessor, the Jesuit Saint Francis Borgia, reassured her of the divine inspiration of her thoughts. On St. Peter's Day in 1559, Teresa became firmly convinced that Jesus Christ presented himself to her in bodily form, though invisible. These visions lasted almost uninterrupted for more than two years. In another vision, a seraph drove the fiery point of a golden lance repeatedly through her heart, causing an ineffable spiritual and bodily pain:\n", "This vision was the inspiration for one of Bernini's most famous works, the \"Ecstasy of Saint Teresa\" at Santa Maria della Vittoria in Rome.\n", "The memory of this episode served as an inspiration throughout the rest of her life, and motivated her lifelong imitation of the life and suffering of Jesus, epitomized in the adage often associated with her: \"Lord, either let me suffer or let me die.\"\n", "Section::::Early life.:Embarrassment of raptures.\n", "Teresa who became a celebrity in her town dispensing wisdom from behind the convent grille, was also known for her raptures which sometimes involved levitation. It was a source of embarrassment to her and she bade her sisters hold her down when this occurred. Subsequently, historians and neurologists and psychiatrists like, Peter Fenwick and Javier Alvarez-Rodriguez among others, have taken an interest in her symptomatology. The fact that she wrote down virtually everything that happened to her during her religious life, means that an invaluable and exceedingly rare medical record from the 16th-century has been preserved. Examination of this record has led to the speculative conclusion that she may have suffered from Temporal lobe epilepsy.\n", "Section::::Monastic reformer.\n", "Over time, Teresa found herself increasingly at odds with the spiritual malaise prevailing in her convent of the Incarnation. Among the 150 nuns living there, the observance of cloister, designed to protect and strengthen spiritual practice and prayer, became so lax that it appeared to lose its purpose. The daily invasion of visitors, many of high social and political rank, disturbed the atmosphere with frivolous concerns and vacuous conversation. Such intrusions in the solitude essential to develop and sustain contemplative prayer so grieved Teresa that she longed to intervene.\n", "The incentive to take the practical steps inspired by her inward motivation was supported by the Franciscan priest, Saint Peter of Alcantara, who met her early in 1560 and became her spiritual adviser. She resolved to found a \"reformed\" Carmelite convent, correcting the laxity which she had found at the Incarnation convent and elsewhere besides. Guimara de Ulloa, a woman of wealth and a friend, supplied the funds for the project.\n", "The abject poverty of the new convent, established in 1562 and named St. Joseph's (San José), at first caused a scandal among the citizens and authorities of Ávila, and the small house with its chapel was in peril of suppression. However, powerful patrons, including the local bishop, coupled with the impression of well ordered subsistence and purpose, turned animosity into approval.\n", "In March 1563, after Teresa had moved to the new convent house, she received papal sanction for her primary principles of absolute poverty and renunciation of ownership of property, which she proceeded to formulate into a \"constitution\". Her plan was the revival of the earlier, stricter monastic rules, supplemented by new regulations including the three disciplines of ceremonial flagellation prescribed for the Divine Office every week, and the discalceation of the religious. For the first five years, Teresa remained in seclusion, mostly engaged in prayer and writing.\n", "Section::::Monastic reformer.:Extended travels.\n", "In 1567, Teresa received a patent from the Carmelite General, Rubeo de Ravenna, to establish further houses of the new order. This process required many visitations and long journeys across nearly all the provinces of Spain. She left a record of the arduous project in her \"Libro de las Fundaciones\". Between 1567 and 1571, reformed convents were established at Medina del Campo, Malagón, Valladolid, Toledo, Pastrana, Salamanca, and Alba de Tormes.\n", "As part of the original patent, Teresa was given permission to set up two houses for men who wished to adopt the reforms. She convinced two Carmelite friars, John of the Cross and Father Anthony of Jesus to help with this. They founded the first monastery of Discalced Carmelite brothers in November 1568 at Duruelo. Another friend of Teresa, Jerónimo Gracián, the Carmelite visitator of the older observance of Andalusia and apostolic commissioner, and later provincial of the Teresian order, gave her powerful support in founding monasteries at Segovia (1571), Beas de Segura (1574), Seville (1575), and Caravaca de la Cruz (Murcia, 1576). Meanwhile, John of the Cross promoted the inner life of the movement through his power as a teacher and preacher.\n", "Section::::Monastic reformer.:Opposition to reforms.\n", "In 1576, unreformed members of the Carmelite order began to persecute Teresa, her supporters and her reforms. Following a number of resolutions adopted at the general chapter at Piacenza, the governing body of the order forbade all further founding of reformed convents. The general chapter instructed her to go into \"voluntary\" retirement at one of her institutions. She obeyed and chose St. Joseph's at Toledo. Meanwhile, her friends and associates were subjected to further attacks.\n", "Several years later, her appeals by letter to King Philip II of Spain secured relief. As a result, in 1579, the cases before the inquisition against her, Father Gracian and others, were dropped. This allowed the reform to resume. An edict from Pope Gregory XIII allowed the appointment of a special provincial for the newer branch of the Carmelite religious, and a royal decree created a \"protective\" board of four assessors for the reform.\n", "During the last three years of her life, Teresa founded convents at Villanueva de la Jara in northern Andalusia (1580), Palencia (1580), Soria (1581), Burgos, and Granada (1582). In total, seventeen convents, all but one founded by her, and as many men's monasteries were owed to her reforms over twenty years.\n", "Section::::Last days.\n", "Her final illness overtook her on one of her journeys from Burgos to Alba de Tormes. She died in 1582, just as Catholic Europe was making the switch from the Julian to the Gregorian calendar, which required the excision of the dates of 5–14 October from the calendar. She died either before midnight of 4 October or early in the morning of 15 October which is celebrated as her feast day. (According to the liturgical calendar then in use, she died on the 15th in any case, which began at sunset.) Her last words were: \"My Lord, it is time to move on. Well then, may your will be done. O my Lord and my Spouse, the hour that I have longed for has come. It is time to meet one another.\"\n", "Section::::Last days.:Holy relics.\n", "She was buried at the Convento de la Anunciación in Alba de Tormes. Nine months after her death the coffin was opened and her body was found to be intact but the clothing had rotted. Before the body was re-interred one of her hands was cut off, wrapped in a scarf and sent to Ávila. Father Gracián cut the little finger off the hand and - according to his own account - kept it with him until it was taken by the occupying Ottoman Turks, from whom he had to redeem it with a few rings and 20 reales. The body was exhumed again on 25 November 1585 to be moved to Ávila and found to be incorrupt. An arm was removed and left in Alba de Tormes at the nuns' request, to compensate for losing the main relic of Teresa, but the rest of the body was reburied in the Discalced Carmelite chapter house in Ávila. The removal was done without the approval of the Duke of Alba de Tormes and he brought the body back in 1586, with Pope Sixtus V ordering that it remain in Alba de Tormes on pain of excommunication. A grander tomb on the original site was raised in 1598 and the body was moved to a new chapel in 1616.\n", "The body still remains there, apart from the following parts:\n", "BULLET::::- Rome - right foot and part of the upper jaw\n", "BULLET::::- Lisbon - left hand\n", "BULLET::::- Ronda, Spain - left eye and right hand (the latter was kept by Francisco Franco until his death after Francoist troops captured it from Republican troops during the Spanish Civil War)\n", "BULLET::::- Museum of the Church of the Annunciation, Alba de Tormes - left arm and heart\n", "BULLET::::- Church of Our Lady of Loreto, Paris, France - one finger\n", "BULLET::::- Sanlúcar de Barrameda - one finger\n", "Section::::Canonization.\n", "In 1622, forty years after her death, she was canonized by Pope Gregory XV. The Cortes exalted her to patroness of Spain in 1627. The University of Salamanca had granted her the title \"Doctor ecclesiae\" (Latin for \"Doctor of the Church\") with a diploma in her lifetime but that title is distinct from the papal honour of Doctor of the Church, which is always conferred posthumously. The latter was finally bestowed upon her by Pope Paul VI on 27 September 1970, along with Saint Catherine of Siena, making them the first women to be awarded the distinction. Teresa is revered as the Doctor of Prayer. The mysticism in her works exerted a formative influence upon many theologians of the following centuries, such as Francis of Sales, Fénelon, and the Port-Royalists. In 1670 her coffin was plated in silver.\n", "Section::::Mysticism.\n", "The ultimate preoccupation of Teresa's mystical thought, as consistently reflected in her writings, is the ascent of the soul to God in four stages (see: \"The Autobiography\" Chs. 10-22):\n", "BULLET::::- The first, \"Devotion of the Heart\", consists of mental prayer and contemplation. It means the withdrawal of the soul from without, penitence and especially the devout meditation on the passion of Christ (\"Autobiography\" 11.20).\n", "BULLET::::- The second, \"Devotion of Peace\", is where human will is surrendered to God. This occurs by virtue of an uplifted awareness granted by God, while other faculties, such as memory, reason, and imagination, are not yet safe from worldly distraction. Although a partial distraction can happen, due to outer activity such as repetition of prayers or writing down spiritual things, the prevailing state is one of quietude (\"Autobiography\" 14.1).\n", "BULLET::::- The third, \"Devotion of Union\", concerns the absorption-in-God. It is not only a heightened, but essentially, an ecstatic state. At this level, reason is also surrendered to God, and only the memory and imagination are left to ramble. This state is characterized by a blissful peace, a sweet slumber of at least the \"higher soul faculties\", that is a consciousness of being enraptured by the love of God.\n", "BULLET::::- The fourth, \"Devotion of Ecstasy\", is where the consciousness of being in the body disappears. Sensory faculties cease to operate. Memory and imagination also become absorbed in God, as though intoxicated. Body and spirit dwell in the throes of exquisite pain, alternating between a fearful fiery glow, in complete unconscious helplessness, and periods of apparent strangulation. Sometimes such ecstatic transports literally cause the body to be lifted into space. This state may last as long as half an hour and tends to be followed by relaxation of a few hours of swoon-like weakness, attended by the absence of all faculties while in union with God. The subject awakens from this trance state in tears. it may be regarded as the culmination of mystical experience.\n", "Indeed, Teresa was said to have been observed levitating during Mass on more than one occasion.\n", "Teresa is regarded as one of the foremost writers on mental prayer, and her position among writers on mystical theology as unique. Her writings on this theme, stem from her personal experiences, thereby manifesting considerable insight and analytical gifts. Her definitions have been used in the \"Catechism of the Catholic Church\". Teresa states: \"Contemplative prayer, \"oración mental\", in my opinion is nothing other than a close sharing between friends. It means frequently taking time to be alone with Him whom we know loves us.\" Throughout her writings, Teresa returns to the image of watering one's garden as a metaphor for mystical prayer.\n", "Section::::Writings.\n", "Teresa's writings are regarded as among the most remarkable in the mystical literature of the Catholic Church.\n", "BULLET::::- The \"Autobiography\", written before 1567, under the direction of her confessor, Fr. Pedro Ibáñez.\n", "BULLET::::- \"El Camino de Perfección\" (\"The Way of Perfection\"), written also before 1567, at the direction of her confessor.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Meditations on Song of Songs\", 1567, written nominally for her daughters at the convent of Our Lady of Mount Carmel.\n", "BULLET::::- \"El Castillo Interior\" (\"The Interior Castle\"), written in 1577.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Relaciones\" (\"Relationships\"), an extension of the autobiography giving her inner and outer experiences in epistolary form.\n", "BULLET::::- Two smaller works are the \"Conceptos del Amor\" (\"Concepts of Love\") and \"Exclamaciones\". In addition, there are \"Las Cartas\" (Saragossa, 1671), or her correspondence, of which there are 342 extant letters and 87 fragments of others. St Teresa's prose is marked by an unaffected grace, an ornate neatness, and charming power of expression, together placing her in the front rank of Spanish prose writers.\n", "BULLET::::- Her rare poems (\"\"Todas las poesías\"\", Munster, 1854) are distinguished for tenderness of feeling and rhythm of thought.\n", "Section::::Writings.:Philosophical works.\n", "Christia Mercer, Columbia University philosophy professor, claims that the seventeenth-century Frenchman, René Descartes, lifted some of his most influential ideas from Teresa of Ávila, who, fifty years before Descartes, wrote popular books about the role of philosophical reflection in intellectual growth. She describes a number of striking similarities between Descartes' seminal work \"Meditations on First Philosophy\" and Teresa's \"Interior Castle\".\n", "Section::::Writings.:Excerpts.\n", "Saint Teresa, who reported visions of Jesus and Mary, was a strong believer in the efficacy of holy water, claiming to have used it with success to repel evil spirits and temptations. She wrote: \"I know from frequent experience that there is nothing which puts devils to flight better than holy water.\"\n", "A poem:\n", "The modern poem \"Christ has no body\", though widely attributed to Teresa, is not found in her writings.\n", "Section::::Legacy and the Infant Jesus of Prague.\n", "The Spanish nuns who established \"Carmel\" in France brought a devotion to the Infant Jesus with them, and it became widespread in France. Indeed, one of Teresa's most famous later followers, Saint Thérèse of Lisieux (1875-1898), a French Carmelite, herself named for Teresa, took as her religious name Sister \"Thérèse of the Child Jesus and the Holy Face\".\n", "Though there are no written historical accounts establishing that Teresa of Ávila ever owned the famous Infant Jesus of Prague statue, according to tradition, such a statue is said to have been in her possession and Teresa is reputed to have given it to a noblewoman travelling to Prague. The age of the statue dates to approximately the same time as Teresa.\n", "It has been thought that Teresa carried a portable statue of the Child Jesus wherever she went, the idea circulated by the early 1700s.\n", "Section::::Patron saint.\n", "In 1626, at the request of Philip IV of Spain, the Castilian parliament elected Teresa \"without lacking one vote\" as copatron saint of Castile. This status was affirmed by Pope Urban VIII in a brief issued on 21 July 1627 in which he stated:\n", "More broadly, the 1620s, the entirety of Spain (Castile and beyond) debated who should be the country's patron saint; the choices were either the current patron, Saint James Matamoros, or a pairing of him and the newly canonised Saint Teresa of Ávila. Teresa's promoters said Spain faced newer challenges, especially the threat of Protestantism and societal decline at home, thus needing a more contemporary patron who understood those issues and could guide the Spanish nation. Santiago's supporters (\"Santiaguistas\") fought back and eventually won the argument, but Teresa of Ávila remained far more popular at the local level. Saint James the Greater kept the title of patron saint for the Spanish people, and the most Blessed Virgin Mary under the title Immaculate Conception as the sole patroness for the entire Spanish Kingdom.\n", "Section::::Portrayals.\n", "They include the following:\n", "Section::::Portrayals.:Music.\n", "BULLET::::- Marc-Antoine Charpentier composed two motets for the feast of Saint Teresa: \"Flores, flores o Gallia\" for two voices and two flutes (H 374), c. 1680 and the other, for two high voices, one bass and Bass continuo (H 342), in 1686.\n", "BULLET::::- She is a principal character of the opera \"Four Saints in Three Acts\" by the composer Virgil Thomson with a libretto by Gertrude Stein.\n", "BULLET::::- Saint Teresa is the subject of the song \"Theresa's Sound-World\" by Sonic Youth off the 1992 album \"Dirty\", lyrics by Thurston Moore.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Saint Teresa\" is a track on Joan Osborne's \"Relish\" album, nominated for a Grammy Award in 1996.\n", "Section::::Portrayals.:Painting and sculpture.\n", "BULLET::::- Saint Teresa was the inspiration for one of Bernini's most famous sculptures, \"The Ecstasy of St. Teresa\" in Santa Maria della Vittoria, Rome.\n", "BULLET::::- Teresa was the subject of a portrait by the Flemish master, Sir Pieter Paul Rubens (1615) now in the collection of the Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna.\n", "BULLET::::- \"St. Teresa\" was painted in 1819–20 by François Gérard, a French neoclassical painter.\n", "Section::::Portrayals.:Literature.\n", "BULLET::::- Simone de Beauvoir singles out Teresa as a woman who lived the human condition (perhaps the only woman to do so) in her book \"The Second Sex\".\n", "BULLET::::- She is mentioned prominently in Kathryn Harrison's novel \"Poison\". The main character, Francisca De Luarca, is fascinated by her life.\n", "BULLET::::- R. A. Lafferty was strongly inspired by \"El Castillo Interior\" when he wrote his novel \"Fourth Mansions\". Quotations from St. Teresa's work are frequently used as chapter headings.\n", "BULLET::::- Pierre Klossowski prominently features Saint Teresa of Ávila in his metaphysical novel \"The Baphomet\".\n", "BULLET::::- George Eliot compared Dorothea Brooke to St. Teresa in \"Middlemarch\" (1871–1872) and wrote briefly about the life and works of St. Teresa in the \"Prelude\" to the novel.\n", "BULLET::::- Thomas Hardy took Saint Teresa as the inspiration for much of the characterisation of the heroine Tess (Teresa) Durbeyfield, in \"Tess of the d'Urbervilles\" (1891), most notably the scene in which she lies in a field and senses her soul ecstatically above her.\n", "BULLET::::- The contemporary poet Jorie Graham features Saint Teresa in the poem \"Breakdancing\" in her volume \"The End of Beauty\".\n", "BULLET::::- Barbara Mujica's novel \"Sister Teresa\", while not strictly hagiographical, is based upon Teresa's life.\n", "BULLET::::- Timothy Findley's 1999 novel \"Pilgrim\" features Saint Teresa as a minor character.\n", "Section::::Portrayals.:Drama and Film.\n", "BULLET::::- Performance artist Linda Montano has cited Teresa of Ávila as one of the most important influences on her work and since her return to Catholicism in the 2000s has done performances of her life.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Teresa de Jesús\" (1984), directed by Josefina Molina and starring Concha Velasco, is a Spanish made for TV mini-series. In it Teresa is portrayed as the determined foundress of new carmelite houses while protecting the infant Jesus statue on her many arduous journeys. The devotion to the Child Jesus spread quickly in Spain, possibly due to her mystical reputation and then to other places, including France.\n", "BULLET::::- Nigel Wingrove's 1989 short film \"Visions of Ecstasy\" was based on Teresa of Ávila. The film features phantasied sexualised scenes of Teresa with the body of Jesus on the cross. It is the only work to be refused certification by the British Board of Film Classification (BBFC) on the grounds of blasphemy.\n", "BULLET::::- Dževad Karahasan. \"The Delighted Angel\" drama about Teresa of Ávila and Rabija al-Adavija, Vienna-Salzburg-Klagenfurt, ARBOS 1995.\n", "BULLET::::- Paz Vega stars as Teresa in \"Teresa, el cuerpo de Cristo\", a 2007 Spanish biopic directed by Ray Loriga.\n", "Section::::See also.\n", "BULLET::::- Asín on mystical analogies in Saint Teresa of Avila and Islam\n", "BULLET::::- \"Book of the First Monks\"\n", "BULLET::::- Byzantine Discalced Carmelites\n", "BULLET::::- Carmelite Rule of St. Albert\n", "BULLET::::- Constitutions of the Carmelite Order\n", "BULLET::::- Mount Carmel#Carmelites\n", "BULLET::::- Secular Order of Discalced Carmelites\n", "BULLET::::- Saints and levitation\n", "BULLET::::- Spanish Renaissance literature\n", "BULLET::::- \"Teresa de Jesús, 1984 Spanish language mini-series\n", "Section::::Bibliography.\n", "Section::::Bibliography.:Works by Teresa.\n", "BULLET::::- , St. Teresa's autobiography in an online version at Project Gutenberg\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Complete Works of St Teresa of Jesus\", in five volumes, translated and edited by E. Allison Peers, including 2 volumes of correspondence. London: Sheed and Ward, 1982.\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Interior Castle\". Edited by E. Allison Peers, Doubleday, 1972.\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Way of Perfection\". Translated and Edited by E. Allison Peers, Doubleday, 1991.\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Life of Teresa of Jesus: The Autobiography of Teresa of Avila\". Translated by E. Allison Peers, Doubleday, 1991.\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Interior Castle - The Mansions\", TAN Books, 1997.\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Way of Perfection\", TAN Books, 1997.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Way of Perfection\", London, 2012. limovia.net\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Book of Her Life\", translated, with Notes, by Kieran Kavanaugh, OCD and Otilio Rodriguez, OCD. Introduction by Jodi Bilinkoff. Indianapolis/Cambridge: Hackett Publishing Company, 2008.\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Complete Poetry of St. Teresa of Avila\". A Bilingual Edition - Edición y traducción de Eric W. Vogt.\" New Orleans University Press of the South, 1996. Second edition, 2015. xl, 116 p.\n", "Section::::Bibliography.:About Teresa.\n", "This article was originally based on the text in the \"Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia of Religious Knowledge.\"\n", "BULLET::::- (493 pages) French original\n", "BULLET::::- Auclair, Marcelle. (1953) \"Saint Teresa of Avila\". First English publication: New York: Pantheon. , (457 pages)\n", "Section::::Further reading.\n", "BULLET::::- Vita Sackville-West. \"The Eagle and the Dove, Saint Teresa of Avila and Saint Thérèse of Lisieux\", First published in 1943 by Michael Joseph LTD, 26 Bloomsbury Street, London, W.C.1\n", "BULLET::::- Carolyn A. Greene. \"Castles in the Sand\" fiction with cited sources about Teresa of Avila Lighthouse Trails Publishing, 2009.\n", "BULLET::::- Jean Abiven. \"15 Days of Prayer with Saint Teresa of Avila\", New City Press, 2011.\n", "BULLET::::- Bárbara Mujica, \"Teresa de Ávila: Lettered Woman\", (Nashville, Vanderbilt University Press, 2009).\n", "BULLET::::- E. Rhodes, \"Teresa de Jesus's Book and the Reform of the Religious Man in Sixteenth Century Spain,\" in Laurence Lux-Sterritt and Carmen Mangion (eds), \"Gender, Catholicism and Spirituality: Women and the Roman Catholic Church in Britain and Europe, 1200-1900\" (Basingstoke, Palgrave Macmillan, 2011),\n", "BULLET::::- John Thomas, \"Ecstasy, art & the body. St. Teresa of Avila's 'Transverberation', and it depiction in the sculpture of Gianlorenzo Bernini\" in John Thomas, \"Happiness, Truth & Holy Images. Essays of Popular Theology and Religion & Art\" (Wolverhampton, Twin Books, 2019), pp. 12–16.\n", "BULLET::::- John Thomas, \"Architectural image and \"via mystica\". St. Teresa's \"Las Moradas\"\", in John Thomas, \"Happiness, Truth & Holy Images. Essays of Popular Theology and Religion & Art\" (Wolverhampton, Twin Books, 2019), pp. 39–48.\n", "Section::::External links.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Teresa 500\": Videos of a conference held at Roehampton University in 2015 on the 500th anniversary of Teresa's birth/a\n", "BULLET::::- \"St. Teresa, Virgin\", \"Butler's Lives of the Saints\"\n", "BULLET::::- Founder Statue in St Peter's Basilica\n", "BULLET::::- Biography Online: Saint Teresa of Avila\n", "BULLET::::- Patron Saints: Saint Teresa of Avila\n", "BULLET::::- Books written by Saint Teresa of Avila, including Saint John of the Cross\n", "BULLET::::- Basilica of Saint Teresa in Alba de Tormes (in Spanish)\n", "BULLET::::- (in Spanish)\n", "BULLET::::- Life of St. Teresa of Jesus, of The Order of Our Lady of Carmel\n", "BULLET::::- \"Way of Perfection\"\n", "BULLET::::- \"Interior Castle\" or \"The Mansions\"\n", "BULLET::::- Convent of St Teresa in Avila\n", "BULLET::::- Poems of Saint Teresa\n", "BULLET::::- , 1900, by Alexander Whyte, from Project Gutenberg\n", "BULLET::::- Colonnade Statue St Peter's Square\n" ] }

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{ "description": "Roman Catholic saint", "enwikiquote_title": "Teresa of Ávila", "wikidata_id": "Q174880", "wikidata_label": "Teresa of Ávila", "wikipedia_title": "Teresa of Ávila", "aliases": { "alias": [ "Teresa Sánchez de Cepeda y Ahumada", "Teresa de Jesús", "Teresa Sanchez Cepeda Davila y Ahumada", "Teresa de Cepeda y Ahumada", "Teresa", "Avil̔skaia Tereza", "Saint Teresa of Jesus", "Saint Teresa of Ávila", "Teresa de, Saint Cepeda y Ahumada", "of Avila, Saint Theresa", "de Avila, Saint Teresa", "d̔Avila, Saint Teresa", "von Avila, Saint Theresia", "イエズスの聖テレジア", "聖女大テレサ", "Saint Teresia a Jesu", "聖テレザ", "Teresa de Cepeda y, Saint Ahumada", "Saint Teresa di Gesù", "Teresa Sanchez de Cepeda y Ahumada", "Saint Thérèse de Jésus", "Saint Theresa de Jesus", "テレジア", "Saint Theresia von Jesus", "von Avila, Saint Teresa", "アヴィラの聖テレジア", "Teresa, Saint De Cepeda y Ahumada", "イエスの聖女テレサ", "of Jesus, Saint Teresa", "Theresa, Saint De Cepeda", "アビラの聖テレサ", "d̔Avila, Saint Thérèse", "Theresa de, Saint Cepeda", "アビラの聖女テレサ", "Saint Teresa", "Teresa of Avila", "Saint Teresa of Avila", "Teresa de Jesus", "Saint Teresa di Gesu", "Saint Therese de Jesus" ] } }

{ "pageid": 43583, "parentid": 906803410, "revid": 907692839, "pre_dump": true, "timestamp": "2019-07-24T16:36:38Z", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Teresa%20of%20Ávila&oldid=907692839" }

{ "paragraph": [ "Carmelites\n", "The Carmelites, formally known as the Order of the Brothers of the Blessed Virgin Mary of Mount Carmel () or sometimes simply as Carmel by synecdoche, is a Roman Catholic mendicant religious order founded, probably in the 12th century, on Mount Carmel in the Crusader States, hence the name Carmelites. However, historical records about its origin remain very uncertain. Berthold of Calabria has traditionally been associated with the founding of the order, but few clear records of early Carmelite history have survived.\n", "Section::::Charism.\n", "The charism (or spiritual focus) of the Carmelite Order is contemplation. Carmelites understand contemplation in a broad sense encompassing prayer, community, and service. These three elements are at the heart of the Carmelite charism. The most recent statement about the charism of Carmel was in the 1995 Constitutions of the Order, in which Chapter 2 is entirely devoted to the idea of charism. Carmel understands contemplation and action to be complementary, not contradictory. What is distinctive of Carmelites is the way that they practice the elements of prayer, community and service, taking particular inspiration from the prophet Elijah and the Blessed Virgin Mary, patrons of the order.\n", "The order is considered by the Catholic Church to be under the special protection of the Blessed Virgin Mary, and thus has a strong Marian devotion to Our Lady of Mount Carmel. As in most of the orders dating to medieval times, the First Order is the friars (who are active/contemplative), the Second Order is the nuns (who are cloistered), and the Third Order consists of laypeople who continue to live in the world, and can be married, but participate in the charism of the order by liturgical prayers, apostolates, and contemplative prayer. There are also offshoots such as active Carmelite sisters.\n", "Section::::History.\n", "Section::::History.:Origins.\n", "Carmelite tradition traces the origin of the order to a community of hermits on Mount Carmel, which succeeded the schools of the prophets in ancient Israel during the initial period of the formation of the Crusader states. A group of men had gathered at the well of Elijah on Mount Carmel. These men, who had gone to Palestine from Europe either as pilgrims or as crusaders, chose Mount Carmel in part because it was the traditional home of Elijah. \n", "The foundation is believed to have been dedicated to the Blessed Virgin Mary. (The Carmelites were forced to leave the site, and the Holy Land, in 1291. Their original conventual buildings were destroyed several times, but members of the order were able to return in the nineteenth century under the Ottoman Empire. A monastery of Discalced Carmelite friars was built close to the original site under the auspices of Julius of the Saviour and consecrated on 12 June 1836.)\n", "Some time between 1206 and 1214 the hermits, about whom very little is known, approached Albert of Jerusalem, the Latin Patriarch of Jerusalem and papal legate, for a rule. (Albert is credited with giving a rule to the Humiliati during his long tenure as Bishop of Vercelli, and was well-versed in diplomacy, being sent by Pope Innocent III as Papal Legate to what was known as the Eastern Province.) Albert created a document, the Rule of St Albert, which is both juridically terse and replete with Scriptural allusions, thereby grounding the hermits in the life of the universal Church and their own aspirations.\n", "The rule consisted of sixteen articles, which enjoined strict obedience to their prior, residence in individual cells, constancy in prayer, the hearing of Mass every morning in the oratory of the community, vows of poverty and toil, daily silence from vespers until terce the next morning, abstinence from all forms of meat except in cases of severe illness, and fasting from Holy Cross Day (September 14) until the Easter of the following year.\n", "The Rule of St. Albert addresses a prior whose name is only listed as \"B.\" When later required to name their founders, the Brothers referred to both Elijah and the Blessed Virgin as early models of the community. Later, under pressure from other European mendicant orders to be more specific, the name \"Saint Berthold\" was given, possibly drawn from the oral tradition of the order.\n", "Section::::History.:Early history.\n", "Virtually nothing is known of the Carmelites from 1214, when Albert died, until 1238. The Rule of St. Albert was approved by Pope Honorius III in 1226, and again by Pope Gregory IX in 1229, with a modification regarding ownership of property and permission to celebrate divine services. The Carmelites next appear in the historical record, in 1238, when with the increasing cleavage between the West and the East, the Carmelites found it advisable to leave the Near East. Many moved to Cyprus and Sicily.\n", "In 1242, the Carmelites migrated west, establishing a settlement at Aylesford, Kent, England, and Hulne, near Alnwick in Northumberland. Two years later, they established a chapter in southern France. Settlements were established at Losenham, Kent, and Bradmer, on the north Norfolk coast, before 1247. By 1245 the Carmelites were so numerous in England that they were able to hold their first general chapter at Aylesford, where Simon Stock, then eighty years old, was chosen general. During his rule of twenty years the order prospered: foundations were made at London and Cambridge (1247), Marseilles (1248), Cologne (1252), York (before 1253), Monpellier (before 1256), Norwich, Oxford and Bristol (1256), Paris (1258), and elsewhere. By 1274, there were 22 Carmelite houses in England, about the same number in France, eleven in Catalonia, three in Scotland with the Aberdeen house established around 1273, as well as some in Italy, Germany and elsewhere.\n", "Acknowledging the changed circumstances of life outside the Holy Land, the Carmelites appealed to the papal curia for a modification of the Rule. Pope Innocent IV entrusted the drafting of a modified Rule to two Dominicans, and the new Rule was promulgated by Pope Innocent IV in his 1247 Bull \"Quem honorem Conditoris\". This both brought it closer to the model generally envisaged for mendicant orders in Europe at the time, and made allowances for the changed needs of an Order now based in Europe rather than the Holy Land: for instance, foundations were no longer required to be made in desert places, the canonical office was recited, and abstinence was mitigated.\n", "There is scholarly debate over the significance for the Carmelites of the decree at the Second Council of Lyon in 1274 that no order founded after 1215 should be allowed to continue. This action put an end to several other mendicant orders, including the Sack Friars, and the Pied, Crutched and Apostolic Friars. The Carmelites, as an order whose Rule had been promulgated by the Pope only after 1215, should in theory have been included in this set. Certainly, the rapid expansion of the order was halted after 1274, with far fewer houses established in subsequent years. Later Carmelite apologists, from the fourteenth century onwards, however, interpreted the Second Council of Lyon as a confirmation of the order. Such tensions may in part explain why, at a General Chapter in London in 1281, the order asserted that it had ancient origins from Elijah and Elisha at Mount Carmel.\n", "Such tension appears to have lessened under subsequent popes, however. In 1286, Honorius IV confirmed the Carmelite Rule, and in 1298 Boniface VIII formally removed the restrictions placed on the order by the Second Council of Lyon. In 1326, John XXII's bull \"Super cathedram\" extended to the order all the rights and exemptions that existed for the older existing Franciscans and Dominicans, signalling an acceptance of the Carmelites at the heart of Western religious life.\n", "The order grew quickly after reaching Europe. By the end of the thirteenth century, the order had around 150 houses in Europe, divided into twelve provinces throughout Europe and the Mediterranean. In England, the order had 30 houses under four \"distinctions\": London, Norwich, Oxford and York, as well as new houses in Scotland and Ireland. It has been estimated that the total Carmelite population in England between 1296 and 1347 was about 720, with the largest house (London), having over 60 friars, but most averaging between 20 and 30.\n", "Section::::History.:Reforms.\n", "Quite early in their history, the Carmelites began to develop ministries in keeping with their new status as mendicant religious. This resulted in the production in 1270 of a letter \"Ignea Sagitta \"(\"Flaming Arrow\") by the ruling prior general from 1266 to 1271, Nicholas of Narbonne (also known as Nicholas Gallicus, or Nicholas the Frenchman), who called for a return to a strictly eremitical life. His belief that most friars were ill-suited to an active apostolate was based on a number of scandals. The letter is symbolic of the tensions the Carmelites grappled with in the thirteenth century between their eremitical origins (expressed particularly in a desire for solitude and a focus on contemplation) and their more recent transformation into a fundamentally mendicant order (expressed in the desire to respond to the Church's apostolic mission).\n", "By the late 14th century, the Carmelites were becoming increasingly interested in their origins; the lack of a distinctive named founder (by contrast with the Dominicans and Franciscans) may have been a factor in the development of numerous legends surrounding Carmelite origins. One particularly influential book was the \"Institution of the First Monks\", the first part of a four-part work from the late fourteenth century. It was almost certainly composed by Philip Ribot, Catalan Carmelite provincial, though Ribot passed off his work as a collection of earlier writings that he edited, claiming that the \"Institution\" itself was written by John XLIV, supposedly a patriarch of Jerusalem, who purportedly wrote the text in Greek in 412. The \"Institution\" tells of the founding of the Carmelite order by the prophet Elijah and gives a fanciful history of the order in the pre- and early Christian era. It was hugely influential, and has been described as the \"chief book of spiritual reading in the Carmelite order\" until the seventeenth century.\n", "In the late 14th and 15th centuries the Carmelites, like a number of other religious orders, declined and reform became imperative. In 1432 the Carmelites obtained from Pope Eugenius IV the bull \"Romani pontificis\", which mitigated the Rule of St Albert and the 1247 modification, on the ground that the original demanded too much of the friars. The main clauses modified concerned fasting and remaining within individual cells: the bull allowed them to eat meat three days a week and to perambulate in the cloisters of their convents. This reform brought the Carmelites closer into line with other mendicant orders, but it was also the source of much subsequent tension, as others refused to accept this change in the nature of the order, seeing it as a loss of Carmel's original vision and spirit.\n", "Such tension erupted almost immediately. Shortly before 1433 three priories in Valais, Tuscany, and Mantua were reformed by the preaching of Thomas Conecte of Rennes and formed the Congregation of Mantua, refusing to accept the mitigation of 1432. They instead insisted on a more severe monastic observance than that applied between 1247 and 1432. Under the Mantuan observance, entrance to the cloister was forbidden to outsiders, the friars were banned from being outside the convent without good reason, and money was distributed from a common chest. In 1443, they obtained a bull from Pope Eugenius IV which effectively declared the Mantua chapter independent of the rest of the order, with its own special set of constitutions and governed by its own vice prior general. Under the reconciliatory efforts of prior-general Blessed John Soreth (; prior-general 1451–1471), however, the Mantuan congregation was brought closer to the main Carmelite order, such that in 1462 the Mantuans even accepted parts of the 1432 mitigation.\n", "This was likely in part due to Soreth's own reforming impulses. In 1459, for instance, Pope Pius II left the regulation of fasts to the discretion of the prior general; Soreth accordingly sought until his death in 1471 to restore the primitive asceticism.\n", "Soreth also founded the order of Carmelite nuns in 1452 (with authorisation from the papal bull \"Cum Nulla\"). The first convent, Our Lady of Angels, was in Florence, but the movement rapidly spread to Belgium (in 1452), France, and Spain (with the foundation of the Incarnation in Avila in 1479).\n", "In 1476, a papal bull \"Cum nulla\" of Pope Sixtus IV founded the Carmelites of the Third Order. They received a special rule in 1635, which was amended in 1678.\n", "The need for reform of the Carmelite order was recognized by the early sixteenth century, and some early attempts at reform were made then, notably from 1523 onwards by Nicholas Audet, vicar-general of the order. His plans saw some fruit: during three years of travels through France and Germany, introducing his reforms into the houses of the order, more than one hundred houses were reformed. Audet met resistance in other places, however: in the Spanish province of Castile, more than half the friars walked away.\n", "Reform in Spain began in earnest in the 1560s, with the work of Teresa of Ávila, who, together with John of the Cross, established the Discalced Carmelites. Teresa's foundations were welcomed by King Philip II of Spain, who was most anxious for all Orders to be reformed according to the principles of the Council of Trent (1545–1563). But she created practical problems at the grassroots level. The proliferation of new religious houses in towns that were already struggling to cope economically was an unwelcome prospect. Local townspeople resisted direction by the nobility and diocesan clergy. Teresa tried to make her monasteries as self-sufficient as was practicable, and restricted the number of nuns per community accordingly.\n", "The Discalced Carmelites also faced much opposition from other unreformed Carmelite houses (notably, Carmelites from Toledo arrested and imprisoned John of the Cross in their own monastery). Only in the 1580s did the Discalced Carmelites gain official approval of their status. In 1593, the Discalced Carmelites had their own superior general styled propositus general, the first being Nicholas Doria. Due to the politics of foundation, the Discalced friars in Italy were canonically erected as a separate juridical entity.\n", "After the rise of Protestantism and the devastation of the French Wars of Religion, a spirit of reform renewed 16th–17th century France, as well as the Carmelite Order in France. In the late 16th century, Pierre Behourt began an effort to restore the state of the Province of Touraine, which was continued by the practical reforms of Philip Thibault. The Provincial Chapter of 1604 appointed Thibault the prior of the Convent in Rennes, and moved the Novitiate to Rennes, thereby ensuring that new members of the Province would be formed by the reform-minded friars. The Observance of Rennes advocated poverty, the interior life and regular observance as the antidote to the laxity and decadence into which religious life had fallen, in addition, incorporating currents of renewal from the Discalced Reform, the French School, and the Society of Jesus. Thibault is said to have wished to marry the spirit of the society with the Order of Carmelites as far as possible. One of the most renowned figures of the Reform was John of St. Samson, a blind lay brother, highly regarded for his humility and exalted spiritual life. In 1612, Br. John was moved to the Convent at Rennes and, in addition to playing the organ, served as the instructor and spiritual director of the novices. Thus John of St. Samson became known as the \"Soul of the Reform.\" Eventually, the Observance of Rennes spread to priories throughout France, Belgium, and Germany, and became known as the Touraine Reform, after the Province from which the movement originated.\n", "Carmelite nunneries were established in New Spain (Mexico), the first founded in 1604 in Puebla de los Angeles, New Spain's second largest city, followed by one in the capital Mexico City 1616. In all, before Mexican independence in 1821, there were five Carmelite convents among 56 nunneries.\n", "Section::::History.:Controversies with other orders.\n", "By the middle of the 17th century, the Carmelites had reached their zenith. At this period, however, they became involved in controversies with other orders, particularly with the Jesuits. The special objects of attack were the traditional origin of the Carmelites and the source of their scapular. The Sorbonne, represented by Jean Launoy, joined the Jesuits in their polemics against the Carmelites.\n", "Papebroch, the Bollandist editor of the \"Acta Sanctorum,\" was answered by the Carmelite Sebastian of St. Paul, who made such serious charges against the orthodoxy of his opponent's writings that the very existence of the Bollandists was threatened. The peril was averted, however. In 1696 a decree of Juan Tomás de Rocaberti, archbishop of Valencia and inquisitor-general of the Holy Office, forbade all further controversies between the Carmelites and Jesuits. Two years later, on November 20, 1698, Pope Innocent XII issued a brief that definitely ended the controversy on pain of excommunication, and placed all writings in violation of the brief on the Index Librorum Prohibitorum.\n", "Section::::History.:Modern history.\n", "Since the 1430s, the Congregation of Mantua had continued to function in its little corner of Italy. It was only at the end of the 19th century that those following the reform of Tourraine (by this time known as the \"strict observance\") and the Mantuan Congregation were formally merged under one set of constitutions. The friars following Mantua conceded to Tourraine's Constitutions but insisted that the older form of the habit - namely their own - should be adopted. In a photograph of the period Blessed Titus Brandsma is shown in the habit of Tourraine as a novice; in all subsequent images he wears that of the newly styled Ancient Observance.\n", "The French Revolution led to the suppression of the order, with the nuns dispersed into small groups who lived out of view in private houses.\n", "After the end of the disturbances the wealthy heiress and Carmelite nun Camille de Soyécourt did much to restore the order.\n", "The secularization in Germany and the repercussions on religious orders following the unification of Italy were strong blows to the Carmelites. \n", "By the last decades of the 19th century, there were approximately 200 Carmelite men throughout the world. At the beginning of the 20th century, however, new leadership and less political interference allowed a rebirth of the order. Existing provinces began re-founding provinces that had become defunct. The theological preparation of the Carmelites was strengthened, particularly with the foundation of St. Albert's College in Rome.\n", "By 2001, the membership had increased to approximately 2,100 men in 25 provinces, 700 enclosed nuns in 70 monasteries, and 13 affiliated Congregations and Institutes. In addition, the Third Order of lay Carmelites count 25,000-30,000 members throughout the world. Provinces exist in Australia, Brazil, Britain, Canada, Chile, Hungary, Germany, India, Indonesia, Ireland, Italy, Malta, the Netherlands, Poland, Singapore, Spain, Portugal and the United States. Delegations directly under the Prior General exist in Argentina, France, the Czech Republic, the Dominican Republic, Lebanon, the Philippines and Portugal.\n", "Carmelite Missions exist in Bolivia, Burkino Faso, Cameroon, Colombia, India, Kenya, Lithuania, Mexico, Mozambique, Peru, Romania, Tanzania, Trinidad, Venezuela and Zimbabwe.\n", "Monasteries of enclosed Carmelite nuns exist in Brazil, Denmark, the Dominican Republic, Finland, Germany, Hungary, Indonesia, Iceland, Ireland, Israel, Italy, Kenya, the Netherlands, Australia, New Zealand (in Christchurch since 1933), Nicaragua, Norway, Peru, the Philippines, Spain, Sweden, Portugal, the United Kingdom and the United States. Hermit communities of either men or women exist in Brazil, France, Indonesia, Lebanon, Italy and the United States.\n", "The Discalced Carmelite Order built the priory of Elijah (1911) at the site of Elijah's epic contest with the prophets of Ba'al (1 Kings 18:20-40). The monastery is situated about 25 kilometers south of Haifa on the eastern side of the Carmel, and stands on the foundations of a series of earlier monasteries. The site is held sacred by Christians, Jews and Muslims; the name of the area is \"el-Muhraqa,\" an Arabic construction meaning \"place of burning\", and is a direct reference to the biblical account.\n", "Several Carmelite figures who have received significant attention in the 20th century, including Thérèse of Lisieux, one of only four female Doctors of the Church, so named because of her famous teaching on the \"way of confidence and love\" set forth in her best-selling memoir, \"Story of a Soul\"; Three nuns of Monastery of Guadalajara who were martyred on the 24th July 1936 by Spanish Republicans. Titus Brandsma, a Dutch scholar and writer who was killed in Dachau concentration camp because of his stance against Nazism; and Teresa Benedicta of the Cross (née Edith Stein), a Jewish convert to Catholicism who was also imprisoned and died at Auschwitz.\n", "Raphael Kalinowski (1835–1907) was the first friar to be canonized in the order since co-founder John of the Cross. The writings and teachings of Brother Lawrence of the Resurrection, a Carmelite friar of the 17th century, continue as a spiritual classic under the title \"The Practice of the Presence of God\". Other non-religious (\"i.e.,\" non-vowed monastic) great figures include George Preca, a Maltese priest and Carmelite Tertiary. The Feast of All Carmelite Saints and Blesseds is celebrated on November 14.\n", "Leaders of the Carmelite Order meet from time to time in General Congregation. The most recent General Congregation took place in Fátima, Portugal from 18 to 30 September 2016.\n", "Section::::Habit and scapular.\n", "In 1287, the original way of life of the order was changed to conform to that of the mendicant orders on the initiative of St. Simon Stock and at the command of Pope Innocent IV. Their former habit of a mantle with black and white or brown and white stripes—the black or brown stripes representing the scorches the mantle of Elijah received from the fiery chariot as it fell from his shoulders—was discarded. They wore the same habit as the Dominicans, except that the cloak was white. They also borrowed much from the Dominican and Franciscan constitutions. Their distinctive garment was a scapular of two strips of dark cloth, worn on the breast and back, and fastened at the shoulders. Tradition holds that this was given to St. Simon Stock by the Blessed Virgin Mary, who appeared to him and promised that all who wore it with faith and piety and who died clothed in it would be saved. There arose a sodality of the scapular, which affiliated a large number of laymen with the Carmelites.\n", "A miniature version of the Carmelite scapular is popular among Roman Catholics and is one of the most popular devotions in the Church. Wearers usually believe that if they faithfully wear the Carmelite scapular (also called \"the brown scapular\" or simply \"the scapular\") and die in a state of grace, they will be saved from eternal damnation. Catholics who decide to wear the scapular are usually enrolled by a priest, and some choose to enter the Scapular Confraternity. The Lay Carmelites of the Third Order of Our Lady of Mount Carmel wear a scapular which is smaller than the shortened scapular worn by some Carmelite religious for sleeping, but still larger than the devotional scapulars.\n", "Section::::Visions and devotions.\n", "Among the various Catholic orders, Carmelite nuns have had a proportionally high ratio of visions of Jesus and Mary and have been responsible for key Catholic devotions.\n", "From the time of her clothing in the Carmelite religious habit (1583) until her death (1607), Mary Magdalene de' Pazzi is said to have had a series of raptures and ecstasies.\n", "BULLET::::- First, these raptures sometimes seized upon her whole being with such force as to compel her to rapid motion (e.g. towards some sacred object).\n", "BULLET::::- Secondly, she was frequently able, whilst in ecstasy, to carry on working e.g., embroidery, painting, with perfect composure and efficiency.\n", "BULLET::::- Thirdly, during these raptures Mary Magdalene de' Pazzi gave utterance to maxims of Divine Love, and to counsels of perfection for souls. These were preserved by her companions, who (unknown to her) wrote them down.\n", "In the Carmelite convent of Beja, in Portugal, two Carmelite nuns of the Ancient Observance reported several apparitions and mystical revelations throughout their life: Venerable Mother Mariana of the Purification received numerous apparitions of the Child Jesus and her body was found incorrupt after her death; Venerable Mother Maria Perpétua da Luz wrote 60 books with messages from heaven; both religious died with the odor of sanctity.\n", "In the 19th century, another Carmelite nun, Thérèse of Lisieux, was instrumental in spreading devotion to the Holy Face throughout France in the 1890s with her many poems and prayers. Eventually Pope Pius XII approved the devotion in 1958 and declared the Feast of the Holy Face of Jesus as Shrove Tuesday (the day before Ash Wednesday) for all Catholics. Therese of Lisieux emerged as one of the most popular saints for Catholics in the 20th century, and a statue of her can be found in many European and North American Catholic churches built prior to the Second Vatican Council (after which the number of statues tended to be reduced when churches were built).\n", "In the 20th century, in the last apparition of the Blessed Virgin Mary in Fátima, Portugal, Sister Lúcia, one of the most famous visionaries of Our Lady, said that the Virgin appeared to her as Our Lady of Mount Carmel (holding the Brown Scapular). Many years after, Lúcia became a Carmelite nun. When Lúcia was asked in an interview why the Blessed Virgin appeared as Our Lady of Mount Carmel in her last apparition, she replied: \"Because Our Lady wants all to wear the Scapular... The reason for this\", she explained, \"is that the Scapular is our sign of consecration to the Immaculate Heart of Mary\". When asked if the Brown Scapular is as necessary to the fulfillment of Our Lady's requests as the rosary, Lúcia answered: \"The Scapular and the Rosary are inseparable\".\n", "Many Carmelites have been canonized by the Catholic Church as saints. November 14 is the Feast of All Carmelite Saints.\n", "Section::::See also.\n", "BULLET::::- Enclosed religious orders\n", "BULLET::::- \"Dialogues of the Carmelites\"\n", "BULLET::::- Ipswich Whitefriars\n", "Section::::See also.:Other Branches of the Carmelite Order.\n", "BULLET::::- Byzantine Discalced Carmelites\n", "BULLET::::- Carmelites of Mary Immaculate\n", "BULLET::::- Discalced Carmelites (also known as Teresian Carmelites)\n", "BULLET::::- Hermits of the Most Blessed Virgin Mary of Mount Carmel\n", "BULLET::::- Lay Carmelites (Third Order of Our Lady of Mount Carmel)\n", "BULLET::::- Monks of the Most Blessed Virgin Mary of Mount Carmel\n", "BULLET::::- Secular Order of Discalced Carmelites\n", "BULLET::::- Episcopal Carmel of Saint Teresa\n", "Section::::See also.:Communities of Carmelite Sisters.\n", "BULLET::::- Carmelite Sisters of the Most Sacred Heart of Los Angeles\n", "BULLET::::- Carmelite Sisters for the Aged and Infirm\n", "Section::::See also.:Spirituality.\n", "BULLET::::- Elijah\n", "BULLET::::- Teresa of Ávila (Doctor of the Church)\n", "BULLET::::- John of the Cross (Doctor of the Church)\n", "BULLET::::- Thérèse of Lisieux (Doctor of the Church)\n", "BULLET::::- Mary Magdalene de' Pazzi\n", "BULLET::::- Sister Lúcia of Fátima\n", "BULLET::::- Nuno of Saint Mary\n", "BULLET::::- Simon Stock\n", "BULLET::::- Elizabeth of the Trinity\n", "BULLET::::- Marie-Antoinette de Geuser \"Consumata\"\n", "BULLET::::- Edith Stein \"Teresa Benedicta of the Cross\"\n", "BULLET::::- Teresa of Los Andes\n", "BULLET::::- Teresa Margaret of the Sacred Heart\n", "BULLET::::- Joaquina de Vedruna\n", "BULLET::::- Angelus of Jerusalem\n", "BULLET::::- Brother Lawrence of the Resurrection\n", "BULLET::::- Francisco Palau\n", "BULLET::::- Angelo Paoli\n", "BULLET::::- Jan Tyranowski\n", "BULLET::::- Martyrs of Compiègne\n", "BULLET::::- Titus Brandsma\n", "BULLET::::- John of St. Samson\n", "Section::::See also.:Tradition.\n", "BULLET::::- Book of the First Monks\n", "BULLET::::- Carmelite Rite\n", "BULLET::::- Carmelite Rule of St. Albert\n", "BULLET::::- Constitutions of the Carmelite Order\n", "BULLET::::- Our Lady of Mount Carmel\n", "BULLET::::- Scapular of Our Lady of Mount Carmel\n", "Section::::References.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia of Religion\"\n", "BULLET::::- Copsey, Richard and Fitzgerald-Lombard, Patrick (eds.), \"Carmel in Britain: studies on the early history of the Carmelite Order\" (1992–2004).\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Carmelite Order\" by Benedict Zimmerman. \"The Catholic Encyclopedia\", 1908.\n", "Section::::Further reading.\n", "BULLET::::- T. Brandsma, \"Carmelite Mysticism, Historical Sketches: 50th Anniversary Edition\", (Darien, IL, 1986), ASIN B002HFBEZG\n", "BULLET::::- J. Boyce, \"Carmelite Liturgy and Spiritual Identity. The Choir Books of Kraków\", Turnhout, 2009, Brepols Publishers,\n", "BULLET::::- W. McGreal, \"At the Fountain of Elijah: The Carmelite Tradition\", (Maryknoll, NY, 1999),\n", "BULLET::::- J. Smet, \"The Carmelites: A History of the Brothers of Our Lady of Mt. Carmel\", 4. vol. (Darien IL, 1975)\n", "BULLET::::- J. Welch, \"The Carmelite Way: An Ancient Path for Today’s Pilgrim\", (New York: 1996),\n", "Section::::External links.\n", "BULLET::::- Order of the Brothers of Our Lady of Mount Carmel\n", "BULLET::::- Order of the Discalced Carmelites\n", "BULLET::::- Index of Carmelite Websites\n", "BULLET::::- Carmelite Hermitage\n", "BULLET::::- Meditations from Carmel\n", "BULLET::::- \"Sayings of Light and Love\" - Spiritual Maxims of John of the Cross\n", "BULLET::::- The Carmelite history and vocation\n", "BULLET::::- \"Mystical Brain\" by Isabelle Raynauld (2006) - a documentary film about five Carmelite Nuns who volunteered to have their brains scanned while they meditated by recalling mystical experiences\n", "Section::::External links.:Provinces of the Carmelite Order.\n", "BULLET::::- Carmelites of the Province of the Assumption, British Province (founded c. 1241; refounded 1969)\n", "BULLET::::- Carmelites of the Most Pure Heart of Mary Province, USA/Canada/Peru/Mexico/El Salvador (founded 1890)\n", "BULLET::::- Carmelites of the North American Province of St. Elias (founded 1931)\n" ] }

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order", "Mount Carmel", "Crusader States", "Berthold of Calabria", "charism", "Elijah", "Catholic Church", "Blessed Virgin Mary", "Marian devotion", "Our Lady of Mount Carmel", "cloistered", "apostolates", "contemplative prayer", "hermit", "Mount Carmel", "Israel", "Palestine", "Europe", "crusaders", "Blessed Virgin Mary", "Discalced Carmelite", "Albert of Jerusalem", "Latin Patriarch of Jerusalem", "papal legate", "rule", "Humiliati", "Bishop of Vercelli", "Pope Innocent III", "Rule of St Albert", "prior", "Mass", "oratory", "vows of poverty and toil", "vespers", "terce", "abstinence from all forms of meat", "Holy Cross Day", "Easter", "prior", "mendicant", "Saint Berthold", "oral tradition", "Pope Honorius III", "Near East", "Cyprus", "Sicily", "Aylesford", "Kent", "Hulne", "Northumberland", "France", "Norfolk", "general chapter", "Simon Stock", "Catalonia", "Aberdeen", "Pope Innocent IV", "Second Council of Lyon", "Sack Friars", "Honorius IV", "Boniface VIII", "John XXII's", "Pope 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of the Carmelites", "Ipswich Whitefriars", "Byzantine Discalced Carmelites", "Carmelites of Mary Immaculate", "Discalced Carmelites", "Hermits of the Most Blessed Virgin Mary of Mount Carmel", "Lay Carmelites", "Monks of the Most Blessed Virgin Mary of Mount Carmel", "Secular Order of Discalced Carmelites", "Episcopal Carmel of Saint Teresa", "Carmelite Sisters of the Most Sacred Heart of Los Angeles", "Carmelite Sisters for the Aged and Infirm", "Elijah", "Teresa of Ávila", "John of the Cross", "Thérèse of Lisieux", "Mary Magdalene de' Pazzi", "Sister Lúcia of Fátima", "Nuno of Saint Mary", "Simon Stock", "Elizabeth of the Trinity", "Marie-Antoinette de Geuser", "Edith Stein", "Teresa of Los Andes", "Teresa Margaret of the Sacred Heart", "Joaquina de Vedruna", "Angelus of Jerusalem", "Brother Lawrence of the Resurrection", "Francisco Palau", "Angelo Paoli", "Jan Tyranowski", "Martyrs of Compiègne", "Titus Brandsma", "John of St. Samson", "Book of the First Monks", "Carmelite Rite", "Carmelite Rule of St. Albert", "Constitutions of the Carmelite Order", "Our Lady of Mount Carmel", "Scapular of Our Lady of Mount Carmel", "\"The Carmelite Order\"", "Order of the Brothers of Our Lady of Mount Carmel", "Order of the Discalced Carmelites", "Index of Carmelite Websites", "Carmelite Hermitage", "Meditations from Carmel", "\"Sayings of Light and Love\" - Spiritual Maxims of John of the Cross", "The Carmelite history and vocation", "\"Mystical Brain\" by Isabelle Raynauld (2006) - a documentary film about five Carmelite Nuns who volunteered to have their brains scanned while they meditated by recalling mystical experiences", "Carmelites of the Province of the Assumption, British Province (founded c. 1241; refounded 1969)", "Carmelites of the Most Pure Heart of Mary Province, USA/Canada/Peru/Mexico/El Salvador (founded 1890)", "Carmelites of the North American Province of St. Elias (founded 1931)" ], "href": [ "synecdoche", "Mendicant%20orders", 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{ "description": "Catholic mendicant religious order", "enwikiquote_title": "", "wikidata_id": "Q186277", "wikidata_label": "Carmelites", "wikipedia_title": "Carmelites", "aliases": { "alias": [ "O.Carm.", "OCarm", "Order of Our Lady of Mt. Carmel", "Whitefriars" ] } }

{ "pageid": 43577, "parentid": 902938338, "revid": 902938910, "pre_dump": true, "timestamp": "2019-06-22T12:06:25Z", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Carmelites&oldid=902938910" }

{ "paragraph": [ "Exciton\n", "An exciton is a bound state of an electron and an electron hole which are attracted to each other by the electrostatic Coulomb force. It is an electrically neutral quasiparticle that exists in insulators, semiconductors and some liquids. The exciton is regarded as an elementary excitation of condensed matter that can transport energy without transporting net electric charge.\n", "An exciton can form when a material absorbs a photon of higher energy than its bandgap. This excites an electron from the valence band into the conduction band. In turn, this leaves behind a positively charged electron hole (an abstraction for the location from which an electron was moved). The electron in the conduction band is then effectively attracted to this localized hole by the repulsive Coulomb forces from large numbers of electrons surrounding the hole and excited electron. This attraction provides a stabilizing energy balance. Consequently, the exciton has slightly less energy than the unbound electron and hole. The wavefunction of the bound state is said to be \"hydrogenic\", an exotic atom state akin to that of a hydrogen atom. However, the binding energy is much smaller and the particle's size much larger than a hydrogen atom. This is because of both the screening of the Coulomb force by other electrons in the semiconductor (i.e., its dielectric constant), and the small effective masses of the excited electron and hole. The recombination of the electron and hole, i.e. the decay of the exciton, is limited by resonance stabilization due to the overlap of the electron and hole wave functions, resulting in an extended lifetime for the exciton.\n", "The electron and hole may have either parallel or anti-parallel spins. The spins are coupled by the exchange interaction, giving rise to exciton fine structure. In periodic lattices, the properties of an exciton show momentum (k-vector) dependence.\n", "The concept of excitons was first proposed by Yakov Frenkel in 1931, when he described the excitation of atoms in a lattice of insulators. He proposed that this excited state would be able to travel in a particle-like fashion through the lattice without the net transfer of charge.\n", "Excitons are often treated in the two limiting cases of small dielectric constant versus large dielectric constant; corresponding to Frenkel exciton and Wannier–Mott exciton respectively.\n", "Section::::Frenkel exciton.\n", "In materials with a relatively small dielectric constant, the Coulomb interaction between an electron and a hole may be strong and the excitons thus tend to be small, of the same order as the size of the unit cell. Molecular excitons may even be entirely located on the same molecule, as in fullerenes. This \"Frenkel exciton\", named after Yakov Frenkel, has a typical binding energy on the order of 0.1 to 1 eV. Frenkel excitons are typically found in alkali halide crystals and in organic molecular crystals composed of aromatic molecules, such as anthracene and tetracene.\n", "Section::::Wannier–Mott exciton.\n", "In semiconductors, the dielectric constant is generally large. Consequently, electric field screening tends to reduce the Coulomb interaction between electrons and holes. The result is a \"Wannier exciton\", which has a radius larger than the lattice spacing. Small effective mass of electrons that is typical of semiconductors also favors large exciton radii. As a result, the effect of the lattice potential can be incorporated into the effective masses of the electron and hole. Likewise, because of the lower masses and the screened Coulomb interaction, the binding energy is usually much less than that of a hydrogen atom, typically on the order of . This type of exciton was named for Gregory Wannier and Nevill Francis Mott. Wannier-Mott excitons are typically found in semiconductor crystals with small energy gaps and high dielectric constants, but have also been identified in liquids, such as liquid xenon. They are also known as \"large excitons\".\n", "In single-wall carbon nanotubes, excitons have both Wannier-Mott and Frenkel character. This is due to the nature of the Coulomb interaction between electrons and holes in one-dimension. The dielectric function of the nanotube itself is large enough to allow for the spatial extent of the wave function to extend over a few to several nanometers along the tube axis, while poor screening in the vacuum or dielectric environment outside of the nanotube allows for large (0.4 to ) binding energies.\n", "Often more than one band can be chosen as source for the electron and the hole, leading to different types of excitons in the same material. Even high-lying bands can be effective as femtosecond two-photon experiments have shown. At cryogenic temperatures, many higher excitonic levels can be observed approaching the edge of the band, forming a series of spectral absorption lines that are in principle similar to hydrogen spectral series.\n", "Section::::Wannier–Mott exciton.:Binding energy and radius.\n", "In a bulk semiconductor, a Wannier exciton has an energy and radius associated with it, called exciton Rydberg energy and exciton Bohr radius respectively. For the energy, we have\n", "where formula_2 is the Rydberg constant, formula_3 is the (static) relative permittivity, formula_4 is the reduced mass of the electron and hole, and formula_5 is the electron mass. Concerning the radius, we have\n", "where formula_7 is the Bohr radius.\n", "So for example in GaAs, we have relative permittivity of 12.8 and effective electron and hole masses as 0.067\"m\" and 0.2\"m\" respectively; and that gives us formula_8 meV and formula_9 nm.\n", "Section::::Charge-transfer exciton.\n", "An intermediate case between Frenkel and Wannier excitons, \"charge-transfer (CT) excitons\" occur when the electron and the hole occupy adjacent molecules. They occur primarily in ionic crystals. Unlike Frenkel and Wannier excitons they display a static electric dipole moment.\n", "Section::::Surface exciton.\n", "At surfaces it is possible for so called \"image states\" to occur, where the hole is inside the solid and the electron is in the vacuum. These electron-hole pairs can only move along the surface.\n", "Section::::Atomic and molecular excitons.\n", "Alternatively, an exciton may be described as an excited state of an atom, ion, or molecule, if the excitation is wandering from one cell of the lattice to another.\n", "When a molecule absorbs a quantum of energy that corresponds to a transition from one molecular orbital to another molecular orbital, the resulting electronic excited state is also properly described as an exciton. An electron is said to be found in the lowest unoccupied orbital and an electron hole in the highest occupied molecular orbital, and since they are found within the same molecular orbital manifold, the electron-hole state is said to be bound. Molecular excitons typically have characteristic lifetimes on the order of nanoseconds, after which the ground electronic state is restored and the molecule undergoes photon or phonon emission. Molecular excitons have several interesting properties, one of which is energy transfer (see Förster resonance energy transfer) whereby if a molecular exciton has proper energetic matching to a second molecule's spectral absorbance, then an exciton may transfer (\"hop\") from one molecule to another. The process is strongly dependent on intermolecular distance between the species in solution, and so the process has found application in sensing and \"molecular rulers\".\n", "The hallmark of molecular excitons in organic molecular crystals are doublets and/or triplets of exciton absorption bands strongly polarized along crystallographic axes. In these crystals an elementary cell includes several molecules sitting in symmetrically identical positions, which results in the level degeneracy that is lifted by intermolecular interaction. As a result, absorption bands are polarized along the symmetry axes of the crystal. Such multiplets were discovered by Antonina Prikhot'ko and their genesis was proposed by Alexander Davydov. It is known as 'Davydov splitting'.\n", "Section::::Giant oscillator strength of bound excitons.\n", "Excitons are lowest excited states of the electronic subsystem of pure crystals. Impurities can bind excitons, and when the bound state is shallow, the oscillator strength for producing bound excitons is so high that impurity absorption can compete with intrinsic exciton absorption even at rather low impurity concentrations. This phenomenon is generic and applicable both to the large radius (Wannier-Mott) excitons and molecular (Frenkel) excitons. Hence, excitons bound to impurities and defects possess giant oscillator strength.\n", "Section::::Self-trapping of excitons.\n", "In crystals excitons interact with phonons, the lattice vibrations. If this coupling is weak as in typical semiconductors such as GaAs or Si, excitons are scattered by phonons. However, when the coupling is strong, excitons can be self-trapped. Self-trapping results in dressing excitons with a dense cloud of virtual phonons which strongly suppresses the ability of excitons to move across the crystal. In simpler terms, this means a local deformation of the crystal lattice around the exciton. Self-trapping can be achieved only if the energy of this deformation can compete with the width of the exciton band. Hence, it should be of atomic scale, of about an electron volt.\n", "Self-trapping of excitons is similar to forming strong-coupling polarons but with three essential differences. First, self-trapped exciton states are always of a small radius, of the order of lattice constant, due to their electric neutrality. Second, there exists a self-trapping barrier separating free and self-trapped states, hence, free excitons are metastable. Third, this barrier enables coexistence of free and self-trapped states of excitons. This means that spectral lines of free excitons and wide bands of self-trapped excitons can be seen simultaneously in absorption and luminescence spectra. While the self-trapped states are of lattice-spacing scale, the barrier has typically much larger scale. Indeed, its spatial scale is about formula_10 where formula_11 is effective mass of the exciton, formula_12 is the exciton-phonon coupling constant, and formula_13 is the characteristic frequency of optical phonons. Excitons are self-trapped when formula_11 and formula_12 are large, and then the spatial size of the barrier is large compared with the lattice spacing. Transforming a free exciton state into a self-trapped one proceeds as a collective tunneling of coupled exciton-lattice system (an instanton). Because formula_16 is large, tunneling can be described by a continuum theory. The height of the barrier formula_17. Because both formula_11 and formula_12 appear in the denominator of formula_20, the barriers are basically low. Therefore, free excitons can be seen in crystals with strong exciton-phonon coupling only in pure samples and at low temperatures. Coexistence of free and self-trapped excitons was observed in rare-gas solids, alkali-halides, and in molecular crystal of pyrene.\n", "Section::::Interaction.\n", "Excitons are the main mechanism for light emission in semiconductors at low temperature (when the characteristic thermal energy \"kT\" is less than the exciton binding energy), replacing the free electron-hole recombination at higher temperatures.\n", "The existence of exciton states may be inferred from the absorption of light associated with their excitation. Typically, excitons are observed just below the band gap.\n", "When excitons interact with photons a so-called polariton (or more specifically exciton-polariton) is formed. These excitons are sometimes referred to as \"dressed excitons\".\n", "Provided the interaction is attractive, an exciton can bind with other excitons to form a biexciton, analogous to a dihydrogen molecule. If a large density of excitons is created in a material, they can interact with one another to form an electron-hole liquid, a state observed in k-space indirect semiconductors.\n", "Additionally, excitons are integer-spin particles obeying Bose statistics in the low-density limit. In some systems, where the interactions are repulsive, a Bose–Einstein condensed state, called excitonium, is predicted to be the ground state. Some evidence of excitonium has existed since the 1970s, but has often been difficult to discern from a Peierls phase. Exciton condensates have allegedly been seen in a double quantum well systems. In 2017 Kogar et al. found \"compelling evidence\" for observed excitons condensing in the three-dimensional semimetal 1T-TiSe2\n", "Section::::Spatially direct and indirect excitons.\n", "Normally, excitons in a semiconductor have a very short lifetime due to the close proximity of the electron and hole. However, by placing the electron and hole in spatially separated quantum wells with an insulating barrier layer in between so called 'spatially indirect' excitons can be created. In contrast to ordinary (spatially direct), these spatially indirect excitons can have large spatial separation between the electron and hole, and thus possess a much longer lifetime. This is often used to cool excitons to very low temperatures in order to study Bose–Einstein condensation (or rather its two-dimensional analog).\n", "Section::::Excitons in nanoparticles.\n", "In semiconducting crystallite nanoparticles, excitonic radii are given by\n", "where formula_22 is the high-frequency dielectric constant, formula_23 is the effective electron mass, formula_5 is the electron mass, and formula_25 is the Bohr radius.\n", "Section::::See also.\n", "BULLET::::- Trion\n", "BULLET::::- Plasmon\n", "BULLET::::- Polariton superfluid\n", "BULLET::::- Oscillator strength\n" ] }

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{ "description": "quasiparticle which is a bound state of an electron and an electron hole", "enwikiquote_title": "", "wikidata_id": "Q858289", "wikidata_label": "exciton", "wikipedia_title": "Exciton", "aliases": { "alias": [] } }

{ "pageid": 43597, "parentid": 906081505, "revid": 906110285, "pre_dump": true, "timestamp": "2019-07-13T18:03:43Z", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Exciton&oldid=906110285" }

{ "paragraph": [ "Fluorite\n", "Fluorite (also called fluorspar) is the mineral form of calcium fluoride, CaF. It belongs to the halide minerals. It crystallizes in isometric cubic habit, although octahedral and more complex isometric forms are not uncommon.\n", "The Mohs scale of mineral hardness, based on scratch hardness comparison, defines value 4 as Fluorite.\n", "Fluorite is a colorful mineral, both in visible and ultraviolet light, and the stone has ornamental and lapidary uses. Industrially, fluorite is used as a flux for smelting, and in the production of certain glasses and enamels. The purest grades of fluorite are a source of fluoride for hydrofluoric acid manufacture, which is the intermediate source of most fluorine-containing fine chemicals. Optically clear transparent fluorite lenses have low dispersion, so lenses made from it exhibit less chromatic aberration, making them valuable in microscopes and telescopes. Fluorite optics are also usable in the far-ultraviolet and mid-infrared ranges, where conventional glasses are too absorbent for use.\n", "Section::::History and etymology.\n", "The word \"fluorite\" is derived from the Latin verb \"fluere\", meaning \"to flow\". The mineral is used as a flux in iron smelting to decrease the viscosity of slags. The term \"flux\" comes from the Latin adjective \"fluxus\", meaning \"flowing, loose, slack\". The mineral fluorite was originally termed fluorospar and was first discussed in print in a 1530 work \"Bermannvs sive de re metallica dialogus\" [Bermannus; or a dialogue about the nature of metals], by Georgius Agricola, as a mineral noted for its usefulness as a flux. Agricola, a German scientist with expertise in philology, mining, and metallurgy, named fluorspar as a neo-Latinization of the German \"Flussspat\" from \"Fluß\" (stream, river) and \"Spat\" (meaning a nonmetallic mineral akin to gypsum, spærstān, \"spear stone\", referring to its crystalline projections).\n", "In 1852, fluorite gave its name to the phenomenon of fluorescence, which is prominent in fluorites from certain locations, due to certain impurities in the crystal. Fluorite also gave the name to its constitutive element fluorine. Presently, the word \"fluorspar\" is most commonly used for fluorite as the industrial and chemical commodity, while \"fluorite\" is used mineralogically and in most other senses.\n", "In the context of archeology, gemmology, classical studies, and egyptology, the Latin terms \"murrina\" and \"myrrhina\" refer to fluorite. In book 37 of his \"Naturalis Historia\", Pliny the Elder describes it as a precious stone with purple and white mottling, whose objects carved from it, the Romans prize.\n", "Section::::Structure.\n", "Fluorite crystallises in a cubic motif. Crystal twinning is common and adds complexity to the observed crystal habits. Fluorite has four perfect cleavage planes that help produce octahedral fragments.\n", "Element substitution for the calcium cation often includes certain rare earth elements (REE), such as yttrium and cerium. Iron, sodium, and barium are also common impurities. Some fluorine may be replaced by the chloride anion.\n", "Section::::Occurrence and mining.\n", "Fluorite is a widely occurring mineral that occurs globally with significant deposits in over 9,000 areas. It may occur as a vein deposit, especially with metallic minerals, where it often forms a part of the gangue (the surrounding \"host-rock\" in which valuable minerals occur) and may be associated with galena, sphalerite, barite, quartz, and calcite. It is a common mineral in deposits of hydrothermal origin and has been noted as a primary mineral in granites and other igneous rocks and as a common minor constituent of dolomite and limestone.\n", "The world reserves of fluorite are estimated at 230 million tonnes (Mt) with the largest deposits being in South Africa (about 41 Mt), Mexico (32 Mt) and China (24 Mt). China is leading the world production with about 3 Mt annually (in 2010), followed by Mexico (1.0 Mt), Mongolia (0.45 Mt), Russia (0.22 Mt), South Africa (0.13 Mt), Spain (0.12 Mt) and Namibia (0.11 Mt).\n", "One of the largest deposits of fluorspar in North America is located in the Burin Peninsula, Newfoundland, Canada. The first official recognition of fluorspar in the area was recorded by geologist J.B. Jukes in 1843. He noted an occurrence of \"galena\" or lead ore and fluoride of lime on the west side of St. Lawrence harbour. It is recorded that interest in the commercial mining of fluorspar began in 1928 with the first ore being extracted in 1933. Eventually at Iron Springs Mine, the shafts reached depths of . In the St. Lawrence area, the veins are persistent for great lengths and several of them have wide lenses. The area with veins of known workable size comprises about .\n", "Cubic crystals up to 20 cm across have been found at Dalnegorsk, Russia. The largest documented single crystal of fluorite was a cube 2.12 m in size and weighing ~16 tonnes. Fluorite may also be found in mines in Caldoveiro Peak, in Asturias, Spain.\n", "Section::::Occurrence and mining.:\"Blue John\".\n", "One of the most famous of the older-known localities of fluorite is Castleton in Derbyshire, England, where, under the name of \"Derbyshire Blue John\", purple-blue fluorite was extracted from several mines or caves. During the 19th century, this attractive fluorite was mined for its ornamental value. The mineral Blue John is now scarce, and only a few hundred kilograms are mined each year for ornamental and lapidary use. Mining still takes place in Blue John Cavern and Treak Cliff Cavern.\n", "Recently discovered deposits in China have produced fluorite with coloring and banding similar to the classic Blue John stone.\n", "Section::::Fluorescence.\n", "George Gabriel Stokes named the phenomenon of \"fluorescence\" from fluorite, in 1852.\n", "Many samples of fluorite exhibit fluorescence under ultraviolet light, a property that takes its name from fluorite. Many minerals, as well as other substances, fluoresce. Fluorescence involves the elevation of electron energy levels by quanta of ultraviolet light, followed by the progressive falling back of the electrons into their previous energy state, releasing quanta of visible light in the process. In fluorite, the visible light emitted is most commonly blue, but red, purple, yellow, green and white also occur. The fluorescence of fluorite may be due to mineral impurities, such as yttrium and ytterbium, or organic matter, such as volatile hydrocarbons in the crystal lattice. In particular, the blue fluorescence seen in fluorites from certain parts of Great Britain responsible for the naming of the phenomenon of fluorescence itself, has been attributed to the presence of inclusions of divalent europium in the crystal.\n", "One fluorescent variety of fluorite is chlorophane, which is reddish or purple in color and fluoresces brightly in emerald green when heated (thermoluminescence), or when illuminated with ultraviolet light.\n", "The color of visible light emitted when a sample of fluorite is fluorescing depends on where the original specimen was collected; different impurities having been included in the crystal lattice in different places. Neither does all fluorite fluoresce equally brightly, even from the same locality. Therefore, ultraviolet light is not a reliable tool for the identification of specimens, nor for quantifying the mineral in mixtures. For example, among British fluorites, those from Northumberland, County Durham, and eastern Cumbria are the most consistently fluorescent, whereas fluorite from Yorkshire, Derbyshire, and Cornwall, if they fluoresce at all, are generally only feebly fluorescent.\n", "Fluorite also exhibits the property of thermoluminescence.\n", "Section::::Color.\n", "Fluorite is allochromatic, meaning that it can be tinted with elemental impurities. Fluorite comes in a wide range of colors and has consequently been dubbed \"the most colorful mineral in the world\". Every color of the rainbow in various shades are represented by fluorite samples, along with white, black, and clear crystals. The most common colors are purple, blue, green, yellow, or colorless. Less common are pink, red, white, brown, and black. Color zoning or banding is commonly present. The color of the fluorite is determined by factors including impurities, exposure to radiation, and the absence or voids of the color centers.\n", "Section::::Uses.\n", "Section::::Uses.:Source of fluorine and fluoride.\n", "Fluorite is a major source of hydrogen fluoride, a commodity chemical used to produce a wide range of materials. Hydrogen fluoride is liberated from the mineral by the action of concentrated sulfuric acid:\n", "The resulting HF is converted into fluorine, fluorocarbons, and diverse fluoride materials. As of the late 1990s, five billion kilograms were mined annually.\n", "There are three principal types of industrial use for natural fluorite, commonly referred to as \"fluorspar\" in these industries, corresponding to different grades of purity. Metallurgical grade fluorite (60–85% CaF), the lowest of the three grades, has traditionally been used as a flux to lower the melting point of raw materials in steel production to aid the removal of impurities, and later in the production of aluminium. Ceramic grade fluorite (85–95% CaF) is used in the manufacture of opalescent glass, enamels, and cooking utensils. The highest grade, \"acid grade fluorite\" (97% or more CaF), accounts for about 95% of fluorite consumption in the US where it is used to make hydrogen fluoride and hydrofluoric acid by reacting the fluorite with sulfuric acid.\n", "Internationally, acid-grade fluorite is also used in the production of AlF and cryolite (NaAlF), which are the main fluorine compounds used in aluminium smelting. Alumina is dissolved in a bath that consists primarily of molten NaAlF, AlF, and fluorite (CaF) to allow electrolytic recovery of aluminium. Fluorine losses are replaced entirely by the addition of AlF, the majority of which react with excess sodium from the alumina to form NaAlF.\n", "Section::::Uses.:Niche uses.\n", "Section::::Uses.:Niche uses.:Lapidary uses.\n", "Natural fluorite mineral has ornamental and lapidary uses. Fluorite may be drilled into beads and used in jewelry, although due to its relative softness it is not widely used as a semiprecious stone. It is also used for ornamental carvings, with expert carvings taking advantage of the stone's zonation.\n", "Section::::Uses.:Niche uses.:Optics.\n", "In the laboratory, calcium fluoride is commonly used as a window material for both infrared and ultraviolet wavelengths, since it is transparent in these regions (about 0.15 µm to 9 µm) and exhibits extremely low change in refractive index with wavelength. Furthermore, the material is attacked by few reagents. At wavelengths as short as 157 nm, a common wavelength used for semiconductor stepper manufacture for integrated circuit lithography, the refractive index of calcium fluoride shows some non-linearity at high power densities, which has inhibited its use for this purpose. In the early years of the 21st century, the stepper market for calcium fluoride collapsed, and many large manufacturing facilities have been closed. Canon and other manufacturers have used synthetically grown crystals of calcium fluoride components in lenses to aid apochromatic design, and to reduce light dispersion. This use has largely been superseded by newer glasses and computer-aided design. As an infrared optical material, calcium fluoride is widely available and was sometimes known by the Eastman Kodak trademarked name \"Irtran-3\", although this designation is obsolete.\n", "Fluorite glass is a type of low-dispersion glass. Optical groups made with low dispersion glass have a very low dispersion (color spreading), so optical groups made with fluorite elements exhibit less chromatic aberration than those utilising a traditional flint glass. Optical groups employ a combination of different types of glass. Each type of glass refracts light in a different way. by using a combination of different types of glass, lens manufacturers are able to compensate for unwanted characteristics. Fluorite elements better complement the chromatic aberration of commercially used crown glass elements providing a more uniform dispersion across the spectrum of visible light, therefore keeping colors more closely spaced.\n", "With the advent of synthetically grown fluorite crystals, it could be used instead of glass in some high-performance optical telescope and camera lens elements. Its use for prisms and lenses was studied and promoted by Victor Schumann near the end of the 19th century. Naturally occurring fluorite crystals without optical defects were only large enough to produce microscope elements.\n", "In telescopes, fluorite elements allow high-resolution images of astronomical objects at high magnifications. Canon Inc. produces synthetic fluorite crystals that are used in their more expensive telephoto lenses.\n", "Exposure tools for the semiconductor industry make use of fluorite optical elements for ultraviolet light at wavelengths of about 157 nanometers. Fluorite has a uniquely high transparency at this wavelength. Fluorite objective lenses are manufactured by the larger microscope firms (Nikon, Olympus, Carl Zeiss and Leica). Their transparence to ultraviolet light enables them to be used for fluorescence microscopy. The fluorite also serves to correct optical aberrations in these lenses. Nikon has previously manufactured at least one fluorite and synthetic quartz element camera lens (105 mm f/4.5 UV) for the production of ultraviolet images. Konica produced a fluorite lens for their SLR cameras – the Hexanon 300 mm f6.3.\n", "Section::::Source of fluorine gas in nature.\n", "In 2012, the first source of naturally occurring fluorine gas was found in fluorite mines in Bavaria, Germany. It was previously thought that fluorine gas did not occur naturally because it is so reactive and would rapidly react with other chemicals. Fluorite is normally colorless, but some varied forms found nearby look black and are known as 'fetid fluorite' or antozonite. The minerals, containing small amounts of uranium and its daughter products, release radiation sufficiently energetic to induce oxidation of fluoride anions within the structure to fluorine that becomes trapped inside the mineral. The color of fetid fluorite is predominantly due to the calcium atoms remaining. Solid state fluorine-19 NMR carried out on the gas contained in the antozonite revealed a peak at 425 ppm, which is consistent with F.\n", "Section::::See also.\n", "BULLET::::- List of countries by fluorite production\n", "BULLET::::- List of minerals\n", "BULLET::::- Magnesium fluoride – also used in UV optics\n", "Section::::External links.\n", "BULLET::::- Educational article about the different colors of fluorites crystals from Asturias, Spain\n", "BULLET::::- An educational tour of Weardale Fluorite\n", "BULLET::::- Illinois State Geologic Survey\n", "BULLET::::- Illinois state mineral\n", "BULLET::::- Barber Cup and Crawford Cup, related Roman cups at British Museum\n" ] }

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{ "description": "mineral, calcium fluoride", "enwikiquote_title": "", "wikidata_id": "Q102151", "wikidata_label": "fluorite", "wikipedia_title": "Fluorite", "aliases": { "alias": [ "fluorspar" ] } }

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{ "paragraph": [ "Bud\n", "In botany, a bud is an undeveloped or embryonic shoot and normally occurs in the axil of a leaf or at the tip of a stem. Once formed, a bud may remain for some time in a dormant condition, or it may form a shoot immediately. Buds may be specialized to develop flowers or short shoots, or may have the potential for general shoot development. The term bud is also used in zoology, where it refers to an outgrowth from the body which can develop into a new individual.\n", "Section::::Overview.\n", "The buds of many woody plants, especially in temperate or cold climates, are protected by a covering of modified leaves called \"scales\" which tightly enclose the more delicate parts of the bud. Many bud scales are covered by a gummy substance which serves as added protection. When the bud develops, the scales may enlarge somewhat but usually just drop off, leaving a series of horizontally-elongated scars on the surface of the growing stem. By means of these scars one can determine the age of any young branch, since each year's growth ends in the formation of a bud, the formation of which produces an additional group of bud scale scars. Continued growth of the branch causes these scars to be obliterated after a few years so that the total age of older branches cannot be determined by this means.\n", "In many plants scales do not form over the bud, and the bud is then called a naked bud. The minute underdeveloped leaves in such buds are often excessively hairy. Naked buds are found in some shrubs, like some species of the Sumac and Viburnums (\"Viburnum alnifolium\" and \"V. lantana\") and in herbaceous plants. In many of the latter, buds are even more reduced, often consisting of undifferentiated masses of cells in the axils of leaves. A terminal bud occurs on the end of a stem and lateral buds are found on the side. A head of cabbage (see Brassica) is an exceptionally large terminal bud, while Brussels sprouts are large lateral buds.\n", "Since buds are formed in the axils of leaves, their distribution on the stem is the same as that of leaves. There are alternate, opposite, and whorled buds, as well as the terminal bud at the tip of the stem. In many plants buds appear in unexpected places: these are known as adventitious buds.\n", "Often it is possible to find a bud in a remarkable series of gradations of bud scales. In the buckeye, for example, one may see a complete gradation from the small brown outer scale through larger scales which on unfolding become somewhat green to the inner scales of the bud, which are remarkably leaf-like. Such a series suggests that the scales of the bud are in truth leaves, modified to protect the more delicate parts of the plant during unfavorable periods.\n", "Section::::Types of buds.\n", "Buds are often useful in the identification of plants, especially for woody plants in winter when leaves have fallen. Buds may be classified and described according to different criteria: location, status, morphology, and function.\n", "Botanists commonly use the following terms:\n", "BULLET::::- for location:\n", "BULLET::::- terminal, when located at the tip of a stem (apical is equivalent but rather reserved for the one at the top of the plant);\n", "BULLET::::- axillary, when located in the axil of a leaf (lateral is the equivalent but some adventitious buds may be lateral too);\n", "BULLET::::- adventitious, when occurring elsewhere, for example on trunk or on roots (some adventitious buds may be former axillary ones reduced and hidden under the bark, other adventitious buds are completely new formed ones).\n", "BULLET::::- for status:\n", "BULLET::::- accessory, for secondary buds formed besides a principal bud (axillary or terminal);\n", "BULLET::::- resting, for buds that form at the end of a growth season, which will lie dormant until onset of the next growth season;\n", "BULLET::::- dormant or latent, for buds whose growth has been delayed for a rather long time. The term is usable as a synonym of \"resting\", but is better employed for buds waiting undeveloped for years, for example epicormic buds;\n", "BULLET::::- pseudoterminal, for an axillary bud taking over the function of a terminal bud (characteristic of species whose growth is sympodial: terminal bud dies and is replaced by the closer axillary bud, for examples beech, persimmon, \"Platanus\" have sympodial growth).\n", "BULLET::::- for morphology:\n", "BULLET::::- scaly or covered (perulate), when scales, also referred to as a perule (lat. perula, perulaei) (which are in fact transformed and reduced leaves) cover and protect the embryonic parts;\n", "BULLET::::- naked, when not covered by scales;\n", "BULLET::::- hairy, when also protected by hairs (it may apply either to scaly or to naked buds).\n", "BULLET::::- for function:\n", "BULLET::::- vegetative, if only containing vegetative pieces: embryonic shoot with leaves (a leaf bud is the same);\n", "BULLET::::- reproductive, if containing embryonic flower(s) (a flower bud is the same);\n", "BULLET::::- mixed, if containing both embryonic leaves and flowers.\n", "Section::::Within botany.\n", "The term bud (as in budding) is used by analogy within zoology as well, where it refers to an outgrowth from the body which develops into a new individual. It is a form of asexual reproduction limited to animals or plants of relatively simple structure. In this process a portion of the wall of the parent cell softens and pushes out. The protuberance thus formed enlarges rapidly while at this time the nucleus of the parent cell divides (see: mitosis, meiosis). One of the resulting nuclei passes into the bud, and then the bud is cut off from its parent cell and the process is repeated. Often the daughter cell will begin to bud before it becomes separated from the parent, so that whole colonies of adhering cells may be formed. Eventually cross walls cut off the bud from the original cell.\n" ] }

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{ "description": "Unmatured and embryonic shoot", "enwikiquote_title": "", "wikidata_id": "Q189838", "wikidata_label": "bud", "wikipedia_title": "Bud", "aliases": { "alias": [] } }

{ "pageid": 43604, "parentid": 893197955, "revid": 903494591, "pre_dump": true, "timestamp": "2019-06-26T01:40:55Z", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bud&oldid=903494591" }

{ "paragraph": [ "Minstrel show\n", "The minstrel show, or minstrelsy, was an American form of entertainment developed in the early 19th century. Each show consisted of comic skits, variety acts, dancing, and music performances that depicted people specifically of African descent. The shows were performed by white people in make-up or blackface for the purpose of playing the role of black people. There were also some African-American performers and all-black minstrel groups that formed and toured under the direction of white people. Minstrel shows lampooned black people as dim-witted, lazy, buffoonish, superstitious, and happy-go-lucky.\n", "Minstrel shows emerged as brief burlesques and comic entr'actes in the early 1830s in the Northeastern states. They were developed into full-fledged form in the next decade. By 1848, blackface minstrel shows were the national artform, translating formal art such as opera into popular terms for a general audience.\n", "By the turn of the 20th century, the minstrel show enjoyed but a shadow of its former popularity, having been replaced for the most part by vaudeville. The form survived as professional entertainment until about 1910; amateur performances continued until the 1960s in high schools and local theaters. The genre has had a lasting legacy and influence and was featured in a television series as recently as 1975. Generally, as the civil rights movement progressed and gained acceptance, minstrels lost popularity.\n", "The typical minstrel performance followed a three-act structure. The troupe first danced onto stage then exchanged wisecracks and sang songs. The second part featured a variety of entertainments, including the pun-filled stump speech. The final act consisted of a slapstick musical plantation skit or a send-up of a popular play.\n", "Minstrel songs and sketches featured several stock characters, most popularly the slave and the dandy. These were further divided into sub-archetypes such as the mammy, her counterpart the old darky, the provocative mulatto wench, and the black soldier. Minstrels claimed that their songs and dances were authentically black, although the extent of the black influence remains debated. Spirituals (known as \"jubilees\") entered the repertoire in the 1870s, marking the first undeniably black music to be used in minstrelsy.\n", "Blackface minstrelsy was the first theatrical form that was distinctly American. During the 1830s and 1840s at the height of its popularity, it was at the epicenter of the American music industry. For several decades, it provided the means through which American whites viewed black people. On the one hand, it had strong racist aspects; on the other, it afforded white Americans a singular and broad awareness of what some whites considered significant aspects of black culture in America.\n", "Although the minstrel shows were extremely popular, being \"consistently packed with families from all walks of life and every ethnic group\", they were also controversial. Integrationists decried them as falsely showing happy slaves while at the same time making fun of them; segregationists thought such shows were \"disrespectful\" of social norms as they portrayed runaway slaves with sympathy and would undermine the Southerners' \"peculiar institution\".\n", "Section::::History.\n", "Section::::History.:Early development.\n", "Minstrel shows were popular before slavery was abolished, sufficiently so that Frederick Douglass described blackface performers as \"...the filthy scum of white society, who have stolen from us a complexion denied them by nature, in which to make money, and pander to the corrupt taste of their white fellow citizens.\" Although white theatrical portrayals of black characters date back to as early as 1604, the minstrel show as such has later origins. By the late 18th century, blackface characters began appearing on the American stage, usually as \"servant\" types whose roles did little more than provide some element of comic relief. Eventually, similar performers appeared in entr'actes in New York theaters and other venues such as taverns and circuses. As a result, the blackface \"Sambo\" character came to supplant the \"tall-tale-telling Yankee\" and \"frontiersman\" character-types in popularity, and white actors such as Charles Mathews, George Washington Dixon, and Edwin Forrest began to build reputations as blackface performers. Author Constance Rourke even claimed that Forrest's impression was so good he could fool blacks when he mingled with them in the streets.\n", "Thomas Dartmouth Rice's successful song-and-dance number, \"Jump Jim Crow\", brought blackface performance to a new level of prominence in the early 1830s. At the height of Rice's success, \"The Boston Post\" wrote, \"The two most popular characters in the world at the present are [Queen] Victoria and Jim Crow.\" As early as the 1820s, blackface performers called themselves \"Ethiopian delineators\"; from then into the early 1840s, unlike the later heyday of minstrelsy, they performed either solo or in small teams.\n", "Blackface soon found a home in the taverns of New York's less respectable precincts of Lower Broadway, the Bowery, and Chatham Street. It also appeared on more respectable stages, most often as an \"entr'acte\". Upper-class houses at first limited the number of such acts they would show, but beginning in 1841, blackface performers frequently took to the stage at even the classy Park Theatre, much to the dismay of some patrons. Theater was a participatory activity, and the lower classes came to dominate the playhouse. They threw things at actors or orchestras who performed unpopular material, and rowdy audiences eventually prevented the Bowery Theatre from staging high drama at all. Typical blackface acts of the period were short burlesques, often with mock Shakespearean titles like \"Hamlet the Dainty\", \"Bad Breath, the Crane of Chowder\", \"Julius Sneezer\" or \"Dars-de-Money\".\n", "Meanwhile, at least some whites were interested in black song and dance by actual black performers. Nineteenth-century New York slaves shingle danced for spare change on their days off, and musicians played what they claimed to be \"Negro music\" on so-called black instruments like the banjo. The \"New Orleans Picayune\" wrote that a singing New Orleans street vendor called Old Corn Meal would bring \"a fortune to any man who would start on a professional tour with him\". Rice responded by adding a \"Corn Meal\" skit to his act. Meanwhile, there had been several attempts at legitimate black stage performance, the most ambitious probably being New York's African Grove theater, founded and operated by free blacks in 1821, with a repertoire drawing heavily on Shakespeare. A rival theater company paid people to \"riot\" and cause disturbances at the theater, and it was shut down by the police when neighbors complained of the commotion.\n", "White, working-class Northerners could identify with the characters portrayed in early blackface performances. This coincided with the rise of groups struggling for workingman's nativism and pro-Southern causes, and faux black performances came to confirm pre-existing racist concepts and to establish new ones. Following a pattern that had been pioneered by Rice, minstrelsy united workers and \"class superiors\" against a common black enemy, symbolized especially by the character of the black dandy. In this same period, the class-conscious but racially inclusive rhetoric of \"wage slavery\" was largely supplanted by a racist one of \"white slavery\". This suggested that the abuses against northern factory workers were a graver ill than the treatment of black slaves—or by a less class-conscious rhetoric of \"productive\" versus \"unproductive\" elements of society. On the other hand, views on slavery were fairly evenly presented in minstrelsy, and some songs even suggested the creation of a coalition of working blacks and whites to end the institution.\n", "Among the appeals and racial stereotypes of early blackface performance were the pleasure of the grotesque and its infantilization of blacks. These allowed—by proxy, and without full identification—childish fun and other low pleasures in an industrializing world where workers were increasingly expected to abandon such things. Meanwhile, the more respectable could view the vulgar audience itself as a spectacle.\n", "Section::::History.:Height.\n", "With the Panic of 1837, theater attendance suffered, and concerts were one of the few attractions that could still make money. In 1843, four blackface performers led by Dan Emmett combined to stage just such a concert at the New York Bowery Amphitheatre, calling themselves the Virginia Minstrels. The minstrel show as a complete evening's entertainment was born. The show had little structure. The four sat in a semicircle, played songs, and traded wisecracks. One gave a stump speech in dialect, and they ended with a lively plantation song. The term \"minstrel\" had previously been reserved for traveling white singing groups, but Emmett and company made it synonymous with blackface performance, and by using it, signalled that they were reaching out to a new, middle-class audience.\n", "The \"Herald\" wrote that the production was \"entirely exempt from the vulgarities and other objectionable features, which have hitherto characterized negro extravaganzas.\" In 1845, the Ethiopian Serenaders purged their show of low humor and surpassed the Virginia Minstrels in popularity. Shortly thereafter, Edwin Pearce Christy founded Christy's Minstrels, combining the refined singing of the Ethiopian Serenaders (epitomized by the work of Christy's composer Stephen Foster) with the Virginia Minstrels' bawdy schtick. Christy's company established the three-act template into which minstrel shows would fall for the next few decades. This change to respectability prompted theater owners to enforce new rules to make playhouses calmer and quieter.\n", "Minstrels toured the same circuits as opera companies, circuses, and European itinerant entertainers, with venues ranging from lavish opera houses to makeshift tavern stages. Life on the road entailed \"endless series of one-nighters, travel on accident-prone railroads, in poor housing subject to fires, in empty rooms that they had to convert into theaters, arrest on trumped up charges, exposed to deadly diseases, and managers and agents who skipped out with all the troupe's money.\" The more popular groups stuck to the main circuit that ran through the Northeast; some even went to Europe, which allowed their competitors to establish themselves in their absence. By the late 1840s, a southern tour had opened from Baltimore to New Orleans. Circuits through the Midwest and as far as California followed by the 1860s. As its popularity increased, theaters sprang up specifically for minstrel performance, often with names such as the Ethiopian Opera House and the like. Many amateur troupes performed only a few local shows before disbanding. Meanwhile, celebrities like Emmett continued to perform solo.\n", "The rise of the minstrel show coincided with the growth of the abolitionist movement. Many Northerners were concerned for the oppressed blacks of the South, but most had no idea how these slaves lived day-to-day. Blackface performance had been inconsistent on this subject; some slaves were happy, others victims of a cruel and inhuman institution. However, in the 1850s, minstrelsy became decidedly mean-spirited and pro-slavery as race replaced class as its main focus. Most minstrels projected a greatly romanticized and exaggerated image of black life with cheerful, simple slaves always ready to sing and dance and to please their masters. (Less frequently, the masters cruelly split up black lovers or sexually assaulted black women.) The lyrics and dialogue were generally racist, satiric, and largely white in origin. Songs about slaves yearning to return to their masters were plentiful. The message was clear: do not worry about the slaves; they are happy with their lot in life. Figures like the Northern dandy and the homesick ex-slave reinforced the idea that blacks did not belong, nor did they want to belong, in Northern society.\n", "Minstrelsy's reaction to \"Uncle Tom's Cabin\" is indicative of plantation content at the time. \"Tom acts\" largely came to replace other plantation narratives, particularly in the third act. These sketches sometimes supported Stowe's novel, but just as often they turned it on its head or attacked the author. Whatever the intended message, it was usually lost in the joyous, slapstick atmosphere of the piece. Characters such as Simon Legree sometimes disappeared, and the title was frequently changed to something more cheerful like \"Happy Uncle Tom\" or \"Uncle Dad's Cabin\". Uncle Tom himself was frequently portrayed as a harmless bootlicker to be ridiculed. Troupes known as \"Tommer\" companies specialized in such burlesques, and theatrical \"Tom shows\" integrated elements of the minstrel show and competed with it for a time.\n", "Minstrelsy's racism (and sexism) could be rather vicious. There were comic songs in which blacks were \"roasted, fished for, smoked like tobacco, peeled like potatoes, planted in the soil, or dried up and hung as advertisements\", and there were multiple songs in which a black man accidentally put out a black woman's eyes. On the other hand, the fact that the minstrel show broached the subjects of slavery and race at all is perhaps more significant than the racist manner in which it did so. Despite these pro-plantation attitudes, minstrelsy was banned in many Southern cities. Its association with the North was such that as secessionist attitudes grew stronger, minstrels on Southern tours became convenient targets of anti-Yankee sentiment.\n", "Non-race-related humor came from lampoons of other subjects, including aristocratic whites such as politicians, doctors, and lawyers. Women's rights was another serious subject that appeared with some regularity in antebellum minstrelsy, almost always to ridicule the notion. The women's rights lecture became common in stump speeches. When one character joked, \"Jim, I tink de ladies oughter vote\", another replied, \"No, Mr. Johnson, ladies am supposed to care berry little about polytick, and yet de majority ob em am strongly tached to parties.\" Minstrel humor was simple and relied heavily on slapstick and wordplay. Performers told nonsense riddles: \"The difference between a schoolmaster and an engineer is that one trains the mind and the other minds the train.\"\n", "With the advent of the American Civil War, minstrels remained mostly neutral and satirized both sides. However, as the war reached Northern soil, troupes turned their loyalties to the Union. Sad songs and sketches came to dominate in reflection of the mood of a bereaved nation. Troupes performed skits about dying soldiers and their weeping widows, and about mourning white mothers. \"When This Cruel War Is Over\" became the hit of the period, selling over a million copies of sheet music. To balance the somber mood, minstrels put on patriotic numbers like \"The Star-Spangled Banner\", accompanied by depictions of scenes from American history that lionized figures like George Washington and Andrew Jackson. Social commentary grew increasingly important to the show. Performers criticized Northern society and those they felt responsible for the breakup of the country, who opposed reunification, or who profited from a nation at war. Emancipation was either opposed through happy plantation material or mildy supported with pieces that depicted slavery in a negative light. Eventually, direct criticism of the South became more biting.\n", "Section::::History.:Decline.\n", "Minstrelsy lost popularity during the war. New entertainments such as variety shows, musical comedies and vaudeville appeared in the North, backed by master promoters like P. T. Barnum who wooed audiences away. Blackface troupes responded by traveling farther and farther afield, with their primary base now in the South and Midwest.\n", "Those minstrels who stayed in New York and similar cities followed Barnum's lead by advertising relentlessly and emphasizing the spectacle of minstrelsy. Troupes ballooned; as many as 19 performers could be on stage at once, and J. H. Haverly's United Mastodon Minstrels had over 100 members. Scenery grew lavish and expensive, and specialty acts like Japanese acrobats or circus freaks sometimes appeared. These changes made minstrelsy unprofitable for smaller troupes.\n", "Other minstrel troupes tried to satisfy outlying tastes. Female acts had made a stir in variety shows, and Madame Rentz's Female Minstrels ran with the idea, first performing in 1870 in skimpy costumes and tights. Their success gave rise to at least 11 all-female troupes by 1871, one of which did away with blackface altogether. Ultimately, the girlie show emerged as a form in its own right. Mainstream minstrelsy continued to emphasize its propriety, but traditional troupes adopted some of these elements in the guise of the female impersonator. A well-played wench character became critical to success in the postwar period.\n", "This new minstrelsy maintained an emphasis on refined music. Most troupes added jubilees, or spirituals, to their repertoire in the 1870s. These were fairly authentic religious slave songs borrowed from traveling black singing groups. Other troupes drifted further from minstrelsy's roots. When George Primrose and Billy West broke with Haverly's Mastodons in 1877, they did away with blackface for all but the endmen and dressed themselves in lavish finery and powdered wigs. They decorated the stage with elaborate backdrops and performed no slapstick whatsoever. Their brand of minstrelsy differed from other entertainments only in name.\n", "Social commentary continued to dominate most performances, with plantation material constituting only a small part of the repertoire. This effect was amplified as minstrelsy featuring black performers took off in its own right and stressed its connection to the old plantations. The main target of criticism was the moral decay of the urbanized North. Cities were painted as corrupt, as homes to unjust poverty, and as dens of \"city slickers\" who lay in wait to prey upon new arrivals. Minstrels stressed traditional family life; stories told of reunification between mothers and sons thought dead in the war. Women's rights, disrespectful children, low church attendance, and sexual promiscuity became symptoms of decline in family values and of moral decay. Of course, Northern black characters carried these vices even further. African-American members of Congress were one example, pictured as pawns of the Radical Republicans.\n", "By the 1890s, minstrelsy formed only a small part of American entertainment, and, by 1919, a mere three troupes dominated the scene. Small companies and amateurs carried the traditional minstrel show into the 20th century, now with an audience mostly in the rural South, while black-owned troupes continued traveling to more outlying areas like the West. These black troupes were one of minstrelsy's last bastions, as more white actors moved into vaudeville. (Community amateur blackface minstrel shows persisted in northern New York State into the 1960s. The University of Vermont banned the minstrel-like Kake Walk as part of the winter Carnival in 1969.)\n", "Section::::History.:Black minstrels.\n", "In the 1840s and '50s, William Henry Lane and Thomas Dilward became the first African Americans to perform on the minstrel stage. All-black troupes followed as early as 1855. These companies emphasized that their ethnicity made them the only true delineators of black song and dance, with one advertisement describing a troupe as \"SEVEN SLAVES just from Alabama, who are EARNING THEIR FREEDOM by giving concerts under the guidance of their Northern friends.\" White curiosity proved a powerful motivator, and the shows were patronized by people who wanted to see blacks acting \"spontaneously\" and \"naturally.\" Promoters seized on this, one billing his troupe as \"THE DARKY AS HE IS AT HOME, DARKY LIFE IN THE CORNFIELD, CANEBRAKE, BARNYARD, AND ON THE LEVEE AND FLATBOAT.\" Keeping with convention, black minstrels still corked the faces of at least the endmen. One commentator described a mostly uncorked black troupe as \"mulattoes of a medium shade except two, who were light. ... The end men were each rendered thoroughly black by burnt cork.\" The minstrels themselves promoted their performing abilities, quoting reviews that favorably compared them to popular white troupes. These black companies often featured female minstrels.\n", "One or two African-American troupes dominated the scene for much of the late 1860s and 1870s. The first of these was Brooker and Clayton's Georgia Minstrels, who played the Northeast around 1865. Sam Hague's Slave Troupe of Georgia Minstrels formed shortly thereafter and toured England to great success beginning in 1866. In the 1870s, white entrepreneurs bought most of the successful black companies. Charles Callender obtained Sam Hague's troupe in 1872 and renamed it Callender's Georgia Minstrels. They became the most popular black troupe in America, and the words \"Callender\" and \"Georgia\" came to be synonymous with the institution of black minstrelsy. J. H. Haverly, in turn, purchased Callender's troupe in 1878 and applied his strategy of enlarging troupe size and embellishing sets. When this company went to Europe, Gustave and Charles Frohman took the opportunity to promote their Callender's Consolidated Colored Minstrels. Their success was such that the Frohmans bought Haverly's group and merged it with theirs, creating a virtual monopoly on the market. The company split in three to better canvas the nation and dominated black minstrelsy throughout the 1880s. Individual black performers like Billy Kersands, James A. Bland, Sam Lucas, Martin Francis and Wallace King grew as famous as any featured white performer.\n", "Racism made black minstrelsy a difficult profession. When playing Southern towns, performers had to stay in character off stage, dressed in ragged \"slave clothes\" and perpetually smiling. Troupes left town quickly after each performance, and some had so much trouble securing lodging that they hired whole trains or had custom sleeping cars built, complete with hidden compartments to hide in should things turn ugly. Even these were no haven, as whites sometimes used the cars for target practice. Their salaries, though higher than those of most blacks of the period, failed to reach levels earned by white performers; even superstars like Kersands earned slightly less than featured white minstrels. Most black troupes did not last long.\n", "In content, early black minstrelsy differed little from its white counterpart. As the white troupes drifted from plantation subjects in the mid-1870s however, black troupes placed a new emphasis on it. The addition of jubilee singing gave black minstrelsy a popularity boost as the black troupes were rightly believed to be the most authentic performers of such material. Other significant differences were that the black minstrels added religious themes to their shows while whites shied from them, and that the black companies commonly ended the first act of the show with a military high-stepping, brass band burlesque, a practice adopted after Callender's Minstrels used it in 1875 or 1876. Although black minstrelsy lent credence to racist ideals of blackness, many African-American minstrels worked to subtly alter these stereotypes and to poke fun at white society. One jubilee described heaven as a place \"where de white folks must let the darkeys be\" and they could not be \"bought and sold\". In plantation material, aged black characters were rarely reunited with long-lost masters like they were in white minstrelsy.\n", "African Americans formed a large part of the black minstrels' audience, especially for smaller troupes. In fact, their numbers were so great that many theater owners had to relax rules relegating black patrons to certain areas. The reasons for the popularity of this openly racist form of entertainment with black audiences have long been debated by historians. Perhaps they felt in on the joke, laughing at the over-the-top characters from a sense of \"in-group recognition\". Maybe they even implicitly endorsed the racist antics, or they felt some connection to elements of an African culture that had been suppressed but was visible, albeit in racist, exaggerated form, in minstrel personages. They certainly got many jokes that flew over whites' heads or registered as only quaint distractions. An undeniable draw for black audiences was simply seeing fellow African Americans on stage; black minstrels were largely viewed as celebrities. Formally educated African Americans, on the other hand, either disregarded black minstrelsy or openly disdained it. Still, black minstrelsy was the first large-scale opportunity for African Americans to enter American show business. Black minstrels were therefore viewed as a success. Pat H. Chappelle capitalized on this and created the first totally black-owned black vaudeville show, The Rabbit's Foot Company, performed with an all-black cast that elevated the level of shows with sophisticated and fun comedy. It successfully toured mainly the southwest and southeast, as well as in New Jersey and New York City.\n", "Section::::Structure.\n", "The Christy Minstrels established the basic structure of the minstrel show in the 1840s. A crowd-gathering parade to the theater often preceded the performance. The show itself was divided into three major sections. During the first, the entire troupe danced onto stage singing a popular song. Upon the instruction of the \"interlocutor\", a sort of host, they sat in a semicircle. Various stock characters always took the same positions: the genteel interlocutor in the middle, flanked by \"Tambo\" and \"Bones\", who served as the \"endmen\" or \"cornermen\". The interlocutor acted as a master of ceremonies and as a dignified, if pompous, straight man. He had a somewhat aristocratic demeanor, a \"codfish aristocrat\", while the endmen exchanged jokes and performed a variety of humorous songs. Over time, the first act came to include maudlin numbers not always in dialect. One minstrel, usually a tenor, came to specialize in this part; such singers often became celebrities, especially with women. Initially, an upbeat plantation song and dance ended the act; later it was more common for the first act to end with a \"walkaround\", including dances in the style of a cakewalk.\n", "The second portion of the show, called the \"olio\", was historically the last to evolve, as its real purpose was to allow for the setting of the stage for act three behind the curtain. It had more of a variety show structure. Performers danced, played instruments, did acrobatics, and demonstrated other amusing talents. Troupes offered parodies of European-style entertainments, and European troupes themselves sometimes performed. The highlight was when one actor, typically one of the endmen, delivered a faux-black-dialect \"stump speech\", a long oration about anything from nonsense to science, society, or politics, during which the dim-witted character tried to speak eloquently, only to deliver countless malapropisms, jokes, and unintentional puns. All the while, the speaker moved about like a clown, standing on his head and almost always falling off his stump at some point. With blackface makeup serving as fool's mask, these stump speakers could deliver biting social criticism without offending the audience, although the focus was usually on sending up unpopular issues and making fun of blacks' ability to make sense of them. Many troupes employed a stump specialist with a trademark style and material.\n", "The \"afterpiece\" rounded out the production. In the early days of the minstrel show, this was often a skit set on a Southern plantation that usually included song-and-dance numbers and featured Sambo- and Mammy-type characters in slapstick situations. The emphasis lay on an idealized plantation life and the happy slaves who lived there. Nevertheless, antislavery viewpoints sometimes surfaced in the guise of family members separated by slavery, runaways, or even slave uprisings. A few stories highlighted black trickster figures who managed to get the better of their masters. Beginning in the mid-1850s, performers did burlesque renditions of other plays; both Shakespeare and contemporary playwrights were common targets. The humor of these came from the inept black characters trying to perform some element of high white culture. Slapstick humor pervaded the afterpiece, including cream pies to the face, inflated bladders, and on-stage fireworks. Material from \"Uncle Tom's Cabin\" dominated beginning in 1853. The afterpiece allowed the minstrels to introduce new characters, some of whom became quite popular and spread from troupe to troupe.\n", "Section::::Characters.\n", "The earliest minstrel characters took as their base popular white stage archetypes—frontiersmen, fishermen, hunters, and riverboatsmen whose depictions drew heavily from the tall tale—and added exaggerated blackface speech and makeup. These Jim Crows and Gumbo Chaffs fought and boasted that they could \"wip [their] weight in wildcats\" or \"eat an alligator\". As public opinion toward blacks changed, however, so did the minstrel stereotypes. Eventually, several stock characters emerged. Chief among these were the slave, who often maintained the earlier name Jim Crow, and the dandy, known frequently as Zip Coon, from the song Zip Coon. \"First performed by George Dixon in 1834, Zip Coon made a mockery of free blacks. An arrogant, ostentatious figure, he dressed in high style and spoke in a series of malaprops and puns that undermined his attempts to appear dignified.\"\n", "The white actors who portrayed these characters spoke an exaggerated form of Black Vernacular English. The blackface makeup and illustrations on programs and sheet music depicted them with huge eyeballs, very wide noses, and thick-lipped mouths that hung open or grinned foolishly; one character expressed his love for a woman with \"lips so large a lover could not kiss them all at once\". They had huge feet and preferred \"possum\" and \"coon\" to more civilized fare. Minstrel characters were often described in animalistic terms, with \"wool\" instead of hair, \"bleating\" like sheep, and having \"darky cubs\" instead of children. Other claims were that blacks had to drink ink when they got sick \"to restore their color\" and that they had to file their hair rather than cut it. They were inherently musical, dancing and frolicking through the night with no need for sleep.\n", "Thomas \"Daddy\" Rice introduced the earliest slave archetype with his song \"Jump Jim Crow\" and its accompanying dance. He claimed to have learned the number by watching an old, limping black stable hand dancing and singing, \"Wheel about and turn about and do jus' so/Eb'ry time I wheel about I jump Jim Crow.\" Other early minstrel performers quickly adopted Rice's character.\n", "Slave characters in general came to be low-comedy types with names that matched the instruments they played: \"Brudder Tambo\" (or simply \"Tambo\") for the tambourine and \"Brudder Bones\" (or \"Bones\") for the bone castanets or bones. These \"endmen\" (for their position in the minstrel semicircle) were ignorant and poorly spoken, being conned, electrocuted, or run over in various sketches. They happily shared their stupidity; one slave character said that to get to China, one had only to go up in a balloon and wait for the world to rotate below. Highly musical and unable to sit still, they constantly contorted their bodies wildly while singing.\n", "Tambo and Bones's simple-mindedness and lack of sophistication were highlighted by pairing them with a straight man master of ceremonies called the \"interlocutor\". This character, although usually in blackface, spoke in aristocratic English and used a much larger vocabulary. The humor of these exchanges came from the misunderstandings on the part of the endmen when talking to the interlocutor:\n", "Tambo and Bones were favorites of the audience, and their repartee with the interlocutor was for many the best part of the show. There was an element of laughing with them for the audience, as they frequently made light of the interlocutor's grandiose ways.\n", "The interlocutor was responsible for beginning and ending each segment of the show. To this end, he had to be able to gauge the mood of the audience and know when it was time to move on. Accordingly, the actor who played the role was paid very well in comparison to other non-featured performers.\n", "There were many variants on the slave archetype. The \"old darky\" or \"old uncle\" formed the head of the idyllic black family. Like other slave characters, he was highly musical and none-too-bright, but he had favorable aspects like his loving nature and the sentiments he raised regarding love for the aged, ideas of old friendships, and the cohesiveness of the family. His death and the pain it caused his master was a common theme in sentimental songs. Alternatively, the master could die, leaving the old darky to mourn. Stephen Foster's \"Old Uncle Ned\" was the most popular song on this subject. Less frequently, the old darky might be cast out by a cruel master when he grew too old to work. After the Civil War, this character became the most common figure in plantation sketches. He frequently cried about the loss of his home during the war, only to meet up with someone from the past such as the child of his former master. In contrast, the trickster, often called Jasper Jack, appeared less frequently.\n", "Female characters ranged from the sexually provocative to the laughable. These roles were almost always played by men in drag (most famously George Christy, Francis Leon and Barney Williams), even though American theater outside minstrelsy was filled with actresses at this time. \"Mammy\" or the \"old auntie\" was the old darky's counterpart. She often went by the name of Aunt Dinah Roh after the song of that title. Mammy was lovable to both blacks and whites, matronly, but hearkening to European peasant woman sensibilities. Her main role was to be the devoted mother figure in scenarios about the perfect plantation family.\n", "The \"wench\", \"yaller gal\" or \"prima donna\" was a mulatto who combined the light skin and facial features of a white woman with the perceived sexual promiscuity and exoticism of a black woman. Her beauty and flirtatiousness made her a common target for male characters, although she usually proved capricious and elusive. After the Civil War, the wench emerged as the most important specialist role in the minstrel troupe; men could alternately be titillated and disgusted, while women could admire the illusion and high fashion. The role was most strongly associated with the song \"Miss Lucy Long\", so the character many times bore that name. Actress Olive Logan commented that some actors were \"marvelously well fitted by nature for it, having well-defined soprano voices, plump shoulders, beardless faces, and tiny hands and feet.\" Many of these actors were teen-aged boys. In contrast was the \"funny old gal\", a slapstick role played by a large man in motley clothing and large, flapping shoes. The humor she invoked often turned on the male characters' desire for a woman whom the audience would perceive as unattractive.\n", "The counterpart to the slave was the \"dandy\", a common character in the afterpiece. He was a northern urban black man trying to live above his station by mimicking white, upper-class speech and dress—usually to no good effect. Dandy characters often went by Zip Coon, after the song popularized by George Washington Dixon, although others had pretentious names like Count Julius Caesar Mars Napoleon Sinclair Brown. Their clothing was a ludicrous parody of upper-class dress: coats with tails and padded shoulders, white gloves, monocles, fake mustaches, and gaudy watch chains. They spent their time primping and preening, going to parties, dancing and strutting, and wooing women.\n", "The black soldier became another stock type during the Civil War and merged qualities of the slave and the dandy. He was acknowledged for playing some role in the war, but he was more frequently lampooned for bumbling through his drills or for thinking his uniform made him the equal of his white counterparts. He was usually better at retreating than fighting, and, like the dandy, he preferred partying to serious pursuits. Still, his introduction allowed for some return to themes of the breakup of the plantation family.\n", "Non-black stereotypes played a significant role in minstrelsy, and although still performed in blackface, were distinguished by their lack of black dialect. American Indians before the Civil War were usually depicted as innocent symbols of the pre-industrial world or as pitiable victims whose peaceful existence had been shattered by the encroachment of the white man. However, as the United States turned its attentions West, American Indians became savage, pagan obstacles to progress. These characters were formidable scalpers to be feared, not ridiculed; any humor in such scenarios usually derived from a black character trying to act like one of the frightful savages. One sketch began with white men and American Indians enjoying a communal meal in a frontier setting. As the American Indians became intoxicated, they grew more and more antagonistic, and the army ultimately had to intervene to prevent the massacre of the whites. Even favorably presented American Indian characters usually died tragically.\n", "Depictions of East Asians began during the California Gold Rush when minstrels encountered Chinese out West. Minstrels caricatured them by their strange language (\"ching chang chung\"), odd eating habits (dogs and cats), and propensity for wearing pigtails. Parodies of Japanese became popular when a Japanese acrobat troupe toured the U.S. beginning in 1865. A run of Gilbert and Sullivan's \"The Mikado\" in the mid-1880s inspired another wave of Asian characterizations.\n", "The few white characters in minstrelsy were stereotypes of immigrant groups like the Irish and Germans. Irish characters first appeared in the 1840s, portrayed as hotheaded, odious drunkards who spoke in a thick brogue. However, beginning in the 1850s, many Irishmen joined minstrelsy, and Irish theatergoers probably came to represent a significant part of the audience, so this negative image was muted. Germans, on the other hand, were portrayed favorably from their introduction to minstrelsy in the 1860s. They were responsible and sensible, though still portrayed as humorous for their large size, hearty appetites, and heavy \"Dutch\" accents. Part of this positive portrayal no doubt came about because some of the actors portraying German characters were German themselves.\n", "Section::::Music and dance.\n", "\"Minstrelsy evolved from several different American entertainment traditions; the traveling circus, medicine shows, shivaree, Irish dance and music with African syncopated rhythms, musical halls and traveling theatre.\" Music and dance were the heart of the minstrel show and a large reason for its popularity. Around the time of the 1830s there was a lot of national conflict as to how people viewed African Americans. Because of that interest in the Negro people, these songs granted the listener new knowledge about African Americans, who were different from themselves, even if the information was prejudiced. Troupes took advantage of this interest and marketed sheet music of the songs they featured so that viewers could enjoy them at home and other minstrels could adopt them for their act.\n", "How much influence black music had on minstrel performance remains a debated topic. Minstrel music certainly contained some element of black culture, added onto a base of European tradition with distinct Irish and Scottish folk music influences. Musicologist Dale Cockrell argues that early minstrel music mixed both African and European traditions and that distinguishing black and white urban music during the 1830s is impossible. Insofar as the minstrels had authentic contact with black culture, it was via neighborhoods, taverns, theaters and waterfronts where blacks and whites could mingle freely. The inauthenticity of the music and the Irish and Scottish elements in it are explained by the fact that slaves were rarely allowed to play native African music and therefore had to adopt and adapt elements of European folk music. Compounding the problem is the difficulty in ascertaining how much minstrel music was written by black composers, as the custom at the time was to sell all rights to a song to publishers or other performers. Nevertheless, many troupes claimed to have carried out more serious \"fieldwork\". Similar to American people who come from all over the world creating one big 'melting pot,' it is only fitting that some of the first forms of truly American music and drama are composed of elements from many different places.\n", "Early blackface songs often consisted of unrelated verses strung together by a common chorus. In this pre-Emmett minstrelsy, the music \"jangled the nerves of those who believed in music that was proper, respectable, polished, and harmonic, with recognizable melodies.\" It was thus a juxtaposition of \"vigorous earth-slapping footwork of black dances … with the Irish lineaments of blackface jigs and reels.\" Similar to the look of a blackface performer, the lyrics in the songs that were sung have a tone of mockery and a spirit of laughing at black Americans rather than with them. The minstrel show texts sometimes even mixed black lore, such as stories about talking animals or slave tricksters, with humor from the region southwest of the Appalachians, itself a mixture of traditions from different races and cultures. Minstrel instruments were also a mélange: African banjo and tambourine with European fiddle and bones In short, early minstrel music and dance was not true black culture; it was a white reaction to it. This was the first large-scale appropriation and commercial exploitation of black culture by American whites.\n", "In the late 1830s, a decidedly European structure and high-brow style became popular in minstrel music. The banjo, played with \"scientific touches of perfection\" and popularized by Joel Sweeney, became the heart of the minstrel band. Songs like the Virginia Minstrels' hit \"Old Dan Tucker\" have a catchy tune and energetic rhythm, melody and harmony; minstrel music was now for singing as well as dancing. The \"Spirit of the Times\" even described the music as vulgar because it was \"entirely too elegant\" and that the \"excellence\" of the singing \"[was] an objection to it.\" Others complained that the minstrels had foregone their black roots. In short, the Virginia Minstrels and their imitators wanted to please a new audience of predominantly white, middle-class Northerners, by playing music the spectators would find familiar and pleasant.\n", "Despite the elements of ridicule contained in blackface performance, mid-19th century white audiences, by and large, believed the songs and dances to be authentically black. For their part, the minstrels always billed themselves and their music as such. The songs were called \"plantation melodies\" or \"Ethiopian choruses\", among other names. By using the black caricatures and so-called black music, the minstrels added a touch of the unknown to the evening's entertainment, which was enough to fool audiences into accepting the whole performance as authentic.\n", "The minstrels' dance styles, on the other hand, were much truer to their alleged source. The success of \"Jump Jim Crow\" is indicative: It was an old English tune with fairly standard lyrics, which leaves only Rice's dance—wild upper-body movements with little movement below the waist—to explain its popularity. Dances like the Turkey Trot, the Buzzard Lope, and the Juba dance all had their origins in the plantations of the South, and some were popularized by black performers such as William Henry Lane, Signor Cornmeali (\"Old Corn Meal\"), and John \"Picayune\" Butler. One performance by Lane in 1842 was described as consisting of \"sliding steps, like a shuffle, and not the high steps of an Irish jig.\" Lane and the white men who mimicked him moved about the stage with no obvious foot movement. The walk around, a common feature of the minstrel show's first act, was ultimately of West African origin and featured a competition between individuals hemmed in by the other minstrels. Elements of white tradition remained, of course, such as the fast-paced \"breakdown\" that formed part of the repertoire beginning with Rice. Minstrel dance was generally not held to the same mockery as other parts, although contemporaries such as Fanny Kemble argued that minstrel dances were merely a \"faint, feeble, impotent—in a word, pale Northern reproductions of that ineffable black conception.\"\n", "The introduction of the jubilee, or spiritual, marked the minstrels' first undeniable adoption of black music. These songs remained relatively authentic in nature, antiphonal with a repetitive structure that relied heavily on call and response. The black troupes sang the most authentic jubilees, while white companies inserted humorous verses and replaced religious themes with plantation imagery, often starring the old darky. \"Jubilee\" eventually became synonymous with \"plantation\".\n", "Section::::Legacy.\n", "The minstrel show played a powerful role in shaping assumptions about black people. However, unlike vehemently anti-black propaganda from the time, minstrelsy made this attitude palatable to a wide audience by couching it in the guise of well-intentioned paternalism.\n", "Popular entertainment perpetuated the racist stereotype of the uneducated, ever-cheerful, and highly musical black person well into the 1950s. Even as the minstrel show was dying out in all but amateur theater, blackface performers became common acts on vaudeville stages and in legitimate drama. These entertainers kept the familiar songs, dances, and pseudo-black dialect, often in nostalgic looks back at the old minstrel show. The most famous of these performers is probably Al Jolson, who took blackface to the big screen in the 1920s in films such as \"The Jazz Singer\" (1927). His 1930 film \"Mammy\" uses the setting of a traveling minstrel show, giving an on-screen presentation of a performance. Likewise, when the sound era of cartoons began in the late 1920s, early animators such as Walt Disney gave characters such as Mickey Mouse (who already resembled blackface performers) a minstrel-show personality; the early Mickey is constantly singing and dancing and smiling. The face of Raggedy Ann is a color-reversed minstrel mask, and Raggedy Ann's creator, Johnny Gruelle, designed the doll in part with the antics of blackface star Fred Stone in mind. As late as 1942, as demonstrated in the Warner Bros. cartoon \"Fresh Hare\", minstrel shows could be used as a gag (in this case, Elmer Fudd and Bugs Bunny leading a chorus of \"Camptown Races\") with the expectation, presumably, that audiences would get the reference. Radio shows got into the act, a fact perhaps best exemplified by the popular radio shows \"Two Black Crows\", \"Sam 'n' Henry\", and \"Amos 'n' Andy\", A transcription survives from 1931 of \"The Blue Coal Minstrels\", which uses many of the standard forms of the minstrel show, including Tambo, Bones and the interlocutor. The National Broadcasting Company, in a 1930 pamphlet, used the minstrel show as a point of reference in selling its services. As recently as the mid-1970s the BBC broadcast \"The Black and White Minstrel Show\" starring the George Mitchell Minstrels. The racist archetypes that blackface minstrelsy helped to create persist to this day; some argue that this is even true in hip hop culture and movies. The 2000 Spike Lee movie \"Bamboozled\" alleges that modern black entertainment exploits African-American culture much as the minstrel shows did a century ago, for example.\n", "Meanwhile, African-American actors were limited to the same old minstrel-defined roles for years to come and by playing them, made them more believable to white audiences. On the other hand, these parts opened the entertainment industry to African-American performers and gave them their first opportunity to alter those stereotypes. Many famous singers and actors gained their start in black minstrelsy, including W. C. Handy, Ida Cox, Ma Rainey, Bessie Smith, Ethel Waters, and Butterbeans and Susie. The Rabbit's Foot Company was a variety troupe, founded in 1900 by an African American, Pat Chappelle, which drew on and developed the minstrel tradition while updating it and helping to develop and spread black musical styles. Besides Ma Rainey and Bessie Smith, later musicians working for \"the Foots\" included Louis Jordan, Brownie McGhee and Rufus Thomas, and the company was still touring as late as 1950. Its success was rivalled by other touring variety troupes, such as \"\"Silas Green from New Orleans\".\"\n", "The very structure of American entertainment bears minstrelsy's imprint. The endless barrage of gags and puns appears in the work of the Marx Brothers and David and Jerry Zucker. The varied structure of songs, gags, \"hokum\" and dramatic pieces continued into vaudeville, variety shows, and to modern sketch comedy shows such as \"Hee Haw\" or, more distantly, \"Saturday Night Live\" and \"In Living Color\". Jokes once delivered by endmen are still told today: \"Why did the chicken cross the road?\" \"Why does a fireman wear red suspenders?\" Other jokes form part of the repertoire of modern comedians: \"Who was that lady I saw you with last night? That was no lady—that was my wife!\" The stump speech is an important precursor to modern stand-up comedy.\n", "Another important legacy of minstrelsy is its music. The hokum blues genre carried over the dandy, the wench, the simple-minded slave characters (sometimes rendered as the rustic white \"rube\") and even the interlocutor into early blues and country music incarnations through the medium of \"race music\" and \"hillbilly\" recordings. Many minstrel tunes are now popular folk songs. Most have been expunged of the exaggerated black dialect and the overt references to blacks. \"Dixie\", for example, was adopted by the Confederacy as its unofficial national anthem and is still popular, and \"Carry Me Back to Old Virginny\" was sanitized and made the state song of Virginia until 1997. \"My Old Kentucky Home\" remains the state song of Kentucky. The instruments of the minstrel show were largely kept on, especially in the South. Minstrel performers from the last days of the shows, such as Uncle Dave Macon, helped popularize the banjo and fiddle in modern country music. And by introducing America to black dance and musical style, minstrels opened the nation to black cultural forms for the first time on a large scale.\n", "Section::::Motion pictures with minstrel show routines.\n", "A small number of films available today contain authentic recreations of Minstrel show numbers and routines. Due to their content they are rarely (if ever) broadcast on television today, but are available on home video.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Babes on Broadway\" (1941), a musical starring Mickey Rooney and Judy Garland. The next-to-last musical number is a medley of songs performed in blackface.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Honolulu\" (1939), in which Eleanor Powell performs a blackface dance homage to Bill \"Bojangles\" Robinson.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Fresh Hare\" (1942), an animated short featuring Bugs Bunny and Elmer Fudd. The final scene, edited out of recent television broadcasts, shows Bunny and Fudd in blackface, along with five tall men in the same condition, singing \"Camptown Races\".\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Adventures of Mark Twain\" (1944), blackface musicians perform a jolly number on the river vessel, in the scene where Captain Clemens rescues Charles Langdon from a thief.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Dixie\" (1943), a film based on the life of songwriter Daniel Decatur Emmett. It includes Bing Crosby singing the film's title song in blackface.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Holiday Inn\" (1942), contains a musical number entitled \"Abraham\" with Bing Crosby performing in blackface in the style of a minstrel show. Beginning in the 1980s, this number has been cut from many TV broadcasts.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Hollywood Varieties\" (1950), a collection of stage acts with Glen Vernon and Edward Ryan in a blackface skit.\n", "BULLET::::- \"I Dream of Jeanie\" (1952) aka \"I Dream of Jeanie (with the Light Brown Hair\"), a completely fictional film biography of Stephen Foster. Veteran performer Glen Turnbull makes a guest appearance as a blackface Minstrel performer in Christy's Minstrels.\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Jazz Singer\" (1927), the first feature-length motion picture with synchronized dialogue sequences. Based on a play by Samson Raphaelson, the story tells of Jakie Rabinowitz (Al Jolson), the son of a devout Jewish family, who runs away from home to become a jazz singer.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Mammy\" (1930), another Al Jolson film, this relives Jolson's early years as a minstrel man. With songs by Irving Berlin, who is also credited with the original story titled \"Mr. Bones\".\n", "BULLET::::- \"Minstrel Man\" (1944), a fictional film about the rise, fall, and revival of a minstrel performer's career. It was nominated for two Academy Awards (Best Original Song and Best Original Score).\n", "BULLET::::- \"My Wild Irish Rose\" (1947), starring Dennis Morgan, Andrea King, and Arlene Dahl, is set in 1890s New York and features several scenes depicting blackface musical numbers.\n", "BULLET::::- \"A Plantation Act\" (1926), a Vitaphone sound-on-disc short film starring Al Jolson. Long thought to have been lost, a copy of the film and sound disc were located and the restored version has been issued as a bonus feature on the DVD release of \"The Jazz Singer\".\n", "BULLET::::- \"Show Boat\" (1936), film starring Irene Dunne, Allan Jones, Hattie McDaniel, Paul Robeson. One of the shows on board is a blackface minstrel act.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Swanee River\" (1940), another fictionalized biographical film on Stephen Foster. It was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Musical Scoring and was the last on-screen appearance of Al Jolson.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Torch Song\" (1953), starring Joan Crawford, Michael Wilding, and Marjorie Rambeau, contains a musical number, done in blackface, entitled \"Two-faced Woman.\"\n", "BULLET::::- \"Uncle Tom's Cabin\" (1903), an early \"full-length\" movie (between 10 and 14 minutes), was directed by Edwin S. Porter and used white actors in blackface in the major roles. Similar to the earlier \"Tom Shows\" it featured black stereotypes such as having the slaves dance in almost any context, including at a slave auction.\n", "BULLET::::- \"White Christmas\" (1954), features a full-scale minstrel show number, but without blackface. The lyrics to the songs remove all suggestion that minstrel shows involved blackface, but retain many standard minstrel show features, including the roles of \"Mr. Bones\" and \"Mr. Interlocutor\". The costumes in the number are also made to look like watermelons (complete with seeds on the women's sequined bodysuits), a common racist trope following the Civil War. The lyrics to the song include the line \"I'd pawn my overcoat and vest / To see a minstrel show \", which model the assumed careless and carefree nature of poverty.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Yes Sir, Mr. Bones\" (1951), is based around a young child who finds a rest home for retired minstrel performers. In \"flashback\" sequences, a number of actual minstrel veterans, including Scatman Crothers, Freeman Davis (aka \"Brother Bones\"), Ned Haverly, Phil Arnold, \"endmen\" Cotton Watts and Slim Williams, the dancing team of Boyce and Evans, and the comic duo Ches Davis and Emmett Miller, perform in the roles they popularized in Minstrel shows.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Here Come The Waves\" (1944), contains a show-within-a-show. It includes a minstrel routine performed by Bing Crosby and Sonny Tufts; their two characters then sing a musical number entitled \"Ac-Cen-Tchu-Ate the Positive\".\n", "BULLET::::- \"Swing Time\" (1936), a musical starring Fred Astaire and Ginger Rogers features a dance number entitled \"Bojangles of Harlem\" performed by Astaire in blackface.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Bamboozled\" (2000), a satirical film using minstrelsy to lampoon American popular culture written and directed by Spike Lee.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Masked and Anonymous\" (2003), set in a dystopian future. Ed Harris plays a blackfaced character in one scene.\n", "Section::::See also.\n", "BULLET::::- Blackface\n", "BULLET::::- List of blackface minstrel songs\n", "BULLET::::- List of blackface minstrel troupes\n", "BULLET::::- List of entertainers who performed in blackface\n", "BULLET::::- Coon song\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Black and White Minstrel Show\", a British television and theatre show of the American traditional genre in the 1960s and 1970s\n", "BULLET::::- Stage Irish, the stereotyped portrayal of Irish people once common in plays during the 17th 18th and 20th centuries.\n", "Section::::References.\n", "BULLET::::- . Reprinted 2003.\n", "BULLET::::- . Reprinted 2003.\n", "BULLET::::- . M. A. Thesis, University of Michigan.\n", "BULLET::::- .\n", "BULLET::::- .\n", "BULLET::::- \"Official Song of the State of Virginia\". 50states.com. Retrieved September 3, 2006.\n", "BULLET::::- . The relevant excerpt is available online: \"A Working Model\". Retrieved September 8, 2005.\n", "BULLET::::- Sotiropoulos, Karen (2006). \"\"Staging Race: Black Performers in Turn of the Century America\"\" Cambridge: (Harvard University Press).\n", "BULLET::::- Strausbaugh, John (2006). \"Black Like You\". Tarcher.\n", "BULLET::::- Sweet, Frank W. (2000). \"A History of the Minstrel Show\". Backintyme. .\n", "BULLET::::- .\n", "BULLET::::- .\n", "Section::::External links.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Minstrel Potpourri\" performed by the Edison Minstrels (possibly The Haydn Quartet)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Waiting for the Robert E. Lee\" performed by the Heidelberg Quintet (from the Internet Archive)\n", "BULLET::::- Ruckus! American Entertainments at the Turn of the Twentieth Century From the collection of the Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library at Yale University\n", "BULLET::::- The Frank Dumont Minstrelsy Scrapbook 1850-1902, compiled by minstrel performer and manager Frank Dumont, containing more than 50 years of documentation about minstrelsy and its origins is available for research use at the Historical Society of Pennsylvania.\n", "BULLET::::- The JUBA Project: Early Blackface Minstrelsy in Britain, 1842-1852\n", "BULLET::::- Guide to American Minstrel Show Collection at Houghton Library, Harvard University\n", "BULLET::::- American Minstrel Show Collection, Princeton University\n", "BULLET::::- Historical Notes for Collection 1: African-American and Jamaican Melodies, includes biographical sketches of many black minstrel composers and access to their music.\n", "BULLET::::- Metropolitan Police Minstrels - from the 1920s\n", "BULLET::::- Minstrel show by white people as reported in the \"Los Angeles Times\" of November 2, 1901\n", "BULLET::::- Cartoons of white minstrels in blackface, \"Los Angeles Times,\" May 2, 1902\n", "BULLET::::- Guide to the Minstrel show performance collections housed at the University of Kentucky Libraries Special Collections Research Center\n", "BULLET::::- Popular culture once embraced racist blackface minstrel shows - Pantagraph (Bloomington, Illinois newspaper)\n" ] }

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{ "paragraph": [ "De facto\n", "In law and government, de facto ( or ; , \"in fact\"; ) describes practices that exist in reality, even though they are not officially recognized by laws. It is commonly used to refer to what happens in practice, in contrast with \"de jure\" (\"in law\"), which refers to things that happen according to law. Unofficial customs that are widely accepted are sometimes called de facto standards.\n", "Section::::Examples.\n", "Section::::Examples.:Standards.\n", "A is a standard (formal or informal) that has achieved a dominant position by tradition, enforcement, or market dominance. It has not necessarily received formal approval by way of a standardisation process, and may not have an official standards document.\n", "s are usually voluntary, like ISO 9000 requirements, but may be obligatory, enforced by government norms, like drinking water quality requirements. The term \"de facto standard\" is used for both: to contrast obligatory standards (also known as \"de jure standards\"); or to express a dominant standard, when there is more than one proposed standard.\n", "In social sciences, a voluntary standard that is also a de facto standard, is a typical solution to a coordination problem.\n", "Section::::Examples.:National languages.\n", "Several countries, including Australia, Japan, Mexico, the United Kingdom and the United States, have a de facto national language but no official, de jure national language.\n", "Some countries have a de facto national language in addition to an official language. In Lebanon and Morocco the official language is Arabic, but an additional de facto language is also French. In New Zealand, Maori and New Zealand Sign Language are de jure official languages, while English is a de facto official language. In Singapore, English is the de jure language, but Chinese, Malay and Tamil are common de facto languages.\n", "Russian was the de facto official language of the central government and, to a large extent, republican governments of the former Soviet Union, but was not declared de jure state language until 1990. A short-lived law effected April 24, 1990, installed Russian as the sole de jure official language of the Union.\n", "Section::::Examples.:Politics.\n", "A de facto government is a government wherein all the attributes of sovereignty have, by usurpation, been transferred from those who had been legally invested with them to others, who, sustained by a power above the forms of law, claim to act and do really act in their stead.\n", "In politics, a de facto leader of a country or region is one who has assumed authority, regardless of whether by lawful, constitutional, or legitimate means; very frequently, the term is reserved for those whose power is thought by some faction to be held by unlawful, unconstitutional, or otherwise illegitimate means, often because it had deposed a previous leader or undermined the rule of a current one. De facto leaders sometimes do not hold a constitutional office and may exercise power informally.\n", "Not all dictators are de facto rulers. For example, Augusto Pinochet of Chile initially came to power as the chairperson of a military junta, which briefly made him de facto leader of Chile, but he later amended the nation's constitution and made himself president for life, making him the formal and legal ruler of Chile. Similarly, Saddam Hussein's formal rule of Iraq is often recorded as beginning in 1979, the year he assumed the Presidency of Iraq. However, his de facto rule of the nation began earlier: during his time as vice president, he exercised a great deal of power at the expense of the elderly Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr, the de jure president.\n", "In Argentina, the successive military coups that overthrew constitutional governments installed de facto governments in 1930–1932, 1943–1946, 1955–1958, 1966–1973 and 1976–1983, the last of which combined the powers of the presidential office with those of the National Congress. The subsequent legal analysis of the validity of such actions led to the formulation of a doctrine of the de facto governments, a case law (precedential) formulation which essentially said that the actions and decrees of past de facto governments, although not rooted in legal legitimacy when taken, remained binding until and unless such time as they were revoked or repealed de jure by a subsequent legitimate government.\n", "That doctrine was nullified by the constitutional reform of 1994. Article 36 states:\n", "In 1526, after seizing power Imam Ahmad ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi made his brother, Umar Din, the de jure Sultan of the Adal Sultanate. Ahmad, however, was in all practice the de facto Sultan. Some other notable true de facto leaders have been Deng Xiaoping of the People's Republic of China and General Manuel Noriega of Panama. Both of these men exercised nearly all control over their respective nations for many years despite not having either legal constitutional office or the legal authority to exercise power. These individuals are today commonly recorded as the \"leaders\" of their respective nations; recording their legal, correct title would not give an accurate assessment of their power. Terms like \"strongman\" or \"dictator\" are often used to refer to de facto rulers of this sort. In the Soviet Union, after Vladimir Lenin was incapacitated from a stroke in 1923, Joseph Stalin—who, as General Secretary of the Communist Party had the power to appoint anyone he chose to top party positions—eventually emerged as leader of the Party and the legitimate government. Until the 1936 Soviet Constitution officially declared the Party \"...the vanguard of the working people\", thus legitimising Stalin's leadership, Stalin ruled the USSR as the de facto dictator.\n", "Another example of a de facto ruler is someone who is not the actual ruler but exerts great or total influence over the true ruler, which is quite common in monarchies. Some examples of these de facto rulers are Empress Dowager Cixi of China (for son Tongzhi and nephew Guangxu Emperors), Prince Alexander Menshikov (for his former lover Empress Catherine I of Russia), Cardinal Richelieu of France (for Louis XIII) and Queen Marie Caroline of Naples and Sicily (for her husband King Ferdinand I of the Two Sicilies).\n", "The term \"de facto head of state\" is sometimes used to describe the office of a governor general in the Commonwealth realms, since a holder of that office has the same responsibilities in their country as the de jure head of state (the sovereign) does within the United Kingdom.\n", "In the Westminster system of government, executive authority is often split between a de jure executive authority of a head of state and a de facto executive authority of a prime minister and cabinet who implement executive powers in the name of the de jure executive authority. In the United Kingdom, the Sovereign is the de jure executive authority, even though executive decisions are made by the indirectly elected Prime Minister and her Cabinet on the Sovereign's behalf, hence the term Her Majesty's Government.\n", "The de facto boundaries of a country are defined by the area that its government is actually able to enforce its laws in, and to defend against encroachments by other countries that may also claim the same territory de jure. The Durand Line is an example of a de facto boundary. As well as cases of border disputes, de facto boundaries may also arise in relatively unpopulated areas in which the border was never formally established or in which the agreed border was never surveyed and its exact position is unclear. The same concepts may also apply to a boundary between provinces or other subdivisions of a federal state.\n", "Section::::Examples.:Politics.:Segregation.\n", "In South Africa, although de jure apartheid formally began in 1948, de facto racist policies and practices discriminating against black South Africans, Coloureds, and Indians dated back decades before.\n", "De facto racial discrimination and segregation in the United States (outside of the South) until the 1950s and 1960s was simply discrimination that was segregation by law (de jure). \"Jim Crow laws\", which were enacted in the 1870s, brought legal racial segregation against black Americans residing in the American South. These laws were legally ended in 1964 by the Civil Rights Act of 1964.\n", "Section::::Other uses.\n", "A de facto monopoly is a system where many suppliers of a product are allowed, but the market is so completely dominated by one that the others might as well not exist. The related terms oligopoly and monopsony are similar in meaning and this is the type of situation that antitrust laws are intended to eliminate.\n", "Section::::Other uses.:Relationships.\n", "A domestic partner outside marriage is referred to as a de facto husband or wife by some authorities. In Australia and New Zealand, the phrase \"de facto\" by itself has become a colloquial term for one's domestic partner. In Australian law, it is the legally recognized, committed relationship of a couple living together (opposite-sex or same-sex). De facto unions are defined in the federal Family Law Act 1975. De facto relationships provide couples who are living together on a genuine domestic basis with many of the same rights and benefits as married couples. Two people can become a de facto couple by entering into a registered relationship (i.e.: civil union or domestic partnership) or by being assessed as such by the Family Court or Federal Circuit Court. Couples who are living together are generally recognised as a de facto union and thus able to claim many of the rights and benefits of a married couple, even if they have not registered or officially documented their relationship, although this may vary by state. It has been noted that it is harder to prove de facto relationship status, particularly in the case of the death of one of the partners.\n", "In April 2014, a federal court judge ruled that a heterosexual couple who had a child and lived together for 13 years were not in a de facto relationship and thus the court had no jurisdiction to divide up their property under family law following a request for separation. In his ruling, the judge stated \"de facto relationship(s) may be described as ‘marriage like’ but it is not a marriage and has significant differences socially, financially and emotionally.\"\n", "The above sense of de facto is related to the relationship between common law traditions and formal (statutory, regulatory, civil) law, and common-law marriages. Common law norms for settling disputes in practical situations, often worked out over many generations to establishing precedent, are a core element informing decision making in legal systems around the world. Because its early forms originated in England in the Middle Ages, this is particularly true in Anglo-American legal traditions and in former colonies of the British Empire, while also playing a role in some countries that have mixed systems with significant admixtures of civil law.\n", "Section::::Other uses.:Relationships not recognised outside Australia.\n", "Due to Australian federalism, de facto partnerships can only be legally recognised whilst the couple lives within a state in Australia. This is because the power to legislate on de facto matters relies on referrals by States to the Commonwealth in accordance with Section 51(xxxvii) of the Australian Constitution, where it states the new federal law can only be applied back within a state. There must be a state nexus between the de facto relationship itself and the Australian state.\n", "If an Australian de facto couple moves out of a state, they do not take the state with them and the new federal law is tied to the territorial limits of a state. The legal status and rights and obligations of the de facto or unmarried couple would then be recognised by the laws of the country where they are ordinarily resident. See the section on Family Court of Australia for further explanation on jurisdiction on de facto relationships.\n", "This is unlike marriage and \"matrimonial causes\" which are recognised by sections 51(xxi) and (xxii) of the Constitution of Australia and internationally by marriage law and conventions, Hague Convention on Marriages (1978).\n", "Section::::Other uses.:Non-marital relationship contract.\n", "A de facto relationship is comparable to non-marital relationship contracts (sometimes called \"palimony agreements\") and certain limited forms of domestic partnership, which are found in many jurisdictions throughout the world.\n", "A de facto Relationship is not comparable to common-law marriage, which is a fully legal marriage that has merely been contracted in an irregular way (including by habit and repute). Only nine U.S. states and the District of Columbia still permit common-law marriage; but common law marriages are otherwise valid and recognised by and in all jurisdictions whose rules of comity mandate the recognition of any marriage that was legally formed in the jurisdiction where it was contracted.\n", "Section::::Other uses.:Family law – custody.\n", "De facto joint custody is comparable to the joint legal decision-making authority a married couple has over their child(ren) in many jurisdictions (Canada as an example). Upon separation, each parent maintains de facto joint custody, until such time a court order awards custody, either sole or joint.\n", "Section::::Other uses of the term.\n", "In finance, the World Bank has a pertinent definition:\n", "A \"de facto government\" comes into, or remains in, power by means not provided for in the country's constitution, such as a coup d'état, revolution, usurpation, abrogation or suspension of the constitution.\n", "A de facto state of war is a situation where two nations are actively engaging, or are engaged, in aggressive military actions against the other without a formal declaration of war.\n", "In engineering, is a system in which the intellectual property and know-how is privately held. Usually only the owner of the technology manufactures the related equipment. Meanwhile, a consists of systems that have been publicly released to a certain degree so that anybody can manufacture equipment supporting the technology. For instance, in cell phone communications, CDMA1X is a de facto technology, while GSM is a standard technology.\n", "Section::::See also.\n", "BULLET::::- De jure\n", "BULLET::::- List of Latin phrases (D)\n" ] }

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{ "description": "Latin expression, roughly meaning 'in fact'", "enwikiquote_title": "", "wikidata_id": "Q712144", "wikidata_label": "de facto", "wikipedia_title": "De facto", "aliases": { "alias": [ "De facto" ] } }

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{ "paragraph": [ "Grease\n", "Grease may refer to:\n", "Section::::Common uses.\n", "BULLET::::- Grease (lubricant), a type of industrial lubricant\n", "BULLET::::- Grease, any petroleum product or fat (including cooking fat) that is a soft solid at room temperature\n", "BULLET::::- Brown grease, waste vegetable oil, animal fat, grease, etc. that is recovered from a grease trap\n", "BULLET::::- Yellow grease, in rendering, used frying oils, or lower-quality grades of tallow\n", "BULLET::::- Hydrogenated vegetable oil, used as a replacement for lard and other rendered animal fats\n", "BULLET::::- Vegetable shortening, used as a replacement for lard and other rendered animal fats\n", "Section::::Common uses.:Slang.\n", "BULLET::::- Grease, a euphemism, meaning, to bribe, as in \"\"to grease\" someone's palm\"\n", "BULLET::::- Grease, a slang term for killing, as in \"The mob has been known to \"grease\" anyone who gets in its way\"\n", "BULLET::::- Pomade, a hair styling wax\n", "Section::::Arts, entertainment, and media.\n", "Section::::Arts, entertainment, and media.:Films.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Grease\" (film), 1978 film made from the musical\n", "BULLET::::- \"Grease 2\", the 1982 film sequel\n", "Section::::Arts, entertainment, and media.:Music.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Grease\" (song), the title song of the 1978 film\n", "BULLET::::- \"\", the soundtrack album to the 1978 film\n", "BULLET::::- , the new Broadway cast recording of the musical featuring Max Crumm and Laura Osnes\n", "Section::::Arts, entertainment, and media.:Television.\n", "Section::::Arts, entertainment, and media.:Television.:Series.\n", "BULLET::::- \"\", a U.S. 2016 live TV musical that combines aspects of the 1971 musical play and 1978 film\n", "BULLET::::- \"\", a U.S. 2007 reality TV show casting the lead roles in revivals of the musical\n", "BULLET::::- \"Grease is the Word\", a U.K. 2007 reality TV show casting the lead roles in revivals of the musical\n", "Section::::Arts, entertainment, and media.:Television.:Episodes.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Grease\", a 1997 episode of the cartoon \"Extreme Ghostbusters\"\n", "Section::::Arts, entertainment, and media.:Other uses in arts, entertainment, and media.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Grease\" (musical), a 1971 musical play\n", "BULLET::::- \"Grease\" (video game), a video game based on the 1978 film\n", "Section::::Biology and healthcare.\n", "BULLET::::- Grease, or Mud fever, a disease causing irritation and dermatitis in the lower limbs of horses, most commonly in the pastern and heel area\n", "BULLET::::- Grease moth (\"Aglossa cuprina\"), a fat-feeding moth\n", "Section::::See also.\n", "BULLET::::- Greaser (disambiguation)\n", "BULLET::::- Greasy (disambiguation)\n", "BULLET::::- Greece (disambiguation)\n" ] }

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{ "paragraph": [ "United States Naval Observatory\n", "The United States Naval Observatory (USNO) is one of the oldest scientific agencies in the United States, with a primary mission to produce Positioning, Navigation and Timing (PNT) for the United States Navy and the United States Department of Defense. Located in Northwest Washington, D.C. at the Northwestern end of Embassy Row, it is one of the pre-1900 astronomical observatories located in an urban area; at the time of its construction, it was far from the light pollution thrown off by the (then-smaller) city center. Former USNO director Gernot M. R. Winkler initiated the \"Master Clock\" service that the USNO still operates, and which provides precise time to the GPS satellite constellation run by the United States Air Force. The USNO performs radio VLBI-based positions of quasars with numerous global collaborators, in order to produce Earth Orientation parameters.\n", "Aside from its scientific mission, a house located within the Naval Observatory complex serves as the official residence of the Vice President of the United States.\n", "Section::::History.\n", "President John Quincy Adams, who in 1825 signed the bill for the creation of a national observatory just before leaving presidential office, had intended for it to be called the National Observatory. The names \"National Observatory\" and \"Naval Observatory\" were both used for 10 years, until a ruling was passed to officially use the latter. Adams had made protracted efforts to bring astronomy to a national level at that time. He spent many nights at the observatory, watching and charting the stars, which had always been one of Adams' avocations.\n", "Established by the order of the United States Secretary of the Navy John Branch on 6 December 1830 as the Depot of Charts and Instruments, the Observatory rose from humble beginnings. Placed under the command of Lieutenant Louis M. Goldsborough, with an annual budget of $330, its primary function was the restoration, repair, and rating of navigational instruments. It was made into a national observatory in 1842 via a federal law and a Congressional appropriation of $25,000. Lieutenant James Melville Gilliss was put in charge of \"obtaining the instruments needed and books.\" Lt. Gilliss visited the principal observatories of Europe with the mission to purchase telescopes and scientific devices and books.\n", "The observatory's primary mission was to care for the United States Navy's marine chronometers, charts, and other navigational equipment. It calibrated ships' chronometers by timing the transit of stars across the meridian. Opened in 1844 in Foggy Bottom north of the present site of the Lincoln Memorial and west of the White House (see: Old Naval Observatory), the observatory moved in 1893 to its present location on a 2000-foot circle of land atop Observatory Hill overlooking Massachusetts Avenue. These facilities were listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 2017.\n", "The first superintendent was Navy Commander Matthew Fontaine Maury. Maury had the world's first vulcanized time ball, created to his specifications by Charles Goodyear for the U.S. Observatory. It was the first time ball in the United States, being placed into service in 1845, and the 12th in the world. Maury kept accurate time by the stars and planets. The time ball was dropped every day except Sunday precisely at the astronomically defined moment of Mean Solar Noon, enabling all ships and civilians to know the exact time. By the end of the American Civil War, the Observatory's clocks were linked via telegraph to ring the alarm bells in all of the Washington, D.C. firehouses three times a day, and by the early 1870s the Observatory's daily noon-time signal was being distributed nationwide via the Western Union Telegraph Company. Time was also \"sold\" to the railroads and was used in conjunction with railroad chronometers to schedule American rail transport. Early in the 20th century, the Arlington Time Signal broadcast this service to wireless receivers.\n", "In 1849 the Nautical Almanac Office (NAO) was established in Cambridge, Massachusetts as a separate organization. It was moved to Washington, D.C. in 1866, colocating with the U. S. Naval Observatory in 1893. On September 20, 1894, the NAO became a \"branch\" of USNO, however it remained autonomous for several years after this.\n", "An early scientific duty assigned to the Observatory was the U.S. contribution to the definition of the Astronomical Unit, or the AU, which defines a standard mean distance between the Sun and the Earth, conducted under the auspices of the Congressionally funded U.S. Transit of Venus Commission. The astronomical measurements taken of the transit of Venus by a number of countries since 1639 resulted in a progressively more accurate definition of the AU. Relying heavily on photographic methods, the naval observers returned 350 photographic plates in 1874, and 1,380 measurable plates in 1882. The results of the surveys conducted simultaneously from several locations around the world (for each of the two transits) produced a final value of the solar parallax, after adjustments, of 8.809\", with a probable error of 0.0059\", yielding a \"U.S. defined\" Earth-Sun distance of , with a probable error of . This calculated distance was a significant improvement over several previous estimates.\n", "The telescope used for the discovery of the Moons of Mars was the 26-inch (66 cm) refractor (a telescope with a lens), then located at Foggy Bottom. In 1893 it was moved to the present location.\n", "In November 1913 the Paris Observatory, using the Eiffel Tower as an antenna, exchanged sustained wireless (radio) signals with the United States Naval Observatory, using an antenna in Arlington, Virginia to determine the exact difference of longitude between the two institutions.\n", "In 1934, the last (then) large telescope to be installed at USNO saw \"first light\". This 40-inch aperture instrument was also the second (and final) telescope made by famed optician, George Willis Ritchey. The Ritchey–Chrétien telescope design has since become the \"de facto\" optical design for nearly all major telescopes, including the famed Keck telescopes and the spaceborne Hubble Space Telescope. Unfortunately, light pollution forced USNO to relocate the 40-inch telescope to Flagstaff, Arizona. There it began operations of a new Navy command, now called the Naval Observatory Flagstaff Station (NOFS). Those operations commenced in 1955, and within a decade, the Navy's largest telescope, the 61-inch \"Kaj Strand Astrometric Reflector\" was built, seeing light at NOFS in 1964.\n", "The United States Naval Observatory no longer obtains significant astrometric observations, but it continues to be a major authority in the areas of Precise Time and Time Interval, Earth orientation, astrometry and celestial observation. In collaboration with many national and international scientific establishments, it determines the timing and astronomical data required for accurate navigation, astrometry, and fundamental astronomy and calculation methods — and distributes this information (such as star catalogs) in the Astronomical Almanac, The Nautical Almanac, and on-line.\n", "Perhaps it is best known to the general public for its highly accurate ensemble of atomic clocks and its year 2000 time ball replacement. The site also houses the largest astronomy library in the United States (and the largest astrophysical periodicals collection in the world). The library includes a large collection of rare, often famous, physics and astronomy books from across the past millennium.\n", "USNO continues to maintain its dark-sky observatory, NOFS, near Flagstaff, Arizona, which also now oversees the Navy Precision Optical Interferometer. The Alternate Master Clock, mentioned above, also continues to operate at Schriever Air Force Base in Colorado.\n", "Section::::Departments.\n", "In 1990, the Orbital Mechanics Department and Astronomical Applications Department were established, and Nautical Almanac Office became a division of the Astronomical Applications Department. The Orbital Mechanics Department operated under P. K. Seidelmann until 1994 when the department was abolished, and its functions were moved to a group within the Astronomical Applications Department. In 2010, USNO's astronomical 'department' known as the Naval Observatory Flagstaff Station (NOFS) was officially made autonomous as an Echelon Five command separate from USNO, but reporting to it. In the alpine woodlands above 7,000 feet altitude outside Flagstaff, Arizona, NOFS performs its national, Celestial Reference Frame (CRF) mission under dark skies in that region.\n", "Section::::Departments.:Official residence of the Vice President of the United States.\n", "Since 1974, a house situated in the grounds of the observatory, at Number One Observatory Circle, has been the official residence of the Vice President of the United States. The house is separated from the Naval Observatory, and was formerly the residence of its superintendent, and later the home of the Chief of Naval Operations. The Observatory is therefore subject to tight security control enforced by the Secret Service.\n", "According to a 15 May 2009 blog posting by \"Newsweek's\" Eleanor Clift, Vice President Joe Biden revealed the existence of what Clift described as a bunker-like room in the residence. The bunker is the secure, undisclosed location where former Vice President Dick Cheney remained under protection in secret after the September 11 attacks: according to Clift's report, titled \"Shining Light on Cheney's Hideaway\": \n", "Biden said a young naval officer giving him a tour of the residence showed him the hideaway, which is behind a massive steel door secured by an elaborate lock with a narrow connecting hallway lined with shelves filled with communications equipment. \n", "Biden's press office subsequently issued a statement denying the bunker report, suggesting that Biden had instead been describing \"an upstairs workspace\".\n", "Section::::Time service.\n", "The U.S. Naval Observatory operates two Master Clock facilities. The primary facility, in Washington, D.C. maintains 57 HP/Agilent/Symmetricom 5071A-001 high performance cesium atomic clocks and 24 hydrogen masers. The alternate master clock, at Schriever Air Force Base, maintains 12 cesium clocks and 3 masers. The observatory also operates four rubidium atomic fountain clocks, which have a stability reaching 7. The observatory intends to build several more of this type for use at its two facilities. The clocks used for the USNO timescale are kept in 19 environmental chambers, whose temperatures are kept constant to within 0.1 degree C and whose relative humidities (for all masers and most cesiums) are kept constant to within 1%. The timescale is based only upon the Washington DC clocks. On June 7, 2007, 70 standards were weighted in the timescale computations.\n", "The U.S. Naval Observatory provides public time service via 26 NTP servers on the public Internet, and via telephone voice announcements:\n", "BULLET::::- +1 202 762-1401 (Washington, D.C.)\n", "BULLET::::- +1 202 762-1069\n", "BULLET::::- +1 719 567-6742 (Colorado Springs)\n", "The voice of actor Fred Covington (1928–1993) has been announcing the USNO time since 1978.\n", "The voice announcements follow the same pattern at both sites. They always begin with the local time (daylight or standard), and include a background of 1-second ticks. Local time announcements are made on the minute, and 15, 30, and 45 seconds after the minute. Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) is announced five seconds after the local time. Upon connecting, only the second-marking ticks are heard for the few seconds before the next scheduled local time announcement\n", "The USNO also operates a modem time service, and provides time to the Global Positioning System.\n", "Section::::Instrument shop.\n", "The United States Naval Observatory Instrument shop has been manufacturing precise instrumentation since the early 1900s.\n", "Section::::Publications.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Astronomical Observations made at the U.S. Naval Observatory\" (USNOA) (v. 1–6: 1846–1867)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Astronomical and Meteorological Observations made at the U.S. Naval Observatory\" (USNOM) (v. 1–22: 1862–1880)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Observations made at the U.S. Naval Observatory\" (USNOO) (v. 1–7: 1887–1893)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Publications of the U.S. Naval Observatory\", Second Series (PUSNO) (v. 1–16: 1900–1949)\n", "BULLET::::- \"U.S. Naval Observatory Circulars\"\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Astronomical Almanac\"\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Nautical Almanac\"\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Air Almanac\"\n", "BULLET::::- \"Astronomical Phenomena\"\n", "Section::::See also.\n", "BULLET::::- List of astronomical observatories\n", "BULLET::::- Rear Admiral Samuel P. Carter\n", "Section::::Further reading.\n", "BULLET::::- (British edition).\n", "Section::::External links.\n", "BULLET::::- USNO, \"What Time is it?\"\n", "BULLET::::- Transcription: Lieut. Matthew Fontaine Maury’s 1847 Letter to President John Quincy Adams on the many details of the United States National Observatory that was later called the \"Navy\" Observatory\n", "BULLET::::- Old photographies at the Paris Observatory\n" ] }

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Matthew Fontaine Maury’s 1847 Letter to President John Quincy Adams on the many details of the United States National Observatory that was later called the \"Navy\" Observatory", "Old photographies at the Paris Observatory" ], "href": [ "Science", "United%20States", "United%20States%20Navy", "United%20States%20Department%20of%20Defense", "Northwest%2C%20Washington%2C%20D.C.", "Washington%2C%20D.C.", "Embassy%20Row", "Observatory", "light%20pollution", "Gernot%20M.%20R.%20Winkler", "master%20clock", "atomic%20clock", "GPS%20satellite%20blocks", "United%20States%20Air%20Force", "Very-long-baseline%20interferometry", "quasar", "International%20Earth%20Rotation%20and%20Reference%20Systems%20Service", "Vice%20President%20of%20the%20United%20States", "John%20Quincy%20Adams", "United%20States%20Secretary%20of%20the%20Navy", "John%20Branch", "Louis%20M.%20Goldsborough", "James%20Melville%20Gilliss", "United%20States%20Navy", "marine%20chronometer", "Calibration", "Transit%20%28astronomy%29", "star", "meridian%20%28astronomy%29", "Foggy%20Bottom", "Lincoln%20Memorial", "White%20House", "Old%20Naval%20Observatory", "Massachusetts%20Avenue%20%28Washington%2C%20D.C.%29", "National%20Register%20of%20Historic%20Places", "Matthew%20Fontaine%20Maury", "Vulcanization", "time%20ball", "Charles%20Goodyear", "Telegraphy", "Western%20Union", "railroad%20chronometer", "wireless", "Cambridge%2C%20Massachusetts", "Washington%2C%20D.C.", "Astronomical%20unit", "arithmetic%20mean", "transit%20of%20Venus", "photographic%20plate", "parallax", "Moons%20of%20Mars", "Paris%20Observatory", "Eiffel%20Tower", "Antenna%20%28radio%29", "Arlington%20County%2C%20Virginia", "George%20Willis%20Ritchey", "Ritchey%E2%80%93Chr%C3%A9tien%20telescope", "W.%20M.%20Keck%20Observatory", "Hubble%20Space%20Telescope", "Flagstaff%2C%20Arizona", "United%20States%20Naval%20Observatory%20Flagstaff%20Station", "Kaj%20Aage%20Gunnar%20Strand", "Precise%20Time%20and%20Time%20Interval", "Earth%20Orientation%20Parameters", "astrometry", "navigation", "astrometry", "astronomy", "Naval%20Observatory%20Vector%20Astrometry%20Subroutines", "Star%20catalogue", "Astronomical%20Almanac", "The%20Nautical%20Almanac", "atomic%20clock", "Dark-sky%20movement", "United%20States%20Naval%20Observatory%20Flagstaff%20Station", "Flagstaff%2C%20Arizona", "Arizona", "Navy%20Precision%20Optical%20Interferometer", "Schriever%20Air%20Force%20Base", "Colorado", "United%20States%20Naval%20Observatory%20Flagstaff%20Station", "Flagstaff%2C%20Arizona", "United%20States%20Naval%20Observatory%20Flagstaff%20Station", "Vice%20President%20of%20the%20United%20States", "Chief%20of%20Naval%20Operations", "United%20States%20Secret%20Service", "Newsweek", "Eleanor%20Clift", "Joe%20Biden", "Dick%20Cheney", "September%2011%20attacks", "Hewlett-Packard", "Agilent%20Technologies", "cesium", "hydrogen%20maser", "Schriever%20Air%20Force%20Base", "rubidium", "atomic%20fountain", "Network%20Time%20Protocol", "Internet", "http%3A//doc.adsabs.harvard.edu/bib_abs.html%3FUSNOA", "http%3A//doc.adsabs.harvard.edu/bib_abs.html%3FUSNOM", "http%3A//doc.adsabs.harvard.edu/bib_abs.html%3FUSNOO", "http%3A//doc.adsabs.harvard.edu/bib_abs.html%3FPUSNO", "The%20Astronomical%20Almanac", "The%20Nautical%20Almanac", "The%20Air%20Almanac", "Astronomical%20Phenomena", "List%20of%20astronomical%20observatories", "Samuel%20P.%20Carter", "http%3A//tycho.usno.navy.mil/cgi-bin/timer.pl", "https%3A//web.archive.org/web/20060321125122/http%3A//www.cstone.net/~wmm/mfm-1847/index.html", "https%3A//bibnum.obspm.fr/ark%3A/11287/2vckk" ], "wikipedia_title": [ "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "" ], "wikipedia_id": [ "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "" ] }

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{ "pageid": 43596, "parentid": 907729679, "revid": 907973954, "pre_dump": true, "timestamp": "2019-07-26T14:52:27Z", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=United%20States%20Naval%20Observatory&oldid=907973954" }

{ "paragraph": [ "Wassenaar Arrangement\n", "The Wassenaar Arrangement on Export Controls for Conventional Arms and Dual-Use Goods and Technologies is a multilateral export control regime (MECR) with 42 participating states including many former Comecon (Warsaw Pact) countries.\n", "The Wassenaar Arrangement was established to contribute to regional and international security and stability by promoting transparency and greater responsibility in transfers of conventional arms and dual-use goods and technologies, thus preventing destabilizing accumulations. Participating states seek, through their national policies, to ensure that transfers of these items do not contribute to the development or enhancement of military capabilities which undermine these goals, and are not diverted to support such capabilities.\n", "It is the successor to the Cold War-era Coordinating Committee for Multilateral Export Controls (COCOM), and was established on 12 July 1996, in Wassenaar, the Netherlands, which is near The Hague. The Wassenaar Arrangement is considerably less strict than COCOM, focusing primarily on the transparency of national export control regimes and not granting veto power to individual members over organizational decisions. A Secretariat for administering the agreement is located in Vienna, Austria. Like COCOM, however, it is not a treaty, and therefore is not legally binding.\n", "Every six months member countries exchange information on deliveries of conventional arms to non-Wassenaar members that fall under eight broad weapons categories: battle tanks, armoured fighting vehicles (AFVs), large-caliber artillery, military aircraft, military helicopters, warships, missiles or missile systems, and small arms and light weapons.\n", "Section::::Control lists.\n", "The outline of the arrangement is set out in a document entitled \"Guidelines & Procedures, including the Initial Elements\". The list of restricted technologies is broken into two parts, the \"List of Dual-Use Goods and Technologies\" (also known as the \"Basic List\") and the \"Munitions List\". The Basic List is composed of ten categories based on increasing levels of sophistication:\n", "BULLET::::- Category 1 – Special Materials and Related Equipment\n", "BULLET::::- Category 2 – Materials Processing\n", "BULLET::::- Category 3 – Electronics\n", "BULLET::::- Category 4 – Computers\n", "BULLET::::- Category 5 – Part 1 – Telecommunications\n", "BULLET::::- Category 5 – Part 2 – Information Security\n", "BULLET::::- Category 6 – Sensors and Lasers\n", "BULLET::::- Category 7 – Navigation and Avionics\n", "BULLET::::- Category 8 – Marine\n", "BULLET::::- Category 9 – Aerospace and Propulsion\n", "Basic List has two nested subsections—Sensitive and Very Sensitive. Items of the Very Sensitive List include materials for stealth technology—i.e., equipment that could be used for submarine detection, advanced radar, and jet engine technologies.\n", "The Munitions List has 22 categories, which are not labeled.\n", "In order for an item to be placed on the lists, Member States must take into account the following \n", "criteria:\n", "BULLET::::- Foreign availability outside Participating States\n", "BULLET::::- Ability to effectively control the export of the goods\n", "BULLET::::- Ability to make a clear and objective specification of the item.\n", "BULLET::::- Controlled by another regime, such as the Australia Group, Nuclear Suppliers Group, or Missile Technology Control Regime\n", "Section::::Membership.\n", ", the 42 participating states are: \n", " – European Union member state. - NATO member. \n", ", , , & are not members of the Wassenaar Agreement. & see below.\n", "Section::::Membership.:Admission requirements.\n", "Admission requires states to:\n", "BULLET::::- Be a producer or exporter of arms or sensitive industrial equipment\n", "BULLET::::- Maintain non-proliferation policies and appropriate national policies, including adherence to:\n", "BULLET::::- Non-proliferation policies, such as (where applicable) the Nuclear Suppliers Group, the Missile Technology Control Regime, and the Australia Group\n", "BULLET::::- Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty, the Biological Weapons Convention, the Chemical Weapons Convention and, where applicable, START I (including the Lisbon Protocol)\n", "BULLET::::- Maintain fully effective export controls\n", "The People's Republic of China and Israel are not members. The Arrangement is open on a global and non-discriminatory basis to prospective adherents that comply with the agreed criteria. Admission of new members requires the consensus of all members. \n", "India joined as the 42nd participating state on 07 December 2017. \"Wassenaar Arrangement participating states reviewed the progress of a number of current membership applications and agreed at the plenary meeting to admit India which will become the Arrangement's 42nd participating state as soon as the necessary procedural arrangements for joining the WA are completed,\" the grouping said in a statement. India's application was supported by Russia, USA, France and Germany.\n", "Section::::2013 amendments.\n", "In December 2013, the list of export restricted technologies was amended to include internet-based surveillance systems. New technologies placed under the export control regime include \"intrusion software\"—software designed to defeat a computer or network's protective measures so as to extract data or information—as well as IP network surveillance systems. \n", "The purpose of the amendments was to prevent Western technology companies from selling surveillance technology to governments known to abuse human rights. However, some technology companies have expressed concerns that the scope of the controls may be too broad, limiting security researchers' ability to identify and correct security vulnerabilities. Google and Facebook criticized the agreement for the restrictions it will place on activities like penetration testing, sharing information about threats, and bug bounty programs. They argue that the restrictions will weaken the security of participating nations and do little to curb threats from non-participant nations.\n", "Section::::See also.\n", "BULLET::::- Arms Export Control Act\n", "BULLET::::- Defense Security Cooperation Agency\n", "BULLET::::- Export Control Classification Number\n", "BULLET::::- International Traffic in Arms Regulations\n", "Section::::External links.\n", "BULLET::::- Wassenaar Arrangement\n" ] }

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{ "pageid": 43602, "parentid": 893781838, "revid": 893781904, "pre_dump": true, "timestamp": "2019-04-23T14:45:03Z", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wassenaar%20Arrangement&oldid=893781904" }

{ "paragraph": [ "Flux\n", "Flux describes any effect that appears to pass or travel (whether it actually moves or not) through a surface or substance. A flux is either a concept based in physics or used with applied mathematics. Both concepts have mathematical rigor, enabling comparison of the underlying mathematics when the terminology is unclear. For transport phenomena, flux is a vector quantity, describing the magnitude and direction of the flow of a substance or property. In electromagnetism, flux is a scalar quantity, defined as the surface integral of the component of a vector field perpendicular to the surface at each point.\n", "Section::::Terminology.\n", "The word \"flux\" comes from Latin: \"fluxus\" means \"flow\", and \"fluere\" is \"to flow\". As \"fluxion\", this term was introduced into differential calculus by Isaac Newton.\n", "The concept of heat flux was a key contribution of Joseph Fourier, in the analysis of heat transfer phenomena. His seminal treatise \"Théorie analytique de la chaleur\" (\"The Analytical Theory of Heat\"), defines \"fluxion\" as a central quantity and proceeds to derive the now well-known expressions of flux in terms of temperature differences across a slab, and then more generally in terms of temperature gradients or differentials of temperature, across other geometries. One could argue, based on the work of James Clerk Maxwell, that the transport definition precedes the definition of flux used in electromagnetism. The specific quote from Maxwell is:\n", "According to the transport definition, flux may be a single vector, or it may be a vector field / function of position. In the latter case flux can readily be integrated over a surface. By contrast, according to the electromagnetism definition, flux \"is\" the integral over a surface; it makes no sense to integrate a second-definition flux for one would be integrating over a surface twice. Thus, Maxwell's quote only makes sense if \"flux\" is being used according to the transport definition (and furthermore is a vector field rather than single vector). This is ironic because Maxwell was one of the major developers of what we now call \"electric flux\" and \"magnetic flux\" according to the electromagnetism definition. Their names in accordance with the quote (and transport definition) would be \"surface integral of electric flux\" and \"surface integral of magnetic flux\", in which case \"electric flux\" would instead be defined as \"electric field\" and \"magnetic flux\" defined as \"magnetic field\". This implies that Maxwell conceived of these fields as flows/fluxes of some sort.\n", "Given a flux according to the electromagnetism definition, the corresponding flux density, if that term is used, refers to its derivative along the surface that was integrated. By the Fundamental theorem of calculus, the corresponding flux density is a flux according to the transport definition. Given a current such as electric current—charge per time, current density would also be a flux according to the transport definition—charge per time per area. Due to the conflicting definitions of \"flux\", and the interchangeability of \"flux\", \"flow\", and \"current\" in nontechnical English, all of the terms used in this paragraph are sometimes used interchangeably and ambiguously. Concrete fluxes in the rest of this article will be used in accordance to their broad acceptance in the literature, regardless of which definition of flux the term corresponds to.\n", "Section::::Flux as flow rate per unit area.\n", "In transport phenomena (heat transfer, mass transfer and fluid dynamics), flux is defined as the \"rate of flow of a property per unit area,\" which has the dimensions [quantity]·[time]·[area]. The area is of the surface the property is flowing \"through\" or \"across\". For example, the magnitude of a river's current, i.e. the amount of water that flows through a cross-section of the river each second, or the amount of sunlight energy that lands on a patch of ground each second, are kinds of flux.\n", "Section::::Flux as flow rate per unit area.:General mathematical definition (transport).\n", "Here are 3 definitions in increasing order of complexity. Each is a special case of the following. In all cases the frequent symbol \"j\", (or \"J\") is used for flux, \"q\" for the physical quantity that flows, \"t\" for time, and \"A\" for area. These identifiers will be written in bold when and only when they are vectors.\n", "First, flux as a (single) scalar:\n", "where:\n", "In this case the surface in which flux is being measured is fixed, and has area \"A\". The surface is assumed to be flat, and the flow is assumed to be everywhere constant with respect to position, and perpendicular to the surface.\n", "Second, flux as a scalar field defined along a surface, i.e. a function of points on the surface:\n", "As before, the surface is assumed to be flat, and the flow is assumed to be everywhere perpendicular to it. However the flow need not be constant. \"q\" is now a function of p, a point on the surface, and \"A\", an area. Rather than measure the total flow through the surface, q measures the flow through the disk with area \"A\" centered at \"p\" along the surface.\n", "Finally, flux as a vector field:\n", "In this case, there is no fixed surface we are measuring over. \"q\" is a function of a point, an area, and a direction (given by a unit vector, formula_7), and measures the flow through the disk of area A perpendicular to that unit vector. \"I\" is defined picking the unit vector that maximizes the flow around the point, because the true flow is maximized across the disk that is perpendicular to it. The unit vector thus uniquely maximizes the function when it points in the \"true direction\" of the flow. [Strictly speaking, this is an abuse of notation because the \"arg max\" cannot directly compare vectors; we take the vector with the biggest norm instead.]\n", "Section::::Flux as flow rate per unit area.:General mathematical definition (transport).:Properties.\n", "These direct definitions, especially the last, are rather unwieldy. For example, the argmax construction is artificial from the perspective of empirical measurements, when with a Weathervane or similar one can easily deduce the direction of flux at a point. Rather than defining the vector flux directly, it is often more intuitive to state some properties about it. Furthermore, from these properties the flux can uniquely be determined anyway.\n", "If the flux j passes through the area at an angle θ to the area normal formula_7, then\n", "where · is the dot product of the unit vectors. This is, the component of flux passing through the surface (i.e. normal to it) is \"j\" cos θ, while the component of flux passing tangential to the area is \"j\" sin θ, but there is \"no\" flux actually passing \"through\" the area in the tangential direction. The \"only\" component of flux passing normal to the area is the cosine component.\n", "For vector flux, the surface integral of j over a surface \"S\", gives the proper flowing per unit of time through the surface.\n", "A (and its infinitesimal) is the vector area, combination of the magnitude of the area through which the property passes, \"A\", and a unit vector normal to the area, formula_7. The relation is formula_12.\n", "Unlike in the second set of equations, the surface here need not be flat.\n", "Finally, we can integrate again over the time duration \"t\" to \"t\", getting the total amount of the property flowing through the surface in that time (\"t\" − \"t\"):\n", "Section::::Flux as flow rate per unit area.:Transport fluxes.\n", "Eight of the most common forms of flux from the transport phenomena literature are defined as follows:\n", "BULLET::::1. Momentum flux, the rate of transfer of momentum across a unit area (N·s·m·s). (Newton's law of viscosity)\n", "BULLET::::2. Heat flux, the rate of heat flow across a unit area (J·m·s). (Fourier's law of conduction) (This definition of heat flux fits Maxwell's original definition.)\n", "BULLET::::3. Diffusion flux, the rate of movement of molecules across a unit area (mol·m·s). (Fick's law of diffusion)\n", "BULLET::::4. Volumetric flux, the rate of volume flow across a unit area (m·m·s). (Darcy's law of groundwater flow)\n", "BULLET::::5. Mass flux, the rate of mass flow across a unit area (kg·m·s). (Either an alternate form of Fick's law that includes the molecular mass, or an alternate form of Darcy's law that includes the density.)\n", "BULLET::::6. Radiative flux, the amount of energy transferred in the form of photons at a certain distance from the source per unit area per second (J·m·s). Used in astronomy to determine the magnitude and spectral class of a star. Also acts as a generalization of heat flux, which is equal to the radiative flux when restricted to the electromagnetic spectrum.\n", "BULLET::::7. Energy flux, the rate of transfer of energy through a unit area (J·m·s). The radiative flux and heat flux are specific cases of energy flux.\n", "BULLET::::8. Particle flux, the rate of transfer of particles through a unit area ([number of particles] m·s)\n", "These fluxes are vectors at each point in space, and have a definite magnitude and direction. Also, one can take the divergence of any of these fluxes to determine the accumulation rate of the quantity in a control volume around a given point in space. For incompressible flow, the divergence of the volume flux is zero.\n", "Section::::Flux as flow rate per unit area.:Transport fluxes.:Chemical diffusion.\n", "As mentioned above, chemical molar flux of a component A in an isothermal, isobaric system is defined in Fick's law of diffusion as:\n", "where the nabla symbol ∇ denotes the gradient operator, \"D\" is the diffusion coefficient (m·s) of component A diffusing through component B, \"c\" is the concentration (mol/m) of component A.\n", "This flux has units of mol·m·s, and fits Maxwell's original definition of flux.\n", "For dilute gases, kinetic molecular theory relates the diffusion coefficient \"D\" to the particle density \"n\" = \"N\"/\"V\", the molecular mass \"m\", the collision cross section formula_15, and the absolute temperature \"T\" by\n", "where the second factor is the mean free path and the square root (with Boltzmann's constant \"k\") is the mean velocity of the particles.\n", "In turbulent flows, the transport by eddy motion can be expressed as a grossly increased diffusion coefficient.\n", "Section::::Flux as flow rate per unit area.:Quantum mechanics.\n", "In quantum mechanics, particles of mass \"m\" in the quantum state ψ(r, t) have a probability density defined as\n", "So the probability of finding a particle in a differential volume element dr is\n", "Then the number of particles passing perpendicularly through unit area of a cross-section per unit time is the probability flux;\n", "This is sometimes referred to as the probability current or current density, or probability flux density.\n", "Section::::Flux as a surface integral.\n", "Section::::Flux as a surface integral.:General mathematical definition (surface integral).\n", "As a mathematical concept, flux is represented by the surface integral of a vector field,\n", "where F is a vector field, and d\"A\" is the vector area of the surface \"A\", directed as the surface normal.For the second,n is the outward pointed unit normal vector to the surface.\n", "The surface has to be orientable, i.e. two sides can be distinguished: the surface does not fold back onto itself. Also, the surface has to be actually oriented, i.e. we use a convention as to flowing which way is counted positive; flowing backward is then counted negative.\n", "The surface normal is usually directed by the right-hand rule.\n", "Conversely, one can consider the flux the more fundamental quantity and call the vector field the flux density.\n", "Often a vector field is drawn by curves (field lines) following the \"flow\"; the magnitude of the vector field is then the line density, and the flux through a surface is the number of lines. Lines originate from areas of positive divergence (sources) and end at areas of negative divergence (sinks).\n", "See also the image at right: the number of red arrows passing through a unit area is the flux density, the curve encircling the red arrows denotes the boundary of the surface, and the orientation of the arrows with respect to the surface denotes the sign of the inner product of the vector field with the surface normals.\n", "If the surface encloses a 3D region, usually the surface is oriented such that the influx is counted positive; the opposite is the outflux.\n", "The divergence theorem states that the net outflux through a closed surface, in other words the net outflux from a 3D region, is found by adding the local net outflow from each point in the region (which is expressed by the divergence).\n", "If the surface is not closed, it has an oriented curve as boundary. Stokes' theorem states that the flux of the curl of a vector field is the line integral of the vector field over this boundary. This path integral is also called circulation, especially in fluid dynamics. Thus the curl is the circulation density.\n", "We can apply the flux and these theorems to many disciplines in which we see currents, forces, etc., applied through areas.\n", "Section::::Flux as a surface integral.:Electromagnetism.\n", "One way to better understand the concept of flux in electromagnetism is by comparing it to a butterfly net. The amount of air moving through the net at any given instant in time is the flux. If the wind speed is high, then the flux through the net is large. If the net is made bigger, then the flux is larger even though the wind speed is the same. For the most air to move through the net, the opening of the net must be facing the direction the wind is blowing. If the net is parallel to the wind, then no wind will be moving through the net. The simplest way to think of flux is \"how much air goes through the net\", where the air is a velocity field and the net is the boundary of an imaginary surface.\n", "Section::::Flux as a surface integral.:Electromagnetism.:Electric flux.\n", "An electric \"charge,\" such as a single electron in space, has a magnitude defined in coulombs. Such a charge has an electric field surrounding it. In pictorial form, an electric field is shown as a dot radiating \"lines of flux\" called Gauss lines. Electric Flux Density is the amount of electric flux, the number of \"lines,\" passing through a given area. Units are Gauss/square meter.\n", "Two forms of electric flux are used, one for the E-field:\n", "and one for the D-field (called the electric displacement):\n", "This quantity arises in Gauss's law – which states that the flux of the electric field E out of a closed surface is proportional to the electric charge \"Q\" enclosed in the surface (independent of how that charge is distributed), the integral form is:\n", "where ε is the permittivity of free space.\n", "If one considers the flux of the electric field vector, E, for a tube near a point charge in the field of the charge but not containing it with sides formed by lines tangent to the field, the flux for the sides is zero and there is an equal and opposite flux at both ends of the tube. This is a consequence of Gauss's Law applied to an inverse square field. The flux for any cross-sectional surface of the tube will be the same. The total flux for any surface surrounding a charge \"q\" is \"q\"/ε.\n", "In free space the electric displacement is given by the constitutive relation D = ε E, so for any bounding surface the D-field flux equals the charge \"Q\" within it. Here the expression \"flux of\" indicates a mathematical operation and, as can be seen, the result is not necessarily a \"flow\", since nothing actually flows along electric field lines.\n", "Section::::Flux as a surface integral.:Electromagnetism.:Magnetic flux.\n", "The magnetic flux density (magnetic field) having the unit Wb/m (Tesla) is denoted by B, and magnetic flux is defined analogously:\n", "with the same notation above. The quantity arises in Faraday's law of induction, in integral form:\n" ] }

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{ "paragraph": [ "Gnuplot\n", "gnuplot is a command-line program that can generate two- and three-dimensional plots of functions, data, and data fits. The program runs on all major computers and operating systems (Linux, Unix, Microsoft Windows, macOS, and others).\n", "It is a program with a fairly long history, dating back to 1986. Despite its name, this software is not part of the GNU project.\n", "Section::::Features.\n", "gnuplot can produce output directly on screen, or in many formats of graphics files, including Portable Network Graphics (PNG), Encapsulated PostScript (EPS), Scalable Vector Graphics (SVG), JPEG and many others. It is also capable of producing LaTeX code that can be included directly in LaTeX documents, making use of LaTeX's fonts and powerful formula notation abilities. The program can be used both interactively and in batch mode using scripts.\n", "The gnuplot core code is programmed in C. Modular subsystems for output via Qt, wxWidgets, and LaTeX/TikZ/ConTeXt are written in C++ and Lua.\n", "The code below creates the graph to the right.\n", "The name of this program was originally chosen to avoid conflicts with a program called \"newplot\", and was originally a compromise between \"llamaplot\" and \"nplot\".\n", "Section::::Distribution terms.\n", "Despite gnuplot's name, it is not named after, part of or related to the GNU Project, nor does it use the GNU General Public License. It was named as part of a compromise by the original authors, punning on \"gnu\" (the animal) and \"newplot\".\n", "Official source code to gnuplot is freely redistributable, but modified versions thereof are not. The gnuplot license instead recommends distribution of patches against official releases, optionally accompanied by officially released source code. Binaries may be distributed along with the unmodified source code and any patches applied thereto. Contact information must be supplied with derived works for technical support for the modified software.\n", "Permission to modify the software is granted, but not the right to distribute the complete modified source code. Modifications are to be distributed as patches to the released version.\n", "Despite this restriction, gnuplot is accepted and used by many GNU packages and is widely included in Linux distributions including the stricter ones such as Debian and Fedora. The OSI Open Source Definition and the Debian Free Software Guidelines specifically allow for restrictions on distribution of modified source code, given explicit permission to distribute both patches and source code.\n", "Newer gnuplot modules (e.g. Qt, wxWidgets, and cairo drivers) have been contributed under dual-licensing terms, e.g. gnuplot + BSD or gnuplot + GPL.\n", "Section::::GUIs and programs that use gnuplot.\n", "Several third-party programs have graphical user interfaces that can be used to generate graphs using gnuplot as the plotting engine. These include:\n", "BULLET::::- gretl, a statistics package for econometrics\n", "BULLET::::- JGNUPlot, a java-based GUI\n", "BULLET::::- Kayali a computer algebra system\n", "BULLET::::- xldlas, an old X11 statistics package\n", "BULLET::::- gnuplotxyz, an old Windows program\n", "BULLET::::- wxPinter, a graphical plot manager for gnuplot\n", "BULLET::::- Maxima is a text-based computer algebra system which itself has several third-party GUIs.\n", "Other programs that use gnuplot include:\n", "BULLET::::- GNU Octave, a mathematical programming language\n", "BULLET::::- statist, a terminal-based program\n", "BULLET::::- gplot.pl provides a simpler command-line interface.\n", "BULLET::::- feedgnuplot provides a plotting of stored and realtime data from a pipe.\n", "BULLET::::- ElchemeaAnalytical, an Impedance spectroscopy plotting and fitting program developed by DTU Energy\n", "BULLET::::- Gnuplot add-in for MS-Excel\n", "Section::::Programming and application interfaces.\n", "gnuplot can be used from various programming languages to graph data, including Perl (via PDL and other CPAN packages), Python (via Gnuplot-py and SageMath), Julia (via Gaston.jl), Java (via JavaGnuplotHybrid and jgnuplot), Ruby (via Ruby Gnuplot), Ch (via Ch Gnuplot), Haskell (via Haskell gnuplot), Fortran 95, and Smalltalk (Squeak and GNU Smalltalk).\n", "gnuplot also supports piping, which is typical of scripts. For script-driven graphics, gnuplot is by far the most popular program.\n", "Section::::See also.\n", "BULLET::::- List of graphing software\n", "Section::::Further reading and external links.\n", "BULLET::::- gnuplotting: a blog of gnuplot examples and tips\n", "BULLET::::- spplotters: a blog of gnuplot examples and tips\n", "BULLET::::- gnuplot surprising: a blog of gnuplot examples and tips\n", "BULLET::::- Visualize your data with gnuplot: an IBM tutorial\n" ] }

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{ "paragraph": [ "Jumping\n", "Jumping or leaping is a form of locomotion or movement in which an organism or non-living (e.g., robotic) mechanical system propels itself through the air along a ballistic trajectory. Jumping can be distinguished from running, galloping and other gaits where the entire body is temporarily airborne, by the relatively long duration of the aerial phase and high angle of initial launch.\n", "Some animals, such as the kangaroo, employ jumping (commonly called \"hopping\" in this instance) as their primary form of locomotion, while others, such as frogs, use it only as a means to escape predators. Jumping is also a key feature of various activities and sports, including the long jump, high jump and show jumping.\n", "Section::::Physics.\n", "All jumping involves the application of force against a substrate, which in turn generates a reactive force that propels the jumper away from the substrate. Any solid or liquid capable of producing an opposing force can serve as a substrate, including ground or water. Examples of the latter include dolphins performing traveling jumps, and Indian skitter frogs executing standing jumps from water.\n", "Jumping organisms are rarely subject to significant aerodynamic forces and, as a result, their jumps are governed by the basic physical laws of ballistic trajectories. Consequently, while a bird may jump into the air to initiate flight, no movement it performs once airborne is considered jumping, as the initial jump conditions no longer dictate its flight path. \n", "Following the moment of launch (i.e., initial loss of contact with the substrate), a jumper will traverse a parabolic path. The launch angle and initial launch velocity determine the travel distance, duration, and height of the jump. The maximum possible horizontal travel distance occurs at a launch angle of 45 degrees, but any launch angle between 35 and 55 degrees will result in ninety percent of the maximum possible distance.\n", "Muscles (or other actuators in non-living systems) do physical work, adding kinetic energy to the jumper's body over the course of a jump's propulsive phase. This results in a kinetic energy at launch that is proportional to the square of the jumper's speed. The more work the muscles do, the greater the launch velocity and thus the greater the acceleration and the shorter the time interval of the jump's propulsive phase.\n", "Mechanical power (work per unit time) and the distance over which that power is applied (e.g., leg length) are the key determinants of jump distance and height. As a result, many jumping animals have long legs and muscles that are optimized for maximal power according to the force-velocity relationship of muscles. The maximum power output of muscles is limited, however. To circumvent this limitation, many jumping species slowly pre-stretch elastic elements, such as tendons or apodemes, to store work as strain energy. Such elastic elements can release energy at a much higher rate (higher power) than equivalent muscle mass, thus increasing launch energy to levels beyond what muscle alone is capable of.\n", "A jumper may be either stationary or moving when initiating a jump. In a jump from stationary (i.e., a \"standing jump\"), all of the work required to accelerate the body through launch is done in a single movement. In a \"moving jump\" or \"running jump\", the jumper introduces additional vertical velocity at launch while conserving as much horizontal momentum as possible. Unlike stationary jumps, in which the jumper's kinetic energy at launch is solely due to the jump movement, moving jumps have a higher energy that results from the inclusion of the horizontal velocity preceding the jump. Consequently, jumpers are able to jump greater distances when starting from a run.\n", "Section::::Anatomy.\n", "Animals use a wide variety of anatomical adaptations for jumping. These adaptations are exclusively concerned with the launch, as any post-launch method of extending range or controlling the jump must use aerodynamic forces, and thus is considered gliding or parachuting.\n", "Aquatic species rarely display any particular specializations for jumping. Those that are good jumpers usually are primarily adapted for speed, and execute moving jumps by simply swimming to the surface at a high velocity. A few primarily aquatic species that can jump while on land, such as mud skippers, do so via a flick of the tail.\n", "Section::::Anatomy.:Limb morphology.\n", "In terrestrial animals, the primary propulsive structure is the legs, though a few species use their tails. Typical characteristics of jumping species include long legs, large leg muscles, and additional limb elements.\n", "Long legs increase the time and distance over which a jumping animal can push against the substrate, thus allowing more power and faster, farther jumps. Large leg muscles can generate greater force, resulting in improved jumping performance. In addition to elongated leg elements, many jumping animals have modified foot and ankle bones that are elongated and possess additional joints, effectively adding more segments to the limb and even more length.\n", "Frogs are an excellent example of all three trends: frog legs can be nearly twice the body length, leg muscles may account for up to twenty percent of body weight, and they have not only lengthened the foot, shin and thigh, but extended the ankle bones into another limb joint and similarly extended the hip bones and gained mobility at the sacrum for a second 'extra joint'. As a result, frogs are the undisputed champion jumpers of vertebrates, leaping over fifty body lengths, a distance of more than eight feet.\n", "Section::::Anatomy.:Power amplification through stored energy.\n", "Grasshoppers use elastic energy storage to increase jumping distance. Although power output is a principal determinant of jump distance (as noted above), physiological constraints limit muscle power to approximately 375 Watts per kilogram of muscle. To overcome this limitation, grasshoppers anchor their legs via an internal \"catch mechanism\" while their muscles stretch an elastic apodeme (similar to a vertebrate tendon). When the catch is released, the apodeme rapidly releases its energy. Because the apodeme releases energy more quickly than muscle, its power output exceeds that of the muscle that produced the energy.\n", "This is analogous to a human throwing an arrow by hand versus using a bow; the use of elastic storage (the bow) allows the muscles to operate closer to isometric on the force-velocity curve. This enables the muscles to do work over a longer time and thus produce more energy than they otherwise could, while the elastic element releases that work faster than the muscles can. The use of elastic energy storage has been found in jumping mammals as well as in frogs, with commensurate increases in power ranging from two to seven times that of equivalent muscle mass.\n", "Section::::Classification.\n", "One way to classify jumping is by the manner of foot transfer. In this classification system, five basic jump forms are distinguished:\n", "BULLET::::- Jump — jumping from and landing on two feet\n", "BULLET::::- Hop — jumping from one foot and landing on the same foot\n", "BULLET::::- Leap — jumping from one foot and landing on the other foot\n", "BULLET::::- Assemble — jumping from one foot and landing on two feet\n", "BULLET::::- Sissonne — jumping from two feet and landing on one foot\n", "Leaping gaits, which are distinct from running gaits (see Locomotion), include cantering, galloping, and pronging.\n", "Section::::Height-enhancing devices and techniques.\n", "The height of a jump may be increased by using a trampoline or by converting horizontal velocity into vertical velocity with the aid of a device such as a half pipe.\n", "Various exercises can be used to increase an athlete's vertical jumping height. One category of such exercises—plyometrics—employs repetition of discrete jumping-related movements to increase speed, agility, and power.\n", "It has been shown in research that children who are more physically active display more proficient jumping (along with other basic motor skill) patterns.\n", "It is also noted that jumping development in children has a direct relationship with age. As children grow older, it is seen that their jumping abilities in all forms also increase. Jumping development is more easily identifiable in children rather than adults due to the fact that there are less physical differences at a younger age. Adults of the same age may be vastly different in terms of physicality and athleticism making it difficult to see how age affects jumping ability.\n", "Section::::See also.\n", "BULLET::::- List of jumping activities\n", "BULLET::::- Teleportation in fiction\n" ] }

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{ "description": "form of locomotion or movement", "enwikiquote_title": "", "wikidata_id": "Q1151752", "wikidata_label": "jumping", "wikipedia_title": "Jumping", "aliases": { "alias": [ "jump", "leap", "leaping" ] } }

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{ "paragraph": [ "William Rufus Shafter\n", "William Rufus Shafter (October 16, 1835 – November 12, 1906) was a Union Army officer during the American Civil War who received America's highest military decoration, the Medal of Honor, for his actions at the Battle of Fair Oaks. Shafter also played a prominent part as a major general in the Spanish–American War. Fort Shafter, Hawaii, is named for him, as well as the city of Shafter, California and the ghost town of Shafter, Texas. He was nicknamed \"Pecos Bill\".\n", "Section::::Early life.\n", "Shafter was born in Galesburg, Michigan on October 16, 1835. He worked as a teacher and farmer in the years preceding the Civil War.\n", "Section::::Civil War and Indian campaigns.\n", "Shafter served as a 1st lieutenant the Union Army's 7th Michigan Volunteer Infantry Regiment at the battles of Ball's Bluff and Fair Oaks. He was wounded at the Battle of Fair Oaks and later received the Medal of Honor for heroism during the battle. He led a charge on the first day of the battle and was wounded towards the close of that day's fighting. In order to stay with his regiment he concealed his wounds, fighting on the second day of the battle. On August 22, 1862, he was mustered out of the volunteer service but returned to the field as major in the 19th Michigan Volunteer Infantry Regiment. He was captured at the Battle of Thompson's Station and spent three months in a Confederate prison. In April 1864 after his release he was appointed colonel of the 17th United States Colored Infantry and led the regiment at the Battle of Nashville.\n", "By the end of the war, he had been promoted to brevet brigadier general of volunteers. He stayed in the regular army when the war ended. During his subsequent service in the Indian Wars, he received his \"Pecos Bill\" nickname. He led the 24th Infantry, another United States Colored Troops regiment, in campaigns against the Cheyenne, Comanche, Kickapoo and Kiowa Indians in Texas. While commander of Fort Davis, he started a controversial court-martial of second lieutenant Henry Flipper, the first black cadet to graduate from West Point. In May 1897 he was appointed as a brigadier general.\n", "Section::::Spanish–American War.\n", "Just before the outbreak of the Spanish–American War, Shafter was commander of the Department of California. Shafter was an unlikely candidate for command of the expedition to Cuba. He was aged 63, weighed over 300 pounds and suffered from gout. Nevertheless, he received a promotion to Major General of Volunteers and command of the Fifth Army Corps being assembled in Tampa, Florida. One possible reason for his being given this command was his lack of political ambitions.\n", "Shafter appeared to maintain a very loose control over the expedition to Cuba from the beginning, commencing with a very disorganized landing at Daiquiri on the southern coast of Cuba. Confusion prevailed over landing priorities and the chain of command. When General Sumner refused to allow the Army's Gatling Gun Detachment - which had priority - to disembark from the transport \"Cherokee\" on the grounds that the lieutenant commanding the detachment did not have the rank to enforce his priority, Shafter had to personally intervene, returning to the ship in a steam launch to enforce his demand that the guns come off immediately.\n", "During the disembarkation, Shafter sent forward Fifth Corps' Cavalry Division under Joseph Wheeler to reconnoiter the road to Santiago de Cuba. In a complete (alleged, look for and read after action reports from Lt. Colonel Roosevelt and Colonel Wood.) disregard of orders, Wheeler brought on a fight which escalated into the Battle of Las Guasimas. Shafter apparently did not realize the battle was even underway nor did he say anything to Wheeler about it afterward.\n", "A plan was finally developed for the attack on Santiago. Shafter would send his 1st Division (at the time, brigade and division numbers were not unique outside their parent formation) to attack El Caney while his 2nd Division and the Cavalry Division would attack the heights south of El Caney known as San Juan Hill. Originally, Shafter planned to lead his forces from the front, but he suffered greatly from the tropical heat and was confined to his headquarters far to the rear and out of sight of the fighting. Unable to see the battle firsthand, he never developed a coherent chain of command. Shafter's offensive battle plans were both simplistic and extremely vague. He seemed to be unaware or unconcerned about the mass killing effect of modern military weapons technology possessed by the Spanish. Further, his intelligence-gathering efforts on Spanish troop dispositions and equipment was extremely meager, though he had a number of sources available to him, including reconnaissance reports by Cuban rebel forces as well as espionage obtained from indigenous Cubans.\n", "During the hurried attack on El Caney and San Juan Heights, American forces, who had packed the available roads and were unable maneuver, suffered heavy losses from Spanish troops equipped with modern repeating smokeless powder rifles and breech-loading artillery, while the short-ranged black-powder guns of U.S. artillery units were unable to respond effectively. Additional casualties were incurred in the actual assault, which was marked by a series of brave but disorganized and uncoordinated advances. After suffering some 1,400 casualties, and aided by a single Gatling Gun detachment for fire support, American troops successfully stormed and occupied both El Caney and San Juan Heights.\n", "The next task for Shafter was the investment and siege of the city of Santiago and its garrison. However, the extent of the American losses were becoming known at Shafter's headquarters back at Sevilla (his gout, poor physical condition, and huge bulk did not allow him to go to the front). The casualties were delivered not only by messenger report, but also by \"meat wagons\" delivering the wounded and dying to the hospital. Viewing the carnage, Shafter began to waver in his determination to defeat the Spanish at Santiago. He knew his troops' position was tenuous, but again had little intelligence on the hardships of the Spanish inside beleaguered Santiago. Shafter felt the Navy was doing little to relieve the pressure on his forces. Supplies could not be delivered to the front, leaving his men in want of necessities, particularly food rations. Shafter himself was ill, and very weak. With this view of events, Shafter sent a dramatic message to Washington. He suggested that the army should give up its attack and all its gains for the day, and withdraw to safer ground about five miles away. Fortunately, by the time this message reached Washington, Shafter changed his mind, and instead renewed siege operations after demanding the Spanish surrender the city and garrison of Santiago. With the victory of the U.S. Navy at the Battle of Santiago de Cuba, by Admirals William T. Sampson and Winfield Scott Schley, the fate of the Spanish position at Santiago was sealed. Shortly afterward, the Spanish commander surrendered the city.\n", "Section::::Postwar career and retirement.\n", "With disease rampant in the American army in Cuba, Shafter and many of his officers favored a quick withdrawal from Cuba. Shafter personally left Cuba in September 1898, and after a stay in quarantine at Camp Wikoff, Shafter returned to command the Department of California. There he oversaw the supplying of the expedition to the Philippines. In January 1900, Shafter offered the following opinion on the war in the Philippines: \"My plan would be to disarm the natives of the Philippine Islands, even if I have to kill half of them to do it. Then I would treat the rest of them with perfect justice.\"\n", "Shafter was a member of the Military Order of the Loyal Legion of the United States, the Military Order of Foreign Wars and the Sons of the American Revolution.\n", "Shafter retired in 1901 and retired to a farm, next to his daughter's land in Bakersfield, California. He died there in 1906 and is buried at San Francisco National Cemetery.\n", "Section::::In popular culture.\n", "Shafter was portrayed by Rodger Boyce in the 1997 film \"Rough Riders\".\n", "Section::::Medal of Honor citation.\n", "Rank and Organization:\n", "Citation:\n", "Section::::Military awards.\n", "BULLET::::- Medal of Honor\n", "BULLET::::- Civil War Campaign Medal\n", "BULLET::::- Indian Campaign Medal\n", "BULLET::::- Spanish Campaign Medal\n", "Section::::See also.\n", "BULLET::::- List of Medal of Honor recipients\n", "Section::::References.\n", "BULLET::::- Paul H. Carlson, \"William R. Shafter: Military Commander in the American West\", unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Texas Tech University, Lubbock, Texas, 1973\n", "BULLET::::- Paul Carlson, \"\"Pecos Bill\", a Military Biography of William R. Shafter\". College Station, Texas: Texas A&M University Press, 1989.\n", "Section::::External links.\n", "BULLET::::- view of Major General Shafter (needs Flash)\n" ] }

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{ "description": "United States Army Medal of Honor recipient", "enwikiquote_title": "", "wikidata_id": "Q582285", "wikidata_label": "William Rufus Shafter", "wikipedia_title": "William Rufus Shafter", "aliases": { "alias": [ "William R. Shafter", "William Shafter" ] } }

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{ "paragraph": [ "John Herschel\n", "Sir John Frederick William Herschel, 1st Baronet (; 7 March 1792 – 11 May 1871) was an English polymath, mathematician, astronomer, chemist, inventor, experimental photographer who invented the blueprint, and did botanical work.\n", "Herschel originated the use of the Julian day system in astronomy. He named seven moons of Saturn and four moons of Uranus. He made many contributions to the science of photography, and investigated colour blindness and the chemical power of ultraviolet rays; his \"Preliminary Discourse\" (1831), which advocated an inductive approach to scientific experiment and theory building, was an important contribution to the philosophy of science.\n", "Section::::Early life and work on astronomy.\n", "Herschel was born in Slough, Buckinghamshire, the son of Mary Baldwin and William Herschel. He was the nephew of astronomer Caroline Herschel. He studied shortly at Eton College and St John's College, Cambridge, graduating as Senior Wrangler in 1813. It was during his time as an undergraduate that he became friends with the mathematicians Charles Babbage and George Peacock. He left Cambridge in 1816 and started working with his father. He took up astronomy in 1816, building a reflecting telescope with a mirror in diameter, and with a focal length. Between 1821 and 1823 he re-examined, with James South, the double stars catalogued by his father. He was one of the founders of the Royal Astronomical Society in 1820. For his work with his father, he was presented with the Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society in 1826 (which he won again in 1836), and with the Lalande Medal of the French Academy of Sciences in 1825, while in 1821 the Royal Society bestowed upon him the Copley Medal for his mathematical contributions to their Transactions. Herschel was made a Knight of the Royal Guelphic Order in 1831.\n", "Herschel served as President of the Royal Astronomical Society three times: 1827–29, 1839–41 and 1847–49.\n", "Herschel's \"A preliminary discourse on the study of natural philosophy\", published early in 1831 as part of \"Dionysius Lardner's Cabinet cyclopædia\", set out methods of scientific investigation with an orderly relationship between observation and theorising. He described nature as being governed by laws which were difficult to discern or to state mathematically, and the highest aim of natural philosophy was understanding these laws through inductive reasoning, finding a single unifying explanation for a phenomenon. This became an authoritative statement with wide influence on science, particularly at the University of Cambridge where it inspired the student Charles Darwin with \"a burning zeal\" to contribute to this work.\n", "Herschel published a catalogue of his astronomical observations in 1864, as the \"General Catalogue of Nebulae and Clusters\", a compilation of his own work and that of his father's, expanding on the senior Herschel's \"Catalogue of Nebulae\". A further complementary volume was published posthumously, as the \"General Catalogue of 10,300 Multiple and Double Stars\".\n", "Herschel correctly considered astigmatism to be due to irregularity of the cornea and theorised that vision could be improved by the application of some animal jelly contained in a capsule of glass against the cornea. His views were published in an article entitled Light in 1828 and the \"Encyclopædia Metropolitana\" in 1845.\n", "Discoveries of Herschel include the galaxies NGC 7, NGC 10, NGC 25, and NGC 28\n", "Section::::Visit to Southern Africa.\n", "Declining an offer from the Duke of Sussex that they travel to South Africa on a Navy ship, Herschel and his wife paid £500 for passage on the S.S. \"Mountstuart Elphinstone\", which departed from Portsmouth on 13 November 1833.\n", "The voyage to South Africa was made in order to catalogue the stars, nebulae, and other objects of the southern skies. This was to be a completion as well as extension of the survey of the northern heavens undertaken initially by his father William Herschel. He arrived in Cape Town on 15 January 1834 and set up a private telescope at Feldhausen at Claremont, a suburb of Cape Town. Amongst his other observations during this time was that of the return of Comet Halley. Herschel collaborated with Thomas Maclear, the Astronomer Royal at the Cape of Good Hope and the members of the two families became close friends. During this time, he also witnessed the Great Eruption of Eta Carinae (December, 1837).\n", "In addition to his astronomical work, however, this voyage to a far corner of the British empire also gave Herschel an escape from the pressures under which he found himself in London, where he was one of the most sought-after of all British men of science. While in southern Africa, he engaged in a broad variety of scientific pursuits free from a sense of strong obligations to a larger scientific community. It was, he later recalled, probably the happiest time in his life.\n", "In an extraordinary departure from astronomy, Herschel combined his talents with those of his wife, Margaret, and between 1834 and 1838 they produced 131 botanical illustrations of fine quality, showing the Cape flora. Herschel used a camera lucida to obtain accurate outlines of the specimens and left the details to his wife. Even though their portfolio had been intended as a personal record, and despite the lack of floral dissections in the paintings, their accurate rendition makes them more valuable than many contemporary collections. Some 112 of the 132 known flower studies were collected and published as \"Flora Herscheliana\" in 1996.\n", "As their home during their stay in the Cape, the Herschels had selected 'Feldhausen' (\"Field Houses\"), an old estate on the south-eastern side of Table Mountain. Here John set up his reflector to begin his survey of the southern skies.\n", "Herschel, at the same time, read widely. Intrigued by the ideas of gradual formation of landscapes set out in Charles Lyell's \"Principles of Geology\", he wrote to Lyell on 20 February 1836 praising the book as a work that would bring \"a complete revolution in [its] subject, by altering entirely the point of view in which it must thenceforward be contemplated\" and opening a way for bold speculation on \"that mystery of mysteries, the replacement of extinct species by others.\" Herschel himself thought catastrophic extinction and renewal \"an inadequate conception of the Creator\" and by analogy with other intermediate causes, \"the origination of fresh species, could it ever come under our cognizance, would be found to be a natural in contradistinction to a miraculous process\". He prefaced his words with the couplet:\n", "Taking a gradualist view of development and referring to evolutionary descent from a proto-language, Herschel commented: \n", "The document was circulated, and Charles Babbage incorporated extracts in his ninth and unofficial \"Bridgewater Treatise\", which postulated laws set up by a divine programmer. When HMS \"Beagle\" called at Cape Town, Captain Robert FitzRoy and the young naturalist Charles Darwin visited Herschel on 3 June 1836. Later on, Darwin would be influenced by Herschel's writings in developing his theory advanced in \"The Origin of Species\". In the opening lines of that work, Darwin writes that his intent is \"to throw some light on the origin of species – that mystery of mysteries, as it has been called by one of our greatest philosophers,\" referring to Herschel. However, Herschel ultimately rejected the theory of natural selection.\n", "Herschel returned to England in 1838, was created a baronet, of Slough in the County of Buckingham, and published \"Results of Astronomical Observations made at the Cape of Good Hope\" in 1847. In this publication he proposed the names still used today for the seven then-known satellites of Saturn: Mimas, Enceladus, Tethys, Dione, Rhea, Titan, and Iapetus. In the same year, Herschel received his second Copley Medal from the Royal Society for this work. A few years later, in 1852, he proposed the names still used today for the four then-known satellites of Uranus: Ariel, Umbriel, Titania, and Oberon.\n", "Section::::Photography.\n", "Herschel made numerous important contributions to photography. He made improvements in photographic processes, particularly in inventing the cyanotype process, which became known as blueprints. and variations, such as the chrysotype. In 1839, he made a photograph on glass, which still exists, and experimented with some color reproduction, noting that rays of different parts of the spectrum tended to impart their own color to a photographic paper. Herschel made experiments using photosensitive emulsions of vegetable juices, called phytotypes, also known as anthotypes, and published his discoveries in the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London in 1842. He collaborated in the early 1840s with Henry Collen, portrait painter to Queen Victoria. Herschel originally discovered the platinum process on the basis of the light sensitivity of platinum salts, later developed by William Willis.\n", "Herschel coined the term \"photography\" in 1839. Herschel was also the first to apply the terms \"negative\" and \"positive\" to photography.\n", "Herschel discovered sodium thiosulfate to be a solvent of silver halides in 1819, and informed Talbot and Daguerre of his discovery that this \"hyposulphite of soda\" (\"hypo\") could be used as a photographic fixer, to \"fix\" pictures and make them permanent, after experimentally applying it thus in early 1839.\n", "Herschel's ground-breaking research on the subject was read at the Royal Society in London in March 1839 and January 1840.\n", "Section::::Other aspects of Herschel's career.\n", "Herschel wrote many papers and articles, including entries on meteorology, physical geography and the telescope for the eighth edition of the \"Encyclopædia Britannica\". He also translated the \"Iliad\" of Homer.\n", "In 1823, Herschel published his findings on the optical spectra of metal salts.\n", "Herschel invented the actinometer in 1825 to measure the direct heating power of the sun's rays, and his work with the instrument is of great importance in the early history of photochemistry.\n", "Herschel proposed a correction to the Gregorian calendar, making years that are multiples of 4000 not leap years, thus reducing the average length of the calendar year from 365.2425 days to 365.24225. Although this is closer to the mean tropical year of 365.24219 days, his proposal has never been adopted because the Gregorian calendar is based on the mean time between vernal equinoxes (currently days).\n", "Herschel was elected a Foreign Honorary Member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1832, and in 1836, a foreign member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences.\n", "In 1835, the \"New York Sun\" newspaper wrote a series of satiric articles that came to be known as the Great Moon Hoax, with statements falsely attributed to Herschel about his supposed discoveries of animals living on the Moon, including batlike winged humanoids.\n", "The village of Herschel in western Saskatchewan Canada (site of the discovery of \"Dolichorhynchops herschelensis, a type of short-necked plesiosaur\",) Mount Herschel Antarctica, the crater J. Herschel on the Moon, and the Herschel Girls' School in Cape Town South Africa, are all named after him.\n", "While it is commonly accepted that Herschel Island, in the Arctic Ocean, part of the Yukon Territory, was named after him, the entries in the expedition journal of Sir John Franklin state that the latter wished to honour the Herschel family, of which John Herschel's father, Sir William Herschel, and his aunt, Caroline Herschel, are as notable as John.\n", "Section::::Family.\n", "Herschel married his cousin Margaret Brodie Stewart (1810–1884) on 3 March 1829 at Edinburgh and was father of the following children:\n", "BULLET::::1. Caroline Emilia Elizabeth Herschel (31 March 1830 – 29 Jan 1909), who married Alexander Hamilton-Gordon\n", "BULLET::::2. Isabella Herschel (5 June 1831 – 1893)\n", "BULLET::::3. Sir William James Herschel, 2nd Bt. (9 January 1833 – 1917),\n", "BULLET::::4. Margaret Louisa Herschel (1834–1861), an accomplished artist\n", "BULLET::::5. Prof. Alexander Stewart Herschel (1836–1907), FRS, FRAS\n", "BULLET::::6. Col. John Herschel FRS, FRAS, (1837–1921) surveyor\n", "BULLET::::7. Marie Sophie Herschel (1839–1929)\n", "BULLET::::8. Amelia Herschel (1841–1926) married Sir Thomas Francis Wade, diplomat and sinologist\n", "BULLET::::9. Julia Edith Herschel (1842–1933) married on 4 June 1878 to Captain (later Admiral) John Fiot Lee Pearse Maclear\n", "BULLET::::10. Matilda Rose Herschel (1844–1914), a gifted artist, married William Waterfield (Indian Civil Service)\n", "BULLET::::11. Francisca Herschel (1846–1932)\n", "BULLET::::12. Constance Ann Herschel (1855–20 June 1939)\n", "Section::::Death.\n", "Herschel died on 11 May 1871 at age 79 at Collingwood, his home near Hawkhurst in Kent. On his death, he was given a national funeral and buried in Westminster Abbey. His obituary by Henry W Field of London was read to the American Philosophical Society on 1 December 1871.\n", "Section::::Bibliography.\n", "BULLET::::- \"On the Aberration of Compound Lenses and Object-Glasses\" (1821)\n", "BULLET::::- Book-length articles on \"Light\", \"Sound\" and \"Physical Astronomy\" for the \"Encyclopaedia Metropolitana\" (30 vols. 1817–45)\n", "BULLET::::- \"General Catalogue of 10,300 Multiple and Double Stars\" (published posthumously)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Familiar Lectures on Scientific Subjects\"\n", "BULLET::::- \"General Catalogue of Nebulae and Clusters\"\n", "BULLET::::- \"Manual of Scientific Inquiry\" (ed.), (1849)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Meteorology\" (1861)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Familiar Lectures on Scientific Subjects\" (1867)\n", "Section::::Further reading.\n", "BULLET::::- On Herschel's relationship with Charles Babbage, William Whewell, and Richard Jones, see\n", "Section::::External links.\n", "BULLET::::- Biographical information\n", "BULLET::::- R. Derek Wood (2008), 'Fourteenth March 1839, Herschel's Key to Photography'\n", "BULLET::::- Herschel Museum of Astronomy\n", "BULLET::::- Science in the Making Herschel's papers in the Royal Society's archives\n", "BULLET::::- Chronology of Astronomy in South Africa\n", "BULLET::::- , published in Astronomische Nachrichten\n" ] }

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{ "description": "English mathematician, astronomer, chemist and photographer", "enwikiquote_title": "John Herschel", "wikidata_id": "Q14278", "wikidata_label": "John Frederick William Herschel", "wikipedia_title": "John Herschel", "aliases": { "alias": [ "John Herschel", "Sir John Frederick William Herschel", "Zhon Gershelʹ", "John Frederick Herschel", "Sir John Herschel", "John F. W. Herschel", "J. F. W. Herschel", "Dzhon Frederik Uilʹi︠a︡m Gershelʹ" ] } }

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{ "paragraph": [ "Hari\n", "Hari or Har(i) (Sanskrit: हरि, Punjabi: ਹਰਿ, IAST: \"Harī\" or \"Har\") is a name for the supreme absolute in the Vedas, Guru Granth Sahib and many other sacred texts of South Asia. Hari refers to Vishnu who takes away all the sorrows of his devotees. In Rigveda’s Purusha Suktam (Praise of the supreme cosmic being), Hari is the first and most important name of god (Brahman), alternative name of supreme being is Narayana after Hari and Purusha according to Narayana Suktam of yajurveda. In the Hindu tradition, it is often used interchangeably with Vishnu to such an extent that they are considered to be one and the same. In Vedas, it is required to use the mantra \"Harih om\" before any recitation, just to declare that every ritual we perform is an offer to that supreme divine even if the hymn praises any demigod. In Hinduism, kirtan or praise songs of any god has a common name known as Hari kirtan and katha or storytelling is known as Hari katha.\n", "No depiction of Hari (God) is permitted in Sikhism. Hari in Purusha Suktam, Narayana Suktam and Rudra Suktam is usually depicted as having a form with countless heads, limbs and arms (a way of saying that Supreme divine is pervaded everywhere and cannot be limited). Lord Hari is also called sharangapani as he also wields a bow named as sharanga.\n", "The word \"Hari\" is widely used in Sanskrit and Prakrit literature as well as in Hindu, Sikhism, Buddhist and Jain religions. The name \"Hari\" also appears as the 656th name of Vishnu in the Vishnu sahasranama of the Mahabharata and is considered to be of great significance in Vaishnavism.\n", "Section::::Etymology.\n", "The Sanskrit word \"हरि\" (Hari) is derived from the Proto-Indo-European root \"*\"ǵʰel-\" to shine; to flourish; green; yellow\" which also gave rise to the Persian terms \"zar\" 'gold', Greek \"khloros\" 'green', Slavic \"zelen\" 'green' and \"zolto\" 'gold', as well as the English words \"yellow\" and \"gold\".\n", "The same root occurs in other Sanskrit words like \"haridrā\", 'turmeric', named for its yellow color.\n", "Section::::Etymology.:Other names of Hari.\n", "There are multiple names of Lord Hari mentioned in the holy scriptures of Hinduism such as the Bhagwad Gita and Mahabharata. A few names which are used quite frequently,\n", "BULLET::::- Vishnu\n", "BULLET::::- Narayana\n", "BULLET::::- Rama\n", "BULLET::::- Krishna\n", "BULLET::::- List of names of Vishnu\n", "BULLET::::- Madhav\n", "BULLET::::- Damodar\n", "BULLET::::- Govind\n", "BULLET::::- Gopal\n", "Section::::In Indian religion.\n", "BULLET::::- The Harivamsha (\"lineage of Hari\") is a text in both the Puranic and Itihasa traditions.\n", "BULLET::::- As the name of tawny-colored animals, \"hari\" may refer to lions (also a name of the zodiacal sign Leo), bay horses, or monkeys. The feminine \"Harī \" is the name of the mythological \"mother of monkeys\" in the Sanskrit epics.\n", "BULLET::::- Harihara is the name of a fused deity form of both Vishnu (Hari) and Shiva (Hara) in Hinduism.\n", "BULLET::::- Hari is the name of a class of gods under the fourth Manu (\"manu tāmasa\", \"Dark Manu\") in the Puranas.\n", "BULLET::::- In Hinduism, beginning with Adi Sankara's commentary on the Vishnu sahasranama, \"hari\" became etymologized as derived from the verbal root \"hṛ\" \"to grab, seize, steal\", in the context of Vaishnavism interpreted as \"to take away or remove evil or sin\", and the name of Vishnu rendered as \"he who destroys samsara\", which is the entanglement in the cycle of birth and death, along with ignorance, its cause; compare \"hara\" as a name of Shiva, translated as \"seizer\" or \"destroyer\".\n", "BULLET::::- In the Gaudiya Vaishnava tradition, Hari is a name of both Krishna or Vishnu, invoked in the Hare Krishna mantra (Hare is a vocative form of Harih, used in mahamantra).\n", "BULLET::::- The element \"hari\" is found in a number of Hindu given names, e.g. Bhartrhari, Harendra (i.e. \"hari-Indra\"), Harisha (i.e. \"hari-Isha\"), Hariprasad, Harikesh (Harikesha, \"golden-haired\", also a name of Shiva and of Savitar), etc.\n", "Section::::See also.\n", "BULLET::::- Vishnu\n", "BULLET::::- Narayana\n", "BULLET::::- Hari Nama Keerthanam\n", "BULLET::::- Hari Tuma Haro\n", "BULLET::::- Harikatha\n", "BULLET::::- Harijan\n", "BULLET::::- Krishna\n" ] }

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{ "description": "(Hinduism) A name given commonly to Vishnu, but also to Indra and Yama; a male given name used in India.", "enwikiquote_title": "", "wikidata_id": "Q2528142", "wikidata_label": "Hari", "wikipedia_title": "Hari", "aliases": { "alias": [] } }

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{ "paragraph": [ "Six Degrees of Kevin Bacon\n", "Six Degrees of Kevin Bacon or \"Bacon's Law\" is a parlour game based on the \"six degrees of separation\" concept, which posits that any two people on Earth are six or fewer acquaintance links apart. Movie buffs challenge each other to find the shortest path between an arbitrary actor and prolific actor Kevin Bacon. It rests on the assumption that anyone involved in the Hollywood film industry can be linked through their film roles to Bacon within six steps. In 2007, Bacon started a charitable organization called SixDegrees.org.\n", "Section::::History.\n", "In a January 1994 interview with \"Premiere\" magazine Kevin Bacon mentioned while discussing the film \"The River Wild\" that \"he had worked with everybody in Hollywood or someone who's worked with them.\" Following this, a lengthy newsgroup thread which was headed \"Kevin Bacon is the Center of the Universe\" appeared. Four Albright College students, including Brian Turtle, claim to have invented the game that became known as \"Six Degrees of Kevin Bacon\" after watching two movies featuring Bacon back to back, \"Footloose\" and \"The Air Up There\". During the second they began to speculate on how many movies Bacon had been in and the number of people with whom he had worked. In the interview, Brian Turtle explained how \"it became one of our stupid party tricks I guess. People would throw names at us and we'd connect them to Kevin Bacon.\"\n", "They wrote a letter to talk show host Jon Stewart, telling him that \"Kevin Bacon was the center of the entertainment universe\" and explaining the game. They appeared on \"The Jon Stewart Show\" and \"The Howard Stern Show\" with Bacon to explain the game. Bacon admitted that he initially disliked the game because he believed it was ridiculing him, but he eventually came to enjoy it. The three inventors released a book, \"Six Degrees of Kevin Bacon\" (), with an introduction written by Bacon. A board game based on the concept was released by Endless Games.\n", "Bacon also appeared in a commercial for the Visa check card that parodied the game. In the commercial, Bacon wants to write a check to buy a book, but the clerk asks for his ID, which he does not have. He leaves and returns with a group of people, then says to the clerk, \"Okay, I was in a movie with an extra, Eunice, whose hairdresser, Wayne, attended Sunday school with Father O'Neill, who plays racquetball with Dr. Sanjay, who recently removed the appendix of Kim, who dumped you sophomore year. So you see, we're practically brothers.\" In a similar vein, Dave Barry, in a column describing the unexpected complications that emerged when he attempted to find out the precise wording of the Lone Ranger's catchphrase, connected the Lone Ranger to Kevin Bacon in the following way: the Lone Ranger was the Green Hornet's great-uncle; the Green Hornet and O. J. Simpson both hung out with people named Kato; Simpson and Robert Wagner co-starred in \"The Towering Inferno\"; Wagner and Bacon co-starred in \"Wild Things\".\n", "The concept was also presented in an episode of the TV show \"Mad About You\" dated November 19, 1996, in which a character expressed the opinion that every actor is only three degrees of separation from Kevin Bacon. Bacon spoofed the concept himself in a cameo he performed for the independent film \"We Married Margo\". Playing himself in a 2003 episode of \"Will and Grace\", Bacon connects himself to Val Kilmer through Tom Cruise and jokes \"Hey, that was a short one!\". The headline of \"The Onion\", a satirical newspaper, on October 30, 2002, was \"Kevin Bacon Linked To Al-Qaeda\". Bacon provides the voice-over commentary for the NY Skyride attraction at the Empire State Building in New York City. At several points throughout the commentary, Bacon alludes to his connections to Hollywood stars via other actors with whom he has worked.\n", "In 2009, Bacon narrated a National Geographic Channel show \"The Human Family Tree\" – a program which describes the efforts of that organization's Genographic Project to establish the genetic interconnectedness of all humans. In 2011, James Franco made reference to Six Degrees of Kevin Bacon while hosting the 83rd Academy Awards. In the summer of 2012, Google began to offer the ability to find an actor's Bacon number on its main page, by searching for the actor's name preceded by the phrase \"bacon number\".\n", "EE began a UK television advertising campaign on November 3, 2012, based on the Six Degrees concept, where Kevin Bacon illustrates his connections and draws attention to how the EE 4G network allows similar connectivity.\n", "The most highly connected nodes of the Internet have been referred to as \"the 'Kevin Bacons' of the Web,\" inasmuch as they enable most users to navigate to most sites in 19 clicks or less. In \"Weird Al\" Yankovic's song \"Lame Claim to Fame,\" one of the lines is, \"I know a guy who knows a guy who knows a guy who knows a guy who knows a guy who knows Kevin Bacon.\"\n", "Section::::Bacon numbers.\n", "The Bacon number of an actor is the number of degrees of separation he or she has from Bacon, as defined by the game. This is an application of the Erdős number concept to the Hollywood movie industry. The higher the Bacon number, the greater the separation from Kevin Bacon the actor is.\n", "The computation of a Bacon number for actor X is a \"shortest path\" algorithm, applied to the co-stardom network:\n", "BULLET::::- Kevin Bacon himself has a Bacon number of 0.\n", "BULLET::::- Those actors who have worked directly with Kevin Bacon have a Bacon number of 1.\n", "BULLET::::- If the lowest Bacon number of any actor with whom X has appeared in any movie is N, X's Bacon number is N+1.\n", "Section::::Bacon numbers.:Examples.\n", "Elvis Presley:\n", "BULLET::::- Elvis Presley was in \"Change of Habit\" (1969) with Edward Asner\n", "BULLET::::- Edward Asner was in \"JFK\" (1991) with Kevin Bacon\n", "Therefore, Asner has a Bacon number of 1, and Presley (who never appeared in a film with Bacon) has a Bacon number of 2.\n", "Ian McKellen:\n", "BULLET::::- Ian McKellen was in \"\" (2014) with Michael Fassbender and James McAvoy\n", "BULLET::::- McAvoy and Fassbender were in \"\" (2011) with Kevin Bacon\n", "Therefore, McAvoy and Fassbender have Bacon numbers of 1, and McKellen has a Bacon number of 2.\n", "Because some people have both a finite Bacon \"and\" a finite Erdős number because of acting and publications, there are a rare few who have a finite Erdős–Bacon number, which is defined as the sum of a person's independent Erdős and Bacon numbers.\n", "Section::::Center of the Hollywood Universe.\n", "While at the University of Virginia, Brett Tjaden created the Oracle of Bacon. A previous version of this computer program used information on some 800,000 people from the Internet Movie Database (IMDb), while the current implementation uses data drawn from Wikipedia. The algorithm calculates \"how good a center\" an individual IMDb personality is, i.e. a weighted average of the degree of separation of all the people that link to that particular person. The site returns an average \"personality\" number, e.g. for Clint Eastwood, it returns an average \"Clint Eastwood Number.\" From there the Oracle site posits \"The Center of the Hollywood Universe\" as being the person with the lowest average personality number. Kevin Bacon, as it turns out, is not the \"Center of the Hollywood Universe\" (i.e. the most linkable actor). In fact, Bacon does not even make the top 100 list of average personality numbers. While he is not the most linkable actor, this still signifies being a better center than more than 99% of the people who have ever appeared in a film. Since each actor's average personality number can change with each new film made, the center can and does shift. \"Centers\" have included Rod Steiger, Donald Sutherland, Eric Roberts, Dennis Hopper, Christopher Lee and Harvey Keitel.\n", "Section::::Photography book.\n", "Inspired by the game, the British photographer Andy Gotts tried to reach Kevin Bacon through photographic links instead of film links.\n", "Gotts wrote to 300 actors asking to take their pictures, and received permission only from Joss Ackland. Ackland then suggested that Gotts photograph Greta Scacchi, with whom he had appeared in the film \"White Mischief\". Gotts proceeded from there, asking each actor to refer him to one or more friends or colleagues. Eventually, Christian Slater referred him to Bacon. Gotts' photograph of Bacon completed the project, eight years after it began. Gotts published the photos in a book, \"Degrees\" (), with text by Alan Bates, Pierce Brosnan, and Bacon.\n", "Section::::See also.\n", "BULLET::::- Morphy Number, connections via chess games to Paul Morphy\n", "BULLET::::- Shusaku number, equivalent in the Go world with Honinbo Shusaku\n", "BULLET::::- Erdős number, collaborations on mathematical papers with Paul Erdős\n", "BULLET::::- Erdős–Bacon number, the sum of a person's Erdős number and Bacon number\n", "Section::::External links.\n", "BULLET::::- The Oracle of Bacon computes the Bacon number of any actor or actress from Wikipedia data. A previous implementation used IMDB data.\n", "BULLET::::- Six Degrees of James A. Conrad A how-to demonstration for those wishing to compile their own \"degrees of\" list by a Hollywood author who is three degrees of Bacon.\n", "BULLET::::- Cinema FreeNet Movie Connector finds links between stars, but can also use directors and producers.\n", "BULLET::::- Filmlovr.com browse the extensive film library to find films to connect via their actors aka determine the Bacon number.\n", "BULLET::::- Six Degrees of Lois Weisberg suggests that Bacon connects to many actors because he acts in many different kinds of roles and films.\n" ] }

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{ "paragraph": [ "Arsinoe\n", "Arsinoe (), sometimes spelled Arsinoë, pronounced Arsinoi in modern Greek, may refer to:\n", "Section::::People.\n", "BULLET::::- Arsinoe of Macedon, mother of Ptolemy I Soter\n", "BULLET::::- Apama II or Arsinoe (c. 292 BC–after 249 BC), wife of Magas of Cyrene and mother of Berenice II\n", "BULLET::::- Arsinoe, probable mother of Lysimachus or his first wife Nicaea of Macedon\n", "BULLET::::- Arsinoe I (305 BC–247 BC) of Egypt\n", "BULLET::::- Arsinoe II (316 BC–270 BC) of Egypt\n", "BULLET::::- Arsinoe III of Egypt (c. 246 BC–204 BC)\n", "BULLET::::- Arsinoe IV of Egypt (died 41 BC), half-sister of Cleopatra VII\n", "BULLET::::- Arsinoe (mythology), name of multiple mythological figures\n", "Section::::Places.\n", "BULLET::::- Arsinoe (Cilicia)\n", "BULLET::::- Arsinoe (Crete)\n", "BULLET::::- Arsinoe (Northwest Cyprus)\n", "BULLET::::- Arsinoe (Southwest Cyprus)\n", "BULLET::::- Arsinoe (Gulf of Suez), a port of Egypt\n", "BULLET::::- Arsinoe (Eritrea)\n", "BULLET::::- Conope (Greece) or Arsinoe\n", "BULLET::::- Ephesus, also called Arsinoe\n", "BULLET::::- Faiyum (Egypt), also called Arsinoe or Crocodilopolis, seat of the Roman Catholic titular bishopric Arsinoë in Arcadia\n", "BULLET::::- Famagusta (Cyprus) or Arsinoe\n", "BULLET::::- Coressia (Greece), called Arsinoe in the Hellenistic period\n", "BULLET::::- Methana (Greece), called Arsinoe in the Ptolemaic period\n", "BULLET::::- Olbia (Egypt) or Arsinoe\n", "BULLET::::- Patara (Lycia) or Arsinoe\n", "BULLET::::- Taucheira (Libya) or Arsinoe\n", "BULLET::::- Arsinoes Chaos, located in the Margaritifer Sinus quadrangle on Mars\n", "Section::::Literature.\n", "BULLET::::- Arsinoe, a character in \"Le Misanthrope\" by Molière\n", "BULLET::::- Arsinoe, a character in \"The Etruscan\" by Mika Waltari\n", "BULLET::::- Arsinoe, a character in \"Three Dark Crowns\" by Kendare Blake\n", "Section::::Other uses.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Arsinoe\" (genus), a genus of beetle in the family Carabidae\n", "BULLET::::- 404 Arsinoë, an asteroid\n", "Section::::See also.\n", "BULLET::::- Arsinoi, a community in Messenia\n" ] }

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{ "description": "Wikimedia disambiguation page", "enwikiquote_title": "", "wikidata_id": "Q232484", "wikidata_label": "Arsinoe", "wikipedia_title": "Arsinoe", "aliases": { "alias": [] } }

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{ "paragraph": [ "Ghost town\n", "A ghost town is an abandoned village, town, or city, usually one that contains substantial visible remains. A town often becomes a ghost town because the economic activity that supported it has failed, or due to natural or human-caused disasters such as floods, prolonged droughts, government actions, uncontrolled lawlessness, war, pollution, or nuclear disasters. The term can sometimes refer to cities, towns, and neighbourhoods that are still populated, but significantly less so than in past years; for example, those affected by high levels of unemployment and dereliction.\n", "Some ghost towns, especially those that preserve period-specific architecture, have become tourist attractions. Some examples are Bannack, Garnet, Calico, Centralia, Oatman, and South Pass City in the United States, Barkerville in Canada, Craco in Italy, Elizabeth Bay and Kolmanskop in Namibia, Pripyat in Ukraine, and Danushkodi in India.\n", "The town of Plymouth on the Caribbean island of Montserrat is a ghost town that is the \"de jure\" capital of Montserrat. It was rendered uninhabitable by volcanic ash from an eruption.\n", "Section::::Definition.\n", "The definition of a ghost town varies between individuals, and between cultures. Some writers discount settlements that were abandoned as a result of a natural or human-made disaster or other causes using the term only to describe settlements that were deserted because they were no longer economically viable; T. Lindsey Baker, author of \"Ghost Towns of Texas\", defines a ghost town as \"a town for which the reason for being no longer exists\". Some believe that any settlement with visible tangible remains should not be called a ghost town; others say, conversely, that a ghost town should contain the tangible remains of buildings. Whether or not the settlement must be completely deserted, or may contain a small population, is also a matter for debate. Generally, though, the term is used in a looser sense, encompassing any and all of these definitions. The American author Lambert Florin's preferred definition of a ghost town was simply \"a shadowy semblance of a former self\".\n", "Section::::Reasons for abandonment.\n", "Factors leading to abandonment of towns include depleted natural resources, economic activity shifting elsewhere, railroads and roads bypassing or no longer accessing the town, human intervention, disasters, massacres, wars, and the shifting of politics or fall of empires. A town can also be abandoned when it is part of an exclusion zone due to natural or man-made causes.\n", "Section::::Reasons for abandonment.:Economic activity shifting elsewhere.\n", "Ghost towns may result when the single activity or resource that created a boomtown (e.g., nearby mine, mill or resort) is depleted or the resource economy undergoes a \"bust\" (e.g., catastrophic resource price collapse). Boomtowns can often decrease in size as fast as they initially grew. Sometimes, all or nearly the entire population can desert the town, resulting in a ghost town.\n", "The dismantling of a boomtown can often occur on a planned basis. Mining companies nowadays will create a temporary community to service a mine site, building all the accommodation, shops and services required, and then remove them once the resource has been extracted. Modular buildings can be used to facilitate the process. A gold rush would often bring intensive but short-lived economic activity to a remote village, only to leave a ghost town once the resource was depleted.\n", "In some cases, multiple factors may remove the economic basis for a community; some former mining towns on U.S. Route 66 suffered both mine closures when the resources were depleted and loss of highway traffic as US 66 was diverted away from places like Oatman, Arizona onto a more direct path. Mine and pulp mill closures have led to many ghost towns in British Columbia, Canada including several relatively recent ones: Ocean Falls which closed in 1973 after the pulp mill was decommissioned, Kitsault B.C. whose molybdenum mine shut down after only 18 months in 1982, and Cassiar whose asbestos mine operated from 1952 to 1992.\n", "In other cases, the reason for abandonment can arise from a town's intended economic function shifting to another, nearby place. This happened to Collingwood, Queensland in Outback Australia when nearby Winton outperformed Collingwood as a regional centre for the livestock-raising industry. The railway reached Winton in 1899, linking it with the rest of Queensland, and Collingwood was a ghost town by the following year.\n", "The Middle East has many ghost towns that were created when the shifting of politics or the fall of empires caused capital cities to be socially or economically unviable, such as Ctesiphon.\n", "The rise of condominium investment and a resulting real estate bubble may also lead to a ghost town, as real estate prices rise and affordable housing becomes less available. Such examples include China and Canada, where housing is often used as an investment rather than for habitation.\n", "Section::::Reasons for abandonment.:Human intervention.\n", "Railroads and roads bypassing or no longer reaching a town can also create a ghost town. This was the case in many of the ghost towns along Ontario's historic Opeongo Line, and along U.S. Route 66 after motorists bypassed the latter on the faster moving highways I-44 and I-40. Some ghost towns were founded along railways where steam trains would stop at periodic intervals to take on water. Amboy, California was part of one such series of villages along the Atlantic and Pacific Railroad across the Mojave Desert.\n", "River re-routing is another factor, one example being the towns along the Aral Sea.\n", "Ghost towns may be created when land is expropriated by a government, and residents are required to relocate. One example is the village of Tyneham in Dorset, England, acquired during World War II to build an artillery range.\n", "A similar situation occurred in the U.S. when NASA acquired land to construct the John C. Stennis Space Center (SSC), a rocket testing facility in Hancock County, Mississippi (on the Mississippi side of the Pearl River, which is the Mississippi–Louisiana state line). This required NASA to acquire a large (approximately ) buffer zone because of the loud noise and potential dangers associated with testing such rockets. Five thinly populated rural Mississippi communities (Gainesville, Logtown, Napoleon, Santa Rosa, and Westonia), plus the northern portion of a sixth (Pearlington), along with 700 families in residence, had to be completely relocated away from the facility.\n", "Sometimes the town might cease to officially exist, but the physical infrastructure remains. For example, the five Mississippi communities that had to be abandoned to build SSC still have remnants of those communities within the facility itself. These include city streets, now overgrown with forest flora and fauna, and a one-room schoolhouse. Another example of infrastructure remaining is the former town of Weston, Illinois, that voted itself out of existence and turned the land over for construction of the Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory. Many houses and even a few barns remain, used for housing visiting scientists and storing maintenance equipment, while roads that used to cross through the site have been blocked off at the edges of the property, with gatehouses or barricades to prevent unsupervised access.\n", "Section::::Reasons for abandonment.:Human intervention.:Flooding by dams.\n", "Construction of dams has produced ghost towns that have been left underwater. Examples include the settlement of Loyston, Tennessee, U.S., inundated by the creation of Norris Dam. The town was reorganised and reconstructed on nearby higher ground. Other examples are The Lost Villages of Ontario flooded by Saint Lawrence Seaway construction in 1958, the hamlets of Nether Hambleton and Middle Hambleton in Rutland, England, which were flooded to create Rutland Water, and the villages of Ashopton and Derwent, England, flooded during the construction of the Ladybower Reservoir. Mologa in Russia was flooded by the creation of Rybinsk reservoir, and in France the Tignes Dam flooded the village of Tignes, displacing 78 families. Many ancient villages had to be abandoned during construction of the Three Gorges Dam in China, leading to the displacement of many rural people. In the Costa Rican province of Guanacaste, the town of Arenal was rebuilt to make room for the man-made Lake Arenal. The old town now lies submerged below the lake. Old Adaminaby was flooded by a dam of the Snowy River Scheme. Construction of the Aswan High Dam on the Nile River in Egypt submerged archaeological sites and ancient settlements such as Buhen under Lake Nasser. Another example of towns left underwater is Tehri; by the construction of the Tehri Dam in the Indian state of Uttarakhand.\n", "Section::::Reasons for abandonment.:Human intervention.:Massacres.\n", "Some towns become deserted when their populations are massacred. The original French village at Oradour-sur-Glane was destroyed on 10 June 1944 when 642 of its 663 inhabitants, including women and children, were killed by a German Waffen-SS company. A new village was built after the war on a nearby site, and the ruins of the original have been maintained as a memorial.\n", "Section::::Reasons for abandonment.:Disasters, actual and anticipated.\n", "Natural and man-made disasters can create ghost towns. For example, after being flooded more than 30 times since their town was founded in 1845, residents of Pattonsburg, Missouri, decided to relocate after two floods in 1993. With government help, the whole town was rebuilt away.\n", "Craco, a medieval village in the Italian region of Basilicata, was evacuated after a landslide in 1963. Nowadays it is a famous filming location for many movies, including \"The Passion of The Christ\" by Mel Gibson, \"Christ Stopped at Eboli\" by Francesco Rosi, \"The Nativity Story\" by Catherine Hardwicke and \"Quantum of Solace\" by Marc Forster.\n", "In 1984, Centralia, Pennsylvania was abandoned due to an uncontainable mine fire, which began in 1962 and still rages to this day; eventually the fire reached an abandoned mine underneath the nearby town of Byrnesville, Pennsylvania, which caused that mine to catch on fire too and forced the evacuation of that town as well.\n", "Ghost towns may also occasionally come into being due to an \"anticipated\" natural disaster – for example, the Canadian town of Lemieux, Ontario was abandoned in 1991 after soil testing revealed that the community was built on an unstable bed of Leda clay. Two years after the last building in Lemieux was demolished, a landslide swept part of the former town-site into the South Nation River. Two decades earlier, the Canadian town of Saint-Jean-Vianney, Québec, also constructed on a Leda clay base, had been abandoned after a landslide on 4 May 1971, which swept away 41 homes, killing 31 people.\n", "Following the Chernobyl disaster of 1986, dangerously high levels of nuclear radiation escaped into the surrounding area, and nearly 200 towns and villages in Ukraine and neighbouring Belarus were evacuated, including the cities of Pripyat and Chernobyl. The area was so contaminated with nuclear radiation that many of the evacuees were never permitted to return to their homes. Pripyat is the most famous of these abandoned towns; it was built for the workers of the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant and had a population of almost 50,000 at the time of the disaster.\n", "Section::::Reasons for abandonment.:Disease and contamination.\n", "Significant fatality rates from epidemics have produced ghost towns. Some places in eastern Arkansas were abandoned after more than 7,000 Arkansans died during the Spanish flu epidemic of 1918 and 1919. Several communities in Ireland, particularly in the west of the country, were wiped out due to the Great Famine in the latter half of the 19th century, and the years of economic decline that followed.\n", "Catastrophic environmental damage caused by long-term contamination can also create a ghost town. Some notable examples are Times Beach, Missouri, whose residents were exposed to a high level of dioxins, and Wittenoom, Western Australia, which was once Australia's largest source of blue asbestos, but was shut down in 1966 due to health concerns. Treece and Picher, twin communities straddling the Kansas–Oklahoma border, were once one of the United States' largest sources of zinc and lead, but over a century of unregulated disposal of mine tailings led to groundwater contamination and lead poisoning in the town's children, eventually resulting in a mandatory Environmental Protection Agency buyout and evacuation. Contamination due to ammunition caused by military use may also lead to the development of ghost towns. Rerik West, an area of Rerik, Germany, had been home to a Group of Soviet Forces in Germany barracks during the German Democratic Republic, but following German reunification it was abandoned due to ammunition contamination from the barracks. Located on a peninsula separated from Rerik by a small isthmus, in 1992 it was turned into a restricted area while the rest of the town remained populated.\n", "Section::::Revived ghost towns.\n", "A few ghost towns get a second life, often due to heritage tourism generating a new economy able to support residents. For example, Walhalla, Victoria, Australia, became almost deserted after its gold mine ceased operation in 1914, but owing to its accessibility and proximity to other attractive locations, it has had a recent economic and holiday population surge.\n", "Alexandria, the second largest city of Egypt, was a flourishing city in the Ancient era, but declined during the Middle Ages. It underwent a dramatic revival during the 19th century; from a population of 5,000 in 1806, it grew into a city of more than 200,000 inhabitants by 1882, and is now home to more than four million people.\n", "In Algeria, many cities became hamlets after the end of Late Antiquity. They were revived with shifts in population during and after French colonization of Algeria. Oran, currently the nation's second largest city with 1 million people, was a village of only a few thousand people before colonization.\n", "Foncebadón, a village in León, Spain that was mostly abandoned and only inhabited by a mother and son, is slowly being revived owing to the ever-increasing stream of pilgrims on the road to Santiago de Compostela.\n", "Section::::Around the world.\n", "Section::::Around the world.:Africa.\n", "Wars and rebellions in some African countries have left many towns and villages deserted. Since 2003, when President François Bozizé came to power, thousands of citizens of the Central African Republic have been forced to flee their homes as a result of the escalating conflict between armed rebels and government troops. Villages accused of supporting the rebels, such as Beogombo Deux near Paoua, are ransacked by government soldiers. Those who are not killed have no choice but to escape to refugee camps. The instability in the region also leaves organized and well-equipped bandits free to terrorize the populace, often leaving villages abandoned in their wake. Elsewhere in Africa, the town of Lukangol was burnt to the ground during tribal clashes in South Sudan. Before its destruction, the town had a population of 20,000. The Libyan town of Tawergha had a population of around 25,000 before it was abandoned during the 2011 civil war, and it has remained empty since.\n", "Many of the ghost towns in mineral-rich Africa are former mining towns. Shortly after the start of the 1908 diamond rush in German South-West Africa, now known as Namibia, the German Imperial government claimed sole mining rights by creating the \"Sperrgebiet\" (\"forbidden zone\"), effectively criminalizing new settlement. The small mining towns of this area, among them Pomona, Elizabeth Bay and Kolmanskop, were exempt from this ban, but the denial of new land claims soon rendered all of them ghost towns.\n", "Section::::Around the world.:Asia.\n", "China has many large urban property developments, sometimes referred to as \"ghost cities\", that have remained mostly unoccupied since they were built.\n", "The town of Dhanushkodi, India is a ghost town.\n", "Many abandoned towns and settlements in the former Soviet Union were established near Gulag concentration camps to supply necessary services. Since most of these camps were abandoned in the 1950s, the towns were abandoned as well. One such town is located near the former Gulag camp called Butugychag (also called Lower Butugychag). Other towns were deserted due to deindustrialisation and the economic crises of the early 1990s attributed to post-Soviet conflicts – one example being Tkvarcheli in Georgia, a coal mining town that suffered a drastic population decline as a result of the War in Abkhazia in the early 1990s.\n", "Section::::Around the world.:Antarctica.\n", "The oldest ghost town in Antarctica is on Deception Island, where in 1906, a Norwegian-Chilean company set up a whaling station at Whalers Bay, which they used as a base for their factory ship, the \"Gobernador Bories\". Other whaling operations followed suit, and by 1914 there were thirteen factory ships based there. The station ceased to be profitable during the Great Depression, and was abandoned in 1931. In 1969, the station was partially destroyed by a volcanic eruption. There are also many abandoned scientific and military bases in Antarctica, especially in the Antarctic Peninsula.\n", "The Antarctic island of South Georgia used to have several thriving whaling settlements during the first half of the 20th century, with a combined population exceeding 2,000 in some years. These included Grytviken (operating 1904-64), Leith Harbour (1909–65), Ocean Harbour (1909–20), Husvik (1910–60), Stromness (1912–61) and Prince Olav Harbour (1917–34). The abandoned settlements have become increasingly dilapidated, and remain uninhabited nowadays except for the Museum curator's family at Grytviken. The jetty, the church, dwellings and industrial buildings at Grytviken have recently been renovated by the South Georgian Government, becoming a popular tourist destination. Some historical buildings in the other settlements are being restored as well.\n", "Section::::Around the world.:Europe.\n", "Urbanization – the migration of a country's rural population into the cities – has left many European towns and villages deserted. An increasing number of settlements in Bulgaria are becoming ghost towns for this reason; at the time of the 2011 census, the country had 181 uninhabited settlements. In Hungary, dozens of villages are also threatened with abandonment. The first village officially declared as \"dead\" was Gyűrűfű in the late 1970s, but later it was repopulated as an eco-village. Some other depopulated villages were successfully saved as small rural resorts, such as Kán, Tornakápolna, Szanticska, Gorica, and Révfalu.\n", "In Spain, large zones of the mountainous Iberian System and the Pyrenees have undergone heavy depopulation since the early 20th century, leaving a string of ghost towns in areas such as the Solana Valley. Traditional agricultural practices such as sheep and goat rearing, on which the mountain village economy was based, were not taken over by the local youth, especially after the lifestyle changes that swept over rural Spain during the second half of the 20th century.\n", "In the United Kingdom, thousands of villages were abandoned during the Middle Ages, as a result of Black Death, climate change, revolts, and enclosure, the process by which vast amounts of farmland became privately owned. Since there are rarely any visible remains of these settlements, they are not generally considered ghost towns; instead, they are referred to in archaeological circles as deserted medieval villages.\n", "Sometimes, wars and genocide end a town's life. In 1944, occupying German Waffen-SS troops murdered almost the entire population of the French village Oradour-sur-Glane. A new settlement was built nearby after the war, but the old town was left depopulated on the orders of President Charles de Gaulle, as a permanent memorial. In Germany, numerous smaller towns and villages in the former eastern territories were completely destroyed in the last two years of the war. These territories later became part of Poland and the Soviet Union, and many of the smaller settlements were never rebuilt or repopulated, for example Kłomino (\"Westfalenhof\"), Pstrąże (\"Pstransse\"), and Janowa Góra (\"Johannesberg\"). Some villages in England were also abandoned during the war, but for different reasons. Imber and Tyneham, along with several villages in the Stanford Battle Area, were commandeered by the War Office for use as training grounds for British and US troops. Although this was intended to be a temporary measure, the residents were never allowed to return, and the villages have been used for military training ever since.\n", "Disasters have played a part in the abandonment of settlements within Europe. After the Chernobyl disaster of 1986, the cities of Pripyat and Chernobyl were evacuated due to dangerous radiation levels within the area. As of today, Pripyat remains completely abandoned, and Chernobyl has around 500 remaining inhabitants.\n", "Section::::Around the world.:North America.\n", "Section::::Around the world.:North America.:Canada.\n", "There are ghost towns in parts of British Columbia, Alberta, Ontario, Saskatchewan, Newfoundland and Labrador, and Quebec. Some were logging towns or dual mining and logging sites, often developed at the behest of the company. In Alberta and Saskatchewan, most ghost towns were once farming communities that have since died off due to the removal of the railway through the town or the bypass of a highway. The ghost towns in British Columbia were predominantly mining towns and prospecting camps as well as canneries and, in one or two cases, large smelter and pulp mill towns. British Columbia has more ghost towns than any other jurisdiction on the North American continent, with one estimate at the number of abandoned and semi-abandoned towns and localities upwards of 1500. Among the most notable are Anyox, Kitsault, and Ocean Falls.\n", "Some ghost towns have revived their economies and populations due to historical and eco-tourism, such as Barkerville. Barkerville, once the largest town north of Kamloops, is now a year-round provincial museum. In Quebec, Val-Jalbert is a well-known tourist ghost town; founded in 1901 around a mechanical pulp mill that became obsolete when paper mills began to break down wood fibre by chemical means, it was abandoned when the mill closed in 1927 and re-opened as a park in 1960.\n", "Section::::Around the world.:North America.:United States.\n", "There are many ghost towns or abandoned communities in the American Great Plains, the rural areas of which have lost a third of their population since 1920. Thousands of communities in the northern plains states of Montana, Nebraska, North Dakota and South Dakota became railroad ghost towns when a rail line failed to materialize. Hundreds more towns were abandoned when the US Highway System replaced the railroads as the favored mode of travel. Ghost towns are common in mining or mill towns in all the western states, and many eastern and southern states as well. Residents are compelled to leave in search of more productive areas when the resources that had created an employment boom in these towns were eventually consumed. Some unincorporated towns become ghost towns due to flooding caused by dam projects that created manmade lakes, such as Oketeyeconne. Ghost towns are particularly numerous in the southwestern state of New Mexico.\n", "Sometimes a ghost town consists of many abandoned buildings as in Bodie, California, or standing ruins as in Rhyolite, Nevada, while elsewhere only the foundations of former buildings remain as in Graysonia, Arkansas. Old mining camps that have lost most of their population at some stage of their history such as Aspen, Deadwood, Oatman, Tombstone and Virginia City are sometimes referred to as ghost towns although they are presently active towns and cities. Many U.S. ghost towns, such as South Pass City in Wyoming are listed on the National Register of Historic Places.\n", "Some of the earliest settlements in the US, though they no longer exist in any tangible sense, once had the characteristics of a ghost town. In 1590, mapmaker John White arrived at the Roanoke Colony, North Carolina to find it deserted, its inhabitants having vanished without a trace. The Zwaanendael Colony became a ghost town when every one of the colonists was massacred by Indians in 1632. Jamestown, the first permanent English settlement in the Americas, was abandoned when Williamsburg became the new capital of the colony in 1699. \n", "Starting in 2002, an attempt to declare an \"official ghost town\" in California stalled when the adherents of the town of Bodie and those of Calico, in Southern California, could not agree on the most deserving settlement for the recognition. A compromise was eventually reached – Bodie became the \"official state gold rush ghost town\", while Calico was named the \"official state silver rush ghost town\".\n", "Section::::Around the world.:Latin America.\n", "In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, a wave of European immigrants arrived in Argentina and settled in the cities, which offered jobs, education, and other opportunities that enabled newcomers to enter the middle class. Many also settled in the growing small towns along the expanding railway system. Since the 1930s, many rural workers have moved to the big cities. Other ghost towns were created in the aftermath of dinosaur fossil rushes.\n", "A number of ghost towns throughout Latin America were once mining camps or lumber mills, such as the many saltpeter mining camps that prospered in Chile from the end of the Saltpeter War until the invention of synthetic saltpeter during World War I. Some of these towns, such as the Humberstone and Santa Laura Saltpeter Works in the Atacama Desert, have been declared UNESCO World Heritage Sites. Another former mining town, Real de Catorce in Mexico, has been used as a backdrop for Hollywood movies such as \"The Treasure of the Sierra Madre\" (1948), \"The Mexican\" (2001), and \"Bandidas\" (2006).\n", "Section::::Around the world.:Oceania.\n", "The boom and bust of gold rushes and the mining of other ores has led to a number of ghost towns in both Australia and New Zealand. Other towns have become abandoned whether due to natural disasters, the weather, or the drowning of valleys to increase the size of lakes.\n", "In Australia, the Victoria gold rush led to numerous ghost towns (such as Cassilis and Moliagul), as did the hunt for gold in Western Australia (for example, the towns of Ora Banda and Kanowna). The mining of iron and other ores has also led to towns thriving briefly before dwindling. \n", "In New Zealand, the Otago gold rush similarly led to several ghost towns (such as Macetown). New Zealand's ghost towns also include numerous coal mining areas in the South Island's West Coast Region, including Denniston and Stockton. Natural disasters have also led to the loss of some towns, notably Te Wairoa, \"The Buried Village\", destroyed in the 1886 eruption of Mount Tarawera, and the Otago town of Kelso, abandoned after it was flooded repeatedly after heavy rainstorms. Early settlements on the rugged southwest coast of the South Island at Martins Bay and Port Craig were also abandoned, mainly due to the inhospitable terrain.\n", "Section::::See also.\n", "BULLET::::- Abandoned mine\n", "BULLET::::- Abandoned village\n", "BULLET::::- Exclusion zone\n", "BULLET::::- List of ghost towns by country\n", "BULLET::::- Old field (ecology)\n", "BULLET::::- Phantom settlement\n", "BULLET::::- Unused highway\n", "BULLET::::- Urban decay\n", "BULLET::::- Modern ruins\n", "BULLET::::- Urban exploration\n", "Section::::External links.\n", "BULLET::::- Ghost Towns in Utah Utah Office of Tourism\n", "BULLET::::- Russian journalist explores the lives of illegal residents in the ghost town in the far-flung Russian Arctic\n", "BULLET::::- Ghost Town Gallery (with about 200 ghost towns throughout the American west)\n", "BULLET::::- Ghosts of North Dakota (an extensive collection of prairie ghost towns)\n", "BULLET::::- Abandoned towns, villages and other communities in Great Britain\n", "BULLET::::- Ontario Abandoned Places (ghost towns in Canada)\n", "BULLET::::- Ghost towns and historic locations in Colorado\n", "BULLET::::- Ghost towns of Arizona and surrounding states\n", "BULLET::::- Ghost Towns in Italy\n" ] }

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{ "description": "city depopulated of inhabitants and that stays practically intact", "enwikiquote_title": "", "wikidata_id": "Q74047", "wikidata_label": "ghost town", "wikipedia_title": "Ghost town", "aliases": { "alias": [ "extinct town", "abandoned village", "abandoned town", "abandoned city" ] } }

{ "pageid": 43569, "parentid": 908547793, "revid": 908772503, "pre_dump": true, "timestamp": "2019-07-31T21:48:30Z", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ghost%20town&oldid=908772503" }

{ "paragraph": [ "Pension fund\n", "A pension fund, also known as a superannuation fund in some countries, is any plan, fund, or scheme which provides retirement income.\n", "Pension funds typically have large amounts of money to invest and are the major investors in listed and private companies. They are especially important to the stock market where large institutional investors dominate. The largest 300 pension funds collectively hold about $6 trillion in assets. In January 2008, \"The Economist\" reported that Morgan Stanley estimates that pension funds worldwide hold over US$20 trillion in assets, the largest for any category of investor ahead of mutual funds, insurance companies, currency reserves, sovereign wealth funds, hedge funds, or private equity.\n", "The Federal Old-age and Survivors Insurance Trust Fund is the world's largest public pension fund which oversees $2.72 trillion USD in assets.\n", "Section::::Classifications.\n", "Section::::Classifications.:Open vs. closed pension funds.\n", "Open pension funds support at least one pension plan with no restriction on membership while closed pension funds support only pension plans that are limited to certain employees.\n", "Closed pension funds are further subclassified into:\n", "BULLET::::- \"Single employer pension funds\"\n", "BULLET::::- \"Multi-employer pension funds\"\n", "BULLET::::- \"Related member pension funds\"\n", "BULLET::::- \"Individual pension funds\"\n", "Section::::Classifications.:Public vs. private pension funds.\n", "A public pension fund is one that is regulated under public sector law while a private pension fund is regulated under private sector law.\n", "In certain countries the distinction between public or government pension funds and private pension funds may be difficult to assess. In others, the distinction is made sharply in law, with very specific requirements for administration and investment. For example, local governmental bodies in the United States are subject to laws passed by the states in which those localities exist, and these laws include provisions such as defining classes of permitted investments and a minimum municipal obligation.\n", "Section::::By country.\n", "Section::::By country.:Australia.\n", "Section::::By country.:Australia.:Government.\n", "BULLET::::- Commonwealth Superannuation Scheme (old scheme for federal civil servants)\n", "BULLET::::- Military Superannuation and Benefits Scheme (current scheme for Australian Defence Force personnel)\n", "BULLET::::- Public Sector Superannuation accumulation plan (current scheme for federal civil servants)\n", "BULLET::::- Public Sector Superannuation Scheme (old scheme for federal civil servants)\n", "BULLET::::- State Super (for New South Wales state civil servants)\n", "Section::::By country.:Australia.:Industry (not-for-profit).\n", "BULLET::::- AustralianSuper\n", "BULLET::::- AustSafe Super\n", "BULLET::::- CareSuper\n", "BULLET::::- Cbus\n", "BULLET::::- Energy Super\n", "BULLET::::- FIRSTSUPER\n", "BULLET::::- HESTA\n", "BULLET::::- Hostplus\n", "BULLET::::- legalsuper\n", "BULLET::::- LUCRF Super\n", "BULLET::::- Media Super\n", "BULLET::::- MTAA Super\n", "BULLET::::- NGS Super\n", "BULLET::::- REI Super\n", "BULLET::::- TWUSUPER\n", "BULLET::::- UniSuper\n", "Section::::By country.:Australia.:Private.\n", "BULLET::::- ANZ Australian Staff Superannuation Scheme (for employees of ANZ Bank)\n", "BULLET::::- Retail Employees Superannuation Trust\n", "Section::::By country.:Brazil.\n", "BULLET::::- Aceprev\n", "BULLET::::- Baneses\n", "BULLET::::- Banesprev\n", "BULLET::::- Centrus\n", "BULLET::::- FAPES\n", "BULLET::::- Forluz\n", "BULLET::::- Funcef\n", "BULLET::::- Fundação Banrisul\n", "BULLET::::- Fundação CESP\n", "BULLET::::- Fundação Itaubanco\n", "BULLET::::- Petros\n", "BULLET::::- PREVI - Caixa de Previdência dos Funcionários do Banco do Brasil (the closed private pension fund for employees of the Brazilian federal government-owned bank)\n", "BULLET::::- Sistel\n", "BULLET::::- Valia\n", "Section::::By country.:Canada.\n", "Section::::By country.:Canada.:Government.\n", "BULLET::::- Alberta Investment Management\n", "BULLET::::- British Columbia Investment Management Corporation\n", "BULLET::::- Caisse de dépôt et placement du Québec\n", "BULLET::::- Canada Pension Plan (investments directed by the Canada Pension Plan Investment Board)\n", "BULLET::::- HOOPP\n", "BULLET::::- Ontario Teachers Pension Plan\n", "BULLET::::- PSP investments\n", "BULLET::::- Public Sector Pension Investment Board\n", "Section::::By country.:Canada.:Private.\n", "BULLET::::- BC Pension Corporation, including the College Pension Plan, the Municipal Pension Plan, the Public Service Pension Plan, the Teachers' Pension Plan, and WorkSafeBC\n", "BULLET::::- Colleges of Applied Arts and Technology Pension Plan (CAAT)\n", "BULLET::::- Healthcare of Ontario Pension Plan (HOOPP)\n", "BULLET::::- OMERS Administration Corporation (OMERS)\n", "BULLET::::- Ontario Pension Board (OPB)\n", "BULLET::::- Ontario Teachers' Pension Plan\n", "BULLET::::- OPSEU Pension Trust (OPTrust)\n", "Section::::By country.:Chile.\n", "BULLET::::- AFP Modelo\n", "BULLET::::- Chile pension system\n", "Section::::By country.:China.\n", "BULLET::::- - managed by National Council for Social Security Fund\n", "Section::::By country.:Greece.\n", "Section::::By country.:Greece.:Government.\n", "BULLET::::- Public Employees Pension Fund\n", "Section::::By country.:Greece.:Private.\n", "BULLET::::- TAPILTAT, the Fund for Mutual Assistance of the Employees of Ioniki Bank and Other Banks, the multi-employer auxiliary pension fund\n", "Section::::By country.:Hong Kong.\n", "BULLET::::- Mandatory Provident Fund\n", "Section::::By country.:India.\n", "BULLET::::- Employees' Provident Fund Organisation – a statutory body of the government of India that administers a compulsory Provident Fund Scheme, Pension Scheme and an Insurance Scheme. Provident Fund is applicable across for employees across establishments (private as well as government, subject to criteria). EPF is the largest social security organisation in India with assets well over 5 lakh crore (US$104 billion) as of 2014.\n", "BULLET::::- National Pension Scheme – a defined-contribution–based pension scheme launched by the government of India open to all citizens of India on a voluntary basis and mandatory for the employees of central government (except Indian Armed Forces) who are appointed on or after 1 January 2004. Indian citizens between the age of 18 and 65 are eligible to join.\n", "Section::::By country.:Japan.\n", "BULLET::::- See Japan Pension Service\n", "BULLET::::- Government Pension Investment Fund, Japan (GPIF, 年金積立金管理運用独立行政法人)\n", "Section::::By country.:Malaysia.\n", "BULLET::::- Employees Provident Fund (Malaysia's largest, total assets of around RM407 billion in diversified portfolio)\n", "Section::::By country.:Morocco.\n", "BULLET::::- Caisse de dépôt et de gestion\n", "Section::::By country.:Nepal.\n", "BULLET::::- Employees Provident Fund Nepal\n", "Section::::By country.:Netherlands.\n", "BULLET::::- Stichting Pensioenfonds ABP (ABP)\n", "BULLET::::- Stichting Pensioenfonds Zorg en Welzijn (PFZW, formerly PGGM)\n", "Section::::By country.:Norway.\n", "BULLET::::- The Government Pension Fund - Global (Statens pensjonsfond - Utland)\n", "BULLET::::- The Government Pension Fund - Norway (Statens pensjonsfond - Norge)\n", "Section::::By country.:Romania.\n", "The pension system in Romania is made of three pillars. One is the state pension (Pillar I – Mandatory), the second is a private mandatory pension where the state transfers a percentage of the contribution it collects for the public pension, and the third is an optional private pension (Pillar III – Voluntary).\n", "The Financial Supervisory Authority – Private Pension is responsible for the supervision and regulation of the private pension system.\n", "Section::::By country.:Saudi Arabia.\n", "BULLET::::- Public Pension Agency (PPA)\n", "BULLET::::- General Organization for Social Insurance\n", "Section::::By country.:Serbia.\n", "BULLET::::- The pension system in Serbia is made of three pillars. One is the state pension (Pillar I – Mandatory), where every insured person is obliged to pay contributions from their paycheck, the second is a voluntary state pension, where an uninsured person is voluntarily included in state pension system, and the third is an optional private pension (Pillar III – Voluntary).\n", "BULLET::::- Pension and disability insurance fund\n", "Section::::By country.:Singapore.\n", "BULLET::::- Central Provident Fund\n", "Section::::By country.:Switzerland.\n", "BULLET::::- Pension system in Switzerland\n", "Section::::By country.:Turkey.\n", "Section::::By country.:Turkey.:Government.\n", "BULLET::::- Sosyal Güvenlik Kurumu (Social Security Institution, SGK)\n", "Social Security Institution was established by the Social Security Institution Law No:5502 which was published in the Official Gazette No: 26173 dated 20.06.2006 and brings the Social Insurance Institution, General Directorate of Bağ-kur and General Directorate of Emekli Sandığı whose historical development are summarized above under a single roof in order to transfer five different retirement regimes which are civil servants, contractual paid workers, agricultural paid workers, self-employers and agricultural self-employers into a single retirement regime that will offer equal actuarial rights and obligations.\n", "Section::::By country.:Turkey.:Private.\n", "BULLET::::- Armed Forces Pension Fund\n", "OYAK (Ordu Yardımlaşma Kurumu/Armed Forces Pension Fund) provides its members with \"supplementary retirement benefits\" apart from the official retirement fund, T.C.Emekli Sandığı/SSK, to which they are primarily affiliated.\n", "BULLET::::- YAPI ve KREDİ BANKASI A.Ş. Mensupları Yardım ve Emekli Sandığı Vakfı\n", "BULLET::::- AKBANK T.A.Ş. Mensupları Tekaüt Sandığı Vakfı\n", "BULLET::::- TÜRKİYE GARANTİ BANKASI A.Ş. Memur ve Müstahdemleri Emekli ve Yardım Sandığı Vakfı\n", "BULLET::::- TÜRKİYE ODALAR BORSALAR VE BİRLİK PERSONELİ SİGORTA VE EMEKLİ SANDIĞI VAKFI\n", "BULLET::::- TÜRKİYE İŞ BANKASI A.Ş. Mensupları Emekli Sandığı Vakfı\n", "Section::::By country.:United States.\n", "In the United States, pension funds include schemes which result in a deferral of income by employees, even if retirement income provision isn't the intent. The United States has $19.1 trillion in retirement and pension assets ($9.1 trillion in private funds, $10 trillion in public funds) as of December 31, 2016. The largest 200 pension funds accounted for $4.540 trillion as of September 30, 2009.\n", "Section::::See also.\n", "BULLET::::- Global assets under management\n", "BULLET::::- Pension insurance contract\n", "BULLET::::- Pension regulation\n", "BULLET::::- Qualifying registered overseas pension schemes\n", "BULLET::::- Sovereign wealth fund\n" ] }

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Global", "The Government Pension Fund - Norway", "Public Pension Agency (PPA)", "Pension and disability insurance fund", "Central Provident Fund", "Pension system in Switzerland", "Sosyal Güvenlik Kurumu", "OYAK", "Global assets under management", "Pension insurance contract", "Pension regulation", "Qualifying registered overseas pension schemes", "Sovereign wealth fund" ], "href": [ "pension", "institutional%20investor", "Trillion%20%28short%20scale%29", "The%20Economist", "Morgan%20Stanley", "mutual%20fund", "insurance%20companies", "currency%20reserves", "sovereign%20wealth%20fund", "hedge%20fund", "private%20equity", "minimum%20municipal%20obligation", "Commonwealth%20Superannuation%20Scheme", "Australian%20Public%20Service", "Military%20Superannuation%20and%20Benefits%20Scheme", "Australian%20Defence%20Force", "Public%20Sector%20Superannuation%20accumulation%20plan", "Public%20Sector%20Superannuation%20Scheme", "State%20Super", "New%20South%20Wales", "States%20and%20territories%20of%20Australia", "AustralianSuper", "AustSafe%20Super", "CareSuper", "Cbus", "Energy%20Super", "FIRSTSUPER", "HESTA", "Hostplus", "legalsuper", "LUCRF%20Super", "Media%20Super", "MTAA%20Super", "NGS%20Super", "REI%20Super", "TWUSUPER", "UniSuper", "ANZ%20Australian%20Staff%20Superannuation%20Scheme", "ANZ%20Bank", "Retail%20Employees%20Superannuation%20Trust", "Alberta%20Investment%20Management", "British%20Columbia%20Investment%20Management%20Corporation", "Caisse%20de%20d%C3%A9p%C3%B4t%20et%20placement%20du%20Qu%C3%A9bec", "Canada%20Pension%20Plan", "Canada%20Pension%20Plan%20Investment%20Board", "HOOPP", "Ontario%20Teachers%20Pension%20Plan", "PSP%20investments", "Public%20Sector%20Pension%20Investment%20Board", "BC%20Pension%20Corporation", "Colleges%20of%20Applied%20Arts%20and%20Technology%20Pension%20Plan", "Healthcare%20of%20Ontario%20Pension%20Plan", "OMERS", "Ontario%20Pension%20Board", "Ontario%20Teachers%27%20Pension%20Plan", "OPTrust", "AFP%20Modelo", "Chile%20pension%20system", "National%20Council%20for%20Social%20Security%20Fund", "TAPILTAT", "Mandatory%20Provident%20Fund", "Employees%27%20Provident%20Fund%20Organisation", "government%20of%20India", "India", "National%20Pension%20Scheme", "government%20of%20India", "India", "Indian%20Armed%20Forces", "Japan%20Pension%20Service", "Government%20Pension%20Investment%20Fund%2C%20Japan", "Employees%20Provident%20Fund%20%28Malaysia%29", "Caisse%20de%20d%C3%A9p%C3%B4t%20et%20de%20gestion", "Employees%20Provident%20Fund%20Nepal", "Stichting%20Pensioenfonds%20ABP", "Stichting%20Pensioenfonds%20Zorg%20en%20Welzijn", "Government%20Pension%20Fund%20of%20Norway%23The%20Government%20Pension%20Fund%20%E2%80%93%20Global", "Government%20Pension%20Fund%20of%20Norway%23The%20Government%20Pension%20Fund%20%E2%80%93%20Norway", "Public%20Pension%20Agency%20%28PPA%29", "Pension%20and%20disability%20insurance%20fund", "Central%20Provident%20Fund", "Pension%20system%20in%20Switzerland", "Sosyal%20G%C3%BCvenlik%20Kurumu", "OYAK", "Global%20assets%20under%20management", "Pension%20insurance%20contract", "Pension%20regulation", "Qualifying%20registered%20overseas%20pension%20schemes", "Sovereign%20wealth%20fund" ], "wikipedia_title": [ "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "" ], "wikipedia_id": [ "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "" ] }

{ "description": "plan, fund, or scheme which provides retirement income", "enwikiquote_title": "", "wikidata_id": "Q182103", "wikidata_label": "pension fund", "wikipedia_title": "Pension fund", "aliases": { "alias": [ "funded pension scheme", "super fund", "superannuation" ] } }

{ "pageid": 43615, "parentid": 906328091, "revid": 906328160, "pre_dump": true, "timestamp": "2019-07-15T04:31:46Z", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pension%20fund&oldid=906328160" }

{ "paragraph": [ "Crayfish\n", "Crayfish, also known as crawfish, crawdads, freshwater lobsters, mountain lobsters, mudbugs, or yabbies are freshwater crustaceans resembling small lobsters (to which they are related). Taxonomically, they are members of the superfamilies Astacoidea and Parastacoidea. They breathe through feather-like gills. Some species are found in brooks and streams where fresh water is running, while others thrive in swamps, ditches, and paddy fields. Most crayfish cannot tolerate polluted water, although some species such as \"Procambarus clarkii\" are hardier. Crayfish feed on animals and plants, either living or decomposing, and detritus.\n", "Section::::Names.\n", "The name \"crayfish\" comes from the Old French word ' (Modern French '). The word has been modified to \"crayfish\" by association with \"fish\" (folk etymology). The largely American variant \"crawfish\" is similarly derived.\n", "Some kinds of crayfish are known locally as lobsters, crawdads, mudbugs, and yabbies. In the Eastern United States, \"crayfish\" is more common in the north, while \"crawdad\" is heard more in central and southwestern regions, and \"crawfish\" further south, although considerable overlaps exist.\n", "The study of crayfish is called astacology.\n", "Section::::Names.:Other animals.\n", "In Australia (on the eastern seaboard), New Zealand and South Africa, the term \"crayfish\" or \"cray\" generally refers to a saltwater spiny lobster, of the genus \"Jasus\" that is indigenous to much of southern Oceania, while the freshwater species are usually called \"yabby\" or \"\", from the indigenous Australian and Māori names for the animal respectively, or by other names specific to each species. Exceptions include western rock lobster (of the Palinuridae family) found on the west coast of Australia; the Tasmanian giant freshwater crayfish (from the Parastacidae family) found only in Tasmania; and the Murray crayfish found along Australia's Murray River.\n", "In Singapore, the term \"crayfish\" typically refers to \"Thenus orientalis\", a seawater crustacean from the slipper lobster family. True crayfish are not native to Singapore, but are commonly found as pets, or as an invasive species (\"Cherax quadricarinatus\") in the many water catchment areas, and are alternatively known as \"freshwater lobsters\".\n", "Section::::Anatomy.\n", "The body of a decapod crustacean, such as a crab, lobster, or prawn (shrimp), is made up of twenty body segments grouped into two main body parts, the cephalothorax and the abdomen. Each segment may possess one pair of appendages, although in various groups these may be reduced or missing. On average, crayfish grow to in length, but some grow larger. Walking legs have a small claw at the end.\n", "Section::::Geographical distribution and classification.\n", "There are three families of crayfish, two in the Northern Hemisphere and one in the Southern Hemisphere. The Southern Hemisphere (Gondwana-distributed) family Parastacidae, with 14 extant genera and two extinct genera, live(d) in South America, Madagascar and Australasia. They are distinguished by the absence of the first pair of pleopods. Of the other two families, the three genera of the Astacidae live in western Eurasia and western North America, while the 15 genera of the family Cambaridae live in eastern Asia and eastern North America.\n", "Section::::Geographical distribution and classification.:North America.\n", "The greatest diversity of crayfish species is found in southeastern North America, with over 330 species in nine genera, all in the family Cambaridae. A further genus of astacid crayfish is found in the Pacific Northwest and the headwaters of some rivers east of the Continental Divide. Many crayfish are also found in lowland areas where the water is abundant in calcium, and oxygen rises from underground springs.\n", "In 1983, Louisiana designated the crayfish, or crawfish as they are commonly referred, as their official state crustacean. Louisiana produces 100 million pounds of crawfish per year with the red swamp and white river crawfish being the main species harvested. Crawfish are a part of Cajun culture dating back hundreds of years. A variety of cottage industries have developed as a result of commercialized crawfish iconology. Their products include crawfish attached to wooden plaques, T-shirts with crawfish logos, and crawfish pendants, earrings and necklaces made of gold or silver.\n", "Section::::Geographical distribution and classification.:Australia.\n", "Australia has over 100 species in a dozen genera. Australia is home to the world's three largest freshwater crayfish – the Tasmanian giant freshwater crayfish \"Astacopsis gouldi\", which can achieve a mass of over and is found in rivers of northern Tasmania, the Murray crayfish \"Euastacus armatus\", which can reach , although there have been reports of animals up to and is found in much of the southern Murray-Darling basin. and marron from Western Australia (now believed to be two species, \"Cherax tenuimanus\" and \"C. cainii\") which may reach a weight of . Many of the better-known Australian crayfish are of the genus \"Cherax\", and include the common yabby (\"Cherax destructor\"), western yabby (\"Cherax preissii\") and red-claw crayfish (\"Cherax quadricarinatus\"). The marron species \"C. tenuimanus\" is critically endangered, while other large Australasian crayfish are threatened or endangered.\n", "Section::::Geographical distribution and classification.:New Zealand.\n", "In New Zealand, two species of \"Paranephrops\" are endemic, and are known by the Māori name \"\".\n", "Section::::Fossil record.\n", "Fossil records of crayfish older than 30 million years are rare, but fossilised burrows have been found from strata as old as the late Palaeozoic or early Mesozoic. The oldest records of the Parastacidae are in Australia, and are 115 million years old.\n", "Section::::Crayfish plague.\n", "Some crayfish suffer from a disease called crayfish plague, caused by the North American water mould \"Aphanomyces astaci\" which was transmitted to Europe when North American species of crayfish were introduced there. Species of the genus \"Astacus\" are particularly susceptible to infection, allowing the plague-coevolved signal crayfish to invade parts of Europe.\n", "Section::::Uses.\n", "Section::::Uses.:Food.\n", "Crayfish are eaten worldwide. Like other edible crustaceans, only a small portion of the body of a crayfish is eaten. In most prepared dishes, such as soups, bisques and étouffées, only the tail portion is served. At crawfish boils or other meals where the entire body of the crayfish is presented, other portions, such as the claw meat, may be eaten. Like all crustaceans, crayfish are not kosher because they are aquatic animals that do not have both fins and scales. They are therefore not eaten by observant Jews.\n", "As of 2005, Louisiana supplies 95% of the crayfish harvested in the US. In 1987, Louisiana produced 90% of the crayfish harvested in the world, 70% of which were consumed locally. In 2007, the Louisiana crawfish harvest was about 54,800 tons, almost all of it from aquaculture. About 70%–80% of crayfish produced in Louisiana are \"Procambarus clarkii\" (red swamp crawfish), with the remaining 20%–30% being \"Procambarus zonangulus\" (white river crawfish).\n", "Section::::Uses.:Bait.\n", "Crayfish are preyed upon by a variety of ray-finned fishes, and are commonly used as bait, either live or with only the tail meat. They are a popular bait for catching catfish, largemouth bass, smallmouth bass, striped bass, perch, pike and muskie. When using live crayfish as bait, anglers prefer to hook them between the eyes, piercing through their hard, pointed beak which causes them no harm; therefore, they remain more active.\n", "When using crayfish as bait, it is important to fish in the same environment where they were caught. An Illinois State University report that focused on studies conducted on the Fox River and Des Plaines River watershed stated that rusty crayfish, initially caught as bait in a different environment, were dumped into the water and \"outcompeted the native clearwater crayfish.\" Other studies confirmed that transporting crayfish to different environments have led to various ecological problems, including the elimination of native species. Transporting crayfishes as live bait has also contributed to the spread of zebra mussels in various waterways throughout Europe and North America, as they are known to attach themselves to exoskeleton of crayfishes.\n", "Section::::Uses.:Pets.\n", "Crayfish are kept as pets in freshwater aquariums, typically with bluegill or bass, rather than goldfish or tropical or subtropical fish. They prefer foods like shrimp pellets or various vegetables, but will also eat tropical fish food, regular fish food, algae wafers, and small fish that can be captured with their claws. A report by the National Park Service as well as video and anecdotal reports by aquarium owners indicate that crayfish will eat their molted exoskeleton \"to recover the calcium and phosphates contained in it.\" As omnivores, crayfish will eat almost anything; therefore, they may explore the edibility of aquarium plants in a fish tank. However, most species of dwarf crayfish, such as \"Cambarellus patzcuarensis\", will not destructively dig or eat live aquarium plants. They are also relatively non-aggressive and can be kept safely with dwarf shrimp.\n", "In some nations, such as the United Kingdom, United States, Australia, and New Zealand, imported alien crayfish are a danger to local rivers. The three species commonly imported to Europe from the Americas are \"Orconectes limosus\", \"Pacifastacus leniusculus\" and \"Procambarus clarkii\". Crayfish may spread into different bodies of water because specimens captured for pets in one river are often released into a different catchment. There is a potential for ecological damage when crayfish are introduced into non-native bodies of water: e.g., crayfish plague in Europe, or the introduction of the common yabby (\"Cherax destructor\") into drainages east of the Great Dividing Range in Australia.\n", "Section::::See also.\n", "BULLET::::- Pain in crustaceans\n", "Section::::Further reading.\n", "BULLET::::- Regional European Crayfish Workshop: Future of Native Crayfish in Europe. Knowledge and Management of Aquatic Ecosystems. No. 394-395 (2009)\n", "Section::::External links.\n", "BULLET::::- International Association of Astacology (IAA)\n", "BULLET::::- America's Crayfish: Crawling In Troubled Waters\n", "BULLET::::- Louisiana Crawfish Research and Promotion Board\n" ] }

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basin", "marron", "Western Australia", "Cherax tenuimanus", "C. cainii", "genus", "common yabby", "red-claw crayfish", "critically endangered", "New Zealand", "Paranephrops", "Māori", "Fossil record", "burrow", "Parastacidae", "crayfish plague", "water mould", "Astacus", "signal crayfish", "Europe", "bisques", "étouffée", "crawfish boils", "kosher", "fin", "scales", "Jew", "Louisiana", "aquaculture", "Procambarus clarkii", "Procambarus zonangulus", "catfish", "largemouth bass", "smallmouth bass", "striped bass", "perch", "pike", "muskie", "Illinois State University", "Fox River", "Des Plaines River", "rusty crayfish", "zebra mussels", "bluegill", "bass", "goldfish", "National Park Service", "Cambarellus patzcuarensis", "dwarf shrimp", "United Kingdom", "United States", "Australia", "New Zealand", "Orconectes limosus", "Pacifastacus leniusculus", "Procambarus clarkii", "crayfish plague", "Pain in crustaceans", "Regional European Crayfish Workshop: Future of Native Crayfish in Europe", 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{ "description": "common name for freshwater crustaceans members of the superfamilies Astacoidea and Parastacoidea", "enwikiquote_title": "", "wikidata_id": "Q1211742", "wikidata_label": "crayfish", "wikipedia_title": "Crayfish", "aliases": { "alias": [ "crawfish", "crawdads" ] } }

{ "pageid": 43600, "parentid": 906119154, "revid": 906765017, "pre_dump": true, "timestamp": "2019-07-18T02:43:23Z", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Crayfish&oldid=906765017" }

{ "paragraph": [ "Fjord\n", "Geologically, a fjord or fiord (, ) is a long, narrow inlet with steep sides or cliffs, created by a glacier. There are many fjords on the coasts of Alaska, Antarctica, British Columbia, Chile, Greenland, the Faroe Islands, Iceland, Kamchatka, the Kerguelen Islands, New Zealand, Norway, Novaya Zemlya, Labrador, Nunavut, Newfoundland, Quebec, Scotland, South Georgia Island, and Washington state. Norway's coastline is estimated at with nearly 1,200 fjords, but only when fjords are excluded.\n", "Section::::Formation.\n", "A true fjord is formed when a glacier cuts a U-shaped valley by ice segregation and abrasion of the surrounding bedrock. According to the standard model, glaciers formed in pre-glacial valleys with a gently sloping valley floor. The work of the glacier then left an overdeepened U-shaped valley that ends abruptly at a valley or trough end. Such valleys are fjords when flooded by the ocean. Thresholds above sea level create freshwater lakes. Glacial melting is accompanied by the rebounding of Earth's crust as the ice load and eroded sediment is removed (also called isostasy or glacial rebound). In some cases this rebound is faster than sea level rise. Most fjords are deeper than the adjacent sea; Sognefjord, Norway, reaches as much as below sea level. Fjords generally have a sill or shoal (bedrock) at their mouth caused by the previous glacier's reduced erosion rate and terminal moraine. In many cases this sill causes extreme currents and large saltwater rapids (see skookumchuck). Saltstraumen in Norway is often described as the world's strongest tidal current. These characteristics distinguish fjords from rias (e.g. the Bay of Kotor), which are drowned valleys flooded by the rising sea. Drammensfjorden is cut almost in two by the Svelvik \"ridge\", a sandy moraine that during the ice cover was under sea level but after the post-glacial rebound reaches above the fjord.\n", "Jens Esmark in the 19th century introduced the theory that fjords are or have been created by glaciers and that large parts of Northern Europe had been covered by thick ice in prehistory. Thresholds at the mouths and overdeepening of fjords compared to the ocean are the strongest evidence of glacial origin, and these thresholds are mostly rocky. Thresholds are related to sounds and low land where the ice could spread out and therefore have less erosive force. John Walter Gregory argued that fjords are of tectonic origin and that glaciers had a negligible role in their formation. Gregory's views were rejected by subsequent research and publications. In the case of Hardangerfjord the fractures of the Caledonian fold has guided the erosion by glaciers, while there is no clear relation between the direction of Sognefjord and the fold pattern. This relationship between fractures and direction of fjords is also observed in Lyngen. Preglacial, tertiary rivers presumably eroded the surface and created valleys that later guided the glacial flow and erosion of the bedrock. This may in particular have been the case in Western Norway where the tertiary uplift of the landmass amplified eroding forces of rivers.\n", "Confluence of tributatry fjords led to excavation of the deepest fjord basins. Near the very coast the typical West Norwegian glacier spread out (presumably through sounds and low valleys) and lost their concentration and reduced the glaciers' power to erode leaving bedrock thresholds. Bolstadfjorden is deep with a threshold of only , while the deep Sognefjorden has a threshold around deep. Hardangerfjord is made up of several basins separated by thresholds: The deepest basin Samlafjorden between Jonaneset (Jondal) og Ålvik with a distinct threshold at Vikingneset in Kvam.\n", "Hanging valleys are common along glaciated fjords and U-shaped valleys. A hanging valley is a tributary valley that is higher than the main valley and were created by tributary glacier flows into a glacier of larger volume. The shallower valley appears to be 'hanging' above the main valley or a fjord. Often, waterfalls form at or near the outlet of the upper valley. Hanging valleys also occur under water in fjord systems. The branches of Sognefjord are for instance much shallower than the main fjord. The mouth of Fjærlandsfjord is about deep while the main fjord is nearby. The mouth of Ikjefjord is only 50 meters deep while the main fjord is around at the same point.\n", "Section::::Fjord features and variations.\n", "Section::::Fjord features and variations.:Hydrology.\n", "During the winter season there is usually little inflow of freshwater. Surface water and deeper water (down to or more) are mixed during winter because of the steady cooling of the surface and wind. In the deep fjords there is still fresh water from the summer with less density than the saltier water along the coast. Offshore wind, common in the fjord areas during winter, sets up a current on the surface from the inner to the outer parts. This current on the surface in turn pulls dense salt water from the coast across the fjord threshold and into the deepest parts of the fjord. Bolstadfjorden has a threshold of only and strong inflow of freshwater from Vosso river creates a brackish surface that blocks circulation of the deep fjord. The deeper, salt layers of Bolstadfjorden are deprived of oxygen and the seabed is covered with organic material. The shallow threshold also creates a strong tidal current.\n", "During the summer season there is usually a large inflow of river water in the inner areas. This freshwater gets mixed with saltwater creating a layer of brackish water with a slightly higher surface than the ocean which in turn sets up a current from the river mouths towards the ocean. This current is gradually more salty towards the coast and right under the surface current there is a reverse current of saltier water from the coast. In the deeper parts of the fjord the cold water remaining from winter is still and separated from the atmosphere by the brackish top layer. In fjords with a shallow threshold this deep water is not replaced every year and low oxygen concentration makes the deep water unsuitable for fish and animals. In the most extreme cases there is a constant barrier of freshwater on the surface and the fjord freezes over such that there is no oxygen below the surface. Drammensfjorden is one example.\n", "The Gaupnefjorden branch of Sognefjorden is strongly affected by freshwater as a glacial river flows in. Velfjorden has little inflow of freshwater.\n", "Section::::Fjord features and variations.:Coral reefs.\n", "As late as 2000, some coral reefs were discovered along the bottoms of the Norwegian fjords. These reefs were found in fjords from the north of Norway to the south. The marine life on the reefs is believed to be one of the most important reasons why the Norwegian coastline is such a generous fishing ground. Since this discovery is fairly new, little research has been done. The reefs are host to thousands of lifeforms such as plankton, coral, anemones, fish, several species of shark, and many more. Most are specially adapted to life under the greater pressure of the water column above it, and the total darkness of the deep sea.\n", "New Zealand's fjords are also host to deep-water corals, but a surface layer of dark fresh water allows these corals to grow in much shallower water than usual. An underwater observatory in Milford Sound allows tourists to view them without diving.\n", "Section::::Fjord features and variations.:Skerries.\n", "In some places near the seaward margins of areas with fjords, the ice-scoured channels are so numerous and varied in direction that the rocky coast is divided into thousands of island blocks, some large and mountainous while others are merely rocky points or rock reefs, menacing navigation. These are called skerries. The term skerry is derived from the Old Norse \", which means a rock in the sea.\n", "Skerries most commonly formed at the outlet of fjords where submerged glacially formed valleys perpendicular to the coast join with other cross valleys in a complex array. The island fringe of Norway is such a group of skerries (called a \"); many of the cross fjords are so arranged that they parallel the coast and provide a protected channel behind an almost unbroken succession of mountainous islands and skerries. By this channel one can travel through a protected passage almost the entire route from Stavanger to North Cape, Norway. The Blindleia is a skerry-protected waterway that starts near Kristiansand in southern Norway, and continues past Lillesand. The Swedish coast along Bohuslän is likewise skerry guarded. The Inside Passage provides a similar route from Seattle, Washington, and Vancouver, British Columbia, to Skagway, Alaska. Yet another such skerry protected passage extends from the Straits of Magellan north for .\n", "Section::::Fjord features and variations.:Epishelf lakes.\n", "An epishelf lake forms when meltwater is trapped behind a floating ice shelf and the freshwater floats on the denser saltwater below. Its surface may freeze forming an isolated ecosystem.\n", "Section::::Etymology.\n", "The word \"fjord\" comes from Norwegian (pronounced , , or in various dialects), where it can have a more general meaning: in many cases to refer to any long narrow body of water, inlet or channel (for example, see Oslofjord).\n", "The Norse verb ' (travelling/ferrying), the Norse noun substantive ' means a \"lake-like\" waterbody used for passage and ferrying, which is of Indo-European origin (*' from *' or *\"\").\n", "The Scandinavian \"fjord\", Proto-Scandinavian *', is the origin for similar Germanic words: Icelandic ', Swedish ' (for Baltic waterbodies), Scots '. The Norse noun ' was adopted in German as ', used for the narrow long bays of Schleswig-Holstein, and in English as \"firth\" \"fjord, river mouth\". The English word \"ford\" (compare German ', Low German ' or ', in Dutch names ' such as Vilvoorde, Ancient Greek , ', and Latin ') is assumed to originate from Germanic ' and Indo-European root *' meaning \"crossing point\". Fjord/firth/Förde as well as ford/Furt/Vörde/voorde refer to a Germanic noun for \"a travel\": North Germanic ' or ' and of the verb \"to travel\", Dutch ', German '; English \"to fare\".\n", "As a loanword from Norwegian, it is one of the few words in the English language to start with the sequence \"fj\". The word was for a long time normally rendered \"fiord\", a spelling preserved in place names such as Grise Fiord, but now generally current only in New Zealand English.\n", "Section::::Etymology.:Scandinavian usage.\n", "The use of the word fjord in Norwegian, Danish and Swedish is more general than in English and in international scientific terminology. In Scandinavia, \"fjord\" is used for a narrow inlet of the sea in Norway, Denmark and western Sweden, but this is not its only application. In Norway and Iceland, the usage is closest to the Old Norse, with fjord used for both a firth and for a long, narrow inlet. In eastern Norway, the term is also applied to long narrow freshwater lakes (for instance Mjøsa [commonly referred to as '], Randsfjorden and Tyrifjorden) and sometimes even to rivers (in local usage, for instance in Flå in Hallingdal, the Hallingdal river is referred to as '). In southeast Sweden, the name fjard ' is a subdivision of the term 'fjord' used for bays, bights and narrow inlets on the Swedish Baltic Sea coast, and in most Swedish lakes. This latter term is also used for bodies of water off the coast of Finland where Finland Swedish is spoken. In Danish, the word may even apply to shallow lagoons. In modern Icelandic, ' is still used with the broader meaning of firth or inlet. In Faroese ' is used both about inlets and about broader sounds, whereas a narrower sound is called '. In the Finnish language, a word \"\" is used although there is only one fjord in Finland. Small waterfalls within these fjords are also used as freshwater resources for the people of Scandinavia and, in particular, Norway.\n", "In old Norse genitive was \"fjarðar\" whereas dative was \"firði\". The dative form has become common place names like Førde (for instance Førde), Fyrde or Førre (for instance Førre).\n", "The German use of the word ' for long narrow bays on their Baltic Sea coastline, indicates a common Germanic origin of the word. The landscape consists mainly of moraine heaps. The ' and some \"fjords\" on the east side of Jutland, Denmark are also of glacial origin. But while the glaciers digging \"real\" fjords moved from the mountains to the sea, in Denmark and Germany they were tongues of a huge glacier covering the basin of which is now the Baltic Sea. See Förden and East Jutland Fjorde.\n", "Whereas fjord names mostly describe bays (though not always geological fjords), straits in the same regions typically are named \"Sund\", in Scandinavian languages as well as in German. The word is related to \"to sunder\" in the meaning of \"to separate\". So the use of \"Sound\" to name fjords in North America and New Zealand differs from the European meaning of that word.\n", "The name of Wexford in Ireland is originally derived from \" (\"inlet of the mud flats\") in Old Norse, as used by the Viking settlers—though the inlet at that place in modern terms is an estuary, not a fjord.\n", "Before or in the early phase of Old Norse \" was another common noun for fjords and other inlets of the ocean. This word has survived only as a suffix in names of some Scandinavian fjords and has in same cases also been transferred to adjacent settlements or surrounding areas for instance Hardanger, Stavanger and Geiranger.\n", "Section::::Differences in definitions.\n", "The differences in usage between the English and the Scandinavian languages have contributed to confusion in the use of the term fjord. Bodies of water that are clearly fjords in Scandinavian languages are not considered fjords in English; similarly bodies of water that would clearly not be fjords in the Scandinavian sense have been named or suggested to be fjords. Examples of this confused usage follow.\n", "The Bay of Kotor in Montenegro has been suggested by some to be a fjord, but is in fact a drowned river canyon or ria. Similarly the Lim bay in Istria, Croatia, is sometimes called \"Lim fjord\" although it was not carved by glacial erosion but instead is a ria dug by the river Pazinčica. The Croats call it \"\", which does not translate precisely to the English equivalent either.\n", "In the Danish language any inlet is called a fjord, but none of the fjords of Denmark may be considered a fjord in the geological sense. Limfjord in English terminology is a sound, since it separates the North Jutlandic Island (Vendsyssel-Thy) from the rest of Jutland. Ringkøbing Fjord on the western coast of Jutland is a lagoon. The long narrow fjords of Denmark's Baltic Sea coast like the German were dug by ice moving from the sea upon land, while fjords in the geological sense were dug by ice moving from the mountains down to the sea.\n", "The fjords in Finnmark (Norway), which are fjords in the Scandinavian sense of the term, are not universally considered to be fjords by the scientific community. Although glacially formed, most Finnmark fjords lack the steep-sided valleys of the more southerly Norwegian fjords since the glacial pack was deep enough to cover even the high grounds when they were formed. The Oslofjord on the other hand is a rift valley, and not glacially formed.\n", "In Acapulco, Mexico, the calanques—narrow, rocky inlets—on the western side of the city, where the famous cliff-divers perform daily, are described in the city's tourist literature as being fjords.\n", "Section::::Freshwater fjords.\n", "Some Norwegian freshwater lakes that have formed in long glacially carved valleys with sill thresholds, ice front deltas or terminal moraines blocking the outlet follow the Norwegian naming convention; they are frequently named fjords. Ice front deltas developed when the ice front was relatively stable for long time during the melting of the ice shield. The resulting landform is an isthmus between the lake and the saltwater fjord, in Norwegian called \"eid\" as in placename Eidfjord or Nordfjordeid. The post-glacial rebound changed these deltas into terraces up to the level of the original sea level. In Eidfjord, Eio has dug through the original delta and left a terrace while lake is only above sea level. Such deposits are valuable sources of high quality building materials (sand and gravel) for houses and infrastructure. Eidfjord village sits on the \"eid\" or isthmus between Eidfjordvatnet lake and Eidfjorden branch of Hardangerfjord. Nordfjordeid is the isthmus with a village between Hornindalsvatnet lake and Nordfjord. Such lakes are also denoted \"fjord valley lakes\" by geologists.\n", "One of Norway's largest is Tyrifjorden at above sea level and an average depth at most of the lake is under sea level. Norway's largest lake, Mjøsa, is also referred to as \"the fjord\" by locals. Another example is the freshwater fjord Movatnet (Mo lake) that until 1743 was separated from Romarheimsfjorden by an isthmus and connected by a short river. During a flood in November 1743 the river bed eroded and sea water could flow into the lake at high tide. Eventually Movatnet became a saltwater fjord and renamed Mofjorden (). Like fjords, freshwater lakes are often deep. For instance Hornindalsvatnet is at least deep and water takes an average of 16 years to flow through the lake. Such lakes created by glacial action are also called fjord lakes or moraine-dammed lakes.\n", "Some of these lakes were salt after the ice age but later cut off from the ocean during the post-glacial rebound. At the end of the ice age Eastern Norway was about lower (the marine limit). When the ice cap receded and allowed the ocean to fill valleys and lowlands, and lakes like Mjøsa and Tyrifjorden were part of the ocean while Drammen valley was a narrow fjord. At the time of the Vikings Drammensfjord was still higher than today and reached the town of Hokksund, while parts of what is now the city of Drammen was under water. After the ice age the ocean was about at Notodden. The ocean stretched like a fjord through Heddalsvatnet all the way to Hjartdal. Post-glacial rebound eventually separated Heddalsvatnet from the ocean and turned it into a freshwater lake. In neolithic times Heddalsvatnet was still a saltwater fjord connected to the ocean, and was cut off from the ocean around 1500 BC.\n", "Some salt water fish got trapped in lakes that originally were part of the salt fjord and gradually became freshwater fish such as the arctic char. Some freshwater fjords such as Slidrefjord are above the marine limit.\n", "Like freshwater fjords, the continuation of fjords on land are in the same way denoted as \"fjord-valleys\". For instance Flåmsdal (Flåm valley) and Måbødalen.\n", "Outside of Norway, the three western arms of New Zealand's Lake Te Anau are named North Fiord, Middle Fiord and South Fiord. Another freshwater \"fjord\" in a larger lake is Western Brook Pond, in Newfoundland's Gros Morne National Park; it is also often described as a fjord, but is actually a freshwater lake cut off from the sea, so is not a fjord in the English sense of the term. Locally they refer to it as a \"landlocked fjord\". Such lakes are sometimes called \"fjord lakes\". Okanagan Lake was the first North American lake to be so described, in 1962. The bedrock there has been eroded up to \"below\" sea level, which is below the surrounding regional topography. Fjord lakes are common on the inland lea of the Coast Mountains and Cascade Range; notable ones include Lake Chelan, Seton Lake, Chilko Lake, and Atlin Lake. Kootenay Lake, Slocan Lake and others in the basin of the Columbia River are also fjord-like in nature, and created by glaciation in the same way. Along the British Columbia Coast, a notable fjord-lake is Owikeno Lake, which is a freshwater extension of Rivers Inlet. Quesnel Lake, located in central British Columbia, is claimed to be the deepest fjord formed lake on Earth.\n", "Section::::Freshwater fjords.:Great Lakes.\n", "A unique family of freshwater fjords are the embayments of the North American Great Lakes. Baie Fine is located on the northwestern coast of Georgian Bay of Lake Huron in Ontario, and Huron Bay is located on the southern shore of Lake Superior in Michigan. \n", "Section::::Locations.\n", "The principal mountainous regions where fjords have formed are in the higher middle latitudes and the high latitudes reaching to 80°N (Svalbard, Greenland), where, during the glacial period, many valley glaciers descended to the then-lower sea level. The fjords develop best in mountain ranges against which the prevailing westerly marine winds are orographically lifted over the mountainous regions, resulting in abundant snowfall to feed the glaciers. Hence coasts having the most pronounced fjords include the west coast of Norway, the west coast of North America from Puget Sound to Alaska, the southwest coast of New Zealand, and the west and to south-western coasts of South America, chiefly in Chile.\n", "Section::::Locations.:Principal fjord regions.\n", "BULLET::::- West coast of Europe\n", "BULLET::::- Faroe Islands\n", "BULLET::::- Westfjords of Iceland\n", "BULLET::::- Eastern Region of Iceland\n", "BULLET::::- Norway, the whole coast including Svalbard\n", "BULLET::::- Kola Peninsula in Russia\n", "BULLET::::- West coast of New Zealand\n", "BULLET::::- Fiordland, in the southwest of the South Island\n", "BULLET::::- Northwest coast of North America\n", "BULLET::::- Coast of Alaska, United States: Lynn Canal, Glacier Bay, etc.\n", "BULLET::::- British Columbia Coast, Canada: from the Alaskan Border along the Portland Canal to Indian Arm; Kingcome Inlet is a typical West Coast fjord.\n", "BULLET::::- Hood Canal in Washington, United States and various of the arms of Puget Sound\n", "BULLET::::- Northeast coast of North America\n", "BULLET::::- Labrador: Saglek Fjord, Nachvak Fjord, Hebron Fjord\n", "BULLET::::- The east coast of Ungava Bay.\n", "BULLET::::- Greenland: Kangerlussuaq, Ilulissat Icefjord, Scoresby Sund\n", "BULLET::::- Saguenay Fjord, Quebec\n", "BULLET::::- Southwest coast of South America\n", "BULLET::::- Fjords and channels of Chile\n", "BULLET::::- Isla de los Estados, Argentina\n", "Section::::Locations.:Other glaciated or formerly glaciated regions.\n", "Other regions have fjords, but many of these are less pronounced due to more limited exposure to westerly winds and less pronounced relief. Areas include:\n", "BULLET::::- Europe\n", "BULLET::::- Ireland\n", "BULLET::::- Lough Swilly\n", "BULLET::::- Carlingford Lough\n", "BULLET::::- Killary Harbour\n", "BULLET::::- Russia (see also List of fjords of Russia)\n", "BULLET::::- Chukchi Peninsula\n", "BULLET::::- Kola Peninsula\n", "BULLET::::- Scotland (where they are called firths, the Scots language cognate of fjord; lochs or sea lochs). Notable examples are:\n", "BULLET::::- Loch Long\n", "BULLET::::- Loch Fyne, Scotland's longest fjord at 65 km\n", "BULLET::::- Loch Etive\n", "BULLET::::- Sweden\n", "BULLET::::- Gullmarsfjorden, in Bohuslän, Sweden\n", "BULLET::::- North America\n", "BULLET::::- Canada:\n", "BULLET::::- the west and south coasts of Newfoundland, particularly:\n", "BULLET::::- Facheux Bay\n", "BULLET::::- Bonne Bay in Gros Morne National Park\n", "BULLET::::- Aviron Bay\n", "BULLET::::- La Hune Bay\n", "BULLET::::- Bay de Vieux\n", "BULLET::::- White Bear Bay\n", "BULLET::::- Baie d'Espoir\n", "BULLET::::- La Poile Bay\n", "BULLET::::- Bay Le Moine\n", "BULLET::::- the Canadian Arctic Archipelago, particularly:\n", "BULLET::::- Ellesmere Island\n", "BULLET::::- Baffin Island\n", "BULLET::::- Greenland\n", "BULLET::::- Scoresby Sund, the largest fjord in the world\n", "BULLET::::- Søndre Strømfjord or Kangerlussuaq\n", "BULLET::::- Disko Island\n", "BULLET::::- Ilulissat Icefjord, the most productive ice fjord in the world.\n", "BULLET::::- United States:\n", "BULLET::::- Somes Sound, Acadia National Park, Maine\n", "BULLET::::- Hudson River\n", "BULLET::::- most clearly seen at The Palisades\n", "BULLET::::- Puget Sound\n", "BULLET::::- South America\n", "BULLET::::- Argentina:\n", "BULLET::::- Isla de los Estados\n", "BULLET::::- Arctic\n", "BULLET::::- Arctic islands\n", "BULLET::::- Novaya Zemlya\n", "BULLET::::- Severnaya Zemlya\n", "BULLET::::- Antarctica\n", "BULLET::::- South Georgia (UK)\n", "BULLET::::- Kerguelen Islands (France)\n", "BULLET::::- particularly the Antarctic Peninsula\n", "BULLET::::- Sub-Antarctic islands\n", "Section::::Locations.:Extreme fjords.\n", "The longest fjords in the world are:\n", "BULLET::::1. Scoresby Sund in Greenland—\n", "BULLET::::2. Greely Fiord/Tanquary Fiord in Canada— The length of the total fjord system from the head of Tanquary Sound, through Greely Fjord, to the mouth of Nansen Sound is approximately 400 km, making it arguably the longest fjord in the world.\n", "BULLET::::3. Sognefjord in Norway—\n", "BULLET::::4. Independence Fjord in Greenland—\n", "BULLET::::5. Matochkin Shar, Novaya Zemlya, Russia— (a strait with a fjord structure)\n", "Deep fjords include:\n", "BULLET::::1. Skelton Inlet in Antarctica—\n", "BULLET::::2. Sognefjord in Norway— (the mountains then rise to up to and more, Hurrungane reaches )\n", "BULLET::::3. Messier Channel in Tortel, Chile—\n", "BULLET::::4. Baker Channel in Tortel, Chile—\n", "Section::::See also.\n", "BULLET::::- Firth\n", "BULLET::::- Förden and East Jutland Fjorde\n", "BULLET::::- Fjard\n", "BULLET::::- Ria\n", "Section::::External links.\n", "BULLET::::- Use of whales to probe Arctic fjord's secrets\n", "BULLET::::- Fiordland's Marine Reserves Department of Conservation\n", "BULLET::::- Nextstopnorway – Listing of Norwegian fjords\n", "BULLET::::- Saguenay River – The Canadian Atlas Online\n" ] }

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"Heddalsvatnet", "Hjartdal", "Post-glacial rebound", "neolithic", "arctic char", "Slidrefjord", "Flåmsdal", "Flåm", "Måbødalen", "New Zealand", "Lake Te Anau", "Western Brook Pond", "Newfoundland's", "Gros Morne National Park", "Okanagan Lake", "Coast Mountains", "Cascade Range", "Lake Chelan", "Seton Lake", "Chilko Lake", "Atlin Lake", "Kootenay Lake", "Slocan Lake", "Columbia River", "British Columbia Coast", "Owikeno Lake", "Rivers Inlet", "Quesnel Lake", "Georgian Bay", "Lake Huron", "Ontario", "Huron Bay", "Lake Superior", "Michigan", "middle latitudes", "westerly", "orographically lifted", "Puget Sound", "South America", "Chile", "Faroe Islands", "Westfjords", "Eastern Region", "Norway", "Svalbard", "Kola Peninsula", "Fiordland", "South Island", "Lynn Canal", "Glacier Bay", "Portland Canal", "Indian Arm", "Kingcome Inlet", "Hood Canal", "Saglek Fjord", "Nachvak Fjord", "Ungava Bay", "Greenland", "Kangerlussuaq", "Ilulissat Icefjord", "Scoresby Sund", "Saguenay Fjord", "Quebec", 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"Ria", "Use of whales to probe Arctic fjord's secrets", "Fiordland's Marine Reserves", "Nextstopnorway – Listing of Norwegian fjords", "Saguenay River – The Canadian Atlas Online" ], "href": [ "inlet", "glacier", "Alaska", "Antarctica", "British%20Columbia", "Chile", "Greenland", "Faroe%20Islands", "Iceland", "Kamchatka", "Kerguelen%20Islands", "New%20Zealand", "Norway", "Novaya%20Zemlya", "Labrador", "Nunavut", "Newfoundland%20%28island%29", "Quebec", "Scotland", "South%20Georgia%20Island", "Washington%20%28state%29", "Norwegian%20coastline", "glacier", "U-shaped%20valley", "ice%20segregation", "Abrasion%20%28geology%29", "Overdeepening", "U-shaped%20valley", "isostasy", "sea%20level%20rise", "Overdeepening", "Sognefjord", "Norway", "sea%20level", "terminal%20moraine", "Tidal%20rapid", "Saltstraumen", "Tide%23Current", "ria", "Bay%20of%20Kotor", "Drammensfjorden", "Svelvik", "Jens%20Esmark", "John%20Walter%20Gregory", "tectonic", "Caledonian%20fold", "Lyngen", "tertiary", "Bolstadfjorden", "Hardangerfjord", "Jondal", "%C3%85lvik", "Kvam", "Hanging%20valley", "U-shaped%20valley", "tributary", "glacier", "waterfall", "Sognefjord", "Fj%C3%A6rlandsfjord", "Ikjefjord", "Vosso", "Drammensfjorden", "Sognefjord", "Velfjorden", "coral%20reef", "plankton", "coral", "Sea%20anemone", "water%20column", "deep-water%20coral", "Milford%20Sound", "reef", "skerry", "Old%20Norse", "Stavanger", "North%20Cape%2C%20Norway", "Blindleia", "Kristiansand", "Lillesand", "Sweden", "Bohusl%C3%A4n", "Inside%20Passage", "Seattle", "Washington%20%28state%29", "Vancouver", "British%20Columbia", "Skagway%2C%20Alaska", "Alaska", "Straits%20of%20Magellan", "Norwegian%20language", "Norwegian%20dialects", "inlet", "Channel%20%28geography%29", "Oslofjord", "Old%20Norse", "verb", "Old%20Norse", "noun", "lake", "body%20of%20water", "Proto-Indo-European%20language", "Proto-Norse", "Germanic%20languages", "Icelandic%20language", "Swedish%20language", "Scots%20language", "Schleswig-Holstein", "ford%20%28crossing%29", "German%20language", "Low%20German", "Dutch%20language", "Ancient%20Greek", "Latin", "North%20Germanic%20languages", "loanword", "Norwegian%20language", "Grise%20Fiord", "New%20Zealand%20English", "Mj%C3%B8sa", "Randsfjorden", "Tyrifjorden", "Fl%C3%A5", "Hallingdal", "fjard", "bight%20%28geography%29", "Baltic%20Sea", "Finland%20Swedish", "lagoon", "Faroese%20language", "Finnish%20language", "Genitive%20case", "Dative%20case", "F%C3%B8rde", "F%C3%B8rre", "Germanic%20languages", "F%C3%B6rden%20and%20East%20Jutland%20Fjorde", "strait", "Sound%20%28geography%29", "Wexford", "Ireland", "Viking", "estuary", "Old%20Norse", "common%20noun", "Hardanger", "Stavanger", "Geiranger", "English%20language", "North%20Germanic%20languages", "Bay%20of%20Kotor", "Montenegro", "ria", "Lim%20%28Croatia%29", "Istria", "Croatia", "ria", "Croats", "Danish%20language", "Denmark", "Limfjord", "sound%20%28geography%29", "North%20Jutlandic%20Island", "Jutland", "Ringk%C3%B8bing%20Fjord", "Jutland", "lagoon", "Baltic%20Sea", "Finnmark", "Scandinavia", "Oslofjord", "rift%20valley", "Acapulco", "Mexico", "calanque", "moraine", "isthmus", "Eidfjord", "Nordfjordeid", "Eio%20%28river%29", "Eidfjordvatnet", "Nordfjord", "Tyrifjorden", "Mj%C3%B8sa", "Movatnet", "Romarheimsfjorden", "Mofjorden", "Hornindalsvatnet", "moraine-dammed%20lake", "post-glacial%20rebound", "Weichselian%20glaciation", "Viking%20Age", "Drammensfjord", "Hokksund", "Drammen", "Notodden", "Heddalsvatnet", "Hjartdal", "Post-glacial%20rebound", "neolithic", "arctic%20char", "Slidrefjord", "Fl%C3%A5msdalen", "Fl%C3%A5m", "M%C3%A5b%C3%B8dalen", "New%20Zealand", "Lake%20Te%20Anau", "Western%20Brook%20Pond", "Newfoundland%20and%20Labrador", "Gros%20Morne%20National%20Park", "Okanagan%20Lake", "Coast%20Mountains", "Cascade%20Range", "Lake%20Chelan", "Seton%20Lake", "Chilko%20Lake", "Atlin%20Lake", "Kootenay%20Lake", "Slocan%20Lake", "Columbia%20River", "British%20Columbia%20Coast", "Owikeno%20Lake", "Rivers%20Inlet", "Quesnel%20Lake", "Georgian%20Bay", "Lake%20Huron", "Ontario", "Huron%20Bay", "Lake%20Superior", "Michigan", "middle%20latitudes", "westerlies", "Orographic%20lift", "Puget%20Sound", "South%20America", "Chile", "Faroe%20Islands", "Westfjords", "Eastern%20Region%20%28Iceland%29", "Norway", "Svalbard", "Kola%20Peninsula", "Fiordland", "South%20Island", "Lynn%20Canal", "Glacier%20Bay", "Portland%20Canal", "Indian%20Arm", "Kingcome%20Inlet", "Hood%20Canal", "Torngat%20Mountains%20National%20Park%20Reserve", "Nachvak%2C%20Newfoundland%20and%20Labrador", "Ungava%20Bay", "Greenland", "Kangerlussuaq", "Ilulissat%20Icefjord", "Scoresby%20Sund", "Saguenay%20Fjord", "Quebec", "Fjords%20and%20channels%20of%20Chile", "Isla%20de%20los%20Estados", "Lough%20Swilly", "Carlingford%20Lough", "Killary%20Harbour", "List%20of%20fjords%20of%20Russia", "Chukchi%20Peninsula", "Kola%20Peninsula", "Scots%20language", "cognate", "loch", "Loch%20Long", "Loch%20Fyne", "Loch%20Etive", "Bohusl%C3%A4n", "Facheux%20Bay%2C%20Newfoundland%20and%20Labrador", "Bonne%20Bay", "Canadian%20Arctic%20Archipelago", "Ellesmere%20Island", "Baffin%20Island", "Greenland", "Scoresby%20Sund", "Kangerlussuaq", "Kangerlussuaq", "Disko%20Island", "Ilulissat%20Icefjord", "Somes%20Sound", "Acadia%20National%20Park", "Hudson%20River", "The%20Palisades%20%28Hudson%20River%29", "Puget%20Sound", "Isla%20de%20los%20Estados", "Arctic", "List%20of%20islands%20in%20the%20Arctic%20Ocean", "Novaya%20Zemlya", "Severnaya%20Zemlya", "Antarctica%20%28region%29", "South%20Georgia%20and%20the%20South%20Sandwich%20Islands%23Geography", "UK", "Kerguelen%20Islands", "France", "Antarctic%20Peninsula", "List%20of%20Antarctic%20and%20sub-Antarctic%20islands", "Scoresby%20Sund", "Greely%20Fiord", "Tanquary%20Fiord", "Sognefjord", "Independence%20Fjord", "Matochkin%20Shar", "Skelton%20Inlet", "Sognefjord", "Hurrungane", "Messier%20Channel", "Baker%20Channel", "Firth", "F%C3%B6rden%20and%20East%20Jutland%20Fjorde", "Fjard", "Ria", "http%3A//news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/2683797.stm", "http%3A//www.doc.govt.nz/parks-and-recreation/places-to-visit/fiordland/western-fiordland/fiordlands-marine-reserves/features/fiordland-marine-reserves-a-z/", "http%3A//www.nextstopnorway.com/norwegian-fjords", "http%3A//www.canadiangeographic.ca/atlas/themes.aspx%3Fid%3Drivers%26amp%3Bsub%3Drivers_east_saguenay" ], "wikipedia_title": [ "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", 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{ "description": "long, narrow inlet with steep sides or cliffs, created in a valley carved by glacial activity", "enwikiquote_title": "", "wikidata_id": "Q45776", "wikidata_label": "fjord", "wikipedia_title": "Fjord", "aliases": { "alias": [ "fiord" ] } }

{ "pageid": 43598, "parentid": 908759499, "revid": 908759755, "pre_dump": true, "timestamp": "2019-07-31T20:05:55Z", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Fjord&oldid=908759755" }

{ "paragraph": [ "Pension\n", "A pension (, from Latin \"pensiō\", \"payment\") is a fund into which a sum of money is added during an employee's employment years, and from which payments are drawn to support the person's retirement from work in the form of periodic payments. A pension may be a \"defined benefit plan\" where a fixed sum is paid regularly to a person, or a \"defined contribution plan\" under which a fixed sum is invested and then becomes available at retirement age. Pensions should not be confused with severance pay; the former is usually paid in regular installments for life after retirement, while the latter is typically paid as a fixed amount after involuntary termination of employment prior to retirement.\n", "The terms \"retirement plan\" and \"superannuation\" tend to refer to a pension granted upon retirement of the individual. Retirement plans may be set up by employers, insurance companies, the government or other institutions such as employer associations or trade unions. Called \"retirement plans\" in the United States, they are commonly known as \"pension schemes\" in the United Kingdom and Ireland and \"superannuation plans\" (or \"super\") in Australia and New Zealand. Retirement pensions are typically in the form of a guaranteed life annuity, thus insuring against the risk of longevity.\n", "A pension created by an employer for the benefit of an employee is commonly referred to as an occupational or employer pension. Labor unions, the government, or other organizations may also fund pensions. Occupational pensions are a form of deferred compensation, usually advantageous to employee and employer for tax reasons. Many pensions also contain an additional insurance aspect, since they often will pay benefits to survivors or disabled beneficiaries. Other vehicles (certain lottery payouts, for example, or an annuity) may provide a similar stream of payments.\n", "The common use of the term \"pension\" is to describe the payments a person receives upon retirement, usually under pre-determined legal or contractual terms. A recipient of a retirement pension is known as a \"pensioner\" or \"retiree\".\n", "Section::::Types of pensions.\n", "Section::::Types of pensions.:Employment-based pensions.\n", "A retirement plan is an arrangement to provide people with an income during retirement when they are no longer earning a steady income from employment. Often retirement plans require both the employer and employee to contribute money to a fund during their employment in order to receive defined benefits upon retirement. It is a tax deferred savings vehicle that allows for the tax-free accumulation of a fund for later use as a retirement income. Funding can be provided in other ways, such as from labor unions, government agencies, or self-funded schemes. Pension plans are therefore a form of \"deferred compensation\". A SSAS is a type of employment-based Pension in the UK.\n", "Some countries also grant pensions to military veterans. Military pensions are overseen by the government; an example of a standing agency is the United States Department of Veterans Affairs. \"Ad hoc\" committees may also be formed to investigate specific tasks, such as the U.S. Commission on Veterans' Pensions (commonly known as the \"Bradley Commission\") in 1955–56. Pensions may extend past the death of the veteran himself, continuing to be paid to the widow.\n", "Section::::Types of pensions.:Social and state pensions.\n", "Many countries have created funds for their citizens and residents to provide income when they retire (or in some cases become disabled). Typically this requires payments throughout the citizen's working life in order to qualify for benefits later on. A basic state pension is a \"contribution based\" benefit, and depends on an individual's contribution history. For examples, see National Insurance in the UK, or Social Security in the United States of America.\n", "Many countries have also put in place a \"social pension\". These are regular, tax-funded non-contributory cash transfers paid to older people. Over 80 countries have social pensions. Some are universal benefits, given to all older people regardless of income, assets or employment record. Examples of universal pensions include New Zealand Superannuation and the Basic Retirement Pension of Mauritius. Most social pensions, though, are means-tested, such as Supplemental Security Income in the United States of America or the \"older person's grant\" in South Africa.\n", "Section::::Types of pensions.:Disability pensions.\n", "Some pension plans will provide for members in the event they suffer a disability. This may take the form of early entry into a retirement plan for a disabled member below the normal retirement age.\n", "Section::::Benefits.\n", "Retirement plans may be classified as \"defined benefit\" or \"defined contribution\" according to how the benefits are determined. A defined benefit plan guarantees a certain payout at retirement, according to a fixed formula which usually depends on the member's salary and the number of years' membership in the plan. A defined contribution plan will provide a payout at retirement that is dependent upon the amount of money contributed and the performance of the investment vehicles utilized. Hence, with a defined contribution plan the risk and responsibility lies with the employee that the funding will be sufficient through retirement, whereas with the defined benefit plan the risk and responsibility lies with the employer or plan managers.\n", "Some types of retirement plans, such as \"cash balance\" plans, combine features of both defined benefit and defined contribution plans. They are often referred to as \"hybrid\" plans. Such plan designs have become increasingly popular in the US since the 1990s. Examples include Cash Balance and Pension Equity plans.\n", "Section::::Benefits.:Defined benefit plans.\n", "A traditional defined benefit (DB) plan is a plan in which the benefit on retirement is determined by a set formula, rather than depending on investment returns. Government pensions such as Social Security in the United States are a type of defined benefit pension plan. Traditionally, defined benefit plans for employers have been administered by institutions which exist specifically for that purpose, by large businesses, or, for government workers, by the government itself. A traditional form of defined benefit plan is the \"final salary\" plan, under which the pension paid is equal to the number of years worked, multiplied by the member's salary at retirement, multiplied by a factor known as the \"accrual rate\". The final accrued amount is available as a monthly pension or a lump sum, but usually monthly.\n", "The benefit in a defined benefit pension plan is determined by a formula that can incorporate the employee's pay, years of employment, age at retirement, and other factors. A simple example is a Dollars Times Service plan design that provides a certain amount per month based on the time an employee works for a company. For example, a plan offering $100 a month per year of service would provide $3,000 per month to a retiree with 30 years of service. While this type of plan is popular among unionized workers, Final Average Pay (FAP) remains the most common type of defined benefit plan offered in the United States. In FAP plans, the average salary over the final years of an employee's career determines the benefit amount.\n", "Averaging salary over a number of years means that the calculation is averaging different dollars. For example, if salary is averaged over five years, and retirement is in 2009, then salary in 2004 dollars is averaged with salary in 2005 dollars, etc., with 2004 dollars being worth more than the dollars of succeeding years. The pension is then paid in first year of retirement dollars, in this example 2009 dollars, with the lowest value of any dollars in the calculation. Thus inflation in the salary averaging years has a considerable impact on purchasing power and cost, both being reduced equally by inflation\n", "This effect of inflation can be eliminated by converting salaries in the averaging years to first year of retirement dollars, and then averaging.\n", "In the US, specifies a defined benefit plan to be any pension plan that is not a defined contribution plan (see below) where a defined contribution plan is any plan with individual accounts. A traditional pension plan that \"defines\" a \"benefit\" for an employee upon that employee's retirement is a defined benefit plan. In the U.S., corporate defined benefit plans, along with many other types of defined benefit plans, are governed by the Employee Retirement Income Security Act of 1974 (ERISA).\n", "In the United Kingdom, benefits are typically indexed for inflation (known as Retail Prices Index (RPI)) as required by law for registered pension plans. Inflation during an employee's retirement affects the purchasing power of the pension; the higher the inflation rate, the lower the purchasing power of a fixed annual pension. This effect can be mitigated by providing annual increases to the pension at the rate of inflation (usually capped, for instance at 5% in any given year). This method is advantageous for the employee since it stabilizes the purchasing power of pensions to some extent.\n", "If the pension plan allows for early retirement, payments are often reduced to recognize that the retirees will receive the payouts for longer periods of time. In the United States, under the Employee Retirement Income Security Act of 1974, any reduction factor less than or equal to the actuarial early retirement reduction factor is acceptable.\n", "Many DB plans include early retirement provisions to encourage employees to retire early, before the attainment of normal retirement age (usually age 65). Companies would rather hire younger employees at lower wages. Some of those provisions come in the form of additional \"temporary\" or \"supplemental benefits\", which are payable to a certain age, usually before attaining normal retirement age.\n", "Section::::Benefits.:Defined benefit plans.:Funding.\n", "Defined benefit plans may be either \"funded\" or \"unfunded\".\n", "In an \"unfunded\" defined benefit pension, no assets are set aside and the benefits are paid for by the employer or other pension sponsor as and when they are paid. Pension arrangements provided by the state in most countries in the world are unfunded, with benefits paid directly from current workers' contributions and taxes. This method of financing is known as \"pay-as-you-go\". The social security systems of many European countries are unfunded, having benefits paid directly out of current taxes and social security contributions, although several countries have hybrid systems which are partially funded. Spain set up the Social Security Reserve Fund and France set up the Pensions Reserve Fund; in Canada the wage-based retirement plan (CPP) is partially funded, with assets managed by the CPP Investment Board while the U.S. Social Security system is partially funded by investment in special U.S. Treasury Bonds.\n", "In a \"funded\" plan, contributions from the employer, and sometimes also from plan members, are invested in a fund towards meeting the benefits. All plans must be funded in some way, even if they are pay-as-you-go, so this type of plan is more accurately known as \"pre-funded\". The future returns on the investments, and the future benefits to be paid, are not known in advance, so there is no guarantee that a given level of contributions will be enough to meet the benefits. Typically, the contributions to be paid are regularly reviewed in a valuation of the plan's assets and liabilities, carried out by an actuary to ensure that the pension fund will meet future payment obligations. This means that in a defined benefit pension, investment risk and investment rewards are typically assumed by the sponsor/employer and not by the individual. If a plan is not well-funded, the plan sponsor may not have the financial resources to continue funding the plan.\n", "Section::::Benefits.:Defined benefit plans.:Criticisms.\n", "Traditional defined benefit plan designs (because of their typically flat accrual rate and the decreasing time for interest discounting as people get closer to retirement age) tend to exhibit a J-shaped accrual pattern of benefits, where the present value of benefits grows quite slowly early in an employee's career and accelerates significantly in mid-career: in other words it costs more to fund the pension for older employees than for younger ones (an \"age bias\"). Defined benefit pensions tend to be less portable than defined contribution plans, even if the plan allows a lump sum cash benefit at termination. Most plans, however, pay their benefits as an annuity, so retirees do not bear the risk of low investment returns on contributions or of outliving their retirement income. The open-ended nature of these risks to the employer is the reason given by many employers for switching from defined benefit to defined contribution plans over recent years. The risks to the employer can sometimes be mitigated by discretionary elements in the benefit structure, for instance in the rate of increase granted on accrued pensions, both before and after retirement.\n", "The age bias, reduced portability and open ended risk make defined benefit plans better suited to large employers with less mobile workforces, such as the public sector (which has open-ended support from taxpayers). This coupled with a lack of foresight on the employers part means a large proportion of the workforce are kept in the dark over future investment schemes.\n", "Defined benefit plans are sometimes criticized as being paternalistic as they enable employers or plan trustees to make decisions about the type of benefits and family structures and lifestyles of their employees. However they are typically more valuable than defined contribution plans in most circumstances and for most employees (mainly because the employer tends to pay higher contributions than under defined contribution plans), so such criticism is rarely harsh.\n", "The \"cost\" of a defined benefit plan is not easily calculated, and requires an actuary or actuarial software. However, even with the best of tools, the cost of a defined benefit plan will always be an estimate based on economic and financial assumptions. These assumptions include the average retirement age and lifespan of the employees, the returns to be earned by the pension plan's investments and any additional taxes or levies, such as those required by the Pension Benefit Guaranty Corporation in the U.S. So, for this arrangement, the benefit is relatively secure but the contribution is uncertain even when estimated by a professional. This has serious cost considerations and risks for the employer offering a pension plan.\n", "One of the growing concerns with defined benefit plans is that the level of future obligations will outpace the value of assets held by the plan. This \"underfunding\" dilemma can be faced by any type of defined benefit plan, private or public, but it is most acute in governmental and other public plans where political pressures and less rigorous accounting standards can result in excessive commitments to employees and retirees, but inadequate contributions. Many states and municipalities across the United States of America and Canada now face chronic pension crises.\n", "Section::::Benefits.:Defined benefit plans.:Examples.\n", "Many countries offer state-sponsored retirement benefits, beyond those provided by employers, which are funded by payroll or other taxes. In the United States, the Social Security system is similar in function to a defined benefit pension arrangement, albeit one that is constructed differently from a pension offered by a private employer; however, Social Security is distinct in that there is no legally guaranteed level of benefits derived from the amount paid into the program.\n", "Individuals that have worked in the UK and have paid certain levels of national insurance deductions can expect an income from the state pension scheme after their normal retirement. The state pension is currently divided into two parts: the basic state pension, State Second [tier] Pension scheme called S2P. Individuals will qualify for the basic state pension if they have completed sufficient years contribution to their national insurance record. The S2P pension scheme is earnings related and depends on earnings in each year as to how much an individual can expect to receive. It is possible for an individual to forgo the S2P payment from the state, in lieu of a payment made to an appropriate pension scheme of their choice, during their working life. For more details see UK pension provision.\n", "Section::::Benefits.:Defined contribution plans.\n", "In a defined contribution plan, contributions are paid into an individual account for each member. The contributions are invested, for example in the stock market, and the returns on the investment (which may be positive or negative) are credited to the individual's account. On retirement, the member's account is used to provide retirement benefits, sometimes through the purchase of an annuity which then provides a regular income. Defined contribution plans have become widespread all over the world in recent years, and are now the dominant form of plan in the private sector in many countries. For example, the number of defined benefit plans in the US has been steadily declining, as more and more employers see pension contributions as a large expense avoidable by disbanding the defined benefit plan and instead offering a defined contribution plan.\n", "Money contributed can either be from employee salary deferral or from employer contributions. The portability of defined contribution pensions is legally no different from the portability of defined benefit plans. However, because of the cost of administration and ease of determining the plan sponsor's liability for defined contribution plans (you do not need to pay an actuary to calculate the lump sum equivalent that you do for defined benefit plans) in practice, defined contribution plans have become generally portable.\n", "In a defined contribution plan, investment risk and investment rewards are assumed by each individual/employee/retiree and not by the sponsor/employer, and these risks may be substantial. In addition, participants do not necessarily purchase annuities with their savings upon retirement, and bear the risk of outliving their assets. (In the United Kingdom, for instance, it is a legal requirement to use the bulk of the fund to purchase an annuity.)\n", "The \"cost\" of a defined contribution plan is readily calculated, but the benefit from a defined contribution plan depends upon the account balance at the time an employee is looking to use the assets. So, for this arrangement, the \"contribution is known\" but the \"benefit is unknown\" (until calculated).\n", "Despite the fact that the participant in a defined contribution plan typically has control over investment decisions, the plan sponsor retains a significant degree of fiduciary responsibility over investment of plan assets, including the selection of investment options and administrative providers.\n", "A defined contribution plan typically involves a number of service providers, including in many cases:\n", "BULLET::::- Trustee\n", "BULLET::::- Custodian\n", "BULLET::::- Administrator\n", "BULLET::::- Recordkeeper\n", "BULLET::::- Auditor\n", "BULLET::::- Legal counsel\n", "Section::::Benefits.:Defined contribution plans.:Examples.\n", "In the United States, the legal definition of a defined contribution plan is a plan providing for an individual account for each participant, and for benefits based solely on the amount contributed to the account, plus or minus income, gains, expenses and losses allocated to the account (see ). Examples of defined contribution plans in the United States include individual retirement accounts (IRAs) and 401(k) plans. In such plans, the employee is responsible, to one degree or another, for selecting the types of investments toward which the funds in the retirement plan are allocated. This may range from choosing one of a small number of pre-determined mutual funds to selecting individual stocks or other securities. Most self-directed retirement plans are characterized by certain tax advantages, and some provide for a portion of the employee's contributions to be matched by the employer. In exchange, the funds in such plans may not be withdrawn by the investor prior to reaching a certain age—typically the year the employee reaches 59.5 years old-- (with a small number of exceptions) without incurring a substantial penalty.\n", "In the US, defined contribution plans are subject to IRS limits on how much can be contributed, known as the section 415 limit. In 2009, the total deferral amount, including employee contribution plus employer contribution, was limited to $49,000 or 100% of compensation, whichever is less. The employee-only limit in 2009 was $16,500 with a $5,500 catch-up. These numbers usually increase each year and are indexed to compensate for the effects of inflation. For 2015, the limits were raised to $53,000 and $18,000, respectively.\n", "Examples of defined contribution pension schemes in other countries are, the UK's personal pensions and proposed National Employment Savings Trust (NEST), Germany's Riester plans, Australia's Superannuation system and New Zealand's KiwiSaver scheme. Individual pension savings plans also exist in Austria, Czech Republic, Denmark, Greece, Finland, Ireland, Netherlands, Slovenia and Spain\n", "Section::::Benefits.:Hybrid and cash balance plans.\n", "Hybrid plan designs combine the features of defined benefit and defined contribution plan designs.\n", "A cash balance plan is a defined benefit plan made to appear as if it were a defined contribution plan. They have \"notional balances\" in hypothetical accounts where, typically, each year the plan administrator will contribute an amount equal to a certain percentage of each participant's salary; a second contribution, called \"interest credit\", is made as well. These are not actual contributions and further discussion is beyond the scope of this entry suffice it to say that there is currently much controversy.\n", "In general, they are usually treated as defined benefit plans for tax, accounting and regulatory purposes. As with defined benefit plans, investment risk in hybrid designs is largely borne by the plan sponsor. As with defined contribution designs, plan benefits are expressed in the terms of a notional \"account balance,\" and are usually paid as cash balances upon termination of employment. These features make them more portable than traditional defined benefit plans and perhaps more attractive to a more highly mobile workforce.\n", "Target benefit plans are defined contribution plans made to match (or resemble) defined benefit plans.\n", "Section::::Benefits.:Contrasting types of retirement plans.\n", "Advocates of defined contribution plans point out that each employee has the ability to tailor the investment portfolio to his or her individual needs and financial situation, including the choice of how much to contribute, if anything at all. However, others state that these apparent advantages could also hinder some workers who might not possess the financial savvy to choose the correct investment vehicles or have the discipline to voluntarily contribute money to retirement accounts. This debate parallels the discussion currently going on in the U.S., where many Republican leaders favor transforming the Social Security system, at least in part, to a self-directed investment plan.\n", "Section::::Financing.\n", "Defined contribution pensions, by definition, are funded, as the \"guarantee\" made to employees is that specified (defined) contributions will be made during an individual's working life.\n", "There are many ways to finance a pension and save for retirement. Pension plans can be set up by an employer, matching a monetary contribution each month, by the state or personally through a pension scheme with a financial institution, such as a bank or brokerage firm. Pension plans often come with a tax break depending on the country and plan type.\n", "For example, Canadians have the option to open a Registered Retirement Savings Plan (RRSP), as well as a range of employee and state pension programs. This plan allows contributions to this account to be marked as un-taxable income and remain un-taxed until withdrawal. Most countries' governments will provide advice on pension schemes.\n", "Section::::History.\n", "Widows' funds were among the first pension type arrangement to appear, for example Duke Ernest the Pious of Gotha in Germany, founded a widows' fund for clergy in 1645 and another for teachers in 1662. 'Various schemes of provision for ministers' widows were then established throughout Europe at about the start of the eighteenth century, some based on a single premium others based on yearly premiums to be distributed as benefits in the same year.'\n", "Section::::History.:Germany.\n", "As part of Otto von Bismarck's social legislation, the Old Age and Disability Insurance Bill in 1889. The Old Age Pension program, financed by a tax on workers, was originally designed to provide a pension annuity for workers who reached the age of 70 years, though this was lowered to 65 years in 1916. It is sometimes claimed that at the time life expectancy for the average Prussian was 45 years; in fact this figure is due to the very high infant mortality and high maternal death rate from childbirth of this era.\n", "In fact, an adult entering into insurance under the scheme would on average live to 70 years of age, a figure used in the actuarial assumptions included in the legislation.\n", "Section::::History.:Ireland.\n", "There is a history of pensions in Ireland that can be traced back to Brehon Law imposing a legal responsibility on the kin group to take care of its members who were aged, blind, deaf, sick or insane. For a discussion on pension funds and early Irish law, see F Kelly, \"A Guide to Early Irish Law\" (Dublin, Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies, 1988). In 2010, there were over 76,291 pension schemes operating in Ireland.\n", "Today the Republic of Ireland has a two-tiered approach to the provision of pensions or retirement benefits. First, there is a state social welfare retirement pension, which promises a basic level of pension. This is a flat rate pension, funded by the national social insurance system and is termed Pay Related Social Insurance or PRSI. Secondly, there are the occupational pension schemes and self-employed arrangements, which supplement the state pension.\n", "Section::::History.:United Kingdom.\n", "Until the 20th century, poverty was seen as a quasi-criminal state, and this was reflected in the Vagabonds and Beggars Act 1495 that imprisoned beggars. During Elizabethan and Victorian times, English poor laws represented a shift whereby the poor were seen merely as morally degenerate, and were expected to perform forced labour in workhouses.\n", "The beginning of the modern state pension was the Old Age Pensions Act 1908, that provided 5 shillings (£0.25) a week for those over 70 whose annual means do not exceed £31.50. It coincided with the Royal Commission on the Poor Laws and Relief of Distress 1905-09 and was the first step in the Liberal welfare reforms to the completion of a system of social security, with unemployment and health insurance through the National Insurance Act 1911.\n", "After the Second World War, the National Insurance Act 1946 completed universal coverage of social security. The National Assistance Act 1948 formally abolished the poor law, and gave a minimum income to those not paying national insurance.\n", "The early 1990s established the existing framework for state pensions in the Social Security Contributions and Benefits Act 1992 and Superannuation and other Funds (Validation) Act 1992. Following the highly respected Goode Report, occupational pensions were covered by comprehensive statutes in the Pension Schemes Act 1993 and the Pensions Act 1995.\n", "In 2002 the Pensions Commission was established as a cross party body to review pensions in the United Kingdom. The first Act to follow was the Pensions Act 2004 that updated regulation by replacing OPRA with the Pensions Regulator and relaxing the stringency of minimum funding requirements for pensions, while ensuring protection for insolvent businesses. In a major update of the state pension, the Pensions Act 2007, which aligned and raised retirement ages. Following that, the Pensions Act 2008 has set up automatic enrolment for occupational pensions, and a public competitor designed to be a low-cost and efficient fund manager, called the National Employment Savings Trust (or \"Nest\").\n", "Section::::History.:United States.\n", "Public pensions got their start with various 'promises', informal and legislated, made to veterans of the Revolutionary War and, more extensively, the Civil War. They were expanded greatly, and began to be offered by a number of state and local governments during the early Progressive Era in the late nineteenth century.\n", "Federal civilian pensions were offered under the Civil Service Retirement System (CSRS), formed in 1920. CSRS provided retirement, disability and survivor benefits for most civilian employees in the US Federal government, until the creation of a new Federal agency, the Federal Employees Retirement System (FERS), in 1987.\n", "Pension plans became popular in the United States during World War II, when wage freezes prohibited outright increases in workers' pay. The defined benefit plan had been the most popular and common type of retirement plan in the United States through the 1980s; since that time, defined contribution plans have become the more common type of retirement plan in the United States and many other western countries.\n", "In April 2012, the Northern Mariana Islands Retirement Fund filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy protection. The retirement fund is a defined benefit type pension plan and was only partially funded by the government, with only $268.4 million in assets and $911 million in liabilities. The plan experienced low investment returns and a benefit structure that had been increased without raises in funding.\n", "According to \"Pensions and Investments\", this is \"apparently the first\" US public pension plan to declare bankruptcy.\n", "Section::::Current challenges.\n", "A growing challenge for many nations is population ageing. As birth rates drop and life expectancy increases an ever-larger portion of the population is elderly. This leaves fewer workers for each retired person. In many developed countries this means that government and public sector pensions could potentially be a drag on their economies unless pension systems are reformed or taxes are increased. One method of reforming the pension system is to increase the retirement age. Two exceptions are Australia and Canada, where the pension system is forecast to be solvent for the foreseeable future. In Canada, for instance, the annual payments were increased by some 70% in 1998 to achieve this. These two nations also have an advantage from their relative openness to immigration: immigrants tend to be of working age. However, their populations are not growing as fast as the U.S., which supplements a high immigration rate with one of the highest birthrates among Western countries. Thus, the population in the U.S. is not ageing to the extent as those in Europe, Australia, or Canada.\n", "Another growing challenge is the recent trend of states and businesses in the United States purposely under-funding their pension schemes in order to push the costs onto the federal government. For example, in 2009, the majority of states have unfunded pension liabilities exceeding all reported state debt. Bradley Belt, former executive director of the PBGC (the Pension Benefit Guaranty Corporation, the federal agency that insures private-sector defined-benefit pension plans in the event of bankruptcy), testified before a Congressional hearing in October 2004, \"I am particularly concerned with the temptation, and indeed, growing tendency, to use the pension insurance fund as a means to obtain an interest-free and risk-free loan to enable companies to restructure. Unfortunately, the current calculation appears to be that shifting pension liabilities onto other premium payers or potentially taxpayers is the path of least resistance rather than a last resort.\"\n", "Challenges have further been increased by the post-2007 credit crunch. Total funding of the nation's 100 largest corporate pension plans fell by $303bn in 2008, going from a $86bn surplus at the end of 2007 to a $217bn deficit at the end of 2008.\n", "Section::::Pension systems by country.\n", "Pension systems by country:\n", "Section::::Notable examples of pension systems by country.\n", "Some of the listed systems might also be considered social insurance.\n", "BULLET::::- Argentina - Administración Nacional de la Seguridad Social\n", "BULLET::::- Australia:\n", "BULLET::::- Superannuation in Australia - Private, and compulsory, individual retirement contribution system.\n", "BULLET::::- Social Security - Public pensions\n", "BULLET::::- Austria:\n", "BULLET::::- Pensions in Austria\n", "BULLET::::- Canada:\n", "BULLET::::- Canada Pension Plan\n", "BULLET::::- Old Age Security\n", "BULLET::::- Quebec Pension Plan\n", "BULLET::::- Registered Retirement Savings Plan\n", "BULLET::::- Saskatchewan Pension Plan\n", "BULLET::::- Hong Kong - Mandatory Provident Fund\n", "BULLET::::- Finland - Kansaneläkelaitos\n", "BULLET::::- France:\n", "BULLET::::- Pensions in France\n", "BULLET::::- Allocation de Solidarité aux Personnes Agées\n", "BULLET::::- Pensions Reserve Fund (France)\n", "BULLET::::- India :\n", "BULLET::::- National Pension System\n", "BULLET::::- Employees' Provident Fund Organisation of India\n", "BULLET::::- Japan - National Pension\n", "BULLET::::- Malaysia - Employees Provident Fund\n", "BULLET::::- Mexico - Mexico Pension Plan\n", "BULLET::::- Netherlands - Algemene Ouderdomswet\n", "BULLET::::- New Zealand\n", "BULLET::::- New Zealand Superannuation – public pensions\n", "BULLET::::- KiwiSaver – Private voluntary retirement contribution system\n", "BULLET::::- Poland - Social Insurance Institution\n", "BULLET::::- Singapore - Central Provident Fund\n", "BULLET::::- South Korea - National Pension Service\n", "BULLET::::- Sweden - Social security in Sweden\n", "BULLET::::- Switzerland Pension system in Switzerland\n", "BULLET::::- United Kingdom:\n", "BULLET::::- UK pension provision (generally)\n", "BULLET::::- Self-invested personal pensions\n", "BULLET::::- United States:\n", "BULLET::::- Public employee pensions\n", "BULLET::::- Retirement plans in the United States\n", "BULLET::::- Social Security\n", "BULLET::::- Vanuatu - Vanuatu National Provident Fund\n", "Section::::See also.\n", "BULLET::::- Elderly care\n", "BULLET::::- Financial advisor and Fee-only financial advisor\n", "BULLET::::- Generational accounting\n", "BULLET::::- Pension led funding\n", "BULLET::::- Pension model\n", "BULLET::::- Pensions crisis\n", "BULLET::::- Public debt\n", "BULLET::::- Retirement\n", "BULLET::::- Retirement age\n", "BULLET::::- Retirement planning\n", "BULLET::::- Social pension\n", "Specific:\n", "BULLET::::- Bankruptcy code\n", "BULLET::::- Ham and Eggs Movement, California pension proposal of the 1930s-40s\n", "BULLET::::- Individual Pension Plan (IPP)\n", "BULLET::::- Pension Rights Center\n", "BULLET::::- Provident Fund\n", "BULLET::::- Roth 401(k)\n", "BULLET::::- Universities Superannuation Scheme\n", "Section::::External links.\n", "BULLET::::- US Retirement\n", "BULLET::::- UK State pension\n" ] }

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{ "description": "retirement pension", "enwikiquote_title": "", "wikidata_id": "Q156223", "wikidata_label": "pension", "wikipedia_title": "Pension", "aliases": { "alias": [] } }

{ "pageid": 43613, "parentid": 891840696, "revid": 895624652, "pre_dump": true, "timestamp": "2019-05-05T15:05:04Z", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pension&oldid=895624652" }

{ "paragraph": [ "Arsinoe II\n", "Arsinoë II (, 316 BC – unknown date between July 270 and 260 BC) was a Ptolemaic queen and co-regent of the Ptolemaic Kingdom of ancient Egypt.\n", "Arsinoe was queen of Thrace, Anatolia and Macedonia by marriage to King Lysimachus () and co-ruler of the Ptolemaic Kingdom with her brother-husband, Pharaoh Ptolemy II Philadelphus ( \"Ptolemy the Sibling-Loving\"). Arsinoe was given the unprecedented Egyptian title \"King of Upper and Lower Egypt\", marking her as a full pharaoh.\n", "Section::::Life.\n", "Section::::Life.:Early life.\n", "Arsinoë was the first daughter of Pharaoh Ptolemy I Soter (Greek: Πτολεμαίος Σωτήρ, \"Ptolemy the Savior\"), founder of the Hellenistic state of Egypt, and his second wife Berenice I of Egypt.\n", "She was born in Memphis, but was raised in the new city of Alexandria, where her father moved his capital early on. Nothing is known of her childhood or education, but judging from her later life as patron of scholars and noted for her learning, she is estimated to have been given a high education. Her brothers were tutored by intellectuals hired by their fathers, and it is regarded likely that she attended these lessons as well: she corresponded with the intellectual Strato of Lampsacus later in life, and he may have previously been her tutor.\n", "Section::::Life.:Queen of Lysimachus.\n", "At about age 15, Arsinoë married King Lysimachus (who was then around 60 years old), with whom she had three sons: Ptolemy Epigonos, Lysimachus, and Philip. \n", "In order to position her sons for the throne, she had Lysimachus' first son, Agathocles, poisoned on account of treason.\n", "Arsinoe reportedly paid for a rotunda in the Samothrace temple complex, where she was likely an initiate.\n", "Section::::Life.:Queen of Ptolemy Keraunos.\n", "After Lysimachus' death in battle in 281 BC, she fled to Cassandreia () and married her paternal half-brother Ptolemy Keraunos, one of the sons of Ptolemy I Soter from his previous wife, Eurydice of Egypt. The marriage was for political reasons as they both claimed the throne of Macedonia and Thrace (by the time of his death Lysimachus was ruler of both regions, and his power extended to southern Greece and Anatolia). Their relationship was never good. \n", "As Ptolemy Keraunos was becoming more powerful, she decided it was time to stop him and conspired against him with her sons. This action caused Ptolemy Keraunus to kill two of her sons, Lysimachus and Philip, while the eldest, Ptolemy, was able to escape and to flee north, to the kingdom of the Dardanians. \n", "She herself sought refuge in the Samothrace temple complex, which she had benefited during her tenure as queen. She eventually left from Samothrace for Alexandria, Egypt, to seek protection from her brother, Ptolemy II Philadelphus. \n", "It is not known which year she left for Egypt. She may have left so early as 280, directly after the murder of the younger sons, or as late as 276, when the claim of her eldest son to the Macedonian throne had clearly failed after the succession of Antigonus II Gonatas. \n", "Section::::Life.:Queen of Egypt.\n", "In Egypt, she is believed to have instigated the accusation and exile of her brother Ptolemy II's first wife, Arsinoe I. Whether this was actually true is unknown: it is not known which year she arrived in Egypt, and her sister-in-law may already have been exiled at that point, or her divorce may have taken place without her involvement.\n", "Whatever the case, after the divorce of Ptolemy, Arsinoe II then married her brother. As a result, both were given the epithet \"Philadelphoi\" ( \"Sibling-loving (plural)\") by the presumably scandalized Greeks. The closer circumstances and reasons behind the marriage is not known. \n", "Her role as queen was unprecedented in the dynasty at the time and became a role model for later Ptolemaic queens: she acted alongside her brother in ritual and public display, became a religious and literal patron and was included in the Egyptian and Greek cults created by him for them. Sharing in all of her brother's titles, she apparently was quite influential, having towns dedicated to her, her own cult (as was Egyptian custom), appearing on coinage and contributing to foreign policy, including Ptolemy II's victory in the First Syrian War between Egypt and the Seleucid Empire. \n", "According to Posidippus, she won three chariot races at the Olympic Games, probably in 272 BC.\n", "Section::::Legacy.\n", "After her death, Ptolemy II continued to refer to her on official documents, as well as supporting her coinage and cult. In establishing her worship as a goddess he justified his own cult.\n", "Section::::See also.\n", "BULLET::::- Arsinoitherium\n", "Section::::Bibliography.\n", "BULLET::::- H. Bengtson, Griechische Geschichte von den Anfängen bis in die römische Kaiserzeit, C.H.Beck, 1977\n", "BULLET::::- R.A. Billows, Kings and colonists: aspects of Macedonian imperialism, BRILL, 1995\n", "Section::::Further reading.\n", "BULLET::::- S.M. Burstein, \"Arsinoe II Philadelphos: A Revisionist View\", in W.L. Adams and E.N. Borza (eds), \"Philip II, Alexander the Great and the Macedonian Heritage\" (Washington, 1982), 197-212\n", "BULLET::::- P. McKechnie and P. Guillaume (eds) \"Ptolemy II Philadelphus and his World\". Leiden, 2008.\n", "BULLET::::- M. Nilsson, \"The Crown of Arsinoë II: The Creation of an Image of Authority\". Oxford, 2012.\n", "BULLET::::- D. L. Selden, Daniel L. \"Alibis\". \"Classical Antiquity\" 17 (2), October 1998.\n", "Section::::External links.\n", "BULLET::::- Coin with her portrait\n", "BULLET::::- Encyclopædia Britannica\n", "BULLET::::- Arsinoe II entry in historical sourcebook by Mahlon H. Smith\n" ] }

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{ "description": "Ptolemaic Greek Princess of Ancient Egypt and Queen of Thrace, Asia Minor and Macedonia", "enwikiquote_title": "", "wikidata_id": "Q40234", "wikidata_label": "Arsinoe II", "wikipedia_title": "Arsinoe II", "aliases": { "alias": [ "Arsinoë II" ] } }

{ "pageid": 43616, "parentid": 901021608, "revid": 902744338, "pre_dump": true, "timestamp": "2019-06-20T23:18:22Z", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Arsinoe%20II&oldid=902744338" }

{ "paragraph": [ "Black panther\n", "A black panther is the melanistic colour variant of any \"Panthera\" species. Black panthers in Asia and Africa are leopards (\"P. pardus\"), and those in the Americas are jaguars (\"P. onca\").\n", "Section::::Melanism in the genus \"Panthera\".\n", "Melanism in the jaguar is conferred by a dominant allele, and in the leopard (\"Panthera pardus\") by a recessive allele. Close examination of the colour of these black cats will show that the typical markings are still present, but are hidden by the excess black pigment melanin, giving an effect similar to that of printed silk. This is called \"ghost striping\". Melanistic and non-melanistic animals can be littermates. It is thought that melanism may confer a selective advantage under certain conditions since it is more common in regions of dense forest, where light levels are lower. Recently, preliminary studies also suggest that melanism might be linked to beneficial mutations in the immune system.\n", "Section::::Melanism in the genus \"Panthera\".:Leopard.\n", "Frequency of melanism appears to be approximately 11% over the species range. Data on the distribution of leopard populations indicates that melanism occurs in five subspecies in the wild: Javan leopard (\"P. p. melas\"), African leopard (\"P. p. pardus\"), Indian leopard (\"P. p. fusca\"), Indochinese leopard (\"P. p. delacouri\"), Sri Lankan leopard (\"P. p. kotiya\"), and has been documented in two other subspecies: Arabian leopard and Amur leopard (\"P. p. orientalis\") in captivity. Black leopards are common in the equatorial rainforest of the Malay Peninsula and the tropical rainforest on the slopes of some African mountains such as Mount Kenya. Melanistic leopards are common in Java, and are reported from densely forested areas in southwestern China, Myanmar, Assam and Nepal, from Travancore and some parts of southern India where they may be more numerous than spotted leopards.\n", "In North Africa, dark leopards have been reported in the Atlas Mountains. A black leopard was reported from the alpine zone of Mount Kenya. Black leopards also occur in Kenya's Aberdare Mountains and in Ethiopia. Unconfirmed reports of black leopards exist also in South Africa and in northern Iran. Based on records from camera-traps, melanistic leopards occur foremost in tropical and subtropical moist forests.\n", "In 2019, a black leopard was recorded in Kenya's Laikipia County.\n", "The taxonomic status of captive black leopards and the extent of hybridization between different subspecies is uncertain. Therefore, coordinated breeding programs for black leopards do not exist in European and North American zoos. Black leopards occupy space needed for breeding of endangered leopard subspecies and are not kept within the North American Species Survival Plan.\n", "A pseudo-melanistic leopard has a normal background color, but the spots are more densely packed than normal and merge to obscure the golden-brown background color. Any spots on the flanks and limbs that have not merged into the mass of swirls and stripes are unusually small and discrete, rather than forming rosettes. The face and underparts are paler and dappled like those of ordinary spotted leopards.\n", "Section::::Melanism in the genus \"Panthera\".:Jaguar.\n", "In jaguars, the melanism allele is dominant. Consequently, black jaguars may produce either black or spotted cubs, but a pair of spotted jaguars can only produce spotted cubs. Individuals with two copies of the allele are darker (the black background colour is more dense) than ones with just one copy, whose background colour may appear to be dark charcoal rather than black.\n", "The black jaguar was considered a separate species by indigenous peoples. English naturalist W. H. Hudson wrote:\n", "Section::::Melanism in the genus \"Panthera\".:Jaguar × lion.\n", "In 2006 a black jaguar named \"Diablo\" was inadvertently crossed with a lioness named \"Lola\" at the Bear Creek Wildlife Sanctuary in Barrie, Ontario, Canada.\n", "Section::::Unconfirmed cases.\n", "Section::::Unconfirmed cases.:Cougar.\n", "There are no authenticated cases of truly melanistic cougars. Melanistic cougars have never been photographed or killed in the wild, and none have ever been bred. Unconfirmed sightings, known as the \"North American black panther\", are currently attributed to errors in species identification by non-experts, and by the mimetic exaggeration of size. Black panthers in the American Southeast feature prominently in Choctaw folklore where, along with the owl, they are often thought to symbolize Death.\n", "In his \"Histoire Naturelle\" (1749), French naturalist Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon, wrote of the \"Black Cougar\":\n", "This \"black cougar\" was most likely a margay or ocelot, which are under in weight, live in trees, and do have melanistic phases.\n", "Another description of a black cougar was provided by Thomas Pennant:\n", "According to his translator Smellie (1781), the description was taken from two black jaguars exhibited in London some years previously.\n", "Section::::Unconfirmed cases.:Australia.\n", "Black panther sightings are frequently recorded in rural Victoria and New South Wales, and Western Australia. The Australian \"phantom panthers\" are said to be responsible for the disappearances and deaths of numerous cats, dogs and livestock.\n", "\"\" led an investigation into the phantom panther. Mike Williams, a local researcher, said he had sent feces and hair found by locals to labs for analysis, which identified it as feces from dogs that had feasted on swamp wallaby, and hair from a domestic cat. Williams said he also had known leopard feces and hair collected from a private zoo tested by one of the same labs, but that these samples came back with the same results of dog feces and domestic cat hair. This indicated the lab incapable of distinguishing between leopard hairs and those of domestic animals, casting doubt on the previous findings. The lab used was not identified in the episode.\n", "Section::::Culture and literature.\n", "BULLET::::- Bagheera in \"The Jungle Book\" by Rudyard Kipling is an Indian panther that mentors the human character Mowgli.\n", "BULLET::::- The Black Panther Party was an African-American political organization.\n", "BULLET::::- The Black Panther is a Marvel Comics superhero based in the fictional African country of Wakanda.\n", "BULLET::::- The NFL football team the Carolina Panthers is named after the black panther, with a logo resembling the animal.\n", "BULLET::::- The National Rugby League team the Penrith Panthers is named after the black panther, with a logo of the animal.\n", "Section::::See also.\n", "BULLET::::- Black cat\n", "BULLET::::- Black tiger (animal)\n", "BULLET::::- Keimu\n", "BULLET::::- Pogeyan\n", "BULLET::::- White panther\n", "Section::::External links.\n", "BULLET::::- Photographs of a melanistic bobcat and a melanistic jaguar – Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission\n", "BULLET::::- Mutant Leopards, Mutant Jaguars and Mutant Pumas (text licensed under GFDL)\n", "BULLET::::- Photograph of a black or dark cougar\n" ] }

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{ "description": "melanistic color variant of any of several species of larger cat", "enwikiquote_title": "", "wikidata_id": "Q207963", "wikidata_label": "black panther", "wikipedia_title": "Black panther", "aliases": { "alias": [] } }

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{ "paragraph": [ "Method\n", "Method (, methodos) literally means a pursuit of knowledge, investigation, mode of prosecuting such inquiry, or system. In recent centuries it more often means a prescribed process for completing a task. It may refer to:\n", "BULLET::::- Scientific method, a series of steps, or collection of methods, taken to acquire knowledge\n", "BULLET::::- Method (computer programming), a piece of code associated with a class or object to perform a task\n", "BULLET::::- Method (patent), under patent law, a protected series of steps or acts\n", "BULLET::::- Methodology, comparison or study and critique of individual methods that are used in a given discipline or field of inquiry\n", "BULLET::::- \"Discourse on the Method\", a philosophical and mathematical treatise by René Descartes\n", "BULLET::::- \"Methods\" (journal), a scientific journal covering research on techniques in the experimental biological and medical sciences\n", "Section::::Arts.\n", "BULLET::::- Method (music), a kind of textbook to help students learning to play a musical instrument\n", "BULLET::::- \"Method\" (2004 film), a 2004 film directed by Duncan Roy\n", "BULLET::::- \"Method\" (2017 film), a South Korean film\n", "BULLET::::- Method (Godhead), the bassist and programmer for the industrial band Godhead\n", "BULLET::::- Method acting, a style of acting in which the actor attempts to replicate the conditions under which the character operates\n", "BULLET::::- Method Acting, a song by the group Bright Eyes on their album \"Lifted or The Story Is in the Soil, Keep Your Ear to the Ground\"\n", "BULLET::::- Method ringing, a British style of ringing church bells according to a series of mathematical algorithms\n", "BULLET::::- Method Man, an American rapper\n", "BULLET::::- \"Method\", a song by Living Colour from the album \"The Chair in the Doorway\"\n", "BULLET::::- \"A Method\", a song by TV on the Radio from the album \"Return to Cookie Mountain\"\n", "Section::::Business.\n", "BULLET::::- Method Incorporated, an international brand experience agency\n", "BULLET::::- Method Products (branded as \"method\"), a San Francisco-based corporation that manufactures household products\n", "BULLET::::- Method Studios, a Los Angeles-based visual effects company\n", "Section::::See also.\n", "BULLET::::- Methodology\n", "BULLET::::- The Method (disambiguation)\n", "BULLET::::- Methodism (disambiguation)\n" ] }

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{ "description": "", "enwikiquote_title": "", "wikidata_id": "Q738193", "wikidata_label": "", "wikipedia_title": "", "aliases": { "alias": [] } }

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{ "paragraph": [ "CFG\n", "CFG may stand for:\n", "BULLET::::- Canada's Food Guide, a diet planning document produced by Health Canada\n", "BULLET::::- China Film Group, a Chinese film studio\n", "BULLET::::- City Football Group, a multinational sporting organisation owning and controlling a number of football clubs\n", "BULLET::::- Citizens Financial Group, a regional US Financial Institution\n", "BULLET::::- Condor Flugdienst, ICAO airline designator of a German airline\n", "BULLET::::- Configuration file, a file used to configure the initial settings for some computer programs\n", "BULLET::::- Consortium for Functional Glycomics, a research initiative to study carbohydrate-protein interaction\n", "BULLET::::- Context-free grammar, in computer science, a grammar that naturally generates a formal language\n", "BULLET::::- Control flow graph, in computer science, a representation of all paths that might be traversed through a program during its execution\n", "BULLET::::- Cooperative game, in characteristic function form (\"Characteristic Function Game\")\n", "BULLET::::- Jaime González Airport, an international airport that serves the city of Cienfuegos, Cuba\n", "Section::::See also.\n", "BULLET::::- CFGS (disambiguation)\n" ] }

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{ "paragraph": [ "Melisende, Queen of Jerusalem\n", "Melisende (1105 – 11 September 1161) was Queen of Jerusalem from 1131 to 1153, and regent for her son between 1153 and 1161 while he was on campaign. She was the eldest daughter of King Baldwin II of Jerusalem, and the Armenian princess Morphia of Melitene.\n", "Section::::Heir presumptive.\n", "Jerusalem had recently been conquered by Christian Franks in 1099 during the First Crusade, and Melisende's paternal family originally came from the County of Rethel in France. Her father Baldwin was a crusader knight who carved out the Crusader State of Edessa and married Morphia, daughter of the Armenian prince Gabriel of Melitene, in a diplomatic marriage to fortify alliances in the region. Melisende, named after her paternal grandmother, Melisende of Montlhéry, grew up in Edessa until she was 13, when her father was elected as the King of Jerusalem as successor of his cousin Baldwin I. By the time of his election as king, and Morphia already had three daughters: Melisende, Alice, and Hodierna. As the new king, had been encouraged to put away Morphia in favor of a new younger wife with better political connections, one that could yet bear him a male heir. Armenian historian Matthew of Edessa wrote that was thoroughly devoted to his wife, and refused to consider divorcing her. As a mark of his love for his wife, had postponed his coronation until Christmas Day 1119 so that Morphia and his daughters could travel to Jerusalem and so that the queen could be crowned alongside him. For her part, Morphia did not interfere in the day to day politics of Jerusalem, but demonstrated her ability to take charge of affairs when events warranted it. When Melisende's father was captured during a campaign in 1123, Morphia hired a band of Armenian mercenaries to discover where her husband was being held prisoner, and in 1124 Morphia took a leading part in the negotiations with Baldwin's captors to have him released, including traveling to Syria and handing over her youngest daughter Yveta as hostage and as surety for the payment of the king's ransom. Both of her parents stood as role models for the young Melisende, half Frankish and half Armenian, growing up in the Frankish East in a state of constant warfare.\n", "As the eldest child, Melisende was raised as heir presumptive. Frankish women in the Outremer had a higher life expectancy than men, in part due to the constant state of war in the region, and as a result Frankish women exerted a wide degree of influence in the region and provided a strong sense of continuity to Eastern Frankish society. Women who inherited territory usually did so because war and violence brought many men to premature death, and women who were recognized as queen regnant rarely exercised their authority directly, with their spouse exercising authority \"jure uxoris\", through the medium of their wives. Contemporaries of Melisende who did rule, however, included Urraca of Castile (1080–1129), and Eleanor of Aquitaine (1122–1204). During her father's reign Melisende was styled as \"daughter of the king and heir of the kingdom of Jerusalem\", and took precedence above other nobles and Christian clergy in ceremonial occasions. Increasingly she was associated with her father on official documents, including in the minting of money, granting of fiefdoms and other forms of patronage, and in diplomatic correspondence. Baldwin raised his daughter as a capable successor to himself and Melisende enjoyed the support of the \"Haute Cour\", a kind of royal council composed of the nobility and clergy of the realm.\n", "However, also thought that he would have to marry Melisende to a powerful ally, one who would protect and safeguard Melisende's inheritance and her future heirs. Baldwin deferred to King Louis VI of France to recommend a Frankish vassal for his daughter's hand. The Frankish connection remained an important consideration for Crusader Jerusalem, as the nascent kingdom depended heavily on manpower and connections from France, Germany, and Italy. By deferring to France, was not submitting Jerusalem to the suzerainty of France; rather, he was placing the moral guardianship of the Outremer with the West for its survival, reminding that the Outremer was, to some extent, Frankish lands.\n", "When Melisende bore a son and heir in 1130, the future Baldwin III, her father took steps to ensure Melisende would rule after him as reigning Queen of Jerusalem. held a coronation ceremony investing the kingship of Jerusalem jointly between his daughter, his grandson , and Fulk. Strengthening her position, designated Melisende as sole guardian for the young Baldwin, excluding Fulk. When died the next year in 1131, Melisende and Fulk ascended to the throne as joint rulers. Later, William of Tyre wrote of Melisende's right to rule following the death of her father that \"the rule of the kingdom remained in the power of the lady queen Melisende, a queen beloved by God, to whom it passed by hereditary right\". However, with the aid of his knights, Fulk excluded Melisende from granting titles, offering patronage, and of issuing grants, diplomas, and charters. Fulk openly and publicly dismissed her hereditary authority. The fears of seemed to be justified, and the continued mistreatment of their queen irritated the members of the \"Haute Cour\", whose own positions would be eroded if Fulk continued to dominate the realm. Fulk's behavior was in keeping with his ruling philosophy, as in Anjou Fulk had squashed any attempts by local towns to administer themselves and strong-armed his vassals into submission. Fulk's autocratic style contrasted with the somewhat collegial association with their monarch that native Eastern Franks had come to enjoy.\n", "Section::::Palace intrigue.\n", "The estrangement between husband and wife was a convenient political tool that Fulk used in 1134 when he accused Hugh II of Le Puiset, Count of Jaffa, of having an affair with Melisende. Hugh was the most powerful baron in the kingdom, and devotedly loyal to the memory of his cousin . This loyalty now extended to Melisende. Contemporary sources, such as William of Tyre, discount the alleged infidelity of Melisende and instead point out that Fulk overly favoured newly arrived Frankish crusaders from Anjou over the native nobility of the kingdom. Had Melisende been guilty, the Church and nobility likely would not have later rallied to her cause.\n", "Hugh allied himself with the Muslim city of Ascalon, and was able to hold off the army set against him. He could not maintain his position indefinitely, however. His alliance with Ascalon cost him support at court. The Patriarch negotiated lenient terms for peace, and Hugh was exiled for three years. Soon thereafter an unsuccessful assassination attempt against Hugh was attributed to Fulk or his supporters. This was reason enough for the queen's party to openly challenge Fulk, as Fulk's unfounded assertions of infidelity were a public affront that would damage Melisende's position entirely.\n", "Through what amounted to a palace coup, the queen's supporters overcame Fulk, and from 1135 onwards Fulk's influence rapidly deteriorated. One historian wrote that Fulk's supporters \"went in terror of their lives\" in the palace. William of Tyre wrote that Fulk \"did not attempt to take the initiative, even in trivial matters, without [Melisende's] knowledge\". Husband and wife reconciled by 1136 and a second son, Amalric, was born. When Fulk was killed in a hunting accident in 1143, Melisende publicly and privately mourned for him.\n", "Melisende's victory was complete. Again she is seen in the historical record granting titles of nobility, fiefdoms, appointments and offices, granting royal favours and pardons and holding court. Of Melisende, William of Tyre wrote \"reseditque reginam regni potestas penes dominam Melisendem, Deo amabilem reginam, cui jure hereditario competebat.\" Melisende was no mere regent-queen for her son , but a queen regnant, reigning by right of hereditary and civil law.\n", "Section::::Patroness of the church and arts.\n", "Melisende enjoyed the support of the Church throughout her lifetime; from her appointment as successor, throughout the conflict with Fulk, and later when would come of age. In 1138 she founded the large convent of St. Lazarus in Bethany where her younger sister Ioveta would rule as abbess. In keeping with a royal abbey, Melisende granted the convent the fertile plains of Jericho. Additionally, the queen supplied rich furnishings and liturgical vessels, so that it would not be in any way inferior to religious houses for men. According to author and historian Bernard Hamilton, Melisende also gave large\n", "Queen Melisende also appreciated a variety of literary and visual arts - her passion and assortment due to the different artistic exposures she received as a result of her parents' mixed Frankish-Armenian union. She created both a school of book makers and a school of miniature painters - a painting style most used in medieval illuminated manuscripts. She also commissioned the construction of \"a vaulted complex of shops in Jerusalem, including the legendary (and still surviving) Street of Bad Cooking\". The Street of Bad Cooking (Malquisinat) was the central and most famous market of Crusader Jerusalem, presenting specialized merchants and cooks to supply the numerous pilgrims who visited the city with food.\n", "Melisende's love for books and her religious piety were very well known. She was recognized as a patroness of books, a fact her husband knew how to exploit following the incident that greatly injured their relationship and the monarchy's stability. King Fulk was jealous of the friendship Melisende shared with Hugh, Count of Jafa. Placed under scrutiny for supposed adultery with the Queen, Hugh was attacked by an assassin who was most likely sent by the King himself. This greatly angered the queen. Melisende was extremely hostile after the accusations about her alleged infidelity with Hugh and refused to speak to or allow in court those who sided with her husband - deeming them \"under the displeasure of the queen\". It is apparent that Fulk set to appease his wife by commissioning her the special book as a peace offering. \"The Melisende Psalter is an extraordinarily beautiful little book that survives today in the British Museum\" - a gloriously decorated gift carefully and thoughtfully chosen. While only 21.6 centimeters tall and 14 centimeters wide, the Melisende Psalter was ornately and expensively adorned - originally having the entire front cover gilded in gold and with six roundels made of ivory and exquisitely carved. It has a \"multicolored silk spine\" and the ivory roundels/medallions have studded \"turquoise, ruby, and emerald stones\" around scenes of King David from the Old Testament, a calendar with all the saints' days/observances marked, and also prayers of worship and adoration - all with extremely ornate illuminated initial letters. While there is no identification placing this book as Melisende's or made with her in mind, there is plenty of evidence that is highly suggestive of her as the sole recipient. The use of Latin text appropriate for a secular woman (as opposed to an abbess or such), the particular venerations of the Virgin Mary and Mary Magdalen (suggestive of the nearby abbey Melisende patronized and was later buried at), and the only two royal mentions/inclusions being of Melisende's parents all indicate that this book was for her. One final indicator that this was from Fulk to Melisende (other than the fact that only a king would be able to afford creating such a piece so pricey) is that there is a carving of a bird on the back cover labeled \"Herodius\" which is also known as \"fulica\" or falcon - making this a stamp pun/play on words to King Fulk's name.\n", "Though influenced by Byzantine and Italian traditions in the illuminations, the artists who contributed to the Melisende Psalter had a unique and decidedly 'Jerusalem style'. The historian Hugo Buchtal wrote that\n", "There is no account of how Melisende received this gift but shortly after its creation, the royal union appeared stronger than ever. Two things prove the couple's reconciliation: 1) almost every single charter after this was issued by Fulk but labeled \"with the consent and the approval of Queen Melisende\", and 2) the birth of the royal pair's second son, Amalric, in 1136. It is also reported that Queen Melisende mourned greatly after her husband fell off a horse and died in 1145.\n", "Section::::Second Crusade.\n", "In 1144 the Crusader state of Edessa was besieged in a border war that threatened its survival. Queen Melisende responded by sending an army led by constable Manasses of Hierges, Philip of Milly, and Elinand of Bures. Raymond of Antioch ignored the call for help, as his army was already occupied against the Byzantine Empire in Cilicia. Despite Melisende's army, Edessa fell.\n", "Melisende sent word to the Pope in Rome, and the west called for a Second Crusade. The crusader expedition was led by French Louis VII of France and the German Emperor Conrad III. Accompanying Louis was his wife Eleanor of Aquitaine, with her own vassal lords in tow. Eleanor had herself been designated by her father, William X, to succeed him in her own right, just as Melisende had been designated to succeed her father.\n", "During the Crusader meeting in Acre in 1148, the battle strategy was planned. Conrad and Louis advised 18-year-old to attack the Muslim city-state of Damascus, though Melisende, Manasses, and Eleanor wanted to take Aleppo, which would aid them in retaking Edessa. The meeting ended with Damascus as their target. Damascus and Jerusalem were on very good diplomatic terms and there was a peace treaty between them. The result of this breach of treaty was that Damascus would never trust the Crusader states again, and the loss of a sympathetic Muslim state was a blow from which later monarchs of Jerusalem could not recover. After 11 months, Eleanor and Louis departed for France, ending the Second Crusade.\n", "Section::::Mother and son.\n", "Melisende's relationship with her son was complex. As a mother she would know her son and his capabilities, and she is known to have been particularly close to her children. As a ruler she may have been reluctant to entrust decision-making powers to an untried youth. Either way there was no political or social pressure to grant Baldwin any authority before 1152, even though Baldwin reached majority in 1145. and Melisende were jointly crowned as co-rulers on Christmas Day, 1143. This joint crowning was similar to Melisende's own crowning with her father in 1128, and may have reflected a growing trend to crown one's heir in the present monarch's lifetime, as demonstrated in other realms of this period.\n", "Baldwin grew up to be a capable, if not brilliant, military commander. By age 22 however, Baldwin felt he could take some responsibility in governance. Melisende had hitherto only partially associated Baldwin in her rule. Tension between mother and son mounted between 1150 and 1152, with Baldwin blaming Manasses for alienating his mother from him. The crisis reached a boiling point early 1152 when Baldwin demanded that the patriarch Fulcher crown him in the Holy Sepulchre, without Melisende present. The Patriarch refused. Baldwin, in protest, staged a procession in the city streets wearing laurel wreaths, a kind of self-crowning.\n", "Baldwin and Melisende agreed to put the decision to the \"Haute Cour\". The \"Haute Cour\" decided that Baldwin would rule the north of the kingdom and Melisende the richer Judea and Samaria, and Jerusalem itself. Melisende acquiesced, though with misgivings. This decision would prevent a civil war but also divide the kingdom's resources. Though later historians criticized Melisende for not abdicating in favor of her son, there was little impetus for her to do so. She was universally recognized as an exceptional steward for her kingdom, and her rule had been characterized as a wise one by church leaders and other contemporaries. Baldwin had not shown any interest in governance prior to 1152, and had resisted responsibility in this arena. The Church clearly supported Melisende, as did the barons of Judea and Samaria.\n", "Despite putting the matter before the \"Haute Cour\", Baldwin was not happy with the partition any more than Melisende. But instead of reaching further compromise, within weeks of the decision he launched an invasion of his mother's realms. Baldwin showed that he was Fulk's son by quickly taking the field; Nablus and Jerusalem fell swiftly. Melisende with her younger son Amalric and others sought refuge in the Tower of David. Church mediation between mother and son resulted in the grant of the city of Nablus and adjacent lands to Melisende to rule for life, and a solemn oath by not to disturb her peace. This peace settlement demonstrated that though Melisende lost the \"civil war\" to her son, she still maintained great influence and avoided total obscurity in a convent.\n", "Section::::Retirement.\n", "By 1153, son and mother had been reconciled. Since the civil war, Baldwin had shown his mother great respect. Melisende's connections, especially to her sister Hodierna, and to her niece Constance of Antioch, meant that she had direct influence in northern Syria, a priceless connection since Baldwin had himself broken the treaty with Damascus in 1147.\n", "As was often on military campaigns, he realized he had few reliable advisers. From 1154 onwards, Melisende is again associated with her son in many of his official public acts. In 1156, she concluded a treaty with the merchants of Pisa. In 1157, with Baldwin on campaign in Antioch, Melisende saw an opportunity to take el-Hablis, which controlled the lands of Gilead beyond the Jordan. Also in 1157, on the death of patriarch Fulcher, Melisende, her sister Ioveta the Abbess of Bethany, and Sibylla of Flanders had Amalric of Nesle appointed as patriarch of Jerusalem. Additionally, Melisende was witness to her son Amalric's marriage to Agnes of Courtenay in 1157. In 1160, she gave her assent to a grant made by her son Amalric to the Holy Sepulchre, perhaps on the occasion of the birth of her granddaughter Sibylla to Agnes and Amalric.\n", "Section::::Death.\n", "In 1161, Melisende had what appears to have been a stroke. Her memory was severely impaired and she could no longer take part in state affairs. Her sisters, the countess of Tripoli and abbess of Bethany, came to nurse her before she died on 11 September 1161. Melisende was buried next to her mother Morphia in the shrine of Our Lady of Josaphat. Melisende, like her mother, bequeathed property to the Orthodox monastery of Saint Sabbas.\n", "William of Tyre, writing on Melisende's 30-year reign, wrote that \"she was a very wise woman, fully experienced in almost all affairs of state business, who completely triumphed over the handicap of her sex so that she could take charge of important affairs\", and that, \"striving to emulate the glory of the best princes, Melisende ruled the kingdom with such ability that she was rightly considered to have equalled her predecessors in that regard\". Professor Bernard Hamilton of the University of Nottingham has written that, while William of Tyre's comments may seem rather patronizing to modern readers, they amount to a great show of respect from a society and culture in which women were regarded as having fewer rights and less authority than their brothers, their fathers or even their sons.\n", "Section::::Sources.\n", "BULLET::::- Tranovich, Margaret, \"Melisende of Jerusalem: The World of a Forgotten Crusader Queen\" (Sawbridgeworth, East and West Publishing, 2011).\n", "BULLET::::- Gaudette, Helen A. (2010), \"The Spending Power of a Crusader Queen: Melisende of Jerusalem\", \"in\" Theresa Earenfight (ed.), \"Women and Wealth in Late Medieval Europe\", Basingstoke, Palgrave Macmillan, pp. 135‑148\n", "BULLET::::- Gerish, Deborah (2006), \"Holy War, Royal Wives, and Equivocation in Twelfth-Century Jerusalem\", \"in\" Naill Christie and Maya Yazigis (ed.), \"Noble Ideals and Bloody Realities\", Leiden, J. Brill, pp. 119‑144\n", "BULLET::::- Gerish, Deborah (2012), \"Royal Daughters of Jerusalem and the Demands of Holy War\", \"Leidschrift Historisch Tijdschrift\", vol. 27, n 3, pp. 89‑112\n", "BULLET::::- Hamilton, Bernard (1978), \"Women in the Crusader States: the Queens of Jerusalem\", \"in\" Derek Baker and Rosalind M. T. Hill (ed.), \"Medieval Women\", Oxford, Oxford University Press, pp. 143‑174; Nurith Kenaan-Kedar, \"Armenian Architecture in Twelfth-Century Crusader Jerusalem\", \"Assaph Studies in Art History\", n 3, pp. 77‑91\n", "BULLET::::- Kühnel, Bianca (1991), \"The Kingly Statement of the Bookcovers of Queen Melisende’s Psalter\", \"in\" Ernst Dassmann and Klaus Thraede (ed.), \"Tesserae: Festschrift für Joseph Engemann\", Münster, Aschendorffsche Verlagsbuchhandlung, pp. 340‑357\n", "BULLET::::- Lambert, Sarah (1997), \"Queen or Consort: Rulership and Politics in the Latin East, 1118-1228\", \"in\" Anne J. Duggan (ed.), \"Queens and Queenship in Medieval Europe\", Woodbridge, Boydell Press, pp. 153‑169\n", "BULLET::::- Mayer, Hans Eberhard (1972), \"Studies in the History of Queen Melisende of Jerusalem\", \"Dumbarton Oaks Papers\", vol. 26, pp. 93‑182.\n", "BULLET::::- Newman, Sharan, \"Defending the City of God: a Medieval Queen, the First Crusades, and the Quest for Peace in Jerusalem\", Palgrave Macmillan, 2014\n", "BULLET::::- Philips, Jonathan. \"Holy Warriors: a Modern History of the Crusades\", Vintage Books, 2010\n", "Section::::Further reading.\n", "BULLET::::- Historical fiction\n", "Section::::External links.\n", "BULLET::::- Melisende: Queen of Jerusalem on Medieval Archives Podcast\n" ] }

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{ "description": "Queen of Jerusalem", "enwikiquote_title": "", "wikidata_id": "Q232151", "wikidata_label": "Melisende", "wikipedia_title": "Melisende, Queen of Jerusalem", "aliases": { "alias": [] } }

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{ "paragraph": [ "Brave Combo\n", "Brave Combo is a polka/rock/worldbeat band based in Denton, Texas. Founded in 1979 by guitarist/keyboardist/accordionist Carl Finch, they have been a prominent fixture in the Texas music scene for more than thirty-five years. Their music, both originals and covers, incorporates a number of dance styles, mostly polka, but also some Latin American and Caribbean styles like norteño, salsa, rumba, cha-cha-cha, choro, samba, two-step, cumbia, charanga, merengue, ska, etc.\n", "As part of their perceived artistic mission to expand the musical tastes of their listeners, they have often played and recorded covers of well-known songs in a style radically different from the original versions. Examples include polka versions of Jimi Hendrix's \"Purple Haze\" and The Doors' \"People are Strange\", The Rolling Stones' \"(I Can't Get No) Satisfaction\" as a cha-cha, and \"Sixteen Tons\" as a cumbia. While their records may have a sense of humor, they are played straight and not usually considered joke or novelty records.\n", "Section::::Awards and honors.\n", "They won a Grammy Award in 1999 in the Best Polka Album category for their album \"Polkasonic\", and again in 2004 for their album \"\".\n", "In naming Denton, Texas, the \"Best Music Scene\" for 2008, \"Paste\" magazine cited Brave Combo as the \"Grand Pooh-Bah of Denton bands\" and said that \"Brave Combo, is in many ways the template from which all the rest are cut: eclectic and artistically ambitious, with a high degree of musicianship and a strong DIY ethic.\"\n", "Section::::Media appearances.\n", "BULLET::::- The band made a short appearance, as animated figures, on the March 21, 2004, episode of \"The Simpsons\" (\"Co-Dependent's Day\"). Series creator Matt Groening is a fan of the band and they appeared on the show at his personal request. In the episode, the band played a new original song called \"Fill The Stein\" and their version of \"The Simpsons Theme\" played over the closing credits.\n", "BULLET::::- Finch and other band members made cameo appearances in Talking Heads leader David Byrne's 1986 movie \"True Stories\", set in fictional Virgil, Texas. Finch can be spotted in the fashion show sporting a brick-patterned suit and in the parade leading the all-accordion marching band. (In real life, Brave Combo was David Byrne's wedding band.)\n", "BULLET::::- They appear in the 1986 Hank Wangford Channel 4 television series \"The A to Z of C & W\" singing the Hank Williams song \"Cold, Cold Heart\".\n", "BULLET::::- They contributed two songs to the \"Gumby\" album, released in 1989.\n", "BULLET::::- Their song \"Busy Office Rhumba\" was used as the theme for the 1993 Fox television series \"Bakersfield P.D.\"\n", "BULLET::::- They appear as a wedding band in the 1995 feature film \"Late Bloomers\".\n", "BULLET::::- In 2000, they appeared on the national telecast of the \"MDA Labor Day Telethon\" with Jerry Lewis dancing along to the music.\n", "BULLET::::- They wrote and performed the theme song for the 2005 series \"ESPN Bowling Night\".\n", "BULLET::::- The opening theme and other music for the 2008 PBS animated series \"Click and Clack's As the Wrench Turns\" were produced by Carl Finch and composed, arranged, and performed by Finch and Brave Combo.\n", "BULLET::::- Their live music video, \"The Denton Polka\", appears on the \"Bohemia Rising DVD Compilation\" (released in 2009), a collection of documentary shorts directed by Christopher Largen exploring rebellion and resistance to corporate demolition in their hometown of Denton, Texas.\n", "BULLET::::- Included in Bob Dylan's 2009 Christmas release, \"Christmas In The Heart\", the song \"Must Be Santa\", is performed polka-style. Dylan's arrangement is almost identical to the Brave Combo arrangement from their 1991 CD \"It's Christmas, Man!\". In an interview published by Street News Service, Dylan acknowledged the influence of Brave Combo: \"This version comes from a band called Brave Combo. Somebody sent their record to us for our radio show. They’re a regional band out of Texas that takes regular songs and changes the way you think about them. You oughta hear their version of 'Hey Jude'.\"\n", "BULLET::::- They were featured on Bowling for Soup's album \"Sorry for Partyin'\", playing a polka version of Bowling For Soup's song \"Belgium\".\n", "BULLET::::- The season seven episode \"Fun on a Bun\" of the animated science fiction comedy \"Futurama\" includes two original songs by the band plus a cover version of \"The Chicken Dance\". The episode debuted August 1, 2012, on Comedy Central.\n", "Section::::Members.\n", "BULLET::::- Carl Finch - guitar, keyboards, accordion (born November 29, 1951, Texarkana, Arkansas) (1979–present)\n", "BULLET::::- Lyle Atkinson - bass guitar, tuba (born October 23, 1953, Minneapolis, Minnesota) (1979–1985, 2015-present)\n", "BULLET::::- Danny O'Brien - trumpet (born July 12, 1966, Lakenheath, England) (1993–present)\n", "BULLET::::- Alan Emert - drums (born May 5, 1965) (1997–2008, 2010–present)\n", "BULLET::::- Robert Hokamp - guitar, lap steel, cornet (2015–present) *\n", "Section::::Members.:Former members.\n", "BULLET::::- Jeffrey Barnes - saxophones, clarinet, flute, harmonica, penny whistles (born July 27, 1951, Fremont, Ohio) (1983–2015)\n", "BULLET::::- Ginny Mac - accordion (2011–2013)\n", "BULLET::::- Tim Walsh - saxophone, flute, clarinet (born c.1952) (1979–1983)\n", "BULLET::::- Dave Cameron - drums (born c.1958) (1979–1983)\n", "BULLET::::- Cenobio \"Bubba\" Hernandez - bass guitar (born November 30, 1958, San Antonio, Texas) (1985–2007)\n", "BULLET::::- Phil Hernandez - drums (born February 5, 1971, Buffalo, New York) (1992 - ?)\n", "BULLET::::- Mitch Marine - drums (born c.1956) (1983–1992)\n", "BULLET::::- Joe Cripps - percussion (born January 5, 1965, Little Rock, Arkansas) (1992 - 1999), some subsequent performances\n", "BULLET::::- Greg Beck - drums (1996-1997)\n", "BULLET::::- Paul Stivitts - drums (born 1971) NYC\n", "BULLET::::- Ann Marie Harrop - bass guitar (2007–2009)\n", "BULLET::::- Little Jack Melody - bass guitar (2009–2014)\n", "BULLET::::- Arjuna Contreras - drums (born August 11, 1974, Kenosha, Wisconsin) (2008–2010)\n", "BULLET::::- Bill Tomlin - Drums (born September 28, 1948)\n", "Section::::External links.\n", "BULLET::::- bravecombo.com/ - official website\n", "BULLET::::- \"Bohemia Rising: The Story of Fry Street\"\n", "BULLET::::- Brave Combo collection at the Internet Archive's live music archive\n" ] }

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{ "description": "polka/rock/worldbeat band based in Denton, Texas", "enwikiquote_title": "", "wikidata_id": "Q2924131", "wikidata_label": "Brave Combo", "wikipedia_title": "Brave Combo", "aliases": { "alias": [] } }

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{ "paragraph": [ "Control-flow graph\n", "In computer science, a control-flow graph (CFG) is a representation, using graph notation, of all paths that might be traversed through a program during its execution. The control-flow graph is due to Frances E. Allen, who notes that Reese T. Prosser used boolean connectivity matrices for flow analysis before.\n", "The CFG is essential to many compiler optimizations and static-analysis tools.\n", "Section::::Definition.\n", "In a control-flow graph each node in the graph represents a basic block, i.e. a straight-line piece of code without any jumps or jump targets; jump targets start a block, and jumps end a block. Directed edges are used to represent jumps in the control flow. There are, in most presentations, two specially designated blocks: the \"entry block\", through which control enters into the flow graph, and the \"exit block\", through which all control flow leaves.\n", "Because of its construction procedure, in a CFG, every edge A→B has the property that:\n", "The CFG can thus be obtained, at least conceptually, by starting from the program's (full) flow graph—i.e. the graph in which every node represents an individual instruction—and performing an edge contraction for every edge that falsifies the predicate above, i.e. contracting every edge whose source has a single exit and whose destination has a single entry. This contraction-based algorithm is of no practical importance, except as a visualization aid for understanding the CFG construction, because the CFG can be more efficiently constructed directly from the program by scanning it for basic blocks.\n", "Section::::Example.\n", "Consider the following fragment of code:\n", "In the above, we have 4 basic blocks: A from 0 to 1, B from 2 to 3, C at 4 and D at 5. In particular, in this case, A is the \"entry block\", D the \"exit block\" and lines 4 and 5 are jump targets. A graph for this fragment has edges from A to B, A to C, B to D and C to D.\n", "Section::::Reachability.\n", "Reachability is a graph property useful in optimization.\n", "If a subgraph is not connected from the subgraph containing the entry block, that subgraph is unreachable during any execution, and so is unreachable code; under normal conditions it can be safely removed.\n", "If the exit block is unreachable from the entry block, an infinite loop may exist. Not all infinite loops are detectable, see Halting problem. A halting order may also exist there.\n", "Unreachable code and infinite loops are possible even if the programmer does not explicitly code them: optimizations like constant propagation and constant folding followed by jump threading can collapse multiple basic blocks into one, cause edges to be removed from a CFG, etc., thus possibly disconnecting parts of the graph.\n", "Section::::Domination relationship.\n", "A block M \"dominates\" a block N if every path from the entry that reaches block N has to pass through block M. The entry block dominates all blocks.\n", "In the reverse direction, block M \"postdominates\" block N if every path from N to the exit has to pass through block M. The exit block postdominates all blocks.\n", "It is said that a block M \"immediately dominates\" block N if M dominates N, and there is no intervening block P such that M dominates P and P dominates N. In other words, M is the last dominator on all paths from entry to N. Each block has a unique immediate dominator.\n", "Similarly, there is a notion of \"immediate postdominator\", analogous to \"immediate dominator\".\n", "The \"dominator tree\" is an ancillary data structure depicting the dominator relationships. There is an arc from Block M to Block N if M is an immediate dominator of N. This graph is a tree, since each block has a unique immediate dominator. This tree is rooted at the entry block. The dominator tree can be calculated efficiently using Lengauer–Tarjan's algorithm.\n", "A \"postdominator tree\" is analogous to the \"dominator tree\". This tree is rooted at the exit block.\n", "Section::::Special edges.\n", "A \"back edge\" is an edge that points to a block that has already been met during a depth-first (DFS) traversal of the graph. Back edges are typical of loops.\n", "A \"critical edge\" is an edge which is neither the only edge leaving its source block, nor the only edge entering its destination block. These edges must be \"split\": a new block must be created in the middle of the edge, in order to insert computations on the edge without affecting any other edges.\n", "An \"abnormal edge\" is an edge whose destination is unknown. Exception handling constructs can produce them. These edges tend to inhibit optimization.\n", "An \"impossible edge\" (also known as a \"fake edge\") is an edge which has been added to the graph solely to preserve the property that the exit block postdominates all blocks. It cannot ever be traversed.\n", "Section::::Loop management.\n", "A \"loop header\" (sometimes called the \"entry point\" of the loop) is a dominator that is the target of a loop-forming back edge. The loop header dominates all blocks in the loop body. A block may be a loop header for more than one loop. A loop may have multiple entry points, in which case it has no \"loop header\".\n", "Suppose block M is a dominator with several incoming edges, some of them being back edges (so M is a loop header). It is advantageous to several optimization passes to break M up into two blocks M and M. The contents of M and back edges are moved to M, the rest of the edges are moved to point into M, and a new edge from M to M is inserted (so that M is the immediate dominator of M). In the beginning, M would be empty, but passes like loop-invariant code motion could populate it. M is called the \"loop pre-header\", and M would be the loop header.\n", "Section::::Reducibility.\n", "A reducible CFG is one with edges that can be partitioned into two disjoint sets: forward edges, and back edges, such that:\n", "BULLET::::- Forward edges form a directed acyclic graph with all nodes reachable from the entry node.\n", "BULLET::::- For all back edges (A, B), node B dominates node A.\n", "Structured programming languages are often designed such that all CFGs they produce are reducible, and common structured programming statements such as IF, FOR, WHILE, BREAK, and CONTINUE produce reducible graphs. To produce irreducible graphs, statements such as GOTO are needed. Irreducible graphs may also be produced by some compiler optimizations.\n", "Section::::Loop connectedness.\n", "The loop connectedness of a CFG is defined with respect to a given depth-first search tree (DFST) of the CFG. This DFST should be rooted at the start node and cover every node of the CFG.\n", "Edges in the CFG which run from a node to one of its DFST ancestors (including itself) are called back edges.\n", "The loop connectedness is the largest number of back edges found in any cycle-free path of the CFG. In a reducible CFG, the loop connectedness is independent of the DFST chosen.\n", "Loop connectedness has been used to reason about the time complexity of data-flow analysis.\n", "Section::::See also.\n", "BULLET::::- Abstract syntax tree\n", "BULLET::::- Flowchart\n", "BULLET::::- Control-flow diagram\n", "BULLET::::- Control-flow analysis\n", "BULLET::::- Data-flow analysis\n", "BULLET::::- Interval (graph theory)\n", "BULLET::::- Program dependence graph\n", "BULLET::::- Cyclomatic complexity\n", "BULLET::::- Static single assignment\n", "BULLET::::- Compiler construction\n", "BULLET::::- Intermediate representation\n", "Section::::External links.\n", "BULLET::::- The Machine-SUIF Control Flow Graph Library\n", "BULLET::::- GNU Compiler Collection Internals\n", "BULLET::::- Paper \"Infrastructure for Profile Driven Optimizations in GCC Compiler\" by Zdeněk Dvořák \"et al.\"\n", "BULLET::::- Examples\n", "BULLET::::- Avrora – Control-Flow Graph Tool\n" ] }

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{ "paragraph": [ "Jimmy Sturr\n", "James W. Sturr, Jr. is an American polka musician, trumpeter, clarinetist, saxophonist and leader of Jimmy Sturr & His Orchestra. His recordings have won 18 out of the 24 Grammy Awards given for Best Polka Album. Sturr's orchestra is on the Top Ten List of the All-Time Grammy Awards, and has acquired more Grammy nominations than anyone in the history of musical polka awards.\n", "Section::::Touring history.\n", "Sturr and his orchestra have performed at Carnegie Hall, Lincoln Center in New York City and the Palace of Culture in Warsaw, Poland. When touring, the band rides in Jimmy's forty-five foot customized tour bus, previously owned by Billy Ray Cyrus.\n", "Section::::Radio show.\n", "Sturr hosts a syndicated radio show on stations including WTBQ in his hometown of Florida, New York, the station he once owned. He also has a weekly radio show on SirusXM channel, Rural Radio.\n", "Section::::Discography.\n", "BULLET::::- \"All American Polka Festival\"\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Best of Jimmy Sturr and His Orchestra\"\n", "BULLET::::- \"Come on and Dance:Live\" (2014)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Come Share the Wine\" (2008 Grammy)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Double Magic\"\n", "BULLET::::- \"First Class Polkas\"\n", "BULLET::::- \"Forget Me Never\"\n", "BULLET::::- \"Gone Polka\" (2002 Grammy) with Willie Nelson and Brenda Lee\n", "BULLET::::- \"Grammy Gold\"\n", "BULLET::::- \"Greatest Hits of Polka\"\n", "BULLET::::- \"I Love to Polka\" (1996 Grammy)\n", "BULLET::::- \"A Jimmy Sturr Christmas\"\n", "BULLET::::- \"Let the Whole World Sing\" (2009 Grammy)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Let's Polka 'Round\" with Charlie Daniels, Bela Fleck and Boots Randolph (2004 Grammy)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Life's a Polka\"\n", "BULLET::::- \"Live at Gilley's!\" (1992 Grammy)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Living on Polka Time\" (1998 Grammy) with Bill Anderson and Flaco Jiménez\n", "BULLET::::- \"Most Requested Hits\"\n", "BULLET::::- \"Not Just Another Polka\"\n", "BULLET::::- \"Polka! All Night Long\" (1997 Grammy) with Willie Nelson\n", "BULLET::::- \"Polka Christmas\"\n", "BULLET::::- \"\"Polka Christmas\" in My Home Town\"\n", "BULLET::::- \"Polka Cola\" with Bill Anderson\n", "BULLET::::- \"Polka Fever\" (1978)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Polka in Paradise\" with Bobby Vinton (2007 Grammy)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Polka is My Life\"\n", "BULLET::::- \"Polka Party\"\n", "BULLET::::- \"Polkapalooza\"\n", "BULLET::::- \"Primetime Polkas\"\n", "BULLET::::- \"Pure Country\"\n", "BULLET::::- \"Pure Polka\"\n", "BULLET::::- \"Rock N Polka\"\n", "BULLET::::- \"Saturday Night Polka\"\n", "BULLET::::- \"Shake, Rattle and Polka!\" (2006 Grammy)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Sturr It Up\"\n", "BULLET::::- \"Sturr Struck\"\n", "BULLET::::- \"Top of the World\" with Arlo Guthrie and Rhonda Vincent (2003 Grammy)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Touched by a Polka\" with Mel Tillis (2001 Grammy)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Tribute to the Legends of Polka Music\"\n", "BULLET::::- \"When It's Polka Time at Your House\" (1991 Grammy)\n", "Section::::Band members.\n", "Main Band Members\n", "BULLET::::- Jimmy Sturr - Leader, Vocals, Clarinet, Saxophone, Drums, and Trumpet\n", "BULLET::::- Rick Henly - Trumpet\n", "BULLET::::- Bill Ash - Trumpet\n", "BULLET::::- Kenny Harbus - Trumpet & Vocals\n", "BULLET::::- Jim Perry - Clarinet, Alto Saxophone, and Tenor Saxophone\n", "BULLET::::- Nick DeVito - Clarinet & Alto Saxophone\n", "BULLET::::- Johnny Karas - Tenor Saxophone & Vocals\n", "BULLET::::- Ron Oswanski - Piano & Accordion\n", "BULLET::::- Frank Urbanovitch - Violin & Vocals\n", "BULLET::::- Rich Pavasaris - Bass Guitar\n", "BULLET::::- Rich Berends - Drums\n", "Other Band Members/Reoccurring Members\n", "BULLET::::- Tom Conklin - Bus Driver\n", "BULLET::::- Jim Dixon - Bus Driver\n", "BULLET::::- Gus Kosior - Manager & Bus Driver\n", "BULLET::::- Barbara James - Assistant Manager\n", "BULLET::::- Al Piatkowski - Accordion\n", "BULLET::::- Nick Koryluk - Accordion\n", "BULLET::::- Joe Mariany - Clarinet and Saxophone\n", "BULLET::::- Ray Barno - Clarinet, Alto Saxophone, and Baritone Saxophone\n", "BULLET::::- Chris Caffery - Guitar\n", "Past Band Members\n", "BULLET::::- Hank Golis - Trumpet\n", "BULLET::::- Kevin Krauth - Trumpet & Vocals\n", "BULLET::::- Al Noble - Trumpet\n", "BULLET::::- Ben Poole - Trumpet\n", "BULLET::::- Eric Parks - Trumpet\n", "BULLET::::- Dana Sylvander - Trombone\n", "BULLET::::- Dennis Coyman - Drums\n", "BULLET::::- Bill Langan - Bass Guitar\n", "BULLET::::- Mike Ralff - Bass Guitar\n", "BULLET::::- Dave Kowalski - Guitar\n", "BULLET::::- Eddie Burton - Guitar\n", "BULLET::::- Lou Pallo - Guitar\n", "BULLET::::- Kevin Chase - Guitar\n", "BULLET::::- Walt Cunningham - Strings & Banjo\n", "BULLET::::- Ed Goldberg - Piano & Bass\n", "BULLET::::- Jeff Hoffman - Piano\n", "BULLET::::- Jeff Miller - Piano\n", "BULLET::::- Keith Slattery - Piano\n", "BULLET::::- Lenny Filipowski - Piano\n", "BULLET::::- Dennis Polisky - Clarinet & Alto Saxophone\n", "BULLET::::- Greg Dolecki - Clarinet & Alto Saxophone\n", "BULLET::::- Joe Magnuszewski - Clarinet & Alto Saxophone\n", "BULLET::::- Peter Kargul - Violin\n", "BULLET::::- Ryan Joseph - Violin\n", "BULLET::::- Steve Wnuk - Violin\n", "BULLET::::- Gene Bartkiewicz - Accordion\n", "BULLET::::- Wally Czerniawski - Accordion\n", "BULLET::::- Steve Swiader - Accordion\n", "BULLET::::- Gennarose - Vocals\n", "BULLET::::- Lance Wing - Vocals\n", "BULLET::::- Lindsey Webster - Vocals\n", "BULLET::::- John Doolan - Equipment Manager\n", "BULLET::::- Bryan Doolan - Roadie\n", "BULLET::::- Thomas 'Tom' Karas - Accordion/keyboard (1983-1989)\n", "Section::::External links.\n", "BULLET::::- Official website\n", "BULLET::::- Interview with Jimmy Sturr\n" ] }

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{ "description": "American musician", "enwikiquote_title": "", "wikidata_id": "Q4442402", "wikidata_label": "Jimmy Sturr", "wikipedia_title": "Jimmy Sturr", "aliases": { "alias": [] } }

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{ "paragraph": [ "Daniel Chodowiecki\n", "Daniel Niklaus Chodowiecki (16 October 1726 – 7 February 1801) was a Polish—and later German—painter and printmaker with Huguenot ancestry, who is most famous as an etcher. He spent most of his life in Berlin, and became the director of the Berlin Academy of Art.\n", "Section::::Family.\n", "He was born in the city of Danzig (Gdańsk) in Poland, and in a letter “in typical Berlin humor” wrote, “that he moved to Berlin, Germany, which shows for sure, that he is a 'genuine Pole'.” He kept close to the Huguenot scene, due to his ancestry. \n", "His grandfather Bartholomāus Chodowiecki had lived in the 16th century in Greater Poland. Gottfried Chodowiecki, Daniel's father, was a tradesman in Danzig and his mother, Henriette Ayrer born in Switzerland, was a Huguenot. Daniel's grandfather Christian had been a tradesman in the city as well. When his father died, both Daniel (aged 16) and his younger brother Gottfried Chodowiecki went to live with their uncle in Berlin, who offered to educate them, and where Daniel received an artistic training with the painter Haid in Augsburg. His brother also became a painter.\n", "He had three daughters, Jeannette (b. 1761, married the French-reformed preacher Jacques Papin), Suzanne (1763–1819) and Henriette (1770–1880). Jeannette's daughter Marianne Chodowiecka Papin (married Gretschel, 1794–1870) and her son Heinrich Papin (1786–1839) also became artists.\n", "Section::::Art.\n", "Soon Daniel was able to earn a living by painting. He was admitted to the Berlin Academy in 1764 and became vice-director under Bernhard Rode in 1788. He had found his true calling and became the most famous German graphic artist of his time. His works includes several thousand etchings, usually rather small, and many drawings and paintings. His book illustrations embrace almost all the great classics. His prints represent in great detail the life of the bourgeoisie during the \"Zopfstil\" period, a time between Rococo and Classicism. In 1797 Chodowiecki was appointed director of the Academy of Arts in Berlin, where he died on 7 February 1801. The bulk of his work was in illustrating scientific books by Basedow, Buffon, Lavater, Pestalozzi and others. He also painted many portraits of Polish gentry and was interested in Huguenot and Polish history as well, making some paintings on the topic. \n", "He was in tune with the developing spirit of the age, and many works reflect the cult of sensibility, and then the revolutionary and German nationalist feelings of the end of the century. \n", "In printmaking, he is credited with the invention of the deliberate \"remarque\", a small sketch on a plate, lying outside the main image. These were originally little sketches or doodles by artists, not really meant to be seen, but Chodowiecki turned them into \"bonus items\" for collectors.\n", "Chodowiecki, though speaking only French and German (due to his offices in the Huguenot French community in Berlin he often spoke French), many times also declared his Polish allegiance and had his son Isaac Heinrich, born in Berlin, painted as a very young child with a Polish outfit and haircut. After Partitions of Poland Chodowiecki wrote to Gräfin Solms-Laubach: \"From father's side I'm Polish, a descendant of a brave nation which will soon vanish\". In a letter to Józef Łęcki, the Polish astronomer, he wrote: \"\"I consider it an honour to be a genuine Pole, even though I am now living in Germany\"\". Because of his mother's and his wife's Huguenot descent he was very close to the Huguenots of Berlin. Nearly all his life and career was spent in Germany, writing in German and living in Berlin from the age of almost 17.\n", "One of his most popular books is \"Journey from Berlin to Danzig\" (, 1773) with many illustrations. He purchased a horse rather than going by stage coach. This was his first return after 30 years absence and he went specifically to see his elderly mother and sisters in Danzig again. He made only one more trip to Danzig afterwards, to his mother's funeral. He describes and illustrates towns and people in Pomerania and Prussia on the way.\n", "Chodowiecki is buried at the \"Französischer Friedhof\" cemetery in Berlin.\n", "Section::::References.\n", "BULLET::::- Wolfgang Plat, \"Die Reise nach Danzig, Mit Daniel Chodowiecki durch Pommern\"\n", "Section::::External links.\n", "BULLET::::- 541 images of works at the LA County Museum of Art\n", "BULLET::::- Gallery of works by Chodowiecki at www.malarze.com\n", "BULLET::::- Gallery of works by Chodowiecki's brother - Gottfried at www.malarze.com\n", "BULLET::::- Works at www.bildindex.de\n" ] }

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{ "description": "German artist", "enwikiquote_title": "", "wikidata_id": "Q696720", "wikidata_label": "Daniel Chodowiecki", "wikipedia_title": "Daniel Chodowiecki", "aliases": { "alias": [ "Daniel Nikolaus Chodowiecki", "Chodowiecki", "Chodoviecki", "D. N. Chodowiecki", "Daniel Nicolaus Chodowiecki", "D. Chodowiecki", "D.N. Chodowiecki", "chodowiecki", "Daniel Nikol. Chodowiecki", "Dan. Nic. Chodowiecki", "chodowiecki daniel", "Dan. Nik. Chodowiecki", "d. chodow.", "Daniel Chodowiecky", "d. chodowiecky", "Chodowiecki Daniel Nicolaus", "Dan. Chodowiecki", "d. chodowiecki", "daniel nicol. chodowiecki", "Dan Chodowiecki", "dan. nicol. chodowiecki", "chodowiecki d.", "daniel chodowicki", "Chodowiecky", "Daniel Nikolaus Chodowiecke" ] } }

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{ "paragraph": [ "1580s BC\n", "The 1580s BC was a decade lasting from January 1, 1589 BC to December 31, 1580 BC.\n", "Section::::Events and trends.\n", "The Egyptians invented a new and better calendar. It is based on both the moon and a star. They observed the annual appearance of the brightest star in the sky, Sirius. This calendar was more advanced than the Babylonian calendar.\n", "Section::::Significant people.\n", "BULLET::::- Erishum III, King of Assyria, 1598–1586 BC (traditional date), or ca. 1580–1567 BC (newer dating)\n", "BULLET::::- Actaeus, King of Athens, first King of Athens according to the Parian Chronicle succeeded in the throne by Cecrops I\n" ] }

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{ "description": "", "enwikiquote_title": "", "wikidata_id": "Q1988958", "wikidata_label": "1580s BC", "wikipedia_title": "1580s BC", "aliases": { "alias": [] } }

{ "pageid": 43664, "parentid": 737702565, "revid": 805553498, "pre_dump": true, "timestamp": "2017-10-16T03:45:41Z", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=1580s%20BC&oldid=805553498" }

{ "paragraph": [ "Spamdexing\n", "In digital marketing and online advertising, spamdexing (also known as search engine spam, search engine poisoning, black-hat search engine optimization (SEO), search spam or web spam) is the deliberate manipulation of search engine indexes. It involves a number of methods, such as link building and repeating unrelated phrases, to manipulate the relevance or prominence of resources indexed, in a manner inconsistent with the purpose of the indexing system.\n", "It could be considered to be a part of search engine optimization, though there are many search engine optimization methods that improve the quality and appearance of the content of web sites and serve content useful to many users. Search engines use a variety of algorithms to determine relevancy ranking. Some of these include determining whether the search term appears in the body text or URL of a web page. Many search engines check for instances of spamdexing and will remove suspect pages from their indexes. Also, search-engine operators can quickly block the results-listing from entire websites that use spamdexing, perhaps alerted by user complaints of false matches. The rise of spamdexing in the mid-1990s made the leading search engines of the time less useful. Using unethical methods to make websites rank higher in search engine results than they otherwise would is commonly referred to in the SEO (search engine optimization) industry as \"black-hat SEO\". These methods are more focused on breaking the search-engine-promotion rules and guidelines. In addition to this, the perpetrators run the risk of their websites being severely penalized by the Google Panda and Google Penguin search-results ranking algorithms.\n", "Common spamdexing techniques can be classified into two broad classes: \"content spam\" (or \"term spam\") and \"link spam\".\n", "Section::::History.\n", "The earliest known reference to the term \"spamdexing\" is by Eric Convey in his article \"Porn sneaks way back on Web,\" The Boston Herald, May 22, 1996, where he said:\n", "The problem arises when site operators load their Web pages with hundreds of extraneous terms so search engines will list them among legitimate addresses.\n", "The process is called \"spamdexing,\" a combination of spamming — the Internet term for sending users unsolicited information — and \"indexing.\"\n", "Section::::Content spam.\n", "These techniques involve altering the logical view that a search engine has over the page's contents. They all aim at variants of the vector space model for information retrieval on text collections.\n", "Section::::Content spam.:Keyword stuffing.\n", "Keyword stuffing involves the calculated placement of keywords within a page to raise the keyword count, variety, and density of the page. This is useful to make a page appear to be relevant for a web crawler in a way that makes it more likely to be found. Example: A promoter of a Ponzi scheme wants to attract web surfers to a site where he advertises his scam. He places hidden text appropriate for a fan page of a popular music group on his page, hoping that the page will be listed as a fan site and receive many visits from music lovers. Older versions of indexing programs simply counted how often a keyword appeared, and used that to determine relevance levels. Most modern search engines have the ability to analyze a page for keyword stuffing and determine whether the frequency is consistent with other sites created specifically to attract search engine traffic. Also, large webpages are truncated, so that massive dictionary lists cannot be indexed on a single webpage.\n", "Section::::Content spam.:Hidden or invisible text.\n", "Unrelated hidden text is disguised by making it the same color as the background, using a tiny font size, or hiding it within HTML code such as \"no frame\" sections, alt attributes, zero-sized DIVs, and \"no script\" sections. People screening websites for a search-engine company might temporarily or permanently block an entire website for having invisible text on some of its pages. However, hidden text is not always spamdexing: it can also be used to enhance accessibility.\n", "Section::::Content spam.:Meta-tag stuffing.\n", "This involves repeating keywords in the meta tags, and using meta keywords that are unrelated to the site's content. This tactic has been ineffective since 2005.\n", "Section::::Content spam.:Doorway pages.\n", "\"Gateway\" or doorway pages are low-quality web pages created with very little content, but are instead stuffed with very similar keywords and phrases. They are designed to rank highly within the search results, but serve no purpose to visitors looking for information. A doorway page will generally have \"click here to enter\" on the page. In 2006, Google ousted BMW for using \"doorway pages\" to the company's German site, BMW.de.\n", "Section::::Content spam.:Scraper sites.\n", "Scraper sites are created using various programs designed to \"scrape\" search-engine results pages or other sources of content and create \"content\" for a website. The specific presentation of content on these sites is unique, but is merely an amalgamation of content taken from other sources, often without permission. Such websites are generally full of advertising (such as pay-per-click ads), or they redirect the user to other sites. It is even feasible for scraper sites to outrank original websites for their own information and organization names.\n", "Section::::Content spam.:Article spinning.\n", "Article spinning involves rewriting existing articles, as opposed to merely scraping content from other sites, to avoid penalties imposed by search engines for duplicate content. This process is undertaken by hired writers or automated using a thesaurus database or a neural network.\n", "Section::::Content spam.:Machine translation.\n", "Similarly to article spinning, some sites use machine translation to render their content in several languages, with no human editing, resulting in unintelligible texts.\n", "Section::::Content spam.:Pages with no information related to page title.\n", "Publishing web pages that contain information that is unrelated to the title is a misleading practice known as deception. Despite being a target for penalties from the leading search engines that rank pages, deception is a common practice in some types of sites, including dictionary and encyclopedia sites.\n", "Section::::Link spam.\n", "Link spam is defined as links between pages that are present for reasons\n", "other than merit. Link spam takes advantage of link-based ranking algorithms, which gives websites higher rankings the more other highly ranked websites link to it. These techniques also aim at influencing other link-based ranking techniques such as the HITS algorithm. There are many different types of link spam, built for both positive and negative ranking effects on websites. (See ).\n", "Section::::Link spam.:Link-building software.\n", "A common form of link spam is the use of link-building software to automate the search engine optimization process.\n", "Section::::Link spam.:Link farms.\n", "Link farms are tightly-knit networks of websites that link to each other for the sole purpose of gaming the search engine ranking algorithms. These are also known facetiously as \"mutual admiration societies\". Use of links farms has been greatly reduced after Google launched the first Panda Update in February 2011, which introduced significant improvements in its spam-detection algorithm.\n", "Section::::Link spam.:Private blog networks.\n", "Blog networks (PBNs) are a group of authoritative websites used as a source of contextual links that point to the owner's main website to achieve higher search engine ranking. Owners of PBN websites use expired domains or auction domains that have backlinks from high-authority websites. Google targeted and penalized PBN users on several occasions with several massive deindexing campaigns since 2014.\n", "Section::::Link spam.:Hidden links.\n", "Putting hyperlinks where visitors will not see them to increase link popularity. Highlighted link text can help rank a webpage higher for matching that phrase.\n", "Section::::Link spam.:Sybil attack.\n", "A Sybil attack is the forging of multiple identities for malicious intent, named after the famous multiple personality disorder patient \"Sybil\". A spammer may create multiple web sites at different domain names that all link to each other, such as fake blogs (known as spam blogs).\n", "Section::::Link spam.:Spam blogs.\n", "Spam blogs are blogs created solely for commercial promotion and the passage of link authority to target sites. Often these \"splogs\" are designed in a misleading manner that will give the effect of a legitimate website but upon close inspection will often be written using spinning software or very poorly written and barely readable content. They are similar in nature to link farms.\n", "Section::::Link spam.:Guest blog spam.\n", "Guest blog spam is the process of placing guest blogs on websites for the sole purpose of gaining a link to another website, or websites. Unfortunately often confused with legitimate forms of guest blogging with other motives than placing links. Made famous by Matt Cutts publicly declaring \"war\" against this method of link spam.\n", "Section::::Link spam.:Buying expired domains.\n", "Some link spammers utilize expired domain crawler software or monitor DNS records for domains that will expire soon, then buy them when they expire and replace the pages with links to their pages. However, it is possible but not confirmed that Google resets the link data on expired domains. To maintain all previous Google ranking data for the domain, it is advisable that a buyer grabs the domain before it is \"dropped\". \n", "Some of these techniques may be applied for creating a Google bomb — that is, to cooperate with other users to boost the ranking of a particular page for a particular query.\n", "Section::::Link spam.:Cookie stuffing.\n", "Cookie stuffing involves placing an affiliate tracking cookie on a website visitor's computer without their knowledge, which will then generate revenue for the person doing the cookie stuffing. This not only generates fraudulent affiliate sales, but also has the potential to overwrite other affiliates' cookies, essentially stealing their legitimately earned commissions.\n", "Section::::Link spam.:Using world-writable pages.\n", "Web sites that can be edited by users can be used by spamdexers to insert links to spam sites if the appropriate anti-spam measures are not taken.\n", "Automated spambots can rapidly make the user-editable portion of a site unusable.\n", "Programmers have developed a variety of automated spam prevention techniques to block or at least slow down spambots.\n", "Section::::Link spam.:Using world-writable pages.:Spam in blogs.\n", "Spam in blogs is the placing or solicitation of links randomly on other sites, placing a desired keyword into the hyperlinked text of the inbound link. Guest books, forums, blogs, and any site that accepts visitors' comments are particular targets and are often victims of drive-by spamming where automated software creates nonsense posts with links that are usually irrelevant and unwanted.\n", "Section::::Link spam.:Using world-writable pages.:Comment spam.\n", "Comment spam is a form of link spam that has arisen in web pages that allow dynamic user editing such as wikis, blogs, and guestbooks. It can be problematic because agents can be written that automatically randomly select a user edited web page, such as a Wikipedia article, and add spamming links.\n", "Section::::Link spam.:Using world-writable pages.:Wiki spam.\n", "Wiki spam is a form of link spam on wiki pages. The spammer uses the open editability of wiki systems to place links from the wiki site to the spam site. The subject of the spam site is often unrelated to the wiki page where the link is added.\n", "Section::::Link spam.:Using world-writable pages.:Referrer log spamming.\n", "Referrer spam takes place when a spam perpetrator or facilitator accesses a web page (the \"referee\"), by following a link from another web page (the \"referrer\"), so that the referee is given the address of the referrer by the person's Internet browser. Some websites have a referrer log which shows which pages link to that site. By having a robot randomly access many sites enough times, with a message or specific address given as the referrer, that message or Internet address then appears in the referrer log of those sites that have referrer logs. Since some Web search engines base the importance of sites on the number of different sites linking to them, referrer-log spam may increase the search engine rankings of the spammer's sites. Also, site administrators who notice the referrer log entries in their logs may follow the link back to the spammer's referrer page.\n", "Section::::Link spam.:Using world-writable pages.:Countermeasures.\n", "Because of the large amount of spam posted to user-editable webpages, Google proposed a nofollow tag that could be embedded with links. A link-based search engine, such as Google's PageRank system, will not use the link to increase the score of the linked website if the link carries a nofollow tag. This ensures that spamming links to user-editable websites will not raise the sites ranking with search engines. Nofollow is used by several major websites, including Wordpress, Blogger and Wikipedia.\n", "Section::::Other types.\n", "Section::::Other types.:Mirror websites.\n", "A mirror site is the hosting of multiple websites with conceptually similar content but using different URLs. Some search engines give a higher rank to results where the keyword searched for appears in the URL.\n", "Section::::Other types.:URL redirection.\n", "URL redirection is the taking of the user to another page without his or her intervention, \"e.g.\", using META refresh tags, Flash, JavaScript, Java or Server side redirects. However, 301 Redirect, or permanent redirect, is not considered as a malicious behavior.\n", "Section::::Other types.:Cloaking.\n", "Cloaking refers to any of several means to serve a page to the search-engine spider that is different from that seen by human users. It can be an attempt to mislead search engines regarding the content on a particular web site. Cloaking, however, can also be used to ethically increase accessibility of a site to users with disabilities or provide human users with content that search engines aren't able to process or parse. It is also used to deliver content based on a user's location; Google itself uses IP delivery, a form of cloaking, to deliver results. Another form of cloaking is \"code swapping\", \"i.e.\", optimizing a page for top ranking and then swapping another page in its place once a top ranking is achieved. Google refers to these type of redirects as \"Sneaky Redirects\".\n", "Section::::Overall counterplan.\n", "Section::::Overall counterplan.:By search engine maintainer.\n", "Spamdexed pages are sometimes eliminated from search results by the search engine.\n", "Section::::Overall counterplan.:By search engine user.\n", "Users can craft at search keyword, for example, a keyword preceding \"-\" (minus) will eliminate sites that contains the keyword in their pages or in their domain of URL of the pages from search result. Example, search keyword \"-naver\" will eliminate sites that contains word \"naver\" in their pages and the pages whose domain of URL contains \"naver\".\n", "Section::::Overall counterplan.:Google Chrome extension.\n", "Google itself launched the Google Chrome extension \"Personal Blocklist (by Google)\" in 2011 as part of countermeasures against content farming. As of 2018, the extension only works with the PC version of Google Chrome.\n", "Section::::See also.\n", "BULLET::::- Adversarial information retrieval\n", "BULLET::::- Index (search engine) – overview of search engine indexing technology\n", "BULLET::::- TrustRank\n", "BULLET::::- Web scraping\n", "BULLET::::- Microsoft SmartScreen\n", "BULLET::::- Windows Defender\n", "Section::::External links.\n", "Section::::External links.:Other tools and information for webmasters.\n", "BULLET::::- AIRWeb series of workshops on Adversarial Information Retrieval on the Web\n" ] }

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{ "paragraph": [ "Johannes Daniel Falk\n", "Johannes Daniel Falk (28 October 1768 Danzig – 14 February 1826 Weimar) was a German publisher and poet.\n", "Falk was born in Danzig (Gdańsk) in the Polish province of Royal Prussia, where he received his first education against the wishes of his father, who wanted to employ the child in his business as wig maker. The Danzig city council granted Falk a theology stipendium at Halle, but he did not become a preacher and frequented literary circles of Schiller and Goethe instead.\n", "In late 1815 or early 1816, he wrote the German text \"O du fröhliche\" that became a popular Christmas carol, to the melody of the Catholic hymn \"O Sanctissima\".\n", "Falk was the founder of the \"Falk'sche Institute\", a public education place for orphans in Weimar. He died in that city in 1826.\n", "Section::::External links.\n", "BULLET::::- Johann Daniel Falk works, MSS 1992 at L. Tom Perry Special Collections, Brigham Young University\n" ] }

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{ "paragraph": [ "Cadenza\n", "In music, a cadenza (from , meaning cadence; plural, \"cadenze\" ) is, generically, an improvised or written-out ornamental passage played or sung by a soloist or soloists, usually in a \"free\" rhythmic style, and often allowing virtuosic display. During this time the accompaniment will rest, or sustain a note or chord. Thus an improvised cadenza is indicated in written notation by a fermata in all parts. A cadenza will usually occur over the final or penultimate note in a piece, the lead-in () or over the final or penultimate note in an important subsection of a piece. It can also be found before a final coda or ritornello.\n", "Section::::In concerti.\n", "The term \"cadenza\" often refers to a portion of a concerto in which the orchestra stops playing, leaving the soloist to play alone in free time (without a strict, regular pulse) and can be written or improvised, depending on what the composer specifies. Sometimes, the cadenza will include small parts for other instruments besides the soloist; an example is in Sergei Rachmaninoff's Piano Concerto No. 3, where a solo flute, clarinet and horn are used over rippling arpeggios in the piano. The cadenza normally occurs near the end of the first movement, though it can be at any point in a concerto. An example is Tchaikovsky's First Piano Concerto, where in the first five minutes a cadenza is used. The cadenza is usually the most elaborate and virtuosic part that the solo instrument plays during the whole piece. At the end of the cadenza, the orchestra re-enters, and generally finishes off the movement on their own, or, less often, with the solo instrument.\n", "Section::::As a vocal flourish.\n", "The cadenza was originally, and remains, a vocal flourish improvised by a performer to elaborate a cadence in an aria. It was later used in instrumental music, and soon became a standard part of the concerto. Cadenzas for voice and wind instruments were to be performed in one breath, and they should not use distant keys. Originally, it was improvised in this context as well, but during the 19th century, composers began to write cadenzas out in full. Third parties also wrote cadenzas for works in which it was intended by the composer to be improvised, so the soloist could have a well formed solo that they could practice in advance. Some of these have become so widely played and sung that they are effectively part of the standard repertoire, as is the case with Joseph Joachim's cadenza for Johannes Brahms' Violin Concerto, Beethoven's set of cadenzas for Mozart's Piano Concerto no. 20, and Estelle Liebling's edition of cadenzas for operas such as Donizetti's's \"La fille du régiment\" and \"Lucia di Lammermoor\".\n", "Section::::In jazz.\n", "Perhaps the most notable deviations from this tendency towards written (or absent) cadenzas are to be found in jazz, most often at the end of a ballad, though cadenzas in this genre are usually brief. Saxophonist John Coltrane, however, usually improvised an extended cadenza when performing \"I Want To Talk About You\", in which he showcased his predilections for scalar improvisation and multiphonics. The recorded examples of \"I Want To Talk About You\" (\"Live at Birdland\" and \"Afro Blue Impressions\") are approximately 8 minutes in length, with Coltrane's unaccompanied cadenza taking up approximately 3 minutes. More sardonically, jazz critic Martin Williams once described Coltrane's improvisations on \"Africa/Brass\" as \"essentially extended cadenzas to pieces that never get played.\" Equally noteworthy is saxophonist Sonny Rollins' shorter improvised cadenza at the close of \"Three Little Words\" (\"Sonny Rollins on Impulse!\").\n", "Cadenzas are also found in instrumental solos with piano or other accompaniment, where they are placed near the beginning or near the end or sometimes in both places (e.g. \"The Maid of the Mist,\" cornet solo by Herbert L. Clarke, or a more modern example: the end of \"Think of Me\", where Christine Daaé sings a short but involved cadenza, in Andrew Lloyd Webber's \"The Phantom of the Opera\").\n", "Section::::Notable examples.\n", "BULLET::::- Concertos are not the only pieces that feature cadenzas; \"Scena di Canta Gitano\", the fourth movement of Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov's \"Capriccio Espagnol\", contains cadenzas for horns and trumpets, violin, flute, clarinet, and harp in its beginning section.\n", "BULLET::::- Johann Strauss II unusually wrote a cadenza-like solo for cello and flute for the final section of his \"Emperor Waltz\", before a round of trumpets and then the whole orchestra bring the piece to its end.\n", "BULLET::::- The second movement of Bach's third Brandenburg Concerto consists of just two chords; it is generally taken to indicate a cadenza to be improvised around that cadence.\n", "BULLET::::- The coloratura arias of bel canto composers Gaetano Donizetti, Vincenzo Bellini, and Gioachino Rossini.\n", "BULLET::::- Mozart wrote a cadenza into the third and final movement of Piano Sonata in B-flat major, K. 333, which was an unusual (but not unique) choice at that time because the movement is otherwise in sonata-rondo form.\n", "BULLET::::- Beethoven's \"Emperor\" Concerto contains a notated cadenza. It begins with a cadenza that is partly accompanied by the orchestra. Later in the first movement, the composer specifies that the soloist should play the music that is written out in the score, and not add a cadenza on one's own.\n", "BULLET::::- Beethoven famously included a cadenza-like solo for oboe in the recapitulation section of the first movement of his Symphony No. 5.\n", "BULLET::::- Tchaikovsky's first piano concerto is notable not only for having a cadenza within the first few minutes of the first movement, but also for having a \"second\" – substantially longer – cadenza in a more conventional place, near the end of the movement.\n", "BULLET::::- Rachmaninoff's Piano Concerto No. 3, in which the first movement features a long and incredibly difficult toccata-like cadenza with an even longer alternative or ossia cadenza written in a heavier chordal style. Both cadenzas lead to an identical section with arpeggios in the piano and a solo flute accompanying, before the cadenza ends quietly.\n", "BULLET::::- Fritz Kreisler's cadenzas for the first and third movements of Beethoven's Violin Concerto.\n", "BULLET::::- Aaron Copland uses a cadenza in his Clarinet Concerto to connect the two movements.\n", "BULLET::::- Karlheinz Stockhausen composed five ensemble cadenzas in his wind quintet \"Zeitmaße\" (1955–56), cadenzas for piccolo trumpet and piccolo in \"\" (1983), and a cadenza for cor anglais in his trio \"\" (2007)\n", "BULLET::::- Karol Szymanowski's two violin concertos both feature cadenzas written by the violinist who was intended to play them, Pawel Kochański.\n", "BULLET::::- In the third movement of Elgar's Violin Concerto, there is an unexpected cadenza in which the orchestra supports the solo with a pizzicato tremolando effect. (\"cadenza accompagnato\")\n", "BULLET::::- Franz Liszt's Hungarian Rhapsody No. 2 for piano contains a \"cadenza ad libitum\", meaning it is at the pianist's discretion that such a cadenza is added.\n", "BULLET::::- Pianists Chick Corea and Makoto Ozone incorporated jazz cadenzas into an otherwise traditional performance in Japan of the Mozart Double Piano Concerto.\n", "BULLET::::- Rimsky-Korsakov's Scheherazade features numerous cadenzas for violin.\n", "BULLET::::- Mozart wrote a cadenza in his own Horn Concerto No. 3, towards the end of the first of three movements.\n", "BULLET::::- Sergei Prokofiev's second piano concerto contains a taxing five-minute cadenza that closes out the first movement.\n", "BULLET::::- In Dmitri Shostakovich's first cello concerto the third movement on its own is a cadenza connecting the second and fourth movements.\n", "BULLET::::- Carlos Chávez's Violin Concerto has a seven-minute unaccompanied cadenza as the third of its five main sections, despite the fact that the soloist plays almost without a break throughout the rest of the 35-minute-long composition\n", "Section::::Notable examples.:Composed cadenzas.\n", "Composers who have written cadenzas for other performers in works not their own include:\n", "BULLET::::- Carl Baermann's cadenza for the second movement of Mozart's Clarinet Concerto\n", "BULLET::::- Ludwig van Beethoven wrote cadenzas for Mozart's Piano Concerto No. 20 in D minor first and third movements\n", "BULLET::::- Joseph Joachim wrote the cadenza for Brahms's Violin Concerto.\n", "BULLET::::- Benjamin Britten wrote a cadenza for Haydn's Cello Concerto No. 1 in C for Mstislav Rostropovich.\n", "BULLET::::- David Johnstone wrote \"A Manual of Cadenzas and Cadences for Cello\", pub. Creighton's Collection (2007).\n", "BULLET::::- Wilhelm Kempff wrote cadenzas for Beethoven's first four piano concertos.\n", "BULLET::::- Clara Schumann wrote a cadenza for Beethoven's Piano Concerto No. 3\n", "BULLET::::- Karlheinz Stockhausen composed cadenzas for two Mozart concerti for wind instruments (flute and clarinet), for Kathinka Pasveer and Suzanne Stephens, respectively, and one cadenza each for the trumpet concertos by Leopold Mozart and Joseph Haydn, for his son Markus.\n", "BULLET::::- Richard Strauss wrote a vocal cadenza in 1919 for soprano Elisabeth Schumann to sing in Mozart's solo motet Exsultate, jubilate. This cadenza was sung by Kathleen Battle in her recording.\n", "BULLET::::- Friedrich Wührer composed and published cadenzas for Mozart's piano concerti in C major, K. 467; C minor, K. 491; and D major, K. 537.\n", "BULLET::::- Sergei Rachmaninoff wrote a cadenza for Liszt's Hungarian Rhapsody No. 2 and was recorded playing the piece with this cadenza in 1919.\n", "BULLET::::- Alfred Schnittke wrote two cadenzas for Beethoven's Violin Concerto, of which the first includes musical quotations from violin concertos of Berg, Brahms, Bartók (Concertos No. 1 and No. 2), Shostakovich (Concerto No. 1), as well as from Beethoven's 7th Symphony.\n", "BULLET::::- Fritz Kreisler composed a half polyphonic cadenza for Beethoven's Violin Concerto.\n", "BULLET::::- John Williams composed a 6-minute segment consisting of a cadenza, a series of variations, and a few more elaborations to go over the opening credits of the 1971 film \"Fiddler on the Roof\", performed by violinist Isaac Stern.\n", "BULLET::::- Alma Deutscher composed a cadenza for Mozart's 8th Piano Concerto when she was ten.\n", "BULLET::::- David Popper composed a set of cadenzas for 5 different concertos (Haydn's Concerto No. 2 in D major, Op. 101; Saint Saëns' Cello Concerto No. 1 in A minor, Op. 33; Schumann's Cello Concerto in A minor, Op. 129; Volkmann's Cello Concerto in A minor, Op. 33; and Molique's Cello Concerto in D major, Op. 45.)\n", "Section::::Further reading.\n", "BULLET::::- Badura-Skoda, Eva, et al. \"Cadenza\". \"Grove Music Online\" ed. L. Macy (subscription required). Accessed 2007-04-06.\n", "BULLET::::- Lawson, Colin (1999). \"The Historical Performance of Music: An Introduction\", p. 75–76. .\n", "Section::::External links.\n", "BULLET::::- , International Music Score Library Project (IMSLP)\n" ] }

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{ "paragraph": [ "Flintstone\n", "Flintstone may refer to:\n", "BULLET::::- Flint, a type of stone, sometimes erroneously called flintstone\n", "BULLET::::- Flintstone, Georgia\n", "BULLET::::- Flintstone, Maryland\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Flintstones\", an animated television show and related productions\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Flintstones\" (1988 video game)\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Flintstones\" (1993 video game), a 1993 video game based on the animated television show\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Flintstones\" (pinball)\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Flintstones\" (film), a 1994 live action film based on the animated television show\n", "BULLET::::- Flintstones Chewable Vitamins, supplemental multivitamins for children based on the animated sitcom The Flintstones\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Flintstones\" (2016 comic book)\n", "Section::::See also.\n", "BULLET::::- Flint (disambiguation)\n" ] }

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{ "paragraph": [ "Country dance\n", "A country dance is any of a very large number of social dances of a type that originated in the British Isles; it is the repeated execution of a predefined sequence of figures, carefully designed to fit a fixed length of music, performed by a group of people, usually in couples, in one or more sets. The figures involve interaction with your partner and/or with other dancers, usually with a progression so that you dance with everyone in your set. It is common in modern times to have a \"caller\" who teaches the dance and then calls the figures as you dance.\n", "Country dances are done in many different styles .\n", "As a written in 2/4 or 6/8 time, the contredanse was used by Beethoven and Mozart. \n", "Introduced to South America by French immigrants, Country Dance had great influence upon Latin American music as contradanza.\n", "The \"Anglais\" (from the French word meaning \"English\") or \"Angloise\" is another term for the English country dance. A Scottish country dance may be termed an \"Ecossaise\". Irish set dance is also related.\n", "Section::::Characteristics.\n", "A set is a formation of dancers. The most common formations are longways for as many as will, i.e. couples in long lines, and squares, consisting of four couples. The longways formation occurs in over 12,000 modern contra dances ; it was also the most popular formation in all the dance publications of the 18th and early 19th centuries. . In 2003, Burleson's Square Dancer's Encyclopedia listed 5125 calls or figures. Circles and fixed-length longways sets are also very common, but the possible formations are limited only by the imagination of the choreographer.\n", "Thomas Wilson, in 1808, wrote, \"A Country Dance is composed of an indefinite number of persons, not less than six, but as many more as chuse, but six are sufficient to perform any figure in the treatise.\" Wilson was writing about his own period. In fact, there are numerous dances for two couples, and quite a few for three or five dancers.\n", "A figure is a pattern that the dancers trace along the floor, simple ones such as Circle Left are intuitive and can be danced with no prior knowledge, while complex moves such as Strip the willow need to be taught. The stepping and style of dancing varies by region and by period.\n", "Wilson, in 1820, wrote, \"Country Dance Figures are certain Movements or Directions formed in Circular, Half Circular, Serpentine, Angular, Straight Lines, etc. etc. drawn out into different Lengths, adapted to the various Strains of Country Dance Music.\" . Again, the possible figures are limited only by the imagination of the choreographer. Examples of some of the figures are provided in the Glossary of country dance terms.\n", "The music most commonly associated with country dancing is folk/country/traditional/historical music, however modern bands are experimenting with countless other genres.\n", "While some dances may have originated on village greens, the vast majority were, and still are, written by Dancing Masters and choreographers.\n", "Each dance consists of a series of figures, hopefully smoothly linked together, designed to fit to the chosen music. The most common form of music is 32 bar jigs or reels, but any music suitable for dancing can be used. In most dances the dancers will progress to a new position so that the next time through the music they are dancing with different people.\n", "While English Folk Dance Clubs generally embrace all types of country dance, American English Country Dance (ECD) groups tend to exclude modern contra dances and square dances.\n", "Country dancing is intended for general participation, unlike folk dances such as clogging, which are primarily concert dances, and ballroom dances in which dancers dance with their partners independently of others. Bright, rhythmic and simple, country dances had appeal as a refreshing finale to an evening of stately dances such as the minuet.\n", "Historically, the term contra dance is just another name for a country dance. Howe, in 1858, wrote, \"The term \"Country Dance\" is the one invariably used in all books on dancing that have been published in England during the last three centuries, while all works issued in France within the same period employ the term Contra Dance, or in French \"Contre Danse\". As the authority is equally good in both cases, either term is therefore correct. The Country or Contra Dance has been one of the most popular amusements in the British Isles, France, and other continental countries from time immemorial\". However, \"contra dance\" is most commonly used today to refer to a specific American genre called contra dance.\n", "Section::::History.\n", "Country dances began to influence courtly dance in the 15th century and became particularly popular at the court of Elizabeth I of England. Many references to country dancing and titles shared with known 17th-century dances appear from this time, though few of these can be shown to refer to English country dance. While some early features resemble the morris dance and other early styles, the influence of the courtly dances of Continental Europe, especially those of Renaissance Italy, may also be seen, and it is probable that English country dance was affected by these at an early date. Little is known of these dances before the mid-17th century.\n", "John Playford's \"The English Dancing Master\" (1651) listed over a hundred tunes, each with its own figures. This was enormously popular, reprinted constantly for 80 years and much enlarged. Playford and his successors had a practical monopoly on the publication of dance manuals until 1711, and ceased publishing around 1728. During this period English country dances took a variety of forms including finite sets for two, three and four couples as well as circles and squares.\n", "The country dance was introduced to the court of Louis XIV of France, where it became known as \"contredanse\", and later to Germany and Italy. André Lorin, who visited the English court in the late 17th century, presented a manuscript of dances in the English manner to Louis XIV on his return to France. In 1706 Raoul Auger Feuillet published his \"Recüeil de Contredances\", a collection of \"\"contredanses anglaises\"\" presented in a simplified form of Beauchamp-Feuillet notation and including some dances invented by the author as well as authentic English dances. This was subsequently translated into English by John Essex and published in England as \"For the Further Improvement of Dancing\".\n", "By the 1720s the term \"contradanse\" had come to refer to longways sets divided into groups of three or two couples, which would remain normative until English country dance's eclipse. The earliest French works refer only to the longways form as \"contradanse\", which allowed the false etymology of \"a dance in which lines dance opposite one another\". The square-set type also had its vogue in France during the later 18th century as the quadrille and the cotillion. These usually require a group of eight people, a couple along each side. \"Les Lanciers\", a descendant of the \"quadrille\", and the \"Eightsome Reel\" are examples of this kind of dance. Dancing in square sets still survives in Ireland, under the name \"set dancing\" or \"figure dancing\".\n", "For some time British publishers issued annual collections of these dances in popular pocket-books. Jane Austen, Charles Dickens and Thomas Hardy all loved country dancing and put detailed descriptions into their novels. But the vogue for the waltz and the \"quadrille\" ousted the country dance from English ballrooms in the early 19th century, though Scottish country dance remained popular.\n", "Section::::Influence.\n", "The English country dance and the French \"contredanse\", arriving independently in the American colonies, became the New England contra dance, which experienced a resurgence in the mid-20th century. The quadrille evolved into square dance in the United States while in Ireland it contributed to the development of modern Irish set dance. English country dance in Scotland developed its own flavour and became the separate Scottish country dance. English Ceilidh is a special case, being a convergence of English, Irish and Scottish forms. In addition certain English country dances survived independently in the popular repertoire. One such is the Virginia Reel, which is almost exactly the same as the 'Sir Roger de Coverley'.\n", "The \"contradanza\", the Spanish and Spanish-American version of the French \"contradanse\", became an internationally popular style of music and dance in the 18th century. The \"contradanza\" was popular in Spain and spread throughout Spanish America during the 18th century, where it took on folkloric forms that still exist in Mexico, Venezuela, Colombia, Peru, Panama and Ecuador. In Cuba during the 19th century the \"contradanza\" became an important genre, the ancestor of danzon, mambo and cha cha cha. Haitians fleeing the Haitian Revolution of 1791 brought to the Cuban version a Creole influence and a new syncopation.\n", "The \"Engelska\" (Swedish for \"English\") or Danish \"Engelsk\" is a 16-bar Scandinavian folk dance in . Its name comes from the adoption in Scandinavia of English country dances and contra dances in the early 19th century. In Denmark the description \"Engelsk\" was used for both line and square dances of English origin.\n", "Section::::Revival.\n", "Only due to the efforts of Cecil Sharp, Mary Neal and the English Folk Dance and Song Society in the late 19th and early 20th century did a revival take place, so that for some time schoolchildren were taught country dances. In the early 20th century, traditional and historical dances began to be revived in England. Neal, one of the first to do so, was principally known for her work in ritual dances, but Cecil Sharp, in the six volumes of his \"Country Dance Book\", published between 1909 and 1922, attempted to reconstruct English country dance as it was performed at the time of Playford, using the surviving traditional English village dances as a guide, as the manuals defined almost none of the figures described. Sharp and his students were, however, almost wholly concerned with English country dances as found in the early dance manuals: Sharp published 160 dances from the Playford manuals and 16 traditional village country dances. Sharp believed that the Playford dances, especially those with irregular forms, represented the original \"folk\" form of English country dance and that all later changes in the dance's long history were corruptions. This view is no longer held.\n", "The first collection of modern English country dances since the 1820s, \"Maggot Pie\", was published in 1932, though only in the late 20th century did modern compositions become fully accepted. Reconstructions of historical dances and new compositions continue. Interpreters and composers of the 20th century include Douglas and Helen Kennedy, Pat Shaw, Tom Cook, Ken Sheffield, Charles Bolton, Michael Barraclough, Colin Hume, Gary Roodman, and Andrew Shaw.\n", "Section::::See also.\n", "BULLET::::- Country and Western dance\n", "BULLET::::- Baroque dance\n", "BULLET::::- Social dance\n", "BULLET::::- English Ceilidh\n", "BULLET::::- Choreography and figures in contra dances\n", "BULLET::::- Folk dance\n", "BULLET::::- International folk dance\n", "BULLET::::- Quadrille\n", "BULLET::::- Square dance\n", "BULLET::::- Maypole\n", "BULLET::::- Stave dancing\n", "BULLET::::- Angloise (L. Mozart)\n", "BULLET::::- Troyl, a Cornish gathering similar to a Céilidh\n", "BULLET::::- Twmpath, a Welsh gathering similar to a Céilidh\n", "Section::::External links.\n", "Section::::External links.:History.\n", "BULLET::::- A multi-edition transcription of Playford's \"The Dancing Master,\" compiled by Robert M. Keller, hosted by the University of New Hampshire's \"New Hampshire Library of Traditional Music & Dance.\"\n", "BULLET::::- A transcription of the first edition of Playford's \"The Dancing Master\".\n", "BULLET::::- The Colonial Dancing Master Books and recordings.\n", "BULLET::::- Alan Winston's history survey \"English Country Dance and its American Cousin\"\n", "BULLET::::- Gene Murrow's comments on the history of ECD\n", "BULLET::::- John Gardiner-Garden's 10 volume 7,000 page magnum opus on social dance from 1450 to 1900 \"Historic Dance\"\n", "Section::::External links.:Interpretation.\n", "BULLET::::- Michael Barraclough\n", "BULLET::::- Colin Hume\n", "BULLET::::- Patri J. Pugliese\n", "BULLET::::- John Gardiner-Garden\n", "Section::::External links.:Dance associations.\n", "BULLET::::- Bay Area Country Dance Society promotes, preserves, and teaches traditional English and American music and dance in the San Francisco Bay area.\n", "BULLET::::- CD NY Country Dance New York holds weekly dances in New York City.\n", "BULLET::::- Country Dance and Song Society is a United States umbrella organization whose members enjoy English dance.\n", "BULLET::::- Country Dance*New York runs English and contra dance events in New York City.\n", "BULLET::::- Country Dance Society, Boston Centre runs English and contra dances in Boston, Massachusetts, USA.\n", "BULLET::::- Ann Arbor Community for Traditional Music and Dance is an umbrella organization whose sponsored events include English and American music and dance in Michigan.\n", "BULLET::::- Dover English Country Dancers runs English dances in Dover, DE, USA & presents demonstrations at festivals & historic sites in MD & DE.\n", "BULLET::::- Earthly Delights Historic Dance Academy run dance classes and balls in Australia, as well as a Shakespeare Dance & Music Festival, Baroque Dance Weekend, Jane Austen Festival Australia and Yarrangobilly 19th Century Dance Retreat.\n", "BULLET::::- ECD around the United States A list of English dance series.\n", "BULLET::::- English Folk Dance and Song Society has an online shop selling books and compact disks.\n", "BULLET::::- Felpham & Middleton Country Dance Club has written a history from 1933–1994, just about one of the oldest extant English Country Dance clubs in England.\n", "BULLET::::- Society for Creative Anachronism practices many English country dances in a historical context.\n", "BULLET::::- The Leesburg Assembly is an English Country Dance community centered in Northern Virginia, USA.\n", "BULLET::::- The Victoria English Country Dance Society is a group of friendly people who gather once a week to dance in Victoria, BC, Canada. Live music is provided by The Dancehall Players.\n", "Section::::External links.:General.\n", "BULLET::::- & (Occitan) Folk dances from County of Nice, France\n", "BULLET::::- Scottish Country Dancing database\n", "BULLET::::- Country Dance Clubs, Studio's & Festivals. Dance Clubs & Studios\n" ] }

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Mozart)", "Troyl", "Cornish", "Twmpath", "Welsh", "Playford's \"The Dancing Master,\"", "A transcription of the first edition of Playford's \"The Dancing Master\"", "The Colonial Dancing Master", "\"English Country Dance and its American Cousin\"", "comments on the history of ECD", "\"Historic Dance\"", "Michael Barraclough", "Colin Hume", "Patri J. Pugliese", "John Gardiner-Garden", "Bay Area Country Dance Society", "CD NY", "Country Dance and Song Society", "Country Dance*New York", "Country Dance Society, Boston Centre", "Ann Arbor Community for Traditional Music and Dance", "Dover English Country Dancers", "Earthly Delights Historic Dance Academy", "ECD around the United States", "English Folk Dance and Song Society", "Felpham & Middleton Country Dance Club", "Society for Creative Anachronism", "The Leesburg Assembly", "The Victoria English Country Dance Society", "The Dancehall Players", "Occitan", "Folk dances from County of Nice, France", "Scottish Country Dancing database", "Country Dance Clubs, Studio's & Festivals" ], "href": [ "social%20dances", "contradanza", "French%20language", "Scottish%20country%20dance", "Ecossaise", "Irish%20set%20dance", "contra%20dances", "Strip%20the%20willow", "Glossary%20of%20country%20dance%20terms", "village%20green", "clogging", "concert%20dance", "ballroom%20dance", "minuet", "contra%20dance", "Elizabeth%20I%20of%20England", "morris%20dance", "Italian%20Renaissance", "John%20Playford", "The%20English%20Dancing%20Master", "Louis%20XIV", "Raoul%20Auger%20Feuillet", "Beauchamp-Feuillet%20notation", "John%20Essex", "quadrille", "cotillion", "Les%20Lanciers", "Irish%20set%20dance", "Jane%20Austen", "Charles%20Dickens", "Thomas%20Hardy", "waltz", "Scottish%20country%20dance", "contra%20dance", "Irish%20set%20dance", "Scotland", "Scottish%20country%20dance", "c%C3%A9ilidh", "Virginia%20reel%20%28dance%29", "contradanza", "danzon", "mambo%20%28dance%29", "cha-cha-cha%20%28dance%29", "Haitian%20Revolution", "Swedish%20language", "Danish%20language", "English%20country%20dance", "Cecil%20Sharp", "Mary%20Neal", "English%20Folk%20Dance%20and%20Song%20Society", "Cecil%20Sharp", "Country%20and%20Western%20dance", "Baroque%20dance", "Social%20dance", "C%C3%A9ilidh%23Similar%20gatherings%20in%20England", "Contra%20dance%23Choreography", "Folk%20dance", "International%20folk%20dance", "Quadrille", "Square%20dance", "Maypole", "Stave%20dancing", "Angloise%20%28L.%20Mozart%29", "Troyl", "Cornwall", "Twmpath", "Culture%20of%20Wales", "https%3A//web.archive.org/web/20110202091008/http%3A//www.originsofplayforddance.com/", "http%3A//www.contrib.andrew.cmu.edu/~flip/contrib/dance/playford.html", "https%3A//web.archive.org/web/20081012001536/http%3A//members.aol.com/Dance18thc/", "https%3A//web.archive.org/web/20110202091008/http%3A//www.originsofplayforddance.com/", "http%3A//www-ssrl.slac.stanford.edu/~winston/ecd/origins_and_evolution.htmlx", "http%3A//www.earthlydelights.com.au/books-cds", "https%3A//web.archive.org/web/20151016065943/http%3A//michaelbarraclough.com/dance-instructions/my-interpretations/introduction", "http%3A//www.colinhume.com/instr.htm", "https%3A//web.archive.org/web/20020602081918/http%3A//vintagedancers.org/ball_in_box.html", "http%3A//www.earthlydelights.com.au/about-us/john-gardiner-garden", "http%3A//bacds.org/", "http%3A//cdny.org", "http%3A//www.cdss.org/", "http%3A//www.cdny.org/", "http%3A//www.cds-boston.org/", "http%3A//www.aactmad.org/", "http%3A//www.doverdancers.org/", "http%3A//www.earthlydelights.com.au/", "http%3A//www-ssrl.slac.stanford.edu/~winston/ecd/hotbeds.htmlx", "http%3A//www.efdss.org/", "http%3A//www.interfolk.co.uk/fmcdc/hist.html", "http%3A//www.sca.org/", "http%3A//www.theleesburgassembly.org/", "http%3A//www.vecds.bc.ca/", "http%3A//www.vecds.bc.ca/tdp.html", "Occitan%20language", "http%3A//mtcn.free.fr/mtcn-traditional-music-dance.php", "http%3A//my.strathspey.org/dd/dance/", "https%3A//docs.google.com/spreadsheets/d/1XzkirDhpUyXTVavFwbmlNTh9JLDYtKC9RHe8gnQOpd0/edit%23gid%3D0" ], "wikipedia_title": [ "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "" ], "wikipedia_id": [ "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "" ] }

{ "description": "social dance", "enwikiquote_title": "", "wikidata_id": "Q5177506", "wikidata_label": "country dance", "wikipedia_title": "Country dance", "aliases": { "alias": [] } }

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{ "paragraph": [ "Peter Minuit\n", "Peter Minuit, Pieter Minuit, Pierre Minuit, or Peter Minnewit (between 1580 and 1585 – August 5, 1638) was a Walloon from Tournai, in present-day located in Belgium. His surname means \"midnight\" in French. He was the 3rd Director of the Dutch North American colony of New Netherland from 1626 until 1631, and 3rd Governor of New Netherland. He founded the Swedish colony of New Sweden on the Delaware Peninsula in 1638.\n", "Minuit is generally credited with orchestrating the purchase of Manhattan Island for the Dutch from the Lenape Native Americans. Manhattan later became the site of the Dutch city of New Amsterdam, and the borough of Manhattan of modern-day New York City. A common account states that Minuit purchased Manhattan for $24 worth of trinkets. A letter written by Dutch merchant Peter Schaghen to directors of the Dutch East India Company stated that Manhattan was purchased \"for the value of 60 guilders\" in goods, an amount worth approximately $1,050 in 2015 dollars.\n", "Section::::Biography.\n", "Section::::Biography.:Early life.\n", "Peter Minuit was born at Tournai between 1580 and 1585 into a Calvinist family that had moved from the city of Tournai (presently part of Wallonia, Belgium) in the Southern Netherlands, to Wesel in Germany, in order to avoid Spanish Catholic colonials, who were not favorably disposed toward Protestants.\n", "His father, Johann, died in 1609 and Peter took over management of the household and his father's business. Peter had a good reputation in Wesel, attested by the fact that he was several times appointed a guardian. He also assisted the poor during the Spanish occupation of 1614–1619.\n", "Minuit married Gertrude Raedts on August 20, 1613. Gertrude was from a wealthy family and she probably helped Peter Minuit establish himself as a broker. A will drawn up in 1615 in the Dutch city of Utrecht, mentions \"Peter Minnewit\" as a diamond cutter. Whether he traded in other items is unknown.\n", "By 1624, the city was in an economic decline and in 1625, he had left Wesel and like others, went to Holland. At first, Gertrude went to stay with her relatives in Cleve.\n", "Section::::Biography.:As director of New Netherland.\n", "Minuit joined the Dutch West India Company, probably in the mid-1620s, and was sent with his family to New Netherland in 1625 to search for tradable goods other than the animal pelts that then were the major product coming from New Netherland. He returned in the same year, and in 1626 was appointed the new director of New Netherland, taking over from Willem Verhulst. He sailed to North America and arrived in the colony on May 4, 1626. \n", "Minuit is credited with purchasing the island of Manhattan from the Native Americans in exchange for traded goods valued at 60 guilders. According to the writer Nathaniel Benchley, Minuit conducted the transaction with Seyseys, chief of the Canarsees, who were only too happy to accept valuable merchandise in exchange for an island that was mostly controlled by the Weckquaesgeeks.\n", "The figure of 60 guilders comes from a letter by a representative of the Dutch States-General and member of the board of the Dutch West India Company, Pieter Janszoon Schagen, to the States-General in November 1626. In 1846, New York historian John Romeyn Brodhead converted the figure of Fl 60 (or 60 guilders) to US$23. The popular account rounds this off to $24. By 2006 sixty guilders in 1626 was worth approximately $1,000 in current dollars, according to the Institute for Social History of Amsterdam.\n", "According to researchers at the National Library of the Netherlands, \"The original inhabitants of the area were unfamiliar with the European notions and definitions of ownership rights. For the Indians, water, air and land could not be traded. Such exchanges would also be difficult in practical terms because many groups migrated between their summer and winter quarters. It can be concluded that both parties probably went home with totally different interpretations of the sales agreement.\"\n", "A contemporary purchase of rights in nearby Staten Island, to which Minuit also was party, involved duffel cloth, iron kettles, axe heads, hoes, wampum, drilling awls, \"Jew's harps\", and \"diverse other wares\". \"If similar trade goods were involved in the Manhattan arrangement\", Burrows and Wallace surmise, \"then the Dutch were engaged in high-end technology transfer, handing over equipment of enormous usefulness in tasks ranging from clearing land to drilling wampum.\"\n", "Minuit conducted politics in a measure of democracy in the colony during his time in New Netherland. He was highest judge in the colony, but in both civil and criminal affairs he was assisted by a council of five colonists. This advisory body would advise the director and jointly with him would develop, administer, and adjudicate a body of laws to help govern the colony. In addition there was a schout-fiscal, half-sheriff, half-attorney-general, and the customs officer. During Minuit's administration, several mills were built, trade grew exponentially, and the population grew to almost 300.\n", "In 1631, the Dutch West India Company (WIC) suspended Minuit from his post for reasons that are unclear, but probably for (perhaps unintentionally) abetting the landowning patroons who were engaging in illegal fur trade and otherwise enriching themselves against the interests and orders of the West India Company. He arrived back in Europe in August 1632 to explain his actions, but was dismissed and was succeeded as director by Wouter van Twiller. It is possible that Minuit had become the victim of the internal disputes over the rights that the board of directors had given to the patroons.\n", "Section::::Biography.:Establishing the New Sweden colony.\n", "After having lived in Cleves, Germany for several years, Minuit made arrangements with Samuel Blommaert and the Swedish government in 1636 or 1637 to create the first Swedish colony in the New World. Located on the lower Delaware River within territory earlier claimed by the Dutch, it was called New Sweden. Minuit and his company arrived on the \"Fogel Grip\" and \"Kalmar Nyckel\" at Swedes' Landing (now Wilmington, Delaware), in the spring of 1638. They constructed Fort Christina later that year, then returned to Stockholm for a second load of colonists, and made a side trip to the Caribbean on the return to pick up a shipment of tobacco for resale in Europe to make the voyage profitable. During this voyage, Minuit drowned when the ship he was visiting (at the invitation of its Dutch captain, a friend of Minuit), \"The Flying Deer\", was lost with all hands during a hurricane at St. Christopher (today's St. Kitts) in the Caribbean. The losses suffered, such as goods, colonists, and Minuit, caused irreversible damage to Sweden's colonization attempts. Two years later, Swedish Lt. Måns Nilsson Kling, whose rank was raised to captain, replaced him as governor. Nine expeditions to the colony were carried out before the Dutch captured it in 1655.\n", "Section::::Legacy.\n", "Section::::Legacy.:Places named after Minuit.\n", "BULLET::::- The Staten Island Ferry Whitehall Terminal's Peter Minuit Plaza, north of the South Ferry – Whitehall Street station (). Following the 400th anniversary celebrations of Henry Hudson's voyage to Manhattan, a pavilion was opened there to honor the Dutch. Each night at midnight, LED lights around the pavilion's perimeter glow in honor of Minuit.\n", "BULLET::::- A marker in Inwood Hill Park at the supposed site of the purchase of Manhattan\n", "BULLET::::- A granite flagstaff base in Battery Park, which depicts the historic purchase\n", "BULLET::::- A school and playground in East Harlem, which are named for him.\n", "BULLET::::- An apartment building at 25 Claremont Avenue in Manhattan, which bears his name above the front entrance\n", "BULLET::::- The Peter Minuit Chapter of the Daughters of the American Revolution\n", "BULLET::::- A memorial on Moltkestraße in Wesel, North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany\n", "Section::::Legacy.:In popular culture.\n", "BULLET::::- The beginning lines of Rodgers and Hart's 1939 song \"Give It Back to the Indians\" recount the sale of Manhattan: \"Old Peter Minuit had nothing to lose when he bought the isle of Manhattan / For twenty-six dollars and a bottle of booze, and they threw in the Bronx and Staten / Pete thought he had the best of the bargain, but the poor red man just grinned / And he grunted \"ugh!\" (meaning \"okay\" in his jargon) for he knew poor Pete was skinned.\"\n", "BULLET::::- One version of Minuit was played by Groucho Marx in the 1957 comedy film \"The Story of Mankind\".\n", "BULLET::::- Minuit is mentioned on the HBO drama \"Boardwalk Empire\", where the character Edward Bader tells a joke featuring the line, \"'50 bucks?' the fella says. 'Peter Stuyvesant only paid 24 for the entire island of Manhattan!'\", while Steve Buscemi's' character Enoch 'Nucky' Thompson has to correct Bader and inform him that it was in fact Peter Minuit who bought Manhattan, not Stuyvesant.\n", "BULLET::::- Bob Dylan mentions Minuit in his song \"Hard Times in New York Town\" (released on The Bootleg Series Volume 1) in the following line: \"Mister Hudson come a-sailing down the stream, / and old Mister Minuit paid for his dream.\" In the released recording of the song, however, Dylan spoonerizes \"Mister Minuit\" by mispronouncing his name as \"Minnie Mistuit.\" The official lyrics have the correct version of the name, except that Minuit is spelled \"Minuet.\"\n", "BULLET::::- Minuit is mentioned in the first episode, \"Uno\", of the AMC drama \"Better Call Saul\". Jimmy McGill (the later titular Saul), while confronting lawyers at his brother's law firm, accuses them of being \"like Peter Minuit\" and suggests that they \"throw in some beads and shells\" to the $26,000.00 being given to his brother.\n", "Section::::See also.\n", "BULLET::::- Dutch colonization of the Americas\n", "BULLET::::- Dutch Empire\n", "BULLET::::- List of colonial governors of New Jersey\n", "BULLET::::- List of colonial governors of New York\n", "Section::::Further reading.\n", "BULLET::::- Arand, Tobias. \"Peter Minuit aus Wesel - Ein rheinischer Überseekaufmann im 17. Jahrhundert; in: Schöne Neue Welt. Rheinländer erobern Amerika, hg. v. Rheinischen Freilichtmuseum und Landesmuseum für Volkskunde in Kommern\", Opladen 1981, 13-42\n", "BULLET::::- Jacobs, Jaap. (2005), \"New Netherland: A Dutch Colony in Seventeenth-Century America\". Leiden: Brill Academic Publishers, .\n", "BULLET::::- Mickley, Joseph J. \"Some account of Willem Usselinx and Peter Minuit: Two individuals who were instrumental in establishing the first permanent colony in Delaware\", The Historical Society of Delaware, 1881\n", "Section::::External links.\n", "BULLET::::- Project Gutenberg's \"Narrative New Netherland\", edited by J. Franklin Jameson, includes a footnote about the life of Minuit, but gives an improbable birth date of 1550.\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Canarsees\", Angelfire\n", "BULLET::::- Edwin G. Burrows and Mike Wallace: \"Gotham\", 1999.\n", "BULLET::::- Kenneth T. Jackson, ed.: \"Encyclopedia of New York City\" (1995)\n", "BULLET::::- Pieter (later English spelling \"Peter\") Schaghen, \"Letter on the purchase of Manhattan Island\",\n" ] }

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{ "description": "third director-general of New Netherland, founder of the Swedish colony of New Sweden in 1638", "enwikiquote_title": "", "wikidata_id": "Q312889", "wikidata_label": "Peter Minuit", "wikipedia_title": "Peter Minuit", "aliases": { "alias": [ "Peter Minnewitt" ] } }

{ "pageid": 43699, "parentid": 904735162, "revid": 904735290, "pre_dump": true, "timestamp": "2019-07-04T05:13:40Z", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Peter%20Minuit&oldid=904735290" }

{ "paragraph": [ "Edwin Beard Budding\n", "Edwin Beard Budding (1796–1846), an engineer from Eastington, Stroud, was the English inventor of the lawnmower (1830) and adjustable spanner (1842). Due to his invention of the lawnmower Budding is nicknamed \"The Grass Man.\" \n", "Section::::Lawnmower.\n", "Budding had the idea of the lawnmower after seeing a machine in a local cloth mill which used a cutting cylinder (or bladed reel) mounted on a bench to trim the irregular nap from the surface of woollen cloth and give a smooth finish.\n", "Budding's mower was designed primarily to cut the lawn on sports grounds and extensive gardens, as a superior alternative to the scythe, and was granted a British patent on 31 August 1830. It took ten more years and further innovations to create a machine that could be worked by animals, and sixty years before a steam-powered lawn mower was built. The first machine produced was 19 inches in width with a frame made of wrought iron. The mower was pushed from behind with motive power coming from the rear land roller which drove gears to transfer the drive to the knives on the cutting cylinder; the ratio was 16:1. There was another roller placed in between the cutting cylinder and the land roller which was adjustable to alter the height of cut. On cutting, the grass clippings were hurled forward into a tray like box. It was soon realized, however, that an extra handle was needed in front of the machine which could be used to help pull it along. Two of the earliest Budding machines sold went to Regent's Park Zoological Gardens in London and the Oxford Colleges. In an agreement between John Ferrabee and Edwin Budding, dated 18 May 1830, Ferrabee paid the costs of development, obtained letters of patent and acquired rights to manufacture, sell and license other manufacturers in the production of lawn mowers. Budding realised that a similar device could be used to cut grass if the mechanism was mounted in a wheeled frame to make the blades rotate close to the lawn's surface. Budding went into partnership with a local engineer, John Ferrabee, and together they made mowers in a factory at Thrupp near Stroud.\n", "Examples of the early Budding type mowers can be seen in Stroud Museum, the London Science Museum and at Milton Keynes Museum.\n", "Section::::Adjustable spanner.\n", "Budding is also credited with the invention of the screw adjustable spanner in 1842.\n", "Section::::External links.\n", "BULLET::::- https://www.ndti.org.uk/blog/how-a-chance-comment-during-a-park-walk-led-to-a-fascinating-journey\n" ] }

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{ "description": "English engineer, inventor of lawn mower", "enwikiquote_title": "", "wikidata_id": "Q788529", "wikidata_label": "Edwin Beard Budding", "wikipedia_title": "Edwin Beard Budding", "aliases": { "alias": [] } }

{ "pageid": 43704, "parentid": 904454882, "revid": 904454885, "pre_dump": true, "timestamp": "2019-07-02T08:49:03Z", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Edwin%20Beard%20Budding&oldid=904454885" }

{ "paragraph": [ "Great white shark\n", "The great white shark (\"Carcharodon carcharias\"), also known as the great white, white shark or white pointer, is a species of large mackerel shark which can be found in the coastal surface waters of all the major oceans. The great white shark is notable for its size, with larger female individuals growing to in length and in weight at maturity. However, most are smaller; males measure , and females measure on average. According to a 2014 study, the lifespan of great white sharks is estimated to be as long as 70 years or more, well above previous estimates, making it one of the longest lived cartilaginous fish currently known. According to the same study, male great white sharks take 26 years to reach sexual maturity, while the females take 33 years to be ready to produce offspring. Great white sharks can swim at speeds of over , and can swim to depths of .\n", "The great white shark has no known natural predators other than, on very rare occasions, the killer whale. The great white shark is arguably the world's largest known extant macropredatory fish, and is one of the primary predators of marine mammals. It is also known to prey upon a variety of other marine animals, including fish and seabirds. It is the only known surviving species of its genus \"Carcharodon\", and is responsible for more recorded human bite incidents than any other shark.\n", "The species faces numerous ecological challenges which has resulted in international protection. The IUCN lists the great white shark as a vulnerable species, and it is included in Appendix II of CITES. It is also protected by several national governments such as Australia (as of 2018).\n", "The novel \"Jaws\" by Peter Benchley and its subsequent film adaptation by Steven Spielberg depicted the great white shark as a \"ferocious man eater\". Humans are not the preferred prey of the great white shark, but the great white is nevertheless responsible for the largest number of reported and identified fatal unprovoked shark attacks on humans.\n", "Section::::Taxonomy.\n", "The great white shark was one of the many amphibia originally described by Linnaeus in the landmark 1758 10th edition of his \"Systema Naturae\", its first scientific name, \"Squalus carcharias\". Later, Sir Andrew Smith gave it \"Carcharodon\" as its generic name in 1833, and also in 1873. The generic name was identified with Linnaeus' specific name and the current scientific name, \"Carcharodon carcharias\", was finalized. \"Carcharodon\" comes from the Ancient Greek words (, 'sharp' or 'jagged'), and (), (, 'tooth').\n", "Section::::Taxonomy.:Ancestry and fossil record.\n", "The earliest known fossils of the great white shark are about 16 million years old, during the mid-Miocene epoch. However, the phylogeny of the great white is still in dispute. The original hypothesis for the great white's origins is that it shares a common ancestor with a prehistoric shark, such as the \"C. megalodon\". \"C. megalodon\" had teeth that were superficially not too dissimilar with those of great white sharks, but its teeth were far larger. Although cartilaginous skeletons do not fossilize, \"C. megalodon\" is estimated to have been considerably larger than the great white shark, estimated at up to and . Similarities among the physical remains and the extreme size of both the great white and \"C. megalodon\" led many scientists to believe these sharks were closely related, and the name \"Carcharodon megalodon\" was applied to the latter. However, a new hypothesis proposes that the \"C. megalodon\" and the great white are distant relatives (albeit sharing the family Lamnidae). The great white is also more closely related to an ancient mako shark, \"Isurus hastalis\", than to the \"C. megalodon\", a theory that seems to be supported with the discovery of a complete set of jaws with 222 teeth and 45 vertebrae of the extinct transitional species \"Carcharodon hubbelli\" in 1988 and published on 14 November 2012. In addition, the new hypothesis assigns \"C. megalodon\" to the genus \"Carcharocles\", which also comprises the other megatoothed sharks; \"Otodus obliquus\" is the ancient representative of the extinct \"Carcharocles\" lineage.\n", "Section::::Distribution and habitat.\n", "Great white sharks live in almost all coastal and offshore waters which have water temperature between , with greater concentrations in the United States (Northeast and California), South Africa, Japan, Oceania, Chile, and the Mediterranean including Sea of Marmara and Bosphorus. One of the densest known populations is found around Dyer Island, South Africa.\n", "The great white is an epipelagic fish, observed mostly in the presence of rich game, such as fur seals (\"Arctocephalus\" ssp.), sea lions, cetaceans, other sharks, and large bony fish species. In the open ocean, it has been recorded at depths as great as . These findings challenge the traditional notion that the great white is a coastal species.\n", "According to a recent study, California great whites have migrated to an area between Baja California Peninsula and Hawaii known as the White Shark Café to spend at least 100 days before migrating back to Baja. On the journey out, they swim slowly and dive down to around . After they arrive, they change behavior and do short dives to about for up to ten minutes. Another white shark that was tagged off the South African coast swam to the southern coast of Australia and back within the year. A similar study tracked a different great white shark from South Africa swimming to Australia's northwestern coast and back, a journey of in under nine months.\n", "These observations argue against traditional theories that white sharks are coastal territorial predators, and open up the possibility of interaction between shark populations that were previously thought to have been discrete. The reasons for their migration and what they do at their destination is still unknown. Possibilities include seasonal feeding or mating.\n", "A 2018 study indicated that white sharks prefer to congregate deep in anticyclonic eddies in the North Atlantic Ocean. The sharks studied tended to favor the warm water eddies, spending the daytime hours at 450 meters and coming to the surface at night.\n", "Section::::Anatomy and appearance.\n", "The great white shark has a robust, large, conical snout. The upper and lower lobes on the tail fin are approximately the same size which is similar to some mackerel sharks. A great white displays countershading, by having a white underside and a grey dorsal area (sometimes in a brown or blue shade) that gives an overall mottled appearance. The coloration makes it difficult for prey to spot the shark because it breaks up the shark's outline when seen from the side. From above, the darker shade blends with the sea and from below it exposes a minimal silhouette against the sunlight. Leucism is extremely rare in this species, but has been documented in one great white shark (a pup that washed ashore in Australia and died). Great white sharks, like many other sharks, have rows of serrated teeth behind the main ones, ready to replace any that break off. When the shark bites, it shakes its head side-to-side, helping the teeth saw off large chunks of flesh. Great white sharks, like other mackerel sharks, have larger eyes than other shark species in proportion to their body size. The iris of the eye is a deep blue instead of black.\n", "Section::::Anatomy and appearance.:Size.\n", "In great white sharks, sexual dimorphism is present, and females are generally larger than males. Male great whites on average measure long, while females at . Adults of this species weigh on average, however mature females can have an average mass of . The largest females have been verified up to in length and an estimated in weight, perhaps up to . The maximum size is subject to debate because some reports are rough estimations or speculations performed under questionable circumstances. Among living cartilaginous fish, only the whale shark (\"Rhincodon typus\"), the basking shark (\"Cetorhinus maximus\") and the giant manta ray (\"Manta birostris\"), in that order, are on average larger and heavier. These three species are generally quite docile in disposition and given to passively filter-feeding on very small organisms. This makes the great white shark the largest extant macropredatory fish. Great white sharks are at around when born, and grow about each year.\n", "According to J. E. Randall, the largest white shark reliably measured was a individual reported from Ledge Point, Western Australia in 1987. Another great white specimen of similar size has been verified by the Canadian Shark Research Center: A female caught by David McKendrick of Alberton, Prince Edward Island, in August 1988 in the Gulf of St. Lawrence off Prince Edward Island. This female great white was long. However, there was a report considered reliable by some experts in the past, of a larger great white shark specimen from Cuba in 1945. This specimen was reportedly long and had a body mass estimated at . However, later studies also revealed that this particular specimen was actually around in length, a specimen in the average maximum size range.\n", "The largest great white recognized by the International Game Fish Association (IGFA) is one caught by Alf Dean in south Australian waters in 1959, weighing . Several larger great whites caught by anglers have since been verified, but were later disallowed from formal recognition by IGFA monitors for rules violations.\n", "Section::::Anatomy and appearance.:Size.:Examples of large unconfirmed great whites.\n", "A number of very large unconfirmed great white shark specimens have been recorded. For decades, many ichthyological works, as well as the \"Guinness Book of World Records\", listed two great white sharks as the largest individuals: In the 1870s, a great white captured in southern Australian waters, near Port Fairy, and an shark trapped in a herring weir in New Brunswick, Canada, in the 1930s. However these measurements were not obtained in a rigorous, scientifically valid manner, and researchers have questioned the reliability of these measurements for a long time, noting they were much larger than any other accurately reported sighting. Later studies proved these doubts to be well founded. This New Brunswick shark may have been a misidentified basking shark, as the two have similar body shapes. The question of the Port Fairy shark was settled in the 1970s when J. E. Randall examined the shark's jaws and \"found that the Port Fairy shark was of the order of in length and suggested that a mistake had been made in the original record, in 1870, of the shark's length\". These wrong measurements would make the alleged shark more than five times heavier than it really was.\n", "While these measurements have not been confirmed, some great white sharks caught in modern times have been estimated to be more than long, but these claims have received some criticism. However, J. E. Randall believed that great white shark may have exceeded in length. A great white shark was captured near Kangaroo Island in Australia on 1 April 1987. This shark was estimated to be more than long by Peter Resiley, and has been designated as KANGA. Another great white shark was caught in Malta by Alfredo Cutajar on 16 April 1987. This shark was also estimated to be around long by John Abela and has been designated as MALTA. However, Cappo drew criticism because he used shark size estimation methods proposed by J. E. Randall to suggest that the KANGA specimen was long. In a similar fashion, I. K. Fergusson also used shark size estimation methods proposed by J. E. Randall to suggest that the MALTA specimen was long. However, photographic evidence suggested that these specimens were larger than the size estimations yielded through Randall's methods. Thus, a team of scientists—H. F. Mollet, G. M. Cailliet, A. P. Klimley, D. A. Ebert, A. D. Testi, and L. J. V. Compagno—reviewed the cases of the KANGA and MALTA specimens in 1996 to resolve the dispute by conducting a comprehensive morphometric analysis of the remains of these sharks and re-examination of photographic evidence in an attempt to validate the original size estimations and their findings were consistent with them. The findings indicated that estimations by P. Resiley and J. Abela are reasonable and could not be ruled out. A particularly large female great white nicknamed \"Deep Blue\", estimated measuring at was filmed off Guadalupe during shooting for the 2014 episode of Shark Week \"Jaws Strikes Back\". Deep Blue would also later gain significant attention when she was filmed interacting with researcher Mauricio Hoyas Pallida in a viral video that Mauricio posted on Facebook on 11 June 2015. Deep Blue was later seen off Oahu in January, 2019 while scavenging a sperm whale carcass, whereupon she was filmed swimming beside divers including dive tourism operator and model Ocean Ramsey in open water. A particularly infamous great white shark, supposedly of record proportions, once patrolled the area that comprises False Bay, South Africa, was said to be well over during the early 1980s. This shark, known locally as the \"Submarine\", had a legendary reputation that was supposedly well founded. Though rumors have stated this shark was exaggerated in size or non-existent altogether, witness accounts by the then young Craig Anthony Ferreira, a notable shark expert in South Africa, and his father indicate an unusually large animal of considerable size and power (though it remains uncertain just how massive the shark was as it escaped capture each time it was hooked). Ferreira describes the four encounters with the giant shark he participated in with great detail in his book \"Great White Sharks On Their Best Behavior\".\n", "One contender in maximum size among the predatory sharks is the tiger shark (\"Galeocerdo cuvier\"). While tiger sharks which are typically both a few feet smaller and have a leaner, less heavy body structure than white sharks, have been confirmed to reach at least in the length, an unverified specimen was reported to have measured in length and weighed , more than two times heavier than the largest confirmed specimen at . Some other macropredatory sharks such as the Greenland shark (\"Somniosus microcephalus\") and the Pacific sleeper shark (\"S. pacificus\") are also reported to rival these sharks in length (but probably weigh a bit less since they are more slender in build than a great white) in exceptional cases. The question of maximum weight is complicated by the unresolved question of whether or not to include the shark's stomach contents when weighing the shark. With a single bite a great white can take in up to of flesh, and can also consume several hundred kilograms of food.\n", "Section::::Anatomy and appearance.:Adaptations.\n", "Great white sharks, like all other sharks, have an extra sense given by the ampullae of Lorenzini which enables them to detect the electromagnetic field emitted by the movement of living animals. Great whites are so sensitive they can detect variations of half a billionth of a volt. At close range, this allows the shark to locate even immobile animals by detecting their heartbeat. Most fish have a less-developed but similar sense using their body's lateral line.\n", "To more successfully hunt fast and agile prey such as sea lions, the great white has adapted to maintain a body temperature warmer than the surrounding water. One of these adaptations is a \"rete mirabile\" (Latin for \"wonderful net\"). This close web-like structure of veins and arteries, located along each lateral side of the shark, conserves heat by warming the cooler arterial blood with the venous blood that has been warmed by the working muscles. This keeps certain parts of the body (particularly the stomach) at temperatures up to above that of the surrounding water, while the heart and gills remain at sea temperature. When conserving energy the core body temperature can drop to match the surroundings. A great white shark's success in raising its core temperature is an example of gigantothermy. Therefore, the great white shark can be considered an endothermic poikilotherm or mesotherm because its body temperature is not constant but is internally regulated. Great whites also rely on the fat and oils stored within their livers for long-distance migrations across nutrient-poor areas of the oceans. Studies by Stanford University and the Monterey Bay Aquarium published on 17 July 2013 revealed that in addition to controlling the sharks' buoyancy, the liver of great whites is essential in migration patterns. Sharks that sink faster during drift dives were revealed to use up their internal stores of energy quicker than those which sink in a dive at more leisurely rates.\n", "Toxicity from heavy metals seems to have little negative effects on great white sharks. Blood samples taken from forty-three individuals of varying size, age and sex off the South African coast led by biologists from the University of Miami in 2012 indicates that despite high levels of mercury, lead, and arsenic, there was no sign of raised white blood cell count and granulate to lymphocyte ratios, indicating the sharks had healthy immune systems. This discovery suggests a previously unknown physiological defense against heavy metal poisoning. Great whites are known to have a propensity for \"self-healing and avoiding age-related ailments\".\n", "Section::::Anatomy and appearance.:Bite force.\n", "A 2007 study from the University of New South Wales in Sydney, Australia, used CT scans of a shark's skull and computer models to measure the shark's maximum bite force. The study reveals the forces and behaviors its skull is adapted to handle and resolves competing theories about its feeding behavior. In 2008, a team of scientists led by Stephen Wroe conducted an experiment to determine the great white shark's jaw power and findings indicated that a specimen massing could exert a bite force of .\n", "Section::::Ecology and behavior.\n", "This shark's behavior and social structure is not well understood. In South Africa, white sharks have a dominance hierarchy depending on the size, sex and squatter's rights: Females dominate males, larger sharks dominate smaller sharks, and residents dominate newcomers. When hunting, great whites tend to separate and resolve conflicts with rituals and displays. White sharks rarely resort to combat although some individuals have been found with bite marks that match those of other white sharks. This suggests that when a great white approaches too closely to another, they react with a warning bite. Another possibility is that white sharks bite to show their dominance.\n", "The great white shark is one of only a few sharks known to regularly lift its head above the sea surface to gaze at other objects such as prey. This is known as spy-hopping. This behavior has also been seen in at least one group of blacktip reef sharks, but this might be learned from interaction with humans (it is theorized that the shark may also be able to smell better this way because smell travels through air faster than through water). White sharks are generally very curious animals, display intelligence and may also turn to socializing if the situation demands it. At Seal Island, white sharks have been observed arriving and departing in stable \"clans\" of two to six individuals on a yearly basis. Whether clan members are related is unknown but they get along peacefully enough. In fact, the social structure of a clan is probably most aptly compared to that of a wolf pack; in that each member has a clearly established rank and each clan has an alpha leader. When members of different clans meet, they establish social rank nonviolently through any of a variety of interactions.\n", "Section::::Ecology and behavior.:Diet.\n", "Great white sharks are carnivorous and prey upon fish (e.g. tuna, rays, other sharks), cetaceans (i.e., dolphins, porpoises, whales), pinnipeds (e.g. seals, fur seals, and sea lions), sea turtles, sea otters (\"Enhydra lutris\") and seabirds. Great whites have also been known to eat objects that they are unable to digest. Juvenile white sharks predominantly prey on fish, including other elasmobranchs, as their jaws are not strong enough to withstand the forces required to attack larger prey such as pinnipeds and cetaceans until they reach a length of or more, at which point their jaw cartilage mineralizes enough to withstand the impact of biting into larger prey species. Upon approaching a length of nearly , great white sharks begin to target predominantly marine mammals for food, though individual sharks seem to specialize in different types of prey depending on their preferences. They seem to be highly opportunistic. These sharks prefer prey with a high content of energy-rich fat. Shark expert Peter Klimley used a rod-and-reel rig and trolled carcasses of a seal, a pig, and a sheep from his boat in the South Farallons. The sharks attacked all three baits but rejected the sheep carcass.\n", "Off California, sharks immobilize northern elephant seals (\"Mirounga angustirostris\") with a large bite to the hindquarters (which is the main source of the seal's mobility) and wait for the seal to bleed to death. This technique is especially used on adult male elephant seals, which are typically larger than the shark, ranging between , and are potentially dangerous adversaries. Most commonly though, juvenile elephant seals are the most frequently eaten at elephant seal colonies. Prey is normally attacked sub-surface. Harbor seals (\"Phoca vitulina\") are taken from the surface and dragged down until they stop struggling. They are then eaten near the bottom. California sea lions (\"Zalophus californianus\") are ambushed from below and struck mid-body before being dragged and eaten.\n", "White sharks also attack dolphins and porpoises from above, behind or below to avoid being detected by their echolocation. Targeted species include dusky dolphins (\"Lagenorhynchus obscurus\"), Risso's dolphins (\"Grampus griseus\"), bottlenose dolphins (\"Tursiops\" ssp.), Humpback dolphins (\"Sousa\" ssp.), harbour porpoises (\"Phocoena phocoena\"), and Dall's porpoises (\"Phocoenoides dalli\"). Groups of dolphins have occasionally been observed defending themselves from sharks with mobbing behaviour. White shark predation on other species of small cetacean has also been observed. In August 1989, a juvenile male pygmy sperm whale (\"Kogia breviceps\") was found stranded in central California with a bite mark on its caudal peduncle from a great white shark. In addition, white sharks attack and prey upon beaked whales. Cases where an adult Stejneger's beaked whale (\"Mesoplodon stejnegeri\"), with a mean mass of around , and a juvenile Cuvier's beaked whale (\"Ziphius cavirostris\"), an individual estimated at , were hunted and killed by great white sharks have also been observed. When hunting sea turtles, they appear to simply bite through the carapace around a flipper, immobilizing the turtle. The heaviest species of bony fish, the oceanic sunfish (\"Mola mola\"), has been found in great white shark stomachs.\n", "Off Seal Island, False Bay in South Africa, the sharks ambush brown fur seals (\"Arctocephalus pusillus\") from below at high speeds, hitting the seal mid-body. They can go so fast that they completely leave the water. The peak burst speed is estimated to be above . They have also been observed chasing prey after a missed attack. Prey is usually attacked at the surface. Shark attacks most often occur in the morning, within 2 hours of sunrise, when visibility is poor. Their success rate is 55% in the first 2 hours, falling to 40% in late morning after which hunting stops.\n", "Whale carcasses comprise an important part of the diet of white sharks. However, this has rarely been observed due to whales dying in remote areas. It has been estimated that of whale blubber could feed a white shark for 1.5 months. Detailed observations were made of four whale carcasses in False Bay between 2000 and 2010. Sharks were drawn to the carcass by chemical and odour detection, spread by strong winds. After initially feeding on the whale caudal peduncle and fluke, the sharks would investigate the carcass by slowly swimming around it and mouthing several parts before selecting a blubber-rich area. During feeding bouts of 15–20 seconds the sharks removed flesh with lateral headshakes, without the protective ocular rotation they employ when attacking live prey. The sharks were frequently observed regurgitating chunks of blubber and immediately returning to feed, possibly in order to replace low energy yield pieces with high energy yield pieces, using their teeth as mechanoreceptors to distinguish them. After feeding for several hours, the sharks appeared to become lethargic, no longer swimming to the surface; they were observed mouthing the carcass but apparently unable to bite hard enough to remove flesh, they would instead bounce off and slowly sink. Up to eight sharks were observed feeding simultaneously, bumping into each other without showing any signs of aggression; on one occasion a shark accidentally bit the head of a neighbouring shark, leaving two teeth embedded, but both continued to feed unperturbed. Smaller individuals hovered around the carcass eating chunks that drifted away. Unusually for the area, large numbers of sharks over five metres long were observed, suggesting that the largest sharks change their behaviour to search for whales as they lose the maneuverability required to hunt seals. The investigating team concluded that the importance of whale carcasses, particularly for the largest white sharks, has been underestimated. In another documented incident, white sharks were observed scavenging on a whale carcass alongside tiger sharks.\n", "Stomach contents of great whites also indicates that whale sharks both juvenile and adult may also be included on the animal's menu, though whether this is active hunting or scavenging is not known at present.\n", "Section::::Ecology and behavior.:Reproduction.\n", "Great white sharks were previously thought to reach sexual maturity at around 15 years of age, but are now believed to take far longer; male great white sharks reach sexual maturity at age 26, while females take 33 years to reach sexual maturity. Maximum life span was originally believed to be more than 30 years, but a study by the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution placed it at upwards of 70 years. Examinations of vertebral growth ring count gave a maximum male age of 73 years and a maximum female age of 40 years for the specimens studied. The shark's late sexual maturity, low reproductive rate, long gestation period of 11 months and slow growth make it vulnerable to pressures such as overfishing and environmental change.\n", "Little is known about the great white shark's mating habits, and mating behavior has not yet been observed in this species. It is possible that whale carcasses are an important location for sexually mature sharks to meet for mating. Birth has never been observed, but pregnant females have been examined. Great white sharks are ovoviviparous, which means eggs develop and hatch in the uterus and continue to develop until birth. The great white has an 11-month gestation period. The shark pup's powerful jaws begin to develop in the first month. The unborn sharks participate in oophagy, in which they feed on ova produced by the mother. Delivery is in spring and summer. The largest number of pups recorded for this species is 14 pups from a single mother measuring that was killed incidentally off Taiwan in 2019. The Northern Pacific population of great whites is suspected to breed off the Sea of Cortez, as evidenced by local fisherman who have said to have caught them and evidenced by teeth found at dump sites for discarded parts from their catches.\n", "Section::::Ecology and behavior.:Breaching behavior.\n", "A breach is the result of a high speed approach to the surface with the resulting momentum taking the shark partially or completely clear of the water. This is a hunting technique employed by great white sharks whilst hunting seals. This technique is often used on cape fur seals at Seal Island in False Bay, South Africa. Because the behavior is unpredictable, it is very hard to document. It was first photographed by Chris Fallows and Rob Lawrence who developed the technique of towing a slow-moving seal decoy to trick the sharks to breach. Between April and September, scientists may observe around 600 breaches. The seals swim on the surface and the great white sharks launch their predatory attack from the deeper water below. They can reach speeds of up to and can at times launch themselves more than into the air. Just under half of observed breach attacks are successful. In 2011, a long shark jumped onto a seven-person research vessel off Seal Island in Mossel Bay. The crew were undertaking a population study using sardines as bait, and the incident was judged not to be an attack on the boat but an accident.\n", "Section::::Ecology and behavior.:Natural threats.\n", "Interspecific competition between the great white shark and the orca is probable in regions where dietary preferences of both species may overlap. An incident was documented on 4 October 1997, in the Farallon Islands off California in the United States. An estimated female orca immobilized an estimated great white shark. The orca held the shark upside down to induce tonic immobility and kept the shark still for fifteen minutes, causing it to suffocate. The orca then proceeded to eat the dead shark's liver. It is believed that the scent of the slain shark's carcass caused all the great whites in the region to flee, forfeiting an opportunity for a great seasonal feed. Another similar attack apparently occurred there in 2000, but its outcome is not clear. After both attacks, the local population of about 100 great whites vanished. Following the 2000 incident, a great white with a satellite tag was found to have immediately submerged to a depth of and swum to Hawaii. In 2015, a pod of orcas was recorded to have killed a great white shark off South Australia. In 2017, along the South African coast, four great whites were found washed ashore with their livers removed with what was described as \"surgical precision\". Local scientists claim that pods of orcas in the area were responsible for the attacks. Killer whales also impact great white distribution. Studies published in 2019 of killer whale and great white shark distribution and interactions around the Farallon Islands indicate that the cetaceans impact the sharks negatively, with brief appearances by killer whales causing the sharks to seek out new feeding areas until the next season.\n", "Section::::Conservation status.\n", "It is unclear how much of a concurrent increase in fishing for great white sharks has caused the decline of great white shark populations from the 1970s to the present. No accurate global population numbers are available, but the great white shark is now considered vulnerable. Sharks taken during the long interval between birth and sexual maturity never reproduce, making population recovery and growth difficult.\n", "The IUCN notes that very little is known about the actual status of the great white shark, but as it appears uncommon compared to other widely distributed species, it is considered vulnerable. It is included in Appendix II of CITES, meaning that international trade in the species requires a permit. As of March 2010, it has also been included in Annex I of the CMS Migratory Sharks MoU, which strives for increased international understanding and coordination for the protection of certain migratory sharks. A February 2010 study by Barbara Block of Stanford University estimated the world population of great white sharks to be lower than 3,500 individuals, making the species more vulnerable to extinction than the tiger, whose population is in the same range. According to another study from 2014 by George H. Burgess, Florida Museum of Natural History, University of Florida, there are about 2,000 great white sharks near the California coast, which is 10 times higher than the previous estimate of 219 by Barbara Block.\n", "Fishermen target many sharks for their jaws, teeth, and fins, and as game fish in general. The great white shark, however, is rarely an object of commercial fishing, although its flesh is considered valuable. If casually captured (it happens for example in some tonnare in the Mediterranean), it is misleadingly sold as \"smooth-hound shark\".\n", "Section::::Conservation status.:In Australia.\n", "The great white shark was declared Vulnerable by the Australian Government in 1999 because of significant population decline and is currently protected under the Environmental Protection and Biodiversity Conservation (EPBC) Act. The causes of decline prior to protection included mortality from sport fishing harvests as well as being caught in beach protection netting.\n", "The national conservation status of the great white shark is reflected by all Australian states under their respective laws, granting the species full protection throughout Australia regardless of jurisdiction. Many states had prohibited the killing or possession of great white sharks prior to national legislation coming into effect. The great white shark is further listed as Threatened in Victoria under the Flora and Fauna Guarantee Act, and as rare or likely to become extinct under Schedule 5 of the Wildlife Conservation Act in Western Australia.\n", "In 2002, the Australian government created the White Shark Recovery Plan, implementing government-mandated conservation research and monitoring for conservation in addition to federal protection and stronger regulation of shark-related trade and tourism activities. An updated recovery plan was published in 2013 to review progress, research findings, and to implement further conservation actions. A study in 2012 revealed that Australia's White Shark population was separated by Bass Strait into genetically distinct eastern and western populations, indicating a need for the development of regional conservation strategies.\n", "Presently, human-caused shark mortality is continuing, primarily from accidental and illegal catching in commercial and recreational fishing as well as from being caught in beach protection netting, and the populations of great white shark in Australia are yet to recover.\n", "The Australasian population of great white sharks is believed to be in excess of 8,000-10,000 individuals according to genetic research studies done by CSIRO, with an adult population estimated to be around 2,210 individuals in both Eastern and Western Australia. The annual survival rate for juveniles in these two separate populations was estimated in the same study to be close to 73 percent, while adult sharks had a 93 percent annual survival rate. Whether or not mortality rates in great white sharks have declined, or the population has increased as a result of the protection of this species in Australian waters is as yet unknown due to the slow growth rates of this species.\n", "Section::::Conservation status.:In New Zealand.\n", "As of April 2007, great white sharks were fully protected within of New Zealand and additionally from fishing by New Zealand-flagged boats outside this range. The maximum penalty is a $250,000 fine and up to six months in prison. In June 2018 the New Zealand Department of Conservation classified the great white shark under the New Zealand Threat Classification System as \"Nationally Endangered\". The species meets the criteria for this classification as there exists a moderate, stable population of between 1000 and 5000 mature individuals. This classification has the qualifiers \"Data Poor\" and \"Threatened Overseas\".\n", "Section::::Conservation status.:In North America.\n", "In 2013, great white sharks were added to California's Endangered Species Act. From data collected, the population of great whites in the North Pacific was estimated to be fewer than 340 individuals. Research also reveals these sharks are genetically distinct from other members of their species elsewhere in Africa, Australia, and the east coast of North America, having been isolated from other populations.\n", "A 2014 study estimated the population of great white sharks along the California coastline to be approximately 2,400.\n", "In 2015 Massachusetts banned catching, cage diving, feeding, towing decoys, or baiting and chumming for its significant and highly predictable migratory great white population without an appropriate research permit. The goal of these restrictions is to both protect the sharks and public health.\n", "Section::::Relationship with humans.\n", "Section::::Relationship with humans.:Shark bite incidents.\n", "While the term \"shark attack\" is in common use for instances of humans being wounded by sharks, it has been suggested that this is based largely on the misconception that white sharks and other large predatory sharks (such as bull and tiger sharks) seek out humans as prey. A recent review recommends that only in the very rare instances where a shark clearly predated on a human should the bite incident be termed an \"attack,\" which implies predation, and that otherwise it is more accurate to class bite incidents as \"sighting\", \"encounter\", \"bite incident\", or \"fatal bite incident\". Sightings do not include physical interaction, encounters include physical interaction without harm, shark bites include minor and major shark bite incidents, including those that do and do not require medical attention, and fatal shark bite incidents are those that result in death. The study suggests that only in a case where an expert validates the predatory intent of a shark would it be appropriate to term a bite incident an attack.\n", "Of all shark species, the great white shark is responsible for by far the largest number of recorded shark bite incidents on humans, with 272 documented unprovoked bite incidents on humans as of 2012.\n", "More than any documented bite incident, Peter Benchley's best-selling novel \"Jaws\" and the subsequent 1975 film adaptation directed by Steven Spielberg provided the great white shark with the image of being a \"man eater\" in the public mind. While great white sharks have killed humans in at least 74 documented unprovoked bite incidents, they typically do not target them: for example, in the Mediterranean Sea there have been 31 confirmed bite incidents against humans in the last two centuries, most of which were non-fatal. Many of the incidents seemed to be \"test-bites\". Great white sharks also test-bite buoys, flotsam, and other unfamiliar objects, and they might grab a human or a surfboard to identify what it is.\n", "Contrary to popular belief, great white sharks do not mistake humans for seals. Many bite incidents occur in waters with low visibility or other situations which impair the shark's senses. The species appears to not like the taste of humans, or at least finds the taste unfamiliar. Further research shows that they can tell in one bite whether or not the object is worth predating upon. Humans, for the most part, are too bony for their liking. They much prefer seals, which are fat and rich in protein.\n", "Humans are not appropriate prey because the shark's digestion is too slow to cope with a human's high ratio of bone to muscle and fat. Accordingly, in most recorded shark bite incidents, great whites broke off contact after the first bite. Fatalities are usually caused by blood loss from the initial bite rather than from critical organ loss or from whole consumption. From 1990 to 2011 there have been a total of 139 unprovoked great white shark bite incidents, 29 of which were fatal.\n", "However, some researchers have hypothesized that the reason the proportion of fatalities is low is not because sharks do not like human flesh, but because humans are often able to escape after the first bite. In the 1980s, John McCosker, Chair of Aquatic Biology at the California Academy of Sciences, noted that divers who dove solo and were bitten by great whites were generally at least partially consumed, while divers who followed the buddy system were generally rescued by their companion. McCosker and Timothy C. Tricas, an author and professor at the University of Hawaii, suggest that a standard pattern for great whites is to make an initial devastating attack and then wait for the prey to weaken before consuming the wounded animal. Humans' ability to move out of reach with the help of others, thus foiling the attack, is unusual for a great white's prey.\n", "In 2014 the state government of Western Australia led by Premier Colin Barnett implemented a policy of killing large sharks. The policy, colloquially referred to as the Western Australian shark cull, was intended to protect users of the marine environment from shark bite incidents, following the deaths of seven people on the Western Australian coastline in the years 2010–2013. Baited drum lines were deployed near popular beaches using hooks designed to catch great white sharks, as well as bull and tiger sharks. Large sharks found hooked but still alive were shot and their bodies discarded at sea. The government claimed they were not culling the sharks, but were using a \"targeted, localised, hazard mitigation strategy\". Barnett described opposition as \"ludicrous\" and \"extreme\", and said that nothing could change his mind. This policy was met with widespread condemnation from the scientific community, which showed that species responsible for bite incidents were notoriously hard to identify, that the drum lines failed to capture white sharks, as intended, and that the government also failed to show any correlation between their drum line policy and a decrease in shark bite incidents in the region.\n", "Section::::Relationship with humans.:Attacks on boats.\n", "Great white sharks infrequently bite and sometimes even sink boats. Only five of the 108 authenticated unprovoked shark bite incidents reported from the Pacific Coast during the 20th century involved kayakers. In a few cases they have bitten boats up to in length. They have bumped or knocked people overboard, usually biting the boat from the stern. In one case in 1936, a large shark leapt completely into the South African fishing boat \"Lucky Jim\", knocking a crewman into the sea. Tricas and McCosker's underwater observations suggest that sharks are attracted to boats by the electrical fields they generate, which are picked up by the ampullae of Lorenzini and confuse the shark about whether or not wounded prey might be near-by.\n", "Section::::Relationship with humans.:In captivity.\n", "Prior to August 1981, no great white shark in captivity lived longer than 11 days. In August 1981, a great white survived for 16 days at SeaWorld San Diego before being released. The idea of containing a live great white at SeaWorld Orlando was used in the 1983 film \"Jaws 3-D\".\n", "Monterey Bay Aquarium first attempted to display a great white in 1984, but the shark died after 11 days because it did not eat. In July 2003, Monterey researchers captured a small female and kept it in a large netted pen near Malibu for five days. They had the rare success of getting the shark to feed in captivity before its release. Not until September 2004 was the aquarium able to place a great white on long-term exhibit. A young female, which was caught off the coast of Ventura, was kept in the aquarium's Outer Bay exhibit for 198 days before she was released in March 2005. She was tracked for 30 days after release. On the evening of 31 August 2006, the aquarium introduced a juvenile male caught outside Santa Monica Bay. His first meal as a captive was a large salmon steak on 8 September 2006, and as of that date, he was estimated to be in length and to weigh approximately . He was released on 16 January 2007, after 137 days in captivity.\n", "Monterey Bay Aquarium housed a third great white, a juvenile male, for 162 days between 27 August 2007, and 5 February 2008. On arrival, he was long and weighed . He grew to and before release. A juvenile female came to the Outer Bay Exhibit on 27 August 2008. While she did swim well, the shark fed only one time during her stay and was tagged and released on 7 September 2008. Another juvenile female was captured near Malibu on 12 August 2009, introduced to the Outer Bay exhibit on 26 August 2009, and was successfully released into the wild on 4 November 2009. The Monterey Bay Aquarium added a long male into their redesigned \"Open Sea\" exhibit on 31 August 2011. The animal was captured in the waters off Malibu.\n", "One of the largest adult great whites ever exhibited was at Japan's Okinawa Churaumi Aquarium in 2016, where a male was exhibited for three days before dying. Probably the most famous captive was a female named Sandy, which in August 1980 became the only great white to be housed at the California Academy of Sciences' Steinhart Aquarium in San Francisco, California. She was released because she would not eat and constantly bumped against the walls.\n", "Section::::Relationship with humans.:Shark tourism.\n", "Cage diving is most common at sites where great whites are frequent including the coast of South Africa, the Neptune Islands in South Australia, and Guadalupe Island in Baja California. The popularity of cage diving and swimming with sharks is at the focus of a booming tourist industry. A common practice is to chum the water with pieces of fish to attract the sharks. These practices may make sharks more accustomed to people in their environment and to associate human activity with food; a potentially dangerous situation. By drawing bait on a wire towards the cage, tour operators lure the shark to the cage, possibly striking it, exacerbating this problem. Other operators draw the bait away from the cage, causing the shark to swim past the divers.\n", "At present, hang baits are illegal off Isla Guadalupe and reputable dive operators do not use them. Operators in South Africa and Australia continue to use hang baits and pinniped decoys. In South Australia, playing rock music recordings underwater, including the AC/DC album \"Back in Black\" has also been used experimentally to attract sharks.\n", "Companies object to being blamed for shark bite incidents, pointing out that lightning tends to strike humans more often than sharks bite humans. Their position is that further research needs to be done before banning practices such as chumming, which may alter natural behavior. One compromise is to only use chum in areas where whites actively patrol anyway, well away from human leisure areas. Also, responsible dive operators do not feed sharks. Only sharks that are willing to scavenge follow the chum trail and if they find no food at the end then the shark soon swims off and does not associate chum with a meal. It has been suggested that government licensing strategies may help enforce these responsible tourism.\n", "The shark tourist industry has some financial leverage in conserving this animal. A single set of great white jaws can fetch up to £20,000. That is a fraction of the tourism value of a live shark; tourism is a more sustainable economic activity than shark fishing. For example, the dive industry in Gansbaai, South Africa consists of six boat operators with each boat guiding 30 people each day. With fees between £50 and £150 per person, a single live shark that visits each boat can create anywhere between £9,000 and £27,000 of revenue daily.\n", "Section::::See also.\n", "BULLET::::- List of sharks\n", "BULLET::::- Outline of sharks\n", "BULLET::::- Threatened sharks\n", "BULLET::::- Western Australian shark cull\n", "Section::::See also.:Books.\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Devil's Teeth\" by Susan Casey.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Close to Shore\" by Michael Capuzzo about the Jersey Shore shark attacks of 1916.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Twelve Days of Terror\" by Richard Fernicola about the same events.\n" ] }

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Compagno", "morphometric", "Shark Week", "Facebook", "Ocean Ramsey", "False Bay", "tiger shark", "Greenland shark", "Pacific sleeper shark", "ampullae of Lorenzini", "volt", "lateral line", "rete mirabile", "core temperature", "gigantothermy", "endothermic", "poikilotherm", "mesotherm", "University of New South Wales", "Sydney", "Australia", "CT", "dominance hierarchy", "spy-hopping", "blacktip reef shark", "carnivorous", "fish", "tuna", "rays", "shark", "cetaceans", "dolphin", "porpoise", "whale", "pinniped", "seals", "fur seal", "sea lion", "sea turtle", "sea otter", "seabirds", "elasmobranchs", "marine mammal", "Farallons", "northern elephant seal", "Harbor seal", "California sea lion", "echolocation", "dusky dolphin", "Risso's dolphin", "bottlenose dolphin", "Humpback dolphin", "harbour porpoise", "Dall's porpoise", "pygmy sperm whale", "caudal peduncle", "beaked whale", "Stejneger's beaked whale", "Cuvier's beaked whale", "oceanic sunfish", "Seal Island", "False Bay", "brown fur seal", "fluke", "whale sharks", "Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution", "mating", "ovoviviparous", "oophagy", "ova", "breach", "Seal Island", "False Bay", "South Africa", "Chris Fallows", "research vessel", "population study", "orca", "Farallon Islands", "California", "tonic immobility", "Hawaii", "IUCN", "vulnerable", "Appendix II", "CITES", "CMS", "Migratory Sharks MoU", "Barbara Block", "Stanford University", "tiger", "George H. Burgess", "Florida Museum of Natural History", "University of Florida", "Barbara Block", "commercial fishing", "tonnare", "Mediterranean", "smooth-hound shark", "Environmental Protection and Biodiversity Conservation (EPBC) Act", "sport fishing", "Victoria", "Western Australia", "Bass Strait", "genetically distinct", "CSIRO", "Department of Conservation", "New Zealand Threat Classification System", "Peter Benchley", "Jaws", "1975 film adaptation", "Steven Spielberg", "man eater", "Mediterranean Sea", "buoy", "flotsam", "surfboard", "California Academy of Sciences", "University of Hawaii", "Western Australia", "Colin Barnett", "policy of killing large sharks", "Western Australian shark cull", "Western Australian coastline", "drum lines", "bull", "tiger shark", "culling", "kayak", "South Africa", "SeaWorld San Diego", "SeaWorld Orlando", "Jaws 3-D", "Monterey Bay Aquarium", "Malibu", "Ventura", "Santa Monica Bay", "salmon", "Okinawa Churaumi Aquarium", "California Academy of Sciences", "Steinhart Aquarium", "San Francisco", "Neptune Islands", "Guadalupe Island", "Baja California", "chum", "pinniped", "AC/DC", "Back in Black", "lightning", "Gansbaai", "List of sharks", "Outline of sharks", "Threatened sharks", "Western Australian shark cull", "The Devil's Teeth", "Close to Shore", "Michael Capuzzo", "Jersey Shore shark attacks of 1916", "Twelve Days of Terror" ], "href": [ "Lamniformes", "Chondrichthyes", "killer%20whale", "marine%20mammal", "fish", "seabird", "species", "genus", "Carcharodon", "IUCN", "vulnerable%20species", "CITES%20Appendix%20II", "CITES", "Jaws%20%28novel%29", "Peter%20Benchley", "Jaws%20%28film%29", "Steven%20Spielberg", "man%20eater", "Shark%20attack", "Amphibia%20in%20the%2010th%20edition%20of%20Systema%20Naturae", "Carl%20Linnaeus", "10th%20edition%20of%20Systema%20Naturae", "Systema%20Naturae", "Andrew%20Smith%20%28zoologist%29", "genus", "specific%20name%20%28zoology%29", "Ancient%20Greek", "Miocene", "phylogeny", "prehistoric", "Megalodon", "Lamnidae", "mako%20shark", "Isurus%20hastalis", "transitional%20species", "Carcharodon%20hubbelli", "Otodus", "United%20States", "Northeastern%20United%20States", "California", "South%20Africa", "Japan", "Oceania", "Chile", "Mediterranean%20Sea", "Sea%20of%20Marmara", "Bosphorus", "Gansbaai%2C%20Western%20Cape", "Pelagic%20zone", "fur%20seal", "sea%20lion", "cetacean", "California", "Baja%20California%20Peninsula", "Hawaii", "White%20Shark%20Caf%C3%A9", "anticyclonic", "eddies", "North%20Atlantic%20Ocean", "Lobe%20%28anatomy%29", "mackerel%20shark", "countershading", "Leucism", "Shark%20tooth", "sexual%20dimorphism", "Chondrichthyes", "whale%20shark", "basking%20shark", "Giant%20oceanic%20manta%20ray", "Filter%20feeder", "Ledge%20Point%2C%20Western%20Australia", "Alberton%2C%20Prince%20Edward%20Island", "Prince%20Edward%20Island", "Gulf%20of%20St.%26amp%3Bnbsp%3BLawrence", "International%20Game%20Fish%20Association", "Ichthyology", "Guinness%20Book%20of%20World%20Records", "southern%20Australia", "Port%20Fairy%2C%20Victoria", "herring", "Fishing%20weir", "New%20Brunswick", "Canada", "basking%20shark", "Kangaroo%20Island", "Australia", "Malta", "Leonard%20Compagno", "morphometric", "Shark%20Week", "Facebook", "Ocean%20Ramsey", "False%20Bay", "tiger%20shark", "Greenland%20shark", "Pacific%20sleeper%20shark", "ampullae%20of%20Lorenzini", "volt", "lateral%20line", "rete%20mirabile", "core%20temperature", "gigantothermy", "endothermic", "poikilotherm", "mesotherm", "University%20of%20New%20South%20Wales", "Sydney", "Australia", "computerized%20tomography", "dominance%20hierarchy", "Spyhopping", "blacktip%20reef%20shark", "carnivorous", "fish", "tuna", "Batoidea", "shark", "cetaceans", "dolphin", "porpoise", "whale", "pinniped", "Earless%20seal", "fur%20seal", "sea%20lion", "sea%20turtle", "sea%20otter", "seabirds", "Elasmobranchii", "marine%20mammal", "Farallon%20Islands", "northern%20elephant%20seal", "Harbor%20seal", "California%20sea%20lion", "Animal%20echolocation%23Toothed%20whales", "dusky%20dolphin", "Risso%27s%20dolphin", "bottlenose%20dolphin", "Humpback%20dolphin", "harbour%20porpoise", "Dall%27s%20porpoise", "pygmy%20sperm%20whale", "caudal%20peduncle", "beaked%20whale", "Stejneger%27s%20beaked%20whale", "Cuvier%27s%20beaked%20whale", "oceanic%20sunfish", "Seal%20Island%2C%20South%20Africa", "False%20Bay", "brown%20fur%20seal", "fluke%20%28tail%29", "whale%20sharks", "Woods%20Hole%20Oceanographic%20Institution", "mating", "Ovoviviparity", "oophagy", "ovum", "Whale%20surfacing%20behavior", "Seal%20Island%2C%20South%20Africa", "False%20Bay", "South%20Africa", "Chris%20Fallows", "research%20vessel", "animal%20population%20study", "Killer%20whale", "Farallon%20Islands", "California", "tonic%20immobility", "Hawaii", "IUCN", "Vulnerable%20species", "CITES%20Appendix%20II", "CITES", "Bonn%20Convention", "Migratory%20Sharks%20MoU", "Barbara%20Block", "Stanford%20University", "tiger", "George%20H.%20Burgess", "Florida%20Museum%20of%20Natural%20History", "University%20of%20Florida", "Barbara%20Block", "commercial%20fishing", "tonnara", "Mediterranean", "smooth-hound%20shark", "Environment%20Protection%20and%20Biodiversity%20Conservation%20Act%201999", "sport%20fishing", "Victoria%20%28Australia%29", "Western%20Australia", "Bass%20Strait", "population%20genetics", "CSIRO", "Department%20of%20Conservation", "New%20Zealand%20Threat%20Classification%20System", "Peter%20Benchley", "Jaws%20%28novel%29", "Jaws%20%28film%29", "Steven%20Spielberg", "man%20eater", "Mediterranean%20Sea", "buoy", "flotsam", "surfboard", "California%20Academy%20of%20Sciences", "University%20of%20Hawaii", "Western%20Australia", "Colin%20Barnett", "Western%20Australian%20shark%20cull", "Western%20Australian%20shark%20cull", "Coastline%20of%20Western%20Australia", "drum%20lines", "bull%20shark", "tiger%20shark", "culling", "kayak", "South%20Africa", "SeaWorld%20San%20Diego", "SeaWorld%20Orlando", "Jaws%203-D", "Monterey%20Bay%20Aquarium", "Malibu%2C%20California", "Ventura%2C%20California", "Santa%20Monica%20Bay", "salmon", "Okinawa%20Churaumi%20Aquarium", "California%20Academy%20of%20Sciences", "Steinhart%20Aquarium", "San%20Francisco", "Neptune%20Islands", "Guadalupe%20Island", "Baja%20California%20%28state%29", "chumming", "pinniped", "AC/DC", "Back%20in%20Black", "lightning", "Gansbaai", "List%20of%20sharks", "Outline%20of%20sharks", "Threatened%20sharks", "Western%20Australian%20shark%20cull", "The%20Devil%27s%20Teeth", "Close%20to%20Shore", "Michael%20Capuzzo", "Jersey%20Shore%20shark%20attacks%20of%201916", "Twelve%20Days%20of%20Terror" ], "wikipedia_title": [ "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", 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{ "description": "species of large lamniform shark", "enwikiquote_title": "", "wikidata_id": "Q129026", "wikidata_label": "Great white shark", "wikipedia_title": "Great white shark", "aliases": { "alias": [ "Carcharodon carcharias", "C. carcharias", "white pointer", "white shark", "white death", "great white" ] } }

{ "pageid": 43619, "parentid": 905070158, "revid": 905413872, "pre_dump": true, "timestamp": "2019-07-08T23:51:52Z", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Great%20white%20shark&oldid=905413872" }

{ "paragraph": [ "Flint\n", "Flint is a hard, sedimentary cryptocrystalline form of the mineral quartz, categorized as the variety of chert that occurs in chalk or marly limestone. Flint was widely used historically to make stone tools and start fires.\n", "It occurs chiefly as nodules and masses in sedimentary rocks, such as chalks and limestones. Inside the nodule, flint is usually dark grey, black, green, white or brown in colour, and often has a glassy or waxy appearance. A thin layer on the outside of the nodules is usually different in colour, typically white and rough in texture. The nodules can often be found along streams and beaches.\n", "Flint breaks and chips into sharp edged pieces, making it useful for knife blades and other cutting tools. The use of flint to make stone tools dates back millions of years, and flint's extreme durability has made it possible to accurately date its use over this time. Flint is one of the primary materials used to define the Stone Age. \n", "During the Stone Age, access to flint was so important for survival that people would travel or trade to obtain flint. Flint Ridge in Ohio was an important source of flint and Native Americans extracted the flint from hundreds of quarries along the ridge. This \"Ohio Flint\" was traded across the eastern United States and has been found as far west as the Rocky Mountains and south around the Gulf of Mexico. \n", "When struck against steel, flint will produce enough sparks to ignite a fire with the correct tinder, or gunpowder used in weapons. Although it has been superseded in these uses by different processes (the percussion cap), or materials, (ferrocerium), \"flint\" has lent its name as generic term for a fire starter.\n", "Section::::Origin.\n", "The exact mode of formation of flint is not yet clear, but it is thought that it occurs as a result of chemical changes in compressed sedimentary rock formations, during the process of diagenesis. One hypothesis is that a gelatinous material fills cavities in the sediment, such as holes bored by crustaceans or molluscs and that this becomes silicified. This hypothesis certainly explains the complex shapes of flint nodules that are found. The source of dissolved silica in the porous media could be the spicules of silicious sponges. Certain types of flint, such as that from the south coast of England, contain trapped fossilised marine flora. Pieces of coral and vegetation have been found preserved like amber inside the flint. Thin slices of the stone often reveal this effect.\n", "Flint sometimes occurs in large flint fields in Jurassic or Cretaceous beds, for example, in Europe. Puzzling giant flint formations known as paramoudra and flint circles are found around Europe but especially in Norfolk, England on the beaches at Beeston Bump and West Runton. \n", "The \"Ohio flint\" is the official gemstone of Ohio state. It is formed from limey debris that was deposited at the bottom of inland Paleozoic seas hundreds of millions of years ago that hardened into limestone and later became infused with silica. The flint from Flint Ridge is found in many hues like red, green, pink, blue, white and gray, with the color variations caused by minute impurities of iron compounds.\n", "Flint can be coloured: sandy brown, medium to dark gray, black, reddish brown or an off-white grey. \n", "Section::::Uses.\n", "Section::::Uses.:Tools or cutting edges.\n", "Flint was used in the manufacture of tools during the Stone Age as it splits into thin, sharp splinters called flakes or blades (depending on the shape) when struck by another hard object (such as a hammerstone made of another material). This process is referred to as knapping. The process of making tools this way is called \"flintknapping\".\n", "Flint mining is attested since the Palaeolithic, 3,300,000 years ago, but became more common since the Neolithic (Michelsberg culture, Funnelbeaker culture). In Europe, some of the best toolmaking flint has come from Belgium (Obourg, flint mines of Spiennes), the coastal chalks of the English Channel, the Paris Basin, Thy in Jutland (flint mine at Hov), the Sennonian deposits of Rügen, Grimes Graves in England, the Upper Cretaceous chalk formation of Dobruja and the lower Danube (Balkan flint), the Cenomanian chalky marl formation of the Moldavian Plateau (Miorcani flint) and the Jurassic deposits of the Kraków area and Krzemionki in Poland, as well as of the Lägern (silex) in the Jura Mountains of Switzerland.\n", "In 1938, a project of the Ohio Historical Society, under the leadership of H. Holmes Ellis began to study the knapping methods and techniques of Native Americans. Like past studies, this work involved experimenting with actual knapping techniques by creation of stone tools through the use of techniques like direct freehand percussion, freehand pressure and pressure using a rest. Other scholars who have conducted similar experiments and studies include William Henry Holmes, Alonzo W. Pond, Francis H. S. Knowles and Don Crabtree.\n", "To combat fragmentation, flint/chert may be heat-treated, being slowly brought up to a temperature of for 24 hours, then slowly cooled to room temperature. This makes the material more homogeneous and thus more knappable and produces tools with a cleaner, sharper cutting edge. Heat treating was known to stone age artisans.\n", "Section::::Uses.:To ignite fire or gunpowder.\n", "When struck against steel, a flint edge produces sparks. The hard flint edge shaves off a particle of the steel that exposes iron, which reacts with oxygen from the atmosphere and can ignite the proper tinder.\n", "Prior to the wide availability of steel, rocks of pyrite (FeS) would be used along with the flint, in a similar (but more time-consuming) way. These methods remain popular in woodcraft, bushcraft, and amongst people practising traditional fire-starting skills.\n", "Section::::Uses.:To ignite fire or gunpowder.:Flintlocks.\n", "A later, major use of flint and steel was in the flintlock mechanism, used primarily in flintlock firearms, but also used on dedicated fire-starting tools. A piece of flint held in the jaws of a spring-loaded hammer, when released by a trigger, strikes a hinged piece of steel (\"frizzen\") at an angle, creating a shower of sparks and exposing a charge of priming powder. The sparks ignite the priming powder and that flame, in turn, ignites the main charge, propelling the ball, bullet, or shot through the barrel. While the military use of the flintlock declined after the adoption of the percussion cap from the 1840s onward, flintlock rifles and shotguns remain in use amongst recreational shooters.\n", "Section::::Uses.:To ignite fire or gunpowder.:Comparison with ferrocerium.\n", "Flint and steel used to strike sparks were superseded by ferrocerium (sometimes referred to as \"flint\", although not true flint, \"mischmetal\", \"hot spark\", \"metal match\", or \"fire steel\"). This man-made material, when scraped with any hard, sharp edge, produces sparks that are much hotter than obtained with natural flint and steel, allowing use of a wider range of tinders. Because it can produce sparks when wet and can start fires when used correctly, ferrocerium is commonly included in survival kits. Ferrocerium is used in many cigarette lighters, where it is referred to as \"a flint\".\n", "Section::::Uses.:To ignite fire or gunpowder.:Fragmentation.\n", "Flint's utility as a fire starter is due to its property of uneven expansion under heating, causing it to fracture, sometimes violently, during heating. This tendency is enhanced by the impurities found in most samples of flint that may expand to a greater or lesser degree than the surrounding stone, and is similar to the tendency of glass to shatter when exposed to heat, and can become a drawback when flint is used as a building material.\n", "Section::::Uses.:As a building material.\n", "Flint, knapped or unknapped, has been used from antiquity (for example at the Late Roman fort of Burgh Castle in Norfolk) up to the present day as a material for building stone walls, using lime mortar, and often combined with other available stone or brick rubble. It was most common in parts of southern England, where no good building stone was available locally, and brick-making not widespread until the later Middle Ages. It is especially associated with East Anglia, but also used in chalky areas stretching through Hampshire, Sussex, Surrey and Kent to Somerset.\n", "Flint was used in the construction of many churches, houses, and other buildings, for example the large stronghold of Framlingham Castle. Many different decorative effects have been achieved by using different types of knapping or arrangement and combinations with stone (flushwork), especially in the 15th and early 16th centuries.\n", "Section::::Uses.:Ceramics.\n", "Flint pebbles are used as the media in ball mills to grind glazes and other raw materials for the ceramics industry. The pebbles are hand-selected based on colour; those having a tint of red, indicating high iron content, are discarded. The remaining blue-grey stones have a low content of chromophoric oxides and so are less deleterious to the colour of the ceramic composition after firing.\n", "Until recently flint was also an important raw material in clay-based ceramic bodies produced in the UK. In preparation for use flint pebbles, frequently sourced from the coasts of South-East England or Western France, were calcined to around 1,000 °C. This heat process both removed organic impurities and induced certain physical reactions, including converting some of the silica to cristobalite. After calcination the flint pebbles were milled to a fine particle size. However, the use of flint has now been superseded by quartz. Because of the historical use of flint, the word \"flint\" is used by some potters, especially in the US, to refer to siliceous materials that are not flint.\n", "Section::::Uses.:Jewellery.\n", "Flint bracelets were known in Ancient Egypt, and several examples have been found.\n", "Section::::See also.\n", "Mineralogy\n", "BULLET::::- not to be confused with concretion\n", "Archaeology\n", "BULLET::::- , archaeological artefacts of the Clovis culture in New Mexico, USA\n", "BULLET::::- , a prehistoric flint mine in Norfolk, England\n", "BULLET::::- , a Native American flint quarry in Hopewell Township, Licking County, Ohio, US\n", "Section::::External links.\n", "BULLET::::- Flint Architecture of East Anglia Book by Stephen Hart\n", "BULLET::::- Flintsource.net European Artefacts – detailed site\n", "BULLET::::- Flint circles and paramoudra – Beeston Bump\n", "BULLET::::- Paramoudras and flint circles photograph collection\n", "BULLET::::- Winchester Cathedral Close\n", "BULLET::::- Flint and the Conservation of Flint Buildings Introduction to the historical use of flint in construction and the repair and conservation of historic flint buildings\n" ] }

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{ "description": "hard form of the mineral quartz", "enwikiquote_title": "", "wikidata_id": "Q83087", "wikidata_label": "flint", "wikipedia_title": "Flint", "aliases": { "alias": [ "flintstone" ] } }

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{ "paragraph": [ "Cryptocrystalline\n", "Cryptocrystalline is a rock texture made up of such minute crystals that its crystalline nature is only vaguely revealed even microscopically in thin section by transmitted polarized light. Among the sedimentary rocks, chert and flint are cryptocrystalline. Carbonado, a form of diamond, is also cryptocrystalline. Volcanic rocks, especially of the acidic type such as felsites and rhyolites, may have a cryptocrystalline groundmass as distinguished from pure obsidian (acidic) or tachylyte (basic), which are natural rock glasses. Onyx is also a cryptocrystalline. Agates such as the fairburn agate are also composed of cryptocrystalline silica.\n", "Section::::See also.\n", "BULLET::::- List of rock textures\n", "BULLET::::- Rock microstructure\n", "BULLET::::- Chalcedony\n", "BULLET::::- Agate\n", "BULLET::::- Microcrystalline\n", "BULLET::::- Nanocrystalline\n", "BULLET::::- Macrocrystalline\n" ] }

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{ "description": "", "enwikiquote_title": "", "wikidata_id": "Q3351908", "wikidata_label": "Cryptocrystalline", "wikipedia_title": "Cryptocrystalline", "aliases": { "alias": [] } }

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{ "paragraph": [ "Georg Forster\n", "Johann Georg Adam Forster (; November 27, 1754 – January 10, 1794) was a German naturalist, ethnologist, travel writer, journalist, and revolutionary. At an early age, he accompanied his father, Johann Reinhold Forster, on several scientific expeditions, including James Cook's second voyage to the Pacific. His report of that journey, \"A Voyage Round the World\", contributed significantly to the ethnology of the people of Polynesia and remains a respected work. As a result of the report, Forster was admitted to the Royal Society at the early age of twenty-two and came to be considered one of the founders of modern scientific travel literature.\n", "After returning to continental Europe, Forster turned toward academia. He traveled to Paris to seek out a discussion with the American revolutionary Benjamin Franklin in 1777. He taught natural history at the Collegium Carolinum in the Ottoneum, Kassel (1778–84), and later at the Academy of Vilna (Vilnius University) (1784–87). In 1788, he became head librarian at the University of Mainz. Most of his scientific work during this time consisted of essays on botany and ethnology, but he also prefaced and translated many books about travel and exploration, including a German translation of Cook's diaries.\n", "Forster was a central figure of the Enlightenment in Germany, and corresponded with most of its adherents, including his close friend Georg Christoph Lichtenberg. His ideas and personality influenced Alexander von Humboldt, one of the great scientists of the 19th century. When the French took control of Mainz in 1792, Forster became one of the founders of the city's Jacobin Club and went on to play a leading role in the Mainz Republic, the earliest republican state in Germany. During July 1793 and while he was in Paris as a delegate of the young Mainz Republic, Prussian and Austrian coalition forces regained control of the city and Forster was declared an outlaw. Unable to return to Germany and separated from his friends and family, he died in Paris of illness in early 1794.\n", "Section::::Early life.\n", "Georg Forster was born in the small village of Nassenhuben (Mokry Dwór) near Danzig (Gdańsk), in the region of Royal Prussia, in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. He was the oldest of seven surviving children of Johann Reinhold Forster and Justina Elisabeth (née Nicolai). His father was a naturalist, scientist and Reformed pastor. In 1765, the Russian empress Catherine II commissioned the pastor to travel through Russia on a research journey and investigate the situation of a German colony on the Volga River. Georg, then ten years old, joined him. On the journey, which reached the Kalmyk steppe on the lower Volga, they discovered several new species, and the young Forster learned how to conduct scientific research and practice cartography. He also became fluent in Russian.\n", "The report of the journey, which included sharp criticism of the governor of Saratov, was not well received at court. The Forsters claimed they had not received fair payment for their work and had to move house. They chose to settle in England in 1766. The father took up teaching at the Dissenter's Academy in Warrington and also translation work. At the age of only thirteen, the young Forster published his first book: an English translation of Lomonosov's history of Russia, which was well received in scientific circles.\n", "Section::::Around the world with Captain Cook.\n", "In 1772, Forster's father became a member of the Royal Society. This and the withdrawal of Joseph Banks resulted in his invitation by the British admiralty to join James Cook's second expedition to the Pacific (1772–75). Georg Forster joined his father in the expedition again and was appointed as a draughtsman to his father. Johann Reinhold Forster's task was to work on a scientific report of the journey's discoveries that was to be published after their return.\n", "They embarked HMS \"Resolution\" on July 13, 1772, in Plymouth. The ship's route led first to the South Atlantic, then through the Indian Ocean and the Southern Ocean to the islands of Polynesia and finally around Cape Horn back to England, returning on July 30, 1775. During the three-year journey, the explorers visited New Zealand, the Tonga islands, New Caledonia, Tahiti, the Marquesas Islands and Easter Island. They went further south than anybody before them, almost discovering Antarctica. The journey conclusively disproved the \"Terra Australis Incognita\" theory, which claimed there was a big, habitable continent in the South.\n", "Supervised by his father, Georg Forster first undertook studies of the zoology and botanics of the southern seas, mostly by drawing animals and plants. However, Georg also pursued his own interests, which led to completely independent explorations in comparative geography and ethnology. He quickly learned the languages of the Polynesian islands. His reports on the people of Polynesia are well regarded today, as they describe the inhabitants of the southern islands with empathy, sympathy and largely without Western or Christian bias.\n", "Unlike Louis Antoine de Bougainville, whose reports from a journey to Tahiti a few years earlier had initiated uncritical \"noble savage\" romanticism, Forster developed a sophisticated picture of the societies of the South Pacific islands. He described various social structures and religions that he encountered on the Society Islands, Easter Island and in Tonga and New Zealand, and ascribed this diversity to the difference in living conditions of these people. At the same time, he also observed that the languages of these fairly widely scattered islands were similar. About the inhabitants of the Nomuka islands (in the Ha'apai island group of present-day Tonga), he wrote that their languages, vehicles, weapons, furniture, clothes, tattoos, style of beard, in short all of their being matched perfectly with what he had already seen while studying tribes on Tongatapu. However, he wrote, \"we could not observe any subordination among them, though this had strongly characterised the natives of Tonga-Tabboo, who seemed to descend even to servility in their obeisance to the king.\"\n", "The journey was rich in scientific results. However, the relationship between the Forsters and Cook and his officers was often problematic, due to the elder Forster's fractious temperament as well as Cook's refusal to allow more time for botanical and other scientific observation. Cook refused scientists on his third journey after his experiences with the Forsters.\n", "Section::::Founder of modern travel literature.\n", "These conflicts continued after the journey with the problem of who should write the official account of the travels. Lord Sandwich, although willing to pay the promised money, was irritated with Johann Reinhold Forster's opening chapter and tried to have it edited. However, Forster did not want to have his writing corrected \"like a theme of a School-boy\", and stubbornly refused any compromise. As a result, the official account was written by Cook, and the Forsters were deprived of the right to compile the account and did not obtain payment for their work. During the negotiations, the younger Forster decided to release an unofficial account of their travels. In 1777, his book \"A Voyage Round the World in His Britannic Majesty's Sloop Resolution, Commanded by Capt. James Cook, during the Years, 1772, 3, 4, and 5\" was published. This report was the first account of Cook's second voyage (it appeared six weeks before the official publication) and was intended for the general public. The English version and his own translation into German (published 1778–80) earned the young author real fame. The poet Christoph Martin Wieland praised the book as the most important one of his time, and even today it remains one of the most important journey descriptions ever written. The book also had a significant impact on German literature, culture and science, influencing such scientists as Alexander von Humboldt and it inspired many ethnologists of later times.\n", "Forster wrote well-polished German prose, which was not only scientifically accurate and objective, but also exciting and easy to read. This differed from conventional travel literature of the time, insofar as it presented more than a mere collection of data – it also demonstrated coherent, colourful and reliable ethnographical facts that resulted from detailed and sympathetic observation. He often interrupted the description to enrich it with philosophical remarks about his observations. His main focus was always on the people he encountered: their behavior, customs, habits, religions and forms of social organization. In \"A Voyage Round the World\" he even presented the songs sung by the people of Polynesia, complete with lyrics and notation. The book is one of the most important sources concerning the societies of the Southern Pacific from the times before European influence had become significant.\n", "Both Forsters also published descriptions of their South Pacific travels in the Berlin-based \"Magazin von merkwürdigen neuen Reisebeschreibungen\" (\"\"Magazine of strange new travel accounts\"\"), and Georg published a translation of \"\"A Voyage to the South Sea, by Lieutenant William Bligh, London 1792\"\" in 1791–93.\n", "Section::::Forster at universities.\n", "The publication of \"A Voyage Round the World\" brought Forster scientific recognition all over Europe. The respectable Royal Society made him a member on January 9, 1777, though he was not even 23 years old. He was granted similar titles from academies ranging from Berlin to Madrid. These appointments, however, were unpaid.\n", "In 1778, he went to Germany to take a teaching position as a Natural History professor at the Collegium Carolinum in Kassel, where he met Therese Heyne, the daughter of classicist Christian Gottlob Heyne. She later became one of the first independent female writers in Germany. They married in 1785 (which was after he left Kassel) and had three children, but their marriage was not happy. From his time in Kassel on, Forster actively corresponded with important figures of the Enlightenment, including Lessing, Herder, Wieland and Goethe. He also initiated cooperation between the Carolinum in Kassel and the University of Göttingen where his friend Georg Christoph Lichtenberg worked. Together, they founded and published the scientific and literary journal \"Göttingisches Magazin der Wissenschaften und Litteratur\". Forster's closest friend, Samuel Thomas von Sömmering, arrived in Kassel shortly after Forster, and both were soon involved with the Rosicrucians in Kassel.\n", "However, by 1783 Forster saw that his involvement with the Rosicrucians not only led him away from real science, but also deeper into debt (it is said he was not good at money); for these reasons Forster was happy to accept a proposal by the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth Komisja Edukacji Narodowej (Commission of National Education) and became Chair of Natural History at Vilnius University in 1784. Initially, he was accepted well in Vilnius, but he felt more and more isolated with time. Most of his contacts were still with scientists in Germany; especially notable is his dispute with Immanuel Kant about the definition of race. In 1785, Forster traveled to Halle where he submitted his thesis on the plants of the South Pacific for a doctorate in medicine. Back in Vilnius, Forster's ambitions to build a real natural history scientific center could not get appropriate financial support from the authorities in Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. Moreover, his famous speech on natural history in 1785 went almost unnoticed and was not printed until 1843. These events led to high tensions between him and the local community. Eventually, he broke the contract six years short of its completion as Catherine II of Russia had offered him a place on a journey around the world (the Mulovsky expedition) for a high honorarium and a position as a professor in Saint Petersburg. This resulted in a conflict between Forster and the influential Polish scientist Jędrzej Śniadecki. However, the Russian proposal was withdrawn and Forster left Vilnius. He then settled in Mainz, where he became head librarian of the University of Mainz, a position held previously by his friend Johannes von Müller, who made sure Forster would succeed him when Müller moved to the administration of Elector Friedrich Karl Josef von Erthal.\n", "Forster regularly published essays on contemporary explorations and continued to be a very prolific translator; for instance, he wrote about Cook's third journey to the South Pacific, and about the Bounty expedition, as well as translating Cook's and Bligh's diaries from these journeys into German. From his London years, Forster was in contact with Sir Joseph Banks, the initiator of the Bounty expedition and a participant in Cook's first journey. While at the University of Vilnius he wrote the article \"Neuholland und die brittische Colonie in Botany-Bay\", published in the \"Allgemeines historisches Taschenbuch\" (Berlin, December 1786), an essay on the future prospects of the English colony founded in New South Wales in 1788.\n", "Another interest of his was indology – one of the main goals of his failed expedition to be financed by Catherine II had been to reach India. He translated the Sanskrit play \"Shakuntala\" using a Latin version provided by Sir William Jones; this strongly influenced Herder and triggered German interest in the culture of India.\n", "Section::::\"Views from the Lower Rhine\".\n", "In the second quarter of 1790, Forster and the young Alexander von Humboldt started from Mainz on a long journey through the Southern Netherlands, the United Provinces, and England, eventually finishing in Paris. The impressions from the journey were described in a three volume publication \"Ansichten vom Niederrhein, von Brabant, Flandern, Holland, England und Frankreich im April, Mai und Juni 1790\" (\"Views of the Lower Rhine, from Brabant, Flanders, Holland, England, and France in April, May and June 1790\"), published 1791–94. Goethe said about the book: \"One wants, after one has finished reading, to start it over, and wishes to travel with such a good and knowledgeable observer.\" The book includes comments on the history of art that were as influential for the discipline as \"A Voyage Round the world\" was for ethnology. Forster was, for example, one of the first writers who gave just treatment to the Gothic architecture of Cologne Cathedral, which was widely perceived as \"barbarian\" at that time. The book conformed well to the early Romantic intellectual movements in German-speaking Europe.\n", "Forster's main interest, however, was again focused on the social behavior of people, as 15 years earlier in the Pacific. The national uprisings in Flanders and Brabant and the revolution in France sparked his curiosity. The journey through these regions, together with the Netherlands and England, where citizens' freedoms were equally well developed, in the end helped him to resolve his own political opinions. From that time on he was to be a confident opponent of the ancien régime. With other German scholars, he welcomed the outbreak of the revolution as a clear consequence of the Enlightenment. As early as July 30, 1789, shortly after he heard about the Storming of the Bastille, he wrote to his father-in-law, philologist Christian Gottlob Heyne, that it was beautiful to see what philosophy had nurtured in people's minds and then had realized in the state. To educate people about their rights in this way, he wrote, was after all the surest way; the rest would then result as if by itself.\n", "Section::::Life as a revolutionary.\n", "Section::::Life as a revolutionary.:Foundation of the Mainz Republic.\n", "The French revolutionary army under General Custine gained control over Mainz on October 21, 1792. Two days later, Forster joined others in establishing a Jacobin Club called \"Freunde der Freiheit und Gleichheit\" (\"Friends of Freedom and Equality\") in the Electoral Palace. From early 1793 he was actively involved in organizing the Mainz Republic. This first republic located on German soil was constituted on the principles of democracy, and encompassed areas on the left bank of the Rhine between Landau and Bingen. Forster became vice-president of the republic's temporary administration and a candidate in the elections to the local parliament, the \"Rheinisch-Deutscher Nationalkonvent\" (\"Rhenish-German National Convention\"). From January to March 1793, he was an editor of \"Die neue Mainzer Zeitung oder Der Volksfreund\" (\"The new Mainz newspaper or The People's Friend\"). In his first article he wrote:\n", "This freedom did not last long, though. The Mainz Republic existed only until the retreat of the French troops in July 1793 after the Siege of Mainz.\n", "Forster was not present in Mainz during the siege. As representatives of the Mainz National Convention, he and Adam Lux had been sent to Paris to apply for Mainz – which was unable to exist as an independent state – to become a part of the French Republic. The application was accepted, but had no effect, since Mainz was conquered by Prussian and Austrian troops, and the old order was restored. Forster lost his library and collections and decided to remain in Paris.\n", "Section::::Life as a revolutionary.:Death in revolutionary Paris.\n", "Based on a decree by Emperor Francis II inflicting punishments on German subjects who collaborated with the French revolutionary government, Forster was declared an outlaw and placed under the Imperial ban; a prize of 100 ducats was set on his head and he could not return to Germany. Devoid of all means of making a living and without his wife, who had stayed in Mainz with their children and her later husband Ludwig Ferdinand Huber, he remained in Paris. At this point the revolution in Paris had entered the Reign of Terror introduced by the Committee of Public Safety under the rule of Maximilien Robespierre. Forster had the opportunity to experience the difference between the promises of the revolution of happiness for all and its cruel practice. In contrast to many other German supporters of the revolution, like for instance Friedrich Schiller, Forster did not turn back from his revolutionary ideals under the pressure of the terror. He viewed the events in France as a force of nature that could not be slowed and that had to release its own energies to avoid being even more destructive.\n", "Before the reign of terror reached its climax, Forster died after a rheumatic illness in his small attic apartment at Rue des Moulins in Paris in January 1794, at the age of thirty-nine. At the time, he was making plans to visit India.\n", "Section::::Views on nations and their culture.\n", "Forster had partial Scottish roots and was born in Polish Royal Prussia, and therefore was by birth a Polish subject. He worked in Russia, England, Poland and in several German countries of his time. Finally, he finished his life in France. He worked in different milieus and traveled a lot from his youth on. It was his view that this, together with his scientific upbringing based on the principles of the Enlightenment, gave him a wide perspective on different ethnic and national communities:\n", "In his opinion all human beings have the same abilities with regard to reason, feelings and imagination, but these basic ingredients are used in different ways and in different environments, which gives rise to different cultures and civilizations. According to him it is obvious that the culture on Tierra del Fuego is at a lower level of development than European culture, but he also admits that the conditions of life there are much more difficult and this gives people very little chance to develop a higher culture. Based on these opinions he was classified as one of the main examples of 18th-century German cosmopolitanism.\n", "In contrast to the attitude expressed in these writings and to his Enlightenment background, he used insulting terms expressing prejudice against Poles in his private letters during his stay in Vilnius and in a diary from the journey through Poland, but he never published any manifestation of this attitude. These insults only became known after his death, when his private correspondence and diaries were released to the public. Since Forster's published descriptions of other nations were seen as impartial scientific observations, Forster's disparaging description of Poland in his letters and diaries was often taken at face value in Imperial and Nazi Germany, where it was used as a means of science-based support for a purported German superiority. The spreading of the \"\"Polnische Wirtschaft\"\" (Polish economy) stereotype is most likely due to the influence of his letters.\n", "Forster's attitude brought him into conflict with the people of the different nations he encountered and made him welcome nowhere, as he was too revolutionary and antinational for Germans, proud and opposing in his dealings with Englishmen, too unconcerned about Polish science for Poles, and too insignificant politically and ignored while in France.\n", "Section::::Legacy.\n", "After Forster's death, his works were mostly forgotten, except in professional circles. This was partly due to his involvement in the French revolution. However, his reception changed with the politics of the times, with different periods focusing on different parts of his work. In the period of rising nationalism after the Napoleonic era he was regarded in Germany as a \"traitor to his country\", overshadowing his work as an author and scientist. This attitude rose even though the philosopher Karl Wilhelm Friedrich Schlegel wrote about Forster at the beginning of the 19th century:\n", "Some interest in Forster's life and revolutionary actions was revived in the context of the liberal sentiments leading up to the 1848 revolution. But he was largely forgotten in the Germany of Wilhelm II and more so in the Third Reich, where interest in Forster was limited to his stance on Poland from his private letters. Interest in Forster resumed in the 1960s in East Germany, where he was interpreted as a champion of class struggle. The GDR research station in Antarctica that was opened on October 25, 1987, was named after him. In West Germany, the search for democratic traditions in German history also lead to a more diversified picture of him in the 1970s. The Alexander von Humboldt foundation named a scholarship program for foreign scholars from developing countries after him. His reputation as one of the first and most outstanding German ethnologists is indisputable, and his works are seen as crucial in the development of ethnology in Germany into a separate branch of science.\n", "The ethnographical items collected by Georg and Johann Reinhold Forster are now presented as the \"Cook-Forster-Sammlung\" (\"Cook–Forster Collection\") in the Sammlung für Völkerkunde anthropological collection in Göttingen. Another collection of items collected by the Forsters is on display at the Pitt Rivers Museum in Oxford.\n", "Section::::Works.\n", "BULLET::::- \"A Voyage Round the World in His Britannic Majesty's Sloop Resolution, Commanded by Capt. James Cook, during the Years, 1772, 3, 4, and 5\" (1777) (preview)\n", "BULLET::::- \"De Plantis Esculentis Insularum Oceani Australis Commentatio Botanica\" (1786) available online at Project Gutenberg\n", "BULLET::::- \"Florulae Insularum Australium Prodromus \" (1786) available online at Project Gutenberg\n", "BULLET::::- \"Essays on moral and natural geography, natural history and philosophy\" (1789–97)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Views of the Lower Rhine, Brabant, Flanders\" (three volumes, 1791–94)\n", "BULLET::::- \" Georg Forsters Werke, Sämtliche Schriften, Tagebücher, Briefe\", Deutsche Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin, G. Steiner et al. Berlin: Akademie 1958\n", "BULLET::::- \"Werke in vier Bänden\", Gerhard Steiner (editor). Leipzig: Insel 1965. ASIN: B00307GDQ0\n", "BULLET::::- \"Reise um die Welt\", Gerhard Steiner (editor). Frankfurt am Main: Insel, 1983.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Ansichten vom Niederrhein\", Gerhard Steiner (editor). Frankfurt am Main: Insel, 1989.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Georg Forster, Briefe an Ernst Friedrich Hector Falcke. Neu aufgefundene Forsteriana aus der Gold- und Rosenkreuzerzeit\", Michael Ewert, Hermann Schüttler (editors). Georg-Forster-Studien Beiheft 4. Kassel: Kassel University Press 2009.\n", "Section::::See also.\n", "BULLET::::- European and American voyages of scientific exploration\n", "BULLET::::- List of important publications in anthropology\n", "Section::::References.\n", "BULLET::::- Sources\n", "This article is partly based on a translation of the German Wikipedia article .\n", "Section::::External links.\n", "BULLET::::- The Forster Collection at the Pitt Rivers Museum\n", "BULLET::::- Georg Forster society in Kassel\n", "BULLET::::- Letter recommending Georg Forster to the Royal Society (archived link, October 21, 2006)\n", "BULLET::::- Biography at the Australian Dictionary of Biography\n" ] }

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{ "description": "German naturalist, ethnologist, travel writer, journalist, and revolutionary", "enwikiquote_title": "", "wikidata_id": "Q58062", "wikidata_label": "Georg Forster", "wikipedia_title": "Georg Forster", "aliases": { "alias": [ "Johann Georg Adam Forster", "G.Forst." ] } }

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{ "paragraph": [ "Sill\n", "Sill may refer to:\n", "BULLET::::- Fort Sill, a United States Army post near Lawton, Oklahoma\n", "BULLET::::- Mount Sill, a California mountain\n", "BULLET::::- \"Sill\", Swedish word for herring (the Norwegian and Danish equivalent is \"sild\", the Icelandic is \"síld\")\n", "BULLET::::- Sill (dock), a weir at the low water mark retaining water within a dock\n", "BULLET::::- Sill (geology), a subhorizontal sheet intrusion of molten or solidified magma\n", "BULLET::::- Sill may also refer to the rise in depth near the mouth of a fjord caused by a terminal moraine\n", "BULLET::::- Sill (geostatistics)\n", "BULLET::::- Sill plate, a construction element\n", "BULLET::::- Sill (river), a river in Austria\n", "BULLET::::- Sills Cummis & Gross (formerly Sills, Beck, Cummis, Radin, Tischman & Zuckerman), a U.S. corporate law firm\n", "Section::::Name.\n", "BULLET::::- Beverly Sills (1929–2007), American operatic soprano\n", "BULLET::::- Douglas Sills (born 1960), American actor\n", "BULLET::::- Edward Rowland Sill (1841–1887), American poet and educator\n", "BULLET::::- Eileen Sills, a British chief nurse and NHS national guardian\n", "BULLET::::- Joshua W. Sill (1831–1862) American Civil War brigadier general\n", "BULLET::::- Judee Sill (1944–1979), American singer and songwriter\n", "BULLET::::- Lester Sill (1918–1994), American record label executive\n", "BULLET::::- Paul Sills (1927–2008), director and improvisation teacher, and the original director of Chicago's The Second City\n", "BULLET::::- Tim Sills (born 1979), English footballer\n", "BULLET::::- Zach Sill (born 1988), Canadian ice hockey player\n", "Section::::See also.\n", "BULLET::::- Cill (disambiguation)\n", "BULLET::::- Still, a permanent apparatus used to distill miscible or immiscible (e.g. steam distillation) liquid mixtures by heating to selectively boil and then cooling to condense the vapor\n", "BULLET::::- Still (disambiguation)\n" ] }

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{ "pageid": 43706, "parentid": 764477573, "revid": 778411061, "pre_dump": true, "timestamp": "2017-05-02T23:38:26Z", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sill&oldid=778411061" }

{ "paragraph": [ "Shark\n", "Sharks are a group of elasmobranch fish characterized by a cartilaginous skeleton, five to seven gill slits on the sides of the head, and pectoral fins that are not fused to the head. Modern sharks are classified within the clade Selachimorpha (or Selachii) and are the sister group to the rays. However, the term \"shark\" has also been used for extinct members of the subclass Elasmobranchii outside the Selachimorpha, such as \"Cladoselache\" and \"Xenacanthus\", as well as other Chondrichthyes such as the holocephalid eugenedontidans.\n", "Under this broader definition, the earliest known sharks date back to more than 420 million years ago. Acanthodians are often referred to as \"spiny sharks\"; though they are not part of Chondrichthyes proper, they are a paraphyletic assemblage leading to cartilaginous fish as a whole. Since then, sharks have diversified into over 500 species. They range in size from the small dwarf lanternshark (\"Etmopterus perryi\"), a deep sea species of only in length, to the whale shark (\"Rhincodon typus\"), the largest fish in the world, which reaches approximately in length. Sharks are found in all seas and are common to depths of . They generally do not live in freshwater although there are a few known exceptions, such as the bull shark and the river shark, which can be found in both seawater and freshwater. Sharks have a covering of dermal denticles that protects their skin from damage and parasites in addition to improving their fluid dynamics. They have numerous sets of replaceable teeth.\n", "Well-known species such as the great white shark, tiger shark, blue shark, mako shark, thresher shark, and hammerhead shark are apex predators—organisms at the top of their underwater food chain. Many shark populations are threatened by human activities.\n", "Section::::Etymology.\n", "Until the 16th century, sharks were known to mariners as \"sea dogs\". This is still evidential in several species termed \"dogfish,\" or the porbeagle.\n", "The etymology of the word \"shark\" is uncertain, the most likely etymology states that the original sense of the word was that of \"predator, one who preys on others\" from the Dutch \"schurk\", meaning \"villain, scoundrel\" (cf. \"card shark\", \"loan shark\", etc.), which was later applied to the fish due to its predatory behaviour.\n", "A now disproven theory is that it derives from the Yucatec Maya word \"xok\" (pronounced 'shok'), meaning \"fish\". \n", "Evidence for this etymology came from the Oxford English Dictionary, which notes \"shark\" first came into use after Sir John Hawkins' sailors exhibited one in London in 1569 and posted \"\"sharke\"\" to refer to the large sharks of the Caribbean Sea. However, the Middle English Dictionary records an isolated occurrence of the word \"shark\" (referring to a sea fish) in a letter written by Thomas Beckington in 1442, which rules out a New World etymology.\n", "Section::::Evolutionary history.\n", "Evidence for the existence of sharks dates from the Ordovician period, 450–420 million years ago, before land vertebrates existed and before a variety of plants had colonized the continents. Only scales have been recovered from the first sharks and not all paleontologists agree that these are from true sharks, suspecting that these scales are actually those of thelodont agnathans. The oldest generally accepted shark scales are from about 420 million years ago, in the Silurian period. The first sharks looked very different from modern sharks. At this time the most common shark tooth is the cladodont, a style of thin tooth with three tines like a trident, apparently to help catch fish. The majority of modern sharks can be traced back to around 100 million years ago. Most fossils are of teeth, often in large numbers. Partial skeletons and even complete fossilized remains have been discovered. Estimates suggest that sharks grow tens of thousands of teeth over a lifetime, which explains the abundant fossils. The teeth consist of easily fossilized calcium phosphate, an apatite. When a shark dies, the decomposing skeleton breaks up, scattering the apatite prisms. Preservation requires rapid burial in bottom sediments.\n", "Among the most ancient and primitive sharks is \"Cladoselache\", from about 370 million years ago, which has been found within Paleozoic strata in Ohio, Kentucky, and Tennessee. At that point in Earth's history these rocks made up the soft bottom sediments of a large, shallow ocean, which stretched across much of North America. \"Cladoselache\" was only about long with stiff triangular fins and slender jaws. Its teeth had several pointed cusps, which wore down from use. From the small number of teeth found together, it is most likely that \"Cladoselache\" did not replace its teeth as regularly as modern sharks. Its caudal fins had a similar shape to the great white sharks and the pelagic shortfin and longfin makos. The presence of whole fish arranged tail-first in their stomachs suggest that they were fast swimmers with great agility.\n", "Most fossil sharks from about 300 to 150 million years ago can be assigned to one of two groups. The Xenacanthida was almost exclusive to freshwater environments. By the time this group became extinct about 220 million years ago, they had spread worldwide. The other group, the hybodonts, appeared about 320 million years ago and lived mostly in the oceans, but also in freshwater. The results of a 2014 study of the gill structure of an unusually well preserved 325-million-year-old fossil suggested that sharks are not \"living fossils\", but rather have evolved more extensively than previously thought over the hundreds of millions of years they have been around.\n", "Modern sharks began to appear about 100 million years ago. Fossil mackerel shark teeth date to the Early Cretaceous. One of the most recently evolved families is the hammerhead shark (family Sphyrnidae), which emerged in the Eocene. The oldest white shark teeth date from 60 to 66 million years ago, around the time of the extinction of the dinosaurs. In early white shark evolution there are at least two lineages: one lineage is of white sharks with coarsely serrated teeth and it probably gave rise to the modern great white shark, and another lineage is of white sharks with finely serrated teeth. These sharks attained gigantic proportions and include the extinct megatoothed shark, \"C. megalodon\". Like most extinct sharks, \"C. megalodon\" is also primarily known from its fossil teeth and vertebrae. This giant shark reached a total length (TL) of more than . \"C. megalodon\" may have approached a maxima of in total length and in mass. Paleontological evidence suggests that this shark was an active predator of large cetaceans.\n", "Section::::Evolutionary history.:Taxonomy.\n", "Sharks belong to the superorder Selachimorpha in the subclass Elasmobranchii in the class Chondrichthyes. The Elasmobranchii also include rays and skates; the Chondrichthyes also include Chimaeras. It was thought that the sharks form a polyphyletic group: some sharks are more closely related to rays than they are to some other sharks, but current molecular studies support monophyly of both groups of sharks and batoids.\n", "The superorder Selachimorpha is divided into Galea (or Galeomorphii), and Squalea (or Squalomorphii). The Galeans are the Heterodontiformes, Orectolobiformes, Lamniformes, and Carcharhiniformes. Lamnoids and Carcharhinoids are usually placed in one clade, but recent studies show the Lamnoids and Orectoloboids are a clade. Some scientists now think that Heterodontoids may be Squalean. The Squaleans are divided into Hexanchiformes and Squalomorpha. The former includes cow shark and frilled shark, though some authors propose both families to be moved to separate orders. The Squalomorpha contains the Squaliformes and the Hypnosqualea. The Hypnosqualea may be invalid. It includes the Squatiniformes, and the Pristorajea, which may also be invalid, but includes the Pristiophoriformes and the Batoidea.\n", "There are more than 470 species of sharks split across twelve orders, including four orders of sharks that have gone extinct:\n", "BULLET::::- Carcharhiniformes: Commonly known as ground sharks, the order includes the blue, tiger, bull, grey reef, blacktip reef, Caribbean reef, blacktail reef, whitetip reef, and oceanic whitetip sharks (collectively called the requiem sharks) along with the houndsharks, catsharks, and hammerhead sharks. They are distinguished by an elongated snout and a nictitating membrane which protects the eyes during an attack.\n", "BULLET::::- Heterodontiformes: They are generally referred to as the bullhead or horn sharks.\n", "BULLET::::- Hexanchiformes: Examples from this group include the cow sharks and frilled sharks, which somewhat resembles a marine snake.\n", "BULLET::::- Lamniformes: They are commonly known as the mackerel sharks. They include the goblin shark, basking shark, megamouth shark, the thresher sharks, shortfin and longfin mako sharks, and great white shark. They are distinguished by their large jaws and ovoviviparous reproduction. The Lamniformes also include the extinct megalodon, \"Carcharodon megalodon\".\n", "BULLET::::- Orectolobiformes: They are commonly referred to as the carpet sharks, including zebra sharks, nurse sharks, wobbegongs, and the whale shark.\n", "BULLET::::- Pristiophoriformes: These are the sawsharks, with an elongated, toothed snout that they use for slashing their prey.\n", "BULLET::::- Squaliformes: This group includes the dogfish sharks and roughsharks.\n", "BULLET::::- Squatiniformes: Also known as angel sharks, they are flattened sharks with a strong resemblance to stingrays and skates.\n", "BULLET::::- † Cladoselachiformes\n", "BULLET::::- † Hybodontiformes\n", "BULLET::::- † Symmoriida\n", "BULLET::::- † Xenacanthida (Xenacantiformes)\n", "Section::::Anatomy.\n", "Section::::Anatomy.:Teeth.\n", "Shark teeth are embedded in the gums rather than directly affixed to the jaw, and are constantly replaced throughout life. Multiple rows of replacement teeth grow in a groove on the inside of the jaw and steadily move forward in comparison to a conveyor belt; some sharks lose 30,000 or more teeth in their lifetime. The rate of tooth replacement varies from once every 8 to 10 days to several months. In most species, teeth are replaced one at a time as opposed to the simultaneous replacement of an entire row, which is observed in the cookiecutter shark.\n", "Tooth shape depends on the shark's diet: those that feed on mollusks and crustaceans have dense and flattened teeth used for crushing, those that feed on fish have needle-like teeth for gripping, and those that feed on larger prey such as mammals have pointed lower teeth for gripping and triangular upper teeth with serrated edges for cutting. The teeth of plankton-feeders such as the basking shark are small and non-functional.\n", "Section::::Anatomy.:Skeleton.\n", "Shark skeletons are very different from those of bony fish and terrestrial vertebrates. Sharks and other cartilaginous fish (skates and rays) have skeletons made of cartilage and connective tissue. Cartilage is flexible and durable, yet is about half the normal density of bone. This reduces the skeleton's weight, saving energy. Because sharks do not have rib cages, they can easily be crushed under their own weight on land.\n", "Section::::Anatomy.:Jaw.\n", "Jaws of sharks, like those of rays and skates, are not attached to the cranium. The jaw's surface (in comparison to the shark's vertebrae and gill arches) needs extra support due to its heavy exposure to physical stress and its need for strength. It has a layer of tiny hexagonal plates called \"tesserae\", which are crystal blocks of calcium salts arranged as a mosaic. This gives these areas much of the same strength found in the bony tissue found in other animals.\n", "Generally sharks have only one layer of tesserae, but the jaws of large specimens, such as the bull shark, tiger shark, and the great white shark, have two to three layers or more, depending on body size. The jaws of a large great white shark may have up to five layers. In the rostrum (snout), the cartilage can be spongy and flexible to absorb the power of impacts.\n", "Section::::Anatomy.:Fins.\n", "Fin skeletons are elongated and supported with soft and unsegmented rays named ceratotrichia, filaments of elastic protein resembling the horny keratin in hair and feathers. Most sharks have eight fins. Sharks can only drift away from objects directly in front of them because their fins do not allow them to move in the tail-first direction.\n", "Section::::Anatomy.:Dermal denticles.\n", "Unlike bony fish, sharks have a complex dermal corset made of flexible collagenous fibers and arranged as a helical network surrounding their body. This works as an outer skeleton, providing attachment for their swimming muscles and thus saving energy. Their dermal teeth give them hydrodynamic advantages as they reduce turbulence when swimming.\n", "Section::::Anatomy.:Tails.\n", "Tails provide thrust, making speed and acceleration dependent on tail shape. Caudal fin shapes vary considerably between shark species, due to their evolution in separate environments. Sharks possess a heterocercal caudal fin in which the dorsal portion is usually noticeably larger than the ventral portion. This is because the shark's vertebral column extends into that dorsal portion, providing a greater surface area for muscle attachment. This allows more efficient locomotion among these negatively buoyant cartilaginous fish. By contrast, most bony fish possess a homocercal caudal fin.\n", "Tiger sharks have a large upper lobe, which allows for slow cruising and sudden bursts of speed. The tiger shark must be able to twist and turn in the water easily when hunting to support its varied diet, whereas the porbeagle shark, which hunts schooling fish such as mackerel and herring, has a large lower lobe to help it keep pace with its fast-swimming prey. Other tail adaptations help sharks catch prey more directly, such as the thresher shark's usage of its powerful, elongated upper lobe to stun fish and squid.\n", "Section::::Physiology.\n", "Section::::Physiology.:Buoyancy.\n", "Unlike bony fish, sharks do not have gas-filled swim bladders for buoyancy. Instead, sharks rely on a large liver filled with oil that contains squalene, and their cartilage, which is about half the normal density of bone. Their liver constitutes up to 30% of their total body mass. The liver's effectiveness is limited, so sharks employ dynamic lift to maintain depth while swimming. Sand tiger sharks store air in their stomachs, using it as a form of swim bladder. Bottom-dwelling sharks, like the nurse shark, have negative buoyancy, allowing them to rest on the ocean floor.\n", "Some sharks, if inverted or stroked on the nose, enter a natural state of tonic immobility. Researchers use this condition to handle sharks safely.\n", "Section::::Physiology.:Respiration.\n", "Like other fish, sharks extract oxygen from seawater as it passes over their gills. Unlike other fish, shark gill slits are not covered, but lie in a row behind the head. A modified slit called a spiracle lies just behind the eye, which assists the shark with taking in water during respiration and plays a major role in bottom–dwelling sharks. Spiracles are reduced or missing in active pelagic sharks. While the shark is moving, water passes through the mouth and over the gills in a process known as \"ram ventilation\". While at rest, most sharks pump water over their gills to ensure a constant supply of oxygenated water. A small number of species have lost the ability to pump water through their gills and must swim without rest. These species are \"obligate ram ventilators\" and would presumably asphyxiate if unable to move. Obligate ram ventilation is also true of some pelagic bony fish species.\n", "The respiration and circulation process begins when deoxygenated blood travels to the shark's two-chambered heart. Here the shark pumps blood to its gills via the ventral aorta artery where it branches into afferent brachial arteries. Reoxygenation takes place in the gills and the reoxygenated blood flows into the efferent brachial arteries, which come together to form the dorsal aorta. The blood flows from the dorsal aorta throughout the body. The deoxygenated blood from the body then flows through the posterior cardinal veins and enters the posterior cardinal sinuses. From there blood enters the heart ventricle and the cycle repeats.\n", "Section::::Physiology.:Thermoregulation.\n", "Most sharks are \"cold-blooded\" or, more precisely, poikilothermic, meaning that their internal body temperature matches that of their ambient environment. Members of the family Lamnidae (such as the shortfin mako shark and the great white shark) are homeothermic and maintain a higher body temperature than the surrounding water. In these sharks, a strip of aerobic red muscle located near the center of the body generates the heat, which the body retains via a countercurrent exchange mechanism by a system of blood vessels called the rete mirabile (\"miraculous net\"). The common thresher and bigeye thresher sharks have a similar mechanism for maintaining an elevated body temperature.\n", "Section::::Physiology.:Osmoregulation.\n", "In contrast to bony fish, with the exception of the coelacanth, the blood and other tissue of sharks and Chondrichthyes is generally isotonic to their marine environments because of the high concentration of urea (up to 2.5%) and trimethylamine N-oxide (TMAO), allowing them to be in osmotic balance with the seawater. This adaptation prevents most sharks from surviving in freshwater, and they are therefore confined to marine environments. A few exceptions exist, such as the bull shark, which has developed a way to change its kidney function to excrete large amounts of urea. When a shark dies, the urea is broken down to ammonia by bacteria, causing the dead body to gradually smell strongly of ammonia.\n", "Section::::Physiology.:Digestion.\n", "Digestion can take a long time. The food moves from the mouth to a J-shaped stomach, where it is stored and initial digestion occurs. Unwanted items may never get past the stomach, and instead the shark either vomits or turns its stomachs inside out and ejects unwanted items from its mouth.\n", "One of the biggest differences between the digestive systems of sharks and mammals is that sharks have much shorter intestines. This short length is achieved by the spiral valve with multiple turns within a single short section instead of a long tube-like intestine. The valve provides a long surface area, requiring food to circulate inside the short gut until fully digested, when remaining waste products pass into the cloaca.\n", "Section::::Senses.\n", "Section::::Senses.:Smell.\n", "Sharks have keen olfactory senses, located in the short duct (which is not fused, unlike bony fish) between the anterior and posterior nasal openings, with some species able to detect as little as one part per million of blood in seawater.\n", "Sharks have the ability to determine the direction of a given scent based on the timing of scent detection in each nostril. This is similar to the method mammals use to determine direction of sound.\n", "They are more attracted to the chemicals found in the intestines of many species, and as a result often linger near or in sewage outfalls. Some species, such as nurse sharks, have external barbels that greatly increase their ability to sense prey.\n", "Section::::Senses.:Sight.\n", "Shark eyes are similar to the eyes of other vertebrates, including similar lenses, corneas and retinas, though their eyesight is well adapted to the marine environment with the help of a tissue called tapetum lucidum. This tissue is behind the retina and reflects light back to it, thereby increasing visibility in the dark waters. The effectiveness of the tissue varies, with some sharks having stronger nocturnal adaptations. Many sharks can contract and dilate their pupils, like humans, something no teleost fish can do. Sharks have eyelids, but they do not blink because the surrounding water cleans their eyes. To protect their eyes some species have nictitating membranes. This membrane covers the eyes while hunting and when the shark is being attacked. However, some species, including the great white shark (\"Carcharodon carcharias\"), do not have this membrane, but instead roll their eyes backwards to protect them when striking prey. The importance of sight in shark hunting behavior is debated. Some believe that electro- and chemoreception are more significant, while others point to the nictating membrane as evidence that sight is important. Presumably, the shark would not protect its eyes were they unimportant. The use of sight probably varies with species and water conditions. The shark's field of vision can swap between monocular and stereoscopic at any time. A micro-spectrophotometry study of 17 species of shark found 10 had only rod photoreceptors and no cone cells in their retinas giving them good night vision while making them colorblind. The remaining seven species had in addition to rods a single type of cone photoreceptor sensitive to green and, seeing only in shades of grey and green, are believed to be effectively colorblind. The study indicates that an object's contrast against the background, rather than colour, may be more important for object detection.\n", "Section::::Senses.:Hearing.\n", "Although it is hard to test the hearing of sharks, they may have a sharp sense of hearing and can possibly hear prey from many miles away. A small opening on each side of their heads (not the spiracle) leads directly into the inner ear through a thin channel. The lateral line shows a similar arrangement, and is open to the environment via a series of openings called lateral line pores. This is a reminder of the common origin of these two vibration- and sound-detecting organs that are grouped together as the acoustico-lateralis system. In bony fish and tetrapods the external opening into the inner ear has been lost.\n", "Section::::Senses.:Electroreception.\n", "The ampullae of Lorenzini are the electroreceptor organs. They number in the hundreds to thousands. Sharks use the ampullae of Lorenzini to detect the electromagnetic fields that all living things produce. This helps sharks (particularly the hammerhead shark) find prey. The shark has the greatest electrical sensitivity of any animal. Sharks find prey hidden in sand by detecting the electric fields they produce. Ocean currents moving in the magnetic field of the Earth also generate electric fields that sharks can use for orientation and possibly navigation.\n", "Section::::Senses.:Lateral line.\n", "This system is found in most fish, including sharks. It is a tactile sensory system which allows the organism to detect water speed and pressure changes near by. The main component of the system is the neuromast, a cell similar to hair cells present in the vertebrate ear that interact with the surrounding aquatic environment. This helps sharks distinguish between the currents around them, obstacles off on their periphery, and struggling prey out of visual view. The shark can sense frequencies in the range of 25 to 50 Hz.\n", "Section::::Life history.\n", "Shark lifespans vary by species. Most live 20 to 30 years. The spiny dogfish has one of the longest lifespans at more than 100 years. Whale sharks (\"Rhincodon typus\") may also live over 100 years. Earlier estimates suggested the Greenland shark (\"Somniosus microcephalus\") could reach about 200 years, but a recent study found that a specimen was 392 ± 120 years old (i.e., at least 272 years old), making it the longest-lived vertebrate known.\n", "Section::::Life history.:Reproduction.\n", "Unlike most bony fish, sharks are K-selected reproducers, meaning that they produce a small number of well-developed young as opposed to a large number of poorly developed young. Fecundity in sharks ranges from 2 to over 100 young per reproductive cycle. Sharks mature slowly relative to many other fish. For example, lemon sharks reach sexual maturity at around age 13–15.\n", "Section::::Life history.:Reproduction.:Sexual.\n", "Sharks practice internal fertilization. The posterior part of a male shark's pelvic fins are modified into a pair of intromittent organs called claspers, analogous to a mammalian penis, of which one is used to deliver sperm into the female.\n", "Mating has rarely been observed in sharks. The smaller catsharks often mate with the male curling around the female. In less flexible species the two sharks swim parallel to each other while the male inserts a clasper into the female's oviduct. Females in many of the larger species have bite marks that appear to be a result of a male grasping them to maintain position during mating. The bite marks may also come from courtship behavior: the male may bite the female to show his interest. In some species, females have evolved thicker skin to withstand these bites.\n", "Section::::Life history.:Reproduction.:Asexual.\n", "There have been a number of documented cases in which a female shark who has not been in contact with a male has conceived a pup on her own through parthenogenesis. The details of this process are not well understood, but genetic fingerprinting showed that the pups had no paternal genetic contribution, ruling out sperm storage. The extent of this behavior in the wild is unknown. Mammals are now the only major vertebrate group in which asexual reproduction has not been observed.\n", "Scientists say that asexual reproduction in the wild is rare, and probably a last-ditch effort to reproduce when a mate is not present. Asexual reproduction diminishes genetic diversity, which helps build defenses against threats to the species. Species that rely solely on it risk extinction. Asexual reproduction may have contributed to the blue shark's decline off the Irish coast.\n", "Section::::Life history.:Brooding.\n", "Sharks display three ways to bear their young, varying by species, oviparity, viviparity and ovoviviparity.\n", "Section::::Life history.:Brooding.:Ovoviviparity.\n", "Most sharks are ovoviviparous, meaning that the eggs hatch in the oviduct within the mother's body and that the egg's yolk and fluids secreted by glands in the walls of the oviduct nourishes the embryos. The young continue to be nourished by the remnants of the yolk and the oviduct's fluids. As in viviparity, the young are born alive and fully functional. Lamniforme sharks practice \"oophagy\", where the first embryos to hatch eat the remaining eggs. Taking this a step further, sand tiger shark pups cannibalistically consume neighboring embryos. The survival strategy for ovoviviparous species is to brood the young to a comparatively large size before birth. The whale shark is now classified as ovoviviparous rather than oviparous, because extrauterine eggs are now thought to have been aborted. Most ovoviviparous sharks give birth in sheltered areas, including bays, river mouths and shallow reefs. They choose such areas for protection from predators (mainly other sharks) and the abundance of food. Dogfish have the longest known gestation period of any shark, at 18 to 24 months. Basking sharks and frilled sharks appear to have even longer gestation periods, but accurate data are lacking.\n", "Section::::Life history.:Brooding.:Oviparity.\n", "Some species are oviparous, laying their fertilized eggs in the water. In most oviparous shark species, an egg case with the consistency of leather protects the developing embryo(s). These cases may be corkscrewed into crevices for protection. The egg case is commonly called a \"mermaid's purse\". Oviparous sharks include the horn shark, catshark, Port Jackson shark, and swellshark.\n", "Section::::Life history.:Brooding.:Viviparity.\n", "Viviparity is the gestation of young without the use of a traditional egg, and results in live birth. Viviparity in sharks can be placental or aplacental. Young are born fully formed and self-sufficient. Hammerheads, the requiem sharks (such as the bull and blue sharks), and smoothhounds are viviparous.\n", "Section::::Behavior.\n", "The classic view describes a solitary hunter, ranging the oceans in search of food. However, this applies to only a few species. Most live far more social, sedentary, benthic lives, and appear likely to have their own distinct personalities. Even solitary sharks meet for breeding or at rich hunting grounds, which may lead them to cover thousands of miles in a year. Shark migration patterns may be even more complex than in birds, with many sharks covering entire ocean basins.\n", "Sharks can be highly social, remaining in large schools. Sometimes more than 100 scalloped hammerheads congregate around seamounts and islands, e.g., in the Gulf of California. Cross-species social hierarchies exist. For example, oceanic whitetip sharks dominate silky sharks of comparable size during feeding.\n", "When approached too closely some sharks perform a threat display. This usually consists of exaggerated swimming movements, and can vary in intensity according to the threat level.\n", "Section::::Behavior.:Speed.\n", "In general, sharks swim (\"cruise\") at an average speed of , but when feeding or attacking, the average shark can reach speeds upwards of . The shortfin mako shark, the fastest shark and one of the fastest fish, can burst at speeds up to . The great white shark is also capable of speed bursts. These exceptions may be due to the warm-blooded, or homeothermic, nature of these sharks' physiology. Sharks can travel 70 to 80 km in a day.\n", "Section::::Behavior.:Intelligence.\n", "Sharks possess brain-to-body mass ratios that are similar to mammals and birds, and have exhibited apparent curiosity and behavior resembling play in the wild.\n", "There is evidence that juvenile lemon sharks can use observational learning in their investigation of novel objects in their environment.\n", "Section::::Behavior.:Sleep.\n", "All sharks need to keep water flowing over their gills in order for them to breathe; however, not all species need to be moving to do this. Those that are able to breathe while not swimming do so by using their spiracles to force water over their gills, thereby allowing them to extract oxygen from the water. It has been recorded that their eyes remain open while in this state and actively follow the movements of divers swimming around them and as such they are not truly asleep.\n", "Species that do need to swim continuously to breathe go through a process known as sleep swimming, in which the shark is essentially unconscious. It is known from experiments conducted on the spiny dogfish that its spinal cord, rather than its brain, coordinates swimming, so spiny dogfish can continue to swim while sleeping, and this also may be the case in larger shark species.\n", "Section::::Ecology.\n", "Section::::Ecology.:Feeding.\n", "Most sharks are carnivorous. Basking sharks, whale sharks, and megamouth sharks have independently evolved different strategies for filter feeding plankton: basking sharks practice ram feeding, whale sharks use suction to take in plankton and small fishes, and megamouth sharks make suction feeding more efficient by using the luminescent tissue inside of their mouths to attract prey in the deep ocean. This type of feeding requires gill rakers—long, slender filaments that form a very efficient sieve—analogous to the baleen plates of the great whales. The shark traps the plankton in these filaments and swallows from time to time in huge mouthfuls. Teeth in these species are comparatively small because they are not needed for feeding.\n", "Other highly specialized feeders include cookiecutter sharks, which feed on flesh sliced out of other larger fish and marine mammals. Cookiecutter teeth are enormous compared to the animal's size. The lower teeth are particularly sharp. Although they have never been observed feeding, they are believed to latch onto their prey and use their thick lips to make a seal, twisting their bodies to rip off flesh.\n", "Some seabed–dwelling species are highly effective ambush predators. Angel sharks and wobbegongs use camouflage to lie in wait and suck prey into their mouths. Many benthic sharks feed solely on crustaceans which they crush with their flat molariform teeth.\n", "Other sharks feed on squid or fish, which they swallow whole. The viper dogfish has teeth it can point outwards to strike and capture prey that it then swallows intact. The great white and other large predators either swallow small prey whole or take huge bites out of large animals. Thresher sharks use their long tails to stun shoaling fishes, and sawsharks either stir prey from the seabed or slash at swimming prey with their tooth-studded rostra.\n", "Many sharks, including the whitetip reef shark are cooperative feeders and hunt in packs to herd and capture elusive prey. These social sharks are often migratory, traveling huge distances around ocean basins in large schools. These migrations may be partly necessary to find new food sources.\n", "Section::::Ecology.:Range and habitat.\n", "Sharks are found in all seas. They generally do not live in fresh water, with a few exceptions such as the bull shark and the river shark which can swim both in seawater and freshwater. Sharks are common down to depths of , and some live even deeper, but they are almost entirely absent below . The deepest confirmed report of a shark is a Portuguese dogfish at .\n", "Section::::Relationship with humans.\n", "Section::::Relationship with humans.:Attacks.\n", "In 2006 the International Shark Attack File (ISAF) undertook an investigation into 96 alleged shark attacks, confirming 62 of them as unprovoked attacks and 16 as provoked attacks. The average number of fatalities worldwide per year between 2001 and 2006 from unprovoked shark attacks is 4.3.\n", "Contrary to popular belief, only a few sharks are dangerous to humans. Out of more than 470 species, only four have been involved in a significant number of fatal, unprovoked attacks on humans: the great white, oceanic whitetip, tiger, and bull sharks. These sharks are large, powerful predators, and may sometimes attack and kill people. Despite being responsible for attacks on humans they have all been filmed without using a protective cage.\n", "The perception of sharks as dangerous animals has been popularized by publicity given to a few isolated unprovoked attacks, such as the Jersey Shore shark attacks of 1916, and through popular fictional works about shark attacks, such as the \"Jaws\" film series. \"Jaws\" author Peter Benchley, as well as \"Jaws\" director Steven Spielberg, later attempted to dispel the image of sharks as man-eating monsters.\n", "To help avoid an unprovoked attack, humans should not wear jewelry or metal that is shiny and refrain from splashing around too much.\n", "Section::::Relationship with humans.:In captivity.\n", "Until recently, only a few benthic species of shark, such as hornsharks, leopard sharks and catsharks, had survived in aquarium conditions for a year or more. This gave rise to the belief that sharks, as well as being difficult to capture and transport, were difficult to care for. More knowledge has led to more species (including the large pelagic sharks) living far longer in captivity, along with safer transportation techniques that have enabled long distance transportation. The great white shark had never been successfully held in captivity for long periods of time until September 2004, when the Monterey Bay Aquarium successfully kept a young female for 198 days before releasing her.\n", "Most species are not suitable for home aquaria, and not every species sold by pet stores are appropriate. Some species can flourish in home saltwater aquaria. Uninformed or unscrupulous dealers sometimes sell juvenile sharks like the nurse shark, which upon reaching adulthood is far too large for typical home aquaria. Public aquaria generally do not accept donated specimens that have outgrown their housing. Some owners have been tempted to release them. Species appropriate to home aquaria represent considerable spatial and financial investments as they generally approach adult lengths of and can live up to 25 years.\n", "Section::::Relationship with humans.:In culture.\n", "Section::::Relationship with humans.:In culture.:In Hawaii.\n", "Sharks figure prominently in Hawaiian mythology. Stories tell of men with shark jaws on their back who could change between shark and human form. A common theme was that a shark-man would warn beach-goers of sharks in the waters. The beach-goers would laugh and ignore the warnings and get eaten by the shark-man who warned them. Hawaiian mythology also includes many shark gods. Among a fishing people, the most popular of all aumakua, or deified ancestor guardians, are shark aumakua. Kamaku describes in detail how to offer a corpse to become a shark. The body transforms gradually until the kahuna can point the awe-struck family to the markings on the shark's body that correspond to the clothing in which the beloved's body had been wrapped. Such a shark aumakua becomes the family pet, receiving food, and driving fish into the family net and warding off danger. Like all aumakua it had evil uses such as helping kill enemies. The ruling chiefs typically forbade such sorcery. Many Native Hawaiian families claim such an aumakua, who is known by name to the whole community.\n", "Kamohoali'i is the best known and revered of the shark gods, he was the older and favored brother of Pele, and helped and journeyed with her to Hawaii. He was able to assume all human and fish forms. A summit cliff on the crater of Kilauea is one of his most sacred spots. At one point he had a \"heiau\" (temple or shrine) dedicated to him on every piece of land that jutted into the ocean on the island of Molokai. Kamohoali'i was an ancestral god, not a human who became a shark and banned the eating of humans after eating one herself. In Fijian mythology, Dakuwaqa was a shark god who was the eater of lost souls.\n", "Section::::Relationship with humans.:In culture.:In American Samoa.\n", "On the island of Tutuila in American Samoa (a U.S. territory), there is a location called Turtle and Shark (\"Laumei ma Malie\") which is important in Samoan culture — the location is the site of a legend called \"O Le Tala I Le Laumei Ma Le Malie\", in which two humans are said to have transformed into a turtle and a shark. According to the U.S. National Park Service, \"Villagers from nearby Vaitogi continue to reenact an important aspect of the legend at Turtle and Shark by performing a ritual song intended to summon the legendary animals to the ocean surface, and visitors are frequently amazed to see one or both of these creatures emerge from the sea in apparent response to this call.\"\n", "Section::::Relationship with humans.:In culture.:In popular culture.\n", "In contrast to the complex portrayals by Hawaiians and other Pacific Islanders, the European and Western view of sharks has historically been mostly of fear and malevolence. Sharks are used in popular culture commonly as eating machines, notably in the \"Jaws\" novel and the film of the same name, along with its sequels. Sharks are threats in other films such as \"Deep Blue Sea\", \"The Reef\", and others, although they are sometimes used for comedic effect such as in \"Finding Nemo\" and the \"Austin Powers\" series. \n", "Sharks tend to be seen quite often in cartoons whenever a scene involves the ocean. Such examples include the \"Tom and Jerry\" cartoons, \"Jabberjaw\", and other shows produced by Hanna-Barbera. They also are used commonly as a clichéd means of killing off a character that is held up by a rope or some similar object as the sharks swim right below them, or the character may be standing on a plank above shark infested waters.\n", "Section::::Relationship with humans.:In culture.:Popular misconceptions.\n", "A popular myth is that sharks are immune to disease and cancer, but this is not scientifically supported. Sharks have been known to get cancer. Both diseases and parasites affect sharks. The evidence that sharks are at least resistant to cancer and disease is mostly anecdotal and there have been few, if any, scientific or statistical studies that show sharks to have heightened immunity to disease.\n", "Other apparently false claims are that fins prevent cancer and treat osteoarthritis. No scientific proof supports these claims; at least one study has shown shark cartilage of no value in cancer treatment.\n", "Section::::Threats to sharks.\n", "Section::::Threats to sharks.:Fishery.\n", "It is estimated that 100 million sharks are killed by people every year, due to commercial and recreational fishing. Shark finning yields are estimated at 1.44 million metric tons for 2000, and 1.41 million tons for 2010. Based on an analysis of average shark weights, this translates into a total annual mortality estimate of about 100 million sharks in 2000, and about 97 million sharks in 2010, with a total range of possible values between 63 and 273 million sharks per year. Sharks are a common seafood in many places, including Japan and Australia. In the Australian state of Victoria, shark is the most commonly used fish in fish and chips, in which fillets are battered and deep-fried or crumbed and grilled. In fish and chip shops, shark is called flake. In India, small sharks or baby sharks (called sora in Tamil language, Telugu language) are sold in local markets. Since the flesh is not developed, cooking the flesh breaks it into powder, which is then fried in oil and spices (called sora puttu/sora poratu). The soft bones can be easily chewed. They are considered a delicacy in coastal Tamil Nadu. Icelanders ferment Greenland sharks to produce a delicacy called hákarl. During a four-year period from 1996 to 2000, an estimated 26 to 73 million sharks were killed and traded annually in commercial markets.\n", "Sharks are often killed for shark fin soup. Fishermen capture live sharks, fin them, and dump the finless animal back into the water. Shark finning involves removing the fin with a hot metal blade. The resulting immobile shark soon dies from suffocation or predators. Shark fin has become a major trade within black markets all over the world. Fins sell for about $300/lb in 2009. Poachers illegally fin millions each year. Few governments enforce laws that protect them. In 2010 Hawaii became the first U.S. state to prohibit the possession, sale, trade or distribution of shark fins. From 1996 to 2000, an estimated 38 million sharks had been killed per year for harvesting shark fins. It is estimated by TRAFFIC that over 14,000 tonnes of shark fins were exported into Singapore between 2005–2007 and 2012–2014.\n", "Shark fin soup is a status symbol in Asian countries, and is erroneously considered healthy and full of nutrients. Sharks are also killed for meat. European diners consume dogfishes, smoothhounds, catsharks, makos, porbeagle and also skates and rays. However, the U.S. FDA lists sharks as one of four fish (with swordfish, king mackerel, and tilefish) whose high mercury content is hazardous to children and pregnant women.\n", "Sharks generally reach sexual maturity only after many years and produce few offspring in comparison to other harvested fish. Harvesting sharks before they reproduce severely impacts future populations. Capture induced premature birth and abortion (collectively called capture-induced parturition) occurs frequently in sharks/rays when fished. Capture-induced parturition is rarely considered in fisheries management despite being shown to occur in at least 12% of live bearing sharks and rays (88 species to date).\n", "The majority of shark fisheries have little monitoring or management. The rise in demand for shark products increases pressure on fisheries. Major declines in shark stocks have been recorded—some species have been depleted by over 90% over the past 20–30 years with population declines of 70% not unusual. A study by the International Union for Conservation of Nature suggests that one quarter of all known species of sharks and rays are threatened by extinction and 25 species were classified as critically endangered.\n", "Section::::Threats to sharks.:Shark culling.\n", "In 2014, a shark cull in Western Australia killed dozens of sharks (mostly tiger sharks) using drum lines, until it was cancelled after public protests and a decision by the Western Australia EPA; from 2014 to 2017, there was an \"imminent threat\" policy in Western Australia in which sharks that \"threatened\" humans in the ocean were shot and killed. This \"imminent threat\" policy was criticized by senator Rachel Siewart for killing endangered sharks. The \"imminent threat\" policy was cancelled in March 2017. In August 2018, the Western Australia government announced a plan to re-introduce drum lines (though, this time the drum lines are \"SMART\" drum lines).\n", "From 1962 to the present, the government of Queensland has targeted and killed sharks in large numbers by using drum lines, under a \"shark control\" program—this program has also inadvertently killed large numbers of other animals such as dolphins; it has also killed endangered hammerhead sharks. Queensland's drum line program has been called \"outdated, cruel and ineffective\". From 2001 to 2018, a total of 10,480 sharks were killed on lethal drum lines in Queensland, including in the Great Barrier Reef. From 1962 to 2018, roughly 50,000 sharks were killed by Queensland authorities.\n", "The government of New South Wales has a program that deliberately kills sharks using nets. The current net program in New South Wales has been described as being \"extremely destructive\" to marine life, including sharks. Between 1950 and 2008, 352 tiger sharks and 577 great white sharks were killed in the nets in New South Wales — also during this period, a total of 15,135 marine animals were killed in the nets, including dolphins, whales, turtles, dugongs, and critically endangered grey nurse sharks. There has been a very large decrease in the number of sharks in eastern Australia, and the shark-killing programs in Queensland and New South Wales are partly responsible for this decrease.\n", "Kwazulu-Natal, an area of South Africa, has a shark-killing program using nets and drum lines—these nets and drum lines have killed turtles and dolphins, and have been criticized for killing wildlife. During a 30-year period, more than 33,000 sharks have been killed in KwaZulu-Natal's shark-killing program — during the same 30-year period, 2,211 turtles, 8,448 rays, and 2,310 dolphins were killed in KwaZulu-Natal. Authorities on the French island of Réunion kill about 100 sharks per year.\n", "Killing sharks negatively affects the marine ecosystem. Jessica Morris of Humane Society International calls shark culling a \"knee-jerk reaction\" and says, \"sharks are top order predators that play an important role in the functioning of marine ecosystems. We need them for healthy oceans.\"\n", "George H. Burgess, the former director of the International Shark Attack File, \"describes [shark] culling as a form of revenge, satisfying a public demand for blood and little else\"; he also said shark culling is a \"retro-type move reminiscent of what people would have done in the 1940s and 50s, back when we didn't have an ecological conscience and before we knew the consequences of our actions.\" Jane Williamson, an associate professor in marine ecology at Macquarie University, says \"There is no scientific support for the concept that culling sharks in a particular area will lead to a decrease in shark attacks and increase ocean safety.\"\n", "Section::::Threats to sharks.:Other threats.\n", "Other threats include habitat alteration, damage and loss from coastal development, pollution and the impact of fisheries on the seabed and prey species. The 2007 documentary \"Sharkwater\" exposed how sharks are being hunted to extinction.\n", "Section::::Conservation.\n", "In 1991, South Africa was the first country in the world to declare Great White sharks a legally protected species (however, the KwaZulu-Natal Sharks Board is allowed to kill great white sharks in its \"shark control\" program in eastern South Africa).\n", "Intending to ban the practice of shark finning while at sea, the United States Congress passed the Shark Finning Prohibition Act in 2000. Two years later the Act saw its first legal challenge in \"United States v. Approximately 64,695 Pounds of Shark Fins\". In 2008 a Federal Appeals Court ruled that a loophole in the law allowed non-fishing vessels to \"purchase\" shark fins from fishing vessels while on the high seas. Seeking to close the loophole, the Shark Conservation Act was passed by Congress in December 2010, and it was signed into law in January 2011.\n", "In 2003, the European Union introduced a general shark finning ban for all vessels of all nationalities in Union waters and for all vessels flying a flag of one of its member states. This prohibition was amended in June 2013 to close remaining loopholes.\n", "In 2009, the International Union for Conservation of Nature's \"IUCN Red List of Endangered Species\" named 64 species, one-third of all oceanic shark species, as being at risk of extinction due to fishing and shark finning.\n", "In 2010, the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES) rejected proposals from the United States and Palau that would have required countries to strictly regulate trade in several species of scalloped hammerhead, oceanic whitetip and spiny dogfish sharks. The majority, but not the required two-thirds of voting delegates, approved the proposal. China, by far the world's largest shark market, and Japan, which battles all attempts to extend the convention to marine species, led the opposition. In March 2013, three endangered commercially valuable sharks, the hammerheads, the oceanic whitetip and porbeagle were added to Appendix 2 of CITES, bringing shark fishing and commerce of these species under licensing and regulation.\n", "In 2010, Greenpeace International added the school shark, shortfin mako shark, mackerel shark, tiger shark and spiny dogfish to its seafood red list, a list of common supermarket fish that are often sourced from unsustainable fisheries. Advocacy group Shark Trust campaigns to limit shark fishing. Advocacy group Seafood Watch directs American consumers to not eat sharks.\n", "Under the auspices of the Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals (CMS), also known as the Bonn Convention, the Memorandum of Understanding on the Conservation of Migratory Sharks was concluded and came into effect in March 2010. It was the first global instrument concluded under CMS and aims at facilitating international coordination for the protection, conservation and management of migratory sharks, through multilateral, intergovernmental discussion and scientific research.\n", "In July 2013, New York state, a major market and entry point for shark fins, banned the shark fin trade joining\n", "seven other states of the United States and the three Pacific U.S territories in providing legal protection to sharks.\n", "As of September 2018, 12 U.S. states (California, Delaware, Hawaii, Illinois, Maryland, Massachusetts, Nevada, New York, Oregon, Rhode Island, Texas, and Washington) and 3 U.S. territories (American Samoa, Guam and the Northern Mariana Islands) have banned the sale or possession of shark fins.\n", "Several regions now have shark sanctuaries or have banned shark fishing — these regions include American Samoa, the Bahamas, the Cook Islands, French Polynesia, Guam, the Maldives, the Marshall Islands, Micronesia, the Northern Mariana Islands, and Palau.\n", "Section::::See also.\n", "BULLET::::- List of sharks\n", "BULLET::::- List of prehistoric cartilaginous fish genera\n", "BULLET::::- Osteichthyes\n", "BULLET::::- Marine vertebrate\n", "BULLET::::- Outline of sharks\n", "BULLET::::- Shark meat\n", "Section::::References.\n", "BULLET::::- General references\n", "Section::::Further reading.\n", "BULLET::::- Musick, Jogn A and Musick, Susanna (2011) \"Sharks\" In: \"Review of the state of world marine fishery resources\", pages 245–254, FAO Fisheries technical paper 569, FAO, Rome. .\n", "BULLET::::- Sharks Falling Prey To Humans' Appetites \"National Geographic\", 28 October 2010.\n" ] }

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134, 673, 699, 717, 113, 287, 80, 115, 231, 350, 469, 701, 1033, 31, 61, 76, 89, 104, 142, 152, 195, 248, 67, 99, 139, 157, 170, 193, 254, 432, 480, 498, 616, 702, 787, 804, 68, 29, 62, 91, 98, 104, 115, 130, 146, 162, 177, 205, 245, 273, 284, 307, 381, 29, 77, 91, 26, 74, 93, 23, 71, 102, 117, 134, 154, 165, 188, 212, 274, 339, 28, 79, 103, 117, 129, 151, 30, 54, 24, 64, 80, 26, 53, 120, 130, 32, 29, 24, 26, 36, 258, 556, 67, 83, 245, 325, 58, 86, 123, 130, 140, 174, 196, 3, 78, 303, 285, 294, 4, 87, 214, 245, 299, 353, 481, 581, 36, 232, 277, 289, 152, 350, 401, 512, 90, 81, 204, 294, 395, 812, 31, 70, 113, 176, 183, 215, 224, 324, 388, 532, 575, 620, 63, 111, 185, 218, 244, 262, 365, 485, 523, 549, 589, 609, 62, 119, 141, 212, 244, 291, 427, 488, 536, 177, 428, 26, 217, 128, 172, 196, 9, 55, 81, 89, 101, 155, 216, 250, 414, 475, 516, 677, 816, 1034, 1053, 1352, 1369, 1408, 1474, 1508, 1568, 1657, 89, 200, 235, 276, 387, 566, 25, 172, 258, 399, 428, 471, 240, 525, 76, 146, 244, 426, 21, 44, 188, 329, 38, 135, 151, 184, 223, 6, 63, 243, 384, 163, 244, 328, 423, 459, 185, 353, 377, 76, 88, 106, 29, 73, 122, 368, 393, 497, 609, 679, 1016, 1056, 1104, 1123, 26, 115, 147, 294, 336, 346, 366, 382, 235, 253, 268, 287, 174, 477, 101, 129, 175, 252, 274, 64, 162, 260, 341, 358, 219, 205, 226, 289, 27, 42, 56, 78, 155, 192, 298, 338, 444, 502, 526, 552, 59, 131, 79, 94, 171, 204, 249, 26, 79, 184, 298, 358, 450, 46, 207, 117, 137, 358, 43, 209, 227, 234, 250, 170, 246, 289, 308, 334, 34, 71, 86, 100, 349, 626, 87, 245, 451, 47, 336, 377, 435, 493, 601, 11, 105, 239, 301, 413, 567, 24, 42, 60, 106, 163, 366, 398, 258, 295, 319, 377, 389, 402, 480, 504, 124, 146, 395, 62, 171, 276, 335, 58, 83, 539, 553, 590, 646, 692, 762, 772, 832, 849, 1113, 1122, 1149, 1186, 42, 147, 714, 33, 146, 181, 194, 205, 268, 272, 321, 336, 350, 378, 38, 367, 42, 87, 105, 54, 122, 245, 294, 506, 33, 89, 258, 285, 503, 13, 38, 461, 102, 17, 77, 186, 21, 155, 215, 128, 254, 288, 310, 395, 477, 59, 76, 75, 118, 128, 233, 251, 275, 373, 425, 595, 617, 631, 665, 56, 77, 93, 106, 124, 178, 263, 326, 93, 207, 35, 48, 58, 66, 76, 86, 101, 109, 119, 127, 141, 148, 164, 188, 204, 210, 243, 42, 110, 123, 141, 159, 165, 179, 201, 213, 243, 254, 26, 57, 24, 29, 29, 22, 62, 52 ], "text": [ "elasmobranch", "fish", "cartilaginous skeleton", "gill slit", "pectoral fin", "clade", "sister group", "rays", "Elasmobranchii", "Cladoselache", "Xenacanthus", "Chondrichthyes", "holocephalid", "eugenedontidans", "Acanthodians", "over 500 species", "dwarf lanternshark", "whale shark", "bull shark", "river shark", "dermal denticle", "parasite", "fluid dynamics", "great white shark", "tiger shark", "blue shark", "mako shark", "thresher shark", "hammerhead shark", "apex predator", "food chain", "dogfish", "porbeagle", "Yucatec Maya", "Oxford English Dictionary", "John Hawkins", "Caribbean Sea", "Middle English Dictionary", "Thomas Beckington", "Ordovician", "thelodont", "Silurian", "cladodont", "calcium phosphate", "apatite", "Cladoselache", "Paleozoic", "great white shark", "shortfin", "longfin makos", "Xenacanthida", "hybodonts", "mackerel shark", "Early Cretaceous", "Eocene", "extinction of the dinosaurs", "serrated", "C. megalodon", "cetaceans", "superorder", "subclass", "Elasmobranchii", "class", "Chondrichthyes", "rays", "skate", "Chimaera", "polyphyletic", "Galeomorphii", "Squalomorphii", "Heterodontiformes", "Orectolobiformes", "Lamniformes", "Carcharhiniformes", "clade", "Hexanchiformes", "cow shark", "frilled shark", "Squaliformes", "Squatiniformes", "Pristiophoriformes", "Batoidea", "orders", "Carcharhiniformes", "ground sharks", "blue", "tiger", "bull", "grey reef", "blacktip reef", "Caribbean reef", "blacktail reef", "whitetip reef", "oceanic whitetip shark", "requiem shark", "houndshark", "catshark", "hammerhead shark", "nictitating membrane", "Heterodontiformes", "bullhead", "horn shark", "Hexanchiformes", "cow shark", "frilled shark", "Lamniformes", "mackerel sharks", "goblin shark", "basking shark", "megamouth shark", "thresher shark", "shortfin", "longfin mako shark", "great white shark", "ovoviviparous", "megalodon", "Orectolobiformes", "carpet shark", "zebra shark", "nurse shark", "wobbegong", "whale shark", "Pristiophoriformes", "sawshark", "Squaliformes", "dogfish sharks", "roughsharks", "Squatiniformes", "angel shark", "stingrays", "skate", "Cladoselachiformes", "Hybodontiformes", "Symmoriida", "Xenacanthida", "gums", "conveyor belt", "cookiecutter shark", "mollusk", "crustacean", "mammal", "serrated", "bony fish", "terrestrial vertebrates", "cartilaginous fish", "skate", "rays", "cartilage", "connective tissue", "Jaw", "cranium", "tesserae", "rostrum", "hydrodynamic", "Tail", "Caudal fin", "heterocercal", "dorsal", "ventral", "vertebral column", "locomotion", "homocercal", "lobe", "porbeagle shark", "mackerel", "herring", "squalene", "dynamic lift", "Sand tiger shark", "nurse shark", "tonic immobility", "gill", "spiracle", "respiration", "pelagic", "asphyxiate", "circulation", "blood", "heart", "aorta", "artery", "afferent", "brachial", "efferent", "dorsal aorta", "posterior cardinal vein", "sinuses", "ventricle", "poikilotherm", "body temperature", "Lamnidae", "shortfin mako shark", "great white shark", "homeothermic", "aerobic", "countercurrent exchange", "blood vessel", "rete mirabile", "common thresher", "bigeye thresher", "coelacanth", "Chondrichthyes", "isotonic", "urea", "trimethylamine", "osmotic", "marine", "bull shark", "kidney", "spiral valve", "cloaca", "olfactory", "part per million", "sewage", "nurse shark", "barbels", "eye", "vertebrates", "lenses", "cornea", "retina", "marine", "tapetum lucidum", "retina", "nocturnal", "pupil", "teleost fish", "nictitating membrane", "great white shark", "electro-", "chemoreception", "monocular", "stereoscopic", "micro-spectrophotometry", "rod photoreceptors", "retina", "colorblind", "cone photoreceptor", "sense of hearing", "spiracle", "inner ear", "lateral line", "pores", "tetrapod", "ampullae of Lorenzini", "electromagnetic field", "hammerhead shark", "electric field", "Ocean current", "magnetic field of the Earth", "hair cell", "Hz", "spiny dogfish", "Whale sharks", "Greenland shark", "longest-lived", "bony fish", "K-selected", "Fecundity", "lemon shark", "internal fertilization", "intromittent organ", "clasper", "mammalian penis", "sperm", "Mating", "catshark", "oviduct", "mating", "parthenogenesis", "genetic fingerprinting", "sperm storage", "vertebrate", "asexual reproduction", "genetic diversity", "blue shark", "Irish", "oviparity", "viviparity", "ovoviviparity", "ovoviviparous", "oviduct", "yolk", "Lamniforme", "oophagy", "sand tiger shark", "brood", "whale shark", "Dogfish", "gestation period", "Basking shark", "frilled shark", "oviparous", "egg case", "leather", "mermaid's purse", "horn shark", "catshark", "Port Jackson shark", "swellshark", "requiem sharks", "bull", "blue shark", "smoothhound", "benthic", "ocean basin", "scalloped hammerhead", "seamount", "Gulf of California", "oceanic whitetip shark", "silky shark", "threat display", "shortfin mako shark", "great white shark", "warm-blooded", "homeothermic", "spiracle", "spiny dogfish", "spinal cord", "spiny dogfish", "carnivorous", "Basking shark", "whale shark", "megamouth shark", "plankton", "ram feeding", "suction feeding", "luminescent", "gill raker", "sieve", "baleen", "great whale", "cookiecutter shark", "marine mammal", "Angel shark", "wobbegong", "benthic", "crustacean", "molariform", "squid", "viper dogfish", "great white", "Thresher shark", "sawshark", "rostra", "whitetip reef shark", "ocean basin", "bull shark", "river shark", "Portuguese dogfish", "International Shark Attack File", "great white", "oceanic whitetip", "tiger", "bull shark", "Jersey Shore shark attacks of 1916", "Jaws", "Peter Benchley", "\"Jaws\"", "Steven Spielberg", "benthic", "hornsharks", "leopard shark", "catshark", "pelagic", "Monterey Bay Aquarium", "pet store", "nurse shark", "release", "Hawaiian mythology", "Hawaii", "god", "aumakua", "Kamaku", "kahuna", "Kamohoali'i", "Pele", "Kilauea", "heiau", "Molokai", "Dakuwaqa", "Tutuila", "American Samoa", "U.S. territory", "Turtle and Shark", "Samoan culture", "U.S. National Park Service", "Vaitogi", "Jaws", "film of the same name", "sequels", "Deep Blue Sea", "The Reef", "others", "Finding Nemo", "Austin Powers", "Tom and Jerry", "Jabberjaw", "plank", "cancer", "parasites", "anecdotal", "statistical", "cancer", "osteoarthritis", "Japan", "Australia", "Victoria", "fish and chips", "deep-fried", "flake", "India", "Tamil language", "Telugu language", "Tamil Nadu", "Iceland", "Greenland shark", "hákarl", "shark fin soup", "Shark finning", "TRAFFIC", "status symbol", "meat", "dogfishes", "smoothhound", "catshark", "U.S.", "FDA", "swordfish", "king mackerel", "tilefish", "mercury content", "sexual maturity", "International Union for Conservation of Nature", "shark cull in Western Australia", "tiger sharks", "drum lines", "Queensland", "drum lines", "dolphin", "hammerhead shark", "Great Barrier Reef", "New South Wales", "nets", "tiger shark", "great white shark", "grey nurse shark", "Kwazulu-Natal", "South Africa", "Réunion", "Humane Society International", "George H. Burgess", "International Shark Attack File", "Sharkwater", "South Africa", "KwaZulu-Natal Sharks Board", "shark control", "Shark Finning Prohibition Act", "United States v. Approximately 64,695 Pounds of Shark Fins", "Federal Appeals Court", "loophole", "fishing vessels", "Shark Conservation Act", "International Union for Conservation of Nature", "IUCN Red List", "CITES", "United States", "Palau", "scalloped hammerhead", "oceanic whitetip", "spiny dogfish shark", "China", "Japan", "hammerheads", "oceanic whitetip", "porbeagle", "CITES", "school shark", "shortfin mako shark", "mackerel shark", "tiger shark", "spiny dogfish", "supermarket", "Shark Trust", "Seafood Watch", "Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals", "Memorandum of Understanding on the Conservation of Migratory Sharks", "U.S. state", "California", "Delaware", "Hawaii", "Illinois", "Maryland", "Massachusetts", "Nevada", "New York", "Oregon", "Rhode Island", "Texas", "Washington", "U.S. territories", "American Samoa", "Guam", "Northern Mariana Islands", "shark sanctuaries", "American Samoa", "Bahamas", "Cook Islands", "French Polynesia", "Guam", "Maldives", "Marshall Islands", "Micronesia", "Northern Mariana Islands", "Palau", "List of sharks", "List of prehistoric cartilaginous fish genera", "Osteichthyes", "Marine vertebrate", "Outline of sharks", "Shark meat", "\"Sharks\"", "Sharks Falling Prey To Humans' Appetites" ], "href": [ "elasmobranch", "fish", "Chondrichthyes%23Skeleton", "gill%20slit", "pectoral%20fin", "clade", "sister%20group", "Batoidea", "Elasmobranchii", "Cladoselache", "Xenacanthus", "Chondrichthyes", "holocephalid", "Eugeneodontida", "Acanthodians", "List%20of%20sharks", "dwarf%20lanternshark", "whale%20shark", "bull%20shark", "river%20shark", "dermal%20denticle", "parasite", "fluid%20dynamics", "great%20white%20shark", "tiger%20shark", "blue%20shark", "Isurus", "thresher%20shark", "hammerhead%20shark", "apex%20predator", "food%20chain", "Squalidae", "porbeagle", "Yucatec%20Maya%20language", "Oxford%20English%20Dictionary", "John%20Hawkins%20%28naval%20commander%29", "Caribbean%20Sea", "Middle%20English%20Dictionary", "Thomas%20Beckington", "Ordovician", "thelodont", "Silurian", "cladodont", "calcium%20phosphate", "apatite", "Cladoselache", "Paleozoic", "great%20white%20shark", "Shortfin%20mako%20shark", "Longfin%20mako%20shark", "Xenacanthida", "Hybodontiformes", "mackerel%20shark", "Early%20Cretaceous", "Eocene", "Cretaceous%E2%80%93Paleogene%20extinction%20event", "shark%20teeth", "Megalodon", "cetaceans", "superorder%20%28biology%29", "subclass%20%28biology%29", "Elasmobranchii", "Class%20%28biology%29", "Chondrichthyes", "Batoidea", "Skate%20%28fish%29", "Chimaera", "Polyphyly", "Galeomorphii", "Squalomorphii", "Bullhead%20shark", "Carpet%20shark", "Lamniformes", "Carcharhiniformes", "clade", "Hexanchiformes", "cow%20shark", "frilled%20shark", "Squaliformes", "Angel%20shark", "Sawshark", "Batoidea", "order%20%28biology%29", "Carcharhiniformes", "Carcharhiniformes", "blue%20shark", "tiger%20shark", "bull%20shark", "grey%20reef%20shark", "blacktip%20reef%20shark", "Caribbean%20reef%20shark", "Blacktail%20reef%20shark", "whitetip%20reef%20shark", "oceanic%20whitetip%20shark", "requiem%20shark", "houndshark", "catshark", "hammerhead%20shark", "nictitating%20membrane", "Bullhead%20shark", "Bullhead%20shark", "horn%20shark", "Hexanchiformes", "cow%20shark", "frilled%20shark", "Lamniformes", "Lamniformes", "goblin%20shark", "basking%20shark", "megamouth%20shark", "thresher%20shark", "shortfin%20mako%20shark", "longfin%20mako%20shark", "great%20white%20shark", "ovoviviparity", "megalodon", "Carpet%20shark", "carpet%20shark", "zebra%20shark", "nurse%20shark", "wobbegong", "whale%20shark", "Sawshark", "sawshark", "Squaliformes", "Squalidae", "Squalidae", "Angel%20shark", "angel%20shark", "stingrays", "Skate%20%28fish%29", "Cladoselachiformes", "Hybodontiformes", "Symmoriida", "Xenacanthida", "Gingiva", "conveyor%20belt", "Isistius", "mollusk", "crustacean", "mammal", "serration", "Osteichthyes", "tetrapod", "chondrichthyes", "Skate%20%28fish%29", "batoidea", "cartilage", "connective%20tissue", "Jaw", "cranium", "tesserae", "rostrum%20%28anatomy%29", "hydrodynamic", "Tail", "Caudal%20fin", "wiktionary%3Aheterocercal", "Dorsum%20%28biology%29", "ventral", "vertebral%20column", "Animal%20locomotion", "wiktionary%3Ahomocercal", "lobe%20%28anatomy%29", "Porbeagle", "mackerel", "herring", "squalene", "dynamic%20lift%20%28fish%29", "Sand%20tiger%20shark", "nurse%20shark", "tonic%20immobility", "gill", "spiracle", "Aquatic%20respiration", "pelagic", "asphyxiate", "Circulatory%20system", "blood", "heart", "aorta", "artery", "wikt%3Aafferent%23Adjective", "Arm", "wikt%3Aefferent%23Adjective", "dorsal%20aorta", "posterior%20cardinal%20vein", "Anal%20sinuses", "Ventricle%20%28heart%29", "poikilotherm", "Thermoregulation", "Lamnidae", "shortfin%20mako%20shark", "great%20white%20shark", "homeothermy", "aerobic%20metabolism", "countercurrent%20exchange", "blood%20vessel", "rete%20mirabile", "common%20thresher", "bigeye%20thresher", "coelacanth", "Chondrichthyes", "Isotonicity", "urea", "trimethylamine", "osmotic", "Marine%20%28ocean%29", "bull%20shark", "kidney", "spiral%20valve", "cloaca", "olfactory", "parts%20per%20million", "sewage", "nurse%20shark", "barbels", "eye", "vertebrates", "lens%20%28anatomy%29", "cornea", "retina", "ocean", "tapetum%20lucidum", "retina", "nocturnal", "pupil", "teleost%20fish", "nictitating%20membrane", "great%20white%20shark", "electroreception", "chemoreception", "monocular", "stereoscopic", "Spectrophotometry", "Rod%20cell", "retina", "colorblind", "Cone%20cell", "Hearing%20%28sense%29", "spiracle", "inner%20ear", "lateral%20line", "Canal%20pore", "tetrapod", "ampullae%20of%20Lorenzini", "electromagnetic%20field", "hammerhead%20shark", "electric%20field", "Ocean%20current", "Earth%27s%20magnetic%20field", "hair%20cell", "Hertz", "spiny%20dogfish", "Whale%20sharks", "Greenland%20shark", "List%20of%20longest-living%20organisms", "bony%20fish", "r/K%20selection%20theory", "Fecundity", "lemon%20shark", "internal%20fertilization", "intromittent%20organ", "clasper", "mammalian%20penis", "sperm", "Mating", "catshark", "oviduct", "mating", "parthenogenesis", "genetic%20fingerprinting", "female%20sperm%20storage", "vertebrate", "asexual%20reproduction", "genetic%20diversity", "blue%20shark", "Ireland", "oviparity", "Viviparous", "ovoviviparity", "ovoviviparous", "oviduct", "yolk", "Lamniforme", "oophagy", "sand%20tiger%20shark", "offspring", "whale%20shark", "Squalidae", "gestation%20period", "Basking%20shark", "frilled%20shark", "oviparous", "Egg%20case%20%28Chondrichthyes%29", "leather", "mermaid%27s%20purse", "horn%20shark", "catshark", "Port%20Jackson%20shark", "swellshark", "requiem%20sharks", "bull%20shark", "blue%20shark", "smoothhound", "benthic", "ocean%20basin", "scalloped%20hammerhead", "seamount", "Gulf%20of%20California", "oceanic%20whitetip%20shark", "silky%20shark", "Shark%20threat%20display", "shortfin%20mako%20shark", "great%20white%20shark", "warm-blooded", "homeothermic", "spiracle", "spiny%20dogfish", "spinal%20cord", "spiny%20dogfish", "carnivorous", "Basking%20shark", "whale%20shark", "megamouth%20shark", "plankton", "ram%20feeding", "suction%20feeding", "luminescent", "gill%20raker", "sieve", "baleen", "great%20whale", "cookiecutter%20shark", "marine%20mammal", "Angel%20shark", "wobbegong", "benthic", "crustacean", "molar%20%28tooth%29", "squid", "viper%20dogfish", "great%20white%20shark", "Thresher%20shark", "sawshark", "Rostrum%20%28anatomy%29", "whitetip%20reef%20shark", "ocean%20basin", "bull%20shark", "river%20shark", "Portuguese%20dogfish", "International%20Shark%20Attack%20File", "great%20white%20shark", "oceanic%20whitetip%20shark", "tiger%20shark", "bull%20shark", "Jersey%20Shore%20shark%20attacks%20of%201916", "Jaws%20%28film%29", "Peter%20Benchley", "Jaws%20%28film%29", "Steven%20Spielberg", "benthic", "Horn%20shark", "leopard%20shark", "catshark", "pelagic", "Monterey%20Bay%20Aquarium", "pet%20store", "nurse%20shark", "Introduced%20species", "Hawaiian%20mythology", "Hawaii", "god", "aumakua", "Kamaku", "kahuna", "Kamohoalii", "Pele%20%28deity%29", "Kilauea", "heiau", "Molokai", "Dakuwaqa", "Tutuila", "American%20Samoa", "Territories%20of%20the%20United%20States", "Turtle%20and%20Shark", "Culture%20of%20Samoa", "U.S.%20National%20Park%20Service", "Vaitogi%2C%20American%20Samoa", "Jaws%20%28novel%29", "Jaws%20%28film%29", "Jaws%20%28franchise%29%23Films", "Deep%20Blue%20Sea%20%281999%20film%29", "The%20Reef%20%282010%20film%29", "List%20of%20killer%20shark%20films", "Finding%20Nemo", "Austin%20Powers%20%28film%20series%29", "Tom%20and%20Jerry", "Jabberjaw", "Walking%20the%20plank", "cancer", "parasites", "anecdotal", "statistical", "cancer", "osteoarthritis", "Japan", "Australia", "Victoria%20%28Australia%29", "fish%20and%20chips", "Deep%20frying", "Flake%20%28fish%29", "India", "Tamil%20language", "Telugu%20language", "Tamil%20Nadu", "Iceland", "Greenland%20shark", "h%C3%A1karl", "shark%20fin%20soup", "Shark%20finning", "Traffic%20%28conservation%20programme%29", "status%20symbol", "Shark%20meat", "Squalidae", "smoothhound", "catshark", "United%20States", "Food%20and%20Drug%20Administration", "swordfish", "king%20mackerel", "tilefish", "mercury%20in%20fish", "sexual%20maturity", "International%20Union%20for%20Conservation%20of%20Nature", "Western%20Australian%20shark%20cull", "tiger%20sharks", "drum%20line%20%28shark%20control%29", "Queensland", "drum%20line%20%28shark%20control%29", "dolphin", "hammerhead%20shark", "Great%20Barrier%20Reef", "New%20South%20Wales", "shark%20net", "tiger%20shark", "great%20white%20shark", "grey%20nurse%20shark", "Kwazulu-Natal", "South%20Africa", "R%C3%A9union", "Humane%20Society%20International", "George%20H.%20Burgess", "International%20Shark%20Attack%20File", "Sharkwater", "South%20Africa", "KwaZulu-Natal%20Sharks%20Board", "shark%20culling", "Shark%20Finning%20Prohibition%20Act", "United%20States%20v.%20Approximately%2064%2C695%20Pounds%20of%20Shark%20Fins", "Federal%20Appeals%20Court", "loophole", "fishing%20vessels", "Shark%20Conservation%20Act", "International%20Union%20for%20Conservation%20of%20Nature", "IUCN%20Red%20List", "CITES", "United%20States", "Palau", "scalloped%20hammerhead", "oceanic%20whitetip%20shark", "spiny%20dogfish%20shark", "China", "Japan", "hammerhead%20shark", "oceanic%20whitetip", "porbeagle", "CITES", "school%20shark", "shortfin%20mako%20shark", "mackerel%20shark", "tiger%20shark", "spiny%20dogfish", "supermarket", "Shark%20Trust", "Seafood%20Watch", "Convention%20on%20the%20Conservation%20of%20Migratory%20Species%20of%20Wild%20Animals", "Memorandum%20of%20Understanding%20on%20the%20Conservation%20of%20Migratory%20Sharks", "U.S.%20state", "California", "Delaware", "Hawaii", "Illinois", "Maryland", "Massachusetts", "Nevada", "New%20York%20%28state%29", "Oregon", "Rhode%20Island", "Texas", "Washington%20%28state%29", "Territories%20of%20the%20United%20States", "American%20Samoa", "Guam", "Northern%20Mariana%20Islands", "shark%20sanctuary", "American%20Samoa", "Bahamas", "Cook%20Islands", "French%20Polynesia", "Guam", "Maldives", "Marshall%20Islands", "Federated%20States%20of%20Micronesia", "Northern%20Mariana%20Islands", "Palau", "List%20of%20sharks", "List%20of%20prehistoric%20cartilaginous%20fish%20genera", "Osteichthyes", "Marine%20vertebrate", "Outline%20of%20sharks", "Shark%20meat", "http%3A//www.fao.org/docrep/015/i2389e/i2389e.zip", "http%3A//news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2002/06/0603_020603_shark1_2.html" ], "wikipedia_title": [ "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", 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{ "description": "superorder of fishes", "enwikiquote_title": "", "wikidata_id": "Q7372", "wikidata_label": "shark", "wikipedia_title": "Shark", "aliases": { "alias": [ "sharks", "Euselachii", "Selachimorpha" ] } }

{ "pageid": 43617, "parentid": 906583090, "revid": 908781364, "pre_dump": true, "timestamp": "2019-07-31T22:57:23Z", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Shark&oldid=908781364" }

{ "paragraph": [ "Nichols radiometer\n", "A Nichols radiometer was the apparatus used by Ernest Fox Nichols and Gordon Ferrie Hull in 1901 for the measurement of radiation pressure. It consisted of a pair of small silvered glass mirrors suspended in the manner of a torsion balance by a fine quartz fibre within an enclosure in which the air pressure could be regulated. The torsion head to which the fiber was attached could be turned from the outside using a magnet. A beam of light was directed first on one mirror and then on the other, and the opposite deflections observed with mirror and scale. By turning the mirror system around to receive the light on the unsilvered side, the influence of the air in the enclosure could be ascertained. This influence was found to be of almost negligible value at an air pressure of about 16 mmHg (2.1 kPa). The radiant energy of the incident beam was deduced from its heating effect upon a small blackened silver disk, which was found to be more reliable than the bolometer when it was first used. With this apparatus, the experimenters were able to obtain an agreement between observed and computed radiation pressures within about 0.6%. The original apparatus is at the Smithsonian Institution.\n", "This apparatus is sometimes confused with the Crookes radiometer of 1873.\n", "Section::::See also.\n", "BULLET::::- Solar sail\n", "Section::::References.\n", "BULLET::::- E.F. Nichols and G.F. Hull, The Pressure due to Radiation, \"The Astrophysical Journal\",Vol.17 No.5, p. 315-351 (1903)\n", "Section::::External links.\n", "BULLET::::- Measuring the Pressure of Light - Dartmouth Science History\n", "BULLET::::- 1903 Nichols and Hull's experiments, \n", "BULLET::::- 1933 Bell and Green's experiment\n" ] }

{ "paragraph_id": [ 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 2, 4, 6, 8, 9, 10 ], "start": [ 47, 70, 120, 187, 224, 250, 419, 437, 794, 804, 967, 1175, 46, 12, 40, 12, 12, 12 ], "end": [ 65, 88, 138, 193, 239, 256, 425, 442, 798, 807, 976, 1198, 64, 22, 69, 71, 47, 44 ], "text": [ "Ernest Fox Nichols", "Gordon Ferrie Hull", "radiation pressure", "mirror", "torsion balance", "quartz", "magnet", "light", "mmHg", "kPa", "bolometer", "Smithsonian Institution", "Crookes radiometer", "Solar sail", "The Pressure due to Radiation", "Measuring the Pressure of Light - Dartmouth Science History", "1903 Nichols and Hull's experiments", "1933 Bell and Green's experiment" ], "href": [ "Ernest%20Fox%20Nichols", "Gordon%20Ferrie%20Hull", "radiation%20pressure", "mirror", "torsion%20balance", "quartz", "magnet", "light", "torr", "kilopascal", "bolometer", "Smithsonian%20Institution", "Crookes%20radiometer", "Solar%20sail", "https%3A//books.google.com/books%3Fid%3D8n8OAAAAIAAJ%26amp%3Bpg%3DRA5-PA327%26amp%3Bdq%3Dtorsion%2Bbalance%2Bradiation", "http%3A//www.dartmouth.edu/~dujs/2002S/pressureoflight.pdf", "http%3A//prola.aps.org/abstract/PRI/v17/i1/p26_1", "https%3A//www.scribd.com/doc/76296001/On-Radiometer-Action-and-the-Pressure-of-Radiation-by-Mary-Bell-S-E-Green-1933" ], "wikipedia_title": [ "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "" ], "wikipedia_id": [ "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "", "" ] }

{ "description": "tool for measuring radiation pressure", "enwikiquote_title": "", "wikidata_id": "Q9065697", "wikidata_label": "Nichols radiometer", "wikipedia_title": "Nichols radiometer", "aliases": { "alias": [] } }

{ "pageid": 43711, "parentid": 883931955, "revid": 908288480, "pre_dump": true, "timestamp": "2019-07-28T19:26:12Z", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Nichols%20radiometer&oldid=908288480" }

{ "paragraph": [ "Duct tape\n", "Duct tape, also called duck tape, is cloth- or scrim-backed pressure-sensitive tape, often coated with polyethylene. There are a variety of constructions using different backings and adhesives, and the term 'duct tape' is often used to refer to all sorts of different cloth tapes of differing purposes. Duct tape is often confused with gaffer tape (which is designed to be non-reflective and cleanly removed, unlike duct tape). Another variation is heat-resistant foil (not cloth) duct tape useful for sealing heating and cooling ducts, produced because standard duct tape fails quickly when used on heating ducts. Duct tape is generally silvery gray, but also available in other colors and even printed designs.\n", "During World War II, Revolite (then a division of Johnson & Johnson) developed an adhesive tape made from a rubber-based adhesive applied to a durable duck cloth backing. This tape resisted water and was used as sealing tape on some ammunition cases during that period.\n", "\"Duck tape\" is recorded in the Oxford English Dictionary as having been in use since 1899; \"duct tape\" (described as \"perhaps an alteration of earlier duck tape\") since 1965.\n", "Section::::Etymology.\n", "Duct tape is commonly also referred to as \"duck tape\".}} Duct tape was originally known as \"duck tape\" because it was originally made out of cotton duck fabric and was said to repel water like the back of a duck. Duct tape adopted its modern name following World War II, when it began being marketed as a way to fix leaks in forced-air heating systems. Despite the name, modern duct tape is not designed to be used in air ducts, where HVAC tape is preferred. Both terms are often used today, and confusion and debate exists over which term is correct. Paul Brians claims the correct term is \"duct tape\". Duck tape more accurately refers to the brand Duck Tape, originally registered by Manco Inc. and now sold by Shurtape.\n", "Section::::History.\n", "The first material called \"duck tape\" was long strips of plain cotton duck cloth used in making shoes stronger, for decoration on clothing, and for wrapping steel cables or electrical conductors to protect them from corrosion or wear. For instance, in 1902, steel cables supporting the Manhattan Bridge were first covered in linseed oil then wrapped in duck tape before being laid in place. In the 1910s, certain boots and shoes used canvas duck fabric for the upper or for the insole, and duck tape was sometimes sewn in for reinforcement. In 1936, the US-based Insulated Power Cables Engineers Association specified a wrapping of duck tape as one of many methods used to protect rubber-insulated power cables. In 1942, Gimbel's department store offered venetian blinds that were held together with vertical strips of duck tape. All of these foregoing uses were for plain cotton or linen tape that came without a layer of applied adhesive.\n", "Adhesive tapes of various sorts were in use by the 1910s, including rolls of cloth tape with adhesive coating one side. White adhesive tape made of cloth soaked in rubber and zinc oxide was used in hospitals to bind wounds, but other tapes such as friction tape or electrical tape could be substituted in an emergency. In 1930, the magazine \"Popular Mechanics\" described how to make adhesive tape at home using plain cloth tape soaked in a heated liquid mixture of rosin and rubber from inner tubes.\n", "In 1923, Richard Gurley Drew working for 3M invented masking tape, a paper-based tape with a mildly sticky adhesive. In 1925 this became the Scotch brand masking tape. In 1930, Drew developed a transparent tape based on cellophane, called Scotch Tape. This tape was widely used beginning in the Great Depression to repair household items. Author Scott Berkun has written that duct tape is \"arguably\" a modification of this early success by 3M. However, neither of Drew's inventions was based on cloth tape.\n", "The idea for what became duct tape came from Vesta Stoudt, an ordnance-factory worker and mother of two Navy sailors, who worried that problems with ammunition box seals would cost soldiers precious time in battle. She wrote to President Franklin D. Roosevelt in 1943 with the idea to seal the boxes with a fabric tape, which she had tested at her factory. The letter was forwarded to the War Production Board, who put Johnson & Johnson on the job. The Revolite division of Johnson & Johnson had made medical adhesive tapes from duck cloth from 1927 and a team headed by Revolite's Johnny Denoye and Johnson & Johnson's Bill Gross developed the new adhesive tape, designed to be ripped by hand, not cut with scissors.\n", "Their new unnamed product was made of thin cotton duck coated in waterproof polyethylene (plastic) with a layer of rubber-based gray adhesive (branded as \"Polycoat\") bonded to one side. It was easy to apply and remove, and was soon adapted to repair military equipment quickly, including vehicles and weapons. This tape, colored in army-standard matte olive drab, was widely used by the soldiers.\n", "After the war, the duck tape product was sold in hardware stores for household repairs. The Melvin A. Anderson Company of Cleveland, Ohio, acquired the rights to the tape in 1950. It was commonly used in construction to wrap air ducts. Following this application, the name \"duct tape\" came into use in the 1950s, along with tape products that were colored silvery gray like tin ductwork. Specialized heat- and cold-resistant tapes were developed for heating and air-conditioning ducts. By 1960 a St. Louis, Missouri, HVAC company, Albert Arno, Inc., trademarked the name \"Ductape\" for their \"flame-resistant\" duct tape, capable of holding together at .\n", "In 1971, Jack Kahl bought the Anderson firm and renamed it Manco. In 1975, Kahl rebranded the duct tape made by his company. Because the previously used generic term \"duck tape\" had fallen out of use, he was able to trademark the brand \"Duck Tape\" and market his product complete with a yellow cartoon duck logo. Manco chose the \"Duck\" name as \"a play on the fact that people often refer to duct tape as 'duck tape, and as a marketing differentiation to stand out against other sellers of duct tape. In 1979, the Duck Tape marketing plan involved sending out greeting cards with the duck branding, four times a year, to 32,000 hardware managers. This mass of communication combined with colorful, convenient packaging helped Duck Tape become popular. From a near-zero customer base Manco eventually controlled 40% of the duct tape market in the US. Acquired by Henkel in 1998, in 2009 Duck Tape was sold to Shurtape Technologies, which is owned by the Shuford family of North Carolina.\n", "Duck is not Shurtape's only brand of duct tape; their high-end offering is called \"T-Rex Tape.\" \"Ultimate Duck\", which had been Henkel's top of the line variety, is still sold in the United Kingdom. Ultimate Duck, T-Rex Tape, and the competing Gorilla Tape all advertise \"three-layer technology\".\n", "After profiting from Scotch Tape in the 1930s, 3M produced military materiel during WWII, and by 1946 had developed the first practical vinyl electrical tape. By 1977, the company was selling a heat-resistant duct tape for heating ducts. In the late 1990s, 3M was running a $300 million duct tape division, the US industry leader. In 2004, 3M invented a transparent duct tape.\n", "Section::::Manufacture.\n", "Modern duct tape is made with any one of a variety of woven fabrics to provide strength. The threads or fill yarn of the fabric may be cotton, polyester, nylon, rayon or fiberglass. The fabric is a very thin gauze called \"scrim\" which is laminated to a backing of low-density polyethylene (LDPE). The color of the LDPE is provided by various pigments; the usual gray color comes from powdered aluminum mixed into the LDPE. There are two commonly produced tape widths: and . Other widths are also offered. The largest commercial rolls of duct tape were made in 2005 for Henkel, with width, a roll diameter of and weighing .\n", "Section::::Common uses.\n", "Duct tape is commonly used in situations that require a strong, flexible, and very sticky tape. Some have a long-lasting adhesive and resistance to weathering.\n", "A specialized version, gaffer tape, which does not leave a sticky residue when removed, is preferred by gaffers in the theatre, motion picture and television industries.\n", "Duct tape, in its guise as \"racer's tape\", \"race tape\" or \"100 mile an hour tape\" has been used in motorsports for more than 40 years to repair fiberglass bodywork (among other uses). Racer's tape comes in a wide range of colors to help match it to common paint colors. In the UK, it is usually referred to as \"tank tape\" in motorsports use.\n", "Section::::Common uses.:Usage on ductwork.\n", "The product now commonly called duct tape should not be confused with special tapes actually designed for sealing heating and ventilation (HVAC) ducts, though these tapes may also be called \"duct tapes.\" To provide laboratory data about which sealants and tapes last, and which are likely to fail, research was conducted at Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Environmental Energy Technologies Division. Their major conclusion was that one should not use duct tape to seal ducts (they had defined duct tape as any fabric-based tape with rubber adhesive). The testing done shows that under challenging but realistic conditions, duct tapes become brittle and may fail quickly, at times becoming leaky or falling off completely.\n", "Common duct tape carries no safety certifications such as UL or Proposition 65, which means the tape may burn violently, producing toxic smoke; it may cause ingestion and contact toxicity; it can have irregular mechanical strength; and its adhesive may have low life expectancy. Its use in ducts has been prohibited by the state of California and by building codes in many other places.\n", "Section::::Common uses.:Usage in spaceflight.\n", "According to NASA Warning Systems engineer Jerry Woodfill, a 52-year NASA veteran, duct tape had been stowed on board every mission since early in the Gemini days.\n", "NASA engineers and astronauts have used duct tape in the course of their work, including in some emergency situations. One such usage occurred in 1970 when Woodfill was working in Mission Control, when the square carbon dioxide filters from Apollo 13's failed command module had to be modified to fit round receptacles in the lunar module, which was being used as a lifeboat after an explosion en route to the moon. A workaround used duct tape and other items on board Apollo 13, with the ground crew relaying instructions to the flight crew. The lunar module's CO scrubbers started working again, saving the lives of the three astronauts on board.\n", "Ed Smylie, who designed the scrubber modification in just two days, said later that he knew the problem was solvable when it was confirmed that duct tape was on the spacecraft: \"I felt like we were home free,\" he said in 2005. \"One thing a Southern boy will never say is, 'I don't think duct tape will fix it.'\"\n", "Duct tape, referred to as \"\"...good old-fashioned American gray tape...\"\" was used by the Apollo 17 astronauts on the moon to improvise a repair to a damaged fender on the lunar rover, preventing possible damage from the spray of lunar dust as they drove.\n", "Section::::Common uses.:Military usage.\n", "In the US submarine fleet, an adhesive cloth tape is called \"EB Green,\" as the duct tape used by Electric Boat was green. It is also called \"duck tape\", \"riggers' tape\", \"hurricane tape\", or \"100-mph tape\"—a name that comes from the use of a specific variety of duct tape that was supposed to withstand up to winds. The tape is so named because it was used during the Vietnam War to repair or balance helicopter rotor blades.\n", "Section::::Alternative uses.\n", "Duct tape's widespread popularity and multitude of uses has earned it a strong place in popular culture, and has inspired a vast number of creative and imaginative applications.\n", "Duct tape occlusion therapy (DTOT) is a method intended to treat warts by covering them with duct tape for an extended period. The evidence for its effectiveness is poor; thus it is not recommended as routine treatment. However, other studies suggest the duct tape treatment is more effective than existing medical options. Duct tape is often used in shoe repair due to its resiliency.\n", "Duct tape has been used to temporarily fix Apple's iPhone 4 dropped call issue, as an alternative to Apple's own rubber case.\n", "Section::::Alternative uses.:In popular culture.\n", "The Duct Tape Guys (Jim Berg and Tim Nyberg) have written seven books about duct tape, . Their bestselling books have sold over 1.5 million copies and feature real and unusual uses of duct tape. In 1994 they coined the phrase \"it ain't broke, it just lacks duct tape\". Added to that phrase in 1995 with the publication of their book about lubricant WD-40 book was, \"Two rules get you through life: If it's stuck and it's not supposed to be, WD-40 it. If it's not stuck and it's supposed to be, duct tape it\". Their website features thousands of duct tape uses from people around the world ranging from fashions to auto repair. The combination of WD-40 and duct tape is sometimes referred to as \"the redneck repair kit\".\n", "The Canadian sitcom \"The Red Green Show\" title character often used duct tape (which he dubbed \"the handyman's secret weapon\") as both a shortcut to proper fastening as well as for unconventional uses. The series sometimes showcased fan duct tape creations. The series had a feature film based on it entitled \"Duct Tape Forever\" and several VHS/DVD compilations of the show's use of the tape have been released. Since 2000, series star Steve Smith (as \"Red Green\") has been the \"Ambassador of Scotch Duct Tape\" for 3M.\n", "The Discovery Channel series \"MythBusters\" featured duct tape in a number of myths that involve non-traditional uses. Confirmed myths include suspending a car for a period of time, building a functional cannon, a two-person sailboat, a two-person canoe (with duct tape paddles), a two-person raft, Roman sandals, a chess set, a leak proof water canister, rope, a hammock that can support the weight of an adult male, holding a car in place, a bridge that spanned the width of a dry dock, and a full-scale functional trebuchet with duct tape as the only binder. In the episode \"Duct Tape Plane\", the MythBusters repaired (and eventually replaced) the skin of a lightweight airplane with duct tape and flew it a few meters above a runway.\n", "Garrison Keillor's radio show \"A Prairie Home Companion\" includes comedic fictional commercials sponsored by the \"American Duct Tape Council\".\n", "Section::::Duct tape alert.\n", "The \"duct tape alert\" refers to the recommendations made by the U.S. Department of Homeland Security on February 10, 2003, that Americans should prepare for a biological, chemical, or radiological terrorist attack by assembling a \"disaster supply kit\", including duct tape and plastic (presumably to attempt to seal one's home against nuclear, chemical, and biological contaminants), among other items.\n", "The recommendations came on the heels of an increase in the Department's official threat level to \"orange\", or \"high risk\", citing \"recent intelligence reports\".\n", "According to press reports, the recommendations caused a surge in demand for duct tape.\n", "The media sensation surrounding duct tape was fodder for comedians and satirists. Some referred to it as \"duct and cover\", a reference to duck and cover.\n", "Section::::See also.\n", "BULLET::::- Speed tape\n", "BULLET::::- List of adhesive tapes\n", "Section::::Specifications.\n", "BULLET::::- ASTM International ASTM D5486 Standard Specification for Pressure-Sensitive Tape for Packaging, Box Closure, and Sealing, Type IV woven cloth backing\n", "BULLET::::- ASTM D580 Standard Specification for Greige Woven Glass Tapes and Webbings\n", "BULLET::::- ASTM D4514-12 Standard Specification for Friction Tape\n", "BULLET::::- ASTM D2754-10 Standard Specification for High-Temperature Glass Cloth Pressure-Sensitive Electrical Insulating Tape\n", "BULLET::::- MODUK DEF STAN 81-25, EN-Tape Pressure-Sensitive Adhesive (Water Resistant Fabric)\n", "BULLET::::- McDonnell-Douglas DMS1968E\n", "BULLET::::- Lockheed LCP-86-1226-A\n", "BULLET::::- Boeing D 6-8099\n", "BULLET::::- Ford specification ESB-M3G71-B\n", "BULLET::::- etc.\n", "Section::::Specifications.:Books.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Pressure-Sensitive Adhesives and Applications\", Istvan Benedek, 2004,\n", "BULLET::::- \"Pressure Sensitive Adhesive Tapes\", J. Johnston, PSTC, 2003,\n", "BULLET::::- \"Pressure Sensitive Formulation\", I. Benedek, VSP, 2000,\n", "Section::::External links.\n", "BULLET::::- Duct Sealant Longevity\n", "BULLET::::- \"Duct Tape and Cover\" A spoof on the original \"Duck and Cover\" video \n" ] }

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{ "description": "type of adhesive tape", "enwikiquote_title": "", "wikidata_id": "Q1030313", "wikidata_label": "duct tape", "wikipedia_title": "Duct tape", "aliases": { "alias": [ "duck tape" ] } }

{ "pageid": 43707, "parentid": 907123144, "revid": 907124330, "pre_dump": true, "timestamp": "2019-07-20T17:25:31Z", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Duct%20tape&oldid=907124330" }

{ "paragraph": [ "Radiation pressure\n", "Radiation pressure is the pressure exerted upon any surface due to the exchange of momentum between the object and the electromagnetic field. This includes the momentum of light or electromagnetic radiation of any wavelength which is absorbed, reflected, or otherwise emitted (e.g. black-body radiation) by matter on any scale (from macroscopic objects to dust particles to gas molecules).\n", "The forces generated by radiation pressure are generally too small to be noticed under everyday circumstances; however, they are important in some physical processes. This particularly includes objects in outer space where it is usually the main force acting on objects besides gravity, and where the net effect of a tiny force may have a large cumulative effect over long periods of time. For example, had the effects of the sun's radiation pressure on the spacecraft of the Viking program been ignored, the spacecraft would have missed Mars orbit by about . Radiation pressure from starlight is crucial in a number of astrophysical processes as well. The significance of radiation pressure increases rapidly at extremely high temperatures, and can sometimes dwarf the usual gas pressure, for instance in stellar interiors and thermonuclear weapons.\n", "Radiation pressure can equally well be accounted for by considering the momentum of a classical electromagnetic field or in terms of the momenta of photons, particles of light. The interaction of electromagnetic waves or photons with matter may involve an exchange of momentum. Due to the law of conservation of momentum, any change in the total momentum of the waves or photons must involve an equal and opposite change in the momentum of the matter it interacted with (Newton's third law of motion), as is illustrated in the accompanying figure for the case of light being perfectly reflected by a surface. This transfer of momentum is the general explanation for what we term radiation pressure.\n", "Section::::Discovery.\n", "Johannes Kepler put forward the concept of radiation pressure back in 1619 to explain the observation that a tail of a comet always points away from the Sun.\n", "The assertion that light, as electromagnetic radiation, has the property of momentum and thus exerts a pressure upon any surface it is exposed to was published by James Clerk Maxwell in 1862, and proven experimentally by Russian physicist Pyotr Lebedev in 1900 and by Ernest Fox Nichols and Gordon Ferrie Hull in 1901. The pressure is very feeble, but can be detected by allowing the radiation to fall upon a delicately poised vane of reflective metal in a Nichols radiometer (this should not be confused with the Crookes radiometer, whose characteristic motion is \"not\" caused by radiation pressure but by impacting gas molecules).\n", "Section::::Theory.\n", "Radiation pressure can be viewed as a consequence of the conservation of momentum given the momentum attributed to electromagnetic radiation. That momentum can be equally well calculated on the basis of electromagnetic theory or from the combined momenta of a stream of photons, giving identical results as is shown below.\n", "Section::::Theory.:Radiation pressure from momentum of an electromagnetic wave.\n", "According to Maxwell's theory of electromagnetism, an electromagnetic wave carries momentum, which will be transferred to an opaque surface it strikes.\n", "The energy flux (irradiance) of a plane wave is calculated using the Poynting vector formula_1, whose magnitude we denote by S. S divided by the speed of light is the density of the linear momentum per unit area (pressure) of the electromagnetic field. So, dimensionally, the Poynting vector is S=(power/area)=(rate of doing work/area)=(ΔF/Δt)Δx/area, which is the speed of light, c=Δx/Δt, times pressure, ΔF/area. That pressure is experienced as radiation pressure on the surface:\n", "where formula_3 is pressure (usually in Pascals), formula_4 is the incident irradiance (usually in W/m) and formula_5 is the speed of light in vacuum.\n", "If the surface is planar at an angle α to the incident wave, the intensity across the surface will be geometrically reduced by the cosine of that angle and the component of the radiation force against the surface will also be reduced by the cosine of α, resulting in a pressure:\n", "The momentum from the incident wave is in the same direction of that wave. But only the component of that momentum normal to the surface contributes to the pressure on the surface, as given above. The component of that force tangent to the surface is not called pressure.\n", "Section::::Theory.:Radiation pressure from reflection.\n", "The above treatment for an incident wave accounts for the radiation pressure experienced by a black (totally absorbing) body. If the wave is specularly reflected, then the recoil due to the reflected wave will further contribute to the radiation pressure. In the case of a perfect reflector, this pressure will be identical to the pressure caused by the incident wave:\n", "thus \"doubling\" the net radiation pressure on the surface:\n", "For a partially reflective surface, the second term must be multiplied by the reflectivity (also known as reflection coefficient of intensity), so that the increase is less than double. For a diffusely reflective surface, the details of the reflection and geometry must be taken into account, again resulting in an increased net radiation pressure of less than double.\n", "Section::::Theory.:Radiation pressure by emission.\n", "Just as a wave reflected from a body contributes to the net radiation pressure experienced, a body that emits radiation of its own (rather than reflected) obtains a radiation pressure again given by the irradiance of that emission \"in the direction normal to the surface\" \"I\":\n", "The emission can be from black-body radiation or any other radiative mechanism. Since all materials emit black-body radiation (unless they are totally reflective or at absolute zero), this source for radiation pressure is ubiquitous but usually very tiny. However, because black-body radiation increases rapidly with temperature (according to the fourth power of temperature as given by the Stefan–Boltzmann law), radiation pressure due to the temperature of a very hot object (or due to incoming black-body radiation from similarly hot surroundings) can become very significant. This becomes important in stellar interiors which are at millions of degrees.\n", "Section::::Theory.:Radiation pressure in terms of photons.\n", "Electromagnetic radiation can be viewed in terms of particles rather than waves; these particles are known as photons. Photons do not have a rest-mass; however, photons are never at rest (they move at the speed of light) and acquire a momentum nonetheless which is given by:\n", "where \"p\" is momentum, \"h\" is Planck's constant, λ is wavelength, and \"c\" is speed of light in vacuum. And \"E\" is the energy of a single photon given by: \n", "The radiation pressure again can be seen as the transfer of each photon's momentum to the opaque surface, plus the momentum due to a (possible) recoil photon for a (partially) reflecting surface. Since an incident wave of irradiance \"I\" over an area \"A\" has a power of \"IA\", this implies a flux of \"I/E\" photons per second per unit area striking the surface. Combining this with the above expression for the momentum of a single photon, results in the same relationships between irradiance and radiation pressure described above using classical electromagnetics. And again, reflected or otherwise emitted photons will contribute to the net radiation pressure identically.\n", "Section::::Theory.:Compression in a uniform radiation field.\n", "In general, the pressure of electromagnetic waves can be obtained from the vanishing of the trace of the electromagnetic stress tensor: Since this trace equals 3\"P\" – \"u\", we get\n", "where \"u\" is the radiation density per unit volume.\n", "This can also be shown in the specific case of the pressure exerted on surfaces of a body in thermal equilibrium with its surroundings, at a temperature \"T\": The body will be surrounded by a uniform radiation field described by the Planck black-body radiation law, and will experience a compressive pressure due to that impinging radiation, its reflection, and its own black body emission. From that it can be shown that the resulting pressure is equal to one third of the total radiant energy per unit volume in the surrounding space.\n", "By using Stefan–Boltzmann law, this can be expressed as\n", "where formula_14 is the Stefan–Boltzmann constant.\n", "Section::::Solar radiation pressure.\n", "Solar radiation pressure is due to the sun's radiation at closer distances, thus especially within the Solar System. While it acts on all objects, its net effect is generally greater on smaller bodies since they have a larger ratio of surface area to mass. All spacecraft experience such a pressure except when they are behind the shadow of a larger orbiting body.\n", "Solar radiation pressure on objects near the earth may be calculated using the sun's irradiance at 1 AU, known as the solar constant or \"G\", whose value is set at 1361 W/m as of 2011.\n", "All stars have a spectral energy distribution that depends on their surface temperature. The distribution is approximately that of black-body radiation. This distribution must be taken into account when calculating the radiation pressure or identifying reflector materials for optimizing a solar sail for instance.\n", "Section::::Solar radiation pressure.:Pressures of absorption and reflection.\n", "Solar radiation pressure at the earth's distance from the sun, may be calculated by dividing the solar constant \"G\" (above) by the speed of light c. For an absorbing sheet facing the sun, this is simply:\n", "This result is in the S.I. unit Pascals, equivalent to N/m (newtons per square meter). For a sheet at an angle α to the sun, the effective area \"A\" of a sheet is reduced by a geometrical factor resulting in a force \"in the direction of the sunlight\" of:\n", "To find the component of this force normal to the surface, another cosine factor must be applied resulting in a pressure \"P\" on the surface of:\n", "Note, however, that in order to account for the net effect of solar radiation on a spacecraft for instance, one would need to consider the \"total\" force (in the direction away from the sun) given by the preceding equation, rather than just the component normal to the surface that we identify as \"pressure\".\n", "The solar constant is defined for the sun's radiation at the distance to the earth, also known as one astronomical unit (AU). Consequently, at a distance of \"R\" astronomical units (\"R\" thus being dimensionless), applying the inverse-square law, we would find:\n", "Finally, considering not an absorbing but a perfectly reflecting surface, the pressure is \"doubled\" due to the reflected wave, resulting in:\n", "Note that unlike the case of an absorbing material, the resulting force on a reflecting body is given exactly by this pressure acting normal to the surface, with the tangential forces from the incident and reflecting waves canceling each other. In practice, materials are neither totally reflecting nor totally absorbing, so the resulting force will be a weighted average of the forces calculated using these formulae.\n", "Section::::Solar radiation pressure.:Radiation pressure perturbations.\n", "Solar radiation pressure is a source of orbital perturbations. It significantly affects the orbits and trajectories of small bodies including all spacecraft.\n", "Solar radiation pressure affects bodies throughout much of the Solar System. Small bodies are more affected than large ones because of their lower mass relative to their surface area. Spacecraft are affected along with natural bodies (comets, asteroids, dust grains, gas molecules).\n", "The radiation pressure results in forces and torques on the bodies that can change their translational and rotational motions. Translational changes affect the orbits of the bodies. Rotational rates may increase or decrease. Loosely aggregated bodies may break apart under high rotation rates. Dust grains can either leave the Solar System or spiral into the Sun.\n", "A whole body is typically composed of numerous surfaces that have different orientations on the body. The facets may be flat or curved. They will have different areas. They may have optical properties differing from other aspects.\n", "At any particular time, some facets will be exposed to the Sun and some will be in shadow. Each surface exposed to the Sun will be reflecting, absorbing, and emitting radiation. Facets in shadow will be emitting radiation. The summation of pressures across all of the facets will define the net force and torque on the body. These can be calculated using the equations in the preceding sections.\n", "The Yarkovsky effect affects the translation of a small body. It results from a face leaving solar exposure being at a higher temperature than a face approaching solar exposure. The radiation emitted from the warmer face will be more intense than that of the opposite face, resulting in a net force on the body that will affect its motion.\n", "The YORP effect is a collection of effects expanding upon the earlier concept of the Yarkovsky effect, but of a similar nature. It affects the spin properties of bodies.\n", "The Poynting–Robertson effect applies to grain-size particles. From the perspective of a grain of dust circling the Sun, the Sun's radiation appears to be coming from a slightly forward direction (aberration of light). Therefore, the absorption of this radiation leads to a force with a component against the direction of movement. (The angle of aberration is tiny since the radiation is moving at the speed of light while the dust grain is moving many orders of magnitude slower than that.) The result is a gradual spiral of dust grains into the Sun. Over long periods of time, this effect cleans out much of the dust in the Solar System.\n", "While rather small in comparison to other forces, the radiation pressure force is inexorable. Over long periods of time, the net effect of the force is substantial. Such feeble pressures can produce marked effects upon minute particles like gas ions and electrons, and are essential in the theory of electron emission from the Sun, of cometary material, and so on.\n", "Because the ratio of surface area to volume (and thus mass) increases with decreasing particle size, dusty (micrometre-size) particles are susceptible to radiation pressure even in the outer solar system. For example, the evolution of the outer rings of Saturn is significantly influenced by radiation pressure.\n", "As a consequence of light pressure, Einstein in 1909 predicted the existence of \"radiation friction\" which would oppose the movement of matter. He wrote, \"radiation will exert pressure on both sides of the plate. The forces of pressure exerted on the two sides are equal if the plate is at rest. However, if it is in motion, more radiation will be reflected on the surface that is ahead during the motion (front surface) than on the back surface. The backward acting force of pressure exerted on the front surface is thus larger than the force of pressure acting on the back. Hence, as the resultant of the two forces, there remains a force that counteracts the motion of the plate and that increases with the velocity of the plate. We will call this resultant 'radiation friction' in brief.\"\n", "Section::::Solar radiation pressure.:Solar sails.\n", "Solar sailing, an experimental method of spacecraft propulsion, uses radiation pressure from the Sun as a motive force. The idea of interplanetary travel by light was mentioned by Jules Verne in \"From the Earth to the Moon\".\n", "A sail reflects about 90% of the incident radiation. The 10% that is absorbed is radiated away from both surfaces, with the proportion emitted from the unlit surface depending on the thermal conductivity of the sail. A sail has curvature, surface irregularities, and other minor factors that affect its performance.\n", "The Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA) has successfully unfurled a solar sail in space which has already succeeded in propelling its payload with the IKAROS project.\n", "Section::::Cosmic effects of radiation pressure.\n", "Radiation pressure has had a major effect on the development of the cosmos, from the birth of the universe to ongoing formation of stars and shaping of clouds of dust and gasses on a wide range of scales.\n", "Section::::Cosmic effects of radiation pressure.:The early universe.\n", "The photon epoch is a phase when the energy of the universe was dominated by photons, between 10 seconds and 380,000 years after the Big Bang.\n", "Section::::Cosmic effects of radiation pressure.:Galaxy formation and evolution.\n", "The process of galaxy formation and evolution began early in the history of the cosmos. Observations of the early universe strongly suggest that objects grew from bottom-up (i.e., smaller objects merging to form larger ones). As stars are thereby formed and become sources of electromagnetic radiation, radiation pressure from the stars becomes a factor in the dynamics of remaining circumstellar material.\n", "Section::::Cosmic effects of radiation pressure.:Clouds of dust and gases.\n", "The gravitational compression of clouds of dust and gases is strongly influenced by radiation pressure, especially when the condensations lead to star births. The larger young stars forming within the compressed clouds emit intense levels of radiation that shift the clouds, causing either dispersion or condensations in nearby regions, which influences birth rates in those nearby regions.\n", "Section::::Cosmic effects of radiation pressure.:Clusters of stars.\n", "Stars predominantly form in regions of large clouds of dust and gases, giving rise to star clusters. Radiation pressure from the member stars eventually disperses the clouds, which can have a profound effect on the evolution of the cluster.\n", "Many open clusters are inherently unstable, with a small enough mass that the escape velocity of the system is lower than the average velocity of the constituent stars. These clusters will rapidly disperse within a few million years. In many cases, the stripping away of the gas from which the cluster formed by the radiation pressure of the hot young stars reduces the cluster mass enough to allow rapid dispersal.\n", "Section::::Cosmic effects of radiation pressure.:Star formation.\n", "Star formation is the process by which dense regions within molecular clouds in interstellar space collapse to form stars. As a branch of astronomy, star formation includes the study of the interstellar medium and giant molecular clouds (GMC) as precursors to the star formation process, and the study of protostars and young stellar objects as its immediate products. Star formation theory, as well as accounting for the formation of a single star, must also account for the statistics of binary stars and the initial mass function.\n", "Section::::Cosmic effects of radiation pressure.:Stellar planetary systems.\n", "Planetary systems are generally believed to form as part of the same process that results in star formation. A protoplanetary disk forms by gravitational collapse of a molecular cloud, called a solar nebula, and then evolves into a planetary system by collisions and gravitational capture. Radiation pressure can clear a region in the immediate vicinity of the star. As the formation process continues, radiation pressure continues to play a role in affecting the distribution of matter. In particular, dust and grains can spiral into the star or escape the stellar system under the action of radiation pressure.\n", "Section::::Cosmic effects of radiation pressure.:Stellar interiors.\n", "In stellar interiors the temperatures are very high. Stellar models predict a temperature of 15 MK in the center of the Sun, and at the cores of supergiant stars the temperature may exceed 1 GK. As the radiation pressure scales as the fourth power of the temperature, it becomes important at these high temperatures. In the Sun, radiation pressure is still quite small when compared to the gas pressure. In the heaviest non-degenerate stars, radiation pressure is the dominant pressure component.\n", "Section::::Cosmic effects of radiation pressure.:Comets.\n", "Solar radiation pressure strongly affects comet tails. Solar heating causes gases to be released from the comet nucleus, which also carry away dust grains. Radiation pressure and solar wind then drive the dust and gases away from the Sun's direction. The gases form a generally straight tail, while slower moving dust particles create a broader, curving tail.\n", "Section::::Laser applications of radiation pressure.\n", "Section::::Laser applications of radiation pressure.:Optical tweezers.\n", "Lasers can be used as a source of monochromatic light with wavelength formula_20. With a set of lenses, one can focus the laser beam to a point that is formula_20 in diameter (or formula_22).\n", "The radiation pressure of a 30 mW laser of 1064 nm can therefore be computed as follows:\n", "formula_23\n", "formula_24\n", "formula_25\n", "This is used in optical tweezers.\n", "Section::::Laser applications of radiation pressure.:Other examples.\n", "Laser cooling is applied to cooling materials very close to absolute zero. Atoms traveling towards a laser light source perceive a doppler effect tuned to the absorption frequency of the target element. The radiation pressure on the atom slows movement in a particular direction until the Doppler effect moves out of the frequency range of the element, causing an overall cooling effect.\n", "Large lasers operating in space have been suggested as a means of propelling sail craft in beam-powered propulsion.\n", "The reflection of a laser pulse from the surface of an elastic solid gives rise to various types of elastic waves that propagate inside the solid. The weakest waves are generally those that are generated by the radiation pressure acting during the reflection of the light. Recently, such light-pressure-induced elastic waves were observed inside an ultrahigh-reflectivity dielectric mirror. These waves are the most basic fingerprint of a light-solid matter interaction on the macroscopic scale.\n", "Section::::See also.\n", "BULLET::::- Absorption (electromagnetic radiation)\n", "BULLET::::- Photon\n", "BULLET::::- Poynting vector\n", "BULLET::::- Poynting–Robertson effect\n", "BULLET::::- Solar constant\n", "BULLET::::- Solar sail\n", "BULLET::::- Sunlight\n", "BULLET::::- Wave–particle duality\n", "BULLET::::- Yarkovsky effect\n", "BULLET::::- Yarkovsky–O'Keefe–Radzievskii–Paddack effect\n", "Section::::Further reading.\n", "BULLET::::- Demir, Dilek,\"A table-top demonstration of radiation pressure\",2011, Diplomathesis, E-Theses univie (http://othes.univie.ac.at/16381/)\n", "BULLET::::- R. Shankar, \"Principles of Quantum Mechanics\", 2nd edition. \n" ] }

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{ "description": "pressure exerted upon any surface exposed to electromagnetic radiation", "enwikiquote_title": "", "wikidata_id": "Q649036", "wikidata_label": "radiation pressure", "wikipedia_title": "Radiation pressure", "aliases": { "alias": [] } }

{ "pageid": 43709, "parentid": 906009494, "revid": 906458660, "pre_dump": true, "timestamp": "2019-07-15T23:54:41Z", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Radiation%20pressure&oldid=906458660" }

{ "paragraph": [ "Silicon dioxide\n", "Silicon dioxide, also known as silica, is an oxide of silicon with the chemical formula , most commonly found in nature as quartz and in various living organisms. In many parts of the world, silica is the major constituent of sand. Silica is one of the most complex and most abundant families of materials, existing as a compound of several minerals and as synthetic product. Notable examples include fused quartz, fumed silica, silica gel, and aerogels. It is used in structural materials, microelectronics (as an electrical insulator), and as components in the food and pharmaceutical industries.\n", "Inhaling finely divided crystalline silica is toxic and can lead to severe inflammation of the lung tissue, silicosis, bronchitis, lung cancer, and systemic autoimmune diseases, such as lupus and rheumatoid arthritis.\n", "Inhalation of amorphous silicon dioxide, in high doses, leads to non-permanent short-term inflammation, where all effects heal.\n", "Section::::Structure.\n", "In the majority of silicates, the silicon atom shows tetrahedral coordination, with four oxygen atoms surrounding a central Si atom. The most common example is seen in the quartz polymorphs.\n", "It is a 3 dimensional network solid in which each silicon atom is covalently bonded in a tetrahedral manner to 4 oxygen atoms.\n", "For example, in the unit cell of α-quartz, the central tetrahedron shares all four of its corner O atoms, the two face-centered tetrahedra share two of their corner O atoms, and the four edge-centered tetrahedra share just one of their O atoms with other SiO tetrahedra. This leaves a net average of 12 out of 24 total vertices for that portion of the seven SiO tetrahedra that are considered to be a part of the unit cell for silica (see 3-D Unit Cell).\n", "SiO has a number of distinct crystalline forms (polymorphs) in addition to amorphous forms. With the exception of stishovite and fibrous silica, all of the crystalline forms involve tetrahedral SiO units linked together by shared vertices in different arrangements. Silicon–oxygen bond lengths vary between the different crystal forms; for example in α-quartz the bond length is 161 pm, whereas in α-tridymite it is in the range 154–171 pm. The Si-O-Si angle also varies between a low value of 140° in α-tridymite, up to 180° in β-tridymite. In α-quartz, the Si-O-Si angle is 144°.\n", "Fibrous silica has a structure similar to that of SiS with chains of edge-sharing SiO tetrahedra. Stishovite, the higher-pressure form, in contrast, has a rutile-like structure where silicon is 6-coordinate. The density of stishovite is 4.287 g/cm, which compares to α-quartz, the densest of the low-pressure forms, which has a density of 2.648 g/cm. The difference in density can be ascribed to the increase in coordination as the six shortest Si-O bond lengths in stishovite (four Si-O bond lengths of 176 pm and two others of 181 pm) are greater than the Si-O bond length (161 pm) in α-quartz.\n", "The change in the coordination increases the ionicity of the Si-O bond. More importantly, any deviations from these standard parameters constitute microstructural differences or variations, which represent an approach to an amorphous, vitreous, or glassy solid.\n", "The only stable form under normal conditions is alpha quartz, in which crystalline silicon dioxide is usually encountered. In nature, impurities in crystalline α-quartz can give rise to colors (see list). The high-temperature minerals, cristobalite and tridymite, have both lower densities and indices of refraction than quartz. Since the composition is identical, the reason for the discrepancies must be in the increased spacing in the high-temperature minerals. As is common with many substances, the higher the temperature, the farther apart the atoms are, due to the increased vibration energy.\n", "The transformation from α-quartz to beta-quartz takes place abruptly at 573 °C. Since the transformation is accompanied by a significant change in volume, it can easily induce fracturing of ceramics or rocks passing through this temperature limit.\n", "The high-pressure minerals, seifertite, stishovite, and coesite, though, have higher densities and indices of refraction than quartz. This is probably due to the intense compression of the atoms occurring during their formation, resulting in more condensed structure.\n", "Faujasite silica is another form of crystalline silica. It is obtained by dealumination of a low-sodium, ultra-stable Y zeolite with combined acid and thermal treatment. The resulting product contains over 99% silica, and has high crystallinity and surface area (over 800 m/g). Faujasite-silica has very high thermal and acid stability. For example, it maintains a high degree of long-range molecular order or crystallinity even after boiling in concentrated hydrochloric acid.\n", "Molten silica exhibits several peculiar physical characteristics that are similar to those observed in liquid water: negative temperature expansion, density maximum at temperatures ~5000 °C, and a heat capacity minimum. Its density decreases from 2.08 g/cm at 1950 °C to 2.03 g/cm at 2200 °C.\n", "Molecular SiO with a linear structure is produced when molecular silicon monoxide, SiO, is condensed in an argon matrix cooled with helium along with oxygen atoms generated by microwave discharge. \n", "Dimeric silicon dioxide, (SiO) has been prepared by reacting O with matrix isolated dimeric silicon monoxide, (SiO). In dimeric silicon dioxide there are two oxygen atoms bridging between the silicon atoms with an Si-O-Si angle of 94° and bond length of 164.6 pm and the terminal Si-O bond length is 150.2 pm. The Si-O bond length is 148.3 pm, which compares with the length of 161 pm in α-quartz. The bond energy is estimated at 621.7 kJ/mol.\n", "Section::::Natural occurrence.\n", "Section::::Natural occurrence.:Geology.\n", "Silica with the chemical formula is most commonly found in nature as quartz, which comprises more than 10% by mass of the earth's crust. Quartz is the only polymorph of silica stable at the Earth's surface. Metastable occurrences of the high-pressure forms coesite and stishovite have been found around impact structures and associated with eclogites formed during ultra-high-pressure metamorphism. The high-temperature forms of tridymite and cristobalite are known from silica-rich volcanic rocks. In many parts of the world, silica is the major constituent of sand.\n", "Section::::Natural occurrence.:Biology.\n", "Even though it is poorly soluble, silica occurs in many plants. Plant materials with high silica phytolith content appear to be of importance to grazing animals, from chewing insects to ungulates. Silica accelerates tooth wear, and high levels of silica in plants frequently eaten by herbivores may have developed as a defense mechanism against predation.\n", "Silica is also the primary component of rice husk ash, which is used, for example, in filtration and cement manufacturing.\n", "For well over a billion years, silicification in and by cells has been common in the biological world. In the modern world it occurs in bacteria, single-celled organisms, plants, and animals (invertebrates and vertebrates).\n", "Prominent examples include:\n", "BULLET::::- Tests or frustules (i.e. shells) of diatoms, Radiolaria and testate amoebae.\n", "BULLET::::- Silica phytoliths in the cells of many plants, including Equisetaceae, practically all grasses, and a wide range of dicotyledons.\n", "BULLET::::- The spicules forming the skeleton of many sponges.\n", "Crystalline minerals formed in the physiological environment often show exceptional physical properties (e.g., strength, hardness, fracture toughness) and tend to form hierarchical structures that exhibit microstructural order over a range of scales. The minerals are crystallized from an environment that is undersaturated with respect to silicon, and under conditions of neutral pH and low temperature (0–40 °C).\n", "Formation of the mineral may occur either within the cell wall of an organism (such as with phytoliths), or outside the cell wall, as typically happens with tests. Specific biochemical reactions exist for mineral deposition. Such reactions include those that involve lipids, proteins, and carbohydrates.\n", "It is unclear in what ways silica is important in the nutrition of animals. This field of research is challenging because silica is ubiquitous and in most circumstances dissolves in trace quantities only. All the same it certainly does occur in the living body, leaving us with the problem that it is hard to create proper silica-free controls for purposes of research. This makes it difficult to be sure when the silica present has had operative beneficial effects, and when its presence is coincidental, or even harmful. The current consensus is that it certainly seems important in the growth, strength, and management of many connective tissues. This is true not only for hard connective tissues such as bone and tooth but possibly in the biochemistry of the subcellular enzyme-containing structures as well.\n", "Section::::Uses.\n", "Section::::Uses.:Structural use.\n", "An estimated 95% of silicon dioxide (sand) produced is consumed in the construction industry, e.g. for the production of concrete (Portland cement concrete).\n", "Silica, in the form of sand is used as the main ingredient in sand casting for the manufacture of metallic components in engineering and other applications. The high melting point of silica enables it to be used in such applications.\n", "Crystalline silica is used in hydraulic fracturing of formations which contain tight oil and shale gas.\n", "Section::::Uses.:Precursor to glass and silicon.\n", "Silica is the primary ingredient in the production of most glass. The glass transition temperature of pure SiO is about 1475 K. When molten silicon dioxide SiO is rapidly cooled, it does not crystallize, but solidifies as a glass.\n", "The structural geometry of silicon and oxygen in glass is similar to that in quartz and most other crystalline forms of silicon and oxygen with silicon surrounded by regular tetrahedra of oxygen centers. The difference between the glass and crystalline forms arises from the connectivity of the tetrahedral units: Although there is no long range periodicity in the glassy network ordering remains at length scales well beyond the SiO bond length. One example of this ordering is the preference to form rings of 6-tetrahedra.\n", "Section::::Uses.:Fumed silica.\n", "Fumed silica also known as pyrogenic silica is a very fine particulate or colloidal form of silicon dioxide. It is prepared by burning SiCl in an oxygen-rich hydrogen flame to produce a \"smoke\" of SiO.\n", "The majority of optical fibers for telecommunication are also made from silica. It is a primary raw material for many ceramics such as earthenware, stoneware, and porcelain.\n", "Silicon dioxide is used to produce elemental silicon. The process involves carbothermic reduction in an electric arc furnace:\n", "Section::::Uses.:Food and pharmaceutical applications.\n", "Silica is a common additive in food production, where it is used primarily as a flow agent in powdered foods, or to adsorb water in hygroscopic applications. It is used as an anti-caking agent in powdered foods such as spices and non-dairy coffee creamer. It is the primary component of diatomaceous earth. Colloidal silica is also used as a wine, beer, and juice fining agent. It has the E number reference E551.\n", "In pharmaceutical products, silica aids powder flow when tablets are formed.\n", "Section::::Uses.:Personal care.\n", "In cosmetics, it is useful for its light-diffusing properties and natural absorbency.\n", "Hydrated silica is used in toothpaste as a hard abrasive to remove tooth plaque.\n", "Section::::Uses.:Other.\n", "Hydrophobic silica is used as a defoamer component.\n", "In its capacity as a refractory, it is useful in fiber form as a high-temperature thermal protection fabric.\n", "Silica is used in the extraction of DNA and RNA due to its ability to bind to the nucleic acids under the presence of chaotropes.\n", "A silica-based aerogel was used in the Stardust spacecraft to collect extraterrestrial particles.\n", "Pure silica (silicon dioxide), when cooled as fused quartz into a glass with no true melting point, can be used as a glass fiber for fiberglass.\n", "Section::::Production.\n", "Silicon dioxide is mostly obtained by mining, including sand mining and purification of quartz. \n", "Quartz is suitable for many purposes, while chemical processing is required to make a purer or otherwise more suitable (e.g. more reactive or fine-grained) product.\n", "Section::::Production.:Silica fume.\n", "Silica fume is obtained as byproduct from hot processes like ferrosilicon production. It is less pure than fumed silica and should not be confused with that product. The production process, particle characteristics and fields of application of fumed silica are all different from those of silica fume.\n", "Section::::Production.:Precipitated silica.\n", "Precipitated silica or amorphous silica is produced by the acidification of solutions of sodium silicate. The gelatinous precipitate or silica gel, is first washed and then dehydrated to produce colorless microporous silica. The idealized equation involving a trisilicate and sulfuric acid is:\n", "Approximately one billion kilograms/year (1999) of silica were produced in this manner, mainly for use for polymer composites – tires and shoe soles.\n", "Section::::Production.:On microchips.\n", "Thin films of silica grow spontaneously on silicon wafers via thermal oxidation, producing a very shallow layer of about 1 nm or 10 Å of so-called native oxide.\n", "Higher temperatures and alternative environments are used to grow well-controlled layers of silicon dioxide on silicon, for example at temperatures between 600 and 1200 °C, using so-called dry or wet oxidation with O\n", "or HO, respectively.\n", "The native oxide layer is beneficial in microelectronics, where it acts as electric insulator with high chemical stability. It can protect the silicon, store charge, block current, and even act as a controlled pathway to limit current flow.\n", "Section::::Production.:Laboratory or special methods.\n", "Section::::Production.:Laboratory or special methods.:From organosilicon compounds.\n", "Many routes to silicon dioxide start with an organosilicon compound, e.g., HMDSO, TEOS. Synthesis of silica is illustrated below using tetraethyl orthosilicate (TEOS). Simply heating TEOS at 680–730 °C results in the oxide:\n", "Similarly TEOS combusts around 400 °C:\n", "TEOS undergoes hydrolysis via the so-called sol-gel process. The course of the reaction and nature of the product are affected by catalysts, but the idealized equation is:\n", "Section::::Production.:Laboratory or special methods.:Other methods.\n", "Being highly stable, silicon dioxide arises from many methods. Conceptually simple, but of little practical value, combustion of silane gives silicon dioxide. This reaction is analogous to the combustion of methane:\n", "However the chemical vapor deposition of silicon dioxide onto crystal surface from silane had been used using nitrogen as a carrier gas at 200–500 °C.\n", "Section::::Chemical reactions.\n", "Silica is converted to silicon by reduction with carbon.\n", "Fluorine reacts with silicon dioxide to form SiF and O whereas the other halogen gases (Cl, Br, I) are essentially unreactive.\n", "Silicon dioxide is attacked by hydrofluoric acid (HF) to produce hexafluorosilicic acid:\n", "HF is used to remove or pattern silicon dioxide in the semiconductor industry.\n", "Under normal conditions, silicon does not react with most acids but is dissolved by hydrofluoric acid.\n", "Silicon is attacked by bases such as aqueous sodium hydroxide to give silicates.\n", "Silicon dioxide acts as a Lux–Flood acid, being able to react with bases under certain conditions. As it does not contain any hydrogen, it cannot act as a Brønsted–Lowry acid. While not soluble in water, some strong bases will react with glass and have to be stored in plastic bottles as a result.\n", "Silicon dioxide dissolves in hot concentrated alkali or fused hydroxide, as described in this idealized equation:\n", "Silicon dioxide will neutralise basic metal oxides (e.g. sodium oxide, potassium oxide, lead(II) oxide, zinc oxide, or mixtures of oxides, forming silicates and glasses as the Si-O-Si bonds in silica are broken successively). As an example the reaction of sodium oxide and SiO can produce sodium orthosilicate, sodium silicate, and glasses, dependent on the proportions of reactants:\n", "Examples of such glasses have commercial significance, e.g. soda-lime glass, borosilicate glass, lead glass. In these glasses, silica is termed the network former or lattice former. The reaction is also used in blast furnaces to remove sand impurities in the ore by neutralisation with calcium oxide, forming calcium silicate slag.\n", "Silicon dioxide reacts in heated reflux under dinitrogen with ethylene glycol and an alkali metal base to produce highly reactive, pentacoordinate silicates which provide access to a wide variety of new silicon compounds. The silicates are essentially insoluble in all polar solvent except methanol.\n", "Silicon dioxide reacts with elemental silicon at high temperatures to produce SiO:\n", "Section::::Chemical reactions.:Water solubility.\n", "The solubility of silicon dioxide in water strongly depends on its crystalline form and is three-four times higher for silica than quartz; as a function of temperature, it peaks around 340 °C. This property is used to grow single crystals of quartz in a hydrothermal process where natural quartz is dissolved in superheated water in a pressure vessel that is cooler at the top. Crystals of 0.5–1  kg can be grown over a period of 1–2 months. These crystals are a source of very pure quartz for use in electronic applications.\n", "Section::::Health effects.\n", "Silica ingested orally is essentially nontoxic, with an of 5000 mg/kg (5 g/kg). A 2008 study following subjects for 15 years found that higher levels of silica in water appeared to decrease the risk of dementia. An increase of 10 mg/day of silica in drinking water was associated with a decreased risk of dementia of 11%.\n", "Inhaling finely divided crystalline silica dust can lead to silicosis, bronchitis, or lung cancer, as the dust becomes lodged in the lungs and continuously irritates the tissue, reducing lung capacities. When fine silica particles are inhaled in large enough quantities (such as through occupational exposure), it increases the risk of systemic autoimmune diseases such as lupus and rheumatoid arthritis compared to expected rates in the general population.\n", "Section::::Health effects.:Occupational hazard.\n", "Silica is an occupational hazard for people who do sandblasting, or work with products that contain powdered crystalline silica. Amorphous silica, such as fumed silica, may cause irreversible lung damage in some cases, but is not associated with development of silicosis. Children, asthmatics of any age, those with allergies, and the elderly (all of whom have reduced lung capacity) can be affected in less time.\n", "Crystalline silica is an occupational hazard for those working with stone countertops, because the process of cutting and installing the countertops creates large amounts of airborne silica. Crystalline silica used in hydraulic fracturing presents a health hazard to workers.\n", "Section::::Health effects.:Pathophysiology.\n", "In the body, crystalline silica particles do not dissolve over clinically relevant periods. Silica crystals inside the lungs can activate the NLRP3 inflammasome inside macrophages and dendritic cells and thereby result in production of interleukin, a highly pro-inflammatory cytokine in the immune system.\n", "Section::::Health effects.:Regulation.\n", "Regulations restricting silica exposure 'with respect to the silicosis hazard' specify that they are concerned only with silica, which is both crystalline and dust-forming.\n", "In 2013, the U.S. Occupational Safety and Health Administration reduced the exposure limit to 50 µg/m of air. Prior to 2013, it had allowed 100  µg/m and in construction workers even 250 µg/m.\n", "In 2013, OSHA also required \"green completion\" of fracked wells to reduce exposure to crystalline silica besides restricting the limit of exposure.\n", "Section::::Crystalline forms.\n", "SiO, more so than almost any material, exists in many crystalline forms. These forms are called polymorphs.\n", "Section::::See also.\n", "BULLET::::- Mesoporous silica\n", "BULLET::::- Silicon carbide\n", "Section::::External links.\n", "BULLET::::- Tridymite,\n", "BULLET::::- Quartz,\n", "BULLET::::- Cristobalite,\n", "BULLET::::- amorphous, NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards\n", "BULLET::::- crystalline, as respirable dust, NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards\n", "BULLET::::- Formation of silicon oxide layers in the semiconductor industry. LPCVD and PECVD method in comparison. Stress prevention.\n", "BULLET::::- Quartz SiO piezoelectric properties\n", "BULLET::::- Silica (SiO) and Water\n", "BULLET::::- Epidemiological evidence on the carcinogenicity of silica: factors in scientific judgement by C. Soutar and others. Institute of Occupational Medicine Research Report TM/97/09\n", "BULLET::::- Scientific opinion on the health effects of airborne silica by A Pilkington and others. Institute of Occupational Medicine Research Report TM/95/08\n", "BULLET::::- The toxic effects of silica by A Seaton and others. Institute of Occupational Medicine Research Report TM/87/13\n", "BULLET::::- Structure of precipitated silica\n" ] }

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{ "description": "chemical compound", "enwikiquote_title": "", "wikidata_id": "Q116269", "wikidata_label": "silicon dioxide", "wikipedia_title": "Silicon dioxide", "aliases": { "alias": [ "SiO₂", "(SiO2)n", "silicic anhydride", "[SiO2]", "silica", "SiO2", "Silica, amorphous", "Colloidal silicon dioxide", "Silicon dioxide", "Colloidal silica", "Diatomaceous earth", "Silica, colloidal", "Silicon dioxide (amorphous)", "Kieselsäureanhydrid", "Silicon dioxide, fumed", "Silicon oxide", "Diatomaceous silica", "Silica gel", "Diatomite", "Siliziumdioxid", "Silicon dioxide, colloidal", "Silica", "Infusorial earth", "Siliceous earth, purified", "Siliceous earth" ] } }

{ "pageid": 43710, "parentid": 905776292, "revid": 906660962, "pre_dump": true, "timestamp": "2019-07-17T10:20:20Z", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Silicon%20dioxide&oldid=906660962" }

{ "paragraph": [ "Hammer throw\n", "The hammer throw is one of the four throwing events in regular track and field competitions, along with the discus throw, shot put and javelin. The \"hammer\" used in this sport is not like any of the tools also called by that name. It consists of a metal ball attached by a steel wire to a grip. The size of the ball varies between men's and women's competitions (see Competition section below for details).\n", "Section::::History.\n", "With roots dating back to the 15th century, the contemporary version of the hammer throw is one of the oldest of Olympic Games competitions, first included at the 1900 games in Paris, France (the second Olympiad of the modern era). Its history since the late 1960s and legacy prior to inclusion in the Olympics have been dominated by European and Eastern European influence, which has affected interest in the event in other parts of the world.\n", "The hammer evolved from its early informal origins to become part of the Scottish Highland games in the late 18th century, where the original version of the event is still contested today.\n", "While the men's hammer throw has been part of the Olympics since 1900, the International Association of Athletics Federations did not start ratifying women's marks until 1995. Women's hammer throw was first included in the Olympics at the 2000 summer games in Sydney, Australia, after having been included in the World Championships a year earlier.\n", "Section::::Competition.\n", "The men's hammer weighs and measures in length, and the women's hammer weighs and in length. Like the other throwing events, the competition is decided by who can throw the implement the farthest.\n", "Although commonly thought of as a strength event, technical advancements in the last 30 years have evolved hammer throw competition to a point where more focus is on speed in order to gain maximum distance.\n", "The throwing motion involves about two swings from stationary position, then three, four or very rarely five rotations of the body in circular motion using a complicated heel-toe movement of the foot. The ball moves in a circular path, gradually increasing in velocity with each turn with the high point of the hammer ball toward the target sector and the low point at the back of the circle. The thrower releases the ball from the front of the circle.\n", "The world record for the women's hammer is held by Anita Włodarczyk, who threw during the Kamila Skolimowska Memorial on 28 August 2016.\n", "Section::::All-time top 25 hammer throwers.\n", "Section::::All-time top 25 hammer throwers.:Men.\n", "BULLET::::- Updated August 2015\n", "Section::::All-time top 25 hammer throwers.:Men.:Notes.\n", "Below is a list of all other throws superior to 86.50 metres:\n", "BULLET::::- Yuriy Sedykh 86.66 m (1986). Sedykh also threw 86.68 m and 86.62 m ancillary marks during world record competition.\n", "Section::::All-time top 25 hammer throwers.:Men.:Non-legal marks.\n", "BULLET::::- Ivan Tsikhan of Belarus also threw 86.73 on 3 July 2005 in Brest, but this performance was annulled due to drugs disqualification.\n", "Section::::All-time top 25 hammer throwers.:Women.\n", "BULLET::::- Correct as of July 2019.\n", "Section::::All-time top 25 hammer throwers.:Women.:Notes.\n", "Below is a list of throws equal or superior to 78.00 m:\n", "BULLET::::- Anita Włodarczyk also threw 82.87 m (2017), 82.29 m (2016), 81.77 m (2016), 81.74 (2016), 81.63 m (2017), 81.27 m (2016), 81.08 m (2015), 80.85 m (2015), 80.79 m (2017), 80.73 m (2017), 80.69 m (2017), 80.42 m (2017), 80.40 m (2016), 80.31 m (2016), 80.26 m (2016), 79.80 m (2017), 79.73 m (2017), 79.72 m (2017), 79.68 m (2016, 2017), 79.67 m (2016), 79.63 m (2017), 79.62 m (2016), 79.61 m (2016), 79.59 m (2018), 79.58 m (2016), 79.48 m (2016), 79.45 m (2016), 79.39 m (2016), 79.27 m (2017), 79.23 m (2017), 79.07 m (2017), 79.06 m (2017), 78.94 m (2018), 78.76 m (2014), 78.74 m (2018), 78.69 m (2016), 78.59 m (2017), 78.55 m (2018), 78.54 m (2016), 78.52 m (2017), 78.46 m (2013), 78.35 m (2017), 78.30 m (2010), 78.28 m (2015), 78.24 m (2015), 78.22 m (2013), 78.17 m (2014), 78.16 m (2015), 78.14 m (2016), 78.10 (2016), 78.00 m (2017).\n", "BULLET::::- Tatyana Lysenko also threw 78.51 m (2012) and 78.15 m (2013)\n", "BULLET::::- Betty Heidler also threw 78.07 m (2012) and 78.00 m (2014).\n", "Section::::All-time top 25 hammer throwers.:Women.:Non-legal marks.\n", "The following athletes had their performances (over 77.00 m) annulled due to doping offences:\n", "BULLET::::- Aksana Miankova (Belarus) 78.69 m and 78.19 m (both 2012)\n", "BULLET::::- Gulfiya Agafonova (Russia) 77.36 m (2007)\n", "Section::::See also.\n", "BULLET::::- List of hammer throwers\n", "Section::::External links.\n", "BULLET::::- IAAF list of hammer-throw records in XML\n", "BULLET::::- HammerThrow.eu (Results, Top-Lists, Records, Videos, ...)\n", "BULLET::::- HammerThrow.org (Information about the event, coaching tips and resources, ...)\n", "BULLET::::- Statistics\n", "BULLET::::- Hammer Throw Records\n", "BULLET::::- Hammer Throw History\n" ] }

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{ "description": "throwing event in track and field competitions", "enwikiquote_title": "", "wikidata_id": "Q184865", "wikidata_label": "hammer throw", "wikipedia_title": "Hammer throw", "aliases": { "alias": [] } }

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{ "paragraph": [ "Saint Jerome (disambiguation)\n", "Saint Jerome is a Christian church father, best known for translating the Bible into Latin.\n", "Saint Jerome may also refer to:\n", "Section::::People.\n", "BULLET::::- Jerome of Pavia (fl. 778–787), Bishop of Pavia\n", "BULLET::::- Saint Jerome Emiliani (1486–1537), Italian humanitarian, founder of the Somaschi Fathers\n", "BULLET::::- Saint Jerome Hermosilla, one of the Vietnamese Martyrs\n", "Section::::Places.\n", "BULLET::::- Saint-Jérôme, Quebec, a suburb of Montreal, Canada\n", "BULLET::::- Saint-Jérôme (electoral district)\n", "BULLET::::- Roman Catholic Diocese of Saint-Jérôme\n", "BULLET::::- Saint-Jérôme line, a commuter railway line\n", "BULLET::::- Saint-Jérôme (AMT), a bus and train station\n", "BULLET::::- St. Jerome Church (disambiguation), several churches\n", "Section::::Arts.\n", "BULLET::::- Francesco \"St Jerome\", a c. 1595 oil painting on copper attributed to the circle of Palma the Younger\n", "BULLET::::- \"Saint Jerome in His Study\" (after van Eyck), a 1442 painting\n", "BULLET::::- \"Saint Jerome Writing\", a 1605–1606 oil painting by Italian painter Caravaggio\n", "BULLET::::- \"Saint Jerome Writing\" (Caravaggio, Valletta), a 1607 or 1608 oil painting\n", "BULLET::::- \"Saint Jerome\", a song by Jason Schwartzman's solo-musical project Coconut Records for his 2009 album \"Davy\"\n", "Section::::See also.\n", "BULLET::::- San Geronimo (disambiguation)\n", "BULLET::::- San Jerónimo (disambiguation)\n", "Section::::See also.\n", "BULLET::::- Boyeux-Saint-Jérôme, a commune in the Ain department, France\n" ] }

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{ "paragraph": [ "Laurence Olivier\n", "Laurence Kerr Olivier, Baron Olivier, (; 22 May 1907 – 11 July 1989) was an English actor and director who, along with his contemporaries Ralph Richardson, Peggy Ashcroft and John Gielgud, dominated the British stage of the mid-20th century. He also worked in films throughout his career, playing more than fifty cinema roles. Late in his career, he had considerable success in television roles.\n", "His family had no theatrical connections, but Olivier's father, a clergyman, decided that his son should become an actor. After attending a drama school in London, Olivier learned his craft in a succession of acting jobs during the late 1920s. In 1930 he had his first important West End success in Noël Coward's \"Private Lives\", and he appeared in his first film. In 1935 he played in a celebrated production of \"Romeo and Juliet\" alongside Gielgud and Ashcroft, and by the end of the decade he was an established star. In the 1940s, together with Richardson and John Burrell, Olivier was the co-director of the Old Vic, building it into a highly respected company. There his most celebrated roles included Shakespeare's Richard III and Sophocles's Oedipus. In the 1950s Olivier was an independent actor-manager, but his stage career was in the doldrums until he joined the \"avant garde\" English Stage Company in 1957 to play the title role in \"The Entertainer\", a part he later played on film. From 1963 to 1973 he was the founding director of Britain's National Theatre, running a resident company that fostered many future stars. His own parts there included the title role in \"Othello\" (1965) and Shylock in \"The Merchant of Venice\" (1970).\n", "Among Olivier's films are \"Wuthering Heights\" (1939), \"Rebecca\" (1940), and a trilogy of Shakespeare films as actor-director: \"Henry V\" (1944), \"Hamlet\" (1948), and \"Richard III\" (1955). His later films included \"The Shoes of the Fisherman\" (1968), \"Sleuth\" (1972), \"Marathon Man\" (1976), and \"The Boys from Brazil\" (1978). His television appearances included an adaptation of \"The Moon and Sixpence\" (1960), \"Long Day's Journey into Night\" (1973), \"Love Among the Ruins\" (1975), \"Cat on a Hot Tin Roof\" (1976), \"Brideshead Revisited\" (1981) and \"King Lear\" (1983).\n", "Olivier's honours included a knighthood (1947), a life peerage (1970) and the Order of Merit (1981). For his on-screen work he received four Academy Awards, two British Academy Film Awards, five Emmy Awards and three Golden Globe Awards. The National Theatre's largest auditorium is named in his honour, and he is commemorated in the Laurence Olivier Awards, given annually by the Society of London Theatre. He was married three times, to the actresses Jill Esmond from 1930 to 1940, Vivien Leigh from 1940 to 1960, and Joan Plowright from 1961 until his death.\n", "Section::::Life and career.\n", "Section::::Life and career.:Family background and early life (1907–1924).\n", "Olivier was born in Dorking, Surrey, the youngest of the three children of the Reverend Gerard Kerr Olivier (1869–1939) and his wife Agnes Louise, \"née\" Crookenden (1871–1920). Their elder children were Sybille (1901–1989) and Gerard Dacres \"Dickie\" (1904–1958). His great-great-grandfather was of French Huguenot descent, and Olivier came from a long line of Protestant clergymen. Gerard Olivier had begun a career as a schoolmaster, but in his thirties he discovered a strong religious vocation and was ordained as a priest of the Church of England. He practised extremely high church, ritualist Anglicanism and liked to be addressed as \"Father Olivier\". This made him unacceptable to most Anglican congregations, and the only church posts he was offered were temporary, usually deputising for regular incumbents in their absence. This meant a nomadic existence, and for Laurence's first few years, he never lived in one place long enough to make friends.\n", "In 1912, when Olivier was five, his father secured a permanent appointment as assistant rector at St Saviour's, Pimlico. He held the post for six years, and a stable family life was at last possible. Olivier was devoted to his mother, but not to his father, whom he found a cold and remote parent. Nevertheless, he learned a great deal of the art of performing from him. As a young man Gerard Olivier had considered a stage career and was a dramatic and effective preacher. Olivier wrote that his father knew \"when to drop the voice, when to bellow about the perils of hellfire, when to slip in a gag, when suddenly to wax sentimental ... The quick changes of mood and manner absorbed me, and I have never forgotten them.\"\n", "In 1916, after attending a series of preparatory schools, Olivier passed the singing examination for admission to the choir school of All Saints, Margaret Street, in central London. His elder brother was already a pupil, and Olivier gradually settled in, though he felt himself to be something of an outsider. The church's style of worship was (and remains) Anglo-Catholic, with emphasis on ritual, vestments and incense. The theatricality of the services appealed to Olivier, and the vicar encouraged the students to develop a taste for secular as well as religious drama. In a school production of \"Julius Caesar\" in 1917, the ten-year-old Olivier's performance as Brutus impressed an audience that included Lady Tree, the young Sybil Thorndike, and Ellen Terry, who wrote in her diary, \"The small boy who played Brutus is already a great actor.\" He later won praise in other schoolboy productions, as Maria in \"Twelfth Night\" (1918) and Katherine in \"The Taming of the Shrew\" (1922).\n", "From All Saints, Olivier went on to St Edward's School, Oxford, from 1920 to 1924. He made little mark until his final year, when he played Puck in the school's production of \"A Midsummer Night's Dream\"; his performance was a tour de force that won him popularity among his fellow pupils. In January 1924, his brother left England to work in India as a rubber planter. Olivier missed him greatly and asked his father how soon he could follow. He recalled in his memoirs that his father replied, \"Don't be such a fool, you're not going to India, you're going on the stage.\"\n", "Section::::Life and career.:Early acting career (1924–1929).\n", "In 1924 Gerard Olivier, a habitually frugal man, told his son that he must gain not only admission to the Central School of Speech Training and Dramatic Art, but also a scholarship with a bursary to cover his tuition fees and living expenses. Olivier's sister had been a student there and was a favourite of Elsie Fogerty, the founder and principal of the school. Olivier later speculated that it was on the strength of this that Fogerty agreed to award him the bursary.\n", "One of Olivier's contemporaries at the school was Peggy Ashcroft, who observed he was \"rather uncouth in that his sleeves were too short and his hair stood on end but he was intensely lively and great fun\". By his own admission, he was not a very conscientious student, but Fogerty liked him and later said that he and Ashcroft stood out among her many pupils. On leaving the school after a year, Olivier gained work with small touring companies before being taken on in 1925 by Sybil Thorndike and her husband Lewis Casson as a bit-part player, understudy and assistant stage manager for their London company. He modelled his performing style on that of Gerald du Maurier, of whom he said, \"He seemed to mutter on stage but had such perfect technique. When I started I was so busy doing a du Maurier that no one ever heard a word I said. The Shakespearean actors one saw were terrible hams like Frank Benson.\" Olivier's concern with speaking naturally and avoiding what he called \"singing\" Shakespeare's verse was the cause of much frustration in his early career, as critics regularly decried his delivery.\n", "In 1926, on Thorndike's recommendation, Olivier joined the Birmingham Repertory Company. His biographer Michael Billington describes the Birmingham company as \"Olivier's university\", where in his second year he was given the chance to play a wide range of important roles, including Tony Lumpkin in \"She Stoops to Conquer\", the title role in \"Uncle Vanya\", and Parolles in \"All's Well That Ends Well\". Billington adds that the engagement led to \"a lifelong friendship with his fellow actor Ralph Richardson that was to have a decisive effect on the British theatre.\"\n", "While playing the juvenile lead in \"Bird in Hand\" at the Royalty Theatre in June 1928, Olivier began a relationship with Jill Esmond, the daughter of the actors Henry V. Esmond and Eva Moore. Olivier later recounted that he thought \"she would most certainly do excellent well for a wife ... I wasn't likely to do any better at my age and with my undistinguished track-record, so I promptly fell in love with her.\"\n", "In 1928 Olivier created the role of Stanhope in R. C. Sherriff's \"Journey's End\", in which he scored a great success at its single Sunday night premiere. He was offered the part in the West End production the following year, but turned it down in favour of the more glamorous role of Beau Geste in a stage adaptation of P. C. Wren's 1929 novel of the same name. \"Journey's End\" became a long-running success; \"Beau Geste\" failed. \"The Manchester Guardian\" commented, \"Mr. Laurence Olivier did his best as Beau, but he deserves and will get better parts. Mr. Olivier is going to make a big name for himself\". For the rest of 1929 Olivier appeared in seven plays, all of which were short-lived. Billington ascribes this failure rate to poor choices by Olivier rather than mere bad luck.\n", "Section::::Life and career.:Rising star (1930–1935).\n", "In 1930, with his impending marriage in mind, Olivier earned some extra money with small roles in two films. In April he travelled to Berlin to film the English-language version of \"The Temporary Widow\", a crime comedy with Lilian Harvey, and in May he spent four nights working on another comedy, \"Too Many Crooks\". During work on the latter film, for which he was paid £60, he met Laurence Evans, who became his personal manager. Olivier did not enjoy working in film, which he dismissed as \"this anaemic little medium which could not stand great acting\", but financially it was much more rewarding than his theatre work.\n", "Olivier and Esmond married on 25 July 1930 at All Saints, Margaret Street, although within weeks both realised they had erred. Olivier later recorded that the marriage was \"a pretty crass mistake. I insisted on getting married from a pathetic mixture of religious and animal promptings. ... She had admitted to me that she was in love elsewhere and could never love me as completely as I would wish\". Olivier later recounted that following the wedding he did not keep a diary for ten years and never followed religious practices again, although he considered those facts to be \"mere coincidence\", unconnected to the nuptials.\n", "In 1930 Noël Coward cast Olivier as Victor Prynne in his new play \"Private Lives\", which opened at the new Phoenix Theatre in London in September. Coward and Gertrude Lawrence played the lead roles, Elyot Chase and Amanda Prynne. Victor is a secondary character, along with Sybil Chase; the author called them \"extra puppets, lightly wooden ninepins, only to be repeatedly knocked down and stood up again\". To make them credible spouses for Amanda and Elyot, Coward was determined that two outstandingly attractive performers should play the parts. Olivier played Victor in the West End and then on Broadway; Adrianne Allen was Sybil in London, but could not go to New York, where the part was taken by Esmond. In addition to giving the 23-year-old Olivier his first successful West End role, Coward became something of a mentor. In the late 1960s Olivier told Sheridan Morley:\n", "In 1931 RKO Pictures offered Olivier a two-film contract at $1,000 a week; he discussed the possibility with Coward, who, irked, told Olivier \"You've no artistic integrity, that's your trouble; this is how you cheapen yourself.\" He accepted and moved to Hollywood, despite some misgivings. His first film was the drama \"Friends and Lovers\", in a supporting role, before RKO loaned him to Fox Studios for his first film lead, a British journalist in a Russia under martial law in \"The Yellow Ticket\", alongside Elissa Landi and Lionel Barrymore. The cultural historian Jeffrey Richards describes Olivier's look as an attempt by Fox Studios to produce a likeness of Ronald Colman, and Colman's moustache, voice and manner are \"perfectly reproduced\". Olivier returned to RKO to complete his contract with the 1932 drama \"Westward Passage\", which was a commercial failure. Olivier's initial foray into American films had not provided the breakthrough he hoped for; disillusioned with Hollywood, he returned to London, where he appeared in two British films, \"Perfect Understanding\" with Gloria Swanson and \"No Funny Business\"—in which Esmond also appeared. He was tempted back to Hollywood in 1933 to appear opposite Greta Garbo in \"Queen Christina\", but was replaced after two weeks of filming because of a lack of chemistry between the two.\n", "Olivier's stage roles in 1934 included Bothwell in Gordon Daviot's \"Queen of Scots\", which was only a moderate success for him and for the play, but led to an important engagement for the same management (Bronson Albery) shortly afterwards. In the interim he had a great success playing a thinly disguised version of the American actor John Barrymore in George S. Kaufman and Edna Ferber's \"Theatre Royal\". His success was vitiated by his breaking an ankle two months into the run, in one of the athletic, acrobatic stunts with which he liked to enliven his performances.\n", "In 1935, under Albery's management, John Gielgud staged \"Romeo and Juliet\" at the New Theatre, co-starring with Peggy Ashcroft, Edith Evans and Olivier. Gielgud had seen Olivier in \"Queen of Scots\", spotted his potential, and now gave him a major step up in his career. For the first weeks of the run Gielgud played Mercutio and Olivier played Romeo, after which they exchanged roles. The production broke all box-office records for the play, running for 189 performances. Olivier was enraged at the notices after the first night, which praised the virility of his performance but fiercely criticised his speaking of Shakespeare's verse, contrasting it with his co-star's mastery of the poetry. The friendship between the two men was prickly, on Olivier's side, for the rest of his life.\n", "Section::::Life and career.:Old Vic and Vivien Leigh (1936–1938).\n", "In May 1936 Olivier and Richardson jointly directed and starred in a new piece by J. B. Priestley, \"Bees on the Boatdeck\". Both actors won excellent notices, but the play, an allegory of Britain's decay, did not attract the public and closed after four weeks. Later in the same year Olivier accepted an invitation to join the Old Vic company. The theatre, in an unfashionable location south of the Thames, had offered inexpensive tickets for opera and drama under its proprietor Lilian Baylis since 1912. Her drama company specialised in the plays of Shakespeare, and many leading actors had taken very large cuts in their pay to develop their Shakespearean techniques there. Gielgud had been in the company from 1929 to 1931, and Richardson from 1930 to 1932. Among the actors whom Olivier joined in late 1936 were Edith Evans, Ruth Gordon, Alec Guinness and Michael Redgrave. In January 1937 he took the title role in an uncut version of \"Hamlet\", in which once again his delivery of the verse was unfavourably compared with that of Gielgud, who had played the role on the same stage seven years previously to enormous acclaim. \"The Observer\"'s Ivor Brown praised Olivier's \"magnetism and muscularity\" but missed \"the kind of pathos so richly established by Mr Gielgud\". The reviewer in \"The Times\" found the performance \"full of vitality\", but at times \"too light ... the character slips from Mr Olivier's grasp\".\n", "After \"Hamlet\", the company presented \"Twelfth Night\" in what the director, Tyrone Guthrie, summed up as \"a baddish, immature production of mine, with Olivier outrageously amusing as Sir Toby and a very young Alec Guinness outrageous and more amusing as Sir Andrew\". \"Henry V\" was the next play, presented in May to mark the Coronation of George VI. A pacifist, as he then was, Olivier was as reluctant to play the warrior king as Guthrie was to direct the piece, but the production was a success, and Baylis had to extend the run from four to eight weeks.\n", "Following Olivier's success in Shakespearean stage productions, he made his first foray into Shakespeare on film in 1936, as Orlando in \"As You Like It\", directed by Paul Czinner, \"a charming if lightweight production\", according to Michael Brooke of the British Film Institute's (BFI's) Screenonline. The following year Olivier appeared alongside Vivien Leigh in the historical drama \"Fire Over England\". He had first met Leigh briefly at the Savoy Grill and then again when she visited him during the run of \"Romeo and Juliet\", probably early in 1936, and the two had begun an affair sometime that year. Of the relationship, Olivier later said that \"I couldn't help myself with Vivien. No man could. I hated myself for cheating on Jill, but then I had cheated before, but this was something different. This wasn't just out of lust. This was love that I really didn't ask for but was drawn into.\" While his relationship with Leigh continued he conducted an affair with the actress Ann Todd, and possibly had a brief affair with the actor Henry Ainley, according to the biographer Michael Munn.\n", "In June 1937 the Old Vic company took up an invitation to perform \"Hamlet\" in the courtyard of the castle at Elsinore, where Shakespeare located the play. Olivier secured the casting of Leigh to replace Cherry Cottrell as Ophelia. Because of torrential rain the performance had to be moved from the castle courtyard to the ballroom of a local hotel, but the tradition of playing Hamlet at Elsinore was established, and Olivier was followed by, among others, Gielgud (1939), Redgrave (1950), Richard Burton (1954), Derek Jacobi (1979), Kenneth Branagh (1988) and Jude Law (2009). Back in London, the company staged \"Macbeth\", with Olivier in the title role. The stylised production by Michel Saint-Denis was not well liked, but Olivier had some good notices among the bad. On returning from Denmark, Olivier and Leigh told their respective spouses about the affair and that their marriages were over; Esmond moved out of the marital house and in with her mother. After Olivier and Leigh made a tour of Europe in mid 1937 they returned to separate film projects—\"A Yank at Oxford\" for her and \"The Divorce of Lady X\" for him—and moved into a property together in Iver, Buckinghamshire.\n", "Olivier returned to the Old Vic for a second season in 1938. For \"Othello\" he played Iago, with Richardson in the title role. Guthrie wanted to experiment with the theory that Iago's villainy is driven by suppressed homosexual love for Othello. Olivier was willing to co-operate, but Richardson was not; audiences and most critics failed to spot the supposed motivation of Olivier's Iago, and Richardson's Othello seemed underpowered. After that comparative failure, the company had a success with \"Coriolanus\" starring Olivier in the title role. The notices were laudatory, mentioning him alongside great predecessors such as Edmund Kean, William Macready and Henry Irving. The actor Robert Speaight described it as \"Olivier's first incontestably great performance\". This was Olivier's last appearance on a London stage for six years.\n", "Section::::Life and career.:Hollywood and the Second World War (1938–1944).\n", "In 1938 Olivier joined Richardson to film the spy thriller \"Q Planes\", released the following year. Frank Nugent, the critic for \"The New York Times\", thought Olivier was \"not quite so good\" as Richardson, but was \"quite acceptable\". In late 1938, lured by a salary of $50,000, the actor travelled to Hollywood to take the part of Heathcliff in the 1939 film \"Wuthering Heights\", alongside Merle Oberon and David Niven. In less than a month Leigh had joined him, explaining that her trip was \"partially because Larry's there and partially because I intend to get the part of Scarlett O'Hara\"—the role in \"Gone with the Wind\" in which she was eventually cast. Olivier did not enjoy making \"Wuthering Heights\", and his approach to film acting, combined with a dislike for Oberon, led to tensions on set. The director, William Wyler, was a hard taskmaster, and Olivier learned to remove what Billington described as \"the carapace of theatricality\" to which he was prone, replacing it with \"a palpable reality\". The resulting film was a commercial and critical success that earned him a nomination for the Academy Award for Best Actor, and created his screen reputation. Caroline Lejeune, writing for \"The Observer\", considered that \"Olivier's dark, moody face, abrupt style, and a certain fine arrogance towards the world in his playing are just right\" in the role, while the reviewer for \"The Times\" wrote that Olivier \"is a good embodiment of Heathcliff ... impressive enough on a more human plane, speaking his lines with real distinction, and always both romantic and alive.\"\n", "After returning to London briefly in mid-1939, the couple returned to America, Leigh to film the final takes for \"Gone with the Wind\", and Olivier to prepare for filming of Alfred Hitchcock's \"Rebecca\"—although the couple had hoped to appear in it together. Instead, Joan Fontaine was selected for the role of Mrs de Winter, as the producer David O. Selznick thought that not only was she more suitable for the role, but that it was best to keep Olivier and Leigh apart until their divorces came through. Olivier followed \"Rebecca\" with \"Pride and Prejudice\", in the role of Mr. Darcy. To his disappointment Elizabeth Bennet was played by Greer Garson rather than Leigh. He received good reviews for both films and showed a more confident screen presence than he had in his early work. In January 1940 Olivier and Esmond were granted their divorce. In February, following another request from Leigh, her husband also applied for their marriage to be terminated.\n", "On stage, Olivier and Leigh starred in \"Romeo and Juliet\" on Broadway. It was an extravagant production, but a commercial failure. In \"The New York Times\" Brooks Atkinson praised the scenery but not the acting: \"Although Miss Leigh and Mr Olivier are handsome young people they hardly act their parts at all.\" The couple had invested almost all their savings in the project, and its failure was a grave financial blow. They were married in August 1940, at the San Ysidro Ranch in Santa Barbara.\n", "The war in Europe had been under way for a year and was going badly for Britain. After his wedding Olivier wanted to help the war effort. He telephoned Duff Cooper, the Minister of Information under Winston Churchill, hoping to get a position in Cooper's department. Cooper advised him to remain where he was and speak to the film director Alexander Korda, who was based in the US at Churchill's behest, with connections to British Intelligence. Korda—with Churchill's support and involvement—directed \"That Hamilton Woman\", with Olivier as Horatio Nelson and Leigh in the title role. Korda saw that the relationship between the couple was strained. Olivier was tiring of Leigh's suffocating adulation, and she was drinking to excess. The film, in which the threat of Napoleon paralleled that of Hitler, was seen by critics as \"bad history but good British propaganda\", according to the BFI.\n", "Olivier's life was under threat from the Nazis and pro-German sympathisers. The studio owners were concerned enough that Samuel Goldwyn and Cecil B. DeMille both provided support and security to ensure his safety. On the completion of filming, Olivier and Leigh returned to Britain. He had spent the previous year learning to fly and had completed nearly 250 hours by the time he left America. He intended to join the Royal Air Force but instead made another propaganda film, \"49th Parallel\", narrated short pieces for the Ministry of Information, and joined the Fleet Air Arm because Richardson was already in the service. Richardson had gained a reputation for crashing aircraft, which Olivier rapidly eclipsed. Olivier and Leigh settled in a cottage just outside RNAS Worthy Down, where he was stationed with a training squadron; Noël Coward visited the couple and thought Olivier looked unhappy. Olivier spent much of his time taking part in broadcasts and making speeches to build morale, and in 1942 he was invited to make another propaganda film, \"The Demi-Paradise\", in which he played a Soviet engineer who helps improve British-Russian relationships.\n", "In 1943, at the behest of the Ministry of Information, Olivier began working on \"Henry V\". Originally he had no intention of taking the directorial duties, but ended up directing and producing, in addition to taking the title role. He was assisted by an Italian internee, Filippo Del Giudice, who had been released to produce propaganda for the Allied cause. The decision was made to film the battle scenes in neutral Ireland, where it was easier to find the 650 extras. John Betjeman, the press attaché at the British embassy in Dublin, played a key liaison role with the Irish government in making suitable arrangements. The film was released in November 1944. Brooke, writing for the BFI, considers that it \"came too late in the Second World War to be a call to arms as such, but formed a powerful reminder of what Britain was defending.\" The music for the film was written by William Walton, \"a score that ranks with the best in film music\", according to the music critic Michael Kennedy. Walton also provided the music for Olivier's next two Shakespearean adaptations, \"Hamlet\" (1948) and \"Richard III\" (1955). \"Henry V\" was warmly received by critics. The reviewer for \"The Manchester Guardian\" wrote that the film combined \"new art hand-in-hand with old genius, and both superbly of one mind\", in a film that worked \"triumphantly\". The critic for \"The Times\" considered that Olivier \"plays Henry on a high, heroic note and never is there danger of a crack\", in a film described as \"a triumph of film craft\". There were Oscar nominations for the film, including Best Picture and Best Actor, but it won none and Olivier was instead presented with a \"Special Award\". He was unimpressed, and later commented that \"this was my first absolute fob-off, and I regarded it as such.\"\n", "Section::::Life and career.:Co-directing the Old Vic (1944–1948).\n", "Throughout the war Tyrone Guthrie had striven to keep the Old Vic company going, even after German bombing in 1942 left the theatre a near-ruin. A small troupe toured the provinces, with Sybil Thorndike at its head. By 1944, with the tide of the war turning, Guthrie felt it time to re-establish the company in a London base and invited Richardson to head it. Richardson made it a condition of accepting that he should share the acting and management in a triumvirate. Initially he proposed Gielgud and Olivier as his colleagues, but the former declined, saying, \"It would be a disaster, you would have to spend your whole time as referee between Larry and me.\" It was finally agreed that the third member would be the stage director John Burrell. The Old Vic governors approached the Royal Navy to secure the release of Richardson and Olivier; the Sea Lords consented, with, as Olivier put it, \"a speediness and lack of reluctance which was positively hurtful.\"\n", "The triumvirate secured the New Theatre for their first season and recruited a company. Thorndike was joined by, among others, Harcourt Williams, Joyce Redman and Margaret Leighton. It was agreed to open with a repertory of four plays: \"Peer Gynt\", \"Arms and the Man\", \"Richard III\" and \"Uncle Vanya\". Olivier's roles were the Button Moulder, Sergius, Richard and Astrov; Richardson played Peer, Bluntschli, Richmond and Vanya. The first three productions met with acclaim from reviewers and audiences; \"Uncle Vanya\" had a mixed reception, although \"The Times\" thought Olivier's Astrov \"a most distinguished portrait\" and Richardson's Vanya \"the perfect compound of absurdity and pathos\". In \"Richard III\", according to Billington, Olivier's triumph was absolute: \"so much so that it became his most frequently imitated performance and one whose supremacy went unchallenged until Antony Sher played the role forty years later\". In 1945 the company toured Germany, where they were seen by many thousands of Allied servicemen; they also appeared at the Comédie-Française theatre in Paris, the first foreign company to be given that honour. The critic Harold Hobson wrote that Richardson and Olivier quickly \"made the Old Vic the most famous theatre in the Anglo-Saxon world.\"\n", "The second season, in 1945, featured two double bills. The first consisted of \"Henry IV, Parts 1 and 2\". Olivier played the warrior Hotspur in the first and the doddering Justice Shallow in the second. He received good notices, but by general consent the production belonged to Richardson as Falstaff. In the second double bill it was Olivier who dominated, in the title roles of \"Oedipus Rex\" and \"The Critic\". In the two one-act plays his switch from searing tragedy and horror in the first half to farcical comedy in the second impressed most critics and audience members, though a minority felt that the transformation from Sophocles's bloodily blinded hero to Sheridan's vain and ludicrous Mr Puff \"smacked of a quick-change turn in a music hall\". After the London season the company played both the double bills and \"Uncle Vanya\" in a six-week run on Broadway.\n", "The third, and final, London season under the triumvirate was in 1946–47. Olivier played King Lear, and Richardson took the title role in \"Cyrano de Bergerac\". Olivier would have preferred the roles to be reversed, but Richardson did not wish to attempt Lear. Olivier's Lear received good but not outstanding reviews. In his scenes of decline and madness towards the end of the play some critics found him less moving than his finest predecessors in the role. The influential critic James Agate suggested that Olivier used his dazzling stage technique to disguise a lack of feeling, a charge that the actor strongly rejected, but which was often made throughout his later career. During the run of \"Cyrano\", Richardson was knighted, to Olivier's undisguised envy. The younger man received the accolade six months later, by which time the days of the triumvirate were numbered. The high profile of the two star actors did not endear them to the new chairman of the Old Vic governors, Lord Esher. He had ambitions to be the first head of the National Theatre and had no intention of letting actors run it. He was encouraged by Guthrie, who, having instigated the appointment of Richardson and Olivier, had come to resent their knighthoods and international fame.\n", "In January 1947 Olivier began working on his second film as a director, \"Hamlet\" (1948), in which he also took the lead role. The original play was heavily cut to focus on the relationships, rather than the political intrigue. The film became a critical and commercial success in Britain and abroad, although Lejeune, in \"The Observer\", considered it \"less effective than [Olivier's] stage work. ... He speaks the lines nobly, and with the caress of one who loves them, but he nullifies his own thesis by never, for a moment, leaving the impression of a man who cannot make up his own mind; here, you feel rather, is an actor-producer-director who, in every circumstance, knows exactly what he wants, and gets it\". , the critic for \"The Daily Telegraph\" thought the film \"brilliant ... one of the masterpieces of the stage has been made into one of the greatest of films.\" \"Hamlet\" became the first non-American film to win the Academy Award for Best Picture, while Olivier won the Award for Best Actor.\n", "In 1948 Olivier led the Old Vic company on a six-month tour of Australia and New Zealand. He played Richard III, Sir Peter Teazle in Sheridan's\" The School for Scandal\" and Antrobus in Thornton Wilder's \"The Skin of Our Teeth\", appearing alongside Leigh in the latter two plays. While Olivier was on the Australian tour and Richardson was in Hollywood, Esher terminated the contracts of the three directors, who were said to have \"resigned\". Melvyn Bragg in a 1984 study of Olivier, and John Miller in the authorised biography of Richardson, both comment that Esher's action put back the establishment of a National Theatre for at least a decade. Looking back in 1971, Bernard Levin wrote that the Old Vic company of 1944 to 1948 \"was probably the most illustrious that has ever been assembled in this country\". \"The Times\" said that the triumvirate's years were the greatest in the Old Vic's history; as \"The Guardian\" put it, \"the governors summarily sacked them in the interests of a more mediocre company spirit\".\n", "Section::::Life and career.:Post-war (1948–1951).\n", "By the end of the Australian tour, both Leigh and Olivier were exhausted and ill, and he told a journalist, \"You may not know it, but you are talking to a couple of walking corpses.\" Later he would comment that he \"lost Vivien\" in Australia, a reference to Leigh's affair with the Australian actor Peter Finch, whom the couple met during the tour. Shortly afterwards Finch moved to London, where Olivier auditioned him and put him under a long-term contract with Laurence Olivier Productions. Finch and Leigh's affair continued on and off for several years.\n", "Although it was common knowledge that the Old Vic triumvirate had been dismissed, they refused to be drawn on the matter in public, and Olivier even arranged to play a final London season with the company in 1949, as Richard III, Sir Peter Teazle, and Chorus in his own production of Anouilh's \"Antigone\" with Leigh in the title role. After that, he was free to embark on a new career as an actor-manager. In partnership with Binkie Beaumont he staged the English premiere of Tennessee Williams's \"A Streetcar Named Desire\", with Leigh in the central role of Blanche DuBois. The play was condemned by most critics, but the production was a considerable commercial success, and led to Leigh's casting as Blanche in the 1951 film version. Gielgud, who was a devoted friend of Leigh's, doubted whether Olivier was wise to let her play the demanding role of the mentally unstable heroine: \"[Blanche] was so very like her, in a way. It must have been a most dreadful strain to do it night after night. She would be shaking and white and quite distraught at the end of it.\"\n", "The production company set up by Olivier took a lease on the St James's Theatre. In January 1950 he produced, directed and starred in Christopher Fry's verse play \"Venus Observed\". The production was popular, despite poor reviews, but the expensive production did little to help the finances of Laurence Olivier Productions. After a series of box-office failures, the company balanced its books in 1951 with productions of Shaw's \"Caesar and Cleopatra\" and Shakespeare's \"Antony and Cleopatra\" which the Oliviers played in London and then took to Broadway. Olivier was thought by some critics to be under par in both his roles, and some suspected him of playing deliberately below his usual strength so that Leigh might appear his equal. Olivier dismissed the suggestion, regarding it as an insult to his integrity as an actor. In the view of the critic and biographer W. A. Darlington, he was simply miscast both as Caesar and Antony, finding the former boring and the latter weak. Darlington comments, \"Olivier, in his middle forties when he should have been displaying his powers at their very peak, seemed to have lost interest in his own acting\". Over the next four years Olivier spent much of his time working as a producer, presenting plays rather than directing or acting in them. His presentations at the St James's included seasons by Ruggero Ruggeri's company giving two Pirandello plays in Italian, followed by a visit from the Comédie-Française playing works by Molière, Racine, Marivaux and Musset in French. Darlington considers a 1951 production of \"Othello\" starring Orson Welles as the pick of Olivier's productions at the theatre.\n", "Section::::Life and career.:Independent actor-manager (1951–1954).\n", "While Leigh made \"Streetcar\" in 1951, Olivier joined her in Hollywood to film \"Carrie\", based on the controversial novel \"Sister Carrie\"; although the film was plagued by troubles, Olivier received warm reviews and a BAFTA nomination. Olivier began to notice a change in Leigh's behaviour, and he later recounted that \"I would find Vivien sitting on the corner of the bed, wringing her hands and sobbing, in a state of grave distress; I would naturally try desperately to give her some comfort, but for some time she would be inconsolable.\" After a holiday with Coward in Jamaica, she seemed to have recovered, but Olivier later recorded, \"I am sure that ... [the doctors] must have taken some pains to tell me what was wrong with my wife; that her disease was called manic depression and what that meant—a possibly permanent cyclical to-and-fro between the depths of depression and wild, uncontrollable mania. He also recounted the years of problems he had experienced because of Leigh's illness, writing, \"throughout her possession by that uncannily evil monster, manic depression, with its deadly ever-tightening spirals, she retained her own individual canniness—an ability to disguise her true mental condition from almost all except me, for whom she could hardly be expected to take the trouble.\"\n", "In January 1953 Leigh travelled to Ceylon (now Sri Lanka) to film \"Elephant Walk\" with Peter Finch. Shortly after filming started she suffered a breakdown, and returned to Britain where, between periods of incoherence, she told Olivier that she was in love with Finch, and had been having an affair with him; she gradually recovered over a period of several months. As a result of the breakdown, many of the Oliviers' friends learned of her problems. Niven said she had been \"quite, quite mad\", and in his diary, Coward expressed the view that \"things had been bad and getting worse since 1948 or thereabouts.\"\n", "For the Coronation season of 1953, Olivier and Leigh starred in the West End in Terence Rattigan's Ruritanian comedy, \"The Sleeping Prince\". It ran for eight months but was widely regarded as a minor contribution to the season, in which other productions included Gielgud in \"Venice Preserv'd\", Coward in \"The Apple Cart\" and Ashcroft and Redgrave in \"Antony and Cleopatra\".\n", "Olivier directed his third Shakespeare film in September 1954, \"Richard III\" (1955), which he co-produced with Korda. The presence of four theatrical knights in the one film—Olivier was joined by Cedric Hardwicke, Gielgud and Richardson—led an American reviewer to dub it \"An-All-Sir-Cast\". The critic for \"The Manchester Guardian\" described the film as a \"bold and successful achievement\", but it was not a box-office success, which accounted for Olivier's subsequent failure to raise the funds for a planned film of \"Macbeth\". He won a BAFTA award for the role and was nominated for the Best Actor Academy Award, which Yul Brynner won.\n", "Section::::Life and career.:Last years with Leigh (1955–1956).\n", "In 1955 Olivier and Leigh were invited to play leading roles in three plays at the Shakespeare Memorial Theatre, Stratford. They began with \"Twelfth Night\", directed by Gielgud, with Olivier as Malvolio and Leigh as Viola. Rehearsals were difficult, with Olivier determined to play his conception of the role despite the director's view that it was vulgar. Gielgud later commented:\n", "The next production was \"Macbeth\". Reviewers were lukewarm about the direction by Glen Byam Shaw and the designs by Roger Furse, but Olivier's performance in the title role attracted superlatives. To J. C. Trewin, Olivier's was \"the finest Macbeth of our day\"; to Darlington it was \"the best Macbeth of our time\". Leigh's Lady Macbeth received mixed but generally polite notices, although to the end of his life Olivier believed it to have been the best Lady Macbeth he ever saw.\n", "In their third production of the 1955 Stratford season, Olivier played the title role in \"Titus Andronicus\", with Leigh as Lavinia. Her notices in the part were damning, but the production by Peter Brook and Olivier's performance as Titus received the greatest ovation in Stratford history from the first-night audience, and the critics hailed the production as a landmark in post-war British theatre. Olivier and Brook revived the production for a continental tour in June 1957; its final performance, which closed the old Stoll Theatre in London, was the last time Leigh and Olivier acted together.\n", "Leigh became pregnant in 1956 and withdrew from the production of Coward's comedy \"South Sea Bubble\". The day after her final performance in the play she miscarried and entered a period of depression that lasted for months. The same year Olivier decided to direct and produce a film version of \"The Sleeping Prince\", retitled \"The Prince and the Showgirl\". Instead of appearing with Leigh, he cast Marilyn Monroe as the showgirl. Although the filming was challenging because of Monroe's behaviour, the film was appreciated by the critics.\n", "Section::::Life and career.:Royal Court and Chichester (1957–1963).\n", "During the production of \"The Prince and the Showgirl\", Olivier, Monroe and her husband, the American playwright Arthur Miller, went to see the English Stage Company's production of John Osborne's \"Look Back in Anger\" at the Royal Court. Olivier had seen the play earlier in the run and disliked it, but Miller was convinced that Osborne had talent, and Olivier reconsidered. He was ready for a change of direction; in 1981 he wrote:\n", "Osborne was already at work on a new play, \"The Entertainer\", an allegory of Britain's post-colonial decline, centred on a seedy variety comedian, Archie Rice. Having read the first act—all that was completed by then—Olivier asked to be cast in the part. He had for years maintained that he might easily have been a third-rate comedian called \"Larry Oliver\", and would sometimes play the character at parties. Behind Archie's brazen façade there is a deep desolation, and Olivier caught both aspects, switching, in the words of the biographer Anthony Holden, \"from a gleefully tacky comic routine to moments of the most wrenching pathos\". Tony Richardson's production for the English Stage Company transferred from the Royal Court to the Palace Theatre in September 1957; after that it toured and returned to the Palace. The role of Archie's daughter Jean was taken by three actresses during the various runs. The second of them was Joan Plowright, with whom Olivier began a relationship that endured for the rest of his life. Olivier said that playing Archie \"made me feel like a modern actor again\". In finding an \"avant-garde\" play that suited him, he was, as Osborne remarked, far ahead of Gielgud and Ralph Richardson, who did not successfully follow his lead for more than a decade. Their first substantial successes in works by any of Osborne's generation were Alan Bennett's \"Forty Years On\" (Gielgud in 1968) and David Storey's \"Home\" (Richardson and Gielgud in 1970).\n", "Olivier received another BAFTA nomination for his supporting role in 1959's \"The Devil's Disciple\". The same year, after a gap of two decades, Olivier returned to the role of Coriolanus, in a Stratford production directed by the 28-year-old Peter Hall. Olivier's performance received strong praise from the critics for its fierce athleticism combined with an emotional vulnerability. In 1960 he made his second appearance for the Royal Court company in Ionesco's absurdist play \"Rhinoceros\". The production was chiefly remarkable for the star's quarrels with the director, Orson Welles, who according to the biographer Francis Beckett suffered the \"appalling treatment\" that Olivier had inflicted on Gielgud at Stratford five years earlier. Olivier again ignored his director and undermined his authority. In 1960 and 1961 Olivier appeared in Anouilh's \"Becket\" on Broadway, first in the title role, with Anthony Quinn as the king, and later exchanging roles with his co-star.\n", "Two films featuring Olivier were released in 1960. The first—filmed in 1959—was \"Spartacus\", in which he portrayed the Roman general, Marcus Licinius Crassus. His second was \"The Entertainer\", shot while he was appearing in \"Coriolanus\"; the film was well received by the critics, but not as warmly as the stage show had been. The reviewer for \"The Guardian\" thought the performances were good, and wrote that Olivier \"on the screen as on the stage, achieves the tour de force of bringing Archie Rice ... to life\". For his performance, Olivier was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Actor. He also made an adaptation of \"The Moon and Sixpence\" in 1960, winning an Emmy Award.\n", "The Oliviers' marriage was disintegrating during the late 1950s. While directing Charlton Heston in the 1960 play \"The Tumbler\", Olivier divulged that \"Vivien is several thousand miles away, trembling on the edge of a cliff, even when she's sitting quietly in her own drawing room\", at a time when she was threatening suicide. In May 1960 divorce proceedings started; Leigh reported the fact to the press and informed reporters of Olivier's relationship with Plowright. The decree \"nisi\" was issued in December 1960, which enabled him to marry Plowright in March 1961. A son, Richard, was born in December 1961; two daughters followed, Tamsin Agnes Margaret—born in January 1963—and Julie-Kate, born in July 1966.\n", "In 1961 Olivier accepted the directorship of a new theatrical venture, the Chichester Festival. For the opening season in 1962 he directed two neglected 17th-century English plays, John Fletcher's 1638 comedy \"The Chances\" and John Ford's 1633 tragedy \"The Broken Heart\", followed by \"Uncle Vanya\". The company he recruited was forty strong and included Thorndike, Casson, Redgrave, Athene Seyler, John Neville and Plowright. The first two plays were politely received; the Chekhov production attracted rapturous notices. \"The Times\" commented, \"It is doubtful if the Moscow Arts Theatre itself could improve on this production.\" The second Chichester season the following year consisted of a revival of \"Uncle Vanya\" and two new productions—Shaw's \"Saint Joan\" and John Arden's \"The Workhouse Donkey\". In 1963 Olivier received another BAFTA nomination for his leading role as a schoolteacher accused of sexually molesting a student in the film \"Term of Trial\".\n", "Section::::Life and career.:National Theatre.\n", "Section::::Life and career.:National Theatre.:1963–1968.\n", "At around the time the Chichester Festival opened, plans for the creation of the National Theatre were coming to fruition. The British government agreed to release funds for a new building on the South Bank of the Thames. Lord Chandos was appointed chairman of the National Theatre Board in 1962, and in August Olivier accepted its invitation to be the company's first director. As his assistants, he recruited the directors John Dexter and William Gaskill, with Kenneth Tynan as literary adviser or \"dramaturge\". Pending the construction of the new theatre, the company was based at the Old Vic. With the agreement of both organisations, Olivier remained in overall charge of the Chichester Festival during the first three seasons of the National; he used the festivals of 1964 and 1965 to give preliminary runs to plays he hoped to stage at the Old Vic.\n", "The opening production of the National Theatre was \"Hamlet\" in October 1963, starring Peter O'Toole and directed by Olivier. O'Toole was a guest star, one of occasional exceptions to Olivier's policy of casting productions from a regular company. Among those who made a mark during Olivier's directorship were Michael Gambon, Maggie Smith, Alan Bates, Derek Jacobi and Anthony Hopkins. It was widely remarked that Olivier seemed reluctant to recruit his peers to perform with his company. Evans, Gielgud and Paul Scofield guested only briefly, and Ashcroft and Richardson never appeared at the National during Olivier's time. Robert Stephens, a member of the company, observed, \"Olivier's one great fault was a paranoid jealousy of anyone who he thought was a rival\".\n", "In his decade in charge of the National, Olivier acted in thirteen plays and directed eight. Several of the roles he played were minor characters, including a crazed butler in Feydeau's \"A Flea in Her Ear\" and a pompous solicitor in Maugham's \"Home and Beauty\"; the vulgar soldier Captain Brazen in Farquhar's 1706 comedy \"The Recruiting Officer\" was a larger role but not the leading one. Apart from his Astrov in the \"Uncle Vanya\", familiar from Chichester, his first leading role for the National was Othello, directed by Dexter in 1964. The production was a box-office success and was revived regularly over the next five seasons. His performance divided opinion. Most of the reviewers and theatrical colleagues praised it highly; Franco Zeffirelli called it \"an anthology of everything that has been discovered about acting in the past three centuries.\" Dissenting voices included \"The Sunday Telegraph\", which called it \"the kind of bad acting of which only a great actor is capable ... near the frontiers of self-parody\"; the director Jonathan Miller thought it \"a condescending view of an Afro Caribbean person\". The burden of playing this demanding part at the same time as managing the new company and planning for the move to the new theatre took its toll on Olivier. To add to his load, he felt obliged to take over as Solness in \"The Master Builder\" when the ailing Redgrave withdrew from the role in November 1964. For the first time Olivier began to suffer from stage fright, which plagued him for several years. The National Theatre production of \"Othello\" was released as a film in 1965, which earned four Academy Award nominations, including another for Best Actor for Olivier.\n", "During the following year Olivier concentrated on management, directing one production (\"The Crucible\"), taking the comic role of the foppish Tattle in Congreve's \"Love for Love\", and making one film, \"Bunny Lake is Missing\", in which he and Coward were on the same bill for the first time since \"Private Lives\". In 1966, his one play as director was \"Juno and the Paycock\". \"The Times\" commented that the production \"restores one's faith in the work as a masterpiece\". In the same year Olivier portrayed the Mahdi, opposite Heston as General Gordon, in the film \"Khartoum\".\n", "In 1967 Olivier was caught in the middle of a confrontation between Chandos and Tynan over the latter's proposal to stage Rolf Hochhuth's \"Soldiers\". As the play speculatively depicted Churchill as complicit in the assassination of the Polish prime minister Władysław Sikorski, Chandos regarded it as indefensible. At his urging the board unanimously vetoed the production. Tynan considered resigning over this interference with the management's artistic freedom, but Olivier himself stayed firmly in place, and Tynan also remained. At about this time Olivier began a long struggle against a succession of illnesses. He was treated for prostate cancer and, during rehearsals for his production of Chekhov's \"Three Sisters\" he was hospitalised with pneumonia. He recovered enough to take the heavy role of Edgar in Strindberg's \"The Dance of Death\", the finest of all his performances other than in Shakespeare, in Gielgud's view.\n", "Section::::Life and career.:National Theatre.:1968–1974.\n", "Olivier had intended to step down from the directorship of the National Theatre at the end of his first five-year contract, having, he hoped, led the company into its new building. By 1968 because of bureaucratic delays construction work had not even begun, and he agreed to serve for a second five-year term. His next major role, and his last appearance in a Shakespeare play, was as Shylock in \"The Merchant of Venice\", his first appearance in the work. He had intended Guinness or Scofield to play Shylock, but stepped in when neither was available. The production by Jonathan Miller, and Olivier's performance, attracted a wide range of responses. Two different critics reviewed it for \"The Guardian\": one wrote \"this is not a role which stretches him, or for which he will be particularly remembered\"; the other commented that the performance \"ranks as one of his greatest achievements, involving his whole range\".\n", "In 1969 Olivier appeared in two war films, portraying military leaders. He played Field Marshal French in the First World War film \"Oh! What a Lovely War\", for which he won another BAFTA award, followed by Air Chief Marshal Hugh Dowding in \"Battle of Britain\". In June 1970 he became the first actor to be created a peer for services to the theatre. Although he initially declined the honour, Harold Wilson, the incumbent prime minister, wrote to him, then invited him and Plowright to dinner, and persuaded him to accept.\n", "After this Olivier played three more stage roles: James Tyrone in Eugene O'Neill's \"Long Day's Journey into Night\" (1971–72), Antonio in Eduardo de Filippo's \"Saturday, Sunday, Monday\" and John Tagg in Trevor Griffiths's \"The Party\" (both 1973–74). Among the roles he hoped to play, but could not because of ill-health, was Nathan Detroit in the musical \"Guys and Dolls\". In 1972 he took leave of absence from the National to star opposite Michael Caine in Joseph L. Mankiewicz's film of Anthony Shaffer's \"Sleuth\", which \"The Illustrated London News\" considered to be \"Olivier at his twinkling, eye-rolling best\"; both he and Caine were nominated for the Academy Award for Best Actor, losing to Marlon Brando in \"The Godfather\".\n", "The last two stage plays Olivier directed were Jean Giradoux's \"Amphitryon\" (1971) and Priestley's \"Eden End\" (1974). By the time of \"Eden End\", he was no longer director of the National Theatre; Peter Hall took over on 1 November 1973. The succession was tactlessly handled by the board, and Olivier felt that he had been eased out—although he had declared his intention to go—and that he had not been properly consulted about the choice of successor. The largest of the three theatres within the National's new building was named in his honour, but his only appearance on the stage of the Olivier Theatre was at its official opening by the Queen in October 1976, when he made a speech of welcome, which Hall privately described as the most successful part of the evening.\n", "Section::::Life and career.:Later years (1975–1989).\n", "Olivier spent the last 15 years of his life in securing his finances and dealing with deteriorating health, which included thrombosis and dermatomyositis, a degenerative muscle disorder. Professionally, and to provide financial security, he made a series of advertisements for Polaroid cameras in 1972, although he stipulated that they must never be shown in Britain; he also took a number of cameo film roles, which were in \"often undistinguished films\", according to Billington. Olivier's move from leading parts to supporting and cameo roles came about because his poor health meant he could not get the necessary long insurance for larger parts, with only short engagements in films available.\n", "Olivier's dermatomyositis meant he spent the last three months of 1974 in hospital, and he spent early 1975 slowly recovering and regaining his strength. When strong enough, he was contacted by the director John Schlesinger, who offered him the role of a Nazi torturer in the 1976 film \"Marathon Man\". Olivier shaved his pate and wore oversized glasses to enlarge the look of his eyes, in a role that the critic David Robinson, writing for \"The Times\", thought was \"strongly played\", adding that Olivier was \"always at his best in roles that call for him to be seedy or nasty or both\". Olivier was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Actor in a Supporting Role, and won the Golden Globe of the same category.\n", "In the mid-1970s Olivier became increasingly involved in television work, a medium of which he was initially dismissive. In 1973 he provided the narration for a 26-episode documentary, \"The World at War\", which chronicled the events of the Second World War, and won a second Emmy Award for \"Long Day's Journey into Night\" (1973). In 1975 he won another Emmy for \"Love Among the Ruins\". The following year he appeared in adaptations of Tennessee Williams's \"Cat on a Hot Tin Roof\" and Harold Pinter's \"The Collection\". Olivier portrayed the Pharisee Nicodemus in Franco Zeffirelli's 1977 miniseries \"Jesus of Nazareth\". In 1978 he appeared in the film \"The Boys from Brazil\", playing the role of Ezra Lieberman, an ageing Nazi hunter; he received his eleventh Academy Award nomination. Although he did not win the Oscar, he was presented with an Honorary Award for his lifetime achievement.\n", "Olivier continued working in film into the 1980s, with roles in \"The Jazz Singer\" (1980), \"Inchon\" (1981), \"The Bounty\" (1984) and \"Wild Geese II\" (1985). He continued to work in television; in 1981 he appeared as Lord Marchmain in \"Brideshead Revisited\", winning another Emmy, and the following year he received his tenth and last BAFTA nomination in the television adaptation of John Mortimer's stage play \"A Voyage Round My Father\". In 1983 he played his last Shakespearean role as Lear in \"King Lear\", for Granada Television, earning his fifth Emmy. He thought the role of Lear much less demanding than other tragic Shakespearean heroes: \"No, Lear is easy. He's like all of us, really: he's just a stupid old fart.\" When the production was first shown on American television, the critic Steve Vineberg wrote:\n", "The same year he also appeared in a cameo alongside Gielgud and Richardson in \"Wagner\", with Burton in the title role; his final screen appearance was as an elderly, wheelchair-bound soldier in Derek Jarman's 1989 film \"War Requiem\".\n", "After being ill for the last 22 years of his life, Olivier died of renal failure on 11 July 1989 aged 82 at his home near Steyning, West Sussex. His cremation was held three days later; his ashes were buried in Poets' Corner of Westminster Abbey during a memorial service in October that year.\n", "Section::::Awards, honours and memorials.\n", "Olivier was appointed Knight Bachelor in the 1947 Birthday Honours for services to the stage and to films. A life peerage followed in the 1970 Birthday Honours for services to the theatre; he was subsequently created Baron Olivier, of Brighton in the County of Sussex. Olivier was later appointed to the Order of Merit in 1981. He also received honours from foreign governments. In 1949 he was made Commander of the Order of the Dannebrog by the Danish King Frederik IX; the French appointed him ', Legion of Honour, in 1953; the Italian government created him ', Order of Merit of the Italian Republic, in 1953; and in 1971 he was granted the Order of Yugoslav Flag with Golden Wreath.\n", "From academic and other institutions, Olivier received honorary doctorates from Tufts University in Massachusetts (1946), Oxford (1957) and Edinburgh (1964). He was also awarded the Danish Sonning Prize in 1966, the Gold Medallion of the Royal Swedish Academy of Letters, History and Antiquities in 1968; and the Albert Medal of the Royal Society of Arts in 1976.\n", "For his work in films, Olivier received four Academy Awards: an honorary award for \"Henry V\" (1947), a Best Actor award and one as producer for \"Hamlet\" (1948), and a second honorary award in 1979 to recognise his lifetime of contribution to the art of film. He was nominated for nine other acting Oscars and one each for production and direction. He also won two British Academy Film Awards out of ten nominations, five Emmy Awards out of nine nominations, and three Golden Globe Awards out of six nominations. He was nominated once for a Tony Award (for best actor, as Archie Rice) but did not win.\n", "In February 1960, for his contribution to the film industry, Olivier was inducted into the Hollywood Walk of Fame, with a star at 6319 Hollywood Boulevard; he is included in the American Theater Hall of Fame. In 1977 Olivier was awarded a British Film Institute Fellowship.\n", "In addition to the naming of the National Theatre's largest auditorium in Olivier's honour, he is commemorated in the Laurence Olivier Awards, bestowed annually since 1984 by the Society of West End Theatre. In 1991 Gielgud unveiled a memorial stone commemorating Olivier in Poets' Corner at Westminster Abbey. In 2007, the centenary of Olivier's birth, a life-sized statue of him was unveiled on the South Bank, outside the National Theatre; the same year the BFI held a retrospective season of his film work.\n", "Section::::Technique and reputation.\n", "Olivier's acting technique was minutely crafted, and he was known for changing his appearance considerably from role to role. By his own admission, he was addicted to extravagant make-up, and unlike Richardson and Gielgud, he excelled at different voices and accents. His own description of his technique was \"working from the outside in\"; he said, \"I can never act as myself, I have to have a pillow up my jumper, a false nose or a moustache or wig... I cannot come on looking like me and be someone else.\" Rattigan described how at rehearsals Olivier \"built his performance slowly and with immense application from a mass of tiny details\". This attention to detail had its critics: Agate remarked, \"When I look at a watch it is to see the time and not to admire the mechanism. I want an actor to tell me Lear's time of day and Olivier doesn't. He bids me watch the wheels go round.\"\n", "Tynan remarked to Olivier, \"you aren't really a contemplative or philosophical actor\"; Olivier was known for the strenuous physicality of his performances in some roles. He told Tynan this was because he was influenced as a young man by Douglas Fairbanks, Ramon Navarro and John Barrymore in films, and Barrymore on stage as Hamlet: \"tremendously athletic. I admired that greatly, all of us did. ... One thought of oneself, idiotically, skinny as I was, as a sort of Tarzan.\" According to Morley, Gielgud was widely considered \"the best actor in the world from the neck up and Olivier from the neck down.\" Olivier described the contrast thus: \"I've always thought that we were the reverses of the same coin... the top half John, all spirituality, all beauty, all abstract things; and myself as all earth, blood, humanity.\"\n", "Together with Richardson and Gielgud, Olivier was internationally recognised as one of the \"great trinity of theatrical knights\" who dominated the British stage during the middle and later decades of the 20th century. In an obituary tribute in \"The Times\", Bernard Levin wrote, \"What we have lost with Laurence Olivier is \"glory\". He reflected it in his greatest roles; indeed he walked clad in it—you could practically see it glowing around him like a nimbus... no one will ever play the roles he played as he played them; no one will replace the splendour that he gave his native land with his genius.\" Billington commented:\n", "After Olivier's death, Gielgud reflected, \"He followed in the theatrical tradition of Kean and Irving. He respected tradition in the theatre, but he also took great delight in breaking tradition, which is what made him so unique. He was gifted, brilliant, and one of the great controversial figures of our time in theatre, which is a virtue and not a vice at all.\"\n", "Olivier said in 1963 that he believed he was born to be an actor, but his colleague Peter Ustinov disagreed; he commented that although Olivier's great contemporaries were clearly predestined for the stage, \"Larry could have been a notable ambassador, a considerable minister, a redoubtable cleric. At his worst, he would have acted the parts more ably than they are usually lived.\" The director David Ayliff agreed that acting did not come instinctively to Olivier as it did to his great rivals. He observed, \"Ralph was a natural actor, he couldn't stop being a perfect actor; Olivier did it through sheer hard work and determination.\" The American actor William Redfield had a similar view:\n", "In comparing Olivier and the other leading actors of his generation, Ustinov wrote, \"It is of course vain to talk of who is and who is not the greatest actor. There is simply no such thing as a greatest actor, or painter or composer\". Nonetheless, some colleagues, particularly film actors such as Spencer Tracy, Humphrey Bogart and Lauren Bacall, came to regard Olivier as the finest of his peers. Peter Hall, though acknowledging Olivier as the head of the theatrical profession, thought Richardson the greater actor. Others, such as the critic Michael Coveney, awarded the palm to Gielgud. Olivier's claim to theatrical greatness lay not only in his acting, but as, in Hall's words, \"the supreme man of the theatre of our time\", pioneering Britain's National Theatre. As Bragg identified, \"no one doubts that the National is perhaps his most enduring monument\".\n", "Section::::External links.\n", "BULLET::::- Official website\n" ] }

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{ "description": "British actor, director and producer", "enwikiquote_title": "Laurence Olivier", "wikidata_id": "Q55245", "wikidata_label": "Laurence Olivier", "wikipedia_title": "Laurence Olivier", "aliases": { "alias": [ "Baron Olivier of Brighton", "The Lord Olivier" ] } }

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{ "paragraph": [ "Verner von Heidenstam\n", "Carl Gustaf Verner von Heidenstam (6 July 1859 – 20 May 1940) was a Swedish poet, novelist and laureate of the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1916. He was a member of the Swedish Academy from 1912. His poems and prose work are filled with a great joy of life, sometimes imbued with a love of Swedish history and scenery, particularly its physical aspects.\n", "Section::::Biography.\n", "He was born in Olshammar, Örebro County on 6 July 1859 to a noble family. He studied painting in the Academy of Stockholm, but soon left because of ill health. He then traveled extensively in Europe, Africa and the orient. He was at once greeted as a poet of promise on the publication of his first collection of poems, \"Vallfart och vandringsår\" (\"Pilgrimage: the Wander Years\", 1888). It is a collection of poems inspired by his experiences in the orient and marks an abandonment of naturalism that was dominant then in Swedish literature.\n", "His love for beauty is shown also by the long narrative poem \"Hans Alienus \"(1892). \"Dikter\" (\"Poems\", 1895) and \"Karolinerna\" (\"The Charles Men\", 2 vols., 1897–1898), a series of historical portraits of King Charles XII of Sweden and his cavaliers, shows a strong nationalistic passion. English translations of short stories from \"Karolinerna\" can be found in the \"American-Scandinavian Review\" (New York), May 1914, November 1915, and July 1916. The two volumes of \"Folkunga Trädet\" (\"The Tree of the Folkungs\", 1905–07) are the inspired, epic story of a clan of Swede chieftains in the Middle Ages.\n", "In 1910 a controversy was waged in Swedish newspapers between a number of Swedish literary men on the topic of the proletarian “degradation” of literature, the protagonists of the two opposing camps being August Strindberg and Heidenstam. Professors Lidforss and Böök also took part. Heidenstam's chief contribution was the pamphlet, directed chiefly against Strindberg, \"Proletärfilosofiens upplösning och fall\" (\"The Decline and Fall of the Proletarian Philosophy\").\n", "Heidenstam's poetical collection \"Nya Dikter\", published in 1915, deals with philosophical themes, mainly concerning the elevation of man to a better humanity from solitude.\n", "He died at his home Övralid on 20 May 1940.\n", "Section::::Works.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Från Col di Tenda till Blocksberg \", pictures of travel (1888)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Vallfart och vandringsår\" (1888)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Renässans\" (1889)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Endymion\" (1889, novel)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Hans Alienus \"(1892)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Dikter\" (1895)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Karolinerna (\"The Charles Men\", 1897–98, novel)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Sankt Göran och draken \"(1900)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Klassizität und Germanismus\" (published in German, Vienna 1901)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Heliga Birgittas pilgrimsfärd\" (\"Saint Bridget's Pilgrimage\", 1901)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Ett folk \" (1902)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Skogen susar \"(\"The Forest Whispers\", 1904)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Folkungaträdet \"(\"The Tree of the Folkungs\", 2 volumes, 1905–1907)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Svenskarna och deras hövdingar\" (1910, historical lectures)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Nya Dikter\" (1915).\n", "Works in English translation\n", "BULLET::::- \"A King and his Campaigners\" (1902)\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Soothsayer\" (1919)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Sweden's Laureate. Selected Poems of Verner Von Heidenstam\" (1919) - (trans. by Charles Wharton Stork)\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Birth of God\" (1920)\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Charles Men\" (1920) - (trans. by Charles Wharton Stork)\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Swedes and their Chieftains\" (1925) - (trans. by Charles Wharton Stork)\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Tree of the Folkungs\" (1925)\n", "Section::::See also.\n", "BULLET::::- List of Swedish language writers\n", "BULLET::::- List of Swedish language poets\n", "BULLET::::- Oscar Levertin\n", "Section::::Further reading.\n", "BULLET::::- Barton, Hildor Arnold (2003). \"Sweden and Visions of Norway: Politics and Culture, 1814-1905\". SIU Press.\n", "BULLET::::- Larsson, Hans Emil (1909). \"Swedish Literature,\" \"The Journal of English and Germanic Philology\" 8 (3), pp. 313–329.\n", "Section::::External links.\n", "BULLET::::- Verner von Heidenstam at Projekt Runeberg\n", "BULLET::::- Works by Verner von Heidenstam at Swedish Literature Bank (in Swedish)\n" ] }

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{ "description": "Swedish writer", "enwikiquote_title": "", "wikidata_id": "Q129173", "wikidata_label": "Verner von Heidenstam", "wikipedia_title": "Verner von Heidenstam", "aliases": { "alias": [ "Carl Gustaf Verner von Heidenstam" ] } }

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